11th Grade

EARTH AND
LIFE SCIENCE
Colegio de Santa Ana
TOPICS in this course:
1. Origin and Structure of the Earth
a. Universe and the Solar System

b. Earth and Earth Systems

2. Earth Materials and Processes

a. Minerals and Rocks

b. Exogenic Processes

c. Endogenic Processes

d. Deformation of Crust

e. History of the Earth

TOPICS:

3. Natural Hazards, Mitigation, and Adaptation

a. Geologic Processes and Hazards

b. Hydrometeorological Phenomena and Hazards

c. Marine and Coastal Processes and their Effects

4. Introduction to Life Science

5. Bioenergetics
6. Perpetuation of Life
7. How Animals Survive
8. How Plants Survive
9. The Process of Evolution
10. Interaction and Interdependence
 EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE REMINDERS
● Do NOT use mobile phones during class except
when you are told to do so.

● Take important notes of the lesson. The PowerPoint

presentation will ONLY be uploaded two (2) days
before midterm and final examination.

● STRICTLY NO cheating in quizzes and exams.

● Attend our classes everyday. You might not want to

miss your quizzes and activities ☺
 EARTHQUAKES
❑ The Philippines lies along the
Pacific Ring of Fire, an area
along the basin of the Pacific
Ocean where several
earthquakes and volcanic
eruptions occur.

❑ This causes the country to have

frequent seismic and volcanic
activities.
 EARTHQUAKES
❑ Most destructive seismic event
that struck the Philippines was
the 7.8-magnitude earthquake
in Northern and Central Luzon
on July 16, 1990.

❑ Claimed about 2412 fatalities,

with more than a thousand
persons trapped underneath
collapsed buildings.
 SEISMIC WAVES
- vibrations that move through a
part of the Earth

- radiate outward from the

origin of an earthquake, such as
erupting volcanoes, breaking
rocks, or moving plates,
spreading in all directions
through the interior and surface
of the Earth.
 BODY WAVES
- tremors or vibrations that
mainly travel through the
interior of the earth

• P-waves (primary wave)

- vibrations that are longitudinal
in nature and are the fastest-
moving waves.
- can move through any type of
material, including fluids.
 BODY WAVES
- tremors or vibrations that
mainly travel through the
interior of the earth

• S-waves (secondary wave)

- vibrations that are slower than
P-waves and cannot travel
through liquids
 SURFACE WAVES
- vibrations that primarily travel
through the surface of the
Earth
- originate from the P- or S-
waves that reach the surface

• Love waves – surface waves

that move sideways

• Rayleigh waves – exhibit

longitudinal and transverse
movements.
 EARTHQUAKES
❑ Focus or hypocenter – exact
location where the slippage
along the fault line occur.

❑ Epicenter – point on the earth’s

surface that is found directly
above the focus
 EARTHQUAKES
❑ Harry Fielding Reid
- American geophysicist

- concluded that during the

deformation of rocks on both
sides of the fault, the
movement of the underlying
tectonic plate causes the rocks
to bend and story elastic energy
– Elastic Rebound Theory
 EARTHQUAKES

❑ Liquefaction – process by which

loose saturated sand or soil lose
strength during an earthquake
and behave like liquid
 EARTHQUAKES

❑ Intensity – measure of the

amount of ground shaking at a
particular location based on
observed damages.

❑ Magnitude – quantitative
measurement of the amount of
energy released from the
source of earthquake based on
seismic records.
 PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)
Intensity Scale Description

I Scarcely Perceptible – Delicately balanced objects are disturbed slightly. Still water in containers
oscillates slowly.
II Slightly Felt – This is felt by few individuals at rest indoors. Hanging objects swing slightly. Still
water in containers oscillates noticeably.
III Weak – This is felt by many people indoors especially in upper floor of buildings. Vibration is felt
like a passing of light truck. Dizziness and nausea are experienced by some people. Hanging
objects swing moderately.
IV Moderately Strong – This is felt generally by people indoors and by some people outdoors. Light
sleepers are awakened. Vibration is felt like a passing of a heavy truck. Hanging objects swing
considerably. Plates, glasses, windows, and doors rattle. Floors and walls of wood-frames
buildings creak. Standing motorcars may rock slightly. Liquids in containers are slightly disturbed.
Water in containers oscillates strongly. Rumbling sound may sometimes be heard.
V Strong – generally felt by most people indoors and outdoors. Many sleeping people are awakened.
Strong shaking and rocking are felt throughout a building. Hanging objects swing violently. Small,
light, and unstable objects may fall or overturn. Standing vehicles rock noticeably. Shaking of
leaves and twigs of trees are also noticeable.
PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)
Intensity Description

VI Very strong – some people lose their balance. Motorists feel like driving in flat tires. Heavy objects
or furniture move or may be shifted. Small church bells may ring. Wall plaster may crack. Very old
or poorly built houses and man-made structures are slightly damaged..
VII Destructive – people find it difficult to stand in upper floors. Heavy objects and furniture overturn
and topple. Big church bells may ring. Old or poorly built structures suffer considerably damage.
Some well-build structures are slightly damaged. Limited liquefaction, lateral spreading, and
landslides are observed.
VIII Very Destructive – people have difficulty in standing even outdoors. Concrete dikes and
foundation of bridges are destroyed by ground setting or toppling. Railway tracks are bent or
broken. Tombstones may be displaced, twisted, and overturned. Liquefaction and lateral spreading
can cause man-made structures to sink, tilt, or topple. Water splashes or stops over dikes or banks
or rivers.
IX Devastating – people are forcibly thrown to the ground. Most buildings are totally damaged.
Bridges and elevated concrete structures are toppled or destroyed. Water sewer pipes are bent,
twisted, or broken. The ground is distorted into undulations. River water splashes violently on slops
over dikes and banks
PHIVOLCS Earthquake Intensity Scale (PEIS)
Intensity Description

X Completely devastating – practically all man-made structure are destroyed. Massive landslides
and liquefaction, large scale subsidence, and uplifting of landforms and many ground fissures are
observed. Changes in river courses and destructive seiches in large lakes occur. Many trees are
toppled, broken, and uprooted.
 The Richter Scale (Charles Francis Richter)
Magnitude Description Effect

0-1.9 Micro Never felt

2.0-2.9 Minor Experienced, but not recorded

3.0-3.9 Minor Experienced, but no damage caused

4.0-4.9 Light Shaking and rattling of items experienced, but no significant damage caused.

5.0-5.9 Moderate Affects weak constructions, and causes mild damage to stronger construction

6.0-6.9 Strong Affects areas up to 160km from epicenter, in populated areas

7.0-7.9 Major Can spread to farther areas and cause severe damage

8.0-8.9 Great Can go beyond 160 km and cause severe damage

9.0-9.9 Great Can go beyond 1600km with disastrous effects

10.0+ Epic Never been recorded

 VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
❑ Volcanoes are considered
active if they have erupted in
the last 10000 years and have
been documented based on
datable materials.

❑ Magma – source material of

volcanic eruptions.

❑ Lava – erupted magma

❑ The greater the viscosity is, the

greater is the resistance to flow.
 VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS

Two Types of Volcanic Eruptions

❑ Quiescent Eruption
- give off highly fluid basaltic lava
- triggered by the arrival of a new
batch of molten rocks into the
near-surface magma chamber
- can happen within a span of
weeks, months, or years

Mount Kilauea in Hawaii

 VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
Two Types of Volcanic Eruptions
❑ Explosive Eruption
- occur when the gas pressure
under the vent is released
catastrophically.
- Warning signs include rising
magma that meets the
groundwater which generates
steam explosions.
- 1991 Mount Pinatubo eruption
 VOLCANIC STRUCTURE
❑ Crater – opening at main vent

❑ Calderas – craters that are large

circular depressions greater
than 1km in diameter

❑ The cone of volcanoes is a

product of successive eruptions
of lava and pyroclastic
materials coming from the
vent.
 VOLCANIC STRUCTURE
❑ Pyroclastic materials
- Fragments of volcanic origin,
such as volcanic ash and rocks
like pumice and obsidian

❑ Pyroclastic flow
- fast-moving current of hot
gases and rock fragments that
may occur during an eruption
 VOLCANIC STRUCTURE
❑ Lahar – formed from volcanic
ash and rock fragments that
become saturated with water
and moves down the slopes of a
volcano.

❑ Lava flow materials – primarily

composed of molten rocks that
come from an erupting volcano.
TYPES OF VOLCANOES
❑ Shield Volcanoes
- produced by the accumulation
of fluid basaltic lava, and
resemble a warrior’s shield

- originate from the ocean floor

as seamounts, and can form
volcanic islands

Example: Mauna Loa in USA

TYPES OF VOLCANOES
❑ Cinder/Scoria Cones
- built from a single, short-lived
eruptive event ejecting lava
fragments that harden

- can produce extensive lava

fields

Example: Paricutin Volcano in

Mexico
TYPES OF VOLCANOES
❑ Composite
volcano/Stratovolcanoes
- mostly found in the Pacific Ring
of Fire
- large, nearly symmetrical
structures containing of
alternating layers of explosively
erupted cinders.

Example: Mount Fuji in Japan and

Mayon Volcano in Philippines
 HYDROMETEOROGICAL PHENOMENA
❑ WEATHER AND CLIMATE

Weather – combination of
temperature, humidity,
precipitation, wind, cloudiness,
and other atmospheric conditions
occurring in specific place and
time

Climate – long-term average

pattern that could be local,
regional, or global.
HYDROMETEOROGICAL PHENOMENA
TROPICAL CLIMATE TYPES IN THE PHILIPPINES

TYPE DRY SEASON WET SEASON

I November – April Rest of the year

II No dry season Maximum rain period from

December to February;
Minimum rainfall during the
period from March to May
III Short dry season either No very pronounced
during the period from maximum rain period
December to February or
from March to May
IV No dry season Rainfall evenly throughout
the year.
 HYDROMETEOROGICAL PHENOMENA

❑ The different climate types that

occur throughout the Philippines are
under the influence of intertropical
convergence zone (ITCZ), which is an
area of low pressure characterized by
high precipitation that marks the
meeting point of the trade winds.
 HYDROMETEOROGICAL PHENOMENA
❑ MONSOONS
Southwest monsoon (Habagat)
- blows in from May to September
followed by intermediate monsoon
or inter-monsoon period from
October to November

Northeast Monsoon (Amihan)

- December to March

Southeast Monsoon (Salatan)

- Between March and April
 HYDROMETEOROGICAL PHENOMENA
❑ TROPICAL CYCLONES

Tropical depression – an area of low

pressure that is moving less than 61 kmh

Tropical storm – more intense and has

wind speeds between 61 and 119kmh

Typhoons/tropical cyclones - 120kmh

with rotary circulation
HYDROMETEOROGICAL PHENOMENA
EL NIŇO and LA NIŇA
 ACTIVITY: NATURAL HAZARDS
• The class will be divided into five (5) groups. Each group will have to create a news
reporting video presentation of one of the natural hazards, mitigation, and
adaptation discussed in class.

• The news must include the real-life phenomenon that happened in the Philippines.

• The video must be 3-5 minutes ONLY.

• Content should include the possible hazards of phenomena and the safety
precautions.

• Language to be used in the video can either be English or Filipino.

• The output will be presented in class and will be evaluated by other group as well.

Deadline: MARCH 16, 2023 (THURSDAY)

 ACTIVITY: NATURAL HAZARDS

1
Earthquake 2
El Niño 3
La Niña

Volcanic
4
Eruption 5
Typhoon
 GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE

EONS ERA PERIOD EPOCH

- Longest units of • Precambrian • Paleozoic • Paleogene
time • Paleozoic • Mesozoic • Neogene
• Mesozoic • Cenozoic • Quaternary
Precambrian: • Cenozoic
Earliest span of time

Phanerozoic:
Everything since
 PRECAMBRIAN PALEOZOIC MESOZOIC CENOZOIC
- Fossils are rare - Age of Invertebrates - Age of Reptiles - Age of Mammals

- Simple organisms with - Hard parts developed - Dinosaurs developed - Mammals become
soft bodies dominant
- Marine animals thrived - Pangea began to break
- Volcanic Activity heat up - Humans evolved
and pressure “erased” - Pangea formed
the fossil evidence - Extinction of Dinosaurs - Continents moved to
- Extinction: 90% of (dinosaurs lived on their current positions
- Stromatolites blue- marine animals became Earth for 100-200
green algae were extinct thousand years) - Alps Himalayas formed
common
- Trilobites - Small rodents, early
horse, and bats
- Brachiopods are
marine animals that - Ice cap formed
upon first glance look
like clams - Land bridges form Ice
Age

- Early Ancestors of
human fossils found
 11th Grade

LIFE SCIENCE
WHAT IS LIFE?
WHAT MAKES THIS A “LIFE”?

High Degree of Organization

WHAT MAKES THIS A “LIFE”?

Evolutionary Adaptation
 WHAT MAKES THIS A “LIFE”?

Regulation and Homeostasis

WHAT MAKES THIS A “LIFE”?

Energy Processing
WHAT MAKES THIS A “LIFE”?

Growth and Development

WHAT MAKES THIS A “LIFE”?

Response to Environment
WHAT MAKES THIS A “LIFE”?

Reproduction
WHAT MAKES THIS A “LIFE”?

Diversity and Unity

 ORIGIN OF LIFE ON EARTH
STAGE 1. ABIOTIC SYNTHESIS OF POLYMERS OF NUCLEOTIDES AND AMINO
ACIDS

❑ SPONTANEOUS GENERATION
- proposed by Aristotle
- life arise from nonliving material if the material contained pneuma (vital
heat)

FRANCESCO REDI LOUIS PASTEUR

 ORIGIN OF LIFE ON EARTH
STAGE 1. ABIOTIC SYNTHESIS OF POLYMERS OF NUCLEOTIDES AND AMINO
ACIDS

❑ UREY-MILLER EXPERIMENT: THE PRIMORDIAL SOUP

- Stanley Miller and Harold Urey

- the notion that when Earth was young,

the oceans were filled with simple chemicals
important for life

- prebiotic
 ORIGIN OF LIFE ON EARTH
STAGE 1. ABIOTIC SYNTHESIS OF POLYMERS OF NUCLEOTIDES AND AMINO
ACIDS

❑ EXTRATERRESTIAL HYPOTHESIS
- Meteorites, comets, and asteroids sometimes reach the surface of the
primitive Earth which are thought to contain organic carbon and brought
Earth carbonaceous chondrites and significant amount of amino acids and
nucleic bases.

- Prebiotic soup
 ORIGIN OF LIFE ON EARTH
STAGE II. Formation of organic polymers on clay surface
- Formation of complex organic polymers such as DNA, RNA, or proteins from
simple molecules

John Bernal – proposed that synthesis of polymers happened on solid surfaces

like clay or in evaporating tidal pools, and NOT on aqueous solutions, which
may hydrolyze the polymers.

RNA may have been formed on clay surface on primitive Earth.

 ORIGIN OF LIFE ON EARTH
STAGE III. Formation of cell-like structures from polymers enclosed by a
boundary
Prebionts or protobionts – describe the first living entities that evolved into
living cells.

Characteristics of Prebionts/Protobionts:
1. They have boundary structure that separated the internal contents from
the environment
2. The polymers inside the protobiont contain information
3. They have enzyme functions
4. They are capable of self-replication.
 ORIGIN OF LIFE ON EARTH
STAGE IV. Evolution of cellular
characteristics through chemical
selection

RNA
- first macromolecule of protobionts
which can store information and also
capable of replication

- Perform enzymatic functions like

acting as ribozymes – enzymes that
catalyze the formation of different
macromolecules in living cells
Unifying Themes in
the Study of Life
 HIERARCHY OF ORGANIZATION
Life is organized by a hierarchy of different
levels from lowest to highest:

1. Atom – smallest particle of an element

2. Molecule – two or more atoms bonded
together
3. Cell – smallest unit of life
4. Tissue – group of similar cells
5. Organ – group of similar tissues working
together
6. Organ system – group of organs working
together
 HIERARCHY OF ORGANIZATION
Life is organized by a hierarchy of different
levels from lowest to highest:

7. Multicellular organism – complete living

thing
8. Species – organisms that can reproduce
and produce a fertile, viable offspring
9. Population – group of same species
10. Community – all the species in an area
11. Ecosystem – all the biotic (living) and
abiotic (nonliving) things in an area
12. Biosphere – the Earth
 EMERGENT PROPERTIES
❑ Order – organisms are highly ordered, and other characteristics of life
emerge from this complex organization.

❑ Reproduction - Life comes only from life (biogenesis)

❑ Growth and development – heritable programs stored in DNA direct the

species-specific pattern of growth and development

❑ Energy utilization – organisms take in and transform energy to do work,

including the maintenance of their ordered state.
 EMERGENT PROPERTIES
❑ Response to the environment – organisms respond to stimuli from their
environment

❑ Homeostasis – organisms regulate their internal environment to maintain a

steady state, even in the face of fluctuating external environment

❑ Evolutionary adaptation – life evolves in response to interactions between

organisms and their environment.
 CELLULAR BASIS OF LIFE
❑ Cell
- basic unit of life; organism’s unit of structure and
function
- Lowest level of structure that is capable of
performing all the activities of life

• Prokaryotic cell – lacks a membrane-enclosed

nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
(archaebacteria and bacteria)

• Eukaryotic cell – has a nucleus and cytoplasm that

contains all organelles. (protists, plant, fungi, and
animals)
 HERITABLE INFORMATION
❑ Deoxyribonucleic acid
- contains the hereditary information
necessary for the continuity of life

- it is where the biological instructions for

an organism’s complex structure and
function are encoded

Nucleotides – four types of chemical building

blocks in DNA molecule

Gene – unit of inheritance from parent to

offspring
 ENVIRONMENTAL INTERACTION
❑ Ecology – study of an organism’s
interaction with the environment

❑ Irritability – organisms respond to stimuli

in the environment

❑ Organisms are open systems that interact

continuously with their environment,
which include other organisms as well as
abiotic factors.
 HOMEOSTASIS
- regulates the internal environment and tends to maintain the stable
condition of the system.

❑ Positive feedback ❑ Negative feedback

- speeds up a process - slows down a process

- mechanisms designed to accelerate - involve reduction of the output or

or enhance the output that has activity of any organ or system back
been activated by stimulus to its normal range of functioning

- pushes level out of normal ranges

ACTIVITY (individual)
Explore and appreciate the natural world. Go outside and record living
organisms. ☺

Draw one (1) of the living organisms that you see in nature in short
bond paper. Explain why did you choose the specimen and what
properties and unique characteristics it has.

This activity is 40 points ☺

Deadline: March 10, 2023 (Friday)

ENERGY FLOW IN THE
LIVING SYSTEM
 CELL AS THE BASIC UNIT OF LIFE
CLASSIC CELL THEORY
1. The cell is the basic unit of life.
2. Cells function as a unit in all living things; and
3. All cells are derived from pre-existing cells.

MODERN CELL THEORY

1. All cells have a basic chemical composition.
2. Hereditary information (DNA) is passed on
from cell to cell; and
3. Energy flows between cells.
 LIFE PROCESSES
GROWTH
❑ All organisms are observed to increase in size.

❑ Related to an increase in cellular content or in the number of cells.

 LIFE PROCESSES
REPRODUCTION
❑ It is a process by which organisms produce
organisms of the same kind.

❑ Asexual Reproduction – involves the hereditary

material of one parent only, producing an
offspring that is completely identical to its
parent.

❑ Sexual Reproduction – involves two parents

complementarily contribute to the hereditary
material of the offspring.
 LIFE PROCESSES
NUTRITION
❑ Organisms require energy to sustain their life
processes.

❑ Taking in of materials from the environment and

utilize them for growth and cellular
maintenance and repair.

❑ Autotrophs – synthesize their own food (plants)

❑ Heterotrophs – require ingestion of materials to

be utilized as food.
 LIFE PROCESSES
TRANSPORT
❑ Allows usable materials to be taken in (absorption) and be distributed
throughout (circulation) the organism.

❑ Water and other nutrients to travel upward against the flow of gravity (in
plants)
 LIFE PROCESSES
SYNTHESIS
❑ Allows for small, simple substances to be chemically combined to form more
complex molecules that the organism can utilize.

❑ Hormone synthesis – production of hormones, performed by the cells of

glands.
 LIFE PROCESSES
COORDINATION
❑ In animals, the functions of the nervous and endocrine systems are well
regulated to respond to various external stimuli.

❑ In plants, the opening and closing of the stomata in leaves are coordinated
with the temperature, sunlight, and moisture levels in the environment.
 LIFE PROCESSES
EXCRETION
❑ All cellular activities produce waste products that the cell needs to remove
to avoid complication with toxicity.

❑ Release of carbon dioxide, a by-product of cellular processes, through

exhalation.
 LIFE PROCESSES
IMMUNITY
❑ Organisms have specialized organelles and/or cells whose main function is to
defend the body against disease-causing pathogens.
 ENERGY FLOW
❑ Terrestrial plants such as trees, shrubs,
vines, and herbs are the most common
examples of producers

❑ Producers synthesize their own food

from the ambient inorganic nutrients
present in the water through a process
called chemosynthesis.

❑ Plants, phytoplankton, and bacteria are

regarded as autotrophs because of their
ability to utilize carbon from inorganic
sources and convert it into sugar for
energy.
 ENERGY FLOW
❑ Photoheterotrophs – can obtain sunlight
for energy but they cannot use carbon
dioxide as carbon source of food
production. (nonsulfur bacteria)

❑ Chemoheterotrophs – oxidize organic

compounds that have been performed
by other organisms rather than
obtaining them from inorganic sources
(bacterial pathogens in humans)
ENERGY FLOW
 ENERGY FLOW

❑ Decomposers – degrade organic detritus

into its most basic inorganic forms,
thereby allowing the recycling of
nutrients back into the environment

❑ Food chain – both energy and inorganic

nutrients flow from a producer to many
levels of consumers
 ENERGY FLOW
❑ Detritus-derived food chain – focused
on the decomposition of detritus
produced by both producers and
consumers.

❑ Detritus – organisms that feed on dead

plants or animals; earthworms, snails,
and beetles on the ground

❑ Helps to degrade the fecal matter of

grasshoppers, mice, snakes, bird, and
other animals.
Photosynthesis and
Respiration:
Complementary Processes
 COMPLEMENTARY PROCESSES
❑ Photosynthesis
 COMPLEMENTARY PROCESSES
❑ Respiration

❑ Aerobic Respiration – utilizes oxygen as

an electron acceptor, and results in at
least 36 ATPs per unit of reaction.

❑ Anaerobic Respiration – does not

utilize oxygen and produces less ATPs
that results in production of ethanol or
lactic acid , used in fermentation.
CHLOROPLAST AND
MITOCHONDRIA:
POWERHOUSES OF
CELLS
MITOCHONDRIA AND CHLOROPLAST
MITOCHONDRIA AND CHLOROPLAST
MITOCHONDRIA AND CHLOROPLAST
CONTINUITY OF LIFE
 OBJECTIVES
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:

A. identify the different modes of plant reproduction;

B. enumerate different plant organs used for reproduction; and
C. differentiate the differences between sexual and asexual reproduction;
 PLANT REPRODUCTION
❑ SEXUAL REPRODUCTION – involves the union of male and female
gametes/sex cells, in the process of fertilization that results in the
development of a new organism

❑ ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION – does not involve gametes but uses modified

plant organs such as stems, leaves, or roots.
 PLANT REPRODUCTION
❑ RHIZOMES – modified stems that grow
underground; grow horizontally in
different directions (ginger and asparagus)

❑ TUBERS – are thickened ends of rhizomes.

(sweet potato and potato)

❑ BULBS – round, modified underground

buds covered with bulb scales that are
modified leaves.
 PLANT REPRODUCTION
❑ CORMS or BULBO-TUBERS – short,
vertical, swollen underground plant stems
that serve as storage organs of some
plants such as taro.

❑ RUNNERS OR STOLONS – horizontal stems

that grow above the ground (strawberry)

❑ SUCKERS – similar to stolons but develop

from roots instead of stems and are found
underground.
 REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES OF FLOWERING PLANTS

❑ FLOWERS
- sexual structures of angiosperms

o Stamen (male organ) and pistil (female

organ) – reproductive organs

o Sepals – outermost and resemble leaves

in a round configuration; cover and
protect the developing shoot, and are
collectively known as calyx

o Petals – broad, flat, and think but greatly

differ in size, shape and color. (corolla)
 REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES OF FLOWERING PLANTS

❑ FLOWERS

o Stamens – found inside the petals, each

having a filament – a thin stalk that
contains anther on its topmost part

o Anther – where the pollen grains are

formed. Each pollen grain contains two
cells surrounded by a tough outer wall.
 REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES OF FLOWERING PLANTS

❑ FLOWERS

o Carpels – comprise pistil

o Stigma – acts as the receptacle for the

pollen grains

o Style – hollow structure where the pollen

tube develops

o Ovary – contains one or more ovules (the

female gametes)
 POLLINATION

❑ POLLINATION
- process where pollen grains from anther
reach the stigma of pistil

❑ SELF-POLLINATION
- reproductive process that occurs when
pollination is done within the same flower
or different flowers of the same individual
plant

❑ CROSS-POLLINATION
- involves another individual of the same
species
POLLINATION and FERTILIZATION
 FRUITS AND SEEDS

❑ As seed matures, the embryo develops as well.

❑ The embryonic plant has a short root or radicle. It also has a shoot,
hypocotyl, and a single pair of cotyledons (the embryonic leaves).

❑ Cotyledon – serves as food storage for the plant embryo since it is still not
able to perform photosynthesis.
 FRUITS AND SEEDS

❑ A mature ovary develops into a fruit.

 ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

❑ ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
o Clone – offspring produced through asexual reproduction

o Unicellular eukaryotes (bacteria and protozoans) and multicellular

eukaryotes (certain sponges, cnidarians, annelids, echinoderms, and
hemichordates)
 ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

❑ ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

o BINARY FISSION – the body of unicellular parent divides into two equal
parts through mitosis and produces an offspring that develops similarly as
the parent.

PROTOZOA – BINARY FISSION

 ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

❑ ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

o MULTIPLE FISSION – involves

repeated division of nucleus prior to
the cytoplasm which ends up
producing many daughter cells.
(Example: Plasmodium)

PLASMODIUM
 ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

❑ ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

o BUDDING – unequal division of an organism’s body where a new individual

arise as an outgrowth or bud from its parent that then detaches and
becomes separate individual (Ex. Hydra, jellyfish)
 ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

❑ ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

o GEMMULE FORMATION –
when an aggregation of cells
surrounded by a resistant
capsule is used to form a new
individual.
 ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

❑ ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

o FRAGMENTATION – when an
animal breaks into two or
more parts, with each
fragment capable of forming
into a new individual.
 ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

❑ SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

BIPARENTAL
- production of offspring upon the union
of gametes from genetically distinct
parents.

- the offspring would have a combination

of genes from each parent but are
genetically distinct from the parents.
 ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

❑ SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

GONADS – primary sex organs

❑ Testis (plural: Testes) – male gonad
which is the primary sex organ of a male
and is responsible for production of
sperm cell or spermatozoa.

❑ Ovary – female gonad which produces

ova (singular: ovum) or egg cells.

Accessory organs – penis, vagina, and

uterus.
 ANIMAL REPRODUCTION

❑ Dioecious or Gonochoristic – animals

that have separate male and female
individuals.

❑ Monoecious – those who have both

male and female reproductive systems
present in a single individual
(hermaphrodites)
 GENES AT WORK

❑ GENE
- comes from the Greek term “descent” and was
coined by Wilhelm Johannsen in 1909, for the
hereditary factors as described by Gregor
Mendel – the father of modern genetics.

- organized unit of DNA sequences that enables

a segment of DNA to be transcribed into RNA.

RNA – responsible for encoding products essential

for specifying the basic functions and properties
of cells.
 GENE COMPOSITION

❑ DNA VS RNA
 REPLICATION

- happens when cells undergo mitotic

division, when each daughter cell must
have an exact copy of the DNA of the
parent cell.

- two strands of the double helix unwind

and serve as a template from which the
complementary strand is synthesized.

- The antiparallel nature of the DNA

means that one runs from the 5’ to the
3’ end, while the other runs from 3’ to
5’ end.
 TRANSCRIPTION

- Messenger RNA (mRNA) serves as the

intermediary molecule between DNA
and protein.

- The triplet codes in DNA are transcribed

into mRNAs where uracil substitutes
thymine.

CODON – sequence of bases present in

mRNA molecule which is complementary
and antiparallel to the template DNA
strand.
TRANSLATION
TRANSLATION
PRACTICE PROBLEM
 PRACTICE PROBLEM

4.
PRACTICE PROBLEM