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Lecture: 16
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FREEDOM STRUGGLE DURING 2ND WORLD WAR

TIRUPURI SESSION AND FORWARD BLOCK (1939)

• Gandhi had retired from Congress in 1934 and Congress under Jawahar’s leadership has acquired a taste of
socialism and radicalism. Subhas was chosen unanimously in February 1938 session of Congress at Haripura
to built upon that trend. In that session under the leadership of Bose, Congress passed a resolution to
opposition to the impending imperialistic war.
• Difference between Gandhi and Subhash – However, Gandhi had a sympathetic corner for British in this hour
of difficulty and he also didn’t like the idea of Subhash to join the other European forces in a bid to bring
freedom to India.
• The British Government was keen on Bose taking interest in the Axis Powers and the developing Gandhi Bose
strife. In December 1938, Bose had a meeting with two representatives of the German Nazi Party. Here, Bose
told the Nazis that the Hitler regime must stop insulting the Indians. In India, Nazis were not liked because of
their deeds of extinguishing the democracy, eliminating the socialist ideas.
• For the 1939 elections of the President of Congress, Subhash announced his candidature knowing that he
would be opposed. By this time, Nehru was on a long holiday in Europe. When he returned in 1938, Gandhi
suggested him to announce his name as a candidate. But he declined and suggested the name of Maulana
Azad. But Maulana Azad withdrew his name and then new name came up was of Dr. Pattabhi Sitaramayya, an
Andhra leader. But Subhash was not sure of his win. The result was declared on January 29, 1939 and Subhash
secured 1580 Votes. Sitaramaya got 1377 votes, thus Subhash winning by a narrow but clear margin.
• Subhash openly criticized moderate policies of Congress and called for an aggressive movement. This open
criticism irked many veterans and 12 of the working Committee members (out of 15) resigned and in the same
year Govind Vallabh Pant moved a resolution to form a new working committee under Gandhian leadership.
The resolution was passed, and Bose stepped down from presidency.
• He formed Forwards Block in 1939, first as a part of Congress then parted ways with it.

S ECOND W ORLD W AR :
▪ On September 1, 1939, Germany attacked Poland – the action that led to the Second World War. On
September 3, 1939, Britain declared war against Germany and the British Government of India declared India’s
support for the war without consulting Indian opinion, thereby inviting a strong reaction from the nationalist
leaders.

RESIGNATION OF MINISTRIES IN THE WAKE OF SECOND WORLD WAR

▪ In Congress provinces, the governments remained in saddle just for two years.
▪ In October, 1939, the Congress ministries in eight provinces1 resigned on the issue of India being made a party
to WWII by British Government without consulting any Indian opinion.
▪ The governors in these provinces, by issuing a Proclamation of Emergency, assumed all the executive and
legislative powers to themselves.
▪ With this, the effective control of the provincial governments came directly under the British.
▪ The Governors rule lasted till 1946, when fresh elections were held and responsible governments once against
set up in the provinces.

▪ Amidst the developments during the second world war, the Indian freedom struggle entered into an active
phase once again.

1
In Bengal, Sind & Punjab, the popular ministries setup through 1937 elections worked for ten years.
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TWO NATIONS THEORY AND LAHORE RESOLUTION (1940)

▪ Amidst all the confusion over war and Congress’ dilemma of joining the war, Muslim League passed a
resolution in its 1940 session declaring that ‘Muslims are not a minority, but a separate nation’. This gave rise
to ‘Two nation Theory’. It called for the creation of 'independent states' for Muslims in British India. The
constituent units of these states were to be autonomous and sovereign (The name ‘Pakistan’ had been
suggested in 1933 by a Cambridge scholar Rehmat Ali, but was not formally announced in this resolution).

AUGUST OFFER (1940)

▪ The August offer 1940 was made on August 8, 1940 by Viceroy Lord Linglithgow, the eve of the Battle of Britain
in which it was beleagured to seek support of India by providing some concessions on front of self-rule that
were earlier demanded by Indians.
▪ The offer in principle accepted the demand for Constituent Assembly.
▪ The Viceroy at the time, Lord Linlithgow, made a fresh offer that promised –
• Dominion Status
• The expansion of the governor-general's Executive Council to include more Indians.
• The Establishment of an Advisory War council
• Giving full weight to minority opinion.
• Recognition of Indians' right to frame their own constitution (after the war would end), framed ‘mainly’
by Indians.
▪ In return, it was hoped that all parties and communities in India would cooperate in Britain's war efforts.
However, the Congress as well as League rejected this offer, and Gandhi viewed it as having ‘widened the gulf
between Nationalist India and the British ruler’ and he launched ‘Individual Satyagraha’ as result. Nehru
reacted that – ‘Dominion Status is dead as door nail’. However, this offer for the first time recognized right of
Indians to frame their own constitution. Further, for the first time Dominion Status was explicitly offered.
I NDIVIDUAL S ATYAGRAHA
▪ In 1940, after refusal of August Offer, Congress was in a fix again. While some wanted to organize a mass Civil
Disobedience movement as they saw it as a right opportunity as Britain was entangled in war, others – mainly
Gandhi – wanted to go for Individual Satyagraha as he didn’t want to take advantage of difficult situation of
the British.
▪ Its aim was to show that nationalist patience was not a symbol of weakness and people made no difference
between colonialism and Nazism. Further, it was a warning to government as well as giving it another
opportunity.
▪ There were three people who were nominated by Gandhi himself as Individual satyagrahi. First was Acharya
Vinoba Bhave. He was arrested soon after he started it. Other two were Jawaharlal Nehru and Brahama Dutt.
They too were arrested. Individual Satyagraha was very limited and was suspended by Mahatma Gandhi in
end of 1940. However, it was relaunched in 1941 and this times it had some mass appeal and thousands were
arrested.
C RIPPS M ISSION

CAUSE – ADVANCES MADE BY JAPAN

▪ By March 1942, Japan made tremendous advances against Britain and it quickly overran the Philippines, Indo-
China, Indonesia, Malaya, and Burma and occupied Rangoon. This brought the war to India’s door-step.
▪ The British Government now desperately wanted the active cooperation of Indians in the war effort.
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OFFERS UNDER CRIPPS MISSION

▪ It sent an all-white mission headed by Sir Stafford Cripps to India in March 1942.
▪ The main recommendations of Cripps were:
o The promise of Dominion Status to India after the war. Within this Dominion status, India would have
the right to decide its relations with the British Commonwealth including the right to secede from the
Commonwealth.
o Protection of minorities
o Setting up of a Constituent Assembly in which there would be representatives from the Princely States
along with those of the British Provinces. This meant that the task of making a new Constitution would
now be solely in Indian hands.
o Provision for any Province of British India not prepared to accept this Constitution, either to retain its
present constitutional position or frame a constitution of its own. This meant that it was not
necessary for all the Indian states to join Indian Union to consider any degree of autonomy for India.
▪ The major political parties of the country rejected the Cripps proposals because, it talked about giving
dominion status which had become an outdated demand for Indians. The narrative for Poorna Swaraj had
already been set since the Civil Disobedience Movement.
▪ On top of it, the dominion status (and not complete independence) was to be offered after the war was over.
At this instance, Gandhiji called Cripp’s proposals as a “Post-dated Cheque”.
▪ The Muslim League was also dissatisfied as its demand for Pakistan had not been conceded in the proposal.

SIGNIFICANCE OF CRIPPS PORPOSAL

▪ Even though Cripps Mission was largely rejected by the nationalist leaders, yet, there was a significant progress
in terms of the concessions offered by the British.
o Free India could withdraw from the commonwealth.
o The making of the Constitution was to be solely in Indian hands now (and not ‘mainly’ in Indian hands, as
contained in August offer).
o Indians were allowed a large share in the administration of the interim government.
o For the first, a concrete plan was provided for the Constituent Assembly.
o Right of non-accession and secession from the Union provided the blue-print for India’s partition.
▪ The failure of Cripps Mission provided a context for the Quit India Movement – one of the most violent
movement during the freedom struggle.

QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT – “THE LEADERLESS MOVEMENT”

IMMEDIATE CONTEXT
▪ The failure of the Cripps Mission and the fear of an impending Japanese invasion of India led Mahatma
Gandhi to begin his campaign for the British to quit India.
▪ Mahatma Gandhi believed that an interim government could be formed only after the British left India.
GOWALIA TANK MEETING
▪ In order to give a call for ‘Mass Struggle’, the All-India Congress Committee met at Gowalia Tank( under
the Presidentship of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad) in Bombay on 8 August 1942 and passed the famous
Quit India Resolution.
▪ On the same day, Gandhi gave his call of ‘do or die’.
REACTION OF THE GOVERNMENT
▪ On 8th and 9th August 1942, the government arrested all the prominent leaders of the Congress, leaving
the national movement leaderless.
UNLEASHED FURY OF MASSES
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▪ The news of these arrests left the country aghast, and a spontaneous movement of protest arose
everywhere, giving expression to the pent-up anger of the people.
▪ All over the country there were strikes in factories, schools and colleges, and demonstrations which
were lathi-charged and fired upon.
▪ But the popular upsurge that the movement aroused lent it the name of ‘August Kranti’.
▪ Government unleashed massive repression using the war time emergency powers to quell the
movement.
▪ The Movement at several places broke the bounds of Gandhian non-violence. But it was still not called
off.
IMPORTANT ASPECTS OF QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT
SPURT IN UNDERGROUND ACTIVITIES
▪ At this time, underground leadership was provided by Ram Manohar Lohia, S.M. Joshi and Jayaprakash
Narain.
WOMEN PARTICIPATION
▪ Also, since the frontline male leaders were all arrested, women also played leadership roles in this
movement.
▪ Sucheta Kriplani provided leadership to non-violent Gandhian struggle.
▪ Aruna Asaf Ali mobilised Congress Socialist volunteers throughout India for sabotage activities i.e.
underground activities.
▪ Usha Mehta organized an underground Congress Radio for propaganda activities.

FORMATION OF PARALLEL NATIONAL GOVERNEMNTS

▪ A remarkable feature of the movement was the formation of “national governments”.
▪ Some prominent ones are as follows:
o Ballia (in August 1942 for a week)—under Chittu Pandey. He got many Congress leaders released.
o Tamluk (Midnapore, from December 1942 to September 1944)—Jatiya Sarkar undertook cyclone
relief work, sanctioned grants to schools, supplied paddy from the rich to the poor, organised Vidyut
Vahinis, etc.
o Satara (mid-1943 to 1945)—named “Prati Sarkar”, was organised under leaders like Y.B. Chavan,
Nana Patil, etc. Village libraries and Nyayadan Mandals were organised, prohibition campaigns were
carried on and ‘Gandhi marriages’ were organised.
o
SIGNIFICANCE OF QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT
▪ In 1944 Mahatma Gandhi was released from jail. As movement was slowly losing steam, it was called off
by Gandhi.
▪ Quit India Movement was the final attempt for country’s freedom. This movement paved the way for India’s
freedom. After Quit India, there could be no turning back.
▪ Any future negotiations with the British government could only be on the manner of transfer of power.
▪ Independence was no longer a matter of bargain and this became amply clear after the war.

EXTENT OF MASS PARTICIPATION

▪ The participation from different sections of the masses was very evident in the Quit India Movement.
▪ The scope of participation from these sections was unprecedented. Some important pointers are mentioned
below:
SECTIONS THAT SUPPORTED THE MOVEMENT
▪ Youth, especially the students of schools and colleges, remained in the forefront.
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▪ Women, especially school and college girls, actively participated, and included Aruna Asaf Ali, Sucheta
Kripalani and Usha Mehta.
▪ Workers went on strikes and faced repression.
▪ Peasants of all strata were at the heart of the movement. Even some zamindars participated. These peasants
concentrated their offensive on symbols of authority and there was complete absence of anti-zamindar
violence.
▪ Government officials, especially those belonging to lower levels in police and administration, participated
resulting in erosion of government loyalty.
▪ Muslims helped by giving shelter to underground activists. There were no communal clashes during the
movement.
▪ The Communists initially did not join the movement. But in the wake of Russia (where the communists were
in power) being attacked by Nazi Germany, the communists began to support the British war against Germany
and the ‘Imperialist War’ became the ‘People’s War’.
SECTIONS THAT SHOWED LIMITED RESPONSE
▪ The Muslim League opposed the movement, fearing that if the British left India at that time, the minorities
would be oppressed by the Hindus.
▪ The Hindu Mahasabha boycotted the movement.
▪ The Princely states showed a low-key response.

Repression by the Government

▪ Although martial law was not applied to quell the rebellion, yet the repression was severe.
▪ Some common tactics that the government resorted to were as follows:

LATHI CHARGED AND OPENING FIRE

▪ Agitating crowds were lathi-charged, tear-gassed and fired upon.
▪ The number of those killed is estimated at 10,000.

PRESS RESTRICTIONS & DRACONIAN LAWS

▪ The press was muzzled. The military took over many cities; police and secret service reigned supreme.
▪ Rebellious villages were fined heavily and, in many villages, mass flogging was done.
Amidst these severe repressions, Gandhiji found it apt to undertake fast so as to boost the public morale.

Gandhiji Fasts

▪ In February 1943, Gandhi started a fast as an answer to an exhortation by the government to condemn
violence.
▪ The fast was directed against the violence of the State.
▪ The popular response to the news of the fast was immediate and overwhelming.
▪ Protests were organised at home and abroad through hartals, demonstrations and strikes.
▪ Three members of the viceroy’s executive council resigned.
▪ The fast achieved the following—
o Public morale was raised.
o Anti-British feeling was heightened.
o An opportunity was provided for political activity.
o Government’s high-handedness was exposed.
o Gandhi got the better of his opponents and refused to oblige by dying.

CONSTITUTIONAL DEADLOCKS AFTER QUIT INDIA MOVEMENT

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▪ Even though the developments associated with Quit India Movement indicated that the momentum of India’s
freedom struggle had gained pace, yet, activities of Muslim League, and its demand for a separate state of
Pakistan kept on mounting that often led to several deadlocks regarding the constitutional position of India.
▪ On March 23, 1943 Pakistan Day was observed.
▪ Consequently, efforts were on to solve the ongoing constitutional crisis, and some individuals also tried to
come up with constitutional proposals.

Rajagopalachari Formula

▪ One such proposal was offered by C. Rajagopalachari after Quit India Movement in a
pamphlet titled – ‘The Way out’.

PROVISIONS OF THE FORMULA

▪ C. Rajagopalachari (CR) prepared a formula for Congress-League cooperation.
▪ It was a tacit acceptance of the League’s demand for Pakistan. Gandhi supported the
formula.
▪ The main points in the CR Plan were:
o Muslim League to endorse Congress demand for independence.
o League to cooperate with Congress in forming a provisional government at centre.
o After the end of the war, the entire population of Muslim majority areas in the North-West and North-
East India to decide by a plebiscite, whether or not to form a separate sovereign state.
o In case of acceptance of partition, agreement to be made jointly for safeguarding defence, commerce,
communications, etc.
o The above terms to be operative only if England transferred full powers to India.

OBJECTIONS TO RAJAGOPALACHARI FORMULA

▪ Jinnah wanted the Congress to accept the two-nation theory and consequently, he objected to the provisions
under Rajagopalachari formula.
▪ He wanted only the Muslims of North-West and North-East to vote in the plebiscite and not the entire
population.
▪ He also opposed the idea of a common centre.
▪ While the Congress was ready to cooperate with the League for the independence of the Indian Union, the
League did not care for independence of the Union. It was only interested in a separate nation.
▪ Hindu leaders led by Vir Savarkar also condemned the CR Plan.

Desai Liaqat Pact

▪ Efforts continued to end the deadlock.

▪ Bhulabhai Desai, leader of the Congress Party in the Central Legislative Assembly, met Liaqat Ali Khan, deputy
leader of the Muslim League in that Assembly, and both of them came up with the draft proposal for the
formation of an interim government at the centre, consisting of—
o an equal number of persons nominated by the Congress and the League in the central legislature.
o 20% reserved seats for minorities.
▪ No settlement could be reached between the Congress and the League on these lines, but the fact that a sort
of parity between the Congress and the League was decided upon had far-reaching consequences.

Wavell Plan

CONTEXT OF WAVELL PLAN

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▪ Although the war in Europe came to an end in May 1945, the Japanese threat still
remained.
▪ The Conservative government in Britain led by Churchill was keen to reach a solution on
the constitutional question in India.
▪ The viceroy, Lord Wavell was permitted to start negotiations with Indian leaders.
Congress leaders were released from jails in June 1945.
Lord Wavell
REASONS BEHIND WAVELL NEGOTIATIONS
▪ The general election in England was scheduled for mid-1945. The Conservatives wanted to
be seen as sincere on reaching a solution.
▪ There was pressure from the Allies to seek further Indian cooperation in the war.
▪ The government wanted to divert Indian energies into channels more profitable for the British.

PROVISIONS UNDER WAVELL PLAN

▪ The Wavell plan sought to reconstruct the governor-general’s executive council pending the preparation of
a new constitution.
▪ For this purpose, a conference was convened by the viceroy, Lord Wavell, at Shimla in June 1945. The main
proposals of the Wavell Plan were as follows.
o With the exception of the governor-general and the commander-in-chief, all members of the executive
council were to be Indians.
o Caste Hindus and Muslims were to have equal representation.
o The reconstructed council was to function as an interim government within the framework of the 1935
Act (i.e. not responsible to the Central Assembly).
o The governor-general was to exercise his veto on the advice of ministers.
o Representatives of different parties were to submit a joint list to the viceroy for nominations to the
executive council. If a joint list was not possible, then separate lists were to be submitted.
o Possibilities were to be kept open for negotiations on a new constitution once the war was finally won.

Shimla Conference 1945

RESPONSE TO WAVELL’S PLAN

▪ Both Muslim League and Congress had their own reasons to object to the Wavell’s plan.
A. MUSLIM LEAGUES STAND
▪ The League wanted all Muslim members to be League nominees, because it feared that since the aims of
other minorities—depressed classes, Sikhs, Christians, etc.—were the same as those of the Congress, this
arrangement would reduce the League to a one-third minority.
▪ The League claimed some kind of veto in the council with decisions opposed to Muslims needing a two-
thirds majority for approval.
CONGRESS STAND
▪ The Congress objected to the plan as “an attempt to reduce the Congress to the status of a purely caste Hindu
party and insisted on its right to include members of all communities among its nominees”.
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CONSEQUENCE OF FAILED WAVELL PLAN

▪ Amidst the differences of opinions, the plan reached a deadlock, whereafter, Wavell announced a breakdown
of talks thus giving the Muslim League a virtual veto.
▪ This strengthened the League’s position, as was evident from the elections in 1945-46, and boosted Jinnah’s
position; and exposed the real character of the Conservative government of Churchill.

INDIAN NATIONAL ARMY

▪ Amidst popular upsurge of Quit India Movement, some other developments were also taking place that were
about to have a significant impact on the freedom struggle after the war.
▪ Formation of Indian National Army and its role in freedom struggle of India, was one such development.

Formation of INA

▪ INA was organized during WWII on September 1, 1942 in Singapore. Decision to form INA was taken at Tokyo.
▪ Capitan Mohan Singh formed INA comprising the captured Indian soldiers along with Indian Independence
league of Rash Bihari Bose.
▪ The idea of a liberation army was revived with the arrival of Subhas Chandra Bose in the Far East in 1943.

Subhash Chandra Bose takes command of INA

▪ In July 1943, at a meeting in Singapore, Rash Behari Bose handed over control of the organisation to Subhas
Chandra Bose.
▪ There were three important brigades of INA:
o Gandhi Brigade commanded by Lt. Col. M.Z. Kiani;
o Nehru Brigade by Lt. Aziz Ahmed Khan; and
o Azad Brigade by Col. Prakash Chand.
▪ The members of the INA were exhorted to adopt three principles, that is, Unity, Faith and Sacrifice.

▪ The INA opened its headquarters at Mount Pleasant in Singapore, the place where no Indian or Asiatic was
allowed even to walk.
▪ Several News Papers were published to rouse the cause of the INA – ‘Voice of India’ and ‘Azad Hind’ in English,
Awaz Hind and Azad Hind in Hindustani and Swatantra Bharat in Tamil, published from Singapore.
▪ An INA Officers Training School was opened with Lt. Col. Shah Nawaz as the first Commandant.
▪ In 1944, INA started to advance along the eastern border and Kohima was taken. In the Imphal Campaign one
Indian battalion led by Shah Nawaz was also allowed to go along Japanese. However, the failure of Imphal
Campign and unequal treatment by Japanese demoralized INA soldiers. With the Japanese surrender in 1945,
Azad Hind Fauj’s dream to liberate India was also shattered.
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▪ After surrender, famous INA trials at Red Fort took place in 1945-46. This saw massive rally of people and un-
precedented emotional support for the brave patriots. Though the court martial held found the officers guilty,
government under pressure released them. Trials garnered huge support cutting across the community lines
as one of the main leaders was Hindu, Prem Sehgal, one was Muslim, Shah Nawaz Hussain and one a Sikh,
Gurbaksh Singh Dhillon.
▪ During war time, Indian Armies were also employed to restore French and Dutch colonies and this also fuelled
anti-imperialist sentiments as Britain on one hand was talking independence on the other hand was promoting
colonialism.

RIN RATING MUTINY (1946)

▪ It started with an incident when a sailor on board of INS Talwar wrote ‘Quit India’ and he was arrested for this,
however causes were deep rooted. Racial discrimination, unpalatable food, poor working conditions, abuse
by senior officers, INA trials were the causes.
▪ The Royal Indian Navy mutiny (also called the Bombay Mutiny) encompasses a total strike and subsequent
mutiny by Indian sailors of the Royal Indian Navy on board ship and shore establishments at Bombay (Mumbai)
harbour on 18 February 1946. From the initial flashpoint in Bombay, the mutiny spread and found support
throughout British India, from Karachi to Calcutta and ultimately came to involve 78 ships, 20 shore
establishments and 20,000 sailors.
▪ It was repressed by force by the British Royal Navy. Only the Communist Party supported the strikers; the
Congress and the Muslim League condemned it.
Two interpretations of movement –
▪ Revolt for Freedom – Nationalist historians on the far left have looked at the mutiny as a revolt against the
British Raj and imperial rule.
▪ Revolt against Bad Condition of Sailors - However naval historians argue that internal conditions in the Royal
Indian Navy were more important sources of unrest.
▪ Notably, the mutinying ships hoisted three flags tied together — those of the Congress, Muslim League, and
the Red Flag of the Communist Party of India (CPI), signifying the unity and demarginalisation of communal
issues among the mutineers.
▪ Rallies were organized in support of mutineers, food and essential items were sent on ships, hartals were
organized.
▪ The mutiny was called off following a meeting between the President of the Naval Central Strike Committee
(NCSC) and Vallabh Bhai Patel of the Congress, who had been sent to Bombay to settle the crisis. Patel issued
a statement calling on the strikers to end their action, which was later echoed by a statement issued in Calcutta
by Mohammed Ali Jinnah on behalf of the Muslim League. The mutiny was significant because till that day
there has been no revolt from the armed forces and this had a moral effect on masses and it electrified the
whole nation. It prompted British government to treat INA prisoners with lineancy and only those who were
accused of murder, and brutal crime were put to trial. Soon Cabinet Mission also followed.

RUN UP TO INDEPENDENCE
▪ The war had changed the balance of power in the world.
▪ United States of America (USA) and the Soviet Union (USSR) emerged as the big powers and both supported
India’s demand for freedom.
▪ Even though Britain was on the winning side in the war, its economic and military power was shattered.
▪ Having fought and shed their blood for nearly six years (i.e. World War II), they had no desire to spend many
more years away from home in India suppressing the Indian people’s struggle for freedom.
▪ The British Indian Government could no longer rely on the Indian personnel of its civil administration and
armed forces to suppress the national movement.
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▪ The confident and determined mood of the Indian people were now evident that they would no longer in
mood to tolerate the humiliation of foreign rule.
▪ There was large-scale labor unrest and mass strikes all over the country.
▪ Consequently, rapid developments took place that ultimately culminated into the Independence of India.
▪ Some prominent developments from exam point of view have been mentioned below.

C ABINET M ISSION 1946

Context of Cabinet Mission

▪ After the World War II, the British began to find out ways and means for negotiations and peaceful transfer
of power to India.
▪ The change in British attitude was an outcome of the intermingling of the following factors:

WIDENING SOCIAL BASE OF NATIONALIST MOVEMENT

▪ The social base of Indian Freedom Struggle had considerably increased after World War II.
▪ Nationalism had penetrated into hitherto untouched sections and areas.

BUREAUCRATIC CONSTRAINTS
▪ Ever since the first world war, there was a pressure among the British Bureaucracy that prompted British to
co-opt Indians in their Bureaucracy (Policy of Indianisation).
▪ By 1939, there existed a British-Indian parity in the ICS.
▪ After World War II, a depleted, war-weary bureaucracy battered by the 1942 events remained.
▪ With this a major pillar on which the British Raj stood firm in India was broken.
▪ Consequently, when the British realized their limited days in India, they began pondering upon the ways of
graceful exit.

LIMITATIONS OF CONCILIATION-REPRESSION APPROACH

▪ On one hand the British offered various concessions to Congress on the other hand, it repressed their non-
violent resistance with full force. Such a stance disenchanted Congress.
▪ Moreover, the conciliations offered to Congress were seen with apprehensions by the loyalist elements of
the government causing a trust-deficit among them.
▪ With this trust deficit, the position of British in India was further weakened.

BOOST IN NATIONALIST MORALE

▪ The administrative work done by Congress during its rule demonstrated Constitutionalism at work and also
gave a glimpse of freedom.
▪ This development proved to be a big morale booster and helped in deeper penetration of patriotic
sentiments among masses.
▪ Such sentiments could have easily triggered mass movement, the only alternative to an all-out repression of
a mass movement was an entirely official rule which seemed impossible now because the necessary numbers
and efficient officials were not available.
▪ Amidst these factors, it was clear for the government that a settlement was necessary for burying the ghost
of a mass movement and for good future Indo-British relations.

Arrival of Cabinet Mission in India

▪ After the Second World War, Lord Atlee became the Prime Minister of England.
▪ Lord Atlee made a historic announcement in which the right to self-determination and the framing of a
Constitution for India were conceded.
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▪ Consequently, three members of the British Cabinet - Pathick Lawrence (Secretary of State for India), Sir
Stafford Cripps and A. V. Alexander - were sent to India. This is known as the Cabinet Mission. It was chaired
by Pethick Lawrence.
▪ The Cabinet Mission reached Delhi on March 24, 1946.
▪ Upon its arrival, deliberations were made on following key issues:
o Formation of interim government;
o Principles and procedures for framing a new Constitution giving freedom to India.
▪ Amidst these deliberations, Congress and the League could not come to any agreement on the fundamental
issue of the unity or partition of India.
▪ Consequently, the mission put forward its own plan for the solution of the constitutional problem in May
1946.

Major Proposals under Cabinet Mission Plan

▪ The key proposals under Cabinet Mission Plan can be understood and summarised through the following main
points:

A. REJECTION OF PAKISTAN:
▪ Amidst several apprehensions and some logical reasons, Cabinet Mission rejected the idea of separate
Pakistan.
REASONS:
▪ Pakistan so formed would include a large non- Muslim population—38 per cent in the North- West and 48
per cent in the North-East.
▪ Principle of communal self- determination would claim separation of Hindu-majority western Bengal and
Sikh- and Hindu-dominated Ambala and Jullundur divisions of Punjab.
▪ Creation of Pakistan by partitioning Bengal and Punjab would disturb deep-seated regional ties.
▪ Chalking out a separate Muslim country out of India through partition would also lead to the problem of
communication between the western and eastern parts of Pakistan.
▪ The division of the armed forces was another grave concern that could have amounted to grave security
dangers.

B. PROVINCIAL GROUPINGS
▪ For the purpose of drafting Constitution, it proposed a grouping of Provinces into 3 Groups:
o Section-A: Madras, Bombay, Central Provinces, United Provinces, Bihar and Orissa (Hindu- majority
provinces).
o Section-B: Punjab, North-West Frontier Province and Sindh (Muslim-majority provinces).
o Section-C: Bengal and Assam (Muslim-majority provinces).
▪ In the constituent assembly, members from groups A, B and C were to sit separately to decide the
constitution for provinces and if possible, for the groups also.
▪ Then, the whole constituent assembly (all three sections A, B and C combined) would sit together to
formulate the union constitution.
▪ After the first general elections, a province was to be free to come out of a group and after 10 years, a
province was to be free to call for a reconsideration of the group or the union constitution.

C. FORMATION OF CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY

▪ As per Cabinet Mission, a constituent assembly was to be elected by provincial assemblies by proportional
representation (voting in three groups—General, Muslims, Sikhs).
▪ This constituent assembly would be a 389-member body.
o 292 Members would be representative of Provincial Assemblies,
o 4 Members would be representatives of Chief Commissioner’s
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o 93 Members would be sent by Princely States.

D. SYSTEM OF GOVERNMENT
▪ The Cabinet Mission proposed a system of Government with the following key provisions:
▪ There would be a three-tier executive and legislature at provincial, section and union levels.
▪ A common centre would control defence, communication and external affairs.
▪ A federal structure was envisaged for India.
▪ Provinces were to have full autonomy and residual powers.
▪ Princely States were no longer to be under paramountcy of the British government. They would be free to
enter into an arrangement with successor governments or the British government.
▪ Until the first General Elections were held, an interim Government would function that would be formed by
the members from amongst the Constituent Assembly.

Complications in Cabinet Mission Plan

▪ Even though transfer of power under Cabinet Mission Plan seemed imminent, yet there were complications
in Cabinet Mission Plan.
▪ Each party had different interpretation of the Grouping provided under Cabinet proposal. This may be
understood as below:

A. CONGRESS INTERPRETATION

▪ Amidst the perception of optional grouping and single constituent assembly, Congress felt that the Cabinet
Mission has left no room for the creation of Pakistan.

B. MUSLIM LEAGUE
▪ Muslim League perceived grouping to be compulsory and considered it as an indication that their demand
for a separate State of Pakistan has been indirectly conceded.
▪ Amidst the dilemmas pertaining to the grouping of Provinces, Cabinet Mission later clarified that the grouping
was compulsory.
▪ This clarification led to objections from Congress.

Major Objections by Congress

▪ Congress was opposed to the idea that Provinces had to wait till the first general elections to come out of a
group.
▪ According to Congress, provinces should have the option to not join a group in the first place as otherwise
that would be a contradiction to the principle of ‘provincial autonomy’.
▪ Congress also objected to the provision of nominated members (and not elected ones) representing the
Princely States in the Constituent Assembly.

The Outcome of Cabinet Mission

▪ Initially, the long-term plan put by Cabinet Mission Plan was accepted by both Muslim League (June 6, 1946)
and Congress (June 24, 1946).
▪ But later in July 1946, Jawaharlal Nehru stated, “We are not bound by a single thing except that we have
decided to go into the Constituent Assembly. The big probability is that there would be no grouping as NWFP
and Assam would have objections to joining sections B and C.”
▪ As a response to this statement, Muslim League withdrew its acceptance and called for “Direct Action” on
August 16 to achieve Pakistan.
▪ Consequent to this communal holocaust and communal riots were witnessed.
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▪ Lord Wavell was now in a desperate position and decided to get Congress into Interim Government, even if
the league stayed out.

Elections of 1946

▪ Consequent to the proposals of Cabinet Mission, elections were held in July 1946 for the formation of a
Constituent Assembly.
▪ Congress secured 205 out of 214 General seats. The Muslim League got 73 out of 78 Muslim seats.
▪ An Interim Government was formed under the leadership of Jawaharlal Nehru on 2 September 1946 which
was later joined by members of Muslim League too. (Coalition Government).
▪ However, Muslim League was far from cooperating in the interim government.

Important Portfolios of Interim Government

Person Portfolio
Vice President of Executive
Jawaharlal Nehru
Council, External Affairs and Common Wealth Relations
Vallabhbhai Patel Home, Information and Broadcasting
Baldev Singh Defence
Dr John Mathai Industries and Supplies
C. Rajagopalachari Education
CH Bhabha Work, Mines and Power
Rajendra Prasad Agriculture & Food
Jagjivan Ram Labour
Asaf Ali Railway
Liaqat Ali (Muslim League) Finance
Ibrahim Ismail Chundrigar (Muslim
Commerce
League)
Abdur Rab Nishtar (Muslim League) Communciations
Ghazanfar Ali Khan (Muslim League) Health
Jogendra Nath Mandal (Muslim League) Law

ATTLEE’S DECLARATION & INDIAN INDEPENDENCE

▪ On February 20, 1947, Clement Attlee, British Premier, announced in the House of
Commons the definite intention of the British Government to transfer power to
responsible Indian hands by a date not later than June 1948. (February Declaration).
▪ To put in effect the transference of power Atlee decided to send Lord Mountbatten
as Viceroy to India with sufficient powers. Mountbatten announced date of
transference of power as 15 August 1947.
▪ The ecstasy of coming independence was marred by the large-scale communal riots
during and after August 1946. The Hindu and Muslim communalists blamed each
other for starting the heinous killings and competed with each other in cruelty.
Clement Attlee
Key Takeaways of Attlee’s February Declaration

▪ A deadline of June 30, 1948 was fixed for transfer of power even if the Indian politicians had not agreed by
that time on the constitution.
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▪ The British would relinquish power either to some form of central government or in some areas to the existing
provincial governments if the constituent assembly was not fully representative, i.e., if the Muslim majority
provinces did not join.
▪ British powers and obligations vis-a-vis the princely states would lapse with transfer of power, but these
would not be transferred to any successor government in British India.
▪ Mountbatten would replace Wavell as the viceroy.
▪ The statement contained clear hints of partition and even Balkanisation of the country into numerous states
and was, in essence, a reversion of the Cripps Offer.

ACCEPTANCE BY CONGRESS
▪ By now, Congress was desperate to end the existing Constitutional deadlock.
▪ Consequently, it accepted the provisions of transfer of power as per Attlee’s statement i.e. power to more
than one centre was acceptable to Congress.

MOUNTBATTEN PLAN (1947)

Succession of Mountbatten as Viceroy

▪ Mountbatten succeeded Wavell after the Attlee’s February declaration and he was informally given far more
powers than his predecessors to decide things on the spot.
▪ Consequently, he proved firmer and quicker in taking decisions.
▪ His task was to explore the options of unity and division till October 1947 and then advise the British
government on the form of transfer of power.
▪ However, even before his arrival, freedom-with partition formula was coming to be widely accepted.
▪ To counter this idea, a sincere attempt was needed to support those forces which wanted a unified India and
countering those who opposed it.
▪ By virtue of his 3rd June Plan, Mountbatten referred to woo both the sides.

Key Provisions of Mountbatten Plan

▪ Punjab and Bengal Legislative Assemblies would meet in two groups, Hindus and Muslims, to vote for
partition. If a simple majority of either group voted for partition, then these provinces would be partitioned.
(Both chose for partition)
▪ In case of partition, two dominions and two constituent assemblies would be created.
▪ Sindh would take its own decision.
▪ Referendums in NWFP and Sylhet district of Bengal would decide the fate of these areas.
▪ Since the Congress had conceded a unified India, therefore, all their other points would be met, namely,
o Independence for princely states ruled out—they would join either India or Pakistan;
o Independence for Bengal ruled out;
o Accession of Hyderabad to Pakistan ruled out (Mountbatten supported the Congress on this);
o Freedom to come on August 15, 1947; and
o A boundary commission to be set up if partition was to be affected.
ANALYSIS
▪ Through these provisions, Mountbatten conceded to League’s demand to the extent that Pakistan would be
created and Congress was supported by ensuring that Pakistan is as small as possible.
▪ Additionally, a major innovation was made by immediately transferring power on the basis of grant of
dominion status, thus obviating the need to wait for an agreement in Constituent Assembly on new political
structure.
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INDIAN INDEPENDENCE ACT 1947

▪ The British Government accorded formal approval to the Mountbatten Plan by enacting the Indian
Independence Act on 18 July 1947. The salient features of this Act were:
▪ The partition of the country into India and Pakistan would come into effect from 15 August 1947.
▪ The British Government would transfer all powers to these two Dominions.
▪ A Boundary Commission would demarcate the boundaries of the provinces of the Punjab and Bengal. (Radcliff
Boundary Commission)
▪ The Act provided for the transfer of power to the Constituent Assemblies of the two Dominions, which will
have full authority to frame their respective Constitutions.
▪ Lord Mountbatten was made the first Governor General of Independent India, whereas Mohammad Ali
Jinnah became the first Governor General of Pakistan.