Session 2 Student Text1
Session 2 Student Text1
Theory
Continuous and discrete random variables. Estimation of the PDF and the PMF. Expected
value. Variance. A priori probabilities. Law of total probability. Bayes’ theorem. MAP decision
rule. Classification/segmentation errors.
Variations in transfer times of data packets can lead to loss of packets. It is therefore
important to determine the status of the network in terms of the instantaneous network
load. The simplest way the determine the network status is to discriminate between quiet
and busy periods. If the network management takes the type (quiet, busy) of period into
account, these two periods must be identified.
For a simple network that experiences alternating quiet and busy periods in traffic load, the
following data set could be observed: mixed_arrivaltimes.mat
a. Plot the data set in terms of packet number versus packet transfer time; paste the
plot into the text.
Answer:
b. We model the network status “quiet” and “busy” with the Bernoulli random variable
S. Then, S=0 indicates a quiet period and S=1 indicates a busy period. fX|S=0(x)
defines the PDF of (continuous) random variable X, given that X originates from a
quiet period.
Select subsets of the data representing “quiet” and “busy” periods on the network,
such that you have at least 100 samples for each period. Choose an appropriate PDF
to model the conditional random variables X|S=0 and X|S=1. Estimate the
parameters of both (conditional) PDFs. Plot the PDFs in two separate plots in overlay
with the relative frequencies. Make sure that the plots satisfy the requirements
imposed on PDFs (for instance, is the integral over the PDF equal to 1?).
Answer:
c. For continuous random variables the law of total probability is given by:
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Use the definition of the expected value of a continuous random variable and
equation (1) to show that:
Answer:
d. Estimate the a priori probabilities P[S=0] and P[S=1] using Equation (2), the PDFs
determined in assignment b, and the data.
Answer:
e. Use the results from assignments b. and d. to plot the marginal PDF fX(x) on top of
the relative frequencies of the data. Does the model fit to the data?
Answer:
We now have a random (stochastic) model that describes the behavior of the data packet
transfer times. On the basis of this model, we will build a “classifier” that determines whether
the status S of the network is quiet (S=0) or busy (S=1), given the observed transfer time of
one data packet.
f. Explain – on the basis of the two conditional PDFs obtained in assignment b – why
classifying the network status on the basis of the observed transfer time of a single
data packet can not be done error free.
Answer:
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(3)
g. Rewrite this equation in terms of the a priori probabilities of the classes S and the
conditional PDFs (i.e. use Bayes’ rule).
Answer:
h. Implement the decision rule derived under assignment g and apply the decision rule
to the data set. As a consequence, every sample X will be classified either as class
“quiet” (S=0) or “busy” (S=1).
Answer:
i. Plot the relative frequencies of the transfer times of the samples classified as class
S=0. Do the same for the samples classified as class S=1.
Answer:
The two plots in assignment h show that the decision rule effectively applies a threshold T to
the transfer times. Transfer times smaller than this threshold T are classified as S=0,
otherwise S=1. We can therefore reformulate 1 the decision rule derived in assignment f also
as:
(4)
Of course, this decision rule can also be implemented (and is actually simpler to implement
than the one under assignment h).
j. What is the value of T that the decision rule in assignment h automatically selected?
Answer:
1
To do this analytically can be sometimes very difficult.
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k. Explain the advantage of starting with the MAP decision rule instead of with equation
(4) with a manually selected threshold T.
Answer:
l. As you explained in assignment f, the classification is not without error. I.e., transfer
times originating from class “quiet” are classified as “busy”, and vice versa. The
probability of error is given by
(5)
This probability Perr is dependent on the value of the threshold T. Calculate and plot
(in a single figure):
the error P[D(x)=1|S=0],
the error P[D(x)=0|S=1],
the error Perr
on the basis of the PDF models developed above as a function of T . Find the value of
T for which Perr is minimized. Compare this value with the result under assignment j.
What is your conclusion?
Answer:
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1. Introduction
In the first part of this session, we introduced the concept of a decision rule to classify the
status of an IP-Network. In part two we will follow the same approach to segmenting the
image (or classifying the pixels in an image) into two classes, namely belonging to a “hand”
or to the “background”. Such segmentation is important in applications such as object
tracking using camera images.
The figure on the left shows a typical camera image. The right figure shows the desired
result of the segmentation procedure. It is important to realize that – like in part 1 of this
session – such error free segmentation is usually not possible.
DIP image is a digital image processing (DIP) toolbox that has been developed at
TUDelft/Faculty of Applied Physics. This toolbox has several advantages with respect to the
image processing toolbox available in MATLAB. The main advantage of DIPimage is its
flexibilty in handling different data formats. This in contrast to the image processing toolbox
of MATLAB which requires unsigned 8-bit integers for images.
First of all, DIPimage has a user-friendly interface that opens when you type in
>> dipimage
From this window you can open images and apply manipulations on these images. The
actual code that is execute to perform certain manipulations, is outputted on the command
line. This can be used afterwards in your m-files.
An image in DIPimage is a DIPimage object, this object can be manipulated by means of the
default mathematical operators, like +,-,*,/ and relational operators like <, >, ==. Contrary
to default MATLAB operations, for DIPimage objects these manipulations are pixel wise
operations.
One considers an image as a matrix where each matrix element represents the intensity at a
certain pixel position. You can read a matrix into an image as follows:
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>> A = 2*randn(100);
>> NA = dip_image( A )
This results in a DIPimage object with Gaussian noise of zero mean and variance 2. If the
semi-colon is omitted after a statement, the output is presented as an image.
>> B = rand(100);
>> NB = dip_image(B);
>> SUM = NA + NB;
>> MULT = NA * NB;
>> NA2 = NA + 2;
For more information about DIPimage see the “DIPimage User Manual” and “DIPimage
Reference” reachable from the Help menu in the DIPimage interface.
3. Segmentation procedure
Color images have three or more color components, called channels. Cameras usually output
RGB images, i.e. an image with a red, green, and blue channel. Each pixel in the color image
therefore has three values [Rc , Gc , Bc]. For the segmentation, we will use one out of three
pure colors (namely pure red), defined as Rp = Rc/(Rc+Gc+Bc) . We model Rp as a random
variable.
The image hand1.ics contains the color image. The images hand1r.ics,
hand1g.ics, and hand1b.ics contain the three color components.
a. Visualize the four images. Then calculate and visualize the pure red color.
Answer:
b. Compare the Rc , Gc , Bc images with the pure red image Rp. What is the advantage of
using the pure red color instead of the RGB channels when segmenting this image
into hand and background?
Answer:
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c. In order to segment the image into hand and background, we use the MAP decision
rule. To this end, you need to model and estimate the model parameters of:
The conditional PDF or PMF2 of Rp in the background,
The conditional PDF or PMF2 of Rp in the hand,
The a priori probabilities P[background] and P[hand].
Answer:
d. Derive and apply the MAP decision rule for segmenting the image into hand and
background. Display the segmentation result.
Answer:
Answer:
f. Can the decision rule derived in assignment d also be applied in case the hand is in
front of another background? In other words, how generally applicable is your hand-
detector? Which ways can you envision to improve the generality of the segmentation
procedure?
Answer:
2
In case you decide to model Rp as a discrete random variable, first reduce the sample space of Rp to
256 different values, i.e. quantize RP into 8 bit as follows: >> RPDiscrete = round(255*RP);
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