Two events A and B are independent events if the fact that A occurs does not affect

the probability of B occurring.

When two events are independent, the probability of both occurring is
P(A and B) = P(A) · P(B)
EXAMPLE Tossing a Coin
A coin is flipped and a die is rolled. Find the probability of getting a head on the coin
and a 4 on the die.
EXAMPLE Drawing a Card
A card is drawn from a deck and replaced; then a second card is drawn. Find the probability of
getting a king and then a 7.

EXAMPLE Male Color Blindness

Approximately 9% of men have a type of color blindness that prevents them from distinguishing
between red and green. If 3 men are selected at random, find the probability that all of them will
have this type of red-green color blindness.
EXAMPLE Selecting a Colored Ball
An urn contains 2 red balls, 5 blue balls, and 3 white balls. A ball is selected and its color is
noted. Then it is replaced. A second ball is selected and its color is noted. Find the probability of
each of these events.
a. Selecting 3 blue balls
b. Selecting 1 white ball and then a red ball
c. Selecting 2 blue balls and then one white ball
When the outcome or occurrence of the first event affects the outcome or occurrence of the
second event are said to be dependent events.
Examples
Drawing a card from a deck, not replacing it, and then drawing a second card
Selecting a ball from an urn, not replacing it, and then selecting a second ball
Having high grades and getting a scholarship

Example
Find the probability of getting an ace on the first draw and the probability of getting a king
on the second draw.
 When two events are dependent, the probability of both occurring is
P(A and B) = P(A) ・ P(B|A)
EXAMPLE Unemployed Workers
For a specific year, 5.2% of U.S. workers were unemployed. During that time, 33% of those who
were unemployed received unemployment benefits. If a person is selected at random, find the
probability that she or he received unemployment benefits if the person is unemployed.

EXAMPLE Drawing Cards

Three cards are drawn from an ordinary deck and not replaced. Find the probability of events.
a. Getting 3 jacks
b. Getting an ace, a king, and a queen in order
c. Getting a club, a spade, and a heart in order
d. Getting 3 clubs
EXAMPLE Selecting Colored Balls
Box 1 contains 2 red balls and 1 blue ball. Box 2 contains 3 blue balls and 1 red ball. A coin is
tossed. If it falls heads up, box 1 is selected and a ball is drawn. If it falls tails up, box 2 is
selected and a ball is drawn. Find the probability of selecting a red ball.
Conditional Probability
The conditional probability of an event B in relationship to an event A was defined as the
probability that event B occurs after event A has already occurred.

The probability that the second event B occurs given that the first event A has occurred can
be found by dividing the probability that both events occurred by the probability that the first
event has occurred. The formula is:
𝑷(𝑨 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑩)
𝑷(𝑩|𝑨) =
𝑷(𝑨)
EXAMPLE Selecting Colored Chips
A box contains black chips and white chips. A person selects two chips without
replacement. If the probability of selecting a black chip and a white chip is 15/56 and the
probability of selecting a black chip on the first draw is 3/8 , find the probability of selecting
the white chip on the second draw, given that the first chip selected was a black chip.
EXAMPLE Parking Tickets
The probability that Sam parks in a no-parking zone and gets a parking ticket is 0.06, and the
probability that Sam cannot find a legal parking space and has to park in the noparking zone is
0.20. On Tuesday, Sam arrives at school and has to park in a no-parking zone. Find the
probability that he will get a parking ticket.
EXAMPLE Survey on Women in the Military
A recent survey asked 100 people if they thought women in the
armed forces should be permitted to participate in war.
The results of the survey are shown.
Find these probabilities.
a. The respondent answered yes, given that the respondent was a female.
b. The respondent was a male, given that the respondent answered no.
EXAMPLE Drawing Cards
A person selects 3 cards from an ordinary deck and replaces each card after it is drawn.
Find the probability that the person will get at least one heart.

EXAMPLE Rolling a Die

A single die is rolled 4 times. Find the probability of getting at least one 6.
EXAMPLE Ties
The Neckware Association of America reported that 3% of ties sold in the United States are bow
ties. If 4 customers who purchased a tie are randomly selected, find the probability that at least
1 purchased a bow tie.

EXAMPLE Working Women and Computer Use

It is reported that 72% of working women use computers at work. Choose 5 working women at
random. Find
a. The probability that at least 1 doesn’t use a computer at work
b. The probability that all 5 use a computer in their jobs
Example Flashlight Batteries
A flashlight has 6 batteries, 2 of which are defective. If 2 are selected at random without
replacement, find the probability that both are defective.

Example Sales A manufacturer makes two models of an item: model I, which accounts for 80%
of unit sales, and model II, which accounts for 20% of unit sales. Because of defects, the
manufacturer has to replace (or exchange) 10% of its model I and 18% of its model II. If a
model is selected at random, find the probability that it will be defective.
Example Student Financial Aid In a recent year 8,073,000 male students and 10,980,000
female students were enrolled as undergraduates. Receiving aid were 60.6% of the male
students and 65.2% of the female students. Of those receiving aid, 44.8% of the males got
federal aid and 50.4% of the females got federal aid. Choose 1 student at random. Find the
probability that the student is
a. A male student without aid
b. A male student, given that the student has aid
Example Selecting Colored Balls Urn 1 contains 5 red balls and 3 black balls. Urn 2
contains 3 red balls and 1 black ball. Urn 3 contains 4 red balls and 2 black balls. If an urn is
selected at random and a ball is drawn, find the probability it will be red.
EXAMPLE Congressional Terms Below is given the summary from the 112th Congress of
Senators whose terms end in 2013, 2015, or 2017. Choose one of these Senators at random
and find
a. P(Democrat and term expires in 2015)
b. P(Republican or term expires in 2013)
c. P(Republican given term expires in 2017)
Are the events “Republican” and “term expires in 2015” independent? Explain.
Example Blood Types and Rh Factors
In addition to being grouped into four types, human
blood is grouped by its Rhesus (Rh) factor. Consider
the figures below which show the distributions of
these groups for Americans. Choose one American
at random. Find the probability that the person
a. Is a universal donor, i.e., has O-negative blood
b. Has type O blood given that the person is Rh+
c. Has A+ or AB− blood
d. Has Rh− given that the person has type B