Rattan Lal (Editor) - Soil and Fertilizers-Managing The Environmental Footprint-CRC Press (2020) PDF
Rattan Lal (Editor) - Soil and Fertilizers-Managing The Environmental Footprint-CRC Press (2020) PDF
Rattan Lal (Editor) - Soil and Fertilizers-Managing The Environmental Footprint-CRC Press (2020) PDF
Edited by
Rattan Lal
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Contents
Preface..............................................................................................................................................vii
Editor.................................................................................................................................................ix
Contributors.......................................................................................................................................xi
Chapter 3 Crop Residue Management for Improving Soil Carbon Storage, Nutrient
Availability, and Fertilizer Use Efficiency.................................................................. 29
Bhupinder Pal Singh, Bijay-Singh, Sarah R. Noack, Yunying Fang,
Promil Mehra, Kathryn Page, and Yash P. Dang
Chapter 6 Manures versus Fertilizers in Rainfed Dryland Production Systems of India......... 131
Ch. Srinivasarao, Sumanta Kundu, C. Subha Lakshmi, M. Vijay Sankar
Babu, V. V. Gabhane, Pallab K. Sarma, Ayyappa Sathish, K. C. Nataraj,
and H. Arunakumari
Chapter 7 Reducing Emission of Greenhouse Gases from Fertilizer Use in India................... 169
Sangeeta Lenka, Narendra Kumar Lenka, and Himanshu Pathak
v
vi Contents
Index............................................................................................................................................... 351
Preface
Global demand for three principal fertilizers (N, P2O5, K2O) was about 200 million Mg per year for
2019–2020. FAO (2019) has estimated that fertilizer demand (106 Mg) was 184 in 2015, 186 in 2016,
191 in 2017, 194 in 2018, and 198 in 2019, and estimates it will be 202 in 2020. Of the 186 million
Mg used in 2018, 57% was N, 24% P, and 19% K. Further, N and P fertilizer rates have increased
by a factor of 8 and 3 between 1961 and 2013, respectively. The conversion of unreactive N2 in the
atmosphere to reactive N as ammonia for fertilizer use has increased global cereal production from
736 million Mg in 1961 to 2980 million Mg in 2017 by a factor of 4.05. In comparison, the world
population increased from 3.05 billion in 1961 to 7.55 billion in 2017 by a factor of 2.48. Therefore,
per capita cereal production increased from 241 kg in 1961 to 395 kg in 2017. Fertilizer use, being
an integral component of the Green Revolution package (along with improved varieties, irrigation,
and pesticides), has increased global food production and strengthened food security. Furthermore,
judicious use of fertilizers and other inputs in the agroecosystems are also critical to advancing
Sustainable Development Goal #2 (Zero Hunger) by 2030. The number of people fed because of N
fertilizer is estimated at 48% of the total in 2015, or 3.54 billion people. However, the increased use
of fertilizers (along with pesticides and irrigation) has adversely impacted air quality (emission of
N2O); water quality (eutrophication, algal bloom, and anoxia of coastal ecosystems); soil health and
functionality (e.g., acidification, elemental cycling, and biodiversity); and overall degradation of the
environment.
As Barry Commoner stated in his book The Closing Circle, there is no such thing as a free lunch,
and everything released into nature must go somewhere. Indeed, the environmental cost (footprint)
of food produced through agricultural intensification is steep and rising because of fertilizers enter-
ing into and impacting all vital components of the environment – air, water, soil, vegetation, and
biodiversity. Despite its adverse impacts, the use of fertilizers is expected to increase because the
increase in demand for production of victuals (i.e., food, feed, fiber, and fuel) is rising for the grow-
ing and increasingly affluent world population.
Therefore, the objective of this 14-chapter volume is to deliberate the technological options that
reconcile the need for increasing the global supply of essential victuals with the urgency of restor-
ing and sustaining the environment. The book discusses several options, including the urgency of
enhancing the use efficiency of fertilizers and reducing their leakage into the environment. The use
efficiency of N is hardly 30% even in the best-case scenarios. Rather than increasing the amount or
rate of fertilizer use, the strategy is to double the efficiency and thus reduce the input. Using the 4-R
principle (Right Rate, Right Time, Right Method, and Right Place) can enhance the efficiency and
minimize its leakage into the environment.
Whereas the rate of application of fertilizer must be increased in sub-Saharan Africa and else-
where in developing countries, it must be reduced in China and other developed countries by
enhancing the use efficiency. The latter can be increased by restoring soil health (i.e., increasing
soil organic carbon, concentration soil structure, plant available water capacity, and soil biodiver-
sity) and using the strategy of integrated nutrient management. Biological N fixation, inoculation for
mycorrhiza, recycling of crop and animal residues, and integration of crops with trees and livestock
are among other options of minimizing the dependence on chemical fertilizers. Use efficiency of
fertilizers can also be enhanced by conserving soil and water, reducing risks of erosion by water and
wind, increasing plant available water capacity, and increasing the root distribution into the subsoil.
This 14-chapter book addresses these options and the appropriate policy implications. In addi-
tion to case studies, the book also contains chapters on best management practices and policies for
enhancing use efficiency of fertilizers and reducing their leakage into the environment.
I thank all the authors for their outstanding contributions and for sharing their knowledge
and experience with the global soil science community. Preparation of the manuscript, involving
vii
viii Preface
collation and synthesis of the literature and interpretation of the data from context-specific situ-
ations, is a time-consuming process that requires dedication and commitment. Thanks are also
due to the editorial staff of Taylor and Francis for their timely help and prompt responses to
numerous questions and queries from the editors and authors. Special thanks are due to the office
staff of the Carbon Management and Sequestration Center of The Ohio State University for pro-
viding support to the flow of the manuscripts between authors and editors and making valuable
contributions. In this context, special thanks and appreciation are due to Ms. Abigail Hansen,
Ms. Janelle Watts, Ms. Maggie Weidner-Willis, and Ms. Gabrielle Collier, who formatted the text
and prepared the final submission. While it is a major challenge to list all those who made direct
and indirect contributions toward completion of this book, it is important to thank contributions
of all those who supported the completion of this volume. Nonetheless, it is important to build
upon the contributions of all those who study the use of fertilizer in relation to soil processes and
environmental impact and share the knowledge contained in this volume with others from around
the world.
Rattan Lal
The Ohio State University
Columbus, OH
Editor
Rattan Lal, PhD, is a Distinguished University Professor of Soil Science and Director of the
Carbon Management and Sequestration Center, The Ohio State University, and an Adjunct
Professor at the University of Iceland. His current research focus is on climate-resilient agriculture,
soil carbon sequestration, sustainable intensification, enhancing use efficiency of agroecosystems,
and sustainable management of soil resources of the tropics. He has received honorary degrees of
Doctor of Science from Punjab Agricultural University (2001); the Norwegian University of Life
Sciences, Aas (2005); Alecu Russo Balti State University, Moldova (2010); Technical University
of Dresden, Germany (2015); University of Lleida, Spain (2017); Gustavus Adolphus College,
Saint Peter, Minnesota (2018); and PUCV, Valparaiso, Chile (2019). He was President of the World
Association of Soil and Water Conservation (1987–1990), the International Soil Tillage Research
Organization (1988–1991), and the Soil Science Society of America (2005–2007), and is President
of the International Union of Soil Sciences (2017–2018). He was a member of the US National
Climate Assessment and Development Advisory Committee–NCADAC (2010–2013); a member of
the SERDP Scientific Advisory Board of the US Department of Energy (2011–2018); Senior Science
Advisor to the Global Soil Forum of the Institute for Advanced Sustainability Studies, Potsdam,
Germany (2010–2015); a member of the Advisory Board of Joint Program Initiative of Agriculture,
Food Security and Climate Change (FACCE-JPI) of the European Union (2013–2016); and Chair of
the Advisory Board of the United Nations Institute for Integrated Management of Material Fluxes
and of Resources (UNU-FLORES), Dresden, Germany (2014–2019). Professor Lal was a lead
author of IPCC (1998–2000). He has mentored 115 graduate students, 54 postdoctoral research-
ers, and hosted 174 visiting scholars. He has authored/coauthored 950 refereed journal articles and
has written 20 and edited/coedited 75 books. For six years (2014–2019), Reuters Thomson listed
him among the world’s most influential scientific minds and as having citations of publications
among the top 1% of scientists in agricultural sciences. He is recipient of the 2018 GCHERA World
Agriculture Prize, the Glinka World Soil Prize, and the 2019 Japan Prize.
ix
Contributors
Sampson Agiyin-Birikorang Michelle Anne Bunquin
International Fertilizer Development Center International Rice Research Institute
(IFDC) Metro Manila, Philippines
Muscle Shoals, Alabama
Pauline Chivenge
Akram Ahmed International Rice Research Institute
ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region Metro Manila, Philippines
Patna, India
Yash P. Dang
H. Arunakumari School of Agriculture and Food Sciences
Division of Resource Management The University of Queensland
ICAR-Central Research Institute for Dryland St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia
Agriculture (CRIDA)
Hyderabad, India Ekwe Dossa
International Fertilizer Development Center
M. Vijay Sankar Babu (IFDC)
Department of Soil Science Lome, Togo
Agricultural Research Station
Anantapur, India Yunying Fang
NSW Department of Primary Industries
Mohamed Badraoui Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute
Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique Menangle, New South Wales, Australia
Rabat, Morocco
V. V. Gabhane
Andre Bationo Department of Soil Science and Agricultural
International Fertilizer Development Center Chemistry
(IFDC) North & West Africa Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukj Krishi Vidyapeeth
Accra, Ghana Akola, India
xi
xii Contributors
Himanshu Pathak
Narendra Kumar Lenka
National Rice Research Institute
Indian Institute of Soil Science
Indian Council of Agricultural Research
Indian Council of Agricultural Research
Cuttack, India
Bhopal, India
Karnena Koteswara Rao
Sangeeta Lenka
ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region
Indian Institute of Soil Science
Patna, India
Indian Council of Agricultural Research
Bhopal, India Amit Roy
International Fertilizer Development Center
François Lompo (IFDC)
International Fertilizer Development Center Muscle Shoals, Alabama
(IFDC) and
Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso Sasakawa Africa Association
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Vivian Mau
Department of Environmental Hydrology and Kazuki Saito
Microbiology Africa Rice Center (AfricaRice)
Zuckerberg Institute for Water Research Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire
Jacob Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research
Ben Gurion University of the Negev Pallab K. Sarma
Beersheba, Israel Department of Soil Science
All India Coordinated Research Project for
Promil Mehra Dryland Agriculture
NSW Department of Primary Industries Assam Agricultural University
Elizabeth Macarthur Agricultural Institute Biswanath Chariali, India
Menangle, New South Wales, Australia
Ayyappa Sathish
Surajit Mondal Department of Soil Science
ICAR Research Complex for Eastern University Agricultural Sciences
Region GKVK
Patna, India Bengaluru, India
Contributors xiii
CONTENTS
1.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Global Fertilizer Use..................................................................................................... 1
1.1.2 The Soil-Water-Air-Quality Nexus................................................................................2
1.1.3 Objectives and Expected Output................................................................................... 3
1.2 Global Food Demand................................................................................................................. 4
1.2.1 Trends in Food Grain Production.................................................................................. 4
1.3 Fertilizer Use and Crop Response............................................................................................. 5
1.3.1 Adverse Impacts on Soil, Water, and Air......................................................................5
1.3.2 Soil Biodiversity and Enzymes...................................................................................... 5
1.3.3 Effects on Soil Enzyme................................................................................................. 6
1.3.4 Soil Physical Properties................................................................................................. 6
1.3.5 Soil Organic Carbon Concentration..............................................................................6
1.3.6 Productivity Effects of Organic versus Inorganic Fertilizers........................................7
1.4 Holistic Management to Reduce the Input of Chemical Fertilizers.......................................... 7
References........................................................................................................................................... 8
1.1 INTRODUCTION
1.1.1 Global Fertilizer Use
Global fertilizer supply has increased drastically since 1960. The present global fertilizer supply
(N + P2O5 + K2O, 106 Mg) for 2015–2020 (Table 1.1) indicates an increasing trend of 1.46%/yr
over the six-year period. However, the rate of increase in global fertilizer consumption was
5.5%/yr between 1960 and 1990 and 2.9%/yr between 1990 and 2020. Among all fertilizers, the
annual rate of growth of N was 7.1% between 1960 and 1990, compared with 4.4% between 1990
and 2020 (Table 1.2). The annual rate of fertilizer growth between 1990 and 2020 has been espe-
cially high for Asia (i.e., China and India) but has lagged behind in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA).
Thus, the agronomic yield of crops in SSA has also stagnated, and the small rate of growth in
some regions is much lower than its technical potential (Lal 2017). While the growth rate and
the total global consumption of fertilizers have increased, the use efficiency of fertilizer has
remained low, especially that of the nitrogenous (N) fertilizer. In developing countries and also
in emerging economies (i.e., India and China), the use efficiency of N fertilizers can be as low
as 30%. Therefore, a large proportion of the reactive N is leaked into the environment (water and
air) with dire consequences.
1
2 Soil and Fertilizers
TABLE 1.1
Total Global Grain Production from 2008–2009 to 2018–2019
Year World Population (Billions) Total Grain Production (Million Tons) Per Capita Grain Production (Kg)
2008/09 6.789 2241.6 330
2009/10 6.872 2241.5 332
2010/11 6.957 2200.4 316
2011/12 7.041 2314.4 328
2012/13 7.126 2266.2 318
2013/14 7.211 2474.7 367
2014/15 7.295 2532.0 347
2015/16 7.380 2058.0 278
2016/17 7.464 2186.0 292
2017/18 7.547 2142.0 283
2018/19 7.631 2120.0 277
2019/20 7.713
2020/21 7.795
TABLE 1.2
World’s Fertilizer Use from 1960 to 2020
Fertilizer Use (106 Mg/yr) Annual Growth (%)
Fertilizer 1959/60 1989/90 2018 2020 1960–1990 1990–2020
Nitrogen 9.5 79.2 169.0 170.8 7.1 4.4
Phosphorus 9.7 37.5 51.2 53.1 4.5 1.1
Potash 8.1 26.9 47.2 49.5 4.0 1.2
Total 27.4 143.6 267.4 273.4 5.5 2.9
Source: Adapted and recalculated from Bumb and Baanante (1996, Columns 2, 3, and 6) and FAO (2017b, Columns 4, 5,
and 6).
1.1.2 The Soil-Water-Air-Quality Nexus
The low use efficiency of fertilizer has strong adverse impacts on environmental quality. There exists
a strong interconnectivity between soil, water, and air (Figure 1.1). Thus, decline in the quality of
one leads to decline in the quality of the other two. Soil degradation, both due to natural and anthro-
pogenic factors, is a serious global issue. It implies a decline in quality and functionality with the
attendant weakening of essential ecosystem services or even creation of some disservices, and is
a global issue of the twenty-first century with severe ramifications. Already 23% of ice-free land
is prone to degradation (Bai et al. 2008). Among principal types of degradation (Figure 1.2), soil
physical degradation (i.e., decline in soil structure and accelerated soil erosion by water and wind)
are among the ramifications of the Anthropocene (Crutzen and Steffen 2003). Soil erosion by water
is causing global transport of sediments at the rate of 36 Gt per year (Walling 2008). Heavy sedi-
ment load has strong implications for water quality (e.g., nonpoint source pollution and algal bloom)
and air quality (emission of greenhouse gases, especially those of CH4 and N2O, the particulate
matter), and is associated with the increase in the frequency and intensity of dust storms caused
by acceleration of the wind erosion. Soil degradation, and the attendant decline in provisioning of
Effects of Fertilizers on Soil Quality and Functionality 3
FIGURE 1.2 The cascading effects of soil degradation on the deterioration of water, air, and plants, biodi-
versity, environment, and human well-being.
ecosystem services and even generation of some severe disservices, also adversely impacts the use
efficiency of fertilizers and uptake of nutrients and water by plant roots. Thus, reducing the risks of
soil degradation and restoring degraded soils and desertified lands are high priorities. Soil degrada-
tion exacerbates contamination/eutrophication of water and pollution of air, because of the strong
interconnectivity among them that leads to the cascading effect (Figures 1.1 and 1.2). Indeed, the
quality of soil also determines those of water and air, and vice versa. Furthermore, quality of all
three is a strong determinant of the fertilizer use efficiency, and of the use efficiency of nutrients
applied and inherent in the soil.
degradation (Figure 1.3); (2) an increase in soil organic carbon (SOC) concentration in strongly and
severely depleted soils (SOC concentration < 1 g/kg in 0–20 cm depth) would increase fertilizer and
nutrient use efficiency; (3) integrated nutrient management (INM), that is, judicious combination of
organic amendments and chemical fertilizers, is the best strategy to sustain productivity and reduce
the environmental footprint of agroecosystems; and (4) carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur (CNPK)
is a better recommendation for plant nutrients and soil fertility management than that of nitrogen,
phosphorus, sulfur (NPK).
associated with an increase in risks of soil degradation. Indeed, the decline in per capita food grain
production since 2013 may be an indication of the widening of the gap between population and food
grain production because of soil degradation. Further, the number of hungry people in the world has
also increased since 2014, and has increased to 821 million by 2017 (FAO et al. 2017). In addition
to malnutrition, the incidence of undernourishment (~2 billion people) is also on the rise. While the
rate of fertilizer input may be increasing, especially that of N, the rate of food grain production is
either stagnant or declining. Thus, an input of chemical fertilizers alone is not adequate to meet the
demands of the ever-increasing world population for food and other victuals.
agriculture diminished soil microbial biodiversity. In a pot culture study, Hassan et al. (2013) showed
that sunflowers grown in manure-amended treatments had a distinct arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungal
community structure with an abundance of Rhizophagus intraradices (B2). Beauregard et al. (2013)
observed that different organic or mineral sources of P had less effect on the AM fungal communi-
ties because these are temporally stable. A study in the Mediterranean arable system indicated that the
mites/collembolans ratio was higher in conventionally managed soil than in organically managed soil,
probably because of rapid tillage performed in organic fields. Nelson and Spaner (2010) observed that
management systems characterized by reduced tillage, diverse crop rotations and intercrops, and a low
rate of input of chemical fertilizers and pesticides contained a large and diverse soil microbial community
with mycorrhizal fungi. Van Eekeren et al. (2009) reported that available N in soil (NO3, NH4+) strongly
impacts the population of nematodes and microorganisms. A lower concentration of N in soil from inor-
ganic fertilizers was associated with a higher root mass and higher population of herbivorous nematodes.
In contrast, higher concentrations of N from organic fertilizers increased bacterial activity and bacte-
rivorous nematodes. Further, the number of earthworm burrows was higher in treatments with organic
fertilizers. Van Eekeren et al. (2009) concluded that organic fertilizers enhance the ecosystem service of
water regulation more than inorganic fertilizers. Indiscriminate use of fertilizers and pesticides reduces
the population of invertebrates and vertebrate groups (McLaughlin and Mineau 1995).
chemical fertilizers and sustained productivity. On the basis of long-term soil fertility experiments
in Gongzhuling Northeast China Plain, Li et al. (2017) concluded that NPK fertilizers could be at
least partially replaced by manure to sustain high yield and enhance the SOC stock to the threshold
level of 42 MgC/ha.
Therefore, it is possible to reconcile the need for advancing food and nutritional security with
the absolute necessity of improving the environment by a strategic planning of combining the use
of manure and organic amendments with the supplemental use of chemical fertilizers. Integrated
nutrient management is the best option.
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2 Treatment of Wet Organic
Waste by Hydrothermal
Carbonization
Vivian Mau and Amit Gross
CONTENTS
2.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 11
2.2 Hydrothermal Carbonization Process..................................................................................... 12
2.2.1 Subcritical Water......................................................................................................... 13
2.2.2 Reaction Mechanisms.................................................................................................. 13
2.2.3 Influence of HTC Conditions...................................................................................... 15
2.2.3.1 Feedstock...................................................................................................... 15
2.2.3.2 Temperature.................................................................................................. 15
2.2.3.3 Reaction Time............................................................................................... 16
2.2.3.4 Solid Load..................................................................................................... 16
2.2.3.5 Process Water................................................................................................ 17
2.2.4 Typical Characteristics of Generated Products........................................................... 17
2.3 Environmental Uses of HTC Products.................................................................................... 19
2.3.1 Aqueous Phase Uses.................................................................................................... 19
2.3.2 Hydrochar as an Adsorbent Material...........................................................................20
2.3.3 Hydrochar as a Soil Amendment.................................................................................20
2.4 Conclusion............................................................................................................................... 23
References......................................................................................................................................... 23
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Wet organic waste, including animal manures, sewage and activated sludge, and the organic
portion of municipal solid waste, represents both a burden that must be dealt with as well as a
material source for fertilizer and compost. Depending on how these wastes are treated, their
properties and behavior when applied to soils can vary significantly. The high water-fraction
present in wet organic waste is commonly a disadvantage in various treatment techniques such
as composting and pyrolysis, requiring drying or the addition of dry matter. Similarly, a low
C:N of some of these sources (e.g., poultry manure and domestic sludge) may be challenging for
commonly used biological treatments. Hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) is a technology that,
as suggested by its name, involves the presence of large water fractions; thus it is ideally suitable
for the treatment of wet organic waste. This chapter will introduce the HTC process, providing
an overview of the main chemical conditions and reactions involved in the conversion of wet
organic waste. Then, the various applications of the generated products will be discussed, with
a particular focus on the addition to soils.
11
12 Soil and Fertilizers
TABLE 2.1
General Comparison of Formation Process and Properties of Hydrochar and Biochar
Hydrochar Biochar References
Formation process Hydrothermal carbonization Slow pyrolysis Kambo and Dutta (2015)
Surrounding medium Water Gases Libra et al. (2011)
Production temperature (°C) 180–260 300–650 Kambo and Dutta (2015)
Production pressure Autogenous Atmospheric Libra et al. (2011)
Production time 5 min–12 h 5 min–12 h Kambo and Dutta (2015)
Production heating rate (°C/min) 10–30 5–10 Kambo and Dutta (2015)
Char yield (%) 50–80 35 Libra et al. (2011)
pH Acidic Basic Wiedner et al. (2013)
Electric conductivity Lower Higher Liu et al. (2017)
Organic composition Alkyls Aromatics Wiedner et al. (2013)
Ash content Lower than feedstock Higher than feedstock Kambo and Dutta (2015)
H:C ratio Higher Lower Kambo and Dutta (2015)
N concentration Higher Lower Wiedner et al. (2013)
Thermal stability Lower Higher Gascó et al. (2018)
Surface area Lower Higher Kambo and Dutta (2015)
Porosity Lower Higher Kambo and Dutta (2015)
Mean pore size Higher Lower Liu et al. (2017)
Treatment of Wet Organic Waste by Hydrothermal Carbonization 13
2.2.1 Subcritical Water
Hydrothermal carbonization is possible due to the presence of subcritical water, liquid water below
the critical point of 374°C and 22 MPa (217 atm.). Subcritical water is considerably different from
ambient water, facilitating many processes necessary for the transformation of organic matter.
The structure of water near the critical point is altered due to the loss of the tetrahedral coor-
dination of water molecules present in ambient conditions (Akiya and Savage 2002). The infinite
network of hydrogen bonds observed in ambient liquid water is disrupted by a decrease in hydro-
gen bonding between the molecules. As a result, water molecules are present in small clusters
approaching gas structure, allowing more translational and rotational motions, thus increas-
ing the self-diffusivity of water (Akiya and Savage 2002). With increasing temperature water
density decreases, and consequently, the relative static dielectric constant decreases as well.
These changes transform water into fairly nonpolar molecules, increasing its affinity for organic
hydrocarbons (Kruse and Dahmen 2015). The dissociation constant of water increases up to 4
orders of magnitude with increasing temperature (Figure 2.2, from Peterson et al. 2008). High
dissociation constant at the hydrothermal carbonization temperature range increases the ioniza-
tion of water and facilitates more acid–base-catalyzed reactions (Shah 2014). As a result of these
changes, water becomes a good solvent for typically nonpolar and hydrophobic hydrocarbons.
Subcritical water acts as a reactant and a catalyst, with the ability to carry out condensation,
cleavage, complete oxidation and decomposition of organic materials, various chemical synthe-
ses, and to affect selective ionic chemistry, which are more compatible with organic reactions
(Shah 2014).
2.2.2 Reaction Mechanisms
Organic matter is converted into hydrochar through two main pathways: (1) solid–solid conversion,
in which the structural elements and morphology of the feedstock are present in the hydrochar; (2)
aqueous phase degradation of the organic matter followed by polymerization and precipitation into
a solid phase (Lucian et al. 2018). Figure 2.3 summarizes the chemical reaction pathways involved
in the HTC process.
Hydrolysis, the cleavage of a chemical bond by the addition of a water molecule, is the initial
reaction for both pathways in hydrochar formation (Kruse et al. 2013). Hydrolysis reactions during
the HTC process mainly break down ether and ester bonds, resulting in a wide range of products that
include saccharides of cellulose and phenolic fragments of lignin (Kruse et al. 2013). The hydro-
lysis temperature varies depending on the component: hemicellulose is hydrolyzed around 180°C,
14 Soil and Fertilizers
FIGURE 2.2 Changes in water properties as a function of temperature at 30 MPa. (From Peterson, A.A.,
et al., Energy Environ. Sci., 1, 32–65, 2008.)
FIGURE 2.3 Principal chemical reactions pathways in hydrothermal carbonization. (Adapted from He, C.
et al., Appl. Energy, 111, 257–266, 2013; Kruse, A., et al., Curr. Opin. Chem. Biol., 17, 515–21, 2013.)
Treatment of Wet Organic Waste by Hydrothermal Carbonization 15
cellulose around 200°C (Funke and Ziegler 2010), and lignin around 250°C (Kim et al. 2016).
The rate of biomass hydrolysis is primarily determined by diffusion and thus limited by transport
phenomena within the biomass matrix (Funke and Ziegler 2010).
HTC is governed in sum by dehydration and decarboxylation reactions. Dehydration is the
chemical removal of water molecules from the biomass components. It significantly carbonizes bio-
mass by lowering the H:C and O:C ratios, through the removal of hydroxyl groups (R-OH) (Funke
and Ziegler 2010). Decarboxylation is the chemical removal of carboxyl groups (R-COOH) from
organic matter and release of carbon dioxide. Decarboxylation reactions are attractive in the conver-
sion process of biomass to hydrochar because they decrease the oxygen content of the feedstock,
while increasing the H:C ratio, which typically leads to higher-quality fuels (Peterson et al. 2008).
Carboxyl groups rapidly degrade above 150°C (Funke and Ziegler 2010). Cellulose starts decom-
posing by dehydration, and decarboxylation only appears after a specific amount of water is formed
(Funke and Ziegler 2010). The rate of dehydration appears to be much higher than decarboxylation
during HTC (Funke and Ziegler 2010); however, some studies have shown the opposite trend (Berge
et al. 2011; Mumme et al. 2011; Spitzer et al. 2018).
Other reactions present during the process are polymerization, aromatization, Maillard reaction,
transformation reactions, demethylation, pyrolytic reactions, and Fischer–Tropsch-type reactions
(Funke and Ziegler 2010).
2.2.3.1 Feedstock
The feedstock type used in HTC is an important aspect of the overall process. Several feedstock
types have been investigated in recent HTC studies, such as agricultural wastes (Benavente et al.
2015; Hoekman et al. 2011; Liu et al. 2013; Reza et al. 2013), sewage sludge (Danso-Boateng
et al. 2015; He et al. 2013; Zhao et al. 2014), municipal solid waste (Berge et al. 2011; Lu et al.
2012), algal residues (Broch et al. 2014; Levine et al. 2013), wet animal manures (Ekpo et al.
2016; Heilmann et al. 2014; Oliveira et al. 2013), as well as simpler feedstock that consist of
single compounds such as glucose, cellulose, starch, xylose, and lignin (Falco et al. 2011; Lu and
Berge 2014; Peterson et al. 2008).
Feedstock compositions and structure play a significant role during solids generation. The type
and complexity of feedstock influences HTC kinetics due to the different reaction mechanisms
previously discussed. The amount of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, sugars, and proteins present
in the feedstock will highly influence the HTC process as these compounds hydrolyze at different
temperatures. In general, feedstocks that are soluble in water at room temperature have an increase
in solids generated with time, as the carbon moves from the liquid to solid phase, while those that
are insoluble in water at room temperature have a decrease in solids (Lu and Berge 2014). Moreover,
as feedstock carbon content increases, hydrochar yield (recovered solid mass of the initial feedstock
mass) and carbon content increase as well (Lu and Berge 2014).
2.2.3.2 Temperature
Temperature is considered as the HTC process condition that influences most of the process as
well as the composition of the final products. As discussed previously, different organic matter
components hydrolyze at different temperatures; therefore, temperature is an important param-
eter controlling hydrothermal carbonization. Generally, an increase in temperature decreases the
16 Soil and Fertilizers
hydrochar yield and increases the yield of the aqueous phase and gases such as CO2, CO, and H2.
An increase in temperature also decreases the H:C and O:C ratios in the hydrochar (Funke and
Ziegler 2010), although it has a greater influence on the O:C than that on the H:C ratio (Lu et al.
2013). As temperature increases, the rate of the initial solids disappearance increases due to the
intensification of the reactions involved, and also probably due to dilution of aqueous extractives
present in the solids (Benavente et al. 2015). The rate and/or extent of initial feedstock solubilization
is dependent on the heating rate of the reactor, and thus on the final temperature (Lu et al. 2013).
In general, higher temperatures accelerate hydrothermal carbonization, but also result in higher
energy consumption and higher pressure, which increases investment costs for pressure equipment
(Funke and Ziegler 2010).
SF = 50 × t 0.2 × e T (2.1)
where t is the reaction time in seconds, and T is the temperature in K. The second was developed
based on observations from the Kraft pulping process and steaming process used in the pulp and
paper industry (Overend et al. 1987). It also has a linear dependence on time, and an exponential
dependence on temperature of the first-order rate:
T −100
SF = log Ro = log t × e 14.75 (2.2)
where t is the reaction time in min, and T is the temperature in °C. The fitted value of 14.75 was
shown to be inversely proportional to the activation energy of hemicellulose hydrolysis (Posmanik
et al. 2017). In both models the severity factor implies that the same reaction can be achieved by
using different combinations of temperature and time.
(Funke and Ziegler 2010). It has been shown that hydrochar yield and carbon concentration are
positively impacted by solid load (Heilmann et al. 2014). However, at high solid loads, such as
solid-to-water ratios of 1:5 and 1:3, the effect on hydrochar as well as aqueous and gaseous phases
composition is no longer significant (Mau et al. 2016).
FIGURE 2.4 Van Krevelen diagram of (a) hydrochars derived from various feedstocks generated at 180°C
after 12 hours. (After Ramke, H-G. et al., Hydrothermal Carbonization of Organic Waste, In Sardinia 2009:
Twelfth International Waste Management and Landfill Symposium, Sardinia, Italy, 05–09 October 2009,
edited by R. Cossu, L.F. Diaz, and R. Stegmann, CISA Publisher, Cagliari, Italy, 139–148, 2009.) (b) Cow
manure hydrochar generated at temperatures of 180°C, 220°C, and 260°C after 5 and 30 min. (After Reza,
M.T. et al., Environ Prog Sustain Energy, 35, 1002–1011, 2016.)
Treatment of Wet Organic Waste by Hydrothermal Carbonization 19
for hydrochar derived from maize silage at 230°C for 10 hours (Mumme et al. 2011). Typically,
hydrochar has a calorific value of around 25 MJ/kg (Kambo and Dutta 2015), comparable to sub-
bituminous coal, which is used for electricity production (Mau et al. 2016).
The aqueous phase has high concentrations of organics and inorganics, many of which are
potentially valuable chemicals, and unless recovered become a major loss in the overall process
(Funke and Ziegler 2010). The total organic carbon present in the aqueous phase is of polar
and aromatic nature, and a major portion is of higher molecular weight (Stemann et al. 2013).
Aldehydes, alkenes, and furanic and phenolic compounds are present in the aqueous phase as
products from the decomposition of the biomass and intermediates. Acetic acid is present as a
product of decomposition of hydrolysis products (Berge et al. 2011), and has been found to be the
most prominent organic acid in the aqueous phase (Levine et al. 2013). Benzene, butanoic acid,
pentanoic acid, propanoic acid, and Maillard products such as aldehydes, pyrroles, pyrazines,
and pyridines have been identified in the aqueous phase (Danso-Boateng et al. 2015). These com-
pounds are not detected in the untreated feedstock, confirming they arise as a result of feedstock
carbonization (Danso-Boateng et al. 2015). The aqueous phase is also rich in several nutrients
such as N, P, K, Na, Ca, Mg, and S, with concentrations varying depending on the original feed-
stock (Spitzer et al. 2018; Mau et al. 2016).
The gaseous phase formed during hydrothermal carbonization mainly consists of CO2 with
minor fractions of CO, CH4, and H2, and traces of CmHn (Funke and Ziegler 2010). The gas com-
position does not vary significantly with the carbonization of different feedstock (Berge et al. 2011).
Trace gases present in the gas phase include ethylene, ethane, propene, propane, butane, and furan
(Lu et al. 2013). Other gases of environmental concern that have been identified are hydrogen sul-
fide, probably a product of Maillard reactions; nitrogen oxides, from oxidation of nitrogenous com-
pounds in the feedstock; nitric oxide; and ammonia (Danso-Boateng et al. 2015).
was found that HTC aqueous phase can inhibit seed germination (Bargmann et al. 2013; Fregolente
et al. 2018; Novianti et al. 2016). However, if employed during the plant growth phase, the aqueous
phase can result in plant growth similar to that achieved with fertilizers (Vozhdayev et al. 2015; Mau
et al. 2019). The long-term effect on soils of using the aqueous phase as a fertilizer has not been
considered.
(a) (b)
(c) (d)
(e) (f )
(g) (h)
FIGURE 2.5 Scanning electron microscope images of dried sewage sludge at (a) 10 µm and (c) 2 µm;
sewage sludge derived hydrochar at (b) 10 µm and (d) 2 µm; maize silage–derived hydrochar at (e) 1 mm
and (g) 20 µm; maize silage–derived biochar at (f) 1 mm and (h) 20 µm. (Adapted from Gai, C., et al., Int. J.
Hydrog. Energy, 41, 3363–3372, 2016; Abel, S., et al., Geoderma, 202–203, 183–191, 2013.)
size in increasing the soil’s porosity became evident when application rates as high as 15% (w/w)
were used (Kalderis et al. 2018). The pore structures of original feedstock, generated hydrochar, and
generated biochar can be seen in Figure 2.5.
Hydrochar was shown to increase the available water capacity in sand and loamy sand soils
(Abel et al. 2013). This observed increase is because the addition of hydrochar changes the pore
distribution of the soil. It creates a secondary pore maximum in the range where water is held by
capillary and adsorptive forces but is still available to plants (Abel et al. 2013). In other words,
it increases the moisture content between field capacity and wilting point. The increase in avail-
able water capacity may also be due to increased aggregate stability (Eibisch et al. 2015). Based
on these results, hydrochar was concluded to possibly be a good soil amendment, increasing
plant available soil water especially for coarse-grained soils with low organic matter content
(Abel et al. 2013).
22 Soil and Fertilizers
Hydrochar is a highly hydrophobic material (Mau et al. 2018), and so it decreases the soil’s wet-
tability (Eibisch et al. 2015). The hydrochar’s wettability was found to be more dependent on the
specific surface area than the functional surface groups (Eibisch et al. 2015). Despite the significant
effects on soil wettability, hydrochar addition was not found to impact soil properties (application
rate of 2% w/w to loamy sand soil) such as saturation value, available water capacity, and hydraulic
conductivity (Eibisch et al. 2015).
Hydrochar also affects soil microorganisms. Reports suggest both positive and negative
impacts. This is not surprising as feedstock and production conditions impact the quality of the
hydrochar and consequently its effect on soils. Soil type and its properties, as well as microor-
ganisms present and their activity, also influence the hydrochar amendment effects (Reza et al.
2014). For example, hydrochar at high concentrations (20% v/v) was shown to stimulate root colo-
nization and spore germination by arbuscular mycorrhizal symbiosis, which is known to enhance
plant growth (Rillig et al. 2010). Additionally, microbial activity is stimulated by the addition
of hydrochar, which has high available carbon content; however, it leads to N-immobilization,
which reduces the N available to plants. It has been shown that N-immobilization depends on the
hydrochar feedstock, and is diminished for hydrochar with low C/N ratio (16 versus 38) (Gajić
and Koch 2012).
Significant research has been conducted on the effect of hydrochar on plants, focusing on the ger-
mination stage. These experiments demonstrated that hydrochar inhibits or delays seed germination
(Busch et al. 2012, 2013; Bargmann et al. 2013, 2014). However, application rates much higher than
what is practical for field application were investigated (Bargmann et al. 2013, 2014). When con-
sidering application rates suitable for agriculture, the negative effects observed in these studies will
likely not be present. The inhibitory effects can be minimized by post-treatment such as composting.
It was shown that hydrochar composting prior to field application removed germination inhibitory
effects, and even increased plant weight at application rates as high as 30 ton/ha (Busch et al. 2013).
Another proposed method to avoid inhibitory effects is to apply hydrochar several weeks prior to
sowing such that microbial degradation in the soil can remove the undesirable effects (Bargmann
et al. 2014).
The effect on plant growth is less clear, with both positive and negative results reported.
Significant improvement in lettuce growth were obtained upon addition of poultry litter–derived
hydrochar to sandy soils at 0.5% and 1% (w/w) rates (Figure 2.6). Hydrochar derived from sew-
age sludge applied at rates of up to 32 ton/ha did not impact plant weight at the end of the first
crop harvest. At the end of the second crop harvest there was a significant increase in plant
weight, indicating hydrochar acted as a slow-release fertilizer (Melo et al. 2018). Similarly, no
effects on plant growth were observed when applying beet root–derived hydrochar to Albic
luvisol. However, when the hydrochar application rate was increased to 10% (v/v) or higher, it
resulted in decreased plant growth (Rillig et al. 2010). George et al. (2012) did not detect any
significant effect on plant weight when adding hydrochar at concentrations of up to 10% (v/v);
however, significant leaf tip necroses was apparent, indicating that the hydrochar did have a
negative effect on the plant health.
FIGURE 2.6 Lettuce after 40 days of growth on sand mixed with poultry litter–derived hydrochar (200°C
after 1 hour) at 0.5% and 1% (w/w). (Courtesy of Vivian Mau.)
Treatment of Wet Organic Waste by Hydrothermal Carbonization 23
2.4 CONCLUSION
In this chapter, we presented an overview of the HTC process and its main environmental appli-
cations. The intersection of HTC and soil science has still not received the adequate attention it
warrants. This becomes even more apparent when considering the amount of information available
on the use of biochar in soils. This is a research area that we expect will see significant growth in
the future, with several research opportunities available.
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26 Soil and Fertilizers
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3 Crop Residue Management
for Improving Soil Carbon
Storage, Nutrient Availability,
and Fertilizer Use Efficiency
Bhupinder Pal Singh, Bijay-Singh, Sarah R. Noack, Yunying
Fang, Promil Mehra, Kathryn Page, and Yash P. Dang
CONTENTS
3.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 30
3.2 Crop Residue Management Strategies: Agronomic Implications............................................ 31
3.2.1 Soil and Moisture Conservation.................................................................................. 31
3.2.2 Agricultural Operations............................................................................................... 33
3.2.3 Nutrient Management.................................................................................................. 33
3.3 Crop Residue Management and Soil Carbon Dynamics.........................................................34
3.3.1 Crop Residue Management, Tillage Systems and Soil Carbon Storage......................34
3.3.2 Integrated Crop Residue and Fertilizer Management for Soil Carbon Storage.......... 35
3.3.2.1 Priming Effect on Native Soil Organic Matter under Integrated
Nutrient and Residue Management�������������������������������������������������������������� 35
3.3.2.2 Impact of Fertilizer Nutrient Inputs on Microbial Use Efficiency
and Formation of Soil Organic Matter�������������������������������������������������������� 36
3.3.3 Other Factors Impacting Soil Carbon Dynamics in Agricultural Systems................. 36
3.3.3.1 Crop Residue Quality.................................................................................... 37
3.3.3.2 Soil Type and Climate.................................................................................. 37
3.4 Crop Residue Management and Soil Nitrogen Dynamics....................................................... 37
3.4.1 Nitrogen Mineralization–Immobilization Turnover in Crop Residue Amended
Soils���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 38
3.4.2 Plant Availability of Nitrogen in Soil as Influenced by Crop Residue Management........40
3.4.2.1 Crop Residue Management and N Nutrition of Crops Grown under
Aerobic (Upland) Soil Conditions���������������������������������������������������������������40
3.4.2.2 Crop Residue Management and N Nutrition of Rice Grown under
Anaerobic (Lowland) Soil Conditions��������������������������������������������������������� 41
3.4.2.3 Placement of Crop Residues in the Soil and N Availability to Crops.......... 41
3.4.2.4 Losses of Inorganic Nitrogen from the Soil-Plant System Amended
with Crop Residues�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 42
3.4.3 Fertilizer Nitrogen Management under Different Tillage and Crop Residue
Management Scenarios����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 42
3.4.3.1 Changes in Fertilizer N Requirements with Residue Management.............. 42
3.4.3.2 Timing of Fertilizer N Application to Crops Grown in Residue
Amended Soils.............................................................................................. 43
3.4.3.3 Fertilizer N Placement Effects in Crops Grown under Conservation
Tillage Systems�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 43
29
30 Soil and Fertilizers
3.1 INTRODUCTION
Soil fertility is fundamental to crop production and depends in part on soil and crop management
strategies that improve soil organic carbon (SOC) and enhance the supply of nutrients to crops
(Lal 1995; Kumar and Goh 1999; Chen et al. 2014a). Poor soil fertility is a major constraint to crop
productivity. Hence, investment in practices that improve and conserve soil resources, such as soil
organic matter (SOM), is likely to provide a large economic return to farmers with minimal impact
on the environment (Lal 1995; Lal et al. 2004). The appropriate management of crop residues is an
example of one practice that can help maintain soil quality and provide carbon (C) and nutrients
in soils. In this chapter, crop residue is defined as any aboveground plant biomass that is generated
after crop harvesting in agricultural fields.
Globally, total crop residue production (in 2013) was estimated at ~5 billion tons per year,
of which 3.6 billion tons was from cereals, 0.6 billion tons from sugar crops, 0.4 billion tons
from legumes, 0.3 billion tons from oil crops, and 0.1 billion tons from tubers (Cherubin et al.
2018). Almost all crop residues serve as sources of major nutrients (such as nitrogen [N], phos-
phorus [P], sulfur [S], and potassium [K]) for subsequent crops over the short and long term; the
range of nutrient concentrations reported for a selection of major crops is provided in Table 3.1.
Many of these nutrients (N, P, and S) are released in plant-available forms during biological
decomposition (a process known as “mineralization”), or in the case of K, via leaching. Some
soil-mineral-bound nutrients such as P (and S to a lesser extent) may also be released in plant-
available forms via dissolution and desorption reactions of decomposing crop residues with
soil minerals (Guppy et al. 2005; Keiluweit et al. 2015; Sarker et al. 2018b, 2019). Nevertheless,
nutrient immobilization via microbial utilization or clay fixation/metal complexation may also
occur simultaneously (Singh et al. 2006; Noack et al. 2014b; Sarker et al. 2018b, 2019). In addi-
tion, some studies have reported that the input of crop residues in soil can enhance the decompo-
sition of native SOM (“positive priming”) (Guenet et al. 2010; Qiu et al. 2016; Fang et al. 2018a;
Lenka et al. 2019), and has the potential to enhance the quantity of plant-available nutrients from
SOM reserves (Sarker et al. 2018b, 2019).
Overall, the net release of available nutrients from crop residues will be dependent on the balance
between nutrient mineralization‒immobilization and sorption‒desorption processes in a particular
soil. Consequently, it is challenging to estimate the quantity of nutrients that will become available
during the growing season due to these complex biochemical processes. Moreover, there is limited
information on the levels of residue- and SOM-derived C mineralization and nutrient release in
plant-available forms. This requires much attention to guide predictions of soil C storage, nutrient
Crop Residue Management for Improving Soil Carbon Storage 31
TABLE 3.1
Nutrient Content (g kg−1) in Dry Mass of Different Crop Residues
N P K S
Crop Residue (g kg )
−1 References
Wheat 3.0–9.6 0.3–1.8 4.0–19.2 0.3–0.9 van Duivenbooden et al. (1996), Schomberg and Steiner
(1999), Mertens et al. (2002), Reddy et al. (2002),
Singh and Rengel (2007), Sarker et al. (2018b)
Maize 3.7–11.0 0.3–1.5 6.8–18.8 0.40–0.90 van Duivenbooden et al. (1996), Schomberg and Steiner
(1999), Sahrawat et al. (2008), Cherubin et al. (2018)
Rice 4.4–8.2 0.5–1.9 11.8–27.0 0.5–1.0 van Duivenbooden et al. (1996), Dobermann and
Fairhurst (2002)
Sorghum 2.2–12.2 0.3–1.5 5.7–20.0 0.49–0.92 van Duivenbooden et al. (1996), Schomberg and
Steiner (1999), Sahrawat et al. (2008)
Sugarcane 4.4–12.3 0.8–1.3 3.1–17.2 0.7–4.0 Cherubin et al. (2018)
Canola 3.4–9.1 2.1 13.8 1.4–2.0 Lupwayi et al. (2006), Singh et al. (2006), Sarker
et al. (2018b)
Lupin 7.8–10.5 0.3–0.5 9.3–15.6 2.5–2.8 Schultz and French (1978), Singh and Rengel (2007)
supply, and nutrient use efficiency under different crop production systems with variations in the
type of tillage, residue, and soil.
This chapter provides a summary of the pros and cons (relating to soil quality and crop yield) asso-
ciated with key crop residue management strategies under different tillage systems. In addition, the
importance of integrated fertilizer management, and how residue management strategies influence soil
C and plant-available nutrient dynamics, is discussed. A better understanding of the components of
residue management is important for improving soil fertility, meeting crop nutrient demands, enhanc-
ing agricultural sustainability, and minimizing nutrient losses (e.g., via leaching or soil erosion).
FIGURE 3.1 The radar chart illustrates the impact of different types of tillage on different soil functions
and agronomic aspects. These impacts are scored as following: 1 low, 2 medium, and 3 high. Three different
levels of tillage practices are conventional tillage, minimum/reduced tillage, and no-till. A conventional till-
age system involves the tillage having exhaustive soil disturbance, with or without removal of crop residue.
Minimum/reduced tillage is tillage with minimum disturbance and minimum to moderate removal of crop
residue. Finally, no-till indicates no tillage and no removal of crop residue. (Modified from Stavi, I. et al.,
Agron. Sustain. Dev., 36, 32, 2016.)
TABLE 3.2
Advantages and Disadvantages of Different Residue Management Strategies
Residue Management Advantages Disadvantages
Surface retention ↓ erosion ↓ ease of planting and crop establishment
↑ soil moisture ↓ nutrient availability due to stratification
↑ soil organic matter and nutrient reserves and/or immobilization
↑ soil physical and biological quality ↓ soil temperatures
↓ prevalence of some weed and disease species ↑ in some weed and disease species
↓ effectiveness of preemergence herbicides
Incorporation ↑ ease of seeding operations ↑ rates of organic matter decomposition
↑ speed of nutrient cycling and crop availability ↓ soil physical and biological quality
↓ nutrient stratification ↓ soil moisture
↓ prevalence of some weed and disease species ↑ erosion
↑ effectiveness of preemergence herbicides
Removal ↑ ease of seeding operations ↑ nutrient loss
↓ prevalence of some weed and disease species ↓ soil physical and biological quality
↑ effectiveness of preemergence herbicides ↓ soil moisture
↑ erosion
Crop Residue Management for Improving Soil Carbon Storage 33
3.2.2 Agricultural Operations
Retaining crop residues within the farming system has a number of implications for machinery
choice (e.g., harvester, seeder) and pest management (e.g., weeds, insects, disease). Retaining resi-
due at the surface adds many physical problems as it can interfere and cause blockages with sow-
ing machinery, whereas incorporation and removal are much more effective at clearing fields after
harvest to facilitate smooth planting and sowing operations (Lyon et al. 2004; Scott et al. 2010;
Avci 2011; Sahu et al. 2015). Particularly during sowing with no-till implements, high stubble
loads (unless pushed away from the seed row) can reduce seed emergence and plant establishment,
and thus subsequently affect the yield (Dean and Merry 2015). Studies like Scott et al. (2010) and
Carvalho et al. (2017) indicate that under a high stubble load scenario, residues may also decrease
the effectiveness of preemergence herbicides, as they become bound to the residues, which may
result in poor weed control.
The incidence of weeds, pests, and plant diseases can also be affected by residue management,
although impacts can vary depending on the environment favored by the weed/pest/disease in ques-
tion. For example, some weed species (Chenopodium album, Digitaria sanguinalis, Portulaca
oleracea L., Phalaris minor, etc.) can be suppressed by residue retention due to residues physically
impeding weed growth, inhibiting weed germination due to allelopathic effects, and increasing
weed seed predation (Scott et al. 2010; Chauhan et al. 2012; Ranaivoson et al. 2017). However, the
soil disturbance associated with residue incorporation/removal can also help to reduce other spe-
cies by physically disturbing the weed location and/or burying weed seeds deeper in the soil profile,
preventing further germination (Page et al. 2013b). Similarly, particular pests and diseases can
either be suppressed or encouraged by residue retention, depending on their required environmental
conditions.
Yadvinder-Singh et al. 2005; Sarker et al. 2019). In some instances, while there may be productivity
benefits to the current or subsequent crops, enhanced nutrient cycling may lead to losses via leach-
ing or gaseous pathways if plant growth is not synchronized with nutrient release (Mubarak et al.
2002). The soil disturbance created by crop residue incorporation also accelerates the breakdown
of native SOM (Balesdent et al. 2000; Christensen 2001), which can lead to overall declines in
SOM, as well as soil physical and biological quality (Chan et al. 2003; Page et al. 2013a). However,
where incorporation and soil mixing does not occur, the stratification of less mobile plant nutrients
(such as P and K) can occur at the soil surface, creating problems in drier regions when plants are
unable to extract nutrients from the surface soil at times of low soil moisture (Bockus and Shroyer
1998; Chan et al. 2003; Scott et al. 2010; Dang et al. 2015). The implications of crop residue and
fertilizer management for soil C and nutrient cycling and fertilizer use efficiency are discussed
further below.
In some agricultural systems, the practice of residue retention has been threatened by dif-
ficulties in controlling pests, and the nutrient stratification that often emerges due to an absence
of soil mixing (Dang et al. 2015). These concerns have prompted the use of strategic tillage (an
occasional onetime tillage event in a continuous no-till managed system) to help mitigate some
of the negative impacts of no-till systems. Although the adoption of strategic tillage is still in its
infancy, some recent studies have indicated that tillage can be occasionally introduced for pest
and weed control, without any long-term negative impacts on crop yield and soil quality (Dang
et al. 2018; Mehra et al. 2018a; Conyers et al. 2019). It should be noted that as conventional tillage
operations are known to enhance SOC loss, it is possible that the concept of introducing strategic
tillage could lead to overall declines in SOC (Stockfisch et al. 1999). However, there is currently
limited research to fully understand the effect of strategic tillage on SOC stocks in long-term
no-till systems.
Fertilizer addition can increase crop yield while also providing nutrients for building SOC
(Paustian et al. 1992). Recently, crop residue input in combination with an adequate supply of
nutrients (termed integrated nutrient management; see Fang et al. 2018a) has been suggested as a
strategy to meet crop demand, while promoting humification (stabilization) of residue-C into a sta-
ble fine fraction SOC (Kirkby et al. 2013). For example, Kirkby et al. (2014) reported an increase
of net humification of wheat straw by two- to eight-fold when inorganic-N, -P, and -S were added
along with wheat straw to four soils with different textures (sand, sandy loam, sandy clay loam,
and clay loam). Another field-based study (~5 years) showed that when supplementary nutrients
were applied together with incorporated wheat or canola residues to a sandy loam soil (10–15 cm),
SOC stocks to 1.6 m depth increased by 5.5 t C ha−1. Where no supplementary nutrients were
added, SOC stocks decreased by 3.2 t C ha−1 (Kirkby et al. 2016). Similarly, using a meta-analysis
based on 257 published studies, Lu et al. (2011) revealed that despite increased soil respiration,
fertilizer N application caused a 3.5% increase in SOC storage in croplands, possibly linked with
increased belowground biomass C inputs. It should be noted, however, that negative impacts of
long-term integrated crop residue and fertilizer N inputs on SOC stocks have also been reported.
For example, long-term field trials (up to 50 years) in North America have shown that crop residue
and N fertilizer inputs decreased SOC stocks, likely via increasing decomposition of residue and
SOM (Russell et al. 2005; Khan et al. 2007). Nevertheless, in a recent review, Bijay-Singh (2018)
concluded that fertilizer N, when applied as per the need of field crops in a balanced proportion
along with other nutrients (such as P and K) or organic manures, could increase SOC storage in
agricultural systems.
et al. 2014). Moreover, although exogenous nutrient supply (such as N, P, or S) may alleviate
the positive PE, nutrient supply in soils amended with a sufficient amount (20 g kg−1 soil) of
crop residues may accelerate mineralization of both residue-C and native SOM-C via increas-
ing growth of soil microbial communities (Fang et al. 2018a). This process may contribute to
a longer phase of positive PE, via supporting “microbial stoichiometry decomposition” (Fierer
et al. 2007; Blagodatskaya and Kuzyakov 2008; Fontaine et al. 2011; Ramirez et al. 2012; Chen
et al. 2014b).
In addition to tillage practices and integrated crop residue and fertilizer management, the formation
and storage of SOC in agricultural systems can also be influenced by other factors such as residue
quality, soil texture/mineralogy, and climate, as discussed below.
Crop Residue Management for Improving Soil Carbon Storage 37
FIGURE 3.2 Schematic diagram showing different pathways of nitrogen in crop residue amended soils.
A schematic diagram showing the flows of N within a cropping system is depicted in Figure 3.2.
Although it is evident that N is released from crop residues in both organic and inorganic forms,
most organic N is not available to plants directly. While a small portion of crop residue N may
be mineralized immediately after application, a larger portion will become immobilized in the
soil microbial pool, later to be mineralized or transformed into other SOM pools as microbial by-
products (Heijboer et al. 2016; Kopittke et al. 2018; Sarker et al. 2018b). This mineralized N may
be taken up by crop plants, recycled in the microbial biomass, or lost from the soil-plant system via
leaching, erosion, or in gaseous forms (Mary et al. 1996). A portion of the crop residue N may enter
the complex SOM pools (Jansson and Persson, 1982) or organomineral fractions (Lehmann and
Kleber 2015). According to Kindler et al. (2009), residue-derived N is introduced into SOM pools as
microbial residues after cell death. In fact, N in microbial residual products such as empty hyphae,
dead microbial cell residues and cell exudates (Müller et al. 1998; Nishio and Oka 2003; Shindo
and Nishio 2005) may end up in different organic N fractions, which are further assimilated by the
soil microbial biomass, resulting in additional mineralization (Myers et al. 1994). Immobilization
occurs simultaneously with mineralization, and the rate at which crop residue and native SOM–
derived N becomes available in the inorganic N pool (mineral N) depends on the net balance of
the N mineralization‒immobilization turnover (NMIT). The priming effect of crop residues on the
turnover of native SOM may also influence this process (see details in Sections 3.3.2.1 and 3.4.1).
The NMIT revolves around the growth and death of the soil biota. Mineralization is a sequence of
enzymatic reactions that convert organic N into inorganic forms, the first of which is ammonium
(NH4+). This NH4+ may be used by the soil microorganisms conducting mineralization for growth
or excreted from the cell into the soil solution where it is free to be used by plants or other micro-
organisms (Ladd and Jackson 1982). Where organic material contains insufficient N for growth,
microorganisms will assimilate the required N from the soil (immobilization). The preferred inor-
ganic N source for assimilation by most bacteria and fungi is NH4+, although nitrate (NO3−) is also
used (Marzluf 1997; Myrold and Posavatz 2007). When microbes die, the immobilized N in micro-
bial residues/products transfers to either stable SOM pools (Kopittke et al. 2018) or is converted
back to inorganic N (referred to as remineralization).
The C:N ratio of residues is one of the most important factors controlling the NMIT balance,
although environmental factors such as climate and soil type can also influence the rate of the trans-
fer between the pools. In general, residues with a wide C:N ratio decompose more slowly than those
with a narrow C:N ratio, and plant residues with high N content show high decomposition rates
and release of mineral N (Janzen and Kucey 1988; Lynch et al. 2016). Recently, Chen et al. (2014a)
attempted to define the C:N ratios at which mineralization, immobilization–mineralization, and
Crop Residue Management for Improving Soil Carbon Storage 39
immobilization occur (Figure 3.3). Chen et al. (2014a) determined that the addition of residues with
C:N ratios between 9.4 and 22.7 would lead to mineralization of N, immobilization–mineralization
would occur at ratios between 30 and 136, and net immobilization would occur at ratios between
47 and 99. The dividing line between immobilization–mineralization process and immobilization
is not discrete and can depend on the time period over which monitoring occurs. For example,
Mohanty et al. (2010) observed only N immobilization with wheat straw having a C:N ratio of 79,
but Hadas et al. (2004) reported the occurrence of an immobilization–mineralization process curve
with wheat residues having a C:N ratio of 136. This occurred primarily because Hadas et al. (2004)
studied NMIT for a longer period.
In annual cropping systems (based on 2 or 3 crops), the remineralization of N following immo-
bilization may often not be observed during the growing period of the subsequent crop. Indeed, a
net N immobilization phase followed by a net remineralization phase, as shown in Figure 3.3, is
often observed when residues of cereal crops like rice and wheat are applied to the soil (Müller et al.
1988; Yadvinder-Singh et al. 1988; Mishra et al. 2001a, 2001b). According to Yadvinder-Singh et al.
(2004), if a crop of wheat was to be planted after rice, for example, in the Indo-Gangetic plain in
South Asia, rice straw decomposition over a period of 20 days or more is required before planting
wheat to avoid low N levels in soil up to the crown root initiation phase. Nitrogen transformations,
in general, and crop residue NMIT markedly differ in upland (aerobic) and lowland (anaerobic)
soils, likely due to the difference in the activity of microorganisms under these contrasting condi-
tions. Nitrogen in crop residues is released in larger quantities under anaerobic conditions, although
the release rate may be slower (Liu et al. 1996). Thus, the long-term incorporation of rice residue
under anaerobic soil conditions can increase readily mineralizable organic N that can translate into
reduced fertilizer N rates for optimal rice yield (Bird et al. 2001; Eagle et al. 2003).
Nitrogen mineralization from residues may also be influenced by soil type. For example, in soils
with higher clay content, N mineralization may be lowered due to the adsorption of organic N by
clays (Kopittke et al. 2018). It should be noted, however, that in flooded soils, clay content may have
a positive effect on N mineralization, with Becker et al. (1994) recording almost twice the miner-
alization of N from crop residues in a flooded clayey soil compared to a sandy one. Differences
in the population and C:N ratio of microorganisms and microfauna between different soil types
may also impact N mineralization (Cabrera et al. 2005). Soil acidity can also be influential, with
40 Soil and Fertilizers
strongly acidic conditions retarding both the decomposition of crop residues and the mineralization
of residue N. For example, Fu et al. (1987) reported increased mineralization of N in crop residues
when soil pH increased from 5 to 7. Thus it is important to consider differences between soil types,
as they can have significant implications in terms of N cycling and thus fertilizer N requirements.
The synchronism of the NMIT dynamics with plant N demand plays a big role in influencing N
nutrition of crops in residue amended soils. Obviously, if synchronization is poor, N assimilation
by the crop is adversely affected. Field crops generally remove 70% to 80% of their total N require-
ment from the soil during the vegetative growth stage. Thus, yields will be adversely affected if
not enough N is available during this stage of crop growth. The addition of residues from rice,
wheat, barley, maize, and other small grains with high C:N ratios will lead to initial N immobili-
zation, which will adversely affect N nutrition and yield of the crop (Christensen 1986; Cassman
et al. 1997). The availability of N from crop residues and native SOM to subsequent crops is also
determined by the decomposition rate, residue quality, and soil management as well environmental
conditions (Sarker et al. 2018b, 2018c).
A study by Singh et al. (2007) found that synchrony between N release and plant uptake was best
achieved in soil receiving wheat residues (high C:N ratio) along with green manure (low C:N ratio).
This is because a temporary lag in N mineralization (from green manure) brought by N immo-
bilization (from wheat residue) provided an N conserving mechanism for the system. Similarly,
Kaewpradit et al. (2009) demonstrated that mixing residues of groundnut and rice could delay N
release during the prerice lag phase, leading to an improved synchrony in N demand/supply and
increased growth and yield of the succeeding rice and reduced N losses from the soil–plant system.
In another approach, Gentile et al. (2008) applied a combination of crop residue and fertilizer N to
four differently textured soils and observed that the interactive effect of combining fertilizer with
residue on mineral N changed from negative to positive with increasing residue quality. Although,
in practical terms, it is hard for farmers to apply residue mixes, capitalizing on the interactions
between fertilizer and organic residues can allow for the development of sustainable nutrient man-
agement practices. Thus, even if there occurs net immobilization as a part of the NMIT, the uptake
of N by the crops will not necessarily be reduced if there is sufficient synchronization between the
changing soil inorganic N (via a mix of residue type and fertilizer inputs) and the crop N demand.
(Trinsoutrot et al. 2000; Kumar and Goh 2002; Gentile et al. 2009). For example, Trinsoutrot et al.
(2000) observed that crop residues with low N concentrations resulted in net N immobilization (to
the extent of −22 to −14 mg N g−1 of added C), whereas residues with high N concentrations induced
very small net immobilization or mineralization (−3 to +4 mg N g−1 of added C), thereby offering
improved synchronization with plant N needs. Similarly, Gentile et al. (2009) showed that applica-
tion of Tithonia residues resulted in an early season N release of 22 kg N ha−1, whereas maize resi-
dues led to an immobilization of 34 kg N ha−1, due to differences in their C:N ratios. Interestingly,
Hemwong et al. (2008) reported that application of high C:N ratio sugarcane straw did not signifi-
cantly affect the growth of legumes due to their N2 fixation capabilities.
N accumulation near the soil surface compared to residue incorporation, and that this may increase
the risks of nitrate leaching, particularly where soil water content is greater due to residue retention.
In intensive cropping systems, fertilizer N management needs to help supplement the release of N
from crop residues so that soil N supply matches the temporal demand of the crop (Cassman et al.
2002). In cereal cropping systems with returned crop straw, a substantial portion of the fertilizer
N would probably be needed during early crop growth to counter N immobilization, while less is
required at later stages when increased N release during residue decomposition occurs. Leaf color
charts and chlorophyll meters can be used to help fine-tune the supply of fertilizer N and optimally
supplement N supplied from mineralization of crop residues (Witt et al. 2005; Varinderpal-Singh
et al. 2011, 2012; IRRI 2018).
While the net amount of N released from crop residues may often have a limited impact on crop
N supply, residue addition is capable of affecting the agronomic efficiency of fertilizer N (AEN).
For example, both increases and decreases and no change in AEN have been reported for rice when
crop residues were incorporated rather than removed (Bijay-Singh et al. 2008). In Central Thailand,
Phongpan and Mosier (2003a, 2003b, 2003c) recorded a 20% to 50% reduction in AEN when 70 kg
N ha−1 was applied to dry-season rice grown in a residue amended soil. Thuy et al. (2008) observed
no change in AEN in rice due to incorporation of rice and wheat residues in a three-year study at two
locations in China, and in an experiment in the Philippines, AEN was significantly increased when
rice residues were incorporated 20 days before transplanting dry-season rice (Buresh et al., unpub-
lished, as cited by Bijay-Singh et al. 2008). This increase in AEN was observed due to the increased
response of rice to fertilizer N with incorporation of residue, as the incorporation of residue without
fertilizer N resulted in a significant reduction in yield due to immobilization.
Whether crop residues are incorporated into the soil or placed on the soil surface can have impor-
tant implications in terms of fertilizer N management in residue amended soils. A reduction in fer-
tilizer N losses due to crop residue mulch on the soil surface should result in enhanced recovery of
applied N by the crop. For example, using a vented chamber method under field conditions, Yang et al.
(2015) could measure 7.7% less losses via ammonia volatilization by following stalk mulch–based
conservation tillage practices than under conventional tillage (no mulch). Gao et al. (2009) recorded
higher wheat grain yields for straw mulch (4.5 t ha−1 straw equivalent to half the average wheat straw
production in a year spread evenly between wheat rows) than in no mulch treatment when high levels
of fertilizer N (120 kg N ha−1 or more) were applied. Similar results have been reported by Fan et al.
(2005). Rahman et al. (2005) reported a significantly larger fertilizer N recovery efficiency when
straw from the previous crop was allowed to remain on the soil surface as mulch rather than when
it was removed. As reviewed by Bijay-Singh et al. (2008), the higher frequency of yield gains with
mulching than incorporation of residue suggests that these trends were due to increased fertilizer N
use efficiency when residues are placed on the soil surface, rather than incorporated into the soil.
band are preferred by farmers for managing N fertilizers and achieving high N use efficiency in no-till
systems (Malhi et al. 2001). However, these cannot handle the high fertilizer N rates used in wheat in
South Asia. As application of more than 130 kg diammonium phosphate ha−1 along with 56 kg urea ha−1
adversely affected germination and grain yield of wheat, new-generation planters for sowing wheat in
rice residues are being perfected to allow drilling of up to 80% of the recommended fertilizer N dose
(120 kg N ha−1) in a separate band between two rows of wheat (Yadvinder-Singh and Sidhu 2014).
FIGURE 3.4 Role of residue P in plant-soil P cycling. (Modified from Stewart, J. W. B., and Tiessen, H.,
Biogeochemistry, 4, 41–60, 1987.)
Crop Residue Management for Improving Soil Carbon Storage 45
be overestimated because some organic P may be hydrolyzed in acid extracts or through the release
of enzymes in water extracts (Crowther and Westman 1954; Tadano et al. 1993; Bishop et al. 1994).
Nevertheless, this suggests that the bulk of crop residue P has the potential to be brought into solution
under field conditions after the first significant rainfall. When this soluble P is released into soil solu-
tion, it can be utilized by plant roots and soil microorganisms, sorbed onto soil particles, or precipitated
with cations.
TABLE 3.3
Critical Phosphorus Concentration (%) and C:P Ratio beyond Which Immobilization of P
Occurred
Authors Residue/Plant Type Residue % P Residue C:P
Fuller et al. (1956) Wheat, barley, flax straw, tomato, lettuce, alfalfa, clover, and 0.2% 200
bean tops
Barrow (1960b) Phalaris and lucerne 0.2% 55
Floate (1970b) Nardus grass and Agrostis-Festuca grass 0.1%
Blair and Boland (1978) White clover 150–300
White and Ayoub (1983) Faba bean 123–251
Kwabiah et al. (2003) 18 plant species 156–252
Iqbal (2009) Wheat, canola, lupin, pea 0.2% 253
Iqbal 2009). Numerous experiments with crop residues have reported different P concentrations
below which P immobilization occurred. Some of these are summarized in Table 3.3. It is apparent
that a wide range of critical levels of total P and C:P ratios have been proposed; this is especially the
case for C:P ratio, with critical values ranging from 55:1 to 500:1.
In a recent review, Damon et al. (2014) developed an empirical model for the mobilization of P
from crop residues to provide a simple predictive tool. This model used a two-stage approach to
C and P release, whereby an initial rapid release of soluble inorganic P was followed by a slower
release phase of plant-available P from recalcitrant P pools. The model’s ability to predict residue
P release was largely unaffected by climatic factors but was governed by the microbial biomass
(Damon et al. 2014). However, the variability in residue P cycling and crop uptake (due to factors
such as residue management and soil pH) mean there are still no simple methods which can be used
to advise farmers on residue P release and fertilizer recommendations.
There are also diverging views about the link between C and P cycling (McGill and Cole 1981;
Smeck 1985) and predicting when P from crop residues will be released based on these measures has
proven more difficult than analogous predictions of N release based on N concentrations or C:N ratio
(Kirkby et al. 2011). One difference between P and N is that there is a substantial amount of inorganic
P in crop residues (Birch 1961; Jones and Bromfield 1969; Martin and Cunningham 1973; McLaughlin
et al. 1988a), whereas the vast majority of N in crop residues is organic. Thus, although the release of
mineral N from crop residues almost exclusively involves microbial decomposition of organic forms,
release of considerable amounts of mineral P can occur without microbial decomposition.
A second difference between P and N in crop residues is the diversity of organic forms present.
Most organic N is present in the amide linkages of proteins (Smernik and Baldock 2005), whereas
P is present in a variety of chemically diverse molecules including phospholipids, nucleic acids and
inositol phosphates (Bieleski 1973; Noack et al. 2012). Reliable determination of P speciation in
crop residues is needed to better predict their contribution to P cycling in soil.
solution. Hence, if fertilizer was applied after residue incorporation, more of the fertilizer would
be available for plant uptake as the soil’s P sorbing capacity has been decreased by occupation of P
sorption sites by residue-derived P. Whether this effect is significant would depend on the sorption
capacity of the soil and the concentration of P in the residue.
The adoption of no-till systems also has implications for the transfer of residue-derived nutrients
such as P into the soil compared with traditional full tillage systems (Buchanan and King 1993;
Deubel et al. 2011). The minimization of soil mixing under no-till results in elevated concentrations
of nutrients in the top soil layers (e.g., 0–15 cm), compared to the rest of the soil profile. This is
commonly referred to as nutrient stratification and results from increased levels of organic matter
and fertilizer left on the surface (Crozier et al. 1999; Saavedra et al. 2007). Mobile nutrients like N
and S can move deeper into the profile; however, immobile nutrients like P tend to be concentrated
in the top soil layers. This poses an issue for predicting the quantity of P available to a subsequent
crop, as the rate of P cycling in these enriched surface layers will differ from that of P cycled in the
remainder of the soil profile.
The mechanisms of P release may also differ between surface and incorporated residues.
For example, P concentrations in surface-placed residues experience more frequent fluctuations
in response to wetting and drying events compared to residues incorporated below the soil sur-
face (Jones and Bromfield 1969; Sharpley and Smith 1989). Jones and Bromfield (1969) found that
inorganic P was readily leached from crop residues when microbial activity was inhibited. Wetting
events, therefore, may be the dominant mechanism contributing to loss of P from surface-placed
residues, given the likely lower levels of microbial activity at the surface and the high solubility of
P in crop residues. Similarly, in an incubation study using six residue types, Sharpley and Smith
(1989) found greater amounts of inorganic P were leached from surface-placed residues compared
with incorporated residues. However, although residue P has been shown to be more readily leached
in no-till systems, the ability of a subsequent crop to access this residue-derived P has received
little attention. A better understanding of stratification and leaching of P from residues under no-till
management would support better fertilizer recommendations.
The cycling of SOM and nutrients from crop residues will also be affected by strategic tillage
operations. Tillage practices that invert the soil are likely to address the issue of nutrient strati-
fication, although less aggressive forms of tillage, such as chisel ploughs, have been observed to
have limited ability to redistribute nutrients from the surface into the subsoil (Dang et al. 2018).
Wortmann et al. (2010) found that strategic tillage had no significant effect on stratification of soil P,
crop yield, soil aggregation, SOC, bulk density, or soil microbial biomass, with values measured five
years post cultivation, similar to that of long-term no-till treatments. Asghar et al. (1996) conducted
a onetime tillage (up to 10 cm depth) in an eight-year no-till system where nutrients (e.g., P and K)
were stratified. They reported uniform distribution of the nutrients in the 0–10 cm depth after one-
time tillage. Overall, the varying outcomes in these studies show the effects of strategic tillage on
residue P cycling are still unknown. Further evaluation of strategic tillage practices is required to
understand the possible P nutrition benefits in a cropping rotation.
A study by Sarker et al. (2018b) highlighted the impact that tillage or stubble management and
soil type can have on the rates and quantities of plant-available P. Within this study, the main influ-
ence on P immobilization was soil type, with the Vertisol (smectitic-rich) binding more P compared
to the Luvisols (kaolinitic-rich). In a separate incubation study using the same tillage systems and
soils, the input of crop (canola or wheat) residues enhanced the release of SOM-bound nutrients.
This may have occurred via positive priming, or due to the mobilization of mineral-bound nutri-
ents in soil aggregates, with tillage intensity and soil-type interactions modulating these processes
(Sarker et al. 2018b). As low molecular weight organic acids may be released during the decomposi-
tion of crop residue (Guppy et al. 2005; Kumari et al. 2008), these could also decrease the nutrient
sorption capacity of clay minerals and displace adsorbed P, depending on clay content and soil min-
eralogy (Bolan et al. 1994; Guppy et al. 2005; Fink et al. 2016). Further, organic acids may enhance
the release of mineral-bound SOM through dissolution of protective mineral phases, potentially
enhancing nutrient release from SOM and stimulating microbial activity (Keiluweit et al. 2015).
Clearly, there are challenges in predicting the level of P release, not only from crop residues but also
from native soil reserves under various managements due to the complexity of P cycling in different
soil types.
Crop Residue Management for Improving Soil Carbon Storage 49
Fertilizer application method is critical for efficient fertilizer use due to the low mobility of P in
soils. In Australia, regardless of tillage-residue management, most seeding systems apply the fertil-
izer with the seed or at depth, and application may be split banded. Where “deep placement” occurs,
the exact depth of placement varies between seeders and studies. For example, deep placement
is defined as 8 mm by Officer et al. (2009), 10 mm by Dunbabin et al. (2009), and 12–15 mm by
Alston (1980). Liquid fertilizer applications are also becoming increasingly common, in particular
on Calcareous soils to improve crop access to fertilizer P (Holloway et al. 2001).
In general, banding P fertilizer close to the seed (<40 mm) increases P uptake in the early stages
of crop growth (Officer et al. 2009; McLaughlin et al. 2011; Nkebiwe et al. 2016). The main benefit
of deep placement is attributed to plant roots being able to access fertilizer P at depth when the top
soil is drying out. However, there are also studies that have shown no advantage from deep place-
ment when the soil profile remains wet during the growing season (Alston 1980).
after testing a range of organic materials observed net S release at a C:S ratio of <200, with
complete immobilization occurring at >420, are often used as a rough guide to predict when
immobilization is likely to occur.
Limited work has been conducted regarding the relative importance of biochemical versus
biological mineralization of S, and consequently the effect that various tillage and residue man-
agement practices have on these two processes is poorly understood. However, when total S min-
eralization rates are considered, it is clear that soils receiving large amounts of crop residue with
low C:S ratios may experience net S immobilization to the detriment of the subsequent crop, and
in these instances the addition of extra inorganic S is required to ensure adequate plant nutrition
(Wu et al. 1993; Chapman 1997; Chowdhury et al. 2000). Sulfur immobilized in microbial biomass
will eventually become incorporated into SOM and then into physically protected sites inside
aggregates (Wu et al. 1995; Eriksen 2009). The release of S from the general SOM pool is a slow
process (Sarker et al. 20108b), although this can be accelerated by management practices such as
residue incorporation and tillage to breakup soil aggregates and expose protected SOM (Balesdent
et al. 2000; Christensen 2001; Sarker et al. 2018b). Consequently, residue incorporation can lead
to greater release of S due to acceleration in the breakdown of added residues after mixing with
the soil (Singh et al. 2006), and possibly also due to accelerated release of S from the native SOM
pool (Sarker et al. 2018b).
Once released from organic materials, S exists primary as SO42− (Singh et al. 2006) and is
fairly mobile in soils due to its relatively weak adsorption to soil surfaces (Curtin and Syers 1990).
The mobility of SO4− can present problems if the release during residue breakdown does not occur
at the same time as crop demand and losses via leaching occur (Konboon et al. 2000; Eriksen 2009).
Management practices that increase the movement of water through the soil profile, such as no-till
and irrigation, are thus also likely to affect SO4− losses via leaching.
3.6.2 Potassium
Potassium (K) is one of the major nutrients required by plants, and where it is deficient, crop
growth is generally reduced (Marschner 1995). Significant declines in soil K can occur follow-
ing agricultural intensification, particularly following increases in crop production as a result of
N fertilization without corresponding additions of K (Singh et al. 2002). The recycling of K in
plant residues is particularly important for the maintenance of soil K reserves, as a high propor-
tion of the K extracted by the plant is often retained in residue material (Whitbread et al. 2000;
Yadvinder-Singh et al. 2005; Cherubin et al. 2018). On the other hand, management practices that
remove crop residues (e.g., oaten hay) generally result in negative K balances (Daliparthy et al.
1992; Prasad et al. 1999; Whitbread et al. 2000; Bijay-Singh et al. 2002; Bijay-Singh et al. 2004;
Rafique et al. 2012). It should, however, be noted that relatively little K is lost during residue
burning (Prasad et al. 1999; Dobermann and Fairhurst 2002). Overall, studies generally observe
that residue retention decreases requirements for fertilizer application (Bijay-Singh et al. 2008;
Sui et al. 2015; Carvalho et al. 2017; Sui et al. 2017), and the amount of K that can be supplied by
residues should be considered in calculating K fertilizer requirements to increase fertilizer effi-
ciency (Sui et al. 2015; Venkatesh et al. 2017). Values for the concentration of K in crop residues
have been reported to range between 3 and 17 g kg−1 for species such as wheat, rice, maize, and
sugarcane, and will typically vary depending on plant species and crop nutrition (Schomberg and
Steiner 1999; Dobermann and Fairhurst 2002; Reddy et al. 2002; Cherubin et al. 2018).
Potassium in soil may be present in the soil solution, adsorbed onto the soil surface, held in
a nonexchangeable form between the platelets of shrink-swell clay minerals, and held within
crystalline mineral structures (Thomas and Hipp 1968; Sardans and Peñuelas 2015). As it is not a
constituent of biomolecules, only very small amounts of K are present in SOM (Sardans and
Peñuelas 2015). Soil solution and surface adsorbed K is the pool immediately available for plant
uptake, although K may diffuse from the interlayer of clay minerals into the exchangeable pool
Crop Residue Management for Improving Soil Carbon Storage 51
in response to negative concentration gradients at a rate sufficient to supply K to crops during the
growing season (Thomas and Hipp 1968; Sardans and Peñuelas 2015). It may also be released
more slowly from mineral structures during weathering (Thomas and Hipp 1968; Sardans and
Peñuelas 2015). When concentrations of K in the soil solution are high (such as after fertilizer
addition or rapid release from plant residues) uptake, or fixation, of K into the interlayer of clay
minerals may also occur (Bijay-Singh et al. 2004). However, this will often later be re-released
into the exchangeable fraction following uptake of K from the soil solution by the growing crop
(Bijay-Singh et al. 2004).
The cycling and release of potassium from residues is not as controlled by biological processes
as it is for N, P, and S. Similar to P, it can be easily washed from crop residues and its release is
less dependent on microbial decomposition, and thus residue quality (Schomberg and Steiner 1999;
Yadvinder-Singh et al. 2005; Lupwayi et al. 2006). A large proportion of K (60%–80%) is generally
released from residues in the first few weeks following addition to the soil due to rainfall events and
incorporation activities, with further release occurring as the organic material continues to break
down (Rosolem et al. 2005; Bijay-Singh et al. 2008). Potassium immobilization is not generally an
issue reported during residue decomposition studies (Lupwayi et al. 2006).
In lighter-textured soil with low cation exchange capacity (CEC), K is subject to leaching, and
significant amounts can be lost from the soil profile via this pathway (Bijay-Singh et al. 2004;
Calonego and Rosolem 2013; Ranaivoson et al. 2017). Management practices that affect soil water
movement, such as no-till and irrigation, are thus likely to affect K reserves in these types of
soils. However, where CEC is higher and rates of water movement lower, K is generally retained
strongly in the soil profile. Indeed, in systems practicing no-till where limited mixing of the soil
occurs, stratification of K in the surface of the profile can become an issue affecting crop yield
(Vyn and Janovicek 2001; Yin and Vyn 2003). In these circumstances, the application of addi-
tional fertilizer in bands below the soil surface may be required to help improve K nutrition (Vyn
and Janovicek 2001; Yin and Vyn 2003).
of more traditional management strategies, such as stubble burning, is incomplete, and greater
research is required to increase our understanding of the effect of burning on nutrient content,
forms, and therefore availability.
It is well established that the surface retention of residues can contribute to increasing SOC con-
tent, relative to residue incorporation. However, studies are still needed to identify the impact of crop
residues on SOC stocks under different integrated residue and nutrient management systems, soil
types, and environments. By studying the different labile and stable SOC fractions of not only the
bulk soil, but also soil aggregates, more detailed knowledge can be obtained regarding the impact of
crop residues and their management practices on SOC and nutrient dynamics and their relationships
with soil microbial communities (their composition and biomass). In particular, future research
is needed regarding: (1) the long-term effect of integrated residue and nutrient management on
microbial C use efficiency and conversion rates of residue to stabilized SOC; and (2) the qualitative
changes in SOC and nutrient availability over time under field conditions, with implications for
nutrient use efficiency.
In term of N dynamics, crop residues are generally classified on the basis of C:N ratios for their
involvement in different NMIT processes in the soil. But the rate of decomposition, the quality of
residues in terms of N, lignin and polyphenol contents, and environmental conditions also deter-
mine the net supply of N from crop residues, and our understanding of the effect of these factors is
less complete. In addition, the studies on NMIT have been carried out under laboratory conditions,
and to what extent these results can be extrapolated to field conditions is not clear. Also, studies on
the effect of climate on NMIT and net N mineralization from crop residues and their return prac-
tices are rare. There is an urgent need to understand the interaction between temperature and water
content in incorporated and surface-applied residues to predict the effect of climate on N nutrition
of crops for both upland (aerobic) and lowland (anaerobic) environments. In addition, improved
understanding of the optimum timing, rate, and placement of fertilizer N to minimize N tie-up by
immobilization, while optimizing N supply and fertilizer N use efficiency in crops grown in residue
amended soils, is required. Recently, the role of crop residues relating to positive priming of SOM
decomposition has been highlighted by several workers, but it still remains to be seen how much
SOM priming can contribute to improving nutrient (N, P, S) availability in the soil.
Our understanding of many aspects of P dynamics in response to residue management is also
incomplete and requires further research. Currently, the complexity of residue P cycling in soil
means there are no simple methods that can be used to advise farmers on residue P release and fertil-
izer recommendations. Our understanding of how P cycling is affected by residue type/composition,
residue placement, and environmental conditions such as soil type and soil moisture regimes (par-
ticularly under field conditions) is incomplete and requires improvement to better predict residue
contributions to P cycling in soil. A better understanding of stratification and leaching of P from
residues under no-till management would also support better fertilizer recommendations.
Similar to N and P, a sound understanding of the magnitude of residue-based S and K stocks is
important when determining crop fertilizer requirements in order to maximize fertilizer use effi-
ciency; as is an understanding of C:S ratios in order to prevent plant available S being immobilized
in the microbial biomass. While a number of short-term studies to determine the effect of residue
management on soil S and K stocks have been conducted, the effect of longer-term management is
less well researched, and our understanding of the effect of different residue management strategies
would be enhanced by greater work in this area. Greater work to develop strategies to best deal with
nutrient stratification in no-till systems would also benefit the management of K reserves, which can
become concentrated in the surface soils with higher CEC.
Overall, while many studies on nutrient dynamics in response to crop residue and tillage man-
agement have been conducted, there is currently a gap between this mechanistic research and
field-based problems. There is a need for simple predictive models to help farmers and advisers
determine likely rates of nutrients release from crop residues and SOM and make more informed
decisions about fertilizer requirements.
Crop Residue Management for Improving Soil Carbon Storage 53
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4 Improving Soil Fertility
through Fertilizer Management
in Sub-Saharan Africa
Andre Bationo, Upendra Singh, Ekwe Dossa,
John Wendt, Sampson Agiyin-Birikorang,
François Lompo, and Prem Bindraban
CONTENTS
4.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................. 67
4.2 Changes in Paradigms for Soil Fertility Management in Sub-Saharan Africa....................... 71
4.3 Productivity of African Soils................................................................................................... 72
4.4 Overview of Fertilizer Management....................................................................................... 77
4.4.1 Sources and Management of Nitrogen and Phosphorus Fertilizers............................ 79
4.4.2 Maintenance of Soil Organic Matter Plays a Key Role in Fertilizers’ Use
Efficiency and Recovery.............................................................................................. 81
4.4.3 Increasing the Legume Component in the Cropping System Can Affect the
Efficiency of Mineral Fertilizers................................................................................. 81
4.4.4 Urea Deep Placement Increases Rice Productivity and Nitrogen Use Efficiency....... 82
4.4.5 Strategic Application of Fertilizer: The Microdose Technology................................. 85
4.4.6 Crop Residue and Manure Management..................................................................... 87
4.4.7 Managing Other Nutrients Such as Secondary Nutrients and Micronutrients............ 88
4.4.8 Water and Nutrient Use Efficiency.............................................................................. 88
4.4.9 Lessons Learned from Long-Term Experiments.........................................................92
4.5 The Way Forward.................................................................................................................... 93
4.5.1 Tailoring Fertilizer Use for Mitigation and Adaptation to Climate Change............... 93
4.5.2 The Role of Crop Models............................................................................................ 93
4.5.3 The Need to Upscale IFDC’s New Approach to Develop, Manufacture, and
Deliver Balanced Fertilizers to Farmers: The SMaRT Approach...............................94
4.5.4 Multiple Functions from Innovative Fertilizer Products and Sector Transformation.........95
References.........................................................................................................................................96
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) has been identified as a future hotspot for food shortage due to low
agricultural yields and high variability in yield, cultivated acreage, and total production. Several
African countries are food insecure and have persistently been unable to feed their population
(NEPAD 2003). Haggblade et al. (2004) note that, over the past 40 years or so, agriculture pro-
duction has increased at a rate of 2.5% per year in Africa compared to 2.9% in Latin America
67
68 Soil and Fertilizers
and 3.5% in developing Asia. As a result of this situation, Africa is a net food-importing region.
Food imports in Africa rose from USD 15 billion in the 1990s to about USD 40 billion in 2007
(Rakotoarisoa et al. 2011). The number of chronically undernourished people increased from
168 million in 1990–1992 to 224 million in 2016 (FAO 2017). Agricultural productivity in Africa
lags all other continents. NEPAD (2014) notes that productivity per agricultural worker has
improved by a factor of only 1.6 in Africa over the past 30 years, compared to 2.5 in Asia. While
cereal crop yields in Asia have doubled or quadrupled since the 1960s, they have stagnated in
Africa (Haggblade et al. 2004), and as populations have increased, food production per capita
has been declining in Africa for the past three decades. This leaves African families with ever
less opportunity to feed themselves and their children. As a result, malnutrition remains shock-
ingly common in Africa, increasing from 160 million people in 1990 to 205 million in 2015
(FAO 2019).
SSA uses 13 kg per hectare of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium (NPK), fertilizers on crop-
lands in SSA, and this usage remains low compared to the world average of 100 kg NPK ha−1 with
consumption in 2016 in Eastern, Middle, Western, and Southern Africa of 15.8, 4.3, 9.6, and 53.4 kg
ha–1, up from 12.3, 2.6, 3.9, and 53.7, respectively, in 2002 (FAO 2019). Despite the increase, the
consumption of fertilizer per capita is stagnant – five times lower than Asia (Figure 4.1).
As a consequence of the low use of fertilizers and suboptimal soil fertility management, crop
yields have stagnated in the past 50 years, causing food insecurity and encouraging encroach-
ment upon the remnant forests to meet the food needs of an overgrowing population. Meanwhile,
Africa has considerable fertilizer resources. Seventy percent of the world’s phosphate rock
resources (Figure 4.2) and significant deposits of nitrogen and potash resources are found in Africa
(Figure 4.3).
Although significant progress has been made in research in developing principles, methodologies,
and technologies for combating soil fertility depletion, soil infertility still remains the fundamental
biophysical cause for the declining per capita food production in SSA over the last 3–5 decades
(Vanlauwe 2004). This is evident from the huge gap between actual and potential crop yields (FAO
1995).
During the period of 30 years from 1960 to 1990, soil fertility depletion has been estimated at
an average of 660 kg N ha–1, 75 kg P ha–1, and 450 kg K ha–1 from about 200 million ha of culti-
vated land in 37 African countries (Vanlauwe 2004). Stoorvogel et al. (1993) estimated annual net
FIGURE 4.1 Evolution of fertilizer consumption per capita (kg) in Africa. Based on FAO (2019) and FAO
(2016).
Improving Soil Fertility through Fertilizer Management in Sub-Saharan Africa 69
TABLE 4.1
Average Nutrient Balance of N, P, and K (k ha−1 yr−1) for
Arable Land for Some Sub-Saharan African Countries
(Average of 1982–1984)
Country N P K
Botswana 0 1 0
Mali −8 −1 −7
Senegal −12 −2 −10
Benin −14 −1 −9
Cameroon −20 −2 −12
Tanzania −27 −4 −18
Zimbabwe −31 −2 −22
Nigeria −34 −4 −24
Ethiopia −41 −6 −26
Kenya −42 −3 −29
Rwanda −54 −9 −47
Malawi −68 −10 −44
depletion of nutrients in excess of 30 kg N and 20 kg K ha–1 of arable land per year in Ethiopia,
Kenya, Malawi, Nigeria, Rwanda, and Zimbabwe (Table 4.1).
Given the current low levels of fertilizer use, green and animal manures are insufficient to sus-
tain soil health and the nutrient balances remain negative for many cropping systems, indicating that
farmers are mining their soils of nutrient reserves of over 50 kg ha−1 year−1 of N, P, and K combined
(e.g., Lesschen et al. 2007; Cobo et al. 2010).
The development of the modern fertilizer industry had a tremendous positive impact on agricul-
tural productivity and global food security, and it is widely acknowledged that fertilizers are respon-
sible for at least half of the global food supply (Erisman et al. 2008). The data in Table 4.2 gives the
yield of selected crops in farmer’s field without the use of fertilizers as compared to the potential
yields obtained on station with the use of fertilizers. It is evident from the data that for some crops it
is possible to increase the yield up to five times by improving soil nutrients management.
TABLE 4.2
Yield Potential with Fertilizer Use in Africa
Actual Yields in Farms Potential Yield on station
Crop without Fertilizer (kg/ha) with Fertilizer (kg/ha) Increase over Control (%)
Irrigated rice West Africa 3,000 8,000 167
Upland rice West Africa 1,000 4,000 500
Cassava West Africa 8,000 47,000 487
Maize West Africa 800 6,000 650
Sorghum West Africa 600 3,000 400
Millet West Africa 300 2,000 567
Maize East Africa 1,500 8,000 433
Maize Southern Africa 1,500 8,000 433
Agronomic e˜cien cy
FIGURE 4.4 The ISFM paradigm. (Source: Vanlauwe, B. et al., Outlook Agr., 39, 17–24, 2010.)
TABLE 4.3
Yields and NPK Uptake of Maize on Three Kenyan Soils as a Function of Soil Type and
Fertilizer Treatment (Long Rainy Season, 1990)
Nutrient Uptake
N P K
Soil Treatment Yield (ton/ha) (kg/ha)
Nitisol (red, clayey) N0 P0 2.1 42 5 30
N50 P0 2.3 50 6 36
N0 P22 4.9 79 12 58
Vertisol (black, clayey) N0 P0 4.5 63 24 95
N50 P0 6.3 109 35 126
N0 P22 4.7 70 23 106
A major issue preventing effective utilization of fertilizers by crop has been the “pan-territorial/
blanket” nature of the recommendations that fail to take into account differences in farmers’ resource
endowment (soil type, labor capacity, climate risk, etc.). Past fertilizer recommendations have been
based on single major cash crops such as maize, tea, and cotton and did not take into account com-
plex farming systems involving crop rotations, intercropping, and conservation agriculture that are
characteristic of most smallholder farming systems in Africa. Different fertilizer responses have been
observed in different parts of the same field due to the existing within-farm soil fertility gradients.
Research has shown that the use of high-yielding cereal varieties, along with the increasing use of fer-
tilizers containing major nutrients (N, P, K), but without micronutrients through inorganic or organic
fertilizers, dramatically increases food production under intensified systems. However, in the long run
as a result of depletion of micronutrient reserves in the soil, this practice results in a number of nutrient
disorders and associated nutrient imbalances. Micronutrients are required by plants in small quantities,
but they limit plant growth and substantially lower yields when deficient. In SSA, only a few studies
(Schutte 1954; Sillanpaa 1982; Kang and Osiname 1985) have documented the micronutrient status
of soils in the region, as compared to the enormous amount of literature available on macronutrients.
The study by Sillanpaa (1982) showed that copper, zinc, and molybdenum deficiencies are common
in many coarse-textured acid soils of Ethiopia, Ghana, Malawi, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, Tanzania, and
Zambia. Recently, Kihara et al. (2017), using a meta-analysis of published articles on crop response
to secondary and micronutrients in Africa, concluded that S, Zn, Cu, and Fe induced positive and
significant crop response following their addition to the major NPK fertilizers. In many SSA coun-
tries, replenishment of micronutrients through fertilizers or other amendments is still in its infancy.
Additions of soil micronutrients can improve the yield response to macronutrients (N and P) on defi-
cient soils. Nutrients such as Zn, B, S, and Mg can often be included relatively cheaply in existing
fertilizer blends; when targeted to deficient soils, these nutrients can dramatically improve fertilizer use
efficiency and crop yield. During the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, S, Mg, and (less commonly) Zn and B
deficiencies were detected for maize on sandy soils in Zimbabwe (Grant 1981). Enhanced yields were
obtained by including selected micronutrients in fertilizer blends (Grant 1981). Recent experience in
Malawi provides a striking example of how N fertilizer efficiency for maize can be raised by providing
appropriate micronutrients on a location-specific basis.
Soil organic carbon is an exhaustible natural resource capital, and, like the negative nutrient
balances, its decline threatens soil productivity. The concentration of organic carbon in the top soil
is reported to average 12 mg kg−1 for the humid zone, 7 mg kg−1 for the subhumid zone, 4 mg kg−1
74 Soil and Fertilizers
in the semiarid zone, and 2 mg kg−1 for the drier semiarid zone (Windmeijer and Andriesse 1993).
Most African soils are inherently low in organic carbon (<20 to 30 mg kg−1). This is due to the low
root growth of crops and natural vegetation, but also to the rapid turnover rates of organic materials
with high soil temperature, persistent bush burning, and intense faunal activity, particularly ter-
mites (Bationo et al. 2003). There is much evidence for rapid decline of soil organic C levels with
continuous cultivation of crops in Africa (Bationo and Buerkert 2001). Results from long-term
soil fertility trials indicate that losses of up to 0.69 tons carbon ha−1 yr−1 in the soil surface layers
is common in Africa even with high levels of organic inputs (Nandwa 2003). There is much evi-
dence for a rapid decline of Corg levels with continuous cultivation of crops (Bationo et al. 1995).
For the sandy soils, average annual losses in Corg, often expressed by the k-value (calculated as
the percentage of organic carbon lost per year), may be as high as 4.7%, whereas for sandy loam
soils, reported losses seem much lower, with an average of 2% (Pieri 1989; Table 4). Topsoil ero-
sion may lead to significant increases in annual Corg losses, such as from 2% to 6.3% at the Centre
de Formation des Jeunes Agriculteurs (CFJA) in Burkina Faso (Table 4.4). However, such declines
TABLE 4.4
Annual Loss Rates of Soil Organic Carbon Measured at Selected Research Stations in the
Sub-Saharan West Africa
Annual Loss Rates of Soil
Organic Carbon (k)
Dominant Cultural Clay + Silt (%) Number of Years of
Place and Source Succession Observations (0–0.2 m) Measurement k (%)
Burkina Faso With tillage
Saria, INERA-IRAT Sorghum monoculture Without fertilizer 12 10 1.5
Sorghum monoculture Low fertilizer (lf) 12 10 1.9
Sorghum monoculture High fertilizer (hf) 12 10 2.6
Sorghum monoculture lf + crop residues 12 10 2.2
CFJA, INERA-IRCT Cotton–cereals Eroded watershed 19 15 6.3
Senegal With tillage
Bambey, ISRA-IRAT Millet–groundnut Without fertilizer 3 5 7.0
Millet–groundnut With fertilizer 3 5 4.3
Millet–groundnut Fertilizer + straw 3 5 6.0
Bambey, ISRA-IRAT Millet monoculture with PK fertilizer 4 3 4.6
+ tillage
Nioro-du-Rip, IRAT-ISRA Cereal–leguminous F0T0 11 17 3.8
Cereal–leguminous F0T2 11 17 5.2
Cereal–leguminous F2T0 11 17 3.2
Cereal–leguminous F2T2 11 17 3.9
Cereal–leguminous F1T1 11 17 4.7
Chad With tillage, high
fertility soil
Bebedjia, IRCT-IRA Cotton monoculture 11 20 2.8
Cotton – cereals 20 2.4
+ 2 years fallow 20 1.2
+ 4 years fallow 20 0.5
Source: Pieri, C., Fertilité des terres de savane. Bilan de trente ans de recherche et de développement agricoles au sud du
Sahara. Ministère de la Coopération, CIRAD, Paris, France, 1989.
F0 = No fertilizer, F1 = 200 kg ha−1 of NPK fertilizer, F2 = 400 kg ha−1 of NPK fertilizer + Taiba phosphate rock, T0 = man-
ual tillage, T1 = light tillage, T2 = heavy tillage.
Improving Soil Fertility through Fertilizer Management in Sub-Saharan Africa 75
are site specific and heavily depend on management practices such as the choice of the crop-
ping system, soil tillage, and the application of mineral and organic soil amendments. Data from
Chad show that crop rotation and fallow management can minimize Corg losses. Thus k-values
in cotton–cereal rotations were 2.4%, compared to 2.8% in a continuous cotton system. Also, four
years of fallow after 16 years of cultivation led to large increases in Corg and a reduction of annual
Corg losses to 0.5%.
The soil patterns in the five major agroecological zones of Africa are determined by differences
in age, parent material, physiography, and present and past climatic conditions. In the humid zones,
dominant soils are Ferralsols and the Acrisols. Less important in this zone are Arenosols, Nitosols,
and Lixisols. The subhumid zone is characterized by the dominance of Ferralsols and Lixisols and,
to a lesser extent, Acrisols, Arenosols, and Nitosols. In the semiarid zone Lixisols have the larger
share followed by sandy Arenosols and Vertisols (Deckers 1993). A map showing the distribution
of major soils in Africa is shown in Figure 4.5, and Table 4.5 gives the constraints of the main soils
and countries covered.
Table 4.5 summarizes the extent of the main soil types, constraints, and countries covered
(Bationo et al. 2007a).
Land can be classified as prime, high, medium, and low potential, and unsuitable. Figure 4.6
gives the agricultural potential of African soils. Prime land comprises those soils with deep, perme-
able layers and with an adequate supply of nutrients, and these soils generally do not have significant
periods of moisture stress. The soils are without impermeable layers, textures are loamy to clayey
with good tilth characteristics, and the land is generally level to gently undulating. They occupy
about 9.6% of Africa, and they occupy significant areas in West Africa south of the Sahel, in East
Africa mainly in Tanzania, and in Southern African countries of Zambia, Zimbabwe, South Africa,
and Mozambique.
TABLE 4.5
Main Soil Types, Extent, Constraints, and Countries Covered
Percentage of
Soil Type Hectare (ha) Total Land (%) Main Constraints Main Countries Covered
Andosol and Nitosols 117,123,121 3.8 Fertile (volcanic ash), high Rift valley (Ethiopia, Kenya,
P-fixation, Mn toxicity, Tanzania, Zaire
medium water and nutrient
retention
Cambisols, Luvisols, 211,348,146 6.8 Low to moderate nutrients Mediterranean countries
Kastanozems, content
Phaeozems, and Planosols
Vertisols 98,985,811 3.2 Heavy soils, medium mineral Sudan, Ethiopia, South
reserves, erodibility and Africa, Lesotho
flooding
Ferrasols and Acrisols 500,910,947 16.2 Low nutrients content, DRC, Angola, Zambia,
weathered, Al and Mn Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda,
toxicity, high P-fixation, low Sudan, Central Afr. Rep.,
nutrient and water retention, Cameroon, Liberia, Sierra
susceptible to erosion Leone and Madagascar,
subhumid zone of West
Africa
Fluvisols, Glyesols and 132,037,611 4.3 Poor to moderate drainage West, Central, and southern
Histosols Africa
Ferric and Plintic Luvisols 179,786,479 5.8 Low nutrients content Western and Southern Africa
Regosols, Arenosols and 579101963 18.7 Mainly quartz, low water and West Africa/Sahel, Sudan,
Podzols nutrient holding capacity, Botswana, Angola and
wind erosion, poor soils DRC, north Africa
with nutrients leaching
Lithosols, Xerosols, 1,244,513,150 40.3 Shallow soils, North African countries,
Yermosols, Solonchaks, soils subject to drought, South Africa, Namibia,
Solonetz, and presence of salt Somalia, Sahel
miscellaneous land units
Inland water bodies 27,230,091 0.9 Flood zones
TOTAL 3,091,037,319 100
High-potential soils are similar to prime soils but have some minor limitations such as extended
periods of moisture stress, sandy or gravelly materials, or root-restricting layers in the soil. The high-
potential lands occupy an area of about 6.7%.
Medium- and low-potential lands, which occupy 28.3% of the surface, have major constraints for
low-input agriculture. These lands have a major soil constraint and one or more minor constraints
that can be corrected. Constraints include adverse soil physical properties including surface soil
crusting; impermeable layers; soil acidity and specifically subsoil acidity, salinity, and alkalinity;
and high risks of wind and water erosion. The large contiguous areas of Central and West Africa are
considered as medium potential, due to the presence of acid soils and soils that fix high amounts
of P. With an inherently low soil quality, low-input agriculture can be equated to potential soil deg-
radation. These are some of the priority areas for technical assistance and the implementation of
appropriate soil management technologies.
The unsustainable class of lands are those that are considered to be fragile, easily degraded
through inappropriate management, and in general are not productive or do not respond well to
management. These occupy about 55% of the African continent. They are generally erodible and
require high investments.
Improving Soil Fertility through Fertilizer Management in Sub-Saharan Africa 77
TABLE 4.6
Maize Response to Organic and Inorganic Fertilizer Application in Selected Sites in East,
West, and Southern Africa
Site Treatment Yield (t/ha) % Yield Increase
West Africa (multisites 3–6 year
1 Control 1.51 –
average)
TSP + N + K 3.172 110
N+K 2.319 54
P+K 2.426 61
P+N+K 3.765 149
P + N + K + lime (500 kg ha−1 every 3 years) 3.794 151
Crop residue (CR) 1.999 32
Manure (10t ha−1 every 3 years) 2.497 65
P + N + K + Mg + Zn 3.880 157
P + N + K + Mg + Zn + Lime 4.006 165
P + N + K + Mg + Zn + CR 4.083 170
P + N + K + Mg + Zn + Manure + Lime 4.289 184
East Africa2 (1981–1985) Control 1.9 –
Crop residues 2.5 32
Manure (5 t) 3.5 84
Fertilizer 60 kg N, 25 kg P) 4.1 116
Manure (10 t) 4 111
Fertilizer 120 kg N, 50 kg P) 4.6 142
Manure 5 t + Fertilizer 60 kg N, 25 kg P) 5.2 174
Southern Africa3 Control 0.729 –
N+P+K 2.194 201
Termitaria + N + P 2.229 206
Cattle manure + N + P 2.644 262
Maize stover + N + P 1.575 116
Fresh litter + N + P 2.553 250
Crotalaria juncea + N + P 2.496 242
The data in Table 4.6 summarizes the multisite response to soil fertility improvement and clearly
demonstrates the importance of fertilizers in maize yield improvement in different agro-ecological
zone (AEZ) and soil types in Africa. Maize yield increase over the control due to NPK fertilizer
application from six AEZ and averaged over four years was 149%, but when the soil was amended
with lime and manure yield response over the control increased to 184% (Mokwunye et al. 1996).
Similarly higher-yield improvements have been observed in Eastern (Qureish 1987) and Southern
African countries (Mtambanengwe and Mapfumo 2005).
One lesson we learned from IFDC work in West Africa is the importance of adopting good agro-
nomic practices before using fertilizers. In farmers’ managed trials it was found that using good agro-
nomic practices will result in higher yields in plots not using fertilizers than using fertilizers with poor
agronomic practices such as planting late with poor crop density (Figure 4.7). There is a growing body
Improving Soil Fertility through Fertilizer Management in Sub-Saharan Africa 79
FIGURE 4.7 The effect of management intensity (planting date, crop density, and time of phosphorus appli-
cation) on maize grain yield at Tinfouga, Mali. (From Bationo, A. et al., Nutr. Cycl. Agroecosys., 48, 179−189,
1997).
of literature that shows fertilizers to be an essential component for sustainable yield increase in crop-
ping systems and to be profitable in much of SSA (e.g., Droppelmann et al. 2017; Jama et al. 2017).
TABLE 4.7
Recovery of 15N Fertilizer by Pearl Millet Applied at Sadore, Niger, 1985
N Recovery
15
Source: Christianson, C.B., and Vlek, P.L.G., Alleviating soil fertility constraints to food production in West Africa: Efficiency
of nitrogen fertilizers applied to food crops, in Mokwunye, A.U. (Ed.), Alleviating Soil Fertility Constraints to
Increased Crop Production in West Africa, Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, the Netherlands, 1991.
FIGURE 4.8 Effect of broadcast and point application methods for urea and CAN on grain yield of pearl
millet.
Improving Soil Fertility through Fertilizer Management in Sub-Saharan Africa 81
In a study in West Africa, Fofana et al. (2008) observed that grain yields across years and fertilizer
treatment averaged 0.8 t ha−1 on outfields and 1.36 t ha−1 on infields (home gardens). Recovery of
fertilizer N (RFN) applied varied considerably among the treatments and ranged from 17% to 23% on
outfields and 34% to 37% on infields. Similarly, average recovery of fertilizer P applied (RFP) across
treatments over the three-year period was 31% in the infields compared to 18% in the outfields. These
results indicate higher inherent soil fertility and nutrient use efficiency in the infields (fertile fields)
compared to the outfields (infertile fields) and underlines the importance of soil organic carbon and
micro and secondary nutrients in improving fertilizer use efficiency. Once soils are degraded and poor
in organic matter, the response to fertilizer is less and the recovery of applied fertilizers is reduced.
FIGURE 4.9 Effects of nitrogen and rotation on pearl millet grain yield (kg ha−1 average of four years) at
Sadore, Tara, and Bengou.
82 Soil and Fertilizers
to the dropping of legume leaves (Bationo and Ntare 1995). It has been assumed by many workers
that the positive effect of rotations arises from the added N from legume in the cropping system.
Some workers, however, have attributed the positive effects of rotations to the improvement of
soil biological and physical properties and the solubilization of occluded P and highly insoluble
calcium–bounded phosphorus by root exudates (Gardner et al. 1981; Arhara and Ohwaki 1989).
Other advantages of crop rotations include soil conservation (Stoop and Staveren 1981), organic
matter restoration (Spurgeon and Grissom 1965), and pest and disease control (Sunnadurai 1973).
In N15 balances trials including rotation, N use efficiency increased from 20% in continuous
pearl millet cultivation to 28% when pearl millet was rotated with cowpea. Nitrogen derived from
the soil is better used in rotation systems than with continuous millet (Bationo and Vlek 1998).
Nitrogen derived from the soil increased from 39 kg N ha−1 in continuous pearl millet cultivation to
62 kg N ha−1 when pearl millet was rotated with groundnut.
4.4.4 Urea Deep Placement Increases Rice Productivity and Nitrogen Use Efficiency
The main constraint to achieving high rice productivity in Africa is the chronic deficiency of major
nutrients and particularly nitrogen. N is the most difficult nutrient to manage efficiently as it is very
mobile in soil ecosystems and therefore is easily lost by leaching, runoff, denitrification, and vola-
tilization. In Africa, prilled urea (PU) conventionally broadcast applied by rice farmers is inefficient
in irrigated rice, largely because of serious losses (up to 60% of applied N) via ammonia volatiliza-
tion and denitrification. And this calls for the development of new ergonomically efficient, eco-
nomically attractive, and environmentally sound technologies aiming at improving the efficiency
of input use, including improved seeds and particularly N source. Bandaogo et al. (2015) showed
that through urea deep placement (UDP), the avenues for N losses in rice production system are
reduced and improved N uptake by the plant is possible. In field trials conducted in Burkina Faso,
the authors reported that UDP is a highly efficient soil nutrient management technology, enabling
farmers to achieve higher crop yields (15%–20% higher than with broadcast application) with lower
use of high-cost fertilizer (20%–30% lower than urea broadcast).
UDP is a science-based technology developed by the IFDC Research and Development Program
to improve N use efficiency. It is a simple and low-cost technology, well suited to small-scale rice
production. The technology is comprised of production of urea super granules (USG), compacted
urea, and hand placement of USG in the puddled soil between each set of four hills of rice at a depth
of 7–10 cm seven days after transplanting. It’s a single basal deep placement of USG that matches
more favorably the N requirement of the plant throughout the duration cycle. It significantly reduces
N loss through volatilization and increases N use efficiency and paddy yield. Introduced in Asia in
the 1980s, UDP’s wide adoption in irrigated rice production systems in Asian countries (Bangladesh,
Vietnam, Afghanistan, Cambodia, India, and Nepal) has brought about rice yield increases ranging
from 23% to 70% and reduced requirement for urea fertilizer by 32% to 44%. UDP technology has
proven to be highly effective in improving crop uptake of applied nitrogen fertilizers in irrigated
rice and therefore merits to be experimented in similar production systems in Africa. More than
3500 demonstration plots were developed in 30 irrigation schemes located in the above-mentioned
eight participating African countries. The demonstration scheme compares UDP with farmer prac-
tice (FP) – that is, the broadcast application of prilled urea.
Yield performance with UDP was higher than broadcast prilled urea (PU) (Figure 4.10). Mean
yield advantage of USG over PU across all pilot countries was about 1,200 kg ha−1. But it signifi-
cantly varied among pilot countries, and the highest mean yield advantage was observed in Niger
(1,880 kg ha−1), followed by Nigeria (1,691 kg ha−1) and Madagascar (1,498 kg ha−1), with the lowest
in Togo (390 kg ha−1).
In order to study the effect of UDP on urea agronomic and economic efficiency, nitrogen agro-
nomic efficiency (NAE) and value–cost ratio (VCR) were used. NAE was calculated as the addi-
tional grain yield (GY) produced by kg of fertilizer urea applied at constant NPK rates. It expresses
Improving Soil Fertility through Fertilizer Management in Sub-Saharan Africa 83
FIGURE 4.10 Efficiency of urea deep placement (UDP) and farmer practice (FP) in irrigated rice systems
in the Intervention African Countries (Fofana, unpublished data).
the quantity (kg) of harvested product per kg fertilizer applied. VCR is a simple and effective indi-
cator of nutrient effectiveness from an economic point of view. VCR was expressed as a ratio of eco-
nomic yield value (with and without fertilizer application) and the total costs of fertilizer applied.
Results of NAE and VCR calculations are given in Table 4.8. The mean values of NAE and VCR
varied among countries. The highest NAE (70) and VCR (8) using UDP were observed in Nigeria
and Madagascar, respectively. Mean values of NAE across all target countries were 39 for PU and
56 for UDP, indicating that UDP induced an increase of NAE by 28%. Similarly, mean VCR with
UDP was higher (6) than with PU (3.7), showing again an increase of 62%. These results clearly
show the economic superiority of UDP over PU and suggest that under African conditions, the
economics of UDP – instead of broadcast application of PU – offer an attractive N management
technology that merits to be scaled up. Even under adverse conditions such as submergence-prone
areas in northern Ghana, microdosing, deep placement of prilled urea, and urea briquette were more
economical than farmer’s practice and locally recommended practice (Table 4.9). UDP technology
can be considered as a climate-smart technology because it (1) sustainably increases agricultural
productivity and incomes; (2) adapts and builds resilience to climate change; and (3) reduces and/or
removes greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions (Gaihre et al., 2015).
Eighty percent of the soils in Africa are P deficient, but Africa has 4,457 million tons of rock
phosphate reserves representing about 75% of total world reserves of phosphate rock, and 42% of the
phosphate rock used by industry to produce P fertilizers in the world is produced in six countries in
Africa. SSA uses 1.6 kg P ha−1 of cultivated land compared to 7.9 and 14.9 kg P ha−1, respectively,
for Latin America and Asia.
Despite the fact that the deficiency of P is acute on the soils of Africa, local farmers use very little P
fertilizers because of high costs and problems with availability. The use of locally available phosphate
rock (PR) could be an alternative to imported P fertilizers. For example, Bationo et al. (1986) showed
that direct application of local PR may be more economical than imported water-soluble P fertilizers.
Bationo et al. (1990) showed that Tahoua PR from Niger is suitable for direct application, but Parc-W
84 Soil and Fertilizers
TABLE 4.8
Nitrogen Agronomic Efficiency and Value–Cost Ratio
for Prilled Urea and Urea Deep Placement Applied to
Irrigated Rice in 2009 in Eight African Countries
Technology
Farmer Practice – FP Urea Deep Placement – UDP
Country PU – NAE VCR UDP – NAE VCR
Niger 36 3.5 59 5.9
Nigeria 49 4.8 70 7.0
Madagascar 44 5.5 63 8.0
Mali 41 3.3 64 6.7
Senegal 50 3.5 69 7.3
Burkina 31 3.1 44 4.3
Rwanda 35 3.5 46 4.6
Togo 28 2.7 33 3.2
Mean 39 3.7 56 6.0
PU, Prilled Urea; NAE, Nitrogen Agronomic Efficiency; UDP, Urea Deep
Placement; VCR, Value–Cost Ratio.
TABLE 4.9
Rice Economic Benefits under Submergence Prone Conditions in Northern Ghana with
Various Nutrient Management Technologies
Additional Additional
Total Revenue for Revenue/kg
Grain Yield Total Revenue Production Cost Gross Profit Applied N of Applied N
Treatment (ton/ha) (GH¢/ha) (GH¢/ha) (GH¢/ha) (GH¢/ha) (GH¢)
Farmer’s practice – Basal 1.07 1,592 1,560 32 – –
NPK
Recommended (with urea 2.12 3,155 1,953 1,202 1,170 7.80
broadcast)
Modified recommended 4.84 6,667 2,021 4,646 4,614 30.76
(deep placement of prilled
urea)
Microdosing 3.89 5,789 2,005 3,784 3,752 39.08
UDP (urea briquette deep 5.26 7,515 2,044 5,471 5,439 48.13
placement)
from Burkina Faso has less potential for direct application. The effectiveness of local PR depends
on its chemical and mineralogical composition (Chien and Hammond 1978). Phosphate rocks can
be used as a soil amendment and the use of water-soluble P can be more profitable. Under certain
soil conditions, the direct application of PR, especially where available locally, has proved to be an
agronomically and economically sound alternative to the more expensive imported superphosphates.
Kodjari PR in Burkina Faso, Tahoua PR in Niger, and Tilemsi PR in Mali are mined and used for
Improving Soil Fertility through Fertilizer Management in Sub-Saharan Africa 85
soil P replenishment and crop production in the three countries. The effectiveness of PR depends on
its chemical and mineral composition, soil and climatic factors, and the crops to be grown. The solu-
bility of the three PRs in neutral Ammonium Citrate is 6.1%, 8.3%, and 10.4% for Kodjari, Tahoua,
and Tilemsi, respectively. While evaluating Parc-W and Tahoua PR indigenous to Niger using field
experiments, Parc-W was 48% as effective as Single Super Phosphate (SSP), whereas the effective-
ness of the more reactive Tahoua rock was as high as 76% compared to that of SSP for pearl millet
production (Bationo et al. 1990). In an on-station experiment in Burkina Faso, the relative effective-
ness of Kodjari was found to be 68% and 39% for millet and sorghum, respectively, whereas in an
on-farm experiment, the values were 54% and 50% (Lompo et al. 2018). A phosphate rock decision
support system (PRDSS) has been developed by IFDC to quantify the effectiveness of various PR
sources for direct application as influenced by the abovementioned factors.
The agricultural sector in Mali involves 80% of the population. However, less than 10% of the 2.7 m
ha of cultivated land receives fertilizers. The 70,000 tonnes of fertilizer imported per year is applied on
cash crops such as cotton, rice, and groundnuts. This amount is less than 15% of the nutrients exported
by the crops. The Tilemsi reserves of PR are estimated to be 20 m tonnes, and the production in 1991
used 18,560 tonnes of PR. For many years, Tilemsi PR was evaluated in different agroecological zones
in Mali. Henao and Baanante (1999a, 1999b) made a comprehensive analysis of the results, including
an economic evaluation, and concluded that Tilemsi PR is practically equivalent to TSP per unit of P2O5.
Various ways are used to improve the agronomic effectiveness of phosphates to make the products
more economically attractive. The biological means include (1) phosphocomposts, (2) inoculation
of seedlings with endomyccorhizae, (3) use of phosphate-solubilizing microorganisms, and (4) use
of plant genotypes. Chemical means include the partial acidulation of PR. Physical means include
(1) compacted PR with water-soluble phosphate products, (2) dry mixtures of PR with water-soluble
phosphate fertilizers and phosphate rock elemental sulfur assemblages. In Burkina Faso, Niger, and
Mali, partial acidulation of phosphate rock (PAPR) have been tested quite extensively, but very little
work has been done on other ways to improve the effectiveness of PR. PAPRs are prepared by react-
ing PRs, usually with H2SO4, in amounts less than that needed to make SSP or TSP. PARs may offer
an economic means of enhancing the agronomic effectiveness of indigenous PR sources that may oth-
erwise be unsuitable for direct application. In Burkina Faso, Lompo et al. (1994) found that the agro-
nomic effectiveness of Kodjari PR improved from 68% to 88% for pearl millet and from 39% to 81%
for sorghum when partially acidulated. In Niger, the partial acidulation of PARC-W PR increased its
agronomic effectiveness from 48% to 80% for pearl millet production (Bationo et al. 1990). Recent
IFDC studies have shown relatively low reactive PRs when compacted with 20% P from DAP or
MAP on a wide range of soils (pH 5.0–7.9) and were 75%–100% as effective as water-soluble P.
TABLE 4.10
Productivity of the Microdose Technology as Compared with the Actual Recommendation (Taonda, Unpublished Data)
Nutrient Applied
with Present Nutrient Applied Grain Yield in Grain Yield with Present Grain Yield NUE for NUE for Present Yield Increase with
Recommendation with the Farmers Field without Recommendation with Microdose Microdose Recommendation the Microdose over
Crop (kg/ha) Microdose (kg/ha) Fertilizer (kg/ha) (kg/ha) (kg/ha) (kg/kg) (kg/kg) the Control (%)
Maize 110N, 69 P2O5, 41N, 29P2O5, 1,600 2,500 3,200 18 4 100
42 K2O 17 K2O
Total = 221 Total = 87
Sorghum 40N, 23 P2O5, 8.7N, 14 P2O5, 620 1,700 900 35 4 174
14 K2O 8.7 K2O
Total = 77 Total = 31
Millet 40N, 23 P2O5, 8.7N, 14 P2O5, 600 1,200 650 19 3 100
14 K2O 8.7 K2O
Total = 77 Total = 31
Cowpea 14N, 23 P2O5, 8.7N, 14 P2O5, 600 1,200 850 19 4 100
14 K2O 8.7 K2O
Total = 51 Total = 31
Groundnut 14N, 23 P2O5, 8.7N, 14 P2O5, 650 1,200 1,200 18 11 85
14 K2O 8.7 K2O
Total = 51 Total = 31
Soil and Fertilizers
Improving Soil Fertility through Fertilizer Management in Sub-Saharan Africa 87
the microdose technology in Burkina Faso compared to the recommendation by the extension
services. Whereas the mode of application of the recommended rate by the extension is broad-
casting, the microdose technology consisted in applying the reduced rate of fertilizer in the hill
of the crop.
The following conclusions can be made from Table 4.9:
1. The rate of the fertilizer applied with the microdose technology is reduced by more than
half with the microdose technology. For example, for maize, while a total of 221 kg ha−1 is
used as per the present rate recommended by the extension services, the microdose tech-
nology will apply only 87 kg ha−1 of nutrient.
2. In most of the cases, the strategic application of nutrient with the microdose resulted
in higher grain yield as compared with the broadcasting of lager rates of nutrients. As
an example, for pearl millet the microdose used resulted in a grain yield production of
1,700 kg ha−1 as compared to 900 kg ha−1 with the broadcasting method.
3. The yield increase over the control due to the microdose ranged from 85% to 174%. Most
farmers can double their production with the adoption of the microdose technology.
Other reports have shown that crop yields from the nutrient-poor West African soils can be substan-
tially enhanced through the use of manure (McIntire et al. 1992; Sedogo 1993; Bationo and Buerkert
2001).
Several scientists have addressed the availability of manure for sustainable crop production. De
Leeuw et al. (1995) reported that with the present livestock systems in West Africa the potential
annual transfer of nutrients from manure is 2.5 kg N and 0.6 kg P per hectare of cropland. Although
the manure rates are between 5 and 20 t ha−1 in most of the on-station experiments, quantities used
by farmers are very low and ranged from 1,300 to 3,800 kg ha−1 (Williams et al. 1995). This is due
to insufficient number of animals to provide the manure needed, and the problem becomes more
pronounced in post-drought years (Williams et al. 1995). The amount of livestock feed and land
resources available are also limited. Depending on rangeland productivity, it will require between
10 and 40 hectares of dry-season grazing land and 3–10 hectares of rangeland of wet-season grazing
to maintain yields on one hectare of cropland using animal manure (Fernandez et al. 1995).
1 Based on unpublished data from the FAO, obtained by the author in 2019.
Improving Soil Fertility through Fertilizer Management in Sub-Saharan Africa 89
FIGURE 4.11 Impacts of secondary and micronutrients relative to NPK for maize rice and wheat in selected
SSA countries (Wendt, unpublished data).
the past decades, jeopardizing food security. The tendency of African rainfall to be both spatially
and temporally concentrated has important implications for fertilizer use. A survey of available
data found Africa levels of available water from rainfall at 12.7 cm year−1 compared to North
America at 25.8, South America at 64.8, and the world average at 24.9 (Brady 1990). Fertilizer is
commonly thought to increase risk in dryland farming, but in some situations it may be risk neu-
tral or even risk reducing. Phosphorus and shorter-duration millet varieties in Niger, for example,
cause crops to grow hardier and mature earlier, reducing damage from and exposure to drought
(ICRISAT 1985–88; Shapiro and Sanders 1998). A key constraint, though, is the availability of
fertilizer and the incentive for adopting fertility-enhancing crop rotations in these zones (Thomas
et al. 2004).
In the dry land of the Sahel, several scientists have reported that where the rainfall is more than
300 mm, the most limiting factor to crop production is nutrient and not water. Quantification of the
attainable yields under rainfed conditions with and without fertilization using crop growth simulation
models (Bindraban et al. 2000) with actual yield levels reveal great potential for productivity increase
(Conijn et al. 2011) through fertilization, presuming effective water harvesting (Figure 4.12).
90 Soil and Fertilizers
FIGURE 4.12 Average maize yield (left) around the year 2000 in tonnes dry matter per hectare harvest
(Monfreda et al. 2008) and calculated yield gap with maize yield potentials under rainfed and fertilized condi-
tions (right). (From Conijn, J.G., et al., Agricultural Resource Scarcity and Distribution: A Case Study of Crop
Production in Africa, Plant Research International, Wageningen, the Netherlands, 2011.)
Improving Soil Fertility through Fertilizer Management in Sub-Saharan Africa 91
TABLE 4.11
Water Use (WU), Grain Yield (Y) and Water Use Efficiency (WUE) for
Millet at Sadore and Dasso (Niger)
Sadore Dosso
Treatment WU (mm) Y (kg ha−1) WUE WU (mm) Y (kg ha−1) WUE
Fertilizer 382 1570 4.14 400 1700 4.25
Without fertilizer 373 460 1.24 381 780 2.04
These principles have been substantiated by numerous fields studies. At Sadore, where the annual
average rainfall is 560 mm, the nonuse of fertilizers resulted in a harvest of 1.24 kg of pearl millet
grain per mm of water, but the use of fertilizers resulted in the harvest of 4.14 kg of millet grain per
mm of water (Table 4.11).
Many development projects have invested billions of dollars in soil and water conservation. These
projects mostly did not include soil fertility improvement, and the water harvested in this manner
did not fulfill its full potential for productivity improvement. It is well known that fertilizers are a
key to improved water use efficiency, as water harvesting can also improve fertilizer use efficiency.
The Zai system is widely used in West Africa for water harvesting and soil conservation. The data
in Table 4.6 indicates that the use of Zai alone will not significantly improve the productivity (only
200 kg ha−1 of sorghum grain), but when the Zai is associated with manure and fertilizer, large crop
yield increases can be obtained (1,700 kg ha−1 of sorghum grain) (Table 4.12).
The mineral fertilizer microdosing (MD) technique was disseminated in the North Sudanian
zone of Burkina Faso for three years using various extension tools. This study aims to analyze the
economic efficiency as well as farmers’ perception of the use of MD technique. Quantitative and
qualitative data were collected from 60 demonstration plots conducted by innovative farmers and
from 300 households using an interview guide during the focus groups. The results of the demon-
stration trials show that this innovation significantly increases sorghum productivity compared to
farmer’s practice. It even triples sorghum yields when combined with soil and water conservation
(SWC) techniques and the use of improved seed varieties. The efficiency of mineral fertilizers by
microdose in association with SWC techniques was assessed through the evaluation of yields and
incomes from the different treatments on the demonstration plots.
Microdose fertilization resulted in significant increases in sorghum grain yields of 100% and
186% with the local seed variety and the improved seed variety, respectively, compared to the
TABLE 4.12
Effect of “Zai” on Sorghum Yields
Technology Sorghum Yield (kg ha−1) Yield Increase (%)
Only planting pits (Zai) 200 –
Zai + Cattle manure 700 250
Zai + Mineral fertilizers 1400 600
Zai + Cattle manure and fertilizers 1700 750
Source: Reij, C., et al., Sustaining the Soil: Indigenous Soil and Water Conservation in Africa,
Earthscan, London, 1996.
92 Soil and Fertilizers
FIGURE 4.13 Response of sorghum to MD combined with SWC techniques. NoMD + NoSWC = with-
out Microdose and without SWC techniques; NoMD+SWC = without Microdose with SWC techniques;
MD+NoSWC = Microdose without SWC techniques; MD+SWC = Microdose with SWC techniques. (Source:
Ouattara, B. et al., Improving agronomic efficiency of mineral fertilizers through microdose on sorghum
in the sub-arid zone of Burkina Faso, in Bationo, A., Ngaradoum, D., Youl, S., Lompo, F., and Fening, J.O.
(Eds.), Volume 1, Improving the Profitability, Sustainability and Efficiency of Nutrients through Site Specific
Fertilizer Recommendations in West Africa Agro-Ecosystems, Springer, the Netherlands, 2018.)
control (Figure 4.13). Its effects are even greater when combined with SWC techniques. This com-
bined use of techniques on the local and improved varieties yielded increases of 158% and 300%,
respectively, compared to the absolute control. The yields obtained with the SWC techniques
alone were higher than those of the control, but lower compared to those with the microdose
alone.
FIGURE 4.14 Sorghum grain yield as affected by mineral and organic fertilizers over time. (Source: Bationo,
A. et al., Integrated nutrient management – Concepts and experience from sub-Saharan Africa, in Aulakh,
M.S., and Grant, C.A. (Eds.), Integrated Nutrient Management for Sustainable Crop Production, CRC Press,
New York, 2007a.)
climatic conditions. Such responses are often of a complex and nonlinear nature, given the innumer-
able interactions among weather, soil, crop, and management factors throughout the growing season.
Crop models can also provide insights as to what might happen to productivity under various climate
change scenarios, a domain beyond the reach of field experimentation. The outputs can inform key
decision makers at local, national, and regional levels in order to put the appropriate measures in
place. Although major advances in modeling have been made in the US, Europe, and Asia, SSA lags
behind due to the limited number of soil scientists and agronomists with the skills to set up and run
crop model simulations. Having a well-trained cadre of African modelers would greatly facilitate
the design of best crop management and adaptation measures in the varied environments and boost
agricultural productivity in the region. Based on validation trials and simulation experiment outputs,
Dzotsi and colleagues (2003) developed leaflets to help farmers in southern Togo choose between
varieties as a function of preferred time of sowing and expected yield range. The use of models in
decision support is important as field experiments provide empirical data on responses to only a small
number of possible combinations of climate, soil, and management situations. Also, existing manage-
ment systems from other regions, new crops and varieties, and other technologies being developed by
scientists may provide useful adaptation options. However, it is impossible to conduct experiments
that cover the full range of possible management options and climate conditions to determine produc-
tion systems that are more resilient to climate variability, potential changes in climate, and farmers’
goals. Nix (1984) criticized the predominance of a “trial and error” approach in agricultural research
for evaluating management practices. He emphasized the need for a systems approach in which: (1)
experiments are conducted over a range of environments, (2) a minimum set of data is collected in
each experiment, (3) cropping system models are developed and evaluated, and (4) models are used
to simulate production technologies under different weather and soil conditions so as to provide a
broad range of potential solutions for farmers. Nix (1984) referred to the high cost of field experi-
ments in addition to their limited extrapolation domain because results are site specific. Yet it should
be realized that models are a simplification of the real conditions, unable to simulate a large number
of relevant agrotechnical interventions for the African continent. The temporal dimension of crop
sequences or interactions in intercropping on water, nutrients, and weed and disease infestation are
poorly understood and not or only poorly captured in models. Models accounting for nutrients are
limited to N and P, with the exception of K for limited crops (Singh et al. 2007). Descriptive approach
models such as QUEFTS (Janssen et al. 1990) and optimizing fertilizer recommendations in Africa
(OFRA) (Wortmann and Sones 2017) capture N, P, and K responses and interactions. OFRA fertilizer
optimization tools develop and fine-tune fertilizer recommendations within an integrated soil fertility
management framework. While SOM dynamics is simulated by DSSAT (Hoogenboom et al. 2017)
and APSIM (Keating et al. 2003) models, a better understanding of organic matter dynamics under
tropical conditions with very low organic matter content is needed to improve the capability of exist-
ing simulation models. Likewise, current models do not simulate micronutrient response. Despite
these limitations, crop model use improvements should be encouraged in SSA to help reinforce the
existing yield gaps as well as highlight knowledge gaps. Ongoing projects such as AgMIP2 are includ-
ing researchers and policymakers from SSA and other developing regions to promote the use of crop
models and model improvements relevant to the developing world.
SMaRT is an acronym for Soil analysis, Mapping, Recommendations development, and Technology
Transfer (Wendt and Muthubia, 2017). The concept behind SMaRT is to get better fertilizers to farm-
ers for a given crop and region that substantially and sustainably outperform fertilizers currently
2 http://www.agmip.org/.
Improving Soil Fertility through Fertilizer Management in Sub-Saharan Africa 95
used by farmers. Sustainability is addressed by using “balanced” fertilizers, which have a bal-
ance of macro, secondary, and micronutrients that address predominant nutrient deficiencies. Lime
Recommendations may be part of a SMaRT recommendation when lime is required.
This approach involves:
1. Soil sampling. Assess the extent of nutrient and soil acidity constraints through large-
scale country-wide georeferenced soil sampling, followed by chemical soil analysis by
certified laboratories.
2. Soil mapping of nutrient deficiencies at country level. Maps of all soil nutrients create
national recognition of the extent of nutrient deficiencies and soil acidity constraints.
Nutrient maps generate the momentum to move away from traditional NPK fertilizers.
Soil nutrient maps will guide the research community as to which constraints are most
likely, and where they exist. This is the first step toward creating and validating balanced
fertilizer formulations. Soil maps are a public good that guides fertilizer policy and assists
the fertilizer industry to meet anticipated demand.
3. Recommendations. Based on soil maps, “best-bet” crop and soil-specific fertilizers are
developed and tested. Best-bet formulations form the basis for evaluating yield gains and
economic returns versus current formulations available to farmers, a prerequisite to invest-
ing in improved formulations. Further trials (“nutrient omission trials”) are conducted to
evaluate the yield and economic contribution of each nutrient in the fertilizer formula-
tion, allowing for fine-tuning of formulations. Farmers’ awareness is created through large
numbers (thousands) of farmer-led demonstrations.
4. Technology Transfer. Recommendations alone will not deliver technology to farmers,
because many private-sector operatives are in the fertilizer value chain and are collectively
seen as the “go-to people” for all aspects of fertilizer knowledge, from marketing to techni-
cal support.
In addition to increasing yield and resource efficiency, balanced mineral fertilizers can contribute
to increasing the nutritional value of crop produce to improve human nutrition and health. They can
also improve plant health to reduce biocide use, stimulate plant robustness to enhance tolerance to
abiotic stresses, and increase metabolite production to improve taste and shelf life. We refrain from
further elaborating these latter benefits that contribute to enhancing the resilience of production
systems as they have been described by Bindraban et al. (2018).
The potential contribution of micronutrient-containing fertilizers has yet to be exploited, but
initial evidence for some elements, including Zn and Se, are very promising. Micronutrient defi-
ciencies, or “hidden hunger,” affect the lives of approximately 2 billion people around the world.
In developing countries, more than 10 million children under the age of five die each year; 60% of
these deaths are related to malnutrition. About 1.6 billion people are anemic due to iron deficiency,
vitamin A deficiency results in the death of around 1 million children each year, iodine deficiency
during pregnancy contributes to the mental impairment of nearly 20 million babies annually, and
deficiency in zinc is responsible for about 800,000 deaths annually from diarrhea, pneumonia, and
malaria in children under five. Agriculture can play an important role in combating hidden hunger
and its consequences.
Traditionally, fertilizers have been used to maintain or restore soil fertility, increase crop
yield, and, to a lesser extent, improve crop quality. Their management has been progressively
improved to optimize their economic return, while minimizing negative impacts on the environ-
ment. More recently, there has been increasing attention to another dimension: managing fertil-
izers such that they also contribute to healthy and productive lives for all. While fertilizer has been
96 Soil and Fertilizers
highly influential in increasing the quantity of food produced, it also holds enormous potential for
improving human welfare by improving the quality of food. To eradicate the multifaceted aspects
of human suffering, the future food (chain) challenge will be to continue increasing available food
quantities at affordable prices, while simultaneously enhancing food quality to address hidden
hunger as well.
IFDC proposes to exploit the potentials of “agronomic fortification,” that is, the application of
mineral SMN-containing NPK fertilizers to soils and/or plant leaves to increase nutrient contents
of edible plant parts. Apart from the nutrient composition, the mode and timing of application
also determines in which organ nutrients will accumulate. Based on organ-specific biological
needs, foliar application could be suggested for Fe, Cu, Mn, and Zn; root application for Mo
and Ni; while B, Cl, Cu, and Zn could be provided through both foliar and soil (Dimkpa and
Bindraban 2016).
Protein deficiency in foodstuffs result from a lack of N, and S needed for essential amino acids
like methionine and cysteine. Protein content can be increased by postanthesis nitrogen application
(Worland et al. 2017). The expression of the genetic potential of biofortified crops could be maxi-
mized with adequate availability of micronutrients in the soil or from SMN fertilization (Cakmak
2008). Mandated blending of Se in fertilizers by the Finnish government increased Se levels of
125 indigenous food items including wheat, meat, and dairy products, raising the human intake of
Se to sufficient intake levels (Eurola et al. 1991).
Awareness among policymakers, NGOs, and the general public about the multiple goals that
fertilizers can deliver could catalyze a process of transformation of the fertilizer sector through
public–private initiatives in order to unlock these potentials (Bindraban et al. 2018). More effective
and efficient fertilizers that increase the economic volume in the fertilizer value chain may sup-
port the last mile delivery of smart balanced fertilizers. Appropriate site-specific fertilizers with
a limited spatial reach and consequently small volumes only, and containing multiple macro- and
micronutrients, call for adoption of novel business models by the fertilizer industry. The adoption
of fertilizers by farmers, even when fully meeting site-specific and farmers’ demand, will have to
be accompanied by well-orchestrated actions by fertilizer value chain actors that provide affordable
inputs and credits and reliable markets to farmers. Government incentives are imperative to support
the creations of these enabling conditions, as are the efforts of knowledgeable development orga-
nizations, such as the IFDC, for training and educating chain actors in good agricultural practices
and agribusiness.
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5 The Storage of Organic Carbon
in Dryland Soils of Africa
Constraints and Opportunities
Brahim Soudi, Rachid Bouabid, and Mohamed Badraoui
CONTENTS
5.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 103
5.2 Soil Organic Carbon Status................................................................................................... 104
5.3 Kinetics of Soil Organic Carbon Evolution........................................................................... 106
5.4 Scenarios of Soil Organic Carbon Evolution......................................................................... 107
5.5 What Is the Possible Margin for Carbon Storage in Soils of Drylands?............................... 108
5.6 Factors Determining Carbon Storage Capacity in Dryland Soils......................................... 110
5.6.1 Quantity of Crop Residues......................................................................................... 110
5.6.2 Nature of Crop Residues............................................................................................ 110
5.6.3 C/N Ratio: A Still-Practical Indicator for Organic Matter Decomposition.............. 111
5.6.4 Mineralization versus Humification in Drylands...................................................... 112
5.6.5 Effect of Soil Texture................................................................................................. 113
5.6.6 Carbon Status and Intensive Cultivation in Dry Irrigated Areas.............................. 114
5.7 Trees of Constraints and Solution for Carbon Sequestration in Dry Areas.......................... 115
5.7.1 Constraints Hierarchy................................................................................................ 115
5.7.2 Solutions Hierarchy................................................................................................... 116
5.7.2.1 Conservation Agriculture............................................................................ 116
5.7.2.2 Fallow.......................................................................................................... 116
5.7.2.3 Crop Rotations............................................................................................ 117
5.7.2.4 Agroforestry and Tree Cropping................................................................. 118
5.7.2.5 Mixed and Intercropping............................................................................ 118
5.7.2.6 Organic Amendments and Composting...................................................... 119
5.7.2.7 Fertilizer Use and Soil Nutrient Status....................................................... 119
5.7.2.8 Afforestation and Rangeland Rehabilitation.............................................. 121
5.7.3 Comparative Benefits of Sustainable Land Management Technologies.................... 122
5.8 Conclusions............................................................................................................................ 123
List of Abbreviations....................................................................................................................... 124
References....................................................................................................................................... 124
5.1 INTRODUCTION
By definition, drylands include arid, semi-arid, and dry sub-humid zones. They represent about
43% of the total surface area of the African continent and cover more than 70% of agricultural
land. About 50% of the population of Africa lives in these areas and is significantly vulnerable in
terms of food insecurity. Climate change, which is expected to increase the frequency and severity
of extreme weather events, will exacerbate the vulnerability of these lands if effective adaptation
and resilience actions are not undertaken. The livelihoods of most dryland populations depend on
103
104 Soil and Fertilizers
natural resource–based activities, such as agriculture and livestock. Forced to meet urgent short-
term needs, households resort to unsustainable practices, resulting in strong pressure on the natural
resources, loss of biodiversity, and severe soil degradation. One of the crucial factors considered as a
cause and a consequence of agroecosystem vulnerability in dry areas is soil degradation (Biancalani
et al. 2015). Various interacting processes of such degradation include water and wind erosion, sali-
nization, and loss of organic matter (OM). These processes lead to a decrease of the soil health,
productivity, as well as its capacity for reducing carbon (C) emissions into the atmosphere.
Studies on the understanding of the dynamics of soil organic matter (SOM) in different soil and
climate contexts of the world have been extensively addressed, and their scientific bases remain cur-
rent (Hénin and Depuis 1945; Hénin et al. 1959; Jenny 1941; Laudelout 1993; Bremer et al. 1995;
Janzen et al. 1997). Hénin and Dupuis (1945) developed for the first time balance equations for SOM
decomposition, Hénin and Monnier (1959) addressed the physical and biochemical determinants of the
dynamics of SOM, and Laudelout et al. (1960) established quantitative relations between the content
of SOM and climate. These and many other research studies were motivated by the need to understand
soil genesis, to improve soil properties and productivity, and to elucidate the interrelationship between
plant nutrition and C and nitrogen (N) biogeochemical cycles. Studies included laboratory and field
experiments involving long-term trials and modeling approaches. More recently, Campbell and Paustian
(2015) conducted a fairly comprehensive literature review on developments in SOM modeling. The cur-
rent concerns related to climate change drive the interest in mitigating greenhouse gases (GHG) and
adaptation to climate change in soils, particularly through SOC sequestration (Lal 2004b).
This chapter discusses the status of soil organic carbon (SOC) in the agricultural soils of Africa
with an attempt to debate some of the underpinning issues that remain relevant despite the abundant
literature on this topic.
FIGURE 5.1 (a) Soil organic carbon in topsoil in Africa (drawn using data from Soil Grid/ISRIC, 2018;
www.soilgrids.org); (b) aridity zones in Africa (Adapted using data from Millennium Ecosystem Assessment,
2018; www.millenniumassessment.org.).
106 Soil and Fertilizers
The crucial issue for drylands lies in the predominance of mineralization over humification.
The question is, How can the trend of loss of SOM occurring at variable rates and magnitudes be
reversed? Scientifically, how can these antagonistic mineralization–humification processes be acted
on in order to favor C sequestration, while taking into account the temperature rise (favorable to
mineralization) due to climate change, extreme events (mainly droughts) affecting biomass produc-
tion, low nutrient input (N and P), low residues return, etc.? Undoubtedly, it is theoretically accepted
and scientifically proven that the storage of C in the soil contributes to reducing GHG emissions
(Lal 2004). Although global carbon mass balances are well established, in order to move from
theory to practice, and to make this concept a reality, it would be necessary to go through a drastic
change in terms of farming systems as well as in terms of farmer attitudes and practices. In parallel,
a series of questions yet under discussion at international level needs to be objectively addressed:
(1) What is the maximum level of SOC storage that is biochemically feasible in dry agroecological
zones of Africa? (2) What is the time required for C sequestration, taking into consideration the
amount of fresh OM incorporated in the soil and the simultaneous halftimes of humification and
mineralization processes? (3) What are the most adapted agroecological innovations in favor of
C sequestration in the conditions of African agriculture? and (4) What are the perception and the
degree of acceptance of small farmers with respect to these innovations?
Humification versus mineralization under dryland farming is a dilemma that needs particular
attention. When the process of humification is dominant, SOM decomposition results in appreciable
amounts of the stable humus that plays a major role in the definition of the soil fertility; humus
buildup will contribute to C accumulation and therefore to C sequestration, depending on the rate of
return to an equilibrium state that depends, in turn, on various local climatic and biophysical factors.
When the process of mineralization is dominant, SOM decomposition results in high amounts of
mineral constituents that can contribute to nutrient bioavailability for crops, but on the other hand,
a continuous depletion of OM will take place. This is particularly true when the organic residues
returned to the soil are rich in N (i.e., low C/N). The same process applies for organic amendments,
such as N-rich farm manures. In drylands, where crop seasons are characterized by high tempera-
tures and appreciable precipitations, annual SOM depletion is very important (FAO 2004).
The issue of humification versus mineralization has been raised in reaction to the 4-per-mille
(4pm) initiative for soil C sequestration proposed by France in support of the Conference of Parties
(COP) 21 (Paris, France, 2016) and later discussed during the COP 22 (Marrakech, Morocco, 2017).
The 4PM initiative advocates for an increase of 0.4% of SOM annually. This rate of increase would
undoubtedly result in significant annual accumulation of SOM. However, the pertinence and feasi-
bility of such a rate in drylands, particularly those in Africa, is subject to debate. If the objective of
a 0.4% increase is possible under humid and temperate regions, it is very difficult to achieve in the
dryland agricultural soils of Africa, mainly due to the low recycling of OM in most areas, as well as
to the dominance of the mineralization process.
Therefore, SOM management as a key component of soil fertility and as a potential sink of C
sequestration faces major challenges in the dryland agriculture of Africa from the various dimen-
sions of climate and pedoclimate conditions, cropping systems, and farmer practices. The interac-
tions among these dimensions vary from one region to another and create a multitude of situations
that need to be considered at the local scale. Managing SOM in arid subsistence smallholders of
Africa would be completely different from that of the arid large farms of North America.
dC/dt = − k ⋅ C, (5.1)
The Storage of Organic Carbon in Dryland Soils of Africa 107
TABLE 5.1
SOM Decomposition Rates (k) and Corresponding Half-Lives for Various Cropping Systems
k/yr−1 Half-Life (years) Cropping System/Region Source
0.33 2.1 Maize–Rice/Zaire Laudelout and Meyer (1954)
0.0608 11 Continuous Maize/Ohio, US Jenny (1941)
0.052 13 Quinquennial rotation/Ohio, US Salter and Green (1933)
0.07 10 Continuous and alternate cereals with fallow/Kansas, US Myers et al. (1943)
0.22 3.1 Fallow/Puerto Rico Smith et al. (1951)
Source: Laudelout, H., Bilan de la matière organique du sol: le modèle de Hénin (1945), In Mélanges offerts à Stéphane
Hénin: Sol – agronomie – environnement. ORSTOM, Paris, pp. 117–123, 1993.
where C is carbon content, t is time, and k is the evolution rate (accumulation or depletion).
The integration of this equation from t0 to t, respectively corresponding to C0 and C, gives the fol-
lowing equation:
A = C0 ⋅ e( − kt ) (5.2)
The half-life t1/2 corresponds to the time required for the accumulation or the depletion of 50% of
the initial C0. The log transformation of equation (5.2) allows calculating t1/2. For a situation of
depletion, at t1/2 C = C0/2, therefore:
ln ( C / C0 ) = − k ⋅ t1/ 2 (5.3)
and
=
t1/ 2 ln=
(2)/ k 0.693/ k.
Two important deductions can be drawn from this result: (1) the evolution of SOC, and therefore
of its storage or depletion, is not a linear process but follows a first-order kinetic; (2) the theoreti-
cal humification or mineralization half-life of the initial C content (C0) occurs in terms of years,
depending on soil and climate conditions. Table 5.1 shows that values of t1/2 vary from about 2 years
for a k rate of 0.33 year−1 in the conditions of Zaire for a rice (Oryza spp.)–maize (Zea mays) rotation
(Laudelout and Meyer 1951), to about 13 years for a k rate of 0.0608 yr−1 in the conditions of Ohio
for a continuous maize (Jenny 1941). Estimated values of half-lives from other studies of steady
state SOC decomposition are in the range of 5 to 20 years (Haas and Evans 1957; Mann 1986;
Davidson and Ackerman 1993; Bremer et al. 1995). In drylands, the SOC evolution half-life t1/2
would vary from 5 to 10 years depending on climatic and biophysical conditions.
FIGURE 5.3 Idealistic and feasible options for soil organic carbon recovery and storage under dryland
conditions.
C(r) = carbon level from which recovery is triggered
C0(n) = f(climate, soil properties, ideally all management practices adopted)
C(b) = f(climate, soil properties, management practices business as usual)
C(f) = f(climate, soil properties, feasible management practices adopted)
C(ia) = f(climate, soil properties, innovative management actions and practices adopted)
triggered from a given point on the curve of depletion, the increase of SOC (rate and maximum soil
carbon) would depend on the various factors discussed earlier. This recovery is a major challenge
that would require sustained efforts in terms of overcoming factors of disturbance and adopting
appropriate management practices, as well as operating significant changes on farmers’ attitudes
and behaviors. The recovery trend would follow a first-order kinetics and would require several
years. The reconstitution half-life of the lost C would be in general slow, from 5 to 10 years depend-
ing on the local context.
Ultimately, if all conditions are favorable, the recovery of SOC would rise back toward the
“idealistic” natural initial storage capacity C(n) (trend b). However, this trend seems challenging,
knowing that in most cases, it would be difficult to guarantee all the necessary conditions for a
positive and increasing annual balance of SOC. For instance, a soil that has undergone significant
degradation by water erosion as a result of land cover degradation and subsequent organic matter
loss would be unlikely to restore to its initial situation despite rigorous efforts.
The alternative trend for SOC sequestration when adopting a set of “feasible” agricultural prac-
tices that favor SOC storage would be a new state of equilibrium C0(f) that depends on the local
context (trend c), and that would be less than C0(n). Therefore, it is emphasized here that reversing the
trends of C storage in dryland soils would depend greatly on the local conditions (climate, soil prop-
erties, and management practices). Farmers can move forward to only a set of feasible management
practices according to their local context (farm size, cropping systems, level of input, productivity,
income, advisory, government support, degree of adoption of innovations, etc.). The SOC would be
eventually enhanced from the “business as usual” level (C(b)) to the “maximum feasible level” (C(f)),
but would not reach the idealistic maximum level (C0(n)).
Under special conditions relying on forced action measures, it is possible to increase SOC to a
level (C(ia)) beyond the idealistic level. This situation is optimistically achievable, but would require
110 Soil and Fertilizers
the introduction of innovative management practices and assumes no limiting factors to their imple-
mentation (adaptation, sufficient long-term funding, acceptance by farmers, capacity building,
advisory, policy, etc.).
FIGURE 5.4 Quantities of residues returned by different crops in arid irrigated areas in Morocco. (From
Soudi, B. et al., Proble ́matique de gestion de la matière organique des sols: Cas des pe ́rimètres irrigue ́s
du Tadla et des Doukkala, in Se ́minaire “Intensification agricole et qualite ́ des sols et des eaux,” Rabat,
2–3 Novembre 2000, B. Soudi (ed.), pp. 25–30, 2000.)
The Storage of Organic Carbon in Dryland Soils of Africa 111
FIGURE 5.5 Biochemical fractions of crop residues in irrigated dryland soils in Morocco. (Adapted from
Soudi, B. et al., Proble ́matique de gestion de la matière organique des sols: Cas des pe ́rimètres irrigue ́s
du Tadla et des Doukkala. In Se ́minaire “Intensification agricole et qualite ́ des sols et des eaux,” Rabat,
2–3 Novembre 2000, B. Soudi (ed.), pp. 25–30, 2000.)
high concentrations of fiber generate more stable C in the soil. Lignin is degraded almost entirely
to phenolic compounds with polymerization properties leading to stable humic substances (Datta
et al. 2017). Organic residues decompose differently depending on their biochemical composition
(Guggenberger 2005; Bouajila et al. 2014). Residues rich in lignin are difficult to decompose due to
the recalcitrance of these macromolecules. Cellulose, the main constituent of the cell wall structure,
is easily biodegradable, but becomes less biodegradable if coated with hemicellulose, which has a
higher degree of polymerization. When hemicellulose becomes encrusted in lignin, it also becomes
protected from rapid decomposition (Guggenberger 2005).
that mineralization is dominant for C/N values less than 22.7, that concurrent mineralization–
immobilization occurs for C/N values exceeding 30, while immobilization becomes dominant
for high C/N values (>78).
where C is organic carbon, k h is the humification rate, fOC is the fresh organic carbon in the crop
residues, k m2 is the secondary mineralization, and Cs is the stable SOC; and using the example of
data reported by Soudi (2000) and Naman et al. (2015) for Mediterranean conditions, mainly (1) an
average quantity of residues returned of 1.5 Mg ha−1, (2) an average humification rate (k h) of about
15% for most crop residues, (3) an average annual OM mineralization rate (k m2) of about 2.5%, and
(4) an average stable SOC content of about 0.7%, the apparent annual deficit of SOC is estimated to
be about 0.3 Mg ha−1.
This clearly shows that current farming systems in drylands are part of a trend of SOC losses
that are not expected to be counterbalanced by stable C production. A study by Naman et al. (2015)
showed that the rate of compensation of C depleted by mineralization in the case of arid irrigated
FIGURE 5.6 Soil organic carbon evolution in the soil (k h: rate of humification; k m1: rate of primary miner-
alization; k m2: rate of secondary mineralization).
The Storage of Organic Carbon in Dryland Soils of Africa 113
FIGURE 5.7 Compensation rate of the mineralized organic carbon by humification for selected crop residues
in three different soil types. (Adapted from Naman, F. et al., J. Mater. Environ. Sci., 6, 3574–3581, 2015.)
areas in Morocco varies from 4% to 32% depending on soil type and the nature of residue returned
(Figure 5.7). Wheat (with the highest C/N ratio) showed the highest compensation rates among the
five crops, and the calcium-rich Mollisol showed the highest values among the three soil types.
TABLE 5.2
Comparison of Some Dynamic Parameters of Organic Matter
in Topsoil Layer (0–10 cm) in Two Contrasting Arid Zones of
Morocco: Chaouia (Rainfed) and Tadla (Intensive Irrigated)
Parameters Chaouia (Rainfed) Tadla (Intensive Irrigated)
Organic C (g/kg) 13.0 23.3
Organic N (g/kg) 1.4 2.2
Hydrolyzable-N (mg/kg) 915.6 1192
Amino-acid-N (mg/kg) 428.8 603.4
Clay fixed-ammonium (mg/kg) 71.3 120.8
Source: Soudi, B. et al., Problématique de gestion de la matière organique des sols: Cas
des périmètres irrigués du Tadla et des Doukkala. In Séminaire “Intensification
agricole et qualité des sols et des eaux,” Rabat, 2–3 Novembre 2000, B. Soudi
(ed.), pp. 25–30, 2000.
The Storage of Organic Carbon in Dryland Soils of Africa 115
FIGURE 5.8 Hierarchy tree of constraints to stable carbon production (causes are not in order of importance).
116 Soil and Fertilizers
areas would be to close the gap in the current (often deficient) level and the C0 level (Figure 5.3) which is
somehow equivalent to the maximum C storage capacity in its stable form in a given soil.
On the other hand, and as mentioned above with regard to the influence of soil type, the physical
and physicochemical links between OM and soil mineral particles mean that soils do not have the
same ability to store stable SOC. For instance, it is well established that the OM content of sandy
soils is always lower than that of clay soils. Calcium-saturated soils (calcareous soils) have often
more stable SOC than acid soils. Moreover, it is prudent to avoid comparing, in absolute terms, the
values of the C or OM contents between such contrasting soils. In fact, a sandy soil with an OM
content of 1% could be considered richer than a clay soil with a content of 2%. This argues further
for (1) the effect of fine clay particles on the level of protection of C against mineralization, and (2)
the difficulty of trying to exceed the maximum C storage capacity of the soil (i.e., natural equilib-
rium C0(n)). It is somewhat comforting that these observations are based on “stable carbon” rather
than “total C including that of fresh OM.”
5.7.2 Solutions Hierarchy
It is crucial to underline that even if it is difficult to close the gap toward higher levels of SOC in
African soils, their potential for C storage is quantitatively important. Africa counts a vast area of
arable (205 millions ha) and potentially arable (870 millions ha) land. The amount of C sequestration
potential in African drylands estimated by current soil carbon stocks for continental Africa have
been calculated as 80.1 Gt C for the 0–30 cm layers and 74.5 Gt C for the depth of 30–100 cm
(a total of 154.6 Gt C for 0–100 cm depth) (Jones et al. 2013). By adopting feasible and viable agri-
cultural practices as succinctly illustrated in Figure 5.8, a solutions tree is deduced by reversing the
constraints in Figure 5.9.
Implementing these solutions in the real world, through agroecological innovations that pro-
mote carbon storage, requires drastic changes in African farming systems, particularly in rainfed
arid and semiarid areas. Solutions need to target also changes of attitudes and behaviors, not only
at the farmer level, but also at all levels of decision-making (policy, research-development, advi-
sory, etc.). The main agricultural practices likely to maximize the socioeconomic benefits for
farmers and at the same time promote the C stock in soils are briefly described below (not in order
of importance).
5.7.2.2 Fallow
Fallow plays multiple roles in the sequestration of soil C. When the soil is left uncultivated, a
protective spontaneous vegetation cover takes place. This is particularly beneficial in dry areas
where the soil is exposed to erosion. Soil moisture is preserved, especially in the deep layers,
The Storage of Organic Carbon in Dryland Soils of Africa 117
FIGURE 5.9 Carbon storage solutions tree: converting the constraints (Figure 5.8) into solutions.
and improves biomass production. The vegetation cover represents a sink for photosyntheti-
cally fixed C that becomes available for potential return and sequestration in the soil after plant
senescence. In Nigeria, a study showed that deforestation caused a decline in soil carbon from
25 to 13.5 Mg ha−1 in seven years, but after 12–13 years of bush fallow, the soil restored its total
carbon content.
favor of storing SOC. Therefore, it is important to consider introducing other rotations with crops that
leave residues of high C/N ratios that can be practiced in an alternating manner with those involving
legumes.
practice. Cong et al. (2015b) demonstrated a divergence in soil organic carbon (C) and nitrogen
(N) content over a seven-year field experiment in which they compared rotational strip intercrop
systems and ordinary crop rotations. Soil organic C content in the top 20 cm was 4% greater
in intercrops than in sole crops, corresponding to an average difference in C sequestration rate
among these systems of 184 kg C ha−1 yr−1. Soil organic N content in the top 20 cm was 11%
greater in intercrops than in sole crops, indicating also an average difference in N sequestration
rate of 45 kg N ha−1 yr−1.
Other studies reported that the mix of residues from intercropping can accelerate or inhibit
decomposition depending on the nature of the resulting residue mixture, their biochemical compo-
sition, and their C/N ratio. Cong et al. (2015a) reported different decomposition rate trends depend-
ing on the crops involved in the intercropping. SOM in strip intercrop plots decomposed faster than
in monocrop plots with a lower soil C/N ratio of the mixed residues. Root litter mixtures of maize
(Zea mays) and wheat (Triticum aestivum) decomposed as expected from single litters, but a litter
mixture of maize and faba bean (Vicia faba) decomposed faster than expected.
TABLE 5.3
Changes in SOC for Different Land Use Conversions in Sub-Saharan
Africa, Based on Selected Long-Term Studies
Change in Land Use Mean Min. Max.
Region From To Mg C ha−1 yr−1 SOC Gainsa N
HS Natural Cultivated −0.90 −1.00 −0.80 2
forest Fallow −0.57 −1.14 0.00 2
Cultivated Fallow 1.06 0.23 2.77 100.0 9
Afforestation 0.12 −0.29 0.56 71.4 21
WSS Cultivated Cultivated CR 0.19 — — 1
Cultivated F 0.05 — — 1
Cultivated NT 0.33 −1.00 1.30 66.7 6
Fallow 1.37 0.10 5.30 100.0 10
Afforestation 0.07 −0.98 0.57 50.0 9
Cultivated M Fallow −0.14 — — 1
Fallow Cultivated −0.11 −0.18 −0.06 2
Savanna Cultivated 0.05 0.00 0.15 33.3 5
Cultivated C −0.12 −0.15 −0.09 3
Cultivated CR −0.06 −0.13 0.15 20.0 2
Cultivated F 0.09 0.00 0.20 66.7 5
Cultivated M 0.04 −0.52 0.94 33.3 3
ESS Savanna Cultivated −2.77 −5.30 −0.77 3
Woodland Cultivated 0.36 — — 4
Cultivated M 0.55 — — 1
SA Savanna Cultivated −0.82 −1.26 −0.40 4
Fallow 0.00 — — 1
Pasture 0.05 −0.31 0.40 50.0 2
Pasture Afforestation −0.16 −0.19 −0.13 2
Fallow Cultivated −0.75 — — 1
Source: Vågen, T.G. et al., Land Degrad. Dev., 16, 53–71, 2005.
Studies sources: Agbenin and Goladi (1997); Aweto (1981); Bationo et al. (2000); Dominy and
Haynes (2002); Drechsel et al. (1991); Feller et al. (1981); Glaser et al. (2001);
Hartemink (1970, 1995); Impala (2001); Juo et al. (1995); Lal (2000); Manlay
(2000); Materechera and Mkhabela (2001); Morris and Gray (1984); Onim
et al. (1990); Pieri (1989); Solomon et al. (2000, 2002); Trouve et al. (1994).
Note: HS = Humid and Subhumid; WSS = West Sudanian Savanna; ESS = East Sudanian
Savanna; SA = Southern Africa; Cultivated M = w/manure; Cultivated C = w/cover
crops; Cultivated CR = w/crop residues; Cultivated F = NPK fertilizers only; Cultivated
NT = no-till; N = number of observations.
a Percent of observations with net gain (>0).
relative SOC increases of 10%, 15.4%, 19.5%, and 36.2%, respectively. The C sequestration durations
were estimated to be 28–73 years under CFS and 26–117 years under CFM, but with high variability
across climatic regions. At least 2.0 Mg ha−1 yr−1 C input is needed to maintain the SOC in about
85% of the cases examined. They highlighted a great C sequestration potential of applying CF,
and observed that adopting CFS and CFM is highly important for either improving or maintaining
SOC stocks across all agroecosystems. Liu and Zhou (2017) reported that SOC built up quickly in
manure and manure plus N-P fertilizer treatments compared to sole use of N-P fertilizers in newly
The Storage of Organic Carbon in Dryland Soils of Africa 121
built terraced lands in semiarid highlands of northern China. The rate of increase of SOC decreased
with time and tended to stabilize at about 3.4 g kg−1y−1 after a cumulative input of manure equivalent
to 14 Mg C ha−1 over a six-year period.
the least costly and can generate significant reductions in carbon storage and emission. Bazin (2010)
considers that the rangelands of the African savannas have great potential for SOC if proper animal
load and rehabilitation measures are taken.
FIGURE 5.10 Abatement rates of the land management practices on carbon sequestration in Africa. (From
World Bank, Carbon sequestration in agricultural soils, Economic and Sector Work, Report number: 67395-
GLB, 2012.)
The Storage of Organic Carbon in Dryland Soils of Africa 123
5.8 CONCLUSIONS
Storing C in soils or enriching it with OM is not only an option for mitigating or offsetting GHG
emissions, but also for improving soil quality (water retention, aggregate stability and structure,
biological activity, chelating capacity, attenuation of the alkalinity and sodicity, etc.) and in turn
soil productivity. All aspects converge toward the ultimate goal of contributing to food security
in the short and long terms. However, the current situation in African drylands is unanimously
characterized by a low SOC content and a trend toward its decline if no measures are taken. This C
decline is of particular concern in the arid and semiarid areas that are more prone to a decrease in
productivity. Reversing this situation is synonymous with “triggering major changes in the farming
systems” with sustained underlying supporting measures.
It is incontestable that the agricultural soils of Africa are both “victims” of climate change,
but also potential “savers” in the fight against global warming, given their potential for colossal
C storage at the continent scale. It is obvious that climate change, especially through a rise in
temperature, can drastically modify the behavior of the soil, particularly by increasing the rate
of mineralization of SOM. In addition, soil microbial dynamics can be disturbed, as extreme
droughts inhibit the biological activity for C humification, while soil engorgement following heavy
rain events may favor the emission of N2O by denitrification and the loss of nitrate-nitrogen needed
by crops. The alternating wetting and drying phenomena that occur with climatic disturbance can
also modify the geochemical processes in the soil and lead to disturbance of its vital functions.
Arid conditions can lead to salinity development and therefore negatively affect crop production
and SOC accumulation. Other indirect effects of climate change on soils are reduced biomass
production and therefore reduced vegetation cover and OM, both of which play an important role
in protection against soil erosion.
The storage of C in the soil, as a form of C sequestration, is an irrefutable solution to compen-
sate for GHG emissions. Theoretical mass balances are established; however, putting this concept
to practice, especially in the context of African drylands, would require drastic modifications
as well as introducing adapted innovations to the farming systems that take into consideration
the multiple climatic, physical, and socioeconomic situations that can be encountered in this vast
continent.
Considering African “soil potential,” two initiatives are worth reflecting on regarding SOC
sequestration and agricultural adaptation in the context of climate change: (1) The “4PM” initia-
tive proposed by France at the COP21, which focuses on increasing soil carbon content annually
by 0.4%. This is a very optimistic initiative that needs special conditions for African soils and their
stakeholders. (2) The “3A initiative” (adaptation of African agriculture) proposed by Morocco at the
COP22, which considers agricultural adaptation and food security as a prerequisite and an indirect
way to contributing to SOC sequestration. Synergies can be established between these two initia-
tives, and eventually other initiatives, if the specific contexts for the various agroecological zones of
Africa are taken into consideration.
Improving SOC sequestration in African dryland soils remains a challenge, as it requires
answers to a series of questions, some of which were previously addressed by FAO (2012), but
deserve readdressing based on the aspects and issues discussed in this chapter:
• What are the conditions that can guarantee the sustainability of C storage when agricul-
tural practices are changed, considering the antagonistic effects of the processes of humi-
fication and mineralization?
• What is the maximum and feasible level of SOC sequestration, taking into account the
natural balance of C in the conditions of dryland soils of Africa?
• How to act, in an effective way, on humification in African drylands in the present warm-
ing trends (favorable to mineralization), the extreme phenomena (droughts, floods, etc.),
that limit biomass production and consequently C sequestration?
124 Soil and Fertilizers
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
C carbon
CEC Cation Exchange Capacity
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
GHG greenhouse gazes
g gram
kg kilogram
Pg pictogram
ha hectare
N nitrogen
N-F nitrogen fixation
OM organic matter
P phosphorus
SOM soil organic matter
r coefficient of correlation
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6 Manures versus Fertilizers in
Rainfed Dryland Production
Systems of India
Ch. Srinivasarao, Sumanta Kundu, C. Subha Lakshmi,
M. Vijay Sankar Babu, V. V. Gabhane, Pallab K. Sarma,
Ayyappa Sathish, K. C. Nataraj, and H. Arunakumari
CONTENTS
6.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 131
6.2 Scenarios, States, Crops, Fertilizer and Manure Use, and Soil Types in Rainfed Drylands..... 135
6.3 Impact of the Addition of Manure and Fertilizers on Soil Health and Crop Productivity.... 139
6.3.1 Alfisols....................................................................................................................... 139
6.3.2 Vertisols..................................................................................................................... 141
6.3.3 Aridisols and Entisols................................................................................................ 145
6.3.4 Inceptisols.................................................................................................................. 147
6.4 Organic Farming and Integrated Nutrient Management....................................................... 149
6.4.1 Organic Farming....................................................................................................... 149
6.4.1.1 Critical Role of Organic Manures in Rainfed Drylands............................. 149
6.4.2 Integrated Nutrient Management (INM)................................................................... 150
6.4.3 Conservation Agriculture (CA) Systems................................................................... 159
6.4.4 Role of Manure/Fertilizer Management in Climate-Resilient Villages in
Dryland Ecosystems.................................................................................................. 159
6.4.5 Agriculture Contingency Plans.................................................................................. 159
6.5 National Programs on Nutrient Use and Policy..................................................................... 159
6.5.1 Soil Health Cards....................................................................................................... 159
6.5.2 National Project on Organic Farming....................................................................... 160
6.5.3 Integrated Farming System....................................................................................... 160
6.5.4 Neem Coated Urea Scheme....................................................................................... 160
6.5.5 Fertilizer Policy......................................................................................................... 161
6.6 Conclusions and Way Forward.............................................................................................. 162
References....................................................................................................................................... 162
6.1 INTRODUCTION
India is ranked number one in the world as a rainfed agroecosystem in extent of area and value
of produce. The rainfed climate is largely semiarid and dry subhumid with a short wet sea-
son followed by a long dry season. In dryland areas in general, the rainfall is low and highly
variable with uneven distribution, which results in uncertain crop yields. The late onset of
monsoon season in drylands delays timely sowing of crops, which ultimately leads to a reduc-
tion in crop yield. In the event of an early cessation of rains, crops experience drought during
flowering and maturity stages, which results in substantial yield loss. In drylands, variations in
131
132 Soil and Fertilizers
temperature accelerate crop development, leading to forced maturity during periods of moisture
stress and drought. Dryland areas are highly prone to soil degradation, especially due to soil
erosion. The small size of land holdings (less than 2 ha), which are usually fragmented and
scattered, frequent crop failure, poor socioeconomic condition, lack of infrastructure to boost
production, and reduced access to market facilities are some of the problems associated with
drylands. The rainfed agroecosystem is prone to several issues in regard to edaphic, climatic,
and social factors. Frequent droughts occurring due to high variability in the quantum and distri-
bution of rainfall, poor soil health, low and imbalanced fertilizer use, poor mechanization, low
risk-bearing capacity, low credit availability, and infrastructure constraints have contributed to
stagnation in productivity levels (Srinivasarao et al. 2015). Consequently, farmers are diverting
from agriculture and tending to migrate to cities in search of an alternative source of livelihood.
The productivity and overall net returns of rainfed crops therefore need to be boosted in order
to retain the farming community in the field of agriculture to meet the growing demands of the
ever-increasing population. The primary factors influencing the productivity and sustainability
of these agroecosystems based on rainfall are soil health and moisture stress. The total land area
coverage in India is 329 M ha, of which only 143 M ha is arable land, in which 57% of the net
sown area is under rainfed agriculture system, contributing about 44% of food grains produced in
the country and feeding about 40% of nation’s population. Even after realization of the full irri-
gation potential of the country, 50% of the net sown area will continue to be under a rainfed agro-
ecosystem (CRIDA-ORP 1997). The productivity of rainfed crops has persisted at a low level
with few exemptions. Under rainfed conditions, several constraints ranging from soil related
to marketing contribute to poor yields. These constraints lead to reduced biomass production,
less root biomass, and low or no recycling of residues associated with low levels of soil organic
carbon (SOC) concentration in soils. High variability and uncertainty of rains make agriculture
in rainfed areas reliant on the amount and distribution of downpour. Moisture stress is a major
challenge to rainfed agriculture, which at critical growth stages leads to low yields. Degraded
soils with a high risk of accelerated erosion resulting in loss of fertile surface soil and SOC are
major concerns. Depending upon soil type, vegetation, and slope gradient, the magnitude of soil
loss ranges from 5 to 150 Mg ha−1 yr−1. There have been several estimates of area of degraded/
wastelands by various organizations, which have been synchronized by adopting spatial data
integration using a geographic information system (GIS) for a diverse environment (Maji 2007).
The total degraded area is estimated at 120.72 M ha, of which 104.19 M ha (86.3%) is arable land
and 16.53 M ha (13.7%) is open forest land. Of the total degraded land area, 73.27 M ha (60.7%)
is caused by water erosion, 12.40 M ha (10.3%) by wind erosion, 5.44 M ha (4.5%) by saliniza-
tion, and 5.09 M ha (4.2%) by acidification of soil. Some areas are affected by more than one
degradation process (Maji 2007). In comparison to irrigated crops, usage of production inputs
like good-quality seeds, fertilizers, supplemental irrigation, herbicides, and pesticides are low
in rainfed crops, leading to reduced yields. Fertilizer consumption pattern by major size groups
of unirrigated crops against irrigated crops in India and fertilizer consumption in predominant
rainfed crops in comparison with irrigated crops are shown in Figures 6.1 and 6.2, respectively.
Though demonstrated amply that soils in rainfed regions are deficient in multinutrients, balanced
use of these inputs in rainfed crops is seldom done. There are wide disparities of inputs between
irrigated and rainfed regions. Severe incidence of diseases and insect pests contribute to low
production in rainfed crops in general, and pulses in particular. Enhanced crop productivity and
water and nutrient use efficiency can be accomplished with application of nutrients in synergy
with profile moisture storage. Improved production technologies and varieties have been devel-
oped for rainfed regions. Nevertheless, slow adoption of rainfed management practices and the
Manures versus Fertilizers in Rainfed Dryland Production Systems of India 133
FIGURE 6.1 Fertilizer consumption pattern by major size groups in unirrigated crops against irrigated
crops in India. (From Fertilizer Statistics 2017–2018, The Fertilizer Association of India, New Delhi, 63rd
edition.)
FIGURE 6.2 Fertilizer consumption in predominant rainfed crops in comparison with irrigated crops.
(From Fertilizer Statistics 2017–2018, The Fertilizer Association of India, New Delhi, 63rd edition.)
134 Soil and Fertilizers
dearth of focused extension programs specially aimed at rainfed regions are among the key con-
straints. Though coarse grains like finger millet, sorghum, pearl millet, etc. are highly nutritive
and important elements of diet, lack of appropriate policy support contributes to low monetary
returns, and thus farmers cultivating these crops do not emphasize application of fertilizers and
input management. Soil health deterioration is another major concern affecting agricultural pro-
ductivity in drylands (Srinivasarao et al. 2011b). The major causes of soil health deterioration/
degradation include nutrient mining through intensive farming, imbalanced fertilizer use, defor-
estation, monocropping, poor manuring, etc. Water or wind erosion also contributes largely to
soil degradation. Soil degradation results in declined yields and cropping intensity. The severity
of degradation caused by different factors, overall damage of a few major crops as influenced
by soil degradation, and the expected land degradation scenario through 2020 is presented in
Tables 6.1 and 6.2 and Figure 6.3, respectively.
TABLE 6.1
Severity of Degradation
Severity of Degradation
Slight Moderate High Severe Total Area
Degradation (5–10 Mg) (11–20 Mg) (21–40 Mg) (>40 Mg) (m ha)
Water erosion 5.0 24.3 107.2 12.7 148.9
Wind erosion 0.0 0.0 10.8 2.7 13.5
Loss of nutrients 0.0 0.0 3.7 0.0 3.7
Salinization 2.8 2.0 5.3 0.0 10.1
Water logging 6.4 5.2 0.0 0.0 11.6
Total 14.2 31.5 127.0 15.1 187.7
TABLE 6.2
Overall Damage of Some Major Crops as Influenced by Soil Degradation
Crop Loss (Percentage) Losses (in Billion Rs)
Sugarcane 12.1 11.7
Wheat 10.8 26.4
Cotton 10.2 2.2
Paddy 9.7 29.2
Barley 9.1 0.4
Rapeseed 8.3 3.9
Groundnut 8.1 5.8
Maize 8.0 2.4
Total 100 88.7
Source: Brandon, C., and Hommann, K., The cost of inaction: Valuing the economy wide cost
of environmental degradation in India, Mimeo, Asia Environment Division, World
Bank, Washington, DC, 1995.
Manures versus Fertilizers in Rainfed Dryland Production Systems of India 135
Strategies to be adopted to improve soil health, productivity. and sustainability include fertilizer
fortification, precision agriculture, nanotechnology, integrated nutrient management (INM), conser-
vation agriculture, bioremediation or phytoremediation of contaminated soils, improving soil qual-
ity through addition of organic sources, site-specific nutrient management (SSNM), erosion control
through agronomic and mechanical measures, etc. Decline in soil health coupled with inadequate
and imbalanced nutrient use and limited use of organic manures leads to multinutrient deficiency
in rainfed regions. Most of the soils are deficient in N and P. Because in the rainfed regions most
of the soils are not only deficient in N and P but also K, Mg, S besides Zn and B which is a major
constraint of higher crop yield and quality (Srinivasarao et al. 2009, 2010, 2011a). SOC is an impor-
tant component for the functioning of agroecosystems, and its presence is central to the concept of
sustainable maintenance of soil health (Thangavel et al. 2019). Temperature has a great influence
on organic carbon depletion from soil. The majority of tropical Indian soils belong to an arid and
semiarid climate, are characteristically low in SOC stock, and rarely exhibit organic carbon levels
exceeding 0.6% (Virmani et al. 1982). Soil quality strongly relates to food security. Hence, enriching
SOC stock and curbing depletion are vital to stabilizing agronomic productivity (Wright and Hons
2005). In this chapter, we emphasize the role of organic manure application in yield sustainability,
improving nutrient use efficiency (NUE), maintaining SOC and its subsequent benefits in improving
soil health, and comparative studies on the impact of application of chemical fertilizers and organic
manures and their conjunctive impact on yield, NUE, and soil properties.
India has around 80 M ha of rainfed area, which constitutes nearly 57% of the total cultivable
land. Cultivation becomes relatively challenging as it chiefly relies upon the frequency and intensity
of rainfall. Crop production, therefore, in such regions is referred to as rainfed farming as there is no
facility to give any irrigation, and even protective or lifesaving irrigation is not possible.
Predominantly grown dry-farming crops include millets such as finger millet, sorghum, and
pearl millet; pulse crops like pigeon pea and lentil; and oilseeds like groundnut and safflower.
Dryland agriculture contributes about 80% of maize and sorghum, 90% of pearl millet, nearly 95%
of pulses, and 75% of oilseeds. About 70% of cotton is produced in dryland areas as well. These
regions also contribute considerably to rice and wheat production. However, 66% and 33% of rice
and wheat, respectively, are still rainfed. The traditional and alternate efficient crops grown in dry-
land regions of India are presented in Table 6.3.
Soil degradation with loss of top fertile soil with erratic and high-intensity rainfall is a com-
mon feature of dryland agroecosystems. This leads to emerging multinutrient deficiencies and
crop production often affected by improper plant nutrition. In addition, an increasing number of
years with deficient rainfall, mid-season droughts, and a lack of resources contribute to farm-
ing being a risky venture. These are the some of the reasons why farming in rainfed drylands is
not profitable unless efficient natural resource management strategies are implemented taking into
account specific location and socioeconomic considerations. In India, red soils (Alfisols), black
soils (Vertisols), and arid soils (Aridisols), mostly in southern and western regions, are common
soil types covering dry climates. Alfisols exist to the extent of 30%, Vertisols and Vertic subgroups
up to 35%, and Entisols-Aridisols of 10% in overall rainfed dryland ecology in India (Srinivasarao
et al. 2015). It was recorded that about 73 M ha land is subject to erosion, and lead soil loss up to
10 Mg ha−1 yr−1.
Though fertilizer consumption increased during the past 70 years in India, there are wide
differences in its usage depending on rainfed versus irrigated, soil type, and ecosystem characteris-
tics. Consumption of plant nutrients in major states (kg ha−1) is presented in Figure 6.4. Traditionally,
rainfed dryland regions are mostly dependant on organic manures. However, in the recent past
fertilizer consumption has increased significantly even in drylands, particularly in commercial
crops. In general, soils in India are deficient in nitrogen, which is often associated with low SOC
content (Srinivasarao et al. 2006, 2009), and low to high in available P and K, with a variable degree
of deficiency in secondary and micronutrients. The fertility status of N, P, and K and micronutrient
deficiencies in some states of India are presented in Tables 6.4 and 6.5, respectively. Rainfed dryland
systems also have more or less similar nutrient deficiencies, but the extent of deficiency in various
nutrients in soils is much in high-intensive and nutrient-exhaustive crop cultivation (Srinivasarao
et al. 2014b). Fertilizer consumption during 1950–2016 in India is presented in Figure 6.5.
TABLE 6.3
Traditional and Alternate Efficient Crops in Different Dryland Regions of India
S. No. Traditional Crop Alternate Crop Region
1 Rice Ragi, groundnut, black gram Uplands of Bihar plateau and Orissa
2 Wheat Chickpea, safflower Malwa plateau
3 Wheat Mustard, Taramira Sierozems of northwest India
4 Cotton, Wheat Safflower Deccan rabi season
5 Maize Sorghum Southeast Rajasthan
6 Maize Soybean North Madhya Pradesh
7 Soybean Chickpea Eastern Uttar Pradesh
Source: Yadav, K., Recent Advances in Dryland Agriculture, GBPUAT, Pantnagar, 2009.
Manures versus Fertilizers in Rainfed Dryland Production Systems of India 137
FIGURE 6.4 Consumption of plant nutrients in major states (kg ha−1). (From Fertilizer Statistics 2017–2018,
The Fertilizer Association of India, New Delhi, 63rd edition.)
TABLE 6.4
Fertility Status of N, P, and K in Some States of India
Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium
No. of Samples
State Analyzed L M H L M H L M H
Andhra Pradesh 312,521 62 21 17 57 29 14 9 30 61
Karnataka 317,213 29 37 34 31 48 21 7 32 61
Madhya Pradesh 138,553 40 41 19 39 38 23 10 32 58
Maharashtra 93,142 67 26 7 86 12 2 8 18 74
Orissa 251,196 60 23 17 59 28 13 33 41 26
Tamil Nadu 491,657 75 16 9 24 41 35 12 36 52
Uttar Pradesh 807,424 80 15 5 71 26 3 12 55 33
India 3,650,004 63 26 11 42 38 20 13 37 50
TABLE 6.5
Micronutrient Deficiencies in Some States of India
Percentage Deficiency of
Available Micronutrients
No. of Samples (Range of Samples
State Analyzed for Different States) Zn Fe Cu Mn
Gujarat 29,532 24 8 4 4
UP 24,425–25,122 45 6 1 3
Karnataka 24,411–25,542 78 39 5 19
Tamil Nadu 19,559–20,580 53 15 3 8
Bihar 17,802–19,078 54 6 3 2
MP 11,204–12,000 63 3 1 3
AP 5,219–6,563 51 2 1 2
Source: Takkar, P. N., J. Indian Soc. Soil Sci., 44: 563–581, 1996.
Zinc is supplemented through ZnSO4· 2H2O (35% Zn), while the chief source is FeSO4 and MnSO4
for Fe and Mn, respectively. Organic manures supply macro and micronutrients and at the same
time improve the physical, chemical, and biological properties of soil. Farmyard manure (FYM),
compost, and oil cake from castor, groundnut, mustard, mahua, safflower, etc. are used very com-
monly in rainfed drylands for enhancing soil fertility and accomplishing high yield. In comparison
to chemical fertilizers, organic manures are bulky and slow releasing in nature. Organic manures
add very few nutrients, which is not sufficient for high-responsive crops/hybrids. In that case, to
derive the maximum benefits from organic sources, conjunctive use with chemical fertilizer has
been emphasized and advocated.
TABLE 6.6
Physical Properties of Alfisols at Three AICRPDA Centers
Ananthapur Bangalore Hyderabad
Characters 0–15 15–30 0–15 15–30 0–15 15–30
Gravel (%) 23.6 60.0 0.00 0.40 22.9 8.8
Sand (%) 63.7 24.0 73.50 41.10 83.4 74.4
Silt (%) 3.2 2.6 6.20 8.00 5.0 4.0
Clay (%) 9.5 13.4 21.24 50.80 11.6 21.6
Bulk density (g cm−3) NA NA 1.64 1.42 1.43 1.63
Moisture at 0.033 MPa (1/3 bar) NA NA 14.73 18.03 12.31 17.42
Moisture at 1.5 MPa (15 bar) NA NA 7.57 13.09 5.84 7.49
Source: Vijayalakshmi, K., Soil Management for increasing productivity in semi-arid red soils: Physical aspects. Alfisols in
the Semi-Arid Tropics, In: Proceedings of the Consultants’ Workshop on the State of the Art and Management
Alternatives for Optimizing the Productivity of SAT Alfisols and Related Soils, 1–3 December 1983, ICRISAT
Center, India, 1987.
Note: NA = Not available.
140 Soil and Fertilizers
Alfisols occur on gently sloping to undulating surfaces and are well drained. These soils
have weak granular or subangular blocky surface A horizons, subangular blocky to prismatic B
horizons, and subangular blocky C horizons. The A horizons vary from loamy sand to gravelly
clay and clay, but B horizons are usually enriched with clay to give clayey or fine loamy soils.
The loamy sand texture of the topsoil and predominance of kaolinite among the clay minerals
make these soils structurally inert (Charreau 1977). Alfisols on peninsular gneiss are formed
on very old landscapes and have 10%–15% clay content in the Ap horizon, closely followed by a
well-developed argillic (Bt) horizon with a clay content of >30%. These soils are developed on
the old rock system of the earth and signify ancient soils. The deposition of clay in the subsur-
face is caused by illuviation of clay particles. This process is active during humid past (which is
being very damp and stuffy). Red soils have distinct horizons of clay enrichment that are easily
visible in the field with a significant amount of amorphous material found in the profiles. The pH
of Alfisols is between 5.0 and 6.0, while the base saturation must be greater than 35%, and its
smectite clays (usually 2:1) have a higher cation exchange capacity (CEC) (>16 cmol kg−1). Their
exchange complex is dominated by a mixture of kaolinite and illite. The organic matter content
ranges from very low to low. The chemical characteristics of these soils appear to reflect primar-
ily the effect of soil-forming materials. Rainfall and drainage are the other aspects that impact
these characteristics (Shankaranarayana and Sarma 1982).
In Alfisols, soil management practices should rather comprise an optimum dose of mineral fer-
tilizer in conjunction with organic sources or lime to sustain better SOC contents and soil physical
characteristics, resulting in enhanced yields. However, soils in monsoonal tropical regions tend
to acidify when cultivated heavily, particularly when nitrogenous fertilizers are used. Intensive
cropping with conventional tillage causes a deprivation of SOC, with a subsequent deterioration
of soil physical properties. Trials conducted reveal that the decline in SOC could be prevented by
the addition of organic sources and better nutrient management practices. Organic matter addition,
either through crop residues or manures, augments SOC content, which ultimately impacts soil
physical properties and processes like aggregation, water retention capacity (Rose 1991), hydraulic
conductivity (Anderson et al. 1990; Franzluebbers 2002), bulk density (BD), and soil resistance to
wind and water erosion (Zebarth et al. 1999; Celik et al. 2004). Lime application would also aid in
achieving substantial improvement in crop yields. But the impact of liming on the physical proper-
ties of soil is contradictory both in temperate and tropical regions. Liming may accelerate disper-
sion of clay and decrease aggregate stability and infiltration rate (Tama and El-Swaify 1978; Roth
and Pavan 1991). Contrarily, others have observed that application of lime can enhance aggregate
stability and infiltration (Castro and Logan 1991), improve water-holding capacity (Kohn 1975),
and reduce surface cracking (Hoyt 1981). To evaluate the effect of various levels of nitrogen and
FYM on yield and nutrient uptake by turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and residual accrual of dif-
ferent N forms, significant improvement in rhizome, straw yield, P and K uptake was realized up
to 90 kg ha−1. Nevertheless, N uptake was significant up to 150 kg N ha−1, whereas the maximum
NUE (34.3%) was obtained by application of 30 kg N ha−1, which progressively decreased with
increasing levels of nitrogen. The available N (alkaline KMnO4-oxidizable N) status in postharvest
soil increased successively with increasing N levels. The combined application of N with farmyard
manure proved superior to inorganic N by registering significantly higher available N (Majumdar
et al. 2002). Low levels of soil fertility limit groundnut cultivation in Alfisols of drylands. The dose
combination of 300 kg ha−1 SSP – 36 + 150 kg ha−1 urea + cow manure 10 Mg ha−1 aided in achiev-
ing maximum productivity in groundnut (Suryono et al. 2015). Evaluation of the long-term effects
of fertilizer, manure, and lime application on physical properties and organic carbon content under
soybean–wheat rotation revealed balanced fertilizer application, in conjunction with manure or
lime, improved soil water retention, soil aggregation, microporosity, and available water holding
capacity and lowered BD of the soil in 0–30 cm depth in comparison to the control (Hati et al.
2008). The microbial biomass carbon and dehydrogenase activity in soil at harvest of crops was
significantly increased due to the addition of fly ash and FYM in a rice–wheat cropping system
Manures versus Fertilizers in Rainfed Dryland Production Systems of India 141
in Alfisol and Vertisol (Ramteke et al. 2017). Similarly, Lal et al. (1996) reported that application
of fly ash in the presence of FYM to an acid soil (Alfisols) led to increased microbial popula-
tion and urease and cellulase activities than alone. Higher mean pod yield and SOC in rainfed
groundnut was obtained with 50% RDF + 4 Mg ha−1 FYM (Srinivasarao et al. 2012). In an 18-year
long-term trial conducted on red sandy loam soil in rainfed groundnut, the application of chemi-
cal fertilizers in conjunction with groundnut shells altered the sustainability yield index (SYI) to
0.320 as compared to 0.285 and 0.306 by the sole application of FYM and inorganic fertilizers,
respectively (Balaguravaiah et al. 2005). The impact of fertilizers and amendments on organic
matter dynamics in an acid Alfisol evaluated for 42 years indicated that continuous application
of inorganic fertilizers either alone or coupled with FYM or lime considerably influenced water-
soluble organic carbon (WS-OC), water-soluble carbohydrate (WS-CHO), soil microbial biomass
carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, fulvic acid (FA), and humic acid (HA). Uninterrupted crop-
ping avoiding fertilizers led to exhaustion in the order of 17%, 21%, 24%, 23%, 22%, 26%, 12%, and
18% in WS-OC, WS-CHO, microbial biomass carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur, HA, and FA,
respectively. Different percentages of soil organic matter (SOM) were positively and significantly
correlated with straw/stover and grain yield of maize and wheat crops (Meena and Sharma 2016).
A trial conducted for two successive kharif (rainy) seasons to calculate the rhizospheric microflora,
green gram yield, and nutrient availability as influenced by organic sources, phosphorus levels, and
phosphate solubilizers in Alfisols indicated that addition of organic sources considerably improved
the rhizospheric microbial population (fungi, actinomycetes, and bacteria) available soil N P K
production of green gram. Among organic sources, the addition of farmyard manure at 10 Mg ha−1
was superior over dalweed application at 15 Mg ha−1. Soil inoculation with P solubilizers resulted
in a substantial increase in the production of green gram. Among P solubilizers, Pseudomonas
was found superior to Bacillus with regard to enhancing green gram yield, soil available P, and
bacterial population (Chesti and Tahir 2012). Sorghum and green gram yield with conjunctive use
of organic residues and fertilizer nutrients in Alfisols, as well as many soil characteristics such
as available N, P, organic carbon, dehydrogenase activity, and DTPA extractable micronutrients,
were positively influenced by the conjunctive use of inorganic and farm-based organic resources
(Sharma et al. 2004).
6.3.2 Vertisols
Vertisols occur extensively in warm temperate zones, subtropics, and tropics, which are a group
of heavy-textured soils referred to as black cotton soils, black earths, dark clays, regurs, and gru-
musols in other classification systems (Dudal 1965). Vertisols are predominantly found in India,
Australia, Sudan, Chad, and Ethiopia; these five countries comprise above 80% of the total area
of 250 M ha of Vertisols. They are regarded as significant soil orders in semiarid drylands due to
their high water-holding capacity, and are suited to dryland crop production in semiarid environ-
ments with heavy and uncertain rainfall. Even though Vertisols cover only a small region of the
world’s land surface, and only a subdominant part of any geographical zone, they are a soil order
of significance in semiarid dryland agriculture, as they are among the most productive soils in
this environment. Black soils cover 257 million ha between 45” N to 45” S latitudes on a global
area basis (Dudal 1965). The total area of Vertisols in the world is around 180 M ha (Swindale
1981). Vertisols and related soils in India alone occupy 73 M ha, out of which 38% (28 M ha) are
Vertisols, 37% Vertic-Inceptisols, and 21% Entisols (Murthy 1981). In India, Vertisols extend over
an area of 26 M ha, chiefly in the states of Madhya Pradesh (10.7 M ha), Maharashtra (5.6 M ha),
Karnataka (2.8 M ha), Andhra Pradesh (2.2 M ha), and Gujarat (1.8 M ha) (Bhattacharyya et al.
2013), distributed across varying rainfall regimes ranging from 590 mm in Rajkot to 980 mm in
Rewa. The predominant factor governing productivity of Vertisols in semiarid climates is their
high water-retention capacity in areas of variable and uneven rainfall, sometimes heavy and often
too low. The soil capacity to stock sufficient quantity of water to carry crops through periods of
142 Soil and Fertilizers
drought assumes utmost prominence. The major crops grown in these areas are soybean, ground-
nut, maize, cotton, and pigeon pea during the rainy season and chickpea, safflower, sunflower, and
sorghum during the post-rainy season.
In drier seasons, Vertisols exhibit deep cracks and crevices due to the high expansive nature
of clay (montmorillonite). Alternate swelling and shrinking results in self-mulching. Vertisols
have an extremely deep A horizon but no B horizon as the soil material constantly mixes itself.
Generally, the texture of the surface soil is lighter and the clay content rises with increasing depth
toward the subsoil. The clay content of Vertisols remains uniformly high (>35%) throughout the
profile to a depth of at least 50 cm or more. In some Vertisols where the top soil is perhaps eroded,
the clay content might be 40%, resulting in loam or a silty loam texture in some Vertisols in West
Africa, and probably even a sandy texture in the subsurface. They are commonly referred to as
deep black soils.
The high moisture-holding capacity of Vertisols is due to their clay content, which commonly
lies between 40% and 60%, but it may be as high as 80% and have a profile depth of more than
90 cm (Dudal 1965; De Vos and Virgo 1969). In Vertisols throughout the profile, the clay con-
tent does not show much variation, increasing marginally with depth. They are usually calcareous,
montmorillonitic, isohyperthermic soils. Because of the montmorillonitic nature of the clay min-
erals, Vertisols experience substantial shrinkage on drying and swelling. On drying they become
hard, and sticky when wet. They have a high CEC (45–60 meq 100 g−1), and an alkaline reaction
with pH varying between 7.5 to 8.6, and more than 80% base saturation. The exchange complex is
dominated by calcium, but on salinization these soils display distinctive characteristics of sodic-
ity even when the sodium percentage is much less than 15 in the exchange complex. Due to their
swelling and shrinking nature, with alterations in soil moisture content the bulk density of Vertisols
differs greatly. Moisture content is the most important factor which determines the bulk density of
soil. Dry soils have higher bulk density compared to wet soils (swollen stage) which may vary from
1 to 2 Mg m−3 due to variations in soil moisture content. CaCO3 presence and high contents of bases,
particularly magnesium and calcium in the profile, add to high soil pH which aids in gaseous loss of
NH3 when urea or ammonium fertilizers are surface applied (Terman 1979; Sahrawat 1980). Most
of the Vertisols are calcareous, and the distribution of CaCO3 may be either uniform all through the
profile or may increase in the lower horizons. The content of CaCO3 in Indian Vertisols may vary
from nil to 10% or greater in the profile. Gypsum has been found to occur in the subsurface of the
Vertisol profiles in relatively arid areas. Most of the black cotton soils of India rarely have organic
matter exceeding 1.0%. Organic matter has been found to be more or less uniformly distributed
in the first meter of the profile in some Indian Vertisols. Vertisols are bestowed with higher CEC
owing to the dominance of 2:1-type clay minerals in the 2 μm particle size fraction, although this
depends upon the actual content of clay. Calcium is the most dominant cation, accounting for 52% to
85% of the total exchange complex. Sodium is usually less than 20% of total CEC, and magnesium
generally varies from 10% to 30%.
Intensive cropping of Vertisols necessitates cautious management of moisture regime and
soil temperature along with INM (Srinivasarao et al. 2012). Reduced agronomic yields, low or
no crop residue retention, and extended fallow periods involving uncontrolled grazing decrease
the SOC concentration and stock (Srinivasarao et al. 2011a). Several researchers have reported
yield augmentation to the tune of 60% by the use of organic amendments in comparison to
nonamended control, whereas conjunctive use of organic amendments and N fertilizers can aid
in achieving a yield increase of 114% (Chivenge et al. 2011). It is also noted that utilization of
better-quality organic amendments can bring pronounced long-term residual effects. In another
study, carried out by Hati et al. (2007) to evaluate the long-term effect of manure and fertilizer
addition in a soybean–wheat–maize (fodder) crop rotation on SOC status and physical properties
of a Vertisol in subtropical, subhumid India, when compared to the initial level, SOC increased
by 22.5% and 56.3% in the treatment of 100% NPK and 100% NPK + FYM. The water retention,
SOC, available water capacity, and aggregation of the soil showed substantial improvement,
Manures versus Fertilizers in Rainfed Dryland Production Systems of India 143
while the BD was decreased considerably with the application of 100% NPK + FYM. However,
the use of imbalanced (100% N) and a suboptimal rate of inorganic fertilizer (50% NPK) showed
no significant effect on the physical properties as compared to the unfertilized control. The study
revealed that balanced application of fertilizer with organic manure could sequester SOC in the
top soil layer, which sustains optimum crop productivity and improves the soil physical environ-
ment under an intensive cropping system. In a soybean–wheat (Triticum aestivum) sequence in
Vertisols in central India, the annual rate of SOC enrichments ranged from 0.09 to 0.74 Mg C
ha−1 for 0 to 15 cm depth and 0.05 to 0.15 Mg C ha−1 for 15 to 30 cm depth of soil (Kundu et al.
2001). The organic carbon content of Vertisol increased significantly (0.56% to 0.87%) with
the application of manure and fertilizers in comparison to the control (0.45%) (Malewar and
Hasnabade 1995).
The combined application of the recommended dose of NPK (100:50:40 for sorghum and
120:60:60 to wheat) with 10 Mg FYM ha−1 enhanced the available NPK and organic carbon content of
soil (Sonune et al. 2003). The available NPK exhibited a positive correlation with crop yield and there
was a positive balance of N and P. Thus, the balanced use of NPK fertilizers in conjunction with FYM
is essential for augmenting the fertility of Vertisol in a cereal-cereal cropping sequence. The effects of
long-term cropping, fertilization, and manuring, and their integration to assess the microbial commu-
nity count in soil samples from five trials at Anantapur, Solapur, Bellary, Bangalore, and Coimbatore
centers of different rainfed production systems revealed that the community counts are higher in
treatments with conjunction of organic and inorganic fertilizers when compared to a control. Vertisols
exhibited higher organic carbon levels than Alfisols. In general fungal population is higher in acid
soils but continuous application of chemical fertilizers also leads to the development of fungal growth
in arable soils, whereas with combined use of organic and chemical fertilizers in field results in maxi-
mum bacterial count. At most of the locations, SOC and microbial biomass carbon (MBC) exhibited
significant positive correlation with microbial populations, suggesting that even under arid and semi-
arid tropical conditions, nutrient application through an integrated approach could improve SOC and
increase microbial count (Vineela et al. 2008). Studies on the effect of organic and inorganic nutrients
on yield and nutrient balance in different cropping systems indicated that the highest grain yield was
obtain by application of recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF), followed by Gliricidia @1.5 Mg ha−1
+ 25% RDF and were comparable with each other (Shirale and Khating 2009). The effect of con-
tinuous application of chemical fertilizers and manures on yield sustainability, key indicators of soil
quality, soil properties, and yield sustainability under a sorghum (Sorghum vulgare)–wheat (Triticum
aestivum) cropping sequence indicated that substantial improvement in the soil-quality index was
observed under integrated nutrient management involving usage of 100% NPK + FYM (2.45), fol-
lowed by sole application of FYM (2.16) and 150% RDF (2.15), followed by 50% RDF (1.45), while
the lowest was in the control (1.14), signifying considerable enhancement in soil quality due to INM.
Among different treatments, 100% RDF + FYM not only registered the highest soil-quality index
but was found to be the most favorable approach from the view point of yield sustainability and
maintaining higher average yields under a sorghum–wheat cropping sequence (Katkar et al. 2012).
In Vertisols under semiarid conditions of Vidarbha, the integrated application of 50% RDF + FYM
@ 5 Mg ha−1 augmented soil quality and sustained rainfed cotton productivity (Gabhane et al. 2014).
In semiarid Vertisols, 25 kg N (FYM) + 25 kg N (urea) + 25 kg P ha−1 treatment was superior for
achieving optimum SYI, NUE, RWUE, and benefit-cost (B:C) ratio, and gross and net monetary
returns, beside soil fertility buildup (Maruthi Sankar et al. 2014). Studies on integrated nutrient man-
agement on soil properties under a cotton–chickpea cropping sequence in Vertisols in the Deccan
plateau of India indicated that the application of manures alone or in combination with chemical fer-
tilizers enhances the soil physical, chemical, and biological properties at the end of two crop cycles
(Gudadhe et al. 2015). The conjunctive application of 100% NP + 10 kg K (inorganic) +20 kg K
ha−1 through Gliricidia green leaf manuring at 30 days after sowing (DAS) resulted in enhanced soil
fertility and yield of cotton grown in Vertisols under rainfed conditions (Naik et al. 2018). A long-
term field experiment on nutrient management for a sorghum–wheat sequence on Typic Haplustert
144 Soil and Fertilizers
over 10 consecutive seasons (kharif and rabi) from 1988 to 1997 showed an increase in yield of
sorghum and wheat and improved soil fertility with application of 100% NPK in combination with
10 Mg FYM ha−1 (Ravankar et al. 1999). In a rice–wheat cropping system, the highest grain yield of
rice was obtained when sunhemp grown as green manure crop was incorporated along with 120 kg
N ha−1, followed by dhaincha and green gram. In the case of wheat, incorporated dhaincha gave the
highest grain yield, followed by sunhemp and green gram. The same trend with respect to N< P< K
and S uptake was observed in both crops (Chand et al. 2015). Under dryland conditions, FYM 10 Mg
ha−1 + 100% NPK application was found to sustain finger millet crop productivity and improved soil
quality. The application of 10 Mg ha−1 FYM + 100% NPK in rotation compared with monocropping
registered higher values of SYI and SQI. Hence, the addition of FYM 10 Mg ha−1 + 100% NPK with
crop rotation is a viable option for sustaining soil health maintenance and yield of an important staple
food crop. In areas where FYM availability is a major concern due to a decline in the livestock popu-
lation, compost, crop residues, green manures, and municipal biosolids may be utilized as substitutes
for sustainable crop production (Sathish et al. 2016).
The importance of SOC in regulating crop yields has been well established (Lal 2004).
Maintenance of SOC stock through the application of FYM and chemical fertilizers is essential to
the sustainability of rainfed production systems, which need high external inputs. Any improve-
ment in SOC enhances the available water capacity of the soil profile (Du et al. 2009). The buildup
of SOC can augment the productivity of crops by improving the size of the mineralizable N and
P pool; increasing soil physical properties with lower BD, improved pore connectivity, improved
aggregate stability and aeration; and through amending constraints including low CEC and inap-
propriate soil pH. The long-term changes in SOC due to the addition of organic sources showed
that on average, the organic sources increased SOC by 49% compared to an unfertilized control or
29% compared to a fertilized control (Chen et al. 2018). The application of compost significantly
improves SOC levels (Eldridge et al. 2018). Crop rotation with legumes, rotational application
of manures and fertilizers not only improve the yields but also enhance soil quality parameters.
Crop rotations included were the soybean–wheat, rice–wheat–jute, and sorghum–wheat systems
at Ranchi (Typic Haplustalf), Barrackpore (Typic Eutrochrept), and Akola (Typic Haplustert),
respectively. SOC concentration in the un fertilized plot (control) reduced by 24.5%, 41.5% and
15.5% over initial values in Ranchi, Barrackpore and Akola respectively, whereas fertilized with
NPK and NPK + FYM either sustained or enhanced SOC concentration over initial SOC con-
centration. Active fractions of soil organic carbon, namely, soil MBC, alkaline phosphatase, and
dehydrogenase, increased considerably with the application of NPK and NPK + FYM. The SOC
content significantly correlated with the sustainable yield index and active fractions of SOC,
which encouraged better sustainable productivity (Manna et al. 2005).
The impact of conjunctive use of chemical fertilizers and the organic manures, namely, green
manure, FYM, and wheat straw, in the long-term productivity of an irrigated sorghum–wheat sys-
tem in permanent plots under the AICRP on cropping systems at Rahuri, Akola, and Parbhani in
Maharashtra revealed the available soil S, Fe, and Mn augmented, while available Zn and Cu remained
unaltered. However, the integrated nutrient supply also improved the fertility of the soil (Hegde 1996).
The effect of long-term fertilization on soil biological health in the sorghum–wheat sequence on
swell-shrink soils of Central India demonstrated that combined usage of fertilizers along with wheat
straw and Leucaena loppings showed considerable improvement in soil biological properties over the
sole usage of fertilizers. The biological properties significantly declined where no organics were used
continuously for 27 years (Mali et al. 2015). The highest nitrogen (3.08%) and phosphorus (0.26%)
was found in Gliricidia, followed by sunhemp (2.95% N and 0.25% P). The potassium was found high
in eupatorium leaves (2.02%), followed by Gliricidia (1.95%) and neem leaves (1.93%). Compared to
green leaf manure crops, the NPK percentage was found at lower levels in FYM (1.00% N, 0.20% P,
and 0.52% K). This study has clearly elucidated that incorporation of green leaf manures, particularly
leguminous green manuring crops like Gliricidia, sunhemp, and dhaincha, has an added advantage
for enhancing the soil nutrient status (Srinivasarao et al. 2011a; Sreeramulu and Shankar 2016).
Manures versus Fertilizers in Rainfed Dryland Production Systems of India 145
The arid soils are well provided with available potassium (70–890 kg ha−1). The total K content
in arid region soils ranged between 980 and 1890 mg 100 g−1 with an average value of 1489 mg
100 g−1 soil. The major proportion of total potassium in arid soil is present as mineral form followed
by interlayer, nonexchangeable, and water-soluble form. These forms, beside being related to each
other, are correlated with sand and silt fraction and K resistance to depletion (Choudhari and Pareek
1976). The K fixation capacity was associated with the clay content, K-saturation, and weathered
K-bearing minerals (Mathur et al. 1981; Dutta and Joshi 1993). Calcium is an essential element pres-
ent in varying amounts from 0.1% to 5.2% in the arid soil. However, in lower layers, most soils have
a higher amount varying from 15% to 20% (as CaO). Exchangeable calcium, which is an indicator
of availability, varied between 1.5 to 20 meq 100 g−1 soil. Fine-textured Aridisols of Pipar and Pali
contain 15 to 20 meq 100 g−1, whereas dune and coarse-textured Aridisols contain between 1.5 to
4.0 and 2.2 to 4.0 meq 100 g−1 soil. Magnesium is present in different forms in arid region soil, with
mineral forms as the dominant fraction (32% to 87% of total Mg) followed by dilute acid soluble,
exchangeable, organic bound, and water-soluble fractions. The total sulfur content in arid regions
ranges between 280 and 500 µg g−1, of which 50% to 80% remains in inorganic forms. This is in
contrast to most other regions, where organic-bound sulfur predominates. In surface soils, sulfate
sulfur dominates in surface soils, while nonsulfate sulfur dominates the lower horizon of arid region
soils. Calcium, magnesium, and sulfur contents in most arid zone soils are generally adequate for
plant growth (Kalyansundaram et al. 1993).
The practice of efficient utilization of organic and inorganic sources of nutrients together in
suitable proportion not only lowers inorganic fertilizers’ requirement, but also aids in improving
physical conditions and enhances water-holding capacity and its availability in the soil. Besides
this, soil biological properties and fertilizer use efficiency improve considerably (Sharma et al.
2008, 2009). The results of several studies have indicated that the conjunctive use of fertilizer and
FYM assumes importance in rainfed areas for maintaining moderate to high yields and accom-
plishing higher nutrient use efficiencies. The addition of FYM, composted organic wastes, and
other organics enhances the stability of yield in rainfed areas (Aggarwal and Venkateswarlu 1989;
Venkateswarlu and Hegde 1992; Singh et al. 2000). Under arid conditions of Jodhpur, continuous
application of sheep manure in general gave considerably higher yields than sole application of urea
(Singh et al. 1981). The substitution of 50% of fertilizer requirement by FYM resulted in yield levels
almost comparable to those attained with 100% fertilization (Rao and Singh 1993). The application
of FYM enhances the utilization efficiency of fertilizer N; however, soil fertility improvement after
FYM application is a very slow process. In rainfed regions, cereal stover is often fed to livestock,
and manure is applied in field. This way of residue recycling is more advantageous for crops than
direct application in field (Aggarwal et al. 1996).
The most promising route to enhancing inorganic fertilizer use efficiency in cropping sys-
tems is by applying small amounts of high-quality organic matter (having narrow C/N ratio and
a low lignin percent) to soils (Ladd and Amato 1985; Snapp and Silim 2002). It offers readily
available N, energy (carbon), and nutrients to the soil ecosystem, increases soil microbial activ-
ity and nutrient cycling, improves structure, and reduces losses of nutrients from denitrification
and leaching (De-Ruiter et al. 1998). Soil microbes not only supply nutrients directly, but also
enhance the synchrony of plant-nutrient demand with soil supply by lowering large pools of
free nutrients and consequent nutrient losses from the system. Hence, microbes sustain a buff-
ered, actively cycled nutrient supply. Crop residue incorporation and natural vegetation in soil
enhance microbial activity during decomposition. Also, adhesive action of decomposed products
improves hydraulic conductivity, soil aggregation, and moisture retention (Venkateswarlu 1984,
1987; Gupta 1980; Gupta and Gupta 1986). Leaving the crop residues in soil generally has a posi-
tive effect on grain yield. Crop residues are also an efficient source of nutrients that are like other
Manures versus Fertilizers in Rainfed Dryland Production Systems of India 147
organics namely, cattle manure and compost. However, there was no considerable difference in
the yield of succeeding crops of pearl millet after the addition of crop residues with a wide C:N
ratio, whereas it was significant after residue incorporation with a narrow C:N ratio. Significant
response to the application of 80 kg N ha−1 occurred only in years of good rainfall. A comparison
of different N fertilizers showed that maximum yields were registered with ammonium sulfate.
But urea has become the major source of N in arid regions due to the high cost of ammonium
sulfate even though N use efficiency by pearl millet is very low in the case of the application of
urea (Aggarwal et al. 1996). The frequent occurrence of drought in arid regions leads to crop fail-
ure. Therefore the application of N fertilizers is regarded as a risky input by farmers, and hence
the need for its better management. Split application of N fertilizers is hence regarded as a risk-
avoiding strategy that aids in realizing better yields, as compared to their onetime application,
increased utilization efficiency, and lower risk. Carbon sequestration in soil is strongly affected
by root production (Matamala et al. 2003). Trees in arid zones put forth a large volume of below-
ground biomass in the form of roots. The tree roots play a vital role in the addition of organic
matter to the soil. Charcoal or black carbon is produced by controlled burning of biomass that can
contribute to carbon sequestration. Apart from locking carbon in the soil for centuries, activated
charcoal can attribute positively to the CEC and physical, chemical, and biological properties of
soil (Goldberg 1985).
6.3.4 Inceptisols
Inceptisols are spread over an area of nearly 925 million hectares throughout the world, and are
the second-largest grouping on the FAO–UNESCO soil map of the World (FAO 1998). Contrary to
many other orders, Inceptisols include soils from a varied range of environments from the Arctic
to the Tropics. They lack developed features but occur in association with soils of nearly every
other order. Depending on the dominant processes that occur in their particular landscape and
geographic area, these soils may develop through numerous ways (Foss et al. 1983). Inceptisols
(Cambisols) can develop on old or young geological material. They have profile features more
weakly expressed than those of many other soils and retain a close resemblance to their par-
ent material. The central concept of Inceptisols is that of soils developed in cool to very warm
humid, and subhumid regions and that have a cambic horizon and an ochric epipedon. These are
relatively young soils having features more weakly expressed than mature soils and retain close
resemblance to the parent material. The Inceptisols include soils from ustic and udic regions that
have altered B horizons resulting from some chemical weathering processes (Soil Survey Staff
1975). They may have any moisture regime except aridic and any temperature regime. Moisture
storage capacity (mm) of these soils are 90–100/m in loamy sand, 110–140/m in sandy loam and
140–180/m in sandy loam. Out of three 110–140/m and 140–180/m depth have same soil texture.
These soils have severe physical constraints due to the presence of large amounts of shrinking and
swelling type of clays in the finer fractions. Inceptisols in Northwest India have 10YR hue except
for horizon in the imperfectly drained soils of the alluvial terrace, which has 2.5YR hue, and
value and chroma vary from 3 to 6 and 2 to 6, respectively. The texture of Inceptisols varies from
sandy loam to clay loam in the middle hills (Sharma et al. 1997). These textural variations could
be attributed to the in situ weathering under different rainfall conditions (Verma et al. 1987) and
vegetation cover (Walia and Chamuah 1992). The Inceptisols have been reported to have fine soil
texture compared with coarse-textured Podzolic soils formed in temperate regions because of
slate parent material (Clayden et al. 1990). These soils are very fine in texture with clay content
more than 30% (Sharma et al. 1997). These soils have strong angular blocky structure with pres-
sure faces and slickensides. Due the presence of vertical cracks up to a depth of 30 cm and the
148 Soil and Fertilizers
ustic moisture regime, these soils are classified as Vertic Ustochrepts. The Inceptisols with placic
horizon which is sufficient evidence to consider the soils as inceptisols and observed that the
soils have properties related with Podzols and recommend strong accumulation and removal of
soluble salts, Mn, Fe, and other materials. Soils have a dark organic and mineral matter (O/A) on
the surface, a grey albic (E) horizon, a dark reddish-brown placic (Bs) horizon, and a brownish-
yellow B horizon (Wu and Chen 2005). Inceptisols of the Arunachal hills are deep to very deep
except those in high hills, which are relatively shallow. Total porosity of fine-textured Inceptisols
range from 33% to 47.3% as compared to 30.5% to 41.3% in coarse-textured soils, which can be
attributed to a higher number of finer particles per unit volume of soil in fine-textured soil result-
ing in higher surface area and hence total porosity (Walia and Chamuah 1996). The fine-textured
Inceptisols are more porous than coarse-textured soils. In general, the total porosity decreased
down the profile. The chemical and mineralogical changes may consist of hydrolysis, solution,
reduction, segregation, or loss of free iron oxides. The fine-textured Inceptisols have not been
shown to be chemically constrained for crop productivity (Sharma et al. 1997). Soil factors like
pH, calcium carbonate, and organic matter and particle size fractions had a strong impact on the
distribution of total and available micronutrients. The soil pH is slightly acidic, ranging from 6.0
to 6.8, and increase with depth, indicating base cations leaching or perhaps an organic matter
effect. The pH of subsurface horizon of Inceptisols varies from neutral (pH 7.1) to strongly alka-
line (pH 9.7), and surface horizon is almost neutral (pH 7.3) to alkaline (pH 8.6). The Inceptisols
are acidic in nature with pH ranging from 4.0 to 5.3 (Sharma et al. 1997). The acidic reaction
is due to high aluminum ions (Walia and Chamuah 1996). The values of electrical conductivity
(EC) were low in all the profiles owing to good drainage. The total nitrogen, organic carbon, and
C/N values ranged generally from moderate to high. The electrical conductivity indicates that
these soils are nonsaline (Sharma et al. 1997). The organic carbon content is generally medium
in surface and low in subsurface horizons in the soils of both ustic and udic moisture regimes.
In these soils calcium carbonate content varied from 0 to 126 g kg−1. The irregular distribution of
CaCO3 with depth may be due to the alluvial nature of these soils.
The CEC of these soils was low and varied from 5 to 10 c mol (p+) kg−1 soil. The CEC was sig-
nificantly correlated with clay content. The higher CEC values in the B horizons correlated with the
clay content of the profiles. Calcium plus magnesium were dominant bases followed by sodium and
potassium. The low values of CEC in proportion to their organic matter and/or clay content may be
due to the dominance of illitic and kaolinitic clays (Prasad and Ram 1985; Singh and Datta 1983).
Base saturation values of the profiles varied from 92.7% to 98.5%. The base saturation was low due
to the predominance of aluminum and hydrogen ions on exchange complexes.
The grain yield and uptake of N, P, and K by rice and wheat were high with the application of
farmyard manure, which in turn was due to increased total soil porosity, hydraulic conductivity, and
mean weight diameter of the soils (Rasool et al. 2007). The positive impact of integrating inorganic
fertilizers with FYM and bio inoculants of dehydrogenase, phosphatase enzyme activity, and soil
microbial population showed the positive correlation with nutrient uptake and grain yield (Parewa
et al. 2014). The mineralization and subsequent release of N from sewage sludge meet the needs of
crop demand which further leads to maximization of NUE by wheat. Sewage sludge was collected
from the Okhla sewage sludge treatment plant in Delhi, and characterized and incubated in an
Inceptisol along with fertilizer N to monitor the release pattern of N. A pot culture experiment was
also conducted to evaluate the efficiency of sludge for synchronization of N supply with the demand
of wheat crop. An incubation experiment revealed that the sludge-amended soil released signifi-
cantly higher amounts of NH4+-N as well as NO3−-N than that of the control. Release of NH4+-N
from the sludge-treated soil was slow during the first 15 days of incubation, then it increased and
reached its maxima at around 45 days, after which it decreased sharply. Release of NO3−-N was slow
Manures versus Fertilizers in Rainfed Dryland Production Systems of India 149
during the first 15 days of incubation, followed by a high release rate up to 45 days and a slow release
rate beyond 45 days. A pot culture experiment revealed that maximum yield, N content, and uptake
by wheat was obtained when the soil was treated with sludge along with fertilizer N @ 100 mg kg−1
soil, but those were statistically on par with the results obtained using sludge along with fertilizer N
at 50 mg kg−1 soil. The same treatment, that is, sludge along with fertilizer N at 50 mg kg−1 soil, also
showed the highest N recovery (50%). This treatment also showed significantly higher yield and N
uptake over the sole fertilizer treatment, that is, N at 100 mg kg−1 soil along with the recommended
dose of P and K. Hence, with sludge amendment, the fertilizer N requirement could be curtailed by
50% and might be implicative for better NUE (Biswas et al. 2017).
Inceptisols have a high level of aluminum content, and amendments are required to ensure a
satisfactory crop stand. The practice of liming aids in neutralizing Al3+, but on application to the
topsoil its action is limited to the surface layers, and soil incorporation of lime is recommended
at times. However, tillage may alter the physical properties of soil negatively. To avoid these nega-
tive effects of tillage, gypsum can be utilized as a substitute to boost Ca2+ levels and decrease
Al saturation in deeper layers. The effect of integrated nutrient management on soil properties
and productivity of toria revealed that the application of 75% RDF + 5 Mg ha−1 vermicompost
recorded significantly higher yield, benefit cost ratio, and rain water use efficiency (RWUE),
along with a significant improvement in soil physical and chemical properties that remained on
par with 75% RDF vermicompost at 5 Mg ha−1 in respect of toria productivity and soil properties
(Hazarika et al. 2016).
FIGURE 6.6 Predominant organic manures and related sources used in rainfed agriculture systems in India.
healthy soil system. Another essential aspect of continuous usage of organic manures in dryland
farming is to retain and conserve the soil-available moisture, particularly at critical plant-growth
stages. As drought, especially interdrought frequency, is increasing, retaining soil moisture and in
particular protecting it from evaporation under high temperatures, the addition of organic manure
has become more significant for sustainable agriculture systems in tropic regions. The critical
role of adding organic manure along with fertilizers is presented in Figure 6.7, indicating that
integrated use of fertilizers and manures sustained long-term fi nger millet production in semiarid
Alfisols of southern India compared to chemical fertilizers alone (Srinivasarao et al. 2014a, 2015).
Different forms of organic manures available for field a pplication in dryland regions of India are
cattle manure, compost, crop residue, vermicompost, green and green-leaf manure, sheep and goat
manure, poultry manure, agroindustry wastes, bone meal, and city waste and related materials
(Indoria et al. 2018).
25.0
20.0
15.0
10.0
5.0
0.0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Year of Cropping
FIGURE 6.7 Critical role of soil organic matter. Partial factor productivity of NPK in finger millet in 30-year
long-term experiment at Bangalore under rainfed conditions (1978–2007). (From Srinivasarao, Ch. et al.,
Potential and challenges of rainfed farming in India, In: Sparks, D.L. (Ed.), Adv. Agron., 113–181, 2015.)
plant nutrient supply solely through chemical fertilizers or organic manures, crop residues, or
biofertilizers cannot serve the entire nutrient need of crops, hence the calls for the adoption of a
management strategy that combines chemical fertilizers and organic sources that is practicable,
socially acceptable, ecologically sound, and economically viable. INM refers to the maintenance
of soil fertility and plant nutrient supply at an ideal level for sustaining desired productivity and
enhancing nutrient use efficiency utilizing all possible sources of organic, inorganic, and biological
components in an integrated manner that can be regarded as a feasible option to sustain soil health
and enhance productivity, eventually aiding farmers in reaping high profits (Srinivasarao et al.
2016a, 2016b, 2018).
Seed inoculation with Azospirillum and Azotobacter increased the grain yield of sorghum by
8.73% and 11.91%, respectively, compared with no inoculation. Yield attributes and grain yield
were increased with increasing levels of nitrogen up to 90 kg ha−1, where grain yield of 1514 kg
ha−1 was achieved. The interaction effect between inoculation and N levels was found significant
with respect to panicle length, grains/panicle, test weight, and grain yield of sorghum (Barik and
Nag 2001). The effect of organics and inorganics on variation in soil water content at important
crop growth periods and their effect on grain yield of sorghum under rainfed condition revealed
that the combined application of FYM, vermicompost, and Azospirillum recorded, significantly,
the highest test weight (37.16 g), grains per ear head (1642), and grain yield (3477 kg ha−1) when
compared to their individual application (Kalibhavi et al. 2002). Significantly higher seed cotton
yield was observed with application of 50% N through Gliricidia + 50% N through inorganics +
biofertilizers + 100% P + 25 kg K ha−1, which was comparable with the application of 100% NP +
biofertilizers + 25 kg K ha−1 (Khambalkar et al. 2017). Dryland farming zones and their treatment
details (inorganic, organic, and INM), mean yield, sustainability yield index, SOC, and nitrogen use
efficiency of various production systems in different soils of rainfed areas in India are presented in
Tables 6.7 and 6.8, respectively.
152
TABLE 6.7
Dryland Farming Zones and Their Regional Characteristics, and Treatment Details of Various Production Systems in Different Soils of
Rainfed Areas in India
S. Latitude and Rainfall Year of Initiation Production
No. Location State Longitude Climate (mm) (Duration) System Treatment Details
1. Alfisols Anantapur Andhra 14°42′ N, Arid 566 1985–2004 Groundnut T1 = Control (no fertilizer), T2 = 100%
Pradesh 77°40′ E, (20 years) recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF)
350 m (20:40:40 N, P2O5, K2O), T3 = 50%
RDF + 4 Mg groundnut shells (GNS)
ha−1, T4 = 50% RDF + 4 Mg FYM ha−1,
T5 = 100% organic (5 Mg FYM ha−1)
Bangalore Karnataka 12°46′ N, Semiarid 768 (1978–2004) Finger millet T1 = Control, T2 = 10 Mg FYM ha−1,
77°11′ E, (27 years) T3 = 10 Mg FYM ha−1 + 50% NPK,
810 m T4 = 10 Mg FYM ha−1 + 100% NPK,
T5 = Recommended NPK
(50:50:25 kg NPK ha−1 – finger millet)
Bangalore Karnataka 12°46′ N, Semiarid 768 (1991–2004) (Finger T1 = Control, T2 = 10 Mg FYM ha−1,
77°11′ E, (13 years) millet– T3 = 10 Mg FYM ha−1 + 50% NPK,
810 m Groundnut) T4 = 10 Mg FYM ha−1 + 100% NPK,
T5 = Recommended NPK
(25:50:25 kg NPK ha−1 – groundnut;
50:50:25 kg NPK ha−1 – finger millet)
2. Vertisols Indore Madhya 22°71′ N, Semiarid 958 1992–2007 Soybean– T1 = Control, T2 = 20 kg N+ 13 kg P,
Pradesh 75°85′ E (15 years) safflower T3 = 30 kg N+ 20 kg, T4 = 40 kg N+
sequence 26 kg, T5 = 60 kg N+ 35 kg P,
T6 = 6 Mg FYM ha−1 + N20P13,
T7 = 5 Mg soybean residue
ha−1 + N20P13, T8 = 6 Mg FYM ha−1,
T9 = 5 Mg soybean residues ha−1
(Continued)
Soil and Fertilizers
TABLE 6.7 (Continued)
Dryland Farming Zones and Their Regional Characteristics, and Treatment Details of Various Production Systems in Different Soils of
Rainfed Areas in India
S. Latitude and Rainfall Year of Initiation Production
No. Location State Longitude Climate (mm) (Duration) System Treatment Details
Solapur Maharashtra 17°65′ N, Semiarid 732 1985–2006 Rabi sorghum T1 = Control, T2 = 25 kg N ha−1 (Urea),
75°90′ E (22 years) T3 = 50 kg N ha−1 (Urea),
T4 = 25 kg N ha−1 through sorghum
residue (CR), T5 = 25 kg N ha−1
through FYM, T6 = 25 kg N ha−1
(CR) + 25 kg N ha−1 (Urea),
T7 = 25 kg N ha−1 (FYM) + 25 kg N
ha−1 (Urea), T8 = 25 kg N ha−1
(CR) + 25 kg N ha−1 (Leucaena
clippings), T9 = 25 kg N ha−1
(Leucaena), T10 = 25 kg N ha−1
(Leucaena) + 25 kg N ha−1 (Urea)
3. Inceptisols Varanasi Uttar 25°11′ N, Semiarid 1080 1986–2007 Rice–lentil T1 = Control, T2 = 100% RDF
Pradesh 82°51′ E, and (21 years) (inorganic), T3 = 50% RDF
480 m Subhumid (inorganic), T4 = 100% organic
(FYM), T5 = 50% organic (FYM),
T6 = 50% RDF + 50% (foliar),
T7 = 50% organic (FYM) + 50% RDF,
T8 = Farmers’ practice
4. Aridisols SK Nagar Gujarat 24°30′ N, Semiarid/ 670 1988–2006 Pearl T1 = Control, T2 = 100% recommended
Manures versus Fertilizers in Rainfed Dryland Production Systems of India
TABLE 6.8
Dryland Farming and Treatment Details ([Inorganic, Organic, and INM], Mean Yield, Sustainability Yield Index, Soil Organic Carbon and
Nitrogen Use Efficiency) of Various Production Systems in Different Soils of Rainfed Areas in India
Soil Type Pro Year of Mean
S. (Broad Soil duction Initiation Treatmental Mean Yield Yield (Mg Mean Yield
No Group) Location/State System (Duration) Details Inorganic (Mg ha−1) SYI SOC NUE INM ha−1) SYI SOC NUE Organic (Mg ha−1) SYI SOC NUE
1. Alfisols Anantapur, Groundnut 1985–2004 T1 = Control T2 = 100% 0.98 0.32 3.3 10.0 T3 = 50% 1.02 0.48 4.6 4.1 T5 = 100% 0.92 0.38 3.3 5.6
Andhra (20 years) (no fertilizer), recom RDF + 4 Mg organic (5
Pradesh T2 = 100% mended dose groundnut Mg FYM
recommended of fertilizer shells (GNS) ha−1)
dose of (RDF) ha−1
fertilizer (RDF) (20:40:40 N,
(20:40:40 N, P2O5, K2O)
P2O5, K2O),
T3 = 50%
RDF + 4 Mg
groundnut
shells (GNS)
ha−1, T4 = 50%
RDF + 4 Mg
FYM ha−1, T5 =
100% organic
(5 Mg FYM
ha−1)
Bangalore, Finger (1978–2004) T1 = Control, T5 = Rec. NPK 2.16 0.36 4.9 26.4 T4 = 10 Mg 3.28 0.59 6.4 24.4 T2 = 10 Mg 2.48 0.58 4.2 32.8
Karnataka millet (27 years) T2 = 10 Mg (50:50:25 kg FYM ha−1 + FYM ha−1
−1
FYM ha , T3 = NPK ha−1) 100% NPK
10 Mg FYM
ha−1 + 50%
NPK, T4 = 10
Mg
FYM ha−1 +
100% NPK,
T5 =
Recommended
NPK (50:50:25
kg NPK ha−1
– finger millet)
(Continued)
Soil and Fertilizers
TABLE 6.8 (Continued)
Dryland Farming and Treatment Details ([Inorganic, Organic, and INM], Mean Yield, Sustainability Yield Index, Soil Organic Carbon and
Nitrogen Use Efficiency) of Various Production Systems in Different Soils of Rainfed Areas in India
Soil Type Pro Year of Mean
S. (Broad Soil duction Initiation Treatmental Mean Yield Yield (Mg Mean Yield
No Group) Location/State System (Duration) Details Inorganic (Mg ha−1) SYI SOC NUE INM ha−1) SYI SOC NUE Organic (Mg ha−1) SYI SOC NUE
Bangalore, (Finger (1991–2004) T1 = Control, T5 = Rec. NPK 2.58 for 0.62 for 4.6 35.2 for T4 = 10 Mg 3.96 for 0.76 for 5.7 31.4 for T2 = 10 Mg 3.25 for 0.71 for 5.2 48.6 for
Karnataka millet (13 years) T2 = 10 Mg 50:50:25 kg finger finger finger FYM ha−1 + finger finger finger FYM ha−1 finger finger finger
Ground- FYM ha−1, T3 = NPK ha−1 millet millet millet 100% NPK millet millet millet millet millet millet
nut 10 Mg FYM – finger 0.72 for 0.16 for 12.8 for gnut 1.34 for 0.21 for 12.5 for 1.10 for 0.23 for 14.0 for
ha−1 + 50% millet; groundnut groundnut ground groundnut ground nut ground ground gnut
NPK, T4 = 10 (25:50:25 kg nut nut nut
Mg FYM ha −1 NPK
+ 100% NPK, ha−1 – ground
T5 = nut)
Recommended
NPK (25:50:25
kg NPK ha−1
– groundnut;
50:50:25 kg
NPK ha−1
– finger millet)
2. Vertisols Indore, Soybean– 1992–2007 T1 = Control, T5 = 60 kg 1.99 for 0.48 for 4.6 15.8 for T6 = 6 Mg 2.10 – 0.48 – 5.4 21.2 for soy T8 = 6 Mg 1.86 for 0.42 for 5.1 27.3 for
Madhya safflower (15 years) T2 = 20 kg N+ N+ 35 kg P soybean soybean soybean FYM ha−1 + soybean, soybean, 0.45 bean FYM ha−1 soybean, soy- soy-bean
Pradesh sequence 13 kg P, T3 = 30 1.21 for 0.31 for 9.7 for N20P13 1.49 safflower 17.2 for 1.22 for bean, 19.7 for
kg N+ 20 kg, safflower safflower safflower safflower safflower safflower 0.38 for safflower
T4 = 40 kg N+ safflower
26 kg, T5 = 60
kg N+ 35 kg P,
T6 = 6 Mg FYM
Manures versus Fertilizers in Rainfed Dryland Production Systems of India
ha−1+ N20P13,
T7 = 5 Mg
soybean residue
ha−1+ N20P13,
T8 = 6 Mg FYM
ha−1, T9 = 5 Mg
soybean
residues ha−1
(Continued)
155
156
Solapur, Rabi 1985–2006 T1 = Control, T2 T3 = 50 kg N 1.04 0.41 4.5 8.6 T10 = 25 kg 1.19 0.44 5.6 11.6 T10 = 25 kg N 0.85 0.48 4.4 4.8
Maharashtra sorghum (22 years) = 25 kg N ha−1 ha−1 (Urea) N ha−1 ha−1 (CR)
(Urea), T3 = 50 (Leucaena) +25 kg N
kg N ha−1 +25 kg N ha−1
(Urea), T4 = 25 ha−1 (Urea) (Leucaena)
kg N ha−1
through
sorghum
residue (CR),
T5 = 25 kg N ha−1
through FYM,
T6 = 25 kg N
ha−1 (CR)+25
kg N ha−1
(Urea), T7 = 25
kg N ha−1
(FYM)+25 kg
N ha−1 (Urea),
T8 = 25 kg N
ha−1 (CR)+25
kg N ha−1
(Leucaena
clippings), T9 =
25 kg N ha−1
(Leucaena), T10
= 25 kg N ha−1
(Leucaena) +25
kg N ha−1 (Urea)
(Continued)
Soil and Fertilizers
TABLE 6.8 (Continued)
Dryland Farming and Treatment Details ([Inorganic, Organic, and INM], Mean Yield, Sustainability Yield Index, Soil Organic Carbon and
Nitrogen Use Efficiency) of Various Production Systems in Different Soils of Rainfed Areas in India
Soil Type Pro Year of Mean
S. (Broad Soil duction Initiation Treatmental Mean Yield Yield (Mg Mean Yield
No Group) Location/State System (Duration) Details Inorganic (Mg ha−1) SYI SOC NUE INM ha−1) SYI SOC NUE Organic (Mg ha−1) SYI SOC NUE
3. Inceptisols Varanasi, Uttar Rice–lentil 1986–2007 T1 = Control, T2 T2 = 1.85-rice. 0.25-rice, 1.7 12.8 for rice T7 = 50% 1.95 for 0.29-rice, 2.0 14.5 for rice T4 = 100% 1.75- rice, 0.26-rice, 2.1 11.2 for
Pradesh (21 years) = 100% RDF 100% RDF 0.77-lentil 0.24- lentil organic rice, 0.30-lentil organic 0.82-lentil 0.26- rice
(inorganic), T3 (inorganic) (FYM)+ 50% 1.04- (FYM) lentil
= 50% RDF RDF lentil
(inorganic), T4
= 100% organic
(FYM), T5 =
50% organic
(FYM), T6 =
50% RDF +
50% (foliar), T7
= 50% organic
(FYM)+
50%RDF, T8 =
Farmers’
practice
Manures versus Fertilizers in Rainfed Dryland Production Systems of India
(Continued)
157
158
4. Aridisols SK Nagar, Pearl 1988–2006 T1 = Control, T2 T2 = 0.78- 0.24-pmillet,1.5 14.4-pmillet, T5 = 50% 0.81- 0.30-pmillet, 2.2 4.8- pmillet, T4 = 50% 0.55- 0.25- 1.9 1.5-pmillet,
Gujarat millet– (18 years) = 100% 100% pmillet, 0.46- 6.5-cbean, recommended pmillet, 0.69-cbean, 13.0-cbean, recom pmillet, pmillet, 8.0-cbean,
cluster recommended recom 0.45- cbean, 6.0-castor N (fertilizer) 0.58- 0.46-castor 6.5- castor mended N 0.48- 0.46- 3.2-castor
bean– dose of N mended dose cbean, 0.40-castor + 50% cbean, (FYM) cbean, cbean,
castor through mineral of N through 0.80- recommended 0.83- 0.63- 0.39-
rotation fertilizer mineral castor N (FYM) castor castor castor
(once in (RDNF), T3 = fertilizer
3 years) 50% RDNF; T4 (RDNF)
= 50%
recommended
N (FYM), T5 =
50%
recommended
N (fertilizer) +
50%
recommended
N (FYM), T6 =
Farmers’
method (5 Mg
of FYM ha−1
once in 3 years)
Soil and Fertilizers
Manures versus Fertilizers in Rainfed Dryland Production Systems of India 159
with an emerging crisis of multinutrient deficiencies, and the government has taken several initia-
tives for the reduction of organic carbon depletion and deterioration of soil health. Programs like
site-specific nutrient management (SSNM) aid in the efficient use of nutrients and the application of
nutrients in a balanced manner and ultimately lead to the betterment of soil health.
TABLE 6.9
Fertilizer Policies Introduced During Different Periods in India
S. No. Policy Period Objective
1. New Pricing Scheme (NPS) – I 1 April 2003 to 50% and 75% of urea was to be
31 March 2004 introduced under the terms of the
Essential Commodities Act of 1955.
2. New Pricing Scheme (NPS) – II 1 April 2004 to Urea distribution to be completely
31 September 2006 decontrolled on the basis of Phase I
evaluation and Ministry of
Agriculture (MoA)
recommendations.
3. New Pricing Scheme (NPS) – III 1 October 2006 to Increasing efficiency of urea and its
1 April 2014 distribution in the country.
Promote the usage of natural gas,
which is an efficient feedstock for
production of urea.
4. Modified New Pricing 2 April 2014 to Compensation of fixed cost and
Scheme (NPS) – III 31 May 2015 variable cost, namely, cost of bag,
water charges, and electricity.
5. New Urea Policy 1 June 2015 to Maximizing indigenous urea
31 March 2019 production, promoting energy
efficiency in urea production, and
rationalizing subsidy burden on the
government.
6. New Investment Policy 2 January 2012 Enable fresh investments, make India
self-sufficient, and lower import
dependency in urea sector.
7. Nutrient Based Subsidy (NBS) Policy February 2010 Implementing subsidy on P and K
fertilizers.
162 Soil and Fertilizers
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7 Reducing Emission of
Greenhouse Gases from
Fertilizer Use in India
Sangeeta Lenka, Narendra Kumar Lenka,
and Himanshu Pathak
CONTENTS
7.1 Introduction........................................................................................................................... 169
7.2 Fertilizer Use and Emission of GHG from Indian Agriculture............................................. 170
7.3 Mechanisms of GHG Emissions from Soil........................................................................... 171
7.4 Factors Controlling GHG Emissions from Fertilizer............................................................ 173
7.4.1 Climate...................................................................................................................... 173
7.4.2 Oil Properties............................................................................................................. 173
7.4.3 Fertilizer Application................................................................................................. 173
7.4.4 Soil Management Practices....................................................................................... 175
7.5 Mitigation Strategies.............................................................................................................. 175
7.5.1 Tillage........................................................................................................................ 175
7.5.2 Fertilizer Management.............................................................................................. 176
7.5.3 Nitrification Inhibitors............................................................................................... 177
7.5.4 Crop........................................................................................................................... 177
7.6 Conclusion and Way Forward................................................................................................ 177
References....................................................................................................................................... 178
7.1 INTRODUCTION
The increasing concentration of atmospheric greenhouse gases (GHGs) has made climate change
inevitable. The agriculture sector is a potential contributor to total GHG emissions, with a share
of about 24% (IPCC 2014b) of total anthropogenic emissions, and a growing global population
means that agricultural production will remain high if food demands are to be met. Agriculture
is a potential source and sink of three of these gases, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and
nitrous oxide (N2O), the so-called GHGs that contribute to global warming. Globally, agricultural
soil emits nearly 60% of N2O and nearly 50% of CH4. At the national level, in India approximately
23% of total emissions from agricultural soils of this fertilizer are the largest source, contribut-
ing 77% to total direct N2O emissions. The concentration in N2O, which has a very high radiative
forcing per unit mass or molecule (296 times higher than that of CO2 on a 100-year period), have
risen from a preindustrial value of 270 ppb to a 2011 value of 324 ppb (IPCC 2013) mainly due
to human activities, primarily through agriculture and the increase in the use of industrial fertil-
izers. Beyond its greenhouse effect, N2O is now also the major ozone depleting substance in the
stratosphere (Ravishankara et al. 2009). Agricultural soils produce 3.25 (1.7–4.8) Tg N2O-N year−1
from the application of nitrogenous fertilizer and thus appear as the main anthropogenic source
169
170 Soil and Fertilizers
of this gas (IPCC 2013). Fertilizer use has been increasing linearly with food grain production to
feed the growing population in India. Generally, high fertilizer application rates may cause higher
rates of GHG emissions. Annual fertilizer use would need to increase by 50% in India to increase
crop production by 20% from the current level to feed 1.7 billion people by 2050. While increasing
crop production by 20% to feed the growing population remains a priority, the fertilizer industry
has also prioritized climate-smart agriculture to minimize the impact on the environment. Without
a reduction in emission intensity, increases in productivity cannot be sustainable over the long term.
Reconciling the goals of increasing food demands with reducing GHG emissions from increased
fertilizer use requires adoption of good practice guidelines for fertilizer use. It is thus important to
consider which technologies and practices can be applied that meet not only adaptation needs, but
also mitigation needs. Thus, management practices need to be identified to better utilize fertilizer,
while at the same time safeguarding the environment. Therefore, this chapter aims to discuss the
effect of natural and management factors that influence the biochemical and physical processes that
determine GHG emissions from fertilizer use.
300 30
200 20
K2O, MMT)
150 15
100 10
50 5
0 0
1950-51 1960-61 1970-71 1980-81 1990-91 2000-01 2010-11 2016-17
FIGURE 7.1 Trends in fertilizer consumption and food grain production since 1950 in terms of total quanti-
ties in India. (From Fertilizer Statistics. 62nd edn. The Fertilizer Association of India, New Delhi, 2016−2017.
CIN: U85300 DL 1955NPL 002999.)
250 250
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
1961
1963
1965
1967
1969
1971
1973
1975
1977
1979
1981
1983
1985
1987
1989
1991
1993
1995
1997
1999
2001
2003
2005
2007
2009
2011
2013
2015
Direct emissions Indirect emissions Total emissions Fertilizer consumption (N + P2O5 + K2O)
FIGURE 7.2 Trends in GHGs emission (CO2 equivalent) from fertilizer consumption since 1961 in India.
(From Fertilizer Statistics. 62nd edn. The Fertilizer Association of India, New Delhi, 2016−2017. CIN:
U85300 DL 1955NPL 002999; GHG emissions data taken from FAOSTAT, http://www.fao.org/faostat.)
N2
N2O
NO Denitrification
(nitrous oxide)
Nitrifier denitrification
Nitrite reductase
NO
NO2-
(nitric oxide)
Nitrate reductase
Ammonification Nitrification
FIGURE 7.3 Pathways of nitrous oxide (N2O) production in soil a schematic representation. (Adapted from
Kool, D.M., et al., Soil Biol. Biochem., 43, 174–178, 2011; Pilegaard, K., Philos. Trans. Royal Soc. B Biol. Sci.,
368, 20130126, 2013; Wrage, N., et al., Soil Biol. Biochem. 33, 1723–1732, 2001.)
CH4 in soils is produced by methanogenesis under anaerobic conditions and is consumed by meth-
anotrophic microorganisms that use O2 and CH4 for their metabolism under aerobic conditions.
The three groups of organisms that may be involved in CH4 flux (CH4 oxidation and production) are
methanotrophic bacteria, ammonia oxidizing bacteria, and methanogenic bacteria. Methanogenesis
is frequently rate limited by the activities of the other members of the community, and particularly
by how rapidly hydrogen or acetate is made available. A reduced and anaerobic condition is essen-
tial for methane production wetlands and paddy soils are major source of methane in agriculture.
CO2 + 4H 2 methanogens
→ CH 4 + 2H 2O
CO2 is produced in soil from respiration of plant roots and soil organisms, and from a negligible
amount of chemical oxidation of C-containing minerals. The net ecosystem exchanges of CO2 are
balanced between photosynthesis and ecosystem respiration. Therefore, emission and mitigation of
only non-CO2 GHGs (N2O and CH4) are considered in the following sections.
Reducing Emission of Greenhouse Gases from Fertilizer Use in India 173
7.4.1 Climate
The climate of India varies from region to region due to its vast area and is home to diverse soil
types. The tropical and subtropical climate of India results in a higher mean annual temperature
(32°C–40°C) and precipitation (650 mm) than that of temperate countries. This higher mean annual
temperature and precipitation increases the decomposition and mineralization of soil organic matter
(SOM). The increased mineralization of SOM together with fertilizer application influences GHG
emissions from soils. Further, the climate of a region directly affects soil temperature and moisture,
which indirectly influences GHG emissions from fertilizer use. In general, GHG emissions are
lower under drier climates than under wet, and also lower under cool than under warm temperatures.
7.4.2 Oil Properties
Soil physical and chemical properties include SOC content, mineral N content, water-filled pore
space, pH, texture, drainage, temperature, moisture content, O2 status, porosity, microbial abun-
dance, and activity (Lenka and Lal 2013; Lenka et al. 2017). The N2O fluxes correlate positively
with soil nitrate and the nitrate/ammonium ratio and negatively with leaf litter and soil C/N ratio
(Erickson et al. 2002). However, emission of CO2 and CH4 is positively correlated with C/N ratio.
Decomposition rate and N mineralization, the processes that control N availability, influence N2O
fluxes from natural ecosystems (Werner et al. 2007). Low pH and soil moisture significantly sup-
press N2O emission. Water-filled pore space (WFPS) dictates the amount of aeration and oxygen
concentration in the soil, and thus nitrification is the main process of N2O emission at <60% WFPS.
Denitrification becomes more important at soil water contents >60% WFPS due to decreased oxygen
supply (Zaman et al. 2012; Butterbach-Bahl et al. 2013; Huang and Gerber 2015). Availability of
other elector donors like Fe3+, Mn4+, NO3−, and SO42− in soil decrease emission of CH4 from paddy
fields. There is no association between pH and CH4 production and consumption. CH4 emission is
suppressed at low temperature (<25°C) and high soil oxygen concentration. CH4 and N2O emission
are more present in fine-textured soil than coarse-textured soil because soils with dominant fine
pores support the formation of CH4 and N2O under anaerobic conditions (Zaman et al. 2012; Oertel
et al. 2016). Fertile soil with higher organic C and N shows higher N2O and CH4 emission than less
fertile soils (Butterbach-Bahl et al. 2013; Lenka et al. 2017).
systems of Indo-Gangetic regions, urea application, either singly or in combination with rice straw,
significantly increased the N2O flux (Pathak et al. 2002; Bhatia et al. 2005). After nine years of
experiment in soybean–wheat (Glycine max-Triticum aestivum), system application of inorganic
fertilizer and organic manures increased the annual N2O emission in Vertisols of central India
(Lenka et al. 2017).
Organic or chemical fertilizer application enhances CH4 production (Linquist et al. 2012b).
Nitrogen fertilizers stimulate crop growth and provide more C substrates (via organic root exu-
dates and sloughed-off cells) to methanogens for CH4 production (Malla et al. 2005; Banger et al.
2012). In addition to crop growth, N fertilizers alter the activities of methanotrophs in the soils
(Bodelier and Laanbroek 2004; Schimel 2004). However, there are contradictory reports on the
effects of N fertilizers on methanotrophs in rice soils. For example, Bodelier et al. (2000) reported
that application of urea at 200–400 kg N ha−1 stimulated the activities of methanotrophs, which
resulted in greater CH4 oxidation in the soil. In contrast, others have reported that N fertilizers
suppress methanotrophs by attaching to the CH4 oxidizing enzyme “methane monooxygenase” of
methanotrophs (Alam and Jia 2012; Serrano-Silva et al. 2014). Furthermore, due to similar genetic
structure, methanotrophs can switch substrates from CH4 to ammonia when greater ammonium-
N is available in soils (Alam and Jia 2012). These studies indicate the highly complex nature of
the effects of N fertilizers on CH4 production and oxidation processes in rice soils (Bodelier and
Laanbroek 2004).
In a meta-analysis, Banger et al. (2012) reported that N fertilizers increased CH4 emissions
in 98 of 155 data pairs in rice soils. The response of CH4 emissions per kgN fertilizer was sig-
nificantly (P < 0.05) greater at < 140 kg N ha−1 than > 140 kg N ha−1, indicating that substrate
switch from CH4 to ammonia by methanotrophs may not be a dominant mechanism for increased
CH4 emissions. On the contrary, decreased CH4 emissions in intermittent drainage by N fertil-
izers indicate stimulation of methanotrophs in rice soils. The effects of N fertilizer–stimulated
methanotrophs in reducing CH4 emissions were modified by continuous flood irrigation due to
the limitation of oxygen to methanotrophs. Greater response of CH4 emissions per kg N fertilizer
in urea than ammonia sulfate probably indicated the interference of sulfate in the CH4 production
process.
Seasonal flux of CH4 increased by 94% following application of fertilizer-N (urea). Wide varia-
tion in CH4 production and oxidation potentials was observed in rice soils tested. CH4 oxidation
decreased with soil depth, fertilizer-N and nitrification inhibitors, while organic amendment stimu-
lated it (Adhya et al. 2000). Nitrification inhibitors also have a considerable impact on CH4 emis-
sion through their inhibitory effect on CH4 oxidation due to higher conservation of ammonium in
soil (Adhya et al. 2000; Jain et al. 2000; Wang et al. 2014). Exposure of soil to NH4 leads to an
increase in the population of nitrifiers relative to methanotrophs and thus the overall CH4 oxidation
is reduced, as nitrifiers oxidize CH4 less efficiently than methanotrophs (Chan and Parkin 2001;
Serrano-Silva et al. 2014).
Apart from the quantity of fertilizer, the quality, mode, and time of fertilizer application also
influence N2O and CH4 emissions from soil. N2O emissions from agricultural land may increase by
35%−60% by 2030 from N fertilizer and manure production (Bruinsma 2003). However, the rate of
growth could slow down because of efficient use of fertilizers (Bruinsma 2017) and management-
related factors, including N application rate per fertilizer type, fertilizer application technique,
application timing, tillage system, irrigation, incorporation of crop residues, and composition.
Many of these factors also affect CH4 and CO2 emissions. N2O production or consumption is gen-
erally controlled by nutrient availability in soil. It is, therefore, believed that fertilizer application
increases the availability of nutrients, and increases global N2O emissions by 10% (Bouwman et al.
1995). Butterbach-Bahl et al. (2013) mentioned the availability of reactive N as the major driver
of N2O soil emissions. Moreover, Palm et al. (2002) also attributed higher N2O fluxes in cropping
systems to N fertilization, and higher N2O fluxes from tree-based systems to litter fall N, which are
both components of nutrient availability.
Reducing Emission of Greenhouse Gases from Fertilizer Use in India 175
7.5.1 Tillage
Tillage operation is the physical manipulation of soil and its environment, which alters the biochem-
ical processes that can significantly affect the production and consumption of N2O. Tillage is the
major mechanism by which soil is exposed to oxidation and thus loss of soil C. Intensity of tillage
before sowing a crop is known to profoundly affect soil aggregation, water-filled pore space, and the
concentration of oxygen and carbon dioxide in soil air, which directly affect the quantity of GHG
emissions from soil (Buchkina et al. 2013; Butterbach-Bahl et al. 2013; Luckmann et al. 2014; Liu
et al. 2015; Oertel et al. 2016; Krauss et al. 2017). Varying impacts of tillage on GHG mitigation has
been reported by researchers globally (Lenka and Lenka 2014). This could be probably due to dif-
ferences in soil, climate, crop, and management practices. Conservation tillage (CT) practices such
as minimum tillage, NT, and reduced tillage increase climate change mitigation through reduced
emission of CO2 and increased methane uptake. On the contrary, positive (Skiba et al. 2002; Liu
et al. 2011; Dendooven et al. 2012; Piva et al. 2012), negative (Malhi et al. 2006; Stockle et al. 2012;
Smith et al. 2012), and no effect (Choudhary et al. 2002; Yamulki and Jarvis 2002) of CT have
also been reported by researchers covering different ecosystems globally. Increased N2O emissions
176 Soil and Fertilizers
have been related to increased denitrification under CT due to the formation of microaggregates
within macroaggregates that create anaerobic micro sites with increased microbial activity, leading
to greater competition for oxygen. Further, the residue retention under CT provides labile substrate
to the denitrifying bacteria, which increase emission of N2O by denitrification. Soil tillage has a
profound influence on soil porosity, pore size distribution, and pore geometry, which affects the
diffusion of gases between the soil and atmospheric. In general, CT such as NT reduces porosity
and increases soil bulk density and soil penetration resistance, which decreases the efflux of GHGs
(Mangalassery et al. 2014). Thus, the resulting retention of GHGs in soil such as CH4 could increase
the probability of CH4 oxidation by methanotrophs. Further, tillage intensity is known to negatively
affect methanotrophic population, which takes a long time to recover. This could be the reason for
negative or no effect of CT on CH4 and N2O emissions. Therefore, the magnitude and direction of
GHGs’ efflux to or from soil depends on the resultant greater effect of soil physical or biological
properties.
amount of fertilizer at the desired depth would reduce the N2O loss. The right placement of N fertil-
izer as an application technique will lower N2O emissions. Deep placement of N deeper than 10 cm
soil depth will increase N2O emissions compared to that from surface broadcast and surface incor-
poration (Snyder et al. 2009). Further, deep placement of N fertilizer also influences CH4 oxidation,
albeit with variable reports of positive, negative, and no effects (Liu et al. 2006; Wang et al. 2012;
Adviento-Borbe and Linquist 2016; Yao et al. 2017).
7.5.4 Crop
Fertilization together with the right selection of crop, especially cereals, also helps to mitigate GHG
emissions. In a meta-analysis of 57 published studies, Linquist (2012a) showed that GHGI (i.e.,
yield-scaled GWP) is the highest for rice followed by that for maize and wheat. However, rice has
been the staple food of many Indian states for ages. Therefore, when recommending mitigation
strategies, cultural significance must also be considered. Site-specific legume-based crop rotations
along with judicious and efficient irrigation and fertilizer management might reduce emission of
GHGs. Selection of the appropriate high-yielding crop variety together with planting date and plant
population could be the right choice to lower GHGI.
on the tradeoff between soil N2O and CH4 emission vis-à-vis carbon sequestration potential and
other ancillary benefits. Good practice guidelines for reducing GHG emission from fertilizer use
include the following:
1. Selection of right crop variety, sowing/planting time, and optimum seed rate.
2. Right combination of rate, time, and method of fertilizer application to increase plant
nutrient uptake and nutrient use efficiency.
3. Use of balanced fertilizer.
4. Integrated use of inorganic and organic fertilizer.
5. Crop residue retention and incorporation in field.
6. Use of nitrification inhibitors and biofertilizers.
7. Irrigation water management to increase nutrient and water use.
To feed the growing population while protecting the environment, future sustainable agriculture
should explore systems with low GWP and GHGI at high crop productivity. Future research
on evaluating the best management practices to reduce GHG emissions should observe the
following:
1. Measure SOC content, bulk density, soil NO3 leaching or content in drainage water, crop
yield, and soil moisture content.
2. Launch an all-India coordinated research effort on GHG inventory, soil carbon storage,
and crop yield across different cropping systems, soils, and climates of India. This effort
should be initiated as soon as possible.
3. Account for residual soil N in choosing the dose of N to subsequent crops.
4. Use judiciously the N fertilizer on the basis of source, rate, time, placement, and method of
application in conjunction with different residue management options for diverse crops.
5. Adopt precision agriculture by using sensors to trace the time and site of N deficiency in
field and automatic N fertilization to enhance N use efficiency.
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8 Soil Health and Fertilizer
Use in India
Bhagwati Prasad Bhatt, Surajit Mondal,
Kirti Saurabh, Sushanta Kumar Naik,
Karnena Koteswara Rao, and Akram Ahmed
CONTENTS
8.1 Introduction............................................................................................................................ 183
8.2 Present Scenario of Soil Health in India............................................................................... 185
8.2.1 Soil Erosion................................................................................................................ 186
8.2.2 Physical Degradation................................................................................................. 188
8.2.3 Chemical Degradation............................................................................................... 188
8.2.3.1 Poor Soil Fertility and Low and Imbalanced Nutrient Use........................ 189
8.2.3.2 Low Use of Organic Manures..................................................................... 190
8.2.3.3 Skewed N:P:K Ratio.................................................................................... 191
8.2.4 Biological Degradation.............................................................................................. 193
8.2.5 Crop Residue Menace................................................................................................ 193
8.3 Approaches to Improve Soil Health....................................................................................... 194
8.3.1 Conservation Agriculture........................................................................................... 194
8.3.2 Direct Seeding for Rice Cultivation........................................................................... 196
8.3.3 Crop Rotation/Crop Diversification........................................................................... 197
8.3.4 Adoption of Zero Tillage........................................................................................... 197
8.3.5 Crop Residue Management........................................................................................ 198
8.3.5.1 Residue Management Strategies................................................................. 199
8.3.6 Balanced Use of Fertilizer......................................................................................... 199
8.3.7 Organic Agriculture (OA)..........................................................................................200
8.3.8 Integrated Pest Management and Healthy Soil.......................................................... 201
8.4 Conclusion..............................................................................................................................202
References....................................................................................................................................... 203
8.1 INTRODUCTION
Soil is one of the most complicated biological materials on the planet. Soils are the bedrock for the
sustainable food system and for healthy lives. Soils produce 95% of the food for the growing popula-
tion of the world. At the same time, soil provides living space for humans, as well as essential eco-
system services that are important for water regulation and supply, climate moderation, biodiversity
conservation, carbon sequestration, and cultural services. Soil stores 10% of the total carbon dioxide
emitted in the world (Patel 2016). Soil is the network of interacting living organisms within the
earth’s surface layer, which supports life above and below ground. Many soil processes like nutri-
ent cycling, water infiltration, organic matter decomposition, etc. are affected by the type of living
organisms of the soil. Fungi and bacteria help in decomposition of organic matter in the soil and
earthworms digest organic matter, recycle nutrients, and make the surface soil richer. In a handful
183
184 Soil and Fertilizers
of fertile soil, there are more individual organisms than the total number of human beings that have
ever existed (Salleh 2011). The soil has varying amounts of organic matter (living and dead organ-
isms), minerals, and nutrients. Soil carbon is highly variable within the profile and controls many
processes, such as the development of soil structure, water storage, and nutrient cycling. Soil carbon
takes three distinct forms, namely, living carbon, labile carbon, and fixed carbon. Living carbon
comprises microbes, fungi, plant roots, nematodes, earthworms, etc. Labile carbon (C) in the soil
comprises decomposing (dead) plant and animal materials that are in a state of transition. Fixed C
in soil consists of stable compounds as humates and glomalin. Sequestered C comprises fixed C
plus the total living biomass. Soil high in organic carbon content is characterized by better rainfall
infiltration and retention, and greater resilience to drought. Healthy soils are the basis for food, feed,
fuel, fiber, water, and medicinal/herbal products important for human well-being. Soils are essential
to the sustainability of natural and managed ecosystems, and play a key role in cycling C, storing
and filtering water, and improving resilience to floods and droughts.
Soils are vulnerable to C loss through degradation, but regenerative land management practices
can build soil and restore soil health. Soil erosion, loss of soil organic matter (SOM), and nutri-
ent depletion are among the leading contributors to impaired soil health, reduced crop yields, and
rural poverty. Soil health, an attribute of physical, chemical, and biological processes, is impaired
by indiscriminate and intensive cultivation and by overmining of nutrients by crops with lesser
replenishments through organic and inorganic sources of plant nutrients. Poorly managed soils are
deficient in several major and micronutrients. These deficiencies not only influence crop yields but
also the mineral content of seed and feed, and thus affect the health of crops, animals, and humans.
The problem has been aggravated since the mid-1960s by intensive cropping but without supple-
mentary input of micronutrients. Such a severe decline in soil health is one of the reasons for stag-
nating or declining agronomic yields (Kassam 2013). As described by Doran and Parkin (1994), soil
health is “the capacity of a soil to function within the ecosystem and land-use boundaries, to sustain
productivity, maintain environmental quality, and promote plant and animal health.” Soil erosion,
loss of SOM, and nutrient depletion are among the leading contributors to impaired soil health,
reduced crop yields, and poverty. The decline in soil health is an important issue for sustaining
crop productivity as well as human health. Moreover, intensive tillage and high water requirements
mostly linked with the high use of chemical fertilizers and their overdependence have degraded soil
health, resulting in a decline in soil C stocks (Kassam 2013). Maintaining soil health/quality is thus
indispensable for sustaining agricultural productivity at the desired level.
India was facing the problem of food shortages during the period of independence and imported
food grains from other countries. However, with focused efforts, the country attained self-sufficiency
and agriculture production increased considerably. The use of fertilizers is an inevitable factor in
improving soil fertility and productivity of crops regardless of the nature of the cropping sequence
or environmental conditions. It has been unequivocally demonstrated that one-third of crop produc-
tivity is dictated by fertilizers, besides influencing use efficiencies of other agri-inputs (Indoria et al.
2018). In the past four decades, nutrient use efficiency (NUE) of crops has stagnated (FAI 2010).
The nutrients that are left in the soil may enter into the aquatic environment, causing eutrophication.
In addition to the low nutrient efficiencies, agriculture in developing countries, including India, is
facing a problem of low SOM content, unbalanced fertilization, and low fertilizer response, which
eventually leads to stagnation of crop yield (Biswas and Sharma 2008). The fertilizer response
ratio in the irrigated areas of India has decreased drastically (NAAS 2009). The optimal NPK
fertilizer ratio of 4:2:1 is ideal for crop productivity (NAAS 2009), while the current ratio in India
is at 6.7:3.1:1 because of the excessive use of nitrogenous fertilizers. In order to achieve a target of
300 million tons (Mt) of food grains and to feed the burgeoning population of 1.4 billion in the year
2025, the country will require 45 Mt of nutrients as against a current consumption level of 23 Mt.
The extent of multinutrient deficiencies is alarmingly increasing year by year, which is closely asso-
ciated with a crop loss of nearly 25%–30%. There is a need for exploiting the potential of chemical
fertilizers in Indian agriculture.
Soil Health and Fertilizer Use in India 185
Enhancement and maintenance of soil productivity are essential to the sustainability of agri-
culture and for meeting basic needs of the rising population. India supports approximately 17% of
the global population and 11% of the world’s livestock population on merely 2.5% of the world’s
geographical area, adding immense pressure on agricultural land. The scope of increasing land
area for producing food is rather limited. Bringing marginal lands under plough is risky and may
pose a threat to fragile ecosystems. Hence, meeting food demand mostly depends upon the supply
of plant nutrients and water as well as the capacity of soil to perform various functions related
to nutrient cycling and rhizospheric environment. The availability of plant nutrients is becoming
scarce due to rising costs, and that of water has always remained uncertain due to its dependence
on climate. The situation is getting worse due to competition from other sectors and changing
climatic patterns and also due to deteriorating soil quality because of increased anthropogenic
activity. Numerous studies have documented a decline in soil productivity, produce quality, and
groundwater quality, as well as a loss in soil biodiversity as a result of these factors (Bhandari
et al. 2002; Manna et al. 2005; Panwar et al. 2010). It is a matter of great concern that degraded
lands form more than 57% of the total reporting area against 17% in the whole world. Hence, a
pressing need has arisen for managing our precious soil resources for improving and sustaining
its various functions so that the demand for quality food is met and the quality of the environment
is improved.
FIGURE 8.1 Relationship among soil quality, environmental quality, and agricultural sustainability. (From
Gregorich, E.G., et al., Can. J. Soil Sci., 81, 21–31, 2001.)
186 Soil and Fertilizers
in which crops grow in totality, recognizing the constraints of that setting, and improving wherever
possible without damaging the quality of the soil is crucial for all concerned, not just researchers.
Degradation of physical, chemical, and biological soil quality along with insufficient and imbal-
anced use of nutrients and neglect of organic manure is the cause of multinutrient deficiencies over
time in many fields. This, combined with bad field water management, is the main cause of low
crop productivity and decreased effectiveness in the use of nutrients and water. As such, it presents
a major danger to the intrinsic ability of the soil to sustain productivity. Maintaining soil health/
quality is therefore essential to maintain the required level of agricultural productivity.
8.2.1 Soil Erosion
A decline in soil health status resulting in the ecosystem’s reduced ability to provide its benefi-
ciaries with products and services results in soil degradation. Degraded soils have a health status
such that they do not provide their ecosystem with the normal goods and services of the specific
soil. Of the complete geographic region of India (328.7 M ha), 304.9 M ha comprise the reporting
region of 264.5 M ha used for agriculture, forestry, pasture, and other manufacturing of biomass.
Many organizations have earlier evaluated the seriousness and magnitude of soil degradation in the
nation (Figure 8.2). Approximately 146.8 M ha is degraded, according to the National Soil Survey
and Land Use Planning Bureau (NBSS&LUP 2004). Water erosion is India’s most severe issue of
degradation, leading to loss and deformation of the topsoil and terrain. The average soil erosion rate
was ~16.4 Mg ha−1 year −1 based on the first approximation assessment of current soil loss informa-
tion, leading to an annual complete soil loss of 5.3 billion Mg across the nation (Dhruvanarayan
and Ram 1983). Nearly 29% of the total eroded land is continuously lost to the ocean, while 61% is
merely moved from one location to another, and the remaining 10% is deposited in reservoirs.
Globally, water erosion causes a loss of about 24 billion tons of fertile soil annually (FAO 2011).
A recent domestic soil degradation database in India demonstrates that 120.7 M ha or 36.7% of
the country’s total arable and nonarable land surface is affected by multiple types of degradation,
with soil erosion being its main contributor in 83 M ha (68.4%) (NAAS 2010a). A significant risk
to soil health/quality and the quality of surface runoff is also water erosion. It results in a loss of
soil organic carbon (SOC), imbalance in nutrients, soil compaction, and decline in soil biodiversity.
The annual soil loss rate in India is approximately 15.4 Mg ha−1, leading to nutrient losses of
5.4 to 8.4 Gg, a decrease in crop productivity, floods and droughts, a decrease in reservoir capacity
(1 to 2 percent annually), and biodiversity loss (Sharda and Ojasvi 2016). Loss of crop productivity,
one of many negative impacts of soil erosion by water, has serious consequences for the country’s
food, livelihood, and environmental security. Major rainfed crops in India suffer an annual produc-
tion loss of 13.4 Gg due to water erosion, which amounts to a loss of Rs 205.3 billion in monetary
terms (Sharda and Dogra 2013).
In both rainfed and irrigated regions of India, soil degradation has become a serious issue.
Economic loss due to soil degradation in India is high (Table 8.1). This loss includes a decrease
in crop productivity and intensity of land use, changes in cropping patterns, high input use, and
decreasing profit (Srinivasarao et al. 2013).
Reddy (2003) used the data set of the National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA) to estimate
the production loss in India at Rupees (Rs) 68 billion in 1988–1989. Additional salinization, alka-
linization, and waterlogging losses were estimated at Rs 8 billion. Late in the process of extensive
research on the effect of water erosion on crop productivity, it was found that water-related soil ero-
sion resulted in an annual crop loss of 13.4 Mt in cereals, oilseeds, and pulse plants, equivalent to
approximately $162 billion.
In order to maintain better soil quality under intensive farming technologies, emphasis should be
placed on creating workable soil quality indicators and techniques for assessing and monitoring soil
quality, assessing soil quality under specific soil management schemes (cropping, tillage, and water
and nutrient use practices) and identifying the effects of aggrading/degrading management practices
Soil Health and Fertilizer Use in India 187
FIGURE 8.2 The extent of land degradation in India as evaluated by various organizations. (Modified from
Bhattacharyya, R., et al., Sustainability, 7, 3528–3570, 2015.)
TABLE 8.1
Estimates of the Immediate Annual Price of Land Degradation in India
Parameters NRSA (1990) ARPU (1990) Sehgal and Abrol (1994)
Area affected by soil erosion (M ha) 31.5 58.0 166.1
Area affected by salinization, alkalinization, and 3.2 — 21.7
waterlogging (M ha)
Total area affected by land degradation (M ha) 34.7 58.0 187.7
Cost of soil erosion in lost nutrients (Rs billion) 18.0 33.3 98.3
Cost of soil erosion in lost production (Rs billion) 67.6 124.0 361.0
Cost of salinization, alkalinization, and 7.6 — 87.6
waterlogging in lost production (Rs billion
Total direct cost of land degradation (Rs billion) 75.2 — 448.6
188 Soil and Fertilizers
and sustaining soil quality. Also, strategies need to be formulated to decide the amount of organic
matter to be added each year in the form of organic manures, organic waste, and organic residue to
maintain or build up the SOM level in diverse soil types.
8.2.2 Physical Degradation
Soil physical degradation, caused by a decline in soil structure and tilth, leads to waterlogging, sub-
mergence, flooding, soil compaction, crusting, low infiltration, and impedance to root penetration.
Physical deterioration of soil becomes a limiting factor in crop production. Some of these adverse
changes are caused by inappropriate tillage, complete removal of crop residues from the soil, and
the lack of sufficient energy for deep tillage or for adoption of agricultural practices for effective
soil conservation.
Altogether, physical degradation contributes to the loss of agronomic productivity. Approximately
1.07 M ha of the land area is physically degraded, mostly by waterlogging owing to continuous
ground flooding (0.88 M ha), and about 12.53 M ha of rainfed Vertisols stay fallow owing to tem-
porary waterlogging during the summer (NAAS 2010a). Waterlogging alone leads to annual grain
losses in India of 1.2 to 6.0 Gg (Bradon and Kishore 1995).
8.2.3 Chemical Degradation
Chemical soil degradation is attributed to (1) salinization/alkalinization, (2) acidification, (3)
chemical soil toxification, and (4) depletion of nutrients and other nutrient-input-associated prob-
lems. There are presently around 6.74 M ha of salt-affected soils consisting of 3.79 M ha of high
sodium (pH > 9.5) and about 3 M ha of salinity (including 1.25 M ha of coastal salinity) (NAAS
2010a).
Approximately 11 M ha of arable land has severe soil acidity (pH < 5.5) with very low p roductivity
(<1 Mg/ha) owing to deficiencies and toxicity of certain nutrients. The poor soil health of acid soils
is attributed to low fertility due to a mixture of toxicity of Al, Mn, and Fe, and deficiency of P, Ca,
Mg, and K and some micronutrients such as B, Mo, and Zn, resulting in loss of crop productivity
(NAAS 2010b).
With higher urbanization, the toxification of the soil through chemicals is growing. With heavy
metals having carcinogenic impacts, more and more municipal and industrial waste is being dumped
into the soil. In Bhopal, a study by the Indian Institute of Soil Science reported elevated concentra-
tions of heavy metals (Cd, Cr, Cu, Pb, Ni, and Zn) in composts produced from blended munici-
palities in many towns of India. Groundwater contamination with arsenic (As) in the Bengal Delta
basin, which lies between the Ganga and Padma Rivers of India and Bangladesh, is a major health
concern. India, especially West Bengal, is one of the most affected areas, as 10 out of the 18 districts
of the state are affected by As poisoning. Among these regions, Nadia District is one of the worst
affected districts in terms of the level of As contamination and area coverage (Bhattacharya et al.
2009).
In addition, excessive use of fertilizers and pesticides for vegetables and other horticultural
crops and decoration plants also leads to a buildup of toxic elements in the soil. Burning of fossil
fuel and industrial emissions cause substantial air pollution that ultimately precipitates on soil and
water.
When used for irrigation, polluted surface water and groundwater add a number of damaging
chemicals to the soil. In some regions, there are reports of enhanced nitrate concentrations in the
groundwater. It remains to be authenticated whether this is due to fertilizer N, animal production
systems, or geogenic processes. Animal manures account for 5%–10% of N input in Indian agri-
culture but can be an important cause of nitrate pollution in some fields owing to leakage during
storage and processing to groundwater. Depletion of nutrients, organic matter, and other nutrient-
input-related issues aggravate soil degradation.
Soil Health and Fertilizer Use in India 189
8.2.3.1 Poor Soil Fertility and Low and Imbalanced Nutrient Use
The soils of India are strongly depleted of their organic matter content and, therefore, have low
fertility and poor structural attributes. Given low soil fertility and reduced soil and water resources,
India must restore soil quality to boost productivity. It is also because of a low SOM content that
soils covering approximately 59, 36, and 5 percent of the total agricultural area are characterized by
low, medium, high stocks of N, respectively.
Similarly, soils of approximately 49%, 45%, and 6% of the land area are low, medium, and high
in plant-available P, respectively; and soils of approximately 9%, 39%, and 52% of the land area are
low, medium, and high in available K reserves, respectively (Chaudhari et al. 2015).
Not only are the intrinsic soil fertility and the nutrient input low, but there is also increasing evi-
dence of rising P and K deficiencies, aggravated by the disproportionate or imbalanced implementa-
tion of greater P and K doses of N (Tewatia et al. 2017).
The N-based fertilizers make up a large proportion of the complete fertilizer material, almost
70%. There is growing proof that oilseeds, pulses, legumes, and high-yielding cereals are increas-
ingly responding to S input. The S status of the soils of India is declining with each passing year. An
increasing trend of S deficiency is reported by soil analysis and plant reaction information produced
by the TSI-FAI-IFA project (1997–2006), which reinforced the finding of the ICAR system AICRP
information. Of the more than 49,000 soil samples analyzed in 18 states, 46% were sulfur deficient,
and another 30% were sulfur deficient samples that could be considered potentially sulfur deficient
(Sulphur Institute 2019).
The micronutrient deficiency in crops is growing rapidly both in extent and intensity
(see Figure 8.3), and as per the assessment made under the All India Coordinated Research Project
on Micro and Secondary Nutrients and Pollutant Elements in Soils and Plants, nearly 49%, 15%,
6%, 8%, 11%, and 33% samples were found to be deficient in zinc, iron, manganese, copper, molyb-
denum, and boron, respectively, across the country, and hence all contribute toward poor soil health
(Shukla et al. 2012).
It is expected that the micronutrient deficiency will increase in both quantity and magnitude with
greater yields and more intensive agriculture. Limiting nutrients does not allow other nutrients to be
fully exploited, and leads to reduced fertilizer reaction and reduced crop productivity. The present
FIGURE 8.3 Micronutrient deficiency in Indian soils. (From Shukla, A.K., et al., Indian J. Agron., 57,
123–130, 2012.)
190 Soil and Fertilizers
gap between annual soil nutrient depletion and external source inputs is 10 Gg, which may be aggra-
vated over time. This is one of the main causes of degradation of soil chemical properties leading
to impaired soil health.
However, there is a big disparity in the consumption of fertilizers across Indian states on the
input side. NPK’s fertilizer input, 95.9 kg/ha, is much smaller in the country’s western areas than
the domestic average rate of 141.9 kg ha−1. The average rate of fertilizer use is 140.9, 182.4, and
186.2 kg ha−1, respectively, for the east, north, and south areas (FAI 2016). In addition, out of
565 districts surveyed for fertilizer consumption, 93 districts apply < 50 kg ha−1, and another
124 districts fall into the NPK consumption category of 50–100 kg ha−1 (FAI 2016). Lack of guar-
anteed irrigation water supply is one of the main causes of low fertilizer input. Only 109 districts in
the nation use NPK > 200 kg ha−1 of fertilizer. In Punjab, where over 98% of the region is irrigated,
19 out of 20 surveyed districts apply NPK > 200 kg ha−1 of fertilizer. As a result, the nutrient needs
of crops and associated nutrient losses of Indian agriculture are very large (and growing each year).
Therefore, it is important to assess the amount of nutrient added, removed, and remaining in agri-
cultural soils (Figure 8.4). Practical information is needed on whether the nutrient status of soil (or a
region) is being maintained, built up, or depleted. The net negative national budget is 9.7 million Mg
for NPK, which is equivalent to an annual depletion rate of 19% N, 12% P, and 69% K. The current
estimated net decline per ha from India’s net sown area of 143 M ha amounts for 16 kg N, 11 kg
P2O5, and 42 kg K2O (69 kg N+P2O5 + K2O). The large percentage for K is partially due to plants
removing an average of 1.5 times more K than N, and K input via fertilizer is much smaller than
that of N or P application (Tandon 2007). As a result, Indian farming operates at a net adverse plant
nutrient equilibrium, resulting in chemical degradation and poor soil health.
FIGURE 8.4 The nutrient balance (nutrient addition and removal) of agricultural soil. (Modified from
Tandon, H.L.S., Better Crops–India, 15–19, 2007.)
Soil Health and Fertilizer Use in India 191
FIGURE 8.5 Change in soil organic carbon (in %) over time in India. (From FAOSTAT, http://www.fao.org/
faostat/en/#data/RFN, accessed on 12 July 2019.)
TABLE 8.2
Status of Organic Soil Carbon (SOC) (g kg −1) in Long-Term Experiments with Fertilizers
Location Control N NP NPK NPK + FYM
Akola 3.1 4.3 4.9 5.4 7.9
Bangalore 4.8 5.1 5.2 5.5 5.8
Barrackpore 5.5 6.8 7.2 7.2 9.0
Jabalpur 4.2 5.2 4.2 6.8 8.9
Ludhiana 2.8 3.9 3.9 4.2 5.3
New Delhi 3. 4 4.3 4.6 4.6 5.2
Palampur 7.9 8.8 9.3 10.2 13.7
Pantnagar 6.1 9.1 9.9 9.8 15.6
Parbhani 5.7 5.4 5.9 6.2 6.8
Ranchi 3.5 4.2 4.2 4.0 4.9
Source: NAAS, Soil health: New policy initiatives for farmers welfare, New Delhi, India, 2018.
have clearly demonstrated (Table 8.2) that balanced fertilization and input of farmyard manure
(FYM) has maintained and/or enhanced SOC content in diverse soils (Singh and Wanjari 2017).
TABLE 8.3
Trends in NPK Use and Its Ratio in Indian Agriculture
Year N (kg ha−1) P2O5 (kg ha−1) K2O (kg ha−1) Total NPK Use Ratio
1965–1966 3.70 0.85 0.50 5.05 7.4:1.7:1
1980–1981 21.31 7.03 3.61 31.95 5.9:1.9:1
1990–1991 43.06 17.34 7.15 67.55 6.0:2.4:1
2010–2011 83.76 40.72 17.78 142.26 4.7:2.3:1
2011–2012 88.36 40.42 13.15 141.93 6.7:3.1:1
2012–2013 86.60 34.25 10.61 131.46 8.2:3.2:1
2013–2014 83.35 28.03 10.44 121.83 8.0:2.7:1
2014–2015 85.45 30.75 12.77 128.96 6.7:2.4:1
2015–2016 87.58 35.18 12.11 134.87 7.2:2.9:1
2016–2017 84.37 33.80 12.65 130.82 6.7:2.7:1
Source: FAI, Fertiliser Statistics 2016–17, Fertiliser Association of India, New Delhi, India, 2017.
effectiveness, nitrogen fertilizers contribute about 77% of total direct nitrous oxide emissions
from agricultural soils through the soil health-related denitrification method, being more from
degraded soils.
Thus, India’s challenge now is to identify methods to sustainably advance agricultural and
industrial growth without adversely affecting nitrogen-related soil health, climate, and ecological
processes.
8.2.4 Biological Degradation
Biological soil health degradation is caused by soil erosion and water runoff, leading to loss of fauna
and flora and depletion of SOC content. These processes are exacerbated by extremes of acidity and
alkalinity, addition of toxic substances, excessive use of chemicals, excessive tillage, extremes of
climate, etc. Management procedures that decrease SOM or bypass biologically mediated nutrient
cycling also tend to decrease soil microbial communities both in size and complexity. Both animals
(fauna/microfauna) and plants (flora/microflora) are significant soil organisms in maintaining the
general soil quality, fertility, and soil stability. They are closely connected with soil-borne biologi-
cal and biochemical transformations. The soil health and the associated biological state provide an
early indication of soil degradation that can assist in the timely adoption of extra prudent, viable
soil-crop management methods. However, data on the desirable level of activity, numbers, and vari-
ety of soil organisms has yet to be established in order to preserve fertile and productive soil.
FIGURE 8.6 Amount of residue burning (in Gg) in India from 1961 to 2017. (From FAOSTAT, http://www.
fao.org/faostat/en/#data/RFN, accessed on 12 July 2019.)
FIGURE 8.7 The extent of adoption of CA in leading countries and in India in 2015–2016. (Modified from
Kassam, A., et al., Int. J. Environ. Stud., 76, 29–51, 2019.)
systems are gradually undergoing a paradigm shift from intensive tillage to reduced/zero-tillage
operations. There is need to adopt the other components of CA, namely, residue retention or cover
crops and diversification of the cropping system, in the traditional system to maintain or increase
the productivity in a sustainable manner and improve soil health. The much-needed diversification
of rice–wheat system through crop intensification, introduction of pulse crops, relay cropping, etc.
can also be achieved by the implementation of the CA. Naik et al. (2017) observed enrichment of
total SOC by 17.2%, 12.6% and 11.0% in six-year old mango, guava and litchi orchards, respectively,
in the eastern plateau and hill region over-orchard crops due to leaf litter decomposition.” Mango
and guava leaf litter constitute comparatively readily available sources of nutrients, and they could
be suitable for short-term nutrient correction and sustainability of soil fertility. However, leaf litter
from litchi caused a noticeable slow decay rate and is worthy to be used for organic matter buildup
in a hot and dry subhumid climate under CA (Naik et al. 2018).
Increasing the adoption of CA in India has the following prospects:
1. Improvement in soil health – Limited soil disturbance and surface cover of soil by crop
residues or growing of cover crops can improve soil health. Surface residue on decompo-
sition increases the SOC, which in turn improves the physicochemical properties of soil
(Mondal et al. 2019) and maintains a better environment for soil micro- and macrofauna.
2. Better residue management – Sowing of the crop with residue in the field under CA offers a
better, environment-friendly option of residue management. Avoiding residue burning can
lead to multiple benefits of better protection of soil from rain and wind, increased SOM
content, better nutrient status, etc.
3. Decline in cost of production – Adoption of CA can reduce the cost of cultivation sig-
nificantly due to savings of labor, diesel, and water. Many researchers have documented
cost reductions ranging from Rs 2000 to Rs 3000 ($33 to $50) per hectare on account of
CA adoption (Malik et al. 2005; RWC-CIMMYT 2005).
4. Less weed occurrence – Phalaris minor, the major weed in wheat in India, is reported to
occur less under ZT, resulting in a reduction in the use of herbicides.
196 Soil and Fertilizers
5. Diversification and intensification of cropping system – Adoption of CA with all its
components gives farmers an opportunity for the cultivation of more crops, and when
it is embraced with proper moisture conservation practices, cropping intensity could be
enhanced in rice-fallow areas that otherwise remain fallow for lack of irrigation facilities.
6. Saving in water and nutrients – One of the most promising benefits of CA is soil water
conservation. Residue retention, or live surface cover, facilitates rainwater infiltration and
decreases the loss of water through evaporation. Furthermore, the advancement of sowing
time in wheat also enables more efficient use of water. The residue retained under CA gets
decomposed with time and supplies vital nutrients to the crop and thereby could save
nutrient inputs in the form of fertilizers. Mondal et al. (2018) reported better soil moisture
conservation under ZT wheat as compared to conventional practices, which further modi-
fies the thermal regime of soil.
7. Yield benefits – If properly managed, ZT wheat gives more yield compared to tradition-
ally cultivated wheat, and this yield improvement happens due to the associated effects
of CA like better soil physical health, improved soil fertility, better soil moisture status,
reduction in evaporation loss of water, better soil temperature regime, and crop rotational
benefits. An increase of 200–500 kg ha−1 has been reported in ZT wheat as compared to
farmers’ practice in the rice–wheat system of the IGP (Hobbs and Gupta 2003).
8. Environmental benefits – Residue burning is a menace to Indian agriculture and is respon-
sible for soil health deterioration and greenhouse gas emissions. Better residue manage-
ment under CA results in better recycling of soil nutrients and less emission of CO2, CH4,
and N2O. It also enhances resource use efficiency and improves soil health.
weed management in DSR, there are a few points to ponder like stale seedbed, mulching and ZT,
use of suitable herbicides, crop rotation, intercropping of cover crops, hand weeding/mechanical
weeding, competitive rice cultivars, water management, and herbicide-resistant rice.
5. Increased input use efficiency, particularly water and nutrients (Jat et al. 2012; Saharawat
et al. 2012).
6. Increase in yield and productivity (4%–10%) (Gathala et al. 2011).
7. Advancement of the sowing date of wheat (Malik et al. 2005).
8. Improved environmental sustainability due to less greenhouse gas emissions (Pathak et al.
2011) and enhanced SOC by 14.6% (Samal et al. 2017)
9. Reducing environmental pollution, loss of nutrients, and avoiding serious health hazards
by retaining crop residue instead of burning (Sidhu et al. 2007).
10. Offering better prospects for intensification and diversification of cropping systems
(Jat et al. 2005).
11. Increasing resource use efficiency by conserving soil moisture and retaining crop residues,
which with time get decomposed and provide vital nutrients to the growing crop (Jat et al.
2009).
Despite multiple benefits, the rate of adoption of ZT is slow due to lack of awareness among farm-
ers regarding its usefulness, unavailability of suitable machinery (which could work under residue
conditions), and lack of guidance at the field level. Government initiatives like the formation of cus-
tom hiring centers for farm machinery, incentive to farmers for adoption, and timely advice could
significantly hasten the process of ZT adoption, which would not only reduce the cost of cultivation
but also maintain soil health in a sustainable manner.
waste of scarce resources. It is only the restoration of soil health that leads to a sustainable land-use
system where most food grain production continues to come from the land already appropriated for
agriculture.
Nutrient balance is a key component in enhancing crop productivity. It ensures efficient use of
all the nutrients since the deficiency of any one essential nutrient limits the efficient use of all other
nutrients even when they are available in adequate quantities. Fertilizer promoters in India advocate
the use of N/P2O5/K2O fertilizers in the ratio of 4:2:1 (Roy and Hammond 2004). This ratio is gener-
ally considered to be an ideal one for achieving the maximum use efficiency of each nutrient. If one
nutrient is present in large amounts, it may depress the uptake of some other nutrient(s) and reduce
crop yield. Thus, there must be a proper balance among the essential plant nutrients.
Balanced and judicious use of fertilizers is the key to efficient nutrient use and for maintaining
soil productivity. A plant nutrient added to the soil will be efficiently used by the crop only if the
other essential nutrients are present in adequate amounts. Balanced use of fertilizers should be
aimed at the following considerations:
advisable nor feasible to recommend the switchover from fertilizer use to organic manure under all
agroecosystems. Presently, only 30% of India’s total cultivable areas have irrigation facilities where
the use of agrochemicals is more compared to that for the rain-fed zones. It is in rain-fed agriculture
that ingenuity and efforts are required to increase crop productivity and farm production despite the
recurrence of the environmental constraints of drought and water scarcity.
OA and food production systems are quite distinct from conventional farms in terms of nutrient
management strategies. OA systems adopt management options with the primary aim of develop-
ing whole farms, like a living organism with balanced growth, in both crops and livestock hold-
ings. Thus, the nutrient cycle is closed as far as possible. Only nutrients contained in the food and
products harvested are exported out of the farm. Crop residue burning is prohibited; so also is the
unscientific storage of animal wastes and its application in the fields. OA is, therefore, considered
more environmentally friendly and sustainable than the conventional system. Farm conversion from
a high-input, chemical-based system to an OA systems is designed after undertaking a constraint
analysis for the farm with the primary aim of taking advantage of local conditions and their interac-
tions with farm activities, climate, soil, and environment, so as to achieve (as far as possible) closed
nutrient cycles with less dependence on off-farm inputs.
The so-called organic transition effect, in which a yield decline in the first one to four years
of transition to OA, followed by a yield increase when soils have developed adequate biological
activity (Liebhardt et al. 1989; Neera et al. 1999), has not been borne out in some reviews of yield
comparison studies. Trials conducted on organic cotton at Nagpur indicated that after the third
year, the organic plot, which did not receive fertilizers and insecticides, produced as much cotton
as that cultivated with them (Rajendran et al. 2000). Similarly, studies conducted in Punjab clearly
indicated that OA produced higher or equal yields of different cropping systems compared to those
from chemical farming after an initial period of three years (Kler et al. 2002). A survey of 208 proj-
ects in developing tropical countries in which contemporary OA practices were introduced showed
average yield increases of 5%–10% in irrigated crops and 50%–100% in rainfed crops (Pretty and
Hine 2001).
Nicholls 2003). For example, the usage of fertilizers and pesticides has increased rapidly during
this period, and evidence suggests that such excessive use of agrochemicals in conjunction with
expanding monocultures has exacerbated pest problems (Conway and Pretty 1991). On the other
hand, proponents of alternative agricultural methods contend that crop losses to insects and diseases
are reduced with OA (Oelhaf 1978; Merrill 1983). Although this view is widespread, there have
been surprisingly few attempts to test its validity. The few conducted studies suggest that lower pest
pressure in OA systems could result from the greater use of crop rotation and/or preservation of
beneficial insects in the absence of pesticides (Lampkin 1990). Alternatively, reduced susceptibility
to pests may be a reflection of differences in plant health, as mediated by soil fertility management.
Many researchers and also practicing farmers have observed that fertility practices that replenish
and maintain high SOM and that enhance the level and diversity of soil macro- and microbiota
provide an environment that through various processes enhances plant health (McGuiness 1993;
Altieri and Nicholls 2003).
Despite the potential links between soil fertility and crop protection, the evolution of integrated
pest management (IPM) and integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) have proceeded sepa-
rately. The integrity of the agroecosystem relies on synergies of plant diversity and the continuing
function of the soil microbial community, and its relationship with SOM. Most pest management
methods used by farmers can be considered soil fertility management strategies and vice versa.
There are positive interactions between soils and pests that once identified can provide guidelines
for optimizing total agroecosystem function. Increasingly, new research is showing that the ability
of a crop plant to resist or tolerate insect pests and diseases is tied to optimal physical, chemical,
and mainly biological properties of soils. Soils with high SOM and active soil biology generally
exhibit good soil fertility as well as complex food webs and beneficial organisms that prevent infec-
tion. On the other hand, farming practices that cause nutrition imbalances can lower pest resistance
(Magdoff and van Es 2000).
8.4 CONCLUSION
It is difficult to maintain soil health and sustain productivity without regular application of organic
amendments, recycling of available organic residues, and ensuring high responses to added fertil-
izers. Moreover, overdependence on only chemical fertilizers is posing a serious threat to the eco-
logical balance. The enormous number of alternative sources of organic amendments available in
the country for recycling and bioconversion should be explored to utilize their embedded nutrients
and organic matter for sustainable soil health and crop growth. This will not only help meet the
deficit of fertilizer nutrients but also conserve energy, minimize pollution, save foreign exchange,
and improve fertilizer use efficiency. Recent scientific advancements need to be exploited for more
effective, economical, and sustainable recycling of these alternative sources of organic amend-
ments. Most importantly, as some of the studies have also revealed, the sole application of organic
amendments cannot meet the nutrient requirements of the crops; hence, they should be used in
conjunction with inorganic fertilizers as supplements for maintaining the desired crop productivity.
In order to encourage the use of alternative sources of organic amendments in agriculture on a large
scale, it is important to work at four levels: (1) focusing research for safe handling of the alterna-
tive sources of organics, using state-of-the-art technology; (2) increasing awareness among farm-
ers and within rural and urban communities about the importance and potential of these organic
amendments in improving soil health and crop productivity; (3) training and skill improvement of
the communities for effective handling of the alternative sources of organic amendments; and (4)
developing appropriate policies and by-laws for onsite safe processing of the alternative sources of
organics by the industries and providing suitable incentives for encouraging the farmers to use them
on a larger scale.
Soil Health and Fertilizer Use in India 203
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9 Applications of Isotopes
in Fertilizer Research
S. M. Soliman and Y. G. M. Galal
CONTENTS
9.1 Introduction.........................................................................................................................209
9.1.1 Demand for Fertilizer Nutrients.............................................................................. 211
9.2 World Nitrogen Fertilizer Demand...................................................................................... 212
9.3 Nitrogen Management in Agriculture.................................................................................. 213
9.4 Nutrients and Crop Performance......................................................................................... 214
9.5 Nitrogen Use Efficiency....................................................................................................... 214
9.6 Isotopic Techniques in N Fertilizer Use Efficiency Studies................................................ 217
9.6.1 Measurements Needed for Experiments with 15N................................................... 217
9.6.2 Calculations for Experiments with 15N.................................................................... 217
9.6.3 Quantification of Fertilizer N Uptake..................................................................... 217
9.7 Nitrogen Status Using Isotopic Technique.......................................................................... 218
9.7.1 Principles and Applications of Isotopes in Fertilizer Experiments......................... 218
9.8 Nonisotopic Concepts of NUE Estimation.......................................................................... 219
9.8.1 Agronomic Efficiency of Applied Fertilizer N........................................................ 219
9.8.2 Physiological Efficiency of Applied N.................................................................... 219
9.8.3 Nitrogen Use Efficiency........................................................................................... 219
9.9 Isotopic Methods................................................................................................................. 220
9.9.1 15N Natural Abundance Technique.......................................................................... 220
9.9.2 The Isotope Dilution Technique.............................................................................. 220
9.9.3 The A-Value Technique........................................................................................... 221
9.9.4 Application of Stable Isotopes in Fertilization Practices........................................ 221
9.10 Efficient Use of Fertilizer by Crops..................................................................................... 223
9.11 Phosphorus Management in Agricultural Soils................................................................... 225
9.12 Radioactivity in Fertilizers and Its Effect on Environmental Quality................................ 230
References....................................................................................................................................... 237
9.1 INTRODUCTION
Fertilizers are one of the essential inputs for maintaining or increasing the soil fertility level in
intensive agricultural systems. The purpose of applying fertilizers is primarily to supply the crop
with essential plant nutrients to ensure normal plant growth. The major plant nutrients (N, P, and K)
have to be applied regularly to compensate for the amounts exported from the soil during harvest.
Fertilizer use efficiency is a quantitative measure of the actual uptake of fertilizer nutrient by the
plant in relation to the amount of nutrient added to the soil as fertilizer.
Radioisotopes are very valuable in guessing the quantity of nitrogen and phosphorus available
in the soil. This guessing helps in determining the quantity of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizers
that should be applied to soil. Radioactive isotopes such as phosphorus-32 and nitrogen-15 have
been labeled fertilizers and have been used to study the uptake, retention, and utilization of fertil-
izers. These isotopes provide a means to determine the quantity of fertilizer taken and lost to the
209
210 Soil and Fertilizers
• Thirty countries use nuclear science methods for improved irrigation and crop production.
• Forty-eight countries use nuclear tracer techniques and10 FAO/IAEA soil and water man-
agement guidelines to protect their farmlands.
• Ninety-five countries use isotopic and nuclear techniques to identify land and water man-
agement practices to improve nutrient and water use efficiency for crop productivity and
environmental sustainability.
TABLE 9.1
World Demand for Fertilizer Nutrient Use, 2015–2020 (thousand tons)
Year 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020
Nitrogen (N) 110,027 11,575 113,607 115,376 117,116 118,763
Phosphate (P2O5) 41,151 41,945 43,195 44,120 45,013 45,858
Potash (K2O5) 32,838 33,149 34,048 34,894 35,978 37,042
Total (N+P2O5+K2O) 184,017 186,668 190,850 194,390 198,107 201,663
Source: FAO, Summary report about world fertilizer trends and outlook to 2020, pp. 38, 2017; Food and Agriculture
Organization of the United Nations, 2017, World fertilizer trends and outlook to 2020, http://www.fao.org/3/a-
i6895e.pdf. Reproduced with permission.
FIGURE 9.1 Anticipated nutrient balances in 2020. (From FAO, Summary report about World fertilizer
trends and outlook to 2020, pp. 38, 2017.)
212 Soil and Fertilizers
The magnitude and nature of these changes have led some observers to refer to a paradigm shift in
agriculture away from decreasing real food prices over the past 30 years. Given the inextricable link
between food production and fertilizer use, it is opportune to consider such changes when reviewing
prospects for fertilizer demand and supply balances (Heffer 2007; Heffer and Prud’homme 2006).
Wide areas of manufactured fertilizer were applicable under different cropping patterns.
FIGURE 9.2 Regional and subregional contribution to change in world nitrogen consumption 2007/8–2011/12.
Applications of Isotopes in Fertilizer Research 213
production and fertilizer use; (2) a scenario following the International Model for Policy Analysis of
Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT) to project food production, and assuming constant
NUE based on 1997 values; and (3) a scenario based on the IMPACT model for food production
projections, and assuming relative NUE gains of 17% from 1997 levels by 2020, and of 30% by
2050. Wood et al. (2004) anticipated that fertilizer N use would grow around 1.8% annually in the
short term. Average annual growth would then drop to 1.6% by 2020 and to 1.4% by 2050, unless
NUE increases. With the NUE gains assumed in scenario 3, the average annual growth of fertilizer
N use would drop to less than 0.5% after 2010.
Another recent analysis looking at crop-specific food production gave similar results but pointed
out that such gains in NUE would require substantial additional investment in research and educa-
tion (Dobermann and Cassman 2004). Forecasts to 2010/2011 by Heffer and Prud’homme (2006)
tended to show that projections by Wood et al. (2004) under scenario 3 cannot be achieved, as these
projections for 2020 would already be exceeded in 2010. Long-term projections are subject to great
uncertainty and involve many critical assumptions about our ability to improve crop productivity
as demand increases, while also improving NUE. Recent projections indicate that global demand
for N fertilizers in 2050 could be between 107 and 171 Mt N. According to the four scenarios of the
Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005), global fertilizer N consumption in 2050 is anticipated
to be between 110 and 140 Mt N.
FIGURE 9.3 Simplified soil-N cycle. (Modified after Hofman and van Cleemput (2004) in Van Cleemput, O.
and Boeckx, P., Gayana Bot., 62, 98–109, 2005.)
of N-based nutrients can play a role in eutrophication, a process that contributes to ecological and
resource degradation. In the atmosphere, NOx and particulate matter can exacerbate several human
health problems, from asthma to heart disease. Increasing the N2O concentration in the atmosphere
contributes to global warming. Adopting an integrated approach to nutrient management, maximiz-
ing the benefits and minimizing the risks associated with the use of N sources, contributes to raising
crop productivity and N use efficiency.
to trap residual N from wastes, and controlled drainage systems or artificial wetlands to enhance
denitrification in field border areas (Pierzynski et al. 1994). Plants only use about 50% of the applied
N (Newbould 1989), which implies a large loss in money and energy.
Farmers use at least double the quantity required by the plants, and unused NO3 is leached or deni-
trified N, causing environmental pollution (Byrnes 1990; Smith et al. 1990; Davies and Sylvester-
Bradley 1995). N efficiency, the lowest and the grater applied N (Brown 1978), can be improved
by maintain higher level of NH4 as compared to those in the soil. This can be achieved NO3 by
nitrification inhibitors (Prasad and Power 1995), or slow release fertilizer (Shaviv and Mikkelsen
1993), or fertilization with ammonium fertilizers (Lips et al. 1990), or a large quantity of ammonium
fertilizers (Shaviv 1988). On account of the above, studies carried out on nitrogen and ammonium
nutrition in vegetables aimed to increase nitrogen use efficiency. A large part of such research work
focuses on leaf vegetables that under high NO3− availability, N accumulate large amounts of nitrates
(Santamaria et al. 1997; Santamaria and Elia 1997), a compound believed to be potentially toxic to
human health (Walker 1990; Gangolli et al. 1994).
In general, fertilizer use efficiency (FUE) is a quantitative measure of the actual uptake of fertil-
izer nutrient by the plant in relation to the amount of nutrient added to the soil as fertilizer. A com-
mon form of expression of fertilizer use efficiency is plant recovery or “coefficient of utilization” of
the added fertilizer. This is shown in the following equation:
The concept of fertilizer use efficiency, however, is much broader. It implies not only the maxi-
mum uptake of the applied nutrient by the crop but also the availability of the applied nutrient
under variable climatic and edaphic conditions. Environmental issues, such as pollution result-
ing from the fertilizer application, should also be considered. It is important to study the efficient
use of fertilizers because we are interested in obtaining the highest possible yield with minimum
fertilizer application. This is done in field trials by assessing the best fertilizer practices, such as
sources, timing, and placement, and their interactions in different farming systems (FAO 1980,
1983a, 1985).
The measurement of fertilizer use efficiency can be established for each crop by carrying out,
in practice, a series of carefully designed field experiments in several representative locations.
These experiments were carried out over a period of time in order to estimate the effect of place-
ment, timing, and source of fertilizer nutrient that will result in the most efficient fertilizer uptake
by the crop. Yield, particularly economic yield, is generally the most important criterion for the
farmer, but it is equally important that this yield is obtained with a minimum of fertilizer invest-
ment (minimum cost).
For example, Hamed (2013) and Hamed et al. (2019) gave an example about the efficient use of
labeled ammonium sulfate enriched with 2% 15N atom excess by wheat crop grown on two different-
texture soils. They found that the water regime had a direct effect on NUE as a result of either
enhancing the N uptake by wheat plants and/or reducing the amount of lost N. At the same time,
both plant N uptake and N remained in the soil, and N losses varied significantly according to N
application rate and mode in both soil textures (Figure 9.4a and b).
On the other hand, nitrogen fertilizer was efficiently used by wheat grain grown in clay soil to
a higher extent, in general, than that grown in sand soil. Application of both 80% and 60% N rates
reflected, to some extent, higher percent NUE than those applied at 100% N rate, especially in sand
soil. It was obvious that the most efficient use of fertilizer N by grains occurred under W75, com-
parable to other water regimes. In this respect, there was no significant difference between the two
modes of N application (Figure 9.5).
216 Soil and Fertilizers
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 9.4 Effect of nitrogen application rate (a) and application mode (b) on nitrogen losses under
different soil textures.
100.0
MOD MOD
80.0 EA EB
NUE Grain %
60.0
40.0
20.0
0.0
W50 W75 W100 W50 W75 W100
Water Regime
N 100 clay N 80 clay
N 60 clay N 100 clay
N 80 clay N 60 clay
FIGURE 9.5 Nitrogen use efficiency (%) by wheat grain as affected by fertilizer N rate, mode of application,
soil type, and water regime.
Applications of Isotopes in Fertilizer Research 217
The procedure followed in the calculation of this fraction and other derived parameters for nitrogen
using 15N labeled materials is given below.
• Dry Matter (D.M.) yield for the whole plant or subdivided into plant parts.
• Total N concentration (%N in dry matter) of the whole plant or plant parts as in the previ-
ous bullet point. This is done by chemical methods, e.g., Kieldahl or combustion (Dumas).
• Plant %15N abundance, which is analyzed by emission or mass spectrometry.
• Fertilizer %15N abundance.
• 15N labeled fertilizer(s) used and N rate(s) of application.
( )
Ndff kg.ha −1 = %Ndff × total N in Plant
Therefore, for the calculation of %Ndff it is necessary to determine the atom %15N excess of
the plant samples and of the fertilizer(s) used in the experiment. For instance, if Ndff = 0.25, this
means that 1/4 of the nitrogen in the plant came from the fertilizer. If soil and fertilizer were the
only sources of N available to the plant, then the remaining 3/4 of the nitrogen in the plant came
from the soil. If these fractions are expressed in percentages, then %Ndff = 25% and %Ndfs = 75%,
where %Ndfs is %N derived from soil
( )
Ndfs kg.ha −1 = %Ndfs × total N in (Grain OR Straw)
%NUE =
(
Ndff kg.ha −1 ) × 100
(
Rate of fertilizer kg.ha −1 )
%15 N a.e. in soil after harvest
% Fertilizer N remained in soil ( FNR ) = .
%15 N a.e. in fertilizer
have been able to enrich the isotope 15N in samples of natural nitrogen to produce nitrogen with
a 15N% abundance greater than 0.366% so that this stable isotope may be used as a tracer in
experiments such as fertilizer use efficiency studies. (See “Radioactivity Hall of Fame,” Part V,
L’Annunziata [2016], for a biographical sketch of Gustav Hertz, who was the first to devise a
method of isotope enrichment.) The amount of enrichment of 15N in excess of its natural abun-
dance is defined as:
Thus, as in the previous example taken in research with fertilizers labeled with a radioactive iso-
tope, researchers can use a fertilizer with a known %15N atomic excess to measure the plant utiliza-
tion of the nitrogen from the fertilizer according to the following:
%NDFF = %15 N atomic excess in plant / %15 N atomic excess in fertilizer × 100
where %NDFF is the percent of nitrogen in the plant derived from the fertilizer. The %15N atomic
excess in the plant is always less than that of the fertilizer because the plant roots also absorb nitro-
gen from the soil, which contains 14N at its natural abundance. Thus, the remaining nitrogen in the
plant must be derived from the soil or
9.8.1
Agronomic Efficiency of Applied Fertilizer N
NAE, (kg grain kg−1 N applied) = [grain yield (kg ha−1) in N added plots − grain yield of control
plots]/Total amount of N fertilizer applied
9.8.2
Physiological Efficiency of Applied N
(NPE, kg kg−1) = [(dry matter (straw) yield (kg ha−1) in N added treatment − dry matter (straw) yield
of control plots)/(total N uptake by the fertilizer treatment − total N uptake in the control)]
9.8.3
Nitrogen Use Efficiency
(NUE, %) = [(N uptake by the fertilized treatment − N uptake in the control)/total amount of N
fertilizer applied] × 100.
The authors (we) believe that these items have disadvantages related to under- or above-estimated
nitrogen content in plants, and intensive precautions are needed to establish perfectly controlled
experimental work in sites. Therefore, the use of 15N stable isotope may have an advantage in accu-
rately tracing nitrogen nutrient gained by plants from fertilizers.
The current status of NUE for different crops and regions was reviewed by Fixen et al. (2015),
who stated that an extensive review by Ladha et al. (2005) of 93 published studies revealed NUE
measured in research plots (Table 9.2). This review provides widely varied estimates of the cen-
tral tendency for NUE expressions for maize, wheat, and rice in different continents and regions.
In addition, an excellent review of NUE measurements and calculations was summarized by
Dobermann (2007).
220 Soil and Fertilizers
TABLE 9.2
Common NUE values for N for Maize, Wheat, and Rice and for Various World Regions
Crop or Number of Average Rate of PFPb AEb REb PEb
Region Observationsa Fertilizer Use (kg ha−1) (kg ha−1) (kg ha−1) (%) (kg ha−1)
Maize 35–62 123 72 (6) 24 (7) 65 (5) 37 (5)
Wheat 145–444 112 45 (3) 18 (4) 57 (4) 29 (4)
Rice 117–187 115 62 (3) 22 (3) 46 (2) 53 (3)
Africa 2–24 139 39 (11) 14 (6) 63 (5) 23 (6)
Europe 12–69 100 50 (6) 21 (9) 68 (6) 28 (6)
America 119–231 111 50 (5) 20 (7) 52 (6) 28 (8)
Asia 115 54 (3) 22 (2) 50 (2) 47 (3
Average/totals 411 52 (2) 20 (2) 55 (2) 41 (3)
b PFP, partial factor productivity; AE, agronomic efficiency; RE, apparent recovery Efficiency by difference; PE, physiologi-
cal efficiency value in parentheses is relative standard error of the mean (SEM/mean × 100).
assessed by the reference crop. The extent to which this soil 15N/14N ratio is a dilution is an indica-
tion for the efficiency of N2-fixation.
Applications of Isotopes in Fertilizer Research 221
9.9.3 The A-Value Technique
On soils of low nitrogen status, nonfixing crops grow poorly, while N2-fixing plants grow well.
This could cause a mistake in growth and nitrogen uptake patterns between the reference and the
fixing crop. But the addition of large amounts of fertilizer nitrogen to legumes has been shown to
inhibit N2-fixation (Allos and Bartholomew 1959; Wagner and Zapata 1982; Hardarson et al. 1984).
The use of the A-value approach, however, allows the application of different nitrogen rates and
15N enrichments of a given fertilizer to a legume and a reference crop to estimate the amount of the
N2-fixed (Fried and Broeshart 1975). The A-value for the nodulating legume represented soil and
fixed nitrogen, while the A-value for the non-nodulating crop was reflected by only soil nitrogen.
The amount of symbiotically fixed nitrogen is calculated by multiplying the difference in A-value
between the legume and the non-nodulating crop by percentage utilization of fertilizer nitrogen
by the nodulating leguminous crop. Therefore, the usual calculation requires determination of an
apparent A-value for both N2-fixing and nonfixing crops.
In determining A-values, it is important to note the following:
• Since the available amount of nutrient in the soil is an inherent property of the soil, it will
be constant for any set of experimental conditions.
• The “A-value” is a yield-independent parameter. It is only necessary to determine the
respective proportions absorbed from each source, so as to determine the A-value of the
soil. No yield data need be recorded. The absolute amounts of nutrient taken up from either
source do not appear in the equation.
• The A-value for a particular soil remains constant even at different rates of application of
the same fertilizer standard. In other words, the available amount of nutrient in the soil is
independent of the rate of fertilizer applied. Thus, in soil fertility studies, it is sufficient
to use only one rate of application to assess the nutrient supply of a soil and make relative
comparisons of fertilizer treatments (Aleksic et al. 1968; Broeshart 1974).
• Any change in the set of experimental conditions (nature, source, placement, timing, etc.)
will affect the magnitude of the A-value of the soil. Also, changes in harvesting times are
important, since the plant samples reflect the nutrient isotopic composition of the soil from
the seeding time until harvesting time. These changes of the A-value of a soil with time
can be easily observed in a time-course study of nutrient uptake using labeled fertilizers
(Rennie 1969; Smith and Legg 1971; Broeshart 1974; Zapata et al. 1987).
• The determination of the A-value of the soil has a number of practical applications, such
as the quantitative evaluation of fertilizer practices, in particular fertilizer sources, and the
design of further isotope-aided experiments (Rennie 1969; Broeshart 1974; Fried 1978;
IAEA 1983).
• Extensive research work using A-values has been done for most plant nutrients, both macro-
and micronutrients (Fried 1954; IAEA 1976, 1980, 1981; Vose 1980; Wagner and Zapata 1982).
• This method provides direct evidence for N2-fixation, if the 15N concentration in the plant
exposed to 15N2 is greater than 0.3663%. The extent to which 15N is detected in the plant
also provides an estimate of the proportion of the plant’s nitrogen that was derived from
fixation, and thus a direct method for quantifying N2-fixed. Also, the use of gas-tight
growth chambers for the assay of N2-fixation in legumes has been described by Witty and
Day (1978).
TABLE 9.3
Some Useful Stable Isotopes in Commercial Production
Atomic Number Isotope Natural Abundance % Possible Enrichment %
6 13C 1.07 >95
7 15N 0.37 >99
8 18O 0.21 >96
12 25Mg 0.13
14 28Si 92.21 >99
16 33S 0.76 >99
36S 0.02 >90
26 54Fe 5.85 >99
30 68Zn 18.75 >90
82 204Pb 1.40 >85
and/or those derived and released from the organic originating materials. The stable isotopes 15N
and 34S have been used mainly in these types of studies, reflecting their importance in crop nutri-
tion. There are four stable or heavy isotopes of potential interest to researchers in soil and plant
studies: 18O, 2H, 13C, and 15N. Some useful stable isotopes are commercially produced (Table 9.3).
Nitrogen is often the main factor limiting plant growth. There are twelve isotopes of nitro-
gen, many with extremely short half-lives. Of the radioactive isotopes, only 13N with a half-life
of 9.97 minutes has been used mainly in plant nitrogen translocation experiments (Caldwell et al.
1984). Two stable isotopes of N (Table 9.4) occur naturally in the atmospheric N2.
Fertilizers are one of the essential inputs for maintaining or increasing the soil fertility level in
intensive agricultural systems. The purpose of applying fertilizers is primarily to supply the crop with
essential plant nutrients to ensure normal plant growth. The major plant nutrients (N, P, and K) have to
be applied regularly to compensate for the amounts exported from the soil during harvest. Other plant
nutrients such as Ca, Mg, S. and the micronutrients, e.g., Zn, Mo, and B, may also need to be added
to maintain adequate levels of these nutrients, or to correct deficiencies (FAO 1983a, 1983b, 1984).
The role of applied nutrients in increasing crop yield is more obvious in deficient soils. Proper
management of such nutrients could help in enhancement of nutrient uptake efficiency and maxi-
mizing benefits return. The yield response is a consequence of the additional uptake of the nutrient
when other production factors are adequate.
TABLE 9.4
Several Isotopes of Nitrogen
Mass Number Natural Abundance (%) Half-Life (Time)
12 — 0.0125 sec
13 — 10.05 min
14 99.634 (light) —
15 0.366 (heavy) —
16 — 7.36 sec
17 — 4.14 sec
Applications of Isotopes in Fertilizer Research 223
Soliman and Galal (2017) reviewed some contributions they and their colleagues in Egyptian
Atomic Energy Authority had made using the 15N tracer technique for differentiation between
responses of different crops to fertilization practices and its effects on nitrogen use efficiency.
Efficient use of mineral nitrogen either applied solely or in combination with organic composts
was significantly affected by fertilization treatments and varied according to tested crop (Soliman
et al. 2014). Nitrogen distribution within soil profile was varied according to crop, fertilizer rates,
and types (Ghabour et al. 2015). They recorded that a half-dose of mineral fertilizer combined
with a half-dose of organic compost resulted in accumulation of mineral-N in 0–20 cm soil depth.
They concluded that portions of N remained in the soil and that the N uptake by plant and that lost
from soil media were related to the rate of mineral fertilizer added. Other research conducted by
Abdel-Salam et al. (2015) proved that combination of biofertilizers such as N-fixers or P-dissolvers
along with the soluble fertilizer N would enhance the positive effect of N fertilization of sun-
flower plants, which reflected good fertilizer-15N recovery. Rhizobium inoculation of pea crop has
enhancement effects on portions of nitrogen derived from mineral fertilizer, and consequently its
N recovery, either applied solely or in combination with organic compost (El-Sherbiny et al. 2014).
Addition of organic residues has a positive effect on increasing the amount of fertilizer-N that
remained in the soil after pea harvest.
32
P specific activity = DPM / gP
where DPM is the radioactivity in units of disintegrations per minute, and gP represents the weight
of the element phosphorus in grams.” The weight of the phosphorus in the fertilizer is the sum of
the weights of the radioactive isotope 32P plus the natural stable isotope 31P. However, the weight of
the radioisotope tracers used in such studies is so small that the contribution of the radioisotope 32P
weight to the total weight of phosphorus can be neglected which demonstrate that 1 mCi of 32P com-
prises only 3.5 ng or 3.5 × 10 −9 g). When the researcher adds the radioactive fertilizer to the soil,
the plant absorbs phosphorus from two sources, namely the phosphorus derived from the fertilizer
(PDFF) and the phosphorus derived from the soil (PDFS). The specific activity of the radioactive
tracer 32P in the plant is lower than that of the radioactive fertilizer, because of the absorption of
stable 31P from the soil by the plant. The reduction in 32P specific activity is referred to as isotope
224 Soil and Fertilizers
dilution, and the degree of isotope dilution serves to measure the proportions of phosphorus in the
plant that came from the fertilizer and from the soil from the following:
where %PDFF is the percentage of phosphorus in the plant derived from the fertilizer. The remain-
ing phosphorus in the plant is derived from the soil or
Radioisotopes of phosphorus have relatively short half-lives (32P, half-life = 14.3 days; 33P,
half-life = 25.3 days), which limits considerably the time available to carry out experiments with
these isotopes as tracers. Long-term research on the dynamics of phosphorus in the soil is not pos-
sible with radioisotopes. Also, phosphorus has only one stable isotope, which eliminates any pos-
sibility of using stable isotopes of phosphorus as tracers. However, the IAEA Nuclear Technology
Review (IAEA 2011) reports that a new approach to studying the dynamics of phosphorus in crop-
ping systems has been investigated whereby researchers measure stable isotopes of oxygen in inor-
ganic and organic soil phosphorus compounds. Tamburini et al. (2010) developed a method for
accurately measuring the stable isotope oxygen-18 (18O) in different soil phosphorus fractions. As
reported by the IAEA (2011), “Soils under different farm management practices (e.g., fertilizer or
manure applications) showed varying 18O signatures in soil phosphorus indicating the potential of
18O as an isotopic tracer for studying phosphorus cycling, tracing phosphorus sources and ultimately
TABLE 9.5
Fertilizer Nutrient Use (1000 Mg) and Ratios in Some Developed Countries and the West
Asia–North Africa (WANA) Region
Consumption 2003/2004 Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium NPK Ratio
China 24,745.0 9827.0 4663.0 1.0: 0.40: 0.19
Pakistan 2527.0 637.7 27.7 1.0: 0.25: 0.01
Cyprus 8.1 4.2 3.1 1.0: 0.52: 0.38
Turkey 1340.8 547.5 83.7 1.0: 0.41: 0.06
Egypt 1190.8 143.9 43.3 1.0: 0.12: 0.04
Iran 822.0 354.6 139.5 1.0: 0.43: 0.17
Morocco 237.0 124.0 55.0 1.0: 0.52: 0.23
Saudi Arabia 224.3 132.2 9.0 1.0: 0.59: 0.04
Syria 210.0 101.5 7.3 1.0: 0.48: 0.03
Iraq 83.2 106.8 0.7 1.0: 1.28: 0.01
Tunisia 56.0 41.0 5.0 1.0: 0.73: 0.09
Algeria 48.0 28.0 22.0 1.0: 0.58: 0.46
Libya 33.8 52.5 5.0 1.0: 1.55: 0.15
Sudan 41.9 1.8 2.7 1.0: 0.04: 0.06
Lebanon 22.1 10.0 8.8 1.0: 0.45: 0.4
Jordan 17.3 10.5 9.0 1.0: 0.61: 0.52
Uzbekistan 579.6 122.0 15.0 1.0: 0.21: 0.03
Turkmenistan 97.9 — 14.0 1.0: 0.00: 0.14
Kazakhstan 50.0 12.0 2.1 1.0: 0.24: 0.04
Tajikistan 26.0 — — 1.0: 0.00: 0.00
Afghanistan 20.8 — — 1.0: 0.00: 0.00
Azerbaijan 16.6 — — 1.0: 0.00: 0.00
Kyrgyzstan 7.0 0.2 — 1.0: 0.03: 0.00
12. Fertilization with time can cause a build-up of P and K, thus reducing their fertilizer
requirements.
13. The concept of balanced fertilization has expanded to integrated plant nutrition, embracing
all sources of nutrients.
14. Integrated plant nutrition seeks to improve nutrient-use efficiency, build up nutrient stocks
in the soil, and to limit losses to the environment.
TABLE 9.6
Summary of Main Characteristics of P Isotopes Used in Soil–Plant Studies
Radiation Characteristics
Isotope Half-Life (days) Type Energy (Emax) in MeV Typical Applications
32 P 14.3 β− 1.71 Exchangeable P in soils
P availability from P fertilizers
Plant root distribution/activity
Residual P fertilizer availability
33 P 24.4 β− 0.248 Auto-radiography
Diffusion in soils
Double labeling with 32P
Source: After Blair, G.J., et al., Phosphorus isotope tracer techniques: Procedures and safety issues, in Use of Phosphorus
Isotopes for Improving Phosphorus Management in Agricultural Systems, IAEA TECDOC series no. 1805, Vienna,
Austria, pp. 50–76, 2016. (International Atomic Energy Agency, Use of Isotope and Radiation Methods in Soil and
Water Management and Crop Nutrition, Training Course Series No. 14, IAEA, Vienna (2001)).
about the beginnings of 32P research was reported by Alam et al. (2001), who indicated that the
application of 32P radioisotope in short-term plant physiological studies began in 1939.
The principles of 32P isotopic technique were perfectly reviewed by Goh and Adu-Gyamfi
(2016). They revealed that radioisotopic techniques were first proposed by Dean et al. (1947) to
study P uptake by crops from phosphate fertilizer, a technique still extensively used to study the
P availability (A-value) to crops, P exchange (E-value), labile pool (L-value), and its dynamics in
soil (McAuliffe et al. 1947; Larsen 1952; Fried 1964; Di et al. 1997). The A-value has been used
widely not only to estimate the amount of plant-available P in soils but also to evaluate residual P
from previous P fertilizer applications, P placement, and other factors. These values were found
to be better and valuable for understanding and assessing phosphorus availability in the soil.
Phosphate cycling in the soil-plant-environment system using tracers and definite terminology,
principles, calculations, and methodology were previously described (Frossard et al. 2011; Blair
et al. 2016).
The activity of a radioactive source or radionuclide sample is a measure of the total radiation
emitted or representing the number of nuclei decaying per unit time. The SI unit of radioactivity is
the Becquerel (symbol Bq). The Bacquerel is one nuclear disintegration per second (dps). Table 9.7
lists the radioactivity units of radioactive materials.
Determination of soil-available P using radioactive tracer was applied for determining the E-value
or exchangeable P in the laboratory and the L-value or labile P using plants in the greenhouse, and
the A-value or available P using plants grown in the field. Full characterization of the soil P status
and its availability through the isotopic exchange kinetics (IEK) method provides better information
for P management in agroecosystems. More details and description of the isotopic exchange kinetics
method were reported earlier (Frossard and Sinaj 1997; Frossard et al. 2011). Recently, Nguyen et al.
(2017) reviewed the basics and concepts used in the topic of the application of phosphorus radioisotopes
in agricultural investigations. They summarized the principles and limitations involved in the use of
phosphorus radioisotopes as tracers. They concluded that isotopic phosphorus can be used to measure
P processes such as P dynamics, P kinetics, and mineralization of soil Po, mycorrhizal acquisition of Pi,
and to investigate the effects of farming practices such as P sources, green manure addition, and soil
cultivation on soil Pi and Po. Since 32P and 33P are radioactive, their use in field experiments are limited
in terms of quantifying on-farm P fluxes from different P sources as influenced by farm management
practices. Although there exist limitations relating to the use of short-lived 32P and 33P in P cycling stud-
ies, these radioisotopes can be used in laboratory glasshouse experiments to investigate P transformation
Applications of Isotopes in Fertilizer Research 227
TABLE 9.7
Activity Units of Radioisotopes
Curie (Ci) Becquerel (Bq) Disintegration per Second (dps) Disintegration per Minute (dpm)
1 Ci 3.7 × 1010 Bq = 37 GBq 3.7 × 1010 2.22 × 1012
1 mCi 3.7 × 107 Bq = 37 MBq 3.7 × 107 2.22 × 109
1 μCi 3.7 × 104 Bq = 37 KBq 3.7 × 104 2.22 × 106
1 nCi 3.7 × 1 Bq 3.7 × 10 2.22 × 103
1 pCi 3.7 × 10−2 Bq 3.7 × 10−2 2.22
1 Bq 1 6 × 10
27,027 nCi 1 KBq 1 × 103 6 × 104
27,027 μCi 1 MBq 1 × 106 6 × 107
27,027 mCi 1 GBq 1 × 109 6 × 1010
Source: International Atomic Energy Agency, Use of Isotope and Radiation Methods in Soil and Water Management and
Crop Nutrition, Training Course Series no. 14, IAEA, Vienna, Austria (2001).
processes. Their chapter is very useful for young researchers and students who are involved in the appli-
cation of radioisotopes in life sciences and particularly soil-plant-water relationships.
The principles of determination for quantification of P uptake by crops were outlined in
IAEA (2016), which indicated that phosphorus isotopic composition, i.e., the 32P/total P ratio, of
any material is called specific radioactivity (SR). It was customary to express the specific activities
of plant samples and fertilizer in Bq 32P/g P at the time the samples were counted. It is important to
note that the concept of specific radioactivity (ratio 32P/total P) for radioisotopes is identical to that
of 15N atom excess (ratio 15N/total N) for stable isotopes (Zapata 1990).
Specific radioactivity (SR) needs to determine the activity (Bq or dps) of the radioisotope by
radio assay techniques using appropriate detectors, i.e., liquid scintillation counting or Cerenkov
counting (for high-energy β emitters). In addition, total P concentration by any conventional chemi-
cal method should be quantified. These items lead to quantifying the P fraction derived from labeled
P fertilizers (32P or 33P) following the isotope dilution principle:
or as a percentage:
Standard equation and measurements required for P derived from solution or fertilizer applied to
plants as well as P recovery in plants from different P sources like mineral fertilizers, organic resi-
dues, or compost and green manure were declared in the abovementioned document.
Previously, pot experiments using labeled P were conducted by Cabeza et al. (2011) to compare the
effectiveness of recycled P products, triple superphosphate (TSP), and phosphate rock (PR) in increas-
ing P uptake by maize under acid and neutral soil conditions. The isotopically exchangeable P (IEP)
value can help assess the proportion of a P fertilizer that dissolves in soil water. They found that P
fertilizer dissolves in the soil solution and P becomes adsorbed to soil particle surfaces or precipitates
as a salt, but mostly remains in equilibrium with the soil solution. Addition of 60 mg P kg−1 soil added
increased IEP (Figure 9.6) by 53 mg kg−1 in the acid soil and 42 mg kg−1 in the neutral soil, i.e., 88%
and 70% of the TSP, remained in equilibrium with the soil solution even two years after its application.
228 Soil and Fertilizers
FIGURE 9.6 Absolute and relative increase in isotopically exchangeable P (IEP) in unplanted (a) acid sandy
and (b) neutral loamy two years after fertilization. To calculate the relative increase in IEP, the increase of IEP
from TSP was set to 100%. Data are means of three replicates, and error bars represent the standard error of
the means. Different letters denote significant differences between treatments (Tukey, P\0.05).
In Europe, Tóth et al. (2014) reviewed high levels of soil P that were observed on areas with
high input and high yields, like those in northwestern Europe, according to the Hungarian sys-
tem, but high fertilizer doses on these areas were still needed to secure the required yield levels.
Interestingly, we think the use of 32P radiotracer may act perfectly to give a clear picture about the
availability of P in such soils. Therefore, the system of the United Kingdom would not be recom-
mended for additional fertilizer input on some of these areas of high P levels, e.g., in Belgium and
the Netherlands, while in reality, they are constantly further fertilized (FAO 2013). Other sources
beside chemical P fertilizers may add a considerable amount of P. For instance, organic manure
adds considerable amounts of P in regions with high livestock densities (Figure 9.7). Inconsistency
FIGURE 9.7 Phosphorus inputs on agricultural land by type of fertilizers (average 2005–2008, kg P ha−1).
(From Eurostat, Fertiliser Consumption and Nutrient Balance Statistics, http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/, last
accessed September 2013.)
Applications of Isotopes in Fertilizer Research 229
TABLE 9.8
Estimated vs. Reported P Fertilizer Amount in the United Kingdom and Hungary for the
Reference Year 2009
Actual Fertilizer Use
Estimated P Fertilizer Needed (ton P2O5) (ton P2O5)
Based on LUCAS topsoil data and the Based on national statistics Based on FAOSTAT
advisory systems of 1. DEFRA (2012b) (FAO 2013)
1. DEFRA (2010) 2. HCSO (2013) Average of years
2. Antal et al. (1979) 2008–2011
3. Combination of DEFRA (2010) and
Antal et al. (1979)
1. United Kingdom 145,896 109,267 173,250
2. Hungary 3,960,008 36,167 43,797
3. European Union 3,849,873 — 2,365,502
(27 Member States)
between recommended and reported fertilizer applications (Table 9.8) proves differences in the
farming practices in different regions of the European Union, while also reflecting the possible
shortcomings of the fertilizer usage reporting systems. The observed differences certainly highlight
the possibility of further optimizing P management within the European Union, as has been already
advised in regional contexts by a number of authors (Valkama et al. 2009; Csathó and Radimszky
2011; Hejcmana et al. 2012). The arguments about the situation of P fertilization practices reveal the
need for better statistical data on actual yield levels and P applications to optimize P management
in the European Union.
A number of agronomic field experiments were conducted in different regions of sub-Saharan
Africa (Chikowo et al. 2010), under a wide range of management and environmental conditions,
to assess the associated variability in the efficiencies with which applied and available nutrients
were taken up by tested crops. They considered N and P capture efficiencies (NCE and PCE, kg
uptake kg−1 nutrient availability), and N and P recovery efficiencies (NRE and PRE, kg uptake kg−1
nutrient added). Both nitrogen and phosphorus nutrients were applied either solely or in combina-
tion in mineral or organic forms. They take the cropping systems into consideration. The response
to nutrients was widely varied according to different climates spread out across regions from arid
through wet tropics, coupled with an equally large array of management practices and interseason
variability. They reported that NCE ranged from 0.05 to 0.98 kg kg−1 for the different systems (NP
fertilizers, 0.16–0.98; fallow/cover crops, 0.05–0.75; animal manure, 0.10–0.74 kg kg−1), while PCE
ranged from 0.09 to 0.71 kg kg−1, depending on soil conditions. The respective NREs averaged 0.38,
0.23, and 0.25 kg kg−1. Cases were found where NREs were 1 for mineral fertilizers or negative
when poor-quality manure immobilized soil N, while response to P was in many cases poor due
to P fixation by soils. Other than good agronomy, it was apparent that flexible systems of fertiliza-
tion that vary N input according to the current seasonal rainfall pattern offer opportunities for high
resource capture and recovery efficiencies in semiarid areas. Finally, they suggested the use of
cropping-systems modeling approaches to hasten the understanding of Africa’s complex cropping
systems.
Crop recovery of added P by labeling the P fertilizer with the radioisotope 32P is the only direct
method of estimating efficiency of a single application of P. However, this method is expensive and
32P has a half-life of only 14.3 days, so most studies can only be short term. Crop recovery effi-
ciency (RE) of added P by the difference method is a more common and widely used approach to
estimate its efficiency. Phosphorus fertilizer is commonly thought to be very inefficient because its
230 Soil and Fertilizers
recovery by crops in the year of application is often only 10%–15%. The P not recovered by the crop
is believed to be fixed in forms that are not plant available (Robertsa and Johnston 2015).
Using the radioactive isotope 32P, Mattingly and Widdowson (1958) found that about 20% PUE
was found in spring barley. Cases reviewed by Syers et al. (2008) noted P recovery using labeled 32P
fertilizer between 5% and 25%. Dhillon et al. (2017) showed that global PUE is generally low using
the difference method and comparable to reported P effiencies on a smaller scale. They added that
phosphorus use effiency estimated for the world using the difference method was 20%. P removed
in the total cereal grain coming from the soil was 79.3%. This value was based on an average P
fertilizer recovery of 20.7%.
Franzini et al. (2009) examined the use of 32P as a tracer to quantitatively evaluate the effect of
different ratios of TSP and PR ratios and P application rates on P recovery from PR by corn grown in
a sand clay soil. They reported that the mixture of PR with TSP improved the P recovery from PR in
the corn plant and that this effect increased proportionally to the TSP amounts in the mixture. When
compared with the plant P recovery from TSP (10.52%), PR-P recovery (2.57%) was much lower even
when mixed together in the ratio of 80% TSP: 20% PR. There was no difference in PR-P utilization
by the corn plants with increasing P rates in the mixture (1:1 proportion). Therefore, PR-P availability
is affected by the proportions of the mixtures with water soluble P, but not by P rates.
TABLE 9.9
Some Typical Values of Activity Concentrations (Bq/kg) in Phosphate Rock
Location 226 Ra 238U 232 Th K
40
Source: Sahu, S.K., et al., J. Radiat. Res. Appl. Sci., 7, 123–128, 2014.
TABLE 9.10
Some Typical Values of Activity Concentrations (Bq/kg) in Fertilizers in the World
Location References 226 Ra 238 U 232 Th K
40
The radioactive content of the phosphatic fertilizers varies considerably and depends both on
their concentrations in the parent mineral and on the fertilizer production process (Chaney 2012;
Mortvedt and Beaton 2014). Uranium-238 concentrations can range from 7 to 100 pCi/g in phos-
phate rock (US EPA 2016) and from 1 to 67 pCi/g in phosphate fertilizers (Khater 2008; NCRP
1987; Hussein 1994). Where high annual rates of phosphorus fertilizer are used, this can result in
uranium-238 concentrations in soils and drainage waters that are several times greater than are
normally present (NCRP 1987; Barisic et. al. 1992). However, the impact of these increases on the
risk to human health from radionuclide contamination of foods is very small (less than 0.05 mSv/y)
(NCRP 1987; Hanlon 2012; Sharpley and Menzel 1987).
Most public and farmers were exposed to the natural radioactivity present in the sources used
for fertilizer manufacturing or those applied through fertilization practices in the field. Some of
these activities may be liberated to the underground water (Alcaraz Pelegrina and Martínez-Aguirre
2001). Phosphate is used in the production of some chemical fertilizers. Since phosphate contains
some natural radionuclides like 238U, 232Th, and 40K, fertilizers become the major contributor for
outdoor terrestrial natural radiations. The radioactive content of phosphotic fertilizers varies con-
siderably and depends both on their concentrations in the parent mineral and on the fertilizer pro-
duction process (Chaney 2012; Mortvedt and Beaton 2014). Uranium-238 concentrations can range
from 7 to 100 pCi/g in phosphate rock (US EPA 2016) and from 1 to 67 pCi/g in phosphate fertilizers
232 Soil and Fertilizers
(Khater 2008; NCRP 1987; Hussein 1994). Where high annual rates of phosphorus fertilizer are
used, this can result in uranium-238 concentrations in soils and drainage waters that are several
times greater than are normally present (NCRP 1987; Barisic et al. 1992). However, the impact of
these increases on the risk to human health from radionuclide contamination of foods is very small
(less than 0.05 mSv/y) (NCRP 1987; Hanlon 2012; Sharpley and Menzel 1987). The phosphate
material is very insoluble, and therefore in its original state is practically unavailable as a plant
phosphors source (IAEA 1973). Among the constituents of agricultural phosphate fertilizers are
potassium ores (potassium sulphate, potassium chloride) (Conceição and Bonotto 2006). Samples
of granular and leafy types of NPK in addition to urea type collected from common markets in
different regions in Iraq recorded high levels of radium-equivalent value in leafy-type NPK fertil-
izers, while urea types had no radionuclide. At the same time, the maximum specific activity and
absorbed dose rate at 1m above the ground surface (nGy/h) after the agricultural application of NPK
fertilizers was 0.15% of the world average outdoor exposure (Figure 9.8) due to terrestrial gamma
radiation (Hussain and Hussain 2011).
The abovementioned naturally occurring radionuclides materials (NORM), including uranium
and thorium series, are considered the largest contributor to radiation doses received by human
beings. Components of 238U, 235U, and 232Th series along with other nonseries radionuclides are
given in Table 9.11.
Radioactivity in rock phosphate as a source of NORM was found to be varying from one place
to another. This activity was transferred to phosphate fertilizer manufactured from rock-P source
(Tufail et al. 2006). For example, a study was conducted to compare activity concentration in
Egyptian and Japanese phosphate fertilizers (Hassan et al. 2017). Table 9.12 shows the variation in
activities between the two countries.
FIGURE 9.8 Absorbed dose rate 1 m above the ground surface (nGy/h) originated from the agricultural
application of NPK fertilizers. (After Hussain, R.O. and Hussain, H.H., Braz Arch Biol Technol., 54, 777–782,
2011.)
Applications of Isotopes in Fertilizer Research 233
TABLE 9.11
Principal Natural Radionuclides Decay Series
Nuclide Half-Life Major Radiation Nuclide Half-Life Major Radiation
238U 4.47 BY α, X 219Ra 4.0 sec α
234Th 24.1 D β, γ, X 215Po 1.78 m sec α
234Pa 1.17 min β, γ 211Pb 36.1 min β, γ
234U 245,000 Y α, X 211Bi 2.13 min α
230Th 77,000 Y β, α, γ 207Tr 4.77 min β, γ
226Ra 1600 Y α, γ 287Pb Stable —
222Rn 3.83 D α 232Th 14.1 BY α, X
218Po 3.05 min α 228Ra 5.75 Y β
214Bi 19.7 min β, γ 228Th 1.91 Y α, X
214Pb 26.8 min β, γ, X 228Ac 6.13 hr β, γ, X
214Po
164 μ sec α 224Ra 3.66 D α, γ
210Pb 22.3 Y β, α, γ 220Rn 55.6 sec α
210Bi 5.01 D β 216Po 0.15 sec α
210Po 138 D α 212Pb 10.64 hr β, γ, X
206Pb Stable — 212Bi 60.6 min α, β, γ
235U
7.1 × 109 Y α 212Po
0.305 μ sec α
231Th 25.5 hrs β, γ 208Ta 3.07 min β, γ
231Pa
3.25 × 104 Y α 208Pb Stable —
227Ac 21.8 Y β, γ Non-Series Radionuclides
227Th 18.5 sec α 40K 1.28 BY β, γ
TABLE 9.12
Activity Concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K in Egyptian and Japanese Fertilizers
Code Composition 226 Ra 232 Th K
40
Sample Egypt Japan Egypt Japan Egypt Japan Egypt Japan Egypt Japan
1 EF1 JF1 SSP (15% P2O5) P. acid 10% 761 ± 31 25 ± 1 67 ± 13 5 ± 2 251 ± 94 3909 ± 21
2 EF2 JF2 SSP (12% P2O5) P. acid 8% 557 ± 19 62 ± 1 15 ± 6 15 ± 1 175 ± 27 3280 ± 17
3 EF3 JF3 SSP (16% P2O5) P. acid 20% 782 ± 24 74 ± 1 14 ± 8 6 ± 1 222 ± 24 48 ± 2
4 EF4 JF4 NPK P. acid 20% 443 ± 11 200 ± 2 ND 12 ± 1 88 ± 22 231 ± 4
5 EF5 JF5 Triple P. acid 17% 312 ± 14 1264 ± 5 ND± 8 ± 2 175 ± 31 31 ± 5
Source: Hassan, N.M., et al., J. Chem., Volume 2017, Article ID 9182768, 8 pages, 2017.
Their data from Hassan et al. (2017) indicated that the radionuclide concentrations in Japanese
fertilizer were less than those of Egyptian fertilizers except for potassium, as seen in Figure 9.9.
The radionuclide concentration of 40K is much higher in Japanese fertilizer samples and especially
sample JF-1. Both Egyptian and Japanese fertilizers maintain radionuclide concentrations less than
the recommended limits by UNSCEAR (2008).
Comparison of the estimated radiological indexes values during their work (Hassan et al. 2017)
and other values in previous studies in literature indicated that the radium equivalent in the Egyptian
and Japanese fertilizers was less than its value for fertilizer used in Algeria and Brazil but was
greater than its value for fertilizer used in Saudi Arabia and Bangladesh. The gamma indexes had
the same trend as radium equivalent (Table 9.13).
234 Soil and Fertilizers
Food chains
Ingestion
Man
FIGURE 9.9 Environmental pathways of natural radionuclides from phosphate rocks. (From Khater, A.E.M.,
et al., J Environ. Radioact., 55, 255–267, 2001.)
TABLE 9.13
Comparison of Radiological Indexes in Egyptian and Japanese Fertilizers and Their Values
in Literature
Country Sample Radium Equivalent (Bq/kg) Gamma Index (Iγ) References
Egypt Fertilizer 613 ± 33 2.06 ± 0.11 Hassan et al. (2017)
Japan Fertilizer 454 ± 5 1.63 ± 0.08 Hassan et al. (2017)
Algeria NPK 1168 9.6 Boukhenfouf and Boucenna
(2011)
Brazil NPK 1772 12.3 Becegato et al. (2008)
Saudi Arabia NPK 275 — Alharbi (2013)
Egypt (Qena) Phosphate fertilizer 462 3.1 Ahmed and El-Arabi (2005)
Bangladesh Triple superphosphate 374 — Alam et al. (1997)
Phosphate ores in Egypt reflected a radium concentration in the same range as UNSCEAR’s typi-
cal value (Hassan et al., 2016). The radionuclide concentrations of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K maintained
in phosphate ores of several countries is consistent with those of Egypt (Table 9.14).
Another contribution is by Sahu et al. (2014), who reported the radioactivity in rock phosphate
and phosphogypsum in India compared to other countries, as listed in Table 9.15. They indicated
higher levels of natural radionuclides in the gypsum ponds and rock silo than other locations in the
plant premises. The 238U levels in the phosphogypsum sample were higher than those compared
worldwide. Values of the activities due to 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K were varied according to phos-
phatic fertilizer types from the Pakistani market as shown in Table 9.16, after Khan et al. (2004).
They found that the concentration of 226Ra in all phosphatic fertilizers as well as phosphate rock
samples is much higher than 232Th and 40K. All the analyzed phosphatic fertilizers and phosphate
Applications of Isotopes in Fertilizer Research 235
TABLE 9.14
Specific Activities of 226Ra, 232Th, and 40K in Phosphate Ores Used in Several Countries All
over the World
Country Activity Concentration (Bq kg−1) References
Phosphate ore 226 Ra 232 Th 40 K
Saudi Arabia 513 39 242 Al-Zahrani et al. (2011)
Egypt 840 395 398 El-Taher and Makhluf (2010)
South Korea — 4.0 49 Chang et al. (2008)
Brazil 256 3238 1202 Conceição and Bonotto (2006)
Nigeria/Sokoto — 16 40 Ogunleye et al. (2002)
Tanzania (Arusha) — 350 280 Banzi et al. (2000)
Sudan (Uro) 4131 7.5 62.3 Sam et al. (1999)
Jordan 1044 2 8 Olszewska-Wasiolek (1995)
Tunisia 821 29 32 Olszewska-Wasiolek (1995)
Tanzania (Arusha) 5022 717 286 Makweba and Holm (1993)
Morocco 1600 20 10 Guimond (1990)
Egypt 871 ± 92 19 ± 2 176 ± 18 Hassan et al. (2016)
TABLE 9.15
Radioactivity (Bq/g) in Phosphate Rocks and Phosphogypsum
Phosphate Rock Activity (Bq/g)
Location References 226 Ra U
238 232 Th K
40
rock samples have shown a higher amount of 226Ra due to deposits of uranium in the rock phosphate.
It could result in significant radiation exposure if these fertilizers are handled in places with poor
ventilation that could lead to radon accumulation.
The pathways of natural radionuclides from phosphate fertilizers to the environment and finally
to the public (Figure 9.9) demonstrated the need to recognize and calculate the exposure rate
comparing to Egypt and the world average (Table 9.17). Khater et al. (2001) listed the calculated
236 Soil and Fertilizers
TABLE 9.16
Specific Gamma-Ray Activities Due to 40K, 226Ra, and 232Th in Different Brands
of Phosphatic Fertilizers Available in Pakistan
Specific Gamma-Activities (Bq kg−1)
Fertilizer 40K 226 Ra Th
232
TABLE 9.17
Calculated Exposure Rate (nGy/h) at 1 m above the Ground Due to Natural Radionuclides
in Wet Phosphate Rock and Soil
226 Ra 232 Th 40 K Total
nGy/h per Bq/kg 0.461 0.623 0.041 —
Wet rock 132 14.8 0.89 148
Soil 11.8 (8.8–15.1)a 18.1 (10.5–27.5) 5.34 (3.1–6.8) 35.3 (22.3–49.4)
Egypt — — — 32 (8–93)
World — — — 55
exposure rates (nGy/h) at 1 m above the ground due to natural radionuclides in wet phosphate rock
and soil and recorded that for soil the exposure rate (35 nGy/h) is comparable to the Egyptian aver-
age (32 nGy/h) and less than the world average (55 nGy/h) (UNSCEAR 1993).
It is of interest to follow up the phosphate manufacture processes and its by-products. In this
respect, the phosphate processing operations comprise the mining and milling of phosphate ore and
then the manufacture of phosphate products by either the wet or the thermal process. More than
70% of the ore being beneficiated in several process steps to increase the P2O5 concentration before
delivery are wet processes. The main route for more than 90% is then acidulation with sulfuric acid,
besides nitric and hydrochloric acid in minor extent with the main by-product of gypsum sulfate
(phosphogypsum), of which 4–5 tons are received when 3 tons of ore are turned into 1 ton of P2O5
(Figure 9.10).
The activities of radionuclides may have an impact on soil and plant upon fertilization with such
phosphatic fertilizers. In this regard, Alsaffar et al. (2016) found that the radioactivity produced
by the addition of fertilizers to pots planted with rice was apparently insignificant compared with
that of soil alone. They also indicated that 226Ra concentrations in rice grains were increased with
increasing urea. Additionally, 226Ra concentrations in grains also slightly increased with increas-
ing both NPK and NPK+Mg rates, but 226Ra concentration was found to be lower than that of urea.
Therefore, risk assessment due to application of such fertilizers should be taken into consideration
in comparison with the average annual ingestion dose worldwide.
Applications of Isotopes in Fertilizer Research 237
Phosphate Rocks
Usually igneous rock
U-238 70 Bq/kg
Th-232 100 Bq/kg
Crushing
Silica Gravel
Mixing, granulation
White Phosphorus
Refinery, Discharged by
Condensation, ventilation:
Combustion, Carbon Monoxide
Hydration to for Power Plant
Phosphoric Acid
Artificial fertilizers
Detergents
Food additives
FIGURE 9.10 Flow of radionuclides in thermal process of phosphorus production. (From Scholten, L.C.,
Approaches for regulating management of large volumes of waste containing natural radionuclides in
enhanced concentrations, Official Publication of the European Communities, 1996; Penfold, J.S.S., et al.,
Establishment of reference levels for regulatory control of workplaces where materials are processed
which contain enhanced levels of naturally occurring radionuclides, NRPB report on contract number
95-ET-009, 1997.)
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10 Managing Fertilizers in
Soils of Paddy Rice
Pauline Chivenge, Michelle Anne Bunquin,
Kazuki Saito, and Sheetal Sharma
CONTENTS
10.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 245
10.2 Variability of Rice Cropping Ecosystems and Their Soils..................................................246
10.3 Paddy Rice Soils – How They Differ from Upland Soils....................................................248
10.3.1 Soil Nutrient Supplying Capacity and Nutrient Dynamics.................................... 249
10.3.1.1 Nitrogen.................................................................................................. 250
10.3.1.2 Phosphorus............................................................................................. 252
10.3.1.3 Potassium................................................................................................ 252
10.3.2 Management Practices............................................................................................ 253
10.4 External Sources of Nutrients.............................................................................................. 254
10.5 Historical and Current Use of Mineral Fertilizer................................................................ 255
10.5.1 Sustainability.......................................................................................................... 255
10.6 Precision Nutrient Management – SSNM............................................................................ 256
10.6.1 The Need................................................................................................................ 256
10.6.2 Concept................................................................................................................... 257
10.6.3 Evaluation of SSNM............................................................................................... 258
10.7 Decision-Support Tools........................................................................................................ 261
10.7.1 The Evolution of Decision-Support Tools.............................................................. 261
10.7.2 Challenges.............................................................................................................. 263
10.8 Final Thoughts and Research Gaps, Conclusions................................................................ 263
References.......................................................................................................................................264
10.1 INTRODUCTION
Rice (Oryza spp.) is a grass that evolved from a semiaquatic ancestor and is native to Asia and
Africa, whose cultivation has been in existence since the beginning of organized agriculture, more
than 3500 years ago (Sweeney and McCouch 2007). Rice, wheat (Triticum aestivum), and maize
(Zea mays) constitute the main cereal crops grown and consumed globally. However, rice is the sta-
ple food in many low- and middle-income countries, constituting about half the global population,
providing about 25% of the global human energy consumption per capita and about 16% of protein
(GRiSP 2013). Global paddy rice production has been increasing over time from the 1960s with a
worldwide production of about 770 million tons in 2017 (Figure 10.1) (FAOSTAT 2019). The global
rice production trends are closely influenced by the production trends in Asia, where about 90% of
the rice is produced, with the Americas and Africa producing 4.5% each on average. Since most of
the rice is produced in Asia, it follows that most of it is grown on smallholder farms. The greater
proportion of the rice produced in Asia is also consumed in Asia, with the remaining being exported
to other regions. China is the leading rice producer globally, followed by India, accounting for 28%
and 22%, respectively, of the total world production in 2017 (FAOSTAT 2019). However, India has
the largest harvested area, contributing 26% of the global rice area compared to 18% in China.
245
246 Soil and Fertilizers
The global demand for rice has been increasing with increasing population, but with greater propor-
tional demand increasing in Africa, where around 50% is imported from other regions.
Rice is grown on 167 million hectares under varying soil and climatic conditions from temperate to
tropical, across latitudes, and in a wide range of production ecosystems across 118 countries (GRiSP
2013). Rice yields vary widely across geographical regions, countries, seasons, and ecosystems with
global average paddy yields of 4.6 t ha−1, while in Asia it is 4.8 t ha−1, but Africa lags behind at 2.4 t ha−1
(FAOSTAT 2019). These yields are below the genetic and climatic yield potentials, representing about
65% of potential yields for Asia (Dobermann et al. 2002; Peng et al. 2010), and thus there is a huge
exploitable yield gap, which is even larger for Africa (van Ittersum et al. 2016; Van Oort et al. 2017).
Nutrient management has a huge role for closing the rice yield gap in Asia and Africa (Tsujimoto
et al. 2019), where nutrient use efficiency has remained low (Haefele et al. 2013; Saito et al. 2013).
While total rice production is lowest in Oceania and Europe (Figure 10.1), rice yields are highest
in these regions, with average yields of 9.4 and 6.3 t ha−1, respectively (FAOSTAT 2019). Efficient
management of nutrients and other resources have contributed to the higher yields in these regions.
Consequently, any significant advancements in closing the rice yield gap will require concerted
efforts in improving nutrient management, particularly in Asia, where modern high-yielding varieties
that are responsive to nutrient addition have been widely adopted (Saito et al. 2018).
This chapter starts with a description of rice production systems and soil characteristics in lowland
rice in comparison with upland soils. Next, innovations to increase rice productivity through exter-
nal nutrient inputs are provided and historical and current use of fertilizer in lowland are described,
including site-specific nutrient management (SSNM) as an essential approach for improving pro-
ductivity and nutrient use efficiency for rice. Decision support tools and the challenges and opportu-
nities for managing soil fertility and adapting crop management in paddy soils are discussed.
highly heterogeneous and prone to multiple stresses such as weeds, pests, and diseases, in addition
to drought. Since most of the rice, about 95%, is produced in irrigated and rainfed lowland environ-
ments, this chapter largely focuses on these two ecosystems, which are generally regarded as paddy
rice ecosystems (Kögel-Knabner et al. 2010). Together with improved rice varieties and irrigation,
fertilizer inputs have contributed to great yield increases in lowland rice throughout the world (Saito
et al. 2018). Furthermore, most of future additional production will come from lowland rice to
meet increasing demand. Paddy rice is grown on bunded fields, creating semiaquatic environments
where irrigation ensures production of one, two, or three crops per year, while rainfed lowland
environments are flooded with rainwater kept within bunds. Paddy rice is primarily puddled and
transplanted, although wet- and dry-direct seeding is on the increase.
In lowland rice, which includes rainfed lowland, irrigated lowland, deep-water, and mangrove
swamp (Saito et al. 2013), fields are usually flooded during part or all of the growing season. Upland
rice, on the other hand, is generally grown on level or sloping, unbunded fields and without flooding.
Upland rice is grown under crop rotation systems with other crops or under slash-and-burn systems.
Rice yields are generally higher in irrigated ecosystems than in rainfed lowland and upland eco-
systems where rice plants could be affected by drought and/or excessive water (Tanaka et al. 2017).
Low yields and yield growth in Africa are partially due to the fact that the share of lowland rice,
especially irrigated lowland, is smaller than in the other regions, although there is huge potential
for irrigation expansion (Saito et al. 2013). While continuous rice monocropping systems in irri-
gated lowland systems with appropriate fertilizer management practices could maintain rice yields
(Dobermann et al. 2000; Bado et al. 2010), upland rice yields in continuous rice monocropping are
rapidly declining (Peng et al. 2006a; Saito et al. 2006).
Within irrigated lowlands, higher rice yields are obtained in high-latitude areas that have long
day length and where intensive farming techniques are practiced (e.g., southwestern Australia and
northern California), or in low-latitude desert areas that have very high solar energy (e.g., Egypt).
In the tropics, paddy rice is grown in the river deltas where water saturation can be maintained
between bunds, typically in areas that have distinct dry and wet seasons. However, rainfed lowland
ecosystems vary widely, with some being more favorable than others, depending on rainfall distri-
bution, soil texture, landscape position, among other factors. In most rainfed lowland ecosystems,
one rice crop is grown in a year, in the wet season, followed by an upland crop, usually a pulse, or is
left fallow. In irrigated ecosystems, two or three rice crops can be produced in a year, as continuous
rice monocropping or in rotation with upland crops, typically wheat or maize, which are usually
grown during the dry season. In lowland, rice fields are primarily puddled and rice plants are trans-
planted, although wet- and dry-direct seeding is on the increase. For irrigated rice in the tropics,
rice yields are generally higher in the dry season than in the wet seasons. This is due to cloud cover
in the wet season, which reduces solar radiation and temperature (Peng et al. 2004; van Oort et al.
2015), with increased occurrence of pests and diseases (Flinn and De Datta 1984).
As rice is cultivated in a wide range of conditions, it is grown on a wide range of soils with huge
differences in soil quality. Numerous studies have characterized paddy soils in Asia and Africa
(Kawaguchi and Kyuma 1977; Hirose and Wakatsuki 2002; Saito et al. 2013). Recently, Haefele
et al. (2014) assessed soil quality in global rice production areas using the fertility capability soil
classification system. They computed the distribution of 20 soil constraints, and used these to
categorize soils as “good,” “poor,” “very poor,” or “problem soil” for rice production. Rice growth
on “problem soils” is likely to be limited by salinity; very low pH; P deficiency; Fe/S/Al toxicity;
nutrient deficiencies of N, Zn, K, P, Cu, and Mo; or high pH causing P, Fe, and Zn deficiency. “Very
poor” soils are highly weathered with very limited indigenous nutrient supplies, low nutrient reten-
tion capacity, frequent and often severe P deficiency, acidic to very acidic soil reaction, and Fe/Al
toxicity. “Poor” soils include those with only minor constraints and/or limited soil fertility, whereas
“good” soils are much less weathered, have considerably higher natural soil fertility than poor and
very poor soils, and soil constraints are minor or absent. The results showed that rice production
on “good,” “poor,” “very poor,” and “problem” soils accounted for 44%, 18%, 33%, and 5% of the
248 Soil and Fertilizers
total rice area, respectively. Asia had the largest percentage of rice on good soils (47%), whereas
rice production on good soils accounted for only 18% in Africa. Also, at the global level, irrigated
soils had higher and lower share of good and very poor soils, respectively, than rainfed lowland
soils, whereas there was no large difference in the share of poor and problem soils between the
two systems. The most common soil chemical problems in rice fields are very low inherent nutri-
ent status, very low pH, high P fixation, and widespread soil physical problems. Especially severe
in rainfed production systems are very shallow soils and low water-holding capacity. Furthermore,
Van Oort (2018) mapped abiotic stresses relevant for rice in Africa, including two soil constraints
(iron toxicity and salinity/sodicity), and reported the countries most affected and total potentially
affected. The results showed that 12% and 2% of rice area were potentially affected by iron toxicity
and salinity/sodicity, respectively.
FIGURE 10.2 Typical soil profiles for lowland and upland soils, showing the nutrient species found in each
of the soils and their oxidation states as influenced by redox. In lowland soils the characteristic horizons are:
W: standing water; Ap: the aerobic puddled layer; Apg: the upper part of an anthraquic puddled horizon,
showing a reduced matrix and some oxidized root channels; Ardp: the lower part of the anthraquic horizon
characterized with high bulk density and a plough pan; and Bg or C: a hydragic horizon that usually depicts
redoximorphic features, in some instances with iron and manganese concretions (Jahn et al. 2006). Upland
soils are more variable and horizons can be as follows: Ap, plough layer; Bo, Bs or Bt, the accumulation layer
of residual and illuvial iron and clays; and C or Cr, the parent material or unsconsolidated bedrock.
and soil organic matter, releasing carbon dioxide, water, and energy for microorganisms in the presence
of oxygen as the primary electron acceptor (Ponnamperuma 1972; Sahrawat 2015). In submerged soils,
where dissolved oxygen is depleted upon flooding, resulting in low or negative redox potentials, second-
ary electron acceptors such as sulfates, nitrates, Fe3+, and Mn4+ are utilized instead of oxygen (Liesack
et al. 2000). Several studies have adopted a microcosm study protocol by Patrick (1966) to evaluate
redox-related transformations of N and other micronutrients in flooded soils at controlled conditions in
microcosms (Bunquin et al. 2017; Yu and Rinklebe 2011). As oxygen is depleted from the soil, NO3− is
utilized by facultative anaerobes and is rapidly reduced to N2. Patrick and Jugsujinda (1992) describe the
approximate redox potentials at which oxidized species become unstable and get reduced.
bacteria, and actinomycetes, because there is enough oxygen available from the atmosphere to sup-
ply their needs, releasing CO2 and a high amount of energy. This is substantially different in a
submerged soil, where the breakdown of soil organic matter is much slower and is only restricted
to bacterial microflora, due to a slow oxygen renewal rate through the floodwater, and is usually
depleted within a day or so after flooding, leading to lower gross N mineralization and SOM buildup
(Patrick and Mahapatra 1968; Buresh et al. 2008).
Nitrogen is generally the most limiting nutrient in most rice soils (Wade et al. 1999; Dobermann
et al. 2003a; Saito et al. 2019). On-farm experiments conducted on irrigated rice production systems
in five Asian countries to assess indigenous macronutrient (N, P, and K) supply showed that on
average, N was the most limiting nutrient (3.9 t ha−1), followed by K (5.1 t ha−1) and P (5.2 t ha−1)
(Dobermann et al. 2003a). Wade et al. (1999) conducted fertilizer trials on rainfed lowland rice pro-
duction systems in five Asian countries and observed a 0.4 t ha−1 difference in rice yield on average
between unfertilized and PK-fertilized plots, whereas yields for NPK-fertilized plots were 1.5 t ha−1
greater than PK-fertilized plots. In Africa, diagnostic trials were conducted on 30 sites in 17 coun-
tries across three major rice production systems. Rice yields without N, P, and K were 68%, 84%,
and 89%, respectively, of yields in the NPK treatment, respectively (Saito et al. 2019). Site mean
yields were significantly lower without N, P, and K in 93%, 60%, and 50%, respectively, of sites as
compared to the NPK treatment. These three studies clearly suggest that N is the most limiting of
the three macronutrients.
10.3.1.1 Nitrogen
The indigenous N supply lowland rice soil is usually insufficient to support high yields, yet it is the
most abundant element in the atmosphere (Dobermann and Fairhurst 2000). Indigenous N supply
includes that coming from the soil, mainly soil organic matter, atmospheric deposition as dust and
rainfall, irrigation water, floodwater and sediments, and biological N fixation. Oxygen depleted
paddy soils provide favorable environments for biological N fixation, which can sustain rice yields
at low levels even without the addition of N fertilizers. Roger and Ladha (1992) estimated that bio-
logical N fixation contributes on average 30 kg N ha−1 season−1 when no fertilizer N is added to the
soil. The fixed N contributes to the organic N pool in the soil.
Soil organic matter, which is derived from plant residues and manures, plays an important role
in the supply of N to rice. Soils with high organic matter content tend to have greater N supply,
requiring less additions from external sources to meet the demands of a rice crop compared to
soils with low organic matter content. At an intermediate level, redox potentials are referred to
as “healthy reducing conditions” that can be maintained by Fe and Mn dynamics in paddy soils
(Patrick and Mahapatra 1968), and N mineralization is promoted. As organic matter decomposes,
largely mediated by microbes with close interactions between C and N cycles, organic N is mineral-
ized into NH4+, which is the dominant N form in anaerobic soils because in the absence of oxygen
it is not nitrified to form nitrates, as happens in aerobic soils (Figure 10.3) (Buresh et al. 2008).
The NH4+ is taken up by rice plants, fixed on clay minerals, immobilized by soil microbes, or sub-
ject to volatilization, depending on soil conditions.
While soil organic matter mineralization is lower in paddy soils than in aerobic soils, the rate
of immobilization is also slower, with a higher net mineralization occurring in paddy soils than
in aerobic soils. Early reviews have shown that N mineralization in paddy soils was considerably
higher than mineralization under well-drained conditions (Patrick and Mahapatra 1968) and incu-
bation experiments suggested that yield and N uptake were greater for lowland than in upland
conditions (Yoneyama et al. 1977). Being a critical process in the soil–plant system, the extent of
N mineralization is determined by several factors, such as quality and management of crop resi-
due, environmental factors, soil type, and soil and fertilizer N (Singh et al. 2005; Sahrawat 2010).
The rate of decomposition of organic material and the mineralization–immobilization behavior is
influenced by the biochemical composition. High-quality crop residues with high N concentrations,
low cellulose and lignin content, and low C:N and lignin:N ratios, such as legumes, tend to have
Managing Fertilizers in Soils of Paddy Rice 251
FIGURE 10.3 Schematic presentation of the interactions between the oxygen-releasing root and aerobic and
anaerobic microbial processes involved in C- and N-cycling as well as in methane emission from flooded soils
and sediments. Solid arrows indicate microbial processes, while dotted arrows depict diffusion or volatiliza-
tion processes. Organisms are shown as circles, namely: FB: fermenting bacteria; MPB: methane-producing
bacteria; FERB: iron-reducing bacteria; MOB: methane-oxidizing bacteria; FEOB: iron-oxidizing bacteria;
AOB: ammonium-oxidizing bacteria; DNB: denitrifying bacteria.
high N mineralization (Chen et al. 2014). In addition, the placement of crop residues depends on
tillage systems where surface application works under zero tillage practice as dominated by fungal-
based food webs with slower decomposition and higher nutrient retention, while incorporation sup-
ports conventional tillage as characterized by bacterial-based food webs with faster decomposition
and mineralization (Singh et al. 2005). Temperature and moisture conditions also affect the rate of
mineralization since mesophyllic microorganisms dominating in the soil are optimally active at
25°C–35°C, while optimum moisture conditions are 80% of the field capacity (Guntiñas et al. 2012).
Clay-textured soils have been observed to release about twice as much residue N than in sandy soils
(Becker et al. 1994), while mineralization was inhibited at soil pH below 5, which is generally the
pH of a soil when it is well drained (Patrick and Mahapatra 1968; Fu et al. 1987).
Rice plants under anaerobic conditions exchange gases through the aerenchyma, enabling some
oxygen to be transported to the rhizosphere, which can facilitate nitrification of small amounts of
ammonium to nitrates. These nitrates, together with that leached from the aerobic layers, can be
leached below the root zone due to its negative charge-repelling soil colloid surfaces. In a study by
Singh et al. (1991), leaching losses of N as urea, NH4+, and NO3− were about 6% of the total urea-
N and 3% of the total ammonium sulfate-N applied in three equal split doses, and urea applied
basally in a single dose resulted in 13% N leaching losses, about three times lower when potassium
nitrate was applied in three split doses. Nitrates in paddy soils can also be denitrified, to form N2O,
a greenhouse gas and ultimately, N2 gas, which are lost from the soil. Loss of applied N through
252 Soil and Fertilizers
denitrification in lowland rice cultivation has been reported to be higher than that from wheat culti-
vation, but can vary from negligible to 46% depending on urea application and crop establishment
methods (Buresh and De Datta 1990), whereas earlier studies showed 5%–10% in continuously
flooded rice-cropped soils and 40% in fallow soil (Fillery and Vlek 1982). However, the major N
loss pathway in paddy soils is through ammonia volatilization, which can result in up to 50% loss of
applied fertilizer N (Mikkelsen et al. 1978; De Datta and Buresh 1989; De Datta et al. 1989). This is
because NO3−-based fertilizers are generally not used in lowland rice, as the NO3− would readily
be lost from the soil, with consequences on climate change since N2O is a potent greenhouse gas.
Due to the abundance of NH4+ over NO3− in paddy soils, rice plants take up N mainly as NH4-N,
which is loosely bound to the water as NH4OH and converted to NH3 gas and water molecules. Loss
of N due to NH3 volatilization is influenced by pH, temperature of the floodwater, algal growth,
crop growth, and other soil properties (De Datta 1987). N loss through NH3 volatilization ranges
from negligible to almost 60% of the applied N in flooded soils (Choudhury and Kennedy 2005).
The pH of standing water in a submerged field increases during the day, related to photosynthetic
activity of algae using up CO2 (i.e., decrease in H2CO3 concentration). Consequently, N fertilizer
application should be done at the start of the day when the pH is still low to prevent formation and
volatilization of ammonia.
10.3.1.2 Phosphorus
Phosphorus is mainly in the inorganic phosphate form, is an essential soil constituent in flooded
soils, and is particularly important during early growth stages, but the requirement is less pro-
nounced than that for N. Deficiency of available P is the second-most important nutritional disorder of
lowland rice, especially in the highly weathered acidic soils of the tropics that contain large quantities
of Al and Fe oxides, which cause P-fixation. The different forms of inorganic phosphate as outlined
by Chang and Jackson (1957) include aluminum phosphates, iron phosphates, calcium phosphates,
reductant soluble or the occluded phosphates, and the soil solution orthophosphates as PO4 3−, HPO4 2−,
or H2PO4−, where the predominant form depends on soil pH, and the latter is the more preferred by
plants for uptake. These forms and their distribution vary among soil types (Patrick and Mahapatra
1968). Initially, P availability increases after submergence, so it is not considered as a yield-limiting
nutrient in rice growth, but P solubility may not last long due to the increasing sorption capacity of
ferrous hydroxides favoring the formation of insoluble Fe-P fraction. In anaerobic soil and chang-
ing soil pH, P becomes more available as ferric phosphates are reduced to ferrous phosphates,
liberating the sorbed-P. Interestingly, flooded soils release more P than well-drained soil if the soil
solution content is low to begin with, though reduced soils have a higher sorption capacity (Fageria
et al. 2003). Several studies indicated the relationship between the extent of P sorption and the
amount oxalate extractable iron in flooded soils, and it was observed that 84% of P is sorbed when
the oxalate extractable Fe is 3000 mg kg−1 because oxalate can extract the most reactive, poorly
crystalline, small-size, and high-surface-area Fe oxides (Willett and Higgins 1978; Khalid et al.
1979; Shahandeh et al. 1994). Diffusion, which is the main mechanism of P supply to roots, is
enhanced by flooding, and a study by Turner and Gilliam (1976) confirmed that P uptake and shoot
growth increased with increasing moisture level, in fact at the highest when saturated with water.
The requirement for optimum growth is 0.12–0.20 mg P L−1 in the soil solution, and about 90%
rice yield can be produced at 0.10 mg P L−1 soil solution (Hossner and Baker 1988). This preview
provides a summary, and a comprehensive discussion of P dynamics in flooded soils was described
in Ponnamperuma (1972) and Hossner and Baker (1988).
10.3.1.3 Potassium
Changes in the redox potential do not seem to affect soil potassium directly but somehow decrease
its availability. Upon submergence, there is a cation exchange between the surface of negatively
charged 1:1 clays and the soil solution, increasing the solution K and enhancing K uptake by the
roots, but this soil type is prone to leaching with a high percolation rate, resulting in K removal
Managing Fertilizers in Soils of Paddy Rice 253
(Dobermann and Fairhurst 2000). Low oxygen diffusion environments in lowland soils differ from
aerated soils. In addition to the several reasons mentioned above, there is a crescent diffusion of
K located in the interlayers of illite, a 2:1 type of clay mineral (da Silva et al. 2015), which is con-
sidered a nonexchangeable K. Flooding of lowland soils with this type of clay mineral that causes
K fixation reduces the solution K concentration at first, thus utilizing the nonexchangeable K, as
the cation over anion intake is balanced, while Fe is oxidized by rice roots, releasing H+ and O2
(Dobermann and Fairhurst 2000), resulting in displacement of K+ ions by H+ in the interlayer posi-
tions, and thus eventually increasing the amount of K+ in solution.
In a previous study by Dobermann et al. (1996), micaceous and vermicullitic soils containing
high amounts of Ca and Mg induced K deficiency because of the preferential adsorption of K to
cation exchange sites despite the lyotropic series, which reduced K activity in the soil.
The soil chemical reactions involving K are more simpler than those for N and P. Potassium
is not complexed into soil organic matter and do not volatilize or form insoluble precipitates, but
rather, soil K is greatly influenced by the associated soil mineral fraction. Thus its availability is
associated with properties such as soil K concentration, soil texture, soil pH, cation exchange capac-
ity, temperature, soil moisture, soil aeration, yield level, and root growth patterns (Fageria et al.
2003). This has resulted in limited research on efficient K fertilization practices and diagnosis and
prevention of K deficiency, and it has only been during the review of de Datta and Mikkelsen (1985)
that the research on K nutrition of rice has begun to increase our knowledge of the K nutritional
requirements of rice.
Crop residue management practices were observed to have a positive impact on K uptake in rice
with about 179 kg kg−1 when crop residue is incorporated, which is 8.5% higher than when crop
residue is removed (Dotaniya 2013). A rice crop contains 200–300 kg ha K, where the majority
of K from the rice straw that is returned to the field the field is recycled back into the soil, while
K fertilization is required if straw is removed to prevent from depleting the soil K (de Datta and
Mikkelsen 1985).
Unlike N, P, and Zn, K has not been a major yield-limiting nutrient in many rice-producing
areas, and fewer studies on K nutrition are available in the literature, but as grain yield increases
the demand for K also increases. Rice was characterized as having a high capacity to absorb plant
available soil K because of its fibrous root system followed by depleting K in the growth medium,
since high amounts of K were taken up during the vegetative and early reproductive growth stages.
Taking into account the chemistry of soil organic matter and monitoring the indigenous nutri-
ent supply as a measure of soil quality are essential in understanding the soil nutrient supplying
capacity in lowland soils. Interactions among nutrients have a great impact on the physiological and
agronomic efficiency that results from nutrient applications.
10.3.2 Management Practices
Rice is commonly grown by transplanting seedlings into puddled soil. Puddling, which is essential
for rice cultivation, impoverishes the soil physical condition, increases bulk density, and reduces
hydraulic conductivity. Puddling benefits rice by reducing water percolation losses, controlling
weeds, facilitating easy seedling establishment, and creating anaerobic conditions to enhance nutri-
ent availability (Aggarwal et al. 1995). But repeated puddling adversely affects soil physical proper-
ties by destroying soil aggregates, reducing permeability in subsurface layers, and forming hardpans
at shallow depths (Sharma and De Datta 1985; Aggarwal et al. 1995), all of which can negatively
affect the following non–rice upland crops in rotation (Hobbs and Gupta 2000; Tripathi et al. 2005).
Puddling is energy consuming and deteriorates the soil health for growing succeeding crops.
Repeated cultivation of rice leads to the formation of hardpan below the plow layer, deteriorates the
soil structure, inhibits root elongation, and delays the planting of a succeeding crop. Continuous
rice cultivation for longer periods with poor crop management practices has often resulted in loss of
soil fertility, and in turn has led to multiple nutrient deficiencies (Ladha et al. 2004). Under puddled
254 Soil and Fertilizers
conditions, rice undergoes several changes, namely, going from an aerobic to an anaerobic environ-
ment, resulting in several physical and electrochemical transformations. Puddling operation con-
sumes water and energy, breaks the capillary pores, destroys the soil aggregates, disperses the fine
clay particles, and lowers soil strength in the puddle layer (Sharma and De Datta 1985). Imbalanced
use of N-fertilizer in rice may increase the leaching of nitrates beyond the root zone, leading to
groundwater pollution in rural areas (Singh et al. 2002a).
the low use of organic inputs, this chapter will focus on mineral fertilizers and their management.
It is acknowledged, however, that some farmers integrate the use of mineral fertilizers with organic
fertilizers in one form or another.
10.5.1 Sustainability
Increased use of fertilizers, particularly N, significantly improved crop yields globally, including
rice (Cassman et al. 2003; Lu and Tian 2017). Farmers in Asia often apply large quantities of N fer-
tilizers in order to increase rice yields, but the quantities are often in excess of plant requirements for
N, which often results in losses of N to the environment. However, grain yield response diminishes
as N fertilizer increases, and in some instances overapplication of N fertilizer may cause lodging
and susceptibility to pest and disease damage, in both cases causing yield losses (Balasubramanian
256 Soil and Fertilizers
et al. 1998; Duy et al. 2004). This inefficient use of fertilizers, coupled with increasing water and
labor scarcity and the changing climate, threaten the productivity and sustainability of rice-based
systems. The emerging energy crisis and rising fuel prices, the rising cost of cultivation, and emerg-
ing socioeconomic changes such as urbanization, migration of labor, preference for nonagricultural
work, and concerns about farm-related pollution further threaten the productivity and sustainabil-
ity of rice-based cropping systems (Ladha et al. 2011). Agronomic management and technological
innovations are needed to address these concerns in Asia. Some of the potential strategies for sus-
taining the productivity of rice systems are: (1) reduction of the rice monoculture and diversifica-
tion of the cropping system, and (2) enhancing the input use efficiency in existing double and triple
rice-based cropping systems through improved technology and management practices.
Nutrient management remains an important component for sustainable rice production in Asia
in order to meet the challenges of rising demand for the commodity driven by population growth,
while protecting the environment. This is also essential for ensuring that rice farming is profitable.
Challenges with declining yields and nutrient use efficiency require sophisticated nutrient manage-
ment in order to deal with the multiple requirements of productivity, profitability, and environmen-
tal protection, and this led to the development of the site-specific nutrient management (SSNM)
approach in the 1990s (Dobermann et al. 2002). This approach is a form of precision nutrient
management based on scientific principles and aims to improve yield within the same fields without
expanding to new areas while enhancing nutrient use efficiency and protecting the environment and
thus promoting sustainable intensification of rice cropping systems.
10.6.2 Concept
Site-specific nutrient management (SSNM) is a dynamic, field-specific, and season-specific nutri-
ent management approach that optimizes nutrient supply and demand according to differences in
indigenous nutrient supply, nutrient cycling, and target yield (Dobermann et al. 2002, 2004). It is
based on a set of scientific principles with the aim of increasing yields and profit for the farmer by
increasing nutrient use efficiency while reducing losses and hence ensuring environmental sus-
tainability. Nutrients are applications distributed through the season as and when needed by the
crop, matching demand and supply. It was developed and refined through years of research by
the International Rice Research Institute (IRRI) and partners across Asia beginning in the 1990s
(Dobermann et al. 2004). It provides scientific principles for calculating field- and season-specific
N, P, and K requirements for cereal crops, including rice, before the start of the season (Dobermann
et al. 2002; Buresh et al. 2010). SSNM was initially conceptualized for rice using principles from
the Quantitative Evaluation of the Fertility of Tropical Soils (QUEFTS) model (Janssen et al. 1990)
to estimate the requirement for a fertilizer nutrient from the gap between the total amount of nutri-
ent required by the crop to achieve a specific target yield and the indigenous supply of the nutrient
(Witt and Dobermann 2004). Estimating the indigenous nutrient supply enables effective utiliza-
tion of nutrients existing in the soil. The indigenous supply of nutrients for the SSNM approach is
determined based on plant response using nutrient omission plot technique trials (Dobermann et al.
2003a, 2003b). The SSNM approach was initially developed for rice but has also been applied to
wheat (Khurana et al. 2008) and maize (Witt et al. 2009).
The optimal amount of N, P, and K fertilizer for a particular field is dependent on the indigenous
supply of the nutrients for the particular field, and the target yield, which is dependent on variety,
climate, water management or regime, and crop management. The SSNM approach adjusts inputs of
fertilizers based on a supply of indigenous nutrients originating from soil, plant residues, manures,
and irrigation water. Indigenous N is influenced by soil organic matter, biological N fixation, irriga-
tion water, and organic fertilizer. The amount of N fertilizer requirement is calculated based on the
anticipated gain in yield and an attainable agronomic efficiency of N using equation (10.1):
where FN is the fertilizer N requirement (kg N ha−1), GY is the attainable target yield (kg ha−1),
GY0N is the grain yield without N fertilizer (kg ha−1), and AEN is the attainable agronomic efficiency
of N fertilizer (kg grain yield increase kg−1 fertilizer N applied).
For N management, the SSNM approach includes both the determination of the optimal amount
of N fertilizer to be applied in a particular field and its distribution through the season so as to meet
the peak demands for N by the crop, depending on varietal needs (Dobermann et al. 2002; Witt
et al. 2007; Peng et al. 2010). While farmers apply a greater proportion of the N fertilizer in the early
stages of the crop, this has resulted in greater early growth vigor, which has, however, not translated
into greater grain yield benefits at maturity.
The determination of fertilizer K and P requirements using the SSNM approach ensures enough
quantities are applied to avoid yield loss due to deficiencies while ensuring profitability. Field-specific
P and K management combines the yield gain approach and nutrient balances to ensure efficient utiliza-
tion of the nutrients and avoid mining the soil (Buresh et al. 2010). The approach uses the internal nutri-
ent efficiency combined with estimates of attainable yield, nutrient balances, and probable yield gains
from added nutrient within specific fields (Witt et al. 2007; Buresh et al. 2010). The amount of K fertil-
izer is influenced by irrigation water, crop residue management, and supply for the soil. Considering that
more than 80% of the K taken up by a rice crop is in the straw, it follows that return of rice residues to
the field contributes to the soil K and hence fertilizer K needs are reduced. However, the incorporation of
rice straw can significantly increase greenhouse gas emissions, particularly methane under continuous
flooding, which is typical for paddy soils (Wassmann et al. 2007; Sander et al. 2014).
258 Soil and Fertilizers
10.6.3 Evaluation of SSNM
Fertilization using the SSNM approach has been shown to increase yield and income in rice pro-
duction (Dobermann et al. 2004; Witt et al. 2007) and provide environmental benefits by reducing
N losses and greenhouse gas emissions (Pampolino et al. 2007). Researcher-managed trials were
conducted across rice-production areas in Asia and Africa to evaluate use of SSNM to manage fer-
tilizer N, P, and K and was shown to effectively increase yield, agronomic nutrient use efficiency,
and net income, as shown in Table 10.1. The table presents a summary of 32 studies where SSNM
was evaluated in comparison to the farmer practice (FFP) in seven countries in Asia and one coun-
try in Africa, Senegal. On average, rice yields are 8.6% greater where SSNM is used compared to
the FFP. However, the yield differences vary under different conditions. The SSNM approach was
developed mostly under irrigated lowland environments. While most of the studies were conducted
in irrigated ecosystems, rice yields were also greater with SSNM than FFP in rainfed lowland eco-
systems (Biradar et al. 2006; Haefele and Konboon 2009; Banayo et al. 2018), although the yield
differences were smaller compared to irrigated ecosystems.
In a recent study in the Philippines, Banayo et al. (2018) observed a 6% yield advantage where
the SSNM approach was used compared to the farmer practice under lowland rainfed conditions.
In that study, they observed that farmers tended to use greater quantities of N and P fertilizers than
with SSNM, and this resulted in a net increased income on average of $154 ha−1 season−1. The yield
increases with SSNM fertilization, despite lower quantities than the farmer practice, was attributed
to the distribution of N fertilizer. On average, farmers apply 54% of the total N in the first 15 days
after transplanting, whereas with SSNM 29% of the N was applied within the first 15 days after
transplanting. Rice yields were about 50% greater when fertilized using the SSNM approach com-
pared to the farmer practice study in Northern Karnataka in India under rainfed conditions (Biradar
et al. 2006). In the same study, rice yields with the state blanket recommendation were higher than
the farmer practice, but were still more than 25% lower than SSNM, confirming that blanket recom-
mendations are not efficient in improving farmer yields. These studies show that there are positive
benefits with SSNM under rainfed conditions, but that the extent of the benefits varies with locations
and conditions under the rainfed systems.
Most of the SSNM evaluation studies for rice were established using the transplanting method,
and yield differences were greater than where rice was direct seeded (Table 10.1). In most of the
rice-growing regions farmers are increasingly shifting from transplanted to direct-seeded rice sys-
tems, largely due to increasing water scarcity associated with climate change, and labor shortages
and the associated economic gains (Kumar et al. 2018). Transplanting is labor intensive, given that
labor constitutes the largest cost in rice production (>60%) (Pampolino et al. 2007). However, weed
challenges with direct seeding can affect the responses to fertilizer management (Rao et al. 2007;
Farooq et al. 2011). A recent study showed that ensuring late season application of N fertilizer at
the heading enhanced rice yields under direct-seeded rice (Liu et al. 2019). This is in line with the
SSNM recommendations that generally recommend distribution of N fertilizer to meet the crop N
demands, while avoiding applying large quantities early in the season before the plants establish an
effective root network to take up the nutrients. In a study in Thailand, Satawathananont et al. (2004)
observed both positive and negative yield benefits with SSNM compared to farmer practice under
direct-seeded rice in the wet and dry seasons, respectively. In contrast, in Vietnam, yield benefits
were positive in both the wet and dry seasons under direct-seeded rice (Tan et al. 2004). These
results suggest that SSNM is beneficial in terms of yield increases compared to the farmer practice
under direct-seeded rice, but the benefits are likely dependent on water and weed management.
Agronomic efficiency of N is generally greater with SSNM than FFP, with an average 15.9 and
11.8 kg grain kg−1 N applied, respectively (Table 10.1). This suggests reduced N losses and hence
greater environmental sustainability. In a study across more than 120 sites in China over several
seasons, Peng et al. (2010) observed greater agronomic efficiency of N with SSNM fertilization
compared to the farmer practice. In these trials, N fertilizer was reduced by about 40% using the
TABLE 10.1
Rice Yield, Agronomic Use Efficiency of N (AEN), and Partial Factor Productivity of N Fertilizer (PFPN) under Site-Specific Nutrient
Management (SSNM) Compared with Farmer Field Practice (FFP) across Eight Countries from 32 Different Studies
Grain Yield
kg ha−1 AEN kg Grain kg−1 N PFPN kg Grain kg−1 N
Country (# of Cropping Season/# of %
Sites) System β Seasons § Crop Estab.Ψ SSNM FFP Change SSNM FFP SSNM FFP Source
Irrigated
China (1) R-R DS/2 TPR 5800 5400 6.9 11.4 6.3 48.5 36.5 Wang et al. (2001)
R-R WS/2 TPR 6900 6400 7.2 11.4 6.3 48.5 36.5
Philippines (1) R-R DS/2 TPR, DSR 5725 5100 10.9 16.3 13.0 44.8 42.4 Gines et al. (2004)
R-R WS/2 TPR, DSR 4675 4300 8.0 13.0 11.5 58.0 62.8
Thailand (1) R-R-R DS/2 DSR 4600 4700 −2.2 8.9 10.5 38.0 40.5 Satawathananont et al. (2004)
R-R-R WS/2 DSR 4990 4750 4.8 8.4 6.5 47.5 52.5
Vietnam (1) R-R-R DS/2 DSR 5700 5300 7.0 22.0 17.0 58.5 51.8 Tan et al. (2004)
Managing Fertilizers in Soils of Paddy Rice
R-R-R WS/2 DSR 3625 3480 4.0 17.0 12.5 39.3 31.0
Vietnam (1) R-R-M DS/2 TPR 6200 6025 2.8 17.0 14.7 64.3 61.0 Son et al. (2004)
R-R-M WS/2 TPR 6150 6000 2.4 18.0 13.5 74.0 60.0
Indonesia (1) R-R DS/2 TPR 3900 3625 7.1 10.3 8.4 23.5 19.3 Abdulrachman et al. (2004)
R-R WS/2 TPR 5100 4925 3.4 15.0 9.9 48.5 37.5
India (2) R-R-P DS/2 TPR 6550 5788 11.6 15.2 13.6 Nagarajan et al. (2004)
R-R-P WS/2 TPR 5493 4913 10.6 15.2 13.6
China (1) R-R DS/3 TPR 5867 5833 0.6 11.2 6.3 47.0 34.3 Guanghuo et al. (2004)
R-R WS/3 TPR 7083 6550 7.5 13.6 7.0 56.5 38.2
India (2) R-R DS/1 TPR 12850 12000 6.6 51.0 48.0 Pampolino et al. (2007)
Vietnam (3) R-R DS/1 DSR 9833 9167 6.8 55.0 47.0
Philippines (2) R-R DS/1 TPR and DSR 10400 9700 6.7 47.0 39.0
India (6) R-W DS/3 TPR 6000 5117 14.7 16.6 9.4 44.3 35.4 Khurana et al. (2007)
China (4) R-R – TPR 5900 5700 3.4 44.0 31.0 Hu et al. (2007)
China (4) /2 TPR 7425 7163 3.5 14.5 3.6 123.4 34.8 Peng et al. (2006b)
Philippines (1) DS/2 TPR 6800 6150 9.6 19.2 23.1 48.0 68.5
India (1) R-R-R DS/3 TPR 4833 4300 11.0 38.3 37.7 Sharma et al. (2019)
India (2) DS/2 TPR 6400 5900 7.8 Rajendran et al. (2010)
WS/2 TPR 6050 5750 5.0
Senegal DS/1 DSR 7467 5967 20.1 Saito et al. (2015)
(Continued)
259
260
Cropping system β: R-R is rice-rice; R-R-R is rice-rice-rice; R-R-M is rice-rice-maize; R-R-P is rice-rice-pulse, R-W is rice-wheat; R is rice only – for rainfed systems.
Season/# of seasons §: Represents season; dry season (DS) and wet season (WS); number of seasons for which the study was conducted.
Crop estab.Ψ: Crop establishment method – TPR is transplanted and DSR is direct-seeded rice.
Soil and Fertilizers
Managing Fertilizers in Soils of Paddy Rice 261
SSNM approach as compared to the farmer practice, and the yields were greater with the SSNM
approach than with the farmer practice. Similarly, Wang et al. (2001) observed greater agronomic
efficiency of N with SSNM than with farmer practice on 21 sites in China. These observations con-
firm that farmers in Asia, particularly in China, use excessive amounts of fertilizers, especially N.
A study conducted on 179 sites in eight regions in six countries showed greater agronomic efficiency
of N with the SSNM approach compared with farmer practice, both when N fertilizer quantity
applied with SSNM fertilization was greater or smaller than the farmer practice. These observa-
tions suggest that the SSNM approach adjusts the N fertilizer upward or downward, depending on
whether the farmers are applying less N or in excess, depending on the target yield and indigenous
supply of N. As a result, it seems that, based on the SSNM evaluation trials conducted, SSNM
optimizes nutrient application in terms of quantity and distribution, resulting in greater synchrony
between demand and supply of nutrients.
The examples cited here show that SSNM is effective in improving rice yields, agronomic effi-
ciency of N fertilizer, and profit based on partial factor of productivity. The SSNM approach was
shown to improve crop yields versus the farmer practice, which is often based on blanket recom-
mendations (Wang et al. 2001; Dobermann et al. 2002; Peng et al. 2010), while reducing fertilizer
application (Peng et al. 2010). The increase in grain yield while lower amounts of fertilizer are
applied in some instances has been associated with increased timing of application, particularly
for N. In recent years, SSNM has been identified as one of the options for sustainable intensifica-
tion of rice production in Asia and as a climate-smart technology based on increased resource use
efficiency while reducing greenhouse gas emissions (FAO 2014). Given that the SSNM approach
is knowledge intensive and calculation of fertilizer recommendations for different farmers would
take time and probably become impractical to reach many farmers, decision-support tools have
become necessary in translating the SSNM principle into practice.
to individual fields for smallholder farmers. The Nutrient Manager for Rice was targeted for irri-
gated and rainfed lowland rice farmers with the aim to increase productivity and net income by
$100 ha−1 season−1 at the farm level. The tool was tailored for countries and regions where agri-
cultural technicians and farmers could get access to SSNM recommendations. Initially distrib-
uted as an offline version on compact discs, this had great scientific impact. However, the limited
availability of computers became a constraint, limiting the ease of use for extension workers
and farmers. The tool was later upgraded as a web-based tool which could be accessed using
a mobile phone, computer, laptop, or any other ICT device with internet. With high demand
from farmers and extension workers alike for additional information on crop management, the
nutrient manager for rice was upgraded into Rice Crop Manager (RCM; http://cropmanager.
irri.org), which gives climate-informed agroadvisory services to farmers, including the selection
of suitable varieties, weed management options, and nursery management (Buresh et al. 2019).
This has been released for the Philippines, India, Bangladesh, Indonesia, and Vietnam. Rice Crop
Manager is a web-based decision-support tool that can be accessed using computers, tablets, or
smartphones connected to the internet. The tool is designed to be operated by extension workers
or farmer technicians who ask farmers 25–30 easy-to-answer questions about farm conditions and
practices. At the end of the questionnaire, Rice Crop Manager automatically calculates and gives
easy-to-follow nutrient and crop management recommendations that can be printed on one page
before the start of the season. To date, more than 1.85 million recommendations on integrated
crop management have been generated and given to rice farmers in the Philippines, and those
who followed the recommendations increased their yield by an average of 640 kg ha−1 season−1
(http://news.irri.org/). The large-scale dissemination of RCM in 2018 also showed an average
added net benefit for the farmers was US$ 215 ha−1 season−1.
During the same time that IRRI was developing Nutrient Manager for Rice and RCM, AfricaRice
was developing RiceAdvice and the International Plant Nutrition Institute (IPNI) was developing
Nutrient Expert (NE), both based on SSNM principles. Beta versions of Nutrient Expert for maize
were developed in 2011 for South Asia, China, Kenya, and Zimbabwe, while similar versions of NE
for wheat were developed for South Asia as well as China, where the field-validated versions were
publicly released in 2013 (Pampolino et al. 2012). In 2009, Nutrient Expert for Hybrid Maize was
developed for favorable tropical environments (e.g., Southeast Asia) and underwent field evaluation
in Indonesia and the Philippines. Nutrient Expert was also developed for rice for China and South
Asia for rice where nutrient management recommendations are based on SSNM principles using
the expected yield response, target agronomic efficiency of applied N, and the QUEFTS model
(Xu et al. 2017). The complexities of nutrient management principles were developed into sim-
plified easy-to-use software suited for farm advisers, extension agents, and industry agronomists.
The Nutrient Expert obtains information from farmers based on their own experience, knowledge,
and practices and gives fertilizer management guidelines that suit specific field characteristics and
locally available fertilizer sources. Nutrient Expert fertilizer recommendations are developed fol-
lowing the “4R” principles of nutrient management (applying the right source of nutrient at the right
rate and the right time in the right place). Currently, Nutrient Expert has been applicable for specific
crops and geographies.
AfricaRice initiated the development of RiceAdvice (https://www.riceadvice.info/en/) in
2013, and a first version was released and tested in 2014. Since then, various improvements have
been made to the tool, and it was released in Google Play in 2016 (Saito and Sharma 2018).
The “RiceAdvice” is a free app for AndroidTM that can work offline, but an internet connection is
needed when data needs to be sent to a server and when updates are required. Up to early 2019, more
than 50,000 RiceAdvice guidelines have been generated in West Africa (Nigeria, Mali, Senegal,
and Burkina Faso). Farmers using RiceAdvice report yield gains between 0.6 and 1.8 t ha−1
and income gains between US$100 and 200 ha−1. RiceAdvice is operated by extension workers
and lead farmers who enter information such as rice-growing condition, variety, typical prac-
tices, expected sowing date, fertilizer availability, and market price into the application. Once the
Managing Fertilizers in Soils of Paddy Rice 263
details are filled in, farmers can set yield targets based on their available budget or desired or
recommended production level. In case farmers do not have access to the internet or do not have
a smartphone or tablet, the offline version of RiceAdvice can be used or other rice value-chain
actors can use the decision-support tool to provide farmers with field-specific guidelines for crop
and nutrient management practices. The tool provides guidelines on crop and nutrient manage-
ment practices at the start of the season and for in-season practices, e.g., fertilizer application rate
and timing.
10.7.2 Challenges
Leaf color charts provide a simple, inexpensive, and easy-to-use decision-support tool for N fertil-
izer management. Farmers in Asia adopted leaf color charts (Islam et al. 2007), but only used them
for a few years. Other organizations in the region did not take up leaf color charts, limiting their
promotion. There is still ongoing distribution of leaf color charts in Asia, with possible expansion to
Africa, where they can be used for rice and other cereal crops. However, knowledge and manage-
ment of P and K is needed to avoid nutrient imbalances.
The introduction of ICT-based decision support tools has been seen as an option for greater
spread of SSNM recommendations to farmers. However, internet availability and stability in rural
areas, where most smallholder farmers are located, is generally poor, limiting the spread of the
information. There is therefore a need to develop applications that can be accessible and give rec-
ommendations in the offline mode. In addition, many farmers do not have their own smartphone
or tablet to use the decision-support tools by themselves. Furthermore, farmers have limited access
to extension services, as the number of public extension workers is limited, especially in Africa.
The challenge is to identify suitable and local-specific business models on the use of the tools, and
scale out such models and the tools to both farmers and service providers. Once the business model
is developed, farmers may have to pay for the recommendations. For example, in Nigeria and Mali,
farmers are willing to pay up to US$5 for each recommendation generated by RiceAdvice to service
providers. Service providers do not have to pay for the tools at this moment, as these are freely avail-
able for download. Different types of rice value-chain actors could become service providers and
include this service in their businesses. They can provide the service to the farmers who have no
access to a smartphone, tablet, or internet or who are illiterate. The introduction of service provid-
ers could overcome these two constraints. Another challenges is farmers’ low level of literacy and
lack of ICT skills, limiting their access and use smartphones, tablets, and internet, which are often
common challenges for almost all ICT tools.
Expert, and RiceAdvice – use the existing nutrient omission plot technique trial data and refine it
to suit local conditions using farmer knowledge of farm conditions to develop the fertilizer rec-
ommendations. To improve the robustness of the fertilizer recommendations using the ICT tools,
soil testing may be essential. There is a need to calibrate soil tests for lowland rice systems that
can closely be linked with rice productivity.
Technological approaches and algorithms for developing fertilizer requirements tailored to
field-specific needs of crops in irrigated rice-based cropping systems must be based on robust
scientific principles applicable across the field-level variability and diversity of crop-growing con-
ditions. In the Philippines, where the greater proportion of the activities using Rice Crop Manager
have been conducted, there is little diversification. Thus there is a need to extend the research
and perform evaluation of the tool in diversified rice cropping systems such as rice-wheat, rice-
maize, or rice-legume systems to allow for the provision of fertilizer recommendations to suit
such systems. However, Rice Crop Manager in India has been developed and evaluated in diversi-
fied rice cropping systems. At the same time, approaches must be relatively simple with minimal
characterization or interviewing of farmers for each field in order to ensure rapid, cost-effective
delivery of field-specific guidelines to millions of small-scale farmers. Technological approaches
and algorithms should strive to draw upon existing research information in order to avoid delays in
reaching farmers with practical solutions based on scientific principles.
Seasonal and annual climatic variations among regions are still lacking in the tools, which must
be taken into account because temperature and moisture regimes are some of the major constraints
to achieving high productivity levels, especially in rainfed crops grown by low-resource farmers.
Nonetheless, the digital tools have the potential to revolutionize agriculture in the developing world
given the rapid spread of mobile technology. These tools enable widespread scaling of relevant and
contextual fertilizer management recommendations unique to farmers’ conditions.
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11 Fertilizers and Amendments
Nuclear Powered Agriculture
Darryl D. Siemer
CONTENTS
11.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 273
11.2 The Future’s Energy Requirements..................................................................................... 273
11.3 Agricultural Energy Requirements...................................................................................... 275
11.3.1 Desalination............................................................................................................ 275
11.3.2 Fertilizers................................................................................................................ 276
11.3.2.1 Nitrogen................................................................................................. 276
11.3.3 Everything Else That Plants Require..................................................................... 277
11.3.4 Other Reasons for Powdered Rock Fertilization.................................................... 279
11.3.4.1 Addressing Already Oversalinized Soils.............................................. 279
11.3.4.2 “Climate Change”..................................................................................280
11.3.5 Other Agricultural Energy Requirements..............................................................280
11.4 Putting Everything into Perspective.................................................................................... 281
11.5 Conclusions.......................................................................................................................... 282
References....................................................................................................................................... 283
11.1 INTRODUCTION
Justus von Liebig developed the “Law of the Minimum” to explain the basics of improving soils.
His principle states that plant growth is determined by the scarcest, “limiting” nutrient – if even
one of the required nutrients is deficient, plants will not thrive and produce at their optimum levels.
This chapter describes how a properly implemented “nuclear renaissance” could address three
issues key to assuring genuinely sustainable agriculture – sufficient water, sufficient nutrients, and
enough power/energy to properly plant, harvest, transport, and distribute the resulting crops. I shall
be assuming that by circa 2100 AD, the people responsible for developing such a renaissance will
have done their job, which means that many of the constraints facing farmers today will have disap-
peared, thereby allowing “unconventional” solutions to their descendants’ technical issues. Those
solutions will include irrigation with desalinated seawater, fertilization with powdered plutonic rock
(basalt) plus ammonia and/or nitric acid, and the use of equipment powered one way or another with
clean (no greenhouse gas emissions) nuclear energy.
273
274 Soil and Fertilizers
economy consumes energy and other resources from an area outside of and greater than that of the
United States, which isn’t counted in such compilations.
Approximately 80% of the United States’ primary/raw energy is provided by fossil fuels, which
translates to a mean per capita raw/primary energy consumption rate (power) of 9860 watts [99.5E
+18J/3.15E+7/320E+6], or about eight [99.5/3.2e+8/570/7.5E+9] times that of the world’s average
person today. Since one joule’s worth of raw/primary (heat) energy currently provides about 0.4 joules
worth of useful “energy services” (the efficiency of most of fossil fuel’s applications is Carnot-limited)
and Europeans apparently live almost as well, consuming one-half that much raw/primary energy
per capita, let’s assume that supporting the lifestyles of each of the future’s equitably EU-rich people
would require ~2 kW’s [9860 × 0.5 × 0.4 = 1972 ≈ 2000] worth of energy services (electricity).
Consequently, a world with 11.2 billion such individuals (the United Nations’ current best guess) must
possess power plants able to supply an average power of about 22.4 [11.2E+9 × 2000 × 3.15E+7/1E+
12/3.17e+7 = 22.4] TWe (terawatt electrical – that’s about 3.5 times as much useful energy as today’s
people consume). Finally, assuming that each individual region’s peak power demand is about 40%
higher than its average and that no magic worldwide, zero-loss, “super grid” exists, our descendants
would need ~30,000 [22.4 × 1.4 × 1012/109] one GWe power plants to live that well.
That power could not be generated with fossil fuels because even if there were enough of them
(there isn’t), burning it would have catastrophic consequences. For example, the raw/primary (heat)
energy represented by the world’s remaining 1139 billion Mg (tons) of coal reserves, 187 trillion m3
of natural gas, and 1.707 trillion barrels of petroleum (BP 2017) is about 5.0E+22 J’s, which, if
consumed by 40% Carnot (heat to electricity) efficient power plants, could generate 22 TWe for
29 years – ~35% of a current first-world human life span. Additionally, those reserves collectively
contain about 1200 Gt (10 + 9 Mg) of carbon, which, if converted to CO2 and dumped into the atmo-
sphere, would push global warming well past any of the “tipping points” (irreversible change in the
earth’s climate) suggested by the world’s climate modeling experts (Hansen 2008).
That much energy could not be produced with the same sorts of “burner-type” reactors utilized in
today’s nuclear power plants, either. The reason for this is that they are extremely inefficient in terms
of fuel (uranium) use – only about one of 160 uranium atoms mined/processed is actually “burned”;
the rest go to waste. This means that enough such reactors to generate 22.4 GWe of power would
run through 100% of the world’s “affordable” uranium reserves within about five years. To become
“renewable,” nuclear power must be generated with reactors that consume nearly 100% of the ura-
nium (or thorium) mined/processed, i.e., with breeder-type reactors coupled with fuel recycling/
reprocessing systems. That’s certainly possible, but civilian nuclear power remains in “technologi-
cal lock-in” because its first movers succeeded in establishing a profitable business model that didn’t
emphasize efficiency or long-term sustainability. It worked for quite a long time, but its drawbacks
eventually rendered nuclear power much less attractive than it should/could be (Cowan 1990).
In order to better understand what these facts, figures, and trends mean, it’s useful to consider
them on a longer time scale than that which we customarily employ. Figure 11.1 was excerpted from a
paper written/delivered by the one of the petroleum industry’s most influential geologists (and, even-
tually, most influential gadfly), Professor M. King Hubbert, 63 years ago (Hubbert 1956). It depicts
mankind’s total energy consumption extending from the dawn of recorded history 5000 years ago to
5000 years in the future based upon two assumptions: that human population eventually stabilizes
and that we choose to replace finite fossil fuels with a sustainable (breeder reactor based) nuclear
fuel cycle before civilization collapses. While the fossil fuel industries’ champions and apologists
have repeatedly proven Professor Hubbert “wrong” by cherry-picking assumptions, time scales, and
data sets, the fact remains that his figure’s message, i.e., that “on such a time scale, the discovery,
exploitation, and exhaustion of the earth’s fossil fuels will constitute an ephemeral event,” is correct.
Another relevant observation was made by English-born American economist and philosopher
Kenneth Boulding in a Science article almost two decades later (Abelson 1975): “Anyone who
believes in indefinite growth in anything physical, on a physically finite planet, is either mad or an
economist.” (That’s why economics is still deemed to be a “dismal” science.)
Nuclear Powered Agriculture 275
FIGURE 11.1 Mankind’s long-term energy consumption. (From Hubbert, M.K., Nuclear Energy and the
Fossil Fuels, Publication no. 95, Shell Development Company, Exploration and Production Research Division,
Houston, TX, June 1956, http://www.hubbertpeak.com/hubbert/1956/1956.)
generate nearly as much electrical power as “promised” due to inadequate maintenance and low
(water-limited) capacity factors. Finally, at best, dams represent a temporary fix for the problems
that they are built to address because their reservoirs will eventually fill with mud.
Water shortages plus the high cost of desalination – primarily due to high electricity costs – have
led some countries rich enough to do so (e.g., China) to reduce their own crop production and rely
more heavily upon imported grains.
Because today’s situation is unsustainable, I’ll next assume that most of the water irrigat-
ing the future’s farmlands would be generated by desalinating seawater – the earth’s only truly
inexhaustible/sustainable water source. Israel’s solution to its water issues (Israel 2018), demon-
strates how a properly managed future technological society could address the whole world’s water-
related woes. About 20% of Israel’s area – about 4500 km2 – is devoted to agriculture. Its 8.5 million
people are fed by ~1.045E+9 m3 of fresh water applied to its mostly irrigated farmland (Israel 2018).
The World Bank reports that about 37.7% of the world’s total land area is considered agricultural
land, of which approximately 10.6% or about 14 million km2 is deemed to be arable. Extrapolating
Israel’s agricultural water demand to that of the whole world suggests that our descendants will
need something like 3.2E+12 m3 (1.045E+9 × 14E+6/4500) of irrigation water. Assuming the
~3 kWh/m3 energy requirement of today’s most popular approach to desalination, reverse osmosis
(RO), providing it would require an energy input of 3.51 + 19 joules/a, which corresponds to the
full-time output of ~1113 one-GWe (“full sized”) nuclear reactors.
The contractual cost of the world’s biggest (~1 million m3/day) RO-based desalination plant
(located in Saudi Arabia) is $1.89 billion (Desalination 2020). Collectively, these numbers suggest
that building enough RO plants to irrigate the future’s farmlands to the same degree that Israel
currently does would require a one-time capital expenditure of $16.6 trillion [3.2E+12 × 0.00189/
(365 × 1E+6] – about 75% of the United States’ current annual GDP. Similarly addressing
California’s Central Valley’s chronic irrigation water problems should cost only about $40 billion.
In principle, at least, Siemen’s electrodialysis-based desalination technology would require only
about one-half that number of reactors and is also less apt to become fouled by seawater’s other-
than-salt impurities (Hussain and Abolaban 2014).
To continue, the world’s farmlands’ average elevation is about 600 m (2000 feet) above sea level.
Assuming that all of the world’s desalinated irrigation water would have to be pumped uphill that far,
the energy needed to do so would be 1.88E+19 joules [3.2E+12 m3 × 1000 kg/m3 × 600 m × 9.8 m/s],
which would require another 596 full-sized power plants.
It’s useful to note here that the Western world’s recent Middle East military incursions will prob-
ably end up costing its citizens ~30 times more ($4–$6 trillion) than it would to have built enough
nuclear-powered desalination plants to provide sufficient fresh water for everyone living there and
thereby address a root cause of that region’s almost perpetual turmoil. For example, a recent paper
in the Proceedings of the (US) National Academy of Sciences (Kelley et al. 2015) points out that
the chief driver for today’s Syrian conflict is the unrest/poverty generated by relentlessly worsening
droughts, not a desire for “regime change.”
Another plus for desalination is that its product does not add additional salts to soil and is also
better at remediating already oversalinized soils than is groundwater. A final advantage is that
because deionized water doesn’t already contain near-equilibrium levels of calcium, magnesium,
carbonate/bicarbonate, silica, etc., it is a better rock solvent (more corrosive) than is groundwater.
The next section will reveal why this is important.
11.3.2 Fertilizers
11.3.2.1 Nitrogen
We’ll start with an assumption that the future will be fed with today’s four most popular food crops
(maize or Zea mays, wheat, rice, and soybeans) in the same proportion that they are raised today. We’ll
also assume that 100% of the world’s nominally arable land will be devoted to their cultivation and that
Nuclear Powered Agriculture 277
TABLE 11.1
Current Basis Crop Characteristics
Crop ha*1E+6a Mg/haa g N/m2/ab % Pc %Kc kcal/gc
Soy 124 2.8 6 70 1.80E+00 4.46
Rice 162 4.5 18 0.34 0.29 3.63
Wheat 218 3.5 8 0.32 0.39 3.32
Maize 191 5.7 15 0.21 0.29 3.65
a https://apps.fas.usda.gov/psdonline/circulars/production.pdf.
b Cao, P. et al., Earth Syst. Sci. Data, 10, 969–984, 2017.
c US Agricultural Research Service National Nutrient Database for Standard
Reference Legacy Release. https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/foods/show/305217.
TABLE 11.2
Scale up to 14 Million Km2 (2.01 times larger acreage)
Crop Scaled ha t N Scaled Tons Crop Tot kcal
Soy 2.50E+08 1.50E+07 6.99E+08 3.12E+15
Rice 3.26E+08 5.87E+07 1.47E+09 5.33E+15
Wheat 4.39E+08 3.51E+07 1.54E+09 5.10E+15
Maize 3.85E+08 5.77E+07 2.19E+09 8.00E+15
Sum 1.4e+7 1.67E+08 5.90E+09 2.16E+16
tot kcal at 2500/person/day= 1.022E+16 kcal
excess food energy = 4.75036E+19 Joules
the same yields/ha, composition, and fertilizer needs will not change. Table 11.1 contains the necessary
data. The sum of the acreage devoted to their production is currently 6.95 million ha (sum of column 2).
Table 11.2 summarizes the results of extrapolating acreage up to 14 million ha, calculating the
recommended amount of nitrogen, and adding up the amounts of P and K required to replace that
removed by harvesting the crops. At the bottom, the table also compares the total “food value”
(calories) of that food relative to that required by 11.2 billion people consuming 2500 kcal/day.
Assuming the total nitrogen application rate given in Table 11.2 (1.67E+08 Mg), fertilizing the
world’s cropland would require 2.01E+8 Mg of ammonia each year (one kg N ≈ 1.21 kg of ammo-
nia). An up-to-date estimate (Thyssenkrupps 2019) of ammonia synthesis’s energy requirements
concludes that each Mg of ammonia made with electrochemically generated hydrogen, pressure
swing-generated atmospheric nitrogen, and conventional Haber Bosch processing equipment (in
other words, “conventionally”) would require about 10 MWh’s [10 × 3.6E+9 J] worth of electric-
ity. That, in turn, suggests that satisfying my scenario’s nitrogenous fertilizer requirement would
require the full-time output of another ~230 one-GWe power plants.
1. Much of the world’s farmland has already lost a great deal of its topsoil via erosion,
2. Much of its remaining topsoil is mineral depleted,
3. Basaltic rocks are both intrinsically basic (contain a good deal of magnesium and cal-
cium) and rapidly weathered by natural phenomena and thereby constitute the mechanism
278 Soil and Fertilizers
limiting the earth’s atmospheric CO2 concentration (Figure 11.2) via “mineralization”
extant in cultivated soils (Moulton et al. 2000),
4. Most of the earth’s crust consists of basalt, a good deal of which is either on or close to the
surface of its continents,
5. Such rock contains relatively high concentrations of potassium and phosphorous along
with all of the other biologically important elements, which explains why soils comprised
of weathered volcanic ash are exceptionally productive (Hensel 1894; Beerling et al. 2018),
…I’ll next assume that the phosphorous and potassium required to produce the future’s food circa
2100 AD will be provided by amending its farmland with powdered basalt. In order to be effective,
any such amendment must weather rapidly enough to release sufficient potassium and phosphorous
to support high-yield agriculture, which, in turn, means that the raw silicate rock surfaces must
be “fresh” (not already equilibrated with the atmosphere and thereby covered/blocked with sec-
ondary phases), ground to a considerably smaller particle size than is the quarry waste–type soil
amendment rock powder currently being marketed to hobby farmers, and also mixed with root-
zone topsoil, not just dumped upon the surface of the ground (Priyono and Gilkes 2004; Campbell
2009). Based upon the rather limited amount of scientifically planned/supervised experimentation
described in the open-access (not paywalled) technical literature, I’m next going to assume that this
would require grinding it so that the particles comprising >80% of it possess diameters <10 microns.
Since rock grinding is highly energy intensive – much more so than is simply recovering it from a
quarry’s rock outcrop or waste dump – the cost estimate for this part of my scenario will be based
upon that step’s energy demand plus the resulting powder’s transport and distribution costs.
First, how much powdered rock must be made? The crops assumed above contain phospho-
rous and potassium that unless recycled back to those fields in some fashion (nightsoils?) must be
replaced each year. The compositions of flood basalts vary considerably, but since all originate from
the earth’s fairly well-mixed underlying magma, for the following estimate I’m going to assume a
composition with which I’m familiar (Leeman 1982; Siemer 2019b, see Table 11.3) – that of the
basalt comprising Idaho’s “Craters of the Moon” National Monument and covering much of the rest
of Idaho’s Snake River Plain. It contains an average of 0.61 wt% K2O and 0.55 wt% P2O5, which
translates to 0.00506 tons of K and 0.00231 Mg of P per Mg of rock dust. Since for this combination
of crops, phosphorus comprises Liebig’s limiting nutrient, the amount of powdered basalt required
to replace that removed with the grain comes to 1.26E+10 Mg [2.91E+7 Mg P/0.00231 Mg P/Mg
basalt] – an average of about 9 Mg/ha over 14 million km2 of arable land.
Nuclear Powered Agriculture 279
TABLE 11.3
Weight % Composition of Major Basalt Types in the Northwest United States
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Sio2 49.70 48.64 49.50 50.36 54.37 51.19 47.45 48.73 47.50 47.04 47.84
TiO2 1.54 1.29 2.31 1.56 1.17 3.13 3.62 3.30 3.79 2.70 1.07
Al2O3 17.93 17.54 16.61 15.54 15.28 14.07 13.84 13.88 12.50 15.11 16.35
FeO 9.79 10.12 12.14 11.25 9.46 13.91 15.22 14.41 17.53 13.51 10.18
MnO 0.14 0.18 0.17 0.20 0.16 0.23 0.23 0.20 0.27 0.20 0.18
MgO 6.99 8.09 4.95 6.68 5.91 4.39 5.99 5.88 4.41 7.65 9.66
CaO 10.02 10.61 9.02 10.67 9.79 8.48 9.71 9.72 8.80 10.06 12.34
Na2O 2.91 2.83 3.57 2.95 2.80 2.72 2.31 2.42 2.44 2.54 2.09
K2O 0.73 0.46 1.26 0.57 0.77 1.22 0.72 0.73 1.23 0.61 0.17
P2O5 0.26 0.23 0.47 0.22 0.29 0.67 0.91 0.73 1.54 0.58 0.18
Source: Leeman, W.P., Olivine tholeiitic basalts of the Snake River Plain, Idaho, in B. Bonnichsen and R. M. Breckenridge,
Eds., Cenozoic Geology of Idaho, Idaho Bureau of Mines and Geology Bulletin, 26, pp. 181–191, 1982.
A review of rock-grinding technologies (Jankovic 2003) suggests that producing one Mg (ton)
of <10 micron basalt powder would require about 100 kWh’s worth of electricity. If so, making
1.26E+10 Mg of it would require 4.16E+18 J, which if spread out uniformly throughout one year
would require the full-time output of 131 one-GWe power generators.
If that powder were to be transported an average of 1930 km (1200 miles) from mine to farm
via an electrified rail system as energy efficient as that currently used to move US coal (185 km/L
diesel fuel/short ton), its energy cost would be about 2.43E+17 J (assumes 1.1 Mg/short ton, 33%
heat-to-mechanical engine efficiency, and 44.5 MJ/kg diesel fuel with an SpG of 0.85). Trebling
that figure to account for fuel consumed by trucks and tractors at the rail heads brings the total
to 7.28E+17 joules/a, which corresponds to an annual transportation/distribution energy demand
requiring another 23 one-GWe power supplies to satisfy.
Note that the rock powder’s transportation cost is much lower than its grinding cost and both are
much lower than the cost of the desalinated water and/or nitrogenous fertilizer.
A rock powder application rate of 9 Mg/ha/year is not really very large because it represents only
about 0.5% of the mineral matter already within a six-inch deep (typical annual crop root zone) layer
of normal density/composition topsoil and is also similar to what current farming practices often
lose via wind/water erosion (5–30 Mg/ha/a; see Pimentel and Burgess 2013). Consequently, since
my scenario’s rock grinding/distribution costs are a fraction of its irrigation water and nitrogenous
fertilizer costs, it might be a good idea to at least start out with considerably larger powder applica-
tion rates, perhaps 40–50 Mg/ha. Doing so would also reduce the chance of crop “starving” due to
slower-than-I’ve assumed weathering rates.
With unique 92+ essential elements, consisting of a broad range of trace minerals along with small
amounts of macro elements, the soil nutrients which have been slowly lost through the ages by e rosion,
leaching and farming are gently regenerated. Rock dust not only improves soil vitality, but also increases
plants’ overall health while strengthening immunity and pest resistance. Resulting in a completely
natural and disease-free final product, unique in flavor and mineral composition.
280 Soil and Fertilizers
The paper goes on to show that powdered basalt would address another of the issues that is becom-
ing more prevalent throughout much of the world, the oversalination of irrigated soils. The reason
for that is that freshly powdered basalt exhibits a huge ion exchange capacity that “pulls” excess ions
(e.g., Na+) out of soil solutions.
11.3.4.2 “Climate Change”
Finally, another virtue of such “natural” fertilization is that the weathering of powdered basalt
would retain (sequester) soil-generated CO2 that would otherwise “respire” back to the atmosphere.
The weathering of 1.26E+10 Mg of “Snake River Plain Basalt” [10.06 wt% CaO and 7.65 wt%
MgO =’s 7.35 milliequivalents’ [0.1006 × 2/(40 + 16)+0.0765 × 2/(24.32 + 16)] worth of base per
gram] would therefore in effect remove about 4.1 GT of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere – that’s
about 11% of today’s anthropogenic CO2 emission rate. A good deal of theorizing has been done
about how the “enhanced weathering” of mafic rocks could address global warming (see Schuiling
and Krijgsman 2006; Hartmann et al. 2013), but very little realistic experimental work has been
done to date. Thankfully, that subject is beginning to receive more attention (Taylor et al. 2017), and
some hopefully realistic experimental studies have apparently begun (Beerling et al. 2018).
• Assumptions
• 200 horsepower-to-the-ground tractors drag 5-meter-wide machinery at 8 km/hour
over 14 million km2 of land three times per year.
• For simplicity’s sake I’ll next assume that those tractors, possess 72% efficient drive
trains powered with 95% efficient electric motors and 50 kWh “TESLA 3” battery pack
modules …
• …and that the overall energy source (nuclear reactor) to battery to motor efficiency is 90%
• Calculations
• Kilometers traveled by tractors per year = 3 × 14E+6 km2 × 1000 m/km/5 m =
8.3E+9 km.
• Hours so-traveled per year = 8.3E+8/8 = 1.06E+9.
• 200 hp = 5.36E+8 J/hour = 149 kWh.
• At 75% discharge/cycle (greater discharge seriously reduces battery life), each battery
module would provide 50 × 0.75 = 37.5 kWh of energy per discharge cycle.
• Which, if 200 hp is to be delivered to the load, would last 0.72 × 0.9 × 37.5 = 0.172 hours
(10.3 minutes).
• Total from source energy required per year = 1.05E+9 hrs × 5.36E+8 J/hour/0.9/
.72/0.95 = 9.14E+17 J/year.
• That’s 29 full-sized 1GWe power plants required to power the world’s tractors
• At 3 cents/kWh, that’s $7.6 billion worth of electricity.
• However, since farm tractors run only, let’s say, 10% of the time and for, let’s say, ~6 hours
each time, the number of battery modules required would be ~4.19E+7 [1.08E+9 h/yr/
(.1 × 24 × 365) h/yr × 6 hr/.172 hr/L (that’s 39 battery modules per tractor), which at
$7000 each represents a whole world up-front cost of $293 billion).
• Since Mr. Musk (2019) currently claims that those modules could sell for $7000 apiece
(far less/kWh than do his/TESLA’s “Power Walls”) and will last 1500 cycles, their
steady state replacement cost would be 28.5 $billion per year.
These figures suggest (to me anyway) that battery-powered tractors are unlikely to replace internal
combustion engine powered tractors.
Nuclear Powered Agriculture 281
Since …
11.5 CONCLUSIONS
This chapter’s “technical” arguments should (but probably won’t) convince most of the people
reading them that it would make far more sense to utilize wind and solar power for the niche-type
applications for which they are actually suited than to try to force our demand-driven techno-
logical civilization to adapt an energy system based upon them (Jacobson and Delucchi 2009;
Nuclear Powered Agriculture 283
Jacobson et al. 2017). The one thing that’s absolutely certain now is that what’s now being done to
address the future’s energy-related issues isn’t working (Jackson et al. 2018).
At this point in time, my scenario’s clean/green utopian future is just an updated rehash of
the same “Age of Substitutability” envisioned by Alvin Weinberg (Goeller and Weinberg 1974)
and M. King Hubbert over 60 years ago. The reasons why mankind hasn’t already developed the
technologies required to realize their vision has more to do with political drivers and humans’,
not Mother Nature’s, rules and propensities. While it is almost 100% certain that nuclear power
could indeed become simultaneously cheap, clean, and genuinely renewable, it seems unlikely that
such a “renaissance” is apt to happen in the Western world for the reasons that I’ve identified in a
book (Siemer 2019a). However, it is rather likely that China will do what must be done to render
such a “Nuclear Green New Deal” possible.
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12 Nitrogen Dynamics
and Management
in Rainfed Drylands
Issues and Challenges
Rachid Bouabid, Brahim Soudi, and Mohamed Badraoui
CONTENTS
12.1 Dryland Characteristics....................................................................................................... 285
12.2 Major Soils of Drylands....................................................................................................... 288
12.3 Nitrogen Dynamics and Use Efficiency............................................................................... 288
12.3.1 Nitrogen and Organic Matter................................................................................. 289
12.3.2 Nitrogen and Soil Water Status.............................................................................. 290
12.3.3 Nitrogen Mineralization and Immobilization........................................................ 293
12.3.4 Nitrogen and Nutrient Balance............................................................................... 295
12.3.5 Biological Nitrogen Fixation and Water Stress...................................................... 296
12.3.6 Root Systems and Nutrient Use and Efficiency...................................................... 297
12.4 Nitrogen Management and Agricultural Practices.............................................................. 298
12.4.1 Combined Use of Organic and Inorganic N Sources............................................. 298
12.4.2 Management of Fertilizer Applications.................................................................. 298
12.4.3 Tillage and Surface Residues Management........................................................... 299
12.4.4 Legume Inclusion in Crop Rotations...................................................................... 301
12.4.5 Integrated Soil Fertility Management....................................................................302
12.4.6 The “R” Principles for Nitrogen Management in Drylands................................... 303
12.5 Conclusions.......................................................................................................................... 305
List of Abbreviations....................................................................................................................... 305
References.......................................................................................................................................306
285
286 Soil and Fertilizers
terms of intensity and frequency and are becoming even more amplified and structural with climatic
changes. These conditions call for particular soil management practices, especially for water and
nutrients.
Drylands are defined based on the ratio of average annual precipitation (Pr) to potential evapo-
transpiration (PET) (UNEP-WCMC 2007). Lands where this ratio lies between 0.05 and 0.65 are
considered drylands, while lands with a ratio less than 0.05 are not included in drylands but are
considered as desert areas where no crop growth occurs without irrigation (Table 12.1, Figure 12.1).
Aridity is also assessed on the basis of the number of days for which the soil water balance is favor-
able to plant growth (growing season). The delineation of drylands has been updated since 2007 to
consider additional dryland areas of relevance to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) with
dry features despite their Pr/PET greater than 0.65 (Figure 12.1).
Unlike the common perception that drylands are limited to major parts of Africa, Latin
America, and the Middle East, drylands are actually present in many regions around the world,
such as Central Asia, Russia, the northwest of America (the United States and Canada), and
TABLE 12.1
Dryland Categories according to UNEP-WCMC (2007)
Classification Aridity Index (Pr/PET) Rainfall (mm)
Hyperarid <0.05 <200
Arid 0.05 < Pr/PET < 0.20 <200 (winter) or <400 (summer)
Semiarid 0.20 < Pr/PET < 0.50 200–500 (winter) or 400–600 (summer)
Dry subhumid 0.50 < Pr/PET < 0.65 500–700 (winter) or 600–800 (summer)
FIGURE 12.1 Word distribution of drylands areas. (From UNEP-WCMC, A spatial analysis approach to
the global delineation of dryland areas of relevance to the CBD Programme of Work on Dry and Subhumid
Lands, dataset based on spatial analysis between WWF terrestrial ecoregions [WWF-US 2004] and aridity
zones [CRU/UEA; UNEPGRID 1991], dataset checked and refined to remove many gaps, overlaps, and sliv-
ers [July 2014], 2007; drawn using GIS data available at www.unep-wcmc.org.)
Nitrogen Dynamics and Management in Rainfed Drylands 287
Australia. Drylands occur in all continents and occupy about 6.31 Bha (47.2% of the global
earth land area). They cover about 2.0 Bha in Africa, 2.0 Bha in Asia, 0.68 Bha in Australasia,
0.76 Bha in North America, 0.56 Bha in South America, and 0.3 Bha in Europe (UNEP 1992).
Dryland agriculture encompasses a diversity of cropping systems, varying from subsistence
farming to intensive and high-cash crops, and is fundamental to the economy of the regions where
it is prevailing. Although irrigation often occurs, rainfed agriculture generally predominates and
represents the primary production sector. In the example of Morocco, a typical Mediterranean
dryland country, where the economy is highly dependent on agriculture, the country’s agriculture
gross domestic product (AGDP) fluctuations follow the same trend as that of annual precipitations
(Figure 12.2).
Enhancing dryland productivity is a lesser constraint in developed countries where agricultural
practices benefit from advanced research and technologies. These difficulties are yet to be overcome
in developing countries, where, despite valuable indigenous knowledge and satisfactory research,
farmers are still struggling with basic needs to cope with subsistence farming and to bring their
practices (especially nutrient inputs) to a level that guarantees the expression of the production
potentials of their lands and crops. The challenges are multiple if drylands are to meet the needs of
a vulnerable population, especially with the rising issues of climate change.
Many factors of soil degradation threaten the potential production capacity in these areas. Nutrient
depletion, wind and water erosion, and salinity are very common issues. Although dryland farming
has known significant changes in the past few decades in many parts of the world, mainly with a
shift from traditional agriculture to more intensive cropping, nutrient inputs and management, espe-
cially nitrogen, remain the main concern for crop production. The use of fertilizers is at its lowest
levels in many countries. In China, deficiency of nitrogen is reported to be almost everywhere, and
that of phosphorus affects at least one-third of the arable lands (Li et al. 2009a). About 68 M ha of
dryland soils in Pakistan with less than 300 mm have a negative nutrient balance (Shah and Arshad
2006). Nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) is considered more critical than that of other nutrients as it is
highly affected by the amount and distribution of rain during crop season. Nitrogen is also related
to organic matter dynamics, and the latter also affects water status necessary for nutrient bioavail-
ability and uptake under water stress conditions. Therefore, this chapter will put more focus on the
nitrogen dynamic as it is the major critical factor in dryland agriculture.
FIGURE 12.2 Variation of relative agriculture gross domestic product (AGDP) and annual precipitation (the
value for each year is normalized with that of the previous year). (From Balaghi, R., Changement climatique,
environnement et risques naturels au Maroc, Paper presented at: Atelier de formation et d’appui CEDRIG
pour les projets ASAP-M, PAMPAT et PAMPAT Oriental, Rabat, 20–22 janvier 2015 [unpublished], 2015.)
288 Soil and Fertilizers
Fertilizer input in dryland agriculture varies with soil and climate, but is in general very low
in rainfed farming in developing countries. For instance, in North Africa and the Middle East,
fertilizer use is less than 20 kg ha−1, all nutrients considered. Soil of drylands of Africa undergo
important nutrient loss (Roy and Nabhan 1999) that may reach 30 kg ha−1yr−1 of N-P-K (Henao and
Baanante 2006). In Pakistan, dryland soils are reported to be almost entirely deficient in nitrogen
(Shah and Arshad 2006; Irshad et al. 2007). Similar situations were stated for India (Singh and
Venkateswarlu 1985) and Kenya (Murage et al. 2000). When nutrients are not replenished in the
soil, a progressive mining takes place. The low nutrient status in drylands in many parts of the world
is actually a vicious circle that involves low nutrient cycling, low productivity, low residues return,
and low soil conditioning and protection, and therefore affects the sustainability of production sys-
tems as well as food security in the regions concerned.
FIGURE 12.3 Effect of application of straw and fertilizer singly and in combination (arrows indicate time
of application), on N-mineralization (µg g−1 month−1). (Redrawn from Singh, H., and Singh, K.P., Soil Biol.
Biochem., 26, 695–702, 1994. With permission.)
should aim to use. Where soil nutrient status is very low, the management of organic matter is
usually directed toward getting higher mineralization rates, as farmers rely on the nutrients pool
resulting from this process. Despite the appreciable annual additions of organic matter of different
forms (leftover residues, farm manure), we tend to see rapid depletion of organic matter. This is
even more marked in systems adopting rotations with legume crops. The residual nitrogen from
biological nitrogen fixation and the recycling of the crop residues with low C/N ratio lead to higher
mineralization rates and therefore to rapid loss of soil organic matter (SOM). The lack of humic
substances may also reduce the low chelation potential of the soil with respect to micronutrients,
especially in coarse-textured or high pH calcareous soils. In farming systems favoring the return of
residues of high C/N ratio, some storage of stable humus can occur, but would be too small to evolve
to a significant buildup; on the contrary, the mineral nutrient pool, especially that of nitrogen, will
not be able to guarantee good crop growth and yield potential will not be achieved.
Therefore, in drylands, especially those of warm climates, the turnover of SOM affects, and
is affected by, nitrogen. Complex interactions drive the mineralization of organic matter and the
bioavailability of mineral nitrogen, and therefore require good management practices to achieve the
compromise goals of nitrogen supply while maintaining sufficient stable organic matter in the soil.
or negatively, depending on crop growth stages. Water limitations, low use of fertilizers, and low
organic matter return to soils make nutrient management a challenge in drylands. Amounts, forms,
timing, and methods of application of fertilizers need to be reasoned taking into consideration
not only soil nutrient dynamics and supply capacity but also soil water status.
Important year-to-year rainfall variations significantly influence soil water and nutrient status,
which in turn causes important repercussions on nutrient inputs. For the same initial soil nutri-
ent status, the same nutrient input may lead to differences in yield when rainfall is different or
when rainfall is irregular from one year to another. As the climatic conditions of the year progress,
nutrient inputs need to be adjusted accordingly. A reduction or increase of the amount of nitrogen
initially planned is necessary depending on whether the year is dry or relatively wet. Dry or wet
conditions affect the soil pool as well, and the adoption of a different balance approach is necessary
in order to predict crop needs with the changing season conditions. In the case of drought condi-
tions, water stress not only affects nutrient mobility and availability, but also affects negatively the
growth of the crop itself.
When soil moisture is adequate, moderate to high temperatures can promote nitrification of ammo-
nium. Several studies reported that nitrification is high when soil water content is within an adequate
range of water-holding capacity (40% to 70%), but become low or is even inhibited beyond this range
(at extremes) as the soil becomes dry or waterlogged (Justice and Smith 1962; Malhi and McGill
1982; Flower and Challagha 1983; Klemedtsson et al. 1988; Shelton et al. 2000; Sahrawat 2008).
The nitrification process can transform the entire N-NH4+ from organic matter mineralization or from
ammonium-N based fertilizer within two to three days. This is also true for the transformation of
urea. Since most crops absorb more nitrogen in the form of nitrate-N compared to ammonium-N, this
transformation is advantageous if leaching risks are minimal. However, with high risks of leaching
following storm events during the rainy season, nitrates may leach out of the rhizosphere. The loss of
ammonium-N by volatilization in high pH conditions is lesser when nitrification is important. Since
nitrate absorption by plants occurs mainly by passive mechanisms, mobility of nitrogen in the form
of nitrate is important for plant uptake. Abdelmoumen et al. (2010) evaluated nitrogen loss using
15N mass balance under two rainfall conditions (270 mm and 340 mmyr−1) in calcareous soils using
different forms of urea. The results showed that N loss by volatilization was relatively low (11% and
18%) for both rainfall conditions. They also reported that urea hydrolysis is delayed by dry conditions
and that nitrification is delayed by cold conditions following urea hydrolysis.
In semiarid areas, nitrogen requirements of crops are dictated by the amount of seasonal pre-
cipitation (Myers 1984). The input of mineral nitrogen for a crop my undergo important depletion
in one year, while in another year large amounts of residual nitrogen can stay in the soil as a result
of limited rainfall, low leaching, and poor crop growth (Noy-Meir and Harpaz, 1978; Seligman
et al. 1986). In the latter situations, N recovery is expected to be important for the subsequent crop
whether the same or the following year. Corbeels et al. (1998), studying N recovery by sunflower
(Helianthus annuus) after wheat (Triticum aestivum) in a Typic Haploxerert in Morocco, found that
the residual labeled 15N fertilizer represented 3.6% of the fertilizer added to the previous winter
wheat crop. This low plant recovery was attributed to microbial immobilization of N fertilizer and
to the limited N uptake due to drought conditions during sunflower season. After sunflower harvest,
49.7% of added labeled fertilizer was left in the soil profile. Total recovery of the 15N fertilizer over
the two growing seasons was 83%. Seligman et al. (1986) reported low N recovery from residues of
high C/N ratio, and Wood et al. (1996) reported low nitrogen recovery of various crops using 15N
labeled urea and ammonium sulfate under different rotations.
Generally, in dry years there are small or nonsignificant differences in terms of N uptake among
unfertilized and fertilized crops. However, important differences in N uptake occur during rainy
years. For the latter case, N mineralization can account for a large part of available N to the crop
when sufficient organic matter is present. Figure 12.4 illustrates important differences in terms of
N uptake and dry matter accumulation by wheat in three years with different rainfall conditions in
northern Morocco (Corbeels 1997).
292 Soil and Fertilizers
FIGURE 12.4 N uptake (A) and areal dry matter accumulation (B) of winter wheat during three rainfall
contrasting years: 401, 332, and 264 mm for 1993/1994, 1992/1993, and 1994/1995, respectively (A: Anthesis;
PM: physiological maturity). (Redrawn from Corbeels, M. et al., Biol. Fertil. Soils, 28, 321–328, 1999. With
permission.)
Nitrogen use efficiency is not only affected by the total amount of rainfall, but also by rainfall
patterns. The occurrence of rainfall during vegetative and reproductive stages is determinant for
water use as well as for nutrient use by crops. The amount and distribution of rain in drylands affects
the efficacy of applied nitrogen fertilizers. However, the unpredicted occurrence of rain makes it
difficult to adopt a unique strategy for the choice of the form, the timing, and the method of applica-
tion, especially when splitting is a common practice.
Crop nutrient uptake depends on the solubility of mineral nutrients and their movement in the
soil. Under dry conditions, not only the form and the amount of mineral nutrients are affected, but
also the mobility by the two processes of mass flow and/or diffusion. Under the action of water
movement and roots suction, different forms of nitrogen behave differently as a result of complex
interactions. It is generally accepted that nitrogen is more influenced by mass flow compared to
phosphorus and potassium (Barber 1984). However, limited knowledge is available on the behav-
ior of nitrogen mobility under dry soil conditions. Song and Li (2006) studied root function in the
uptake of nitrogen of maize and the effect of soil water on the transfer and distribution of nitrates
and ammonium under irrigated and nonirrigated regimes. Their findings showed that both root
growth and water supply had a significant effect on nitrate-N transfer. Under irrigation, the dif-
ference of nitrate-N concentrations at different distance points from the maize plant were smaller,
while clear differences of nitrate-N concentrations were observed under conditions of limited root
growth space without water supply. They concluded that nitrate-N is transferred as solute to plant
root systems with water uptake by plants. However, the transfer and distribution of ammonium-N
transfer differed from that of nitrate-N and were not influenced by root growth or by soil water sup-
ply. This implies that, in dry conditions, nitrate-N placement (especially at early stages) is as critical
as for other, less mobile nutrients. Localized fertilizer placement in the seed rows for cereals in
drylands shows better nutrient use compared to broadcast, especially when rain occurs after sowing
(McKenzie et al. 2001; Kelley and Sweeney 2005; Zhang et al. 2013). The effect of roots on nitrogen
absorption will depend also on the root density and specific area. Any factors that favor root growth
would favor root absorption as well.
The application of fertilizers in general, and nitrogen in particular, followed by dry condi-
tions can result in increased soil solute concentrations in the topsoil. High amounts of fertilizers
may even reduce the uptake. The interactions among fertilizer use and crop uptake involve a
dynamic process that can have different effects depending on stages of crop growth. There is
a strong need in rainfed dryland agriculture to have a good understanding of the interactions
among soil water status, nutrient dynamics, and crop behavior in order to achieve the best nutri-
ent use efficiency.
Nitrogen Dynamics and Management in Rainfed Drylands 293
FIGURE 12.5 Effect of water and temperature on N-mineralization. (Drawn using data reported by Li, S.X.
et al., Adv. Agron., 102, 223–265, 2009b.)
294 Soil and Fertilizers
FIGURE 12.6 Change in soil nitrate-N from mineralization in total rooting depth: (◦) unfertilized fallow
plot; (•) fertilized fallow plot; (▵) unfertilized wheat cultivated plot; (▴) fertilized wheat cultivated plot; (N)
dates of N applications; (A) year with 401 mm; (B) year with 264 mm. (Redrawn from Corbeels, M. et al.,
Biol. Fertil. Soils, 28, 321–328, 1999. With permission.)
in the form of nitrates. In such cases, assuming no major rain events at the start of the season to
cause nitrate leaching from the topsoil, nitrate-N is the dominant form of nitrogen potentially avail-
able for crops and can be used as a reliable quick soil test index reflecting soil nitrogen supplying
capacity.
Various models were used to assess nitrogen mineralization by combining the potentially miner-
alizable nitrogen (No) with functions representing the effect of temperature and soil moisture on the
mineralization rate constant (k) (Cabrera et al. 2005). Such models can be adopted to better predict
nitrogen mineralization under limited water conditions, such as those of dryland soils. Campbell
et al. (1988) compared two versions of such models using data obtained with different treatments:
(1) summer fallow, and wheat following wheat grown on summer fallow on (2) dryland and with
(3) irrigation. While the models showed close results for estimated and measured values under
irrigation, they tended to underestimate nitrogen values under dryland conditions. Since the model
was considered not dynamic, as it does not allow for No to be replenished continuously by nitrogen
derived from decomposition of fresh residues and rhizosphere microbial biomass, net nitrogen min-
eralized from this source might explain the underestimation predicted under dry conditions, which
was always obtained whenever the soil became very dry and was rewetted by rainfall. This phenom-
enon may be attributed to the possible flush of mineral nitrogen that can occur after rewetting, but is
not taken into consideration in the model. Soudi et al. (1990a) and Elherradi et al. (2003) observed
a similar flush of initial mineral nitrogen in the first few days of incubation, with amounts ranging
from 26% to 40% of total mineralized N. This flush was attributed to the pretreatment effect of
soil samples by drying and rewetting before incubation. This phenomenon is important to consider
because it simulates the mineral-N increase observed under field conditions of rainfed drylands fol-
lowing drastic seasonal changes upon the first seasonal rain. The early mineralization flush can be
attributed to the partial decay of the microbial biomass following summer desiccation. Dead micro-
bial tissues have a low C/N ratio that makes them easily biodegradable by the surviving microbial
biomass when soil moisture becomes favorable. High amounts of mineral-N (N-NO3 + N-NH4)
varying from 58% to 73% of total mineralized-N supply were reported under field conditions (Soudi
et al. 1990b) (Figure 12.7). This shows that early season N-flush can be beneficial for crops (such as
cereals) if the rewetting of the soil after dry or drought periods does not cause significant leaching of
the mineralized nitrogen, and needs to be taken into consideration in the estimation of crop nitrogen
fertilization.
Nitrogen availability to crops, mainly at early stages, can be significantly affected by nitrogen
immobilization before remineralization takes place. The incorporation of residues of high C/N
from previous crops or from the addition of organic amendments induces a net N immobilization
during initial decomposition. However, the amount and rate of immobilization and subsequent
Nitrogen Dynamics and Management in Rainfed Drylands 295
FIGURE 12.7 Seasonal variation of mineral-N in a Calcixeroll in Morocco. (Adapted from Soudi, B. et al.,
Actes Inst. Agron. Vet., 10, 29–38, 1990b.)
remineralization vary largely depending on the nature of the residues as well as on several biotic
and abiotic factors, mainly soil moisture conditions and N fertilizer use. Understanding the immo-
bilization–remineralization trends upon the incorporation of residues in dryland soils is of great
importance in relation to the synchronization of N supply and crop demand during critical growth
stages, especially those occurring during early season decomposition (Vigil and Kissel 1991;
Jensen 1997; Reinertsen et al. 1984; Recous et al. 1995; Vanlauwe et al. 1996; Corbeels et al. 2000;
Li et al. 2009a).
Although the C and N dynamics during decomposition of plant residues in the soil are well under-
stood, differences may be important among soils in rainfed drylands and those in humid regions. N
immobilization by microbial activity can account for important impounding of N from the soil when
residues are of high C/N ratio, which adds up to its reduced availability because of low soil mois-
ture storage. Immobilization can happen at different periods of the growing cycle, but is more likely
to occur in the early season when organic matter from previous crops has not yet undergone much
decomposition. Immobilization can affect the overall available mineral N, as well as its use efficiency,
and depends on the nature of the organic residues incorporated in the soil. In a study on N cycling
in response to the decomposition of residues in a typical wheat–sunflower rotation in a Vertisol in
Morocco, Coorbeels et al. (2000) reported that N availability may be severely restrained during the
growing season when past wheat straw residues are incorporated into the soil. The amount of inor-
ganic N immobilized due to such incorporation may compete with the plant demand, engendering
low N efficiencies. Under dryland conditions, the rate of release of the immobilized N is usually very
slow, and affects the overall recovery of nitrogen by the crop. Practices that increase organic matter
of high C/N (wheat straw) may contribute to reducing organic matter mineralization, but can result in
important microbial immobilization. However, the incorporation of organic matter of low C/N ratio
(legumes residues) supports high N-mineralization, but would lead to rapid organic matter loss.
in the market are not appropriate for the soil fertility status and for the requirements of the crops.
This situation can lead to low response of the crops to the fertilizers used. In low input situations,
this may contribute to the depletion and imbalance of one or more nutrients.
Combined use of N and phosphorus (P) has been reported to improve N use efficiency, reduce
N loss, and improve crop yield (Li et al. 2009; Sharma et al. 2007; Ma et al. 2010). Phosphorus is
critical to root growth, which is related to water and N use efficiency. Jin et al. (2006) found that the
addition of P enhanced the concentration and accumulation of N and P in shoots and seeds of soy-
bean cultivars. The addition of P alleviated the effect of drought stress on plant growth, P accumu-
lation, and grain yield. They suggested that phosphorus fertilization could mitigate drought stress
at the reproductive stage, resulting in fewer yield effects and improved grain quality. Studer et al.
(2017) reported an interactive effect of drought and the application of nutrient N-P-K individually
or in combination under drought stress for maize. Al-Karaki et al. (1996) found that high proline
accumulation in leaves of water stressed crops at high P levels might be an adaptive response to
drought for sorghum compared to bean. Several other studies in drylands corroborate the combined
positive effect of N and P on N use efficiency and crop production (Sharma 2007; Ma et al. 2010).
Potassium (K) is an essential nutrient that affects many physiological processes involved in biotic
and abiotic stresses resistance (Kant and Kafkafi 2002; Cakmak 2005; Wang et al. 2013). It is criti-
cal in plant tolerance to dry and drought conditions, as it is involved in stomatal regulation, osmotic
adjustment, membrane stability, cell elongation, and photosynthesis (Mengel 2007; Benlloch-
Gonzalez et al. 2010; Marschner 2012). Crops with adequate K fertilization show greater adaptation
to water stress (Lindhauer 1985; Pervez et al. 2004; Premachandra et al. 2009). Asgharipour and
Heidari (2011) reported that adequate K nutrition increased N uptake and improved drought resis-
tance of sorghum. Zahoor et al. (2017) also found that K application regulates N metabolism and
osmotic adjustment in cotton functional leaf under drought stress.
Water stress sensitivity and tolerance are attributed to several molecules in the nodules, includ-
ing ureides (Atkins et al. 1992; Sinclair and Serraj 1995b; Serraj et al. 1999, 2001; Vadez Sinclair
et al. 2001; et al. 2000; King and Purcell 2005; Coleto et al. 2014), glutamine (Neo and Layzell
1997; Curioni et al. 1999), and asparagine (Bacanamwo and Harper 1997; Vadez et al. 2000; Lima
and Sodek 2003). An extensive review by Arrese-Igor et al. (2011) addresses the various physiologi-
cal processes involved in nodule BNF under drought. In general, BNF is a more drought-sensitive
mechanism when ureides are the main nodule exporters, which is the case of soybean, and it is more
drought tolerant when amides were the main nodule exporters, which is the case of pea (Pisum
sativum), chickpea (Cicer arietinum) and faba bean (Vicia faba) (Sinclair and Serraj 1995a, 1995b,
1996; Vadez et al. 2000; Purcell et al. 2000; Vadez and Sinclair et al. 2001; Serraj 2003). Such traits
can be used in the segregation of legume genotypes as to their BNF tolerance to water stress under
dryland conditions. Despite the available research on the mechanisms involved in the sensitivity
or tolerance of BNF under water-limiting conditions, soybean (a ureide type exporter) is the most
studied crop (Arrese-Igor et al. 2011), and only limited research is available on other crops.
Although the sensitivity of BNF is important among legumes, the recovery capacity is an even more
fundamental trait for crop adaptation and productivity after periods of water limitation. The rapidity
of recovery of both transpiration and nodule nitrogen-fixation activity after soil water deficits is an
important criterion for rainfed dryland conditions, especially at the establishment stage of the crop.
Legume genotypes having such a capacity are of great value to sustain nitrogen supply and ensure
good yields under water deficit conditions (Engin and Sprent 1973; Cerezini et al. 2016, 2017).
A metadata analysis study by Daryanto et al. (2015) using research on legume yield responses
to drought under field conditions between 1980 and 2014 showed that the amount of water reduc-
tion was positively related with yield reduction, but the extent of the impact varied with legume
species and the phenological stage during which drought occurred. Overall, lentil (Lens culinaris),
groundnut (Arachis hypogaea), and pigeon pea (Cajanus cajan) were found to experience lower
drought-induced yield reduction compared to other legumes such as cowpea and green gram (Vigna
radiate). Yield reduction was generally more severe when legumes experienced drought during
their reproductive stage. Higher yield reductions are also observed for legumes grown on soils with
medium texture compared to those cultivated on soils of either coarse or fine texture. In contrast,
legume yield reductions were not related to regions and their associated climatic factors.
can contribute to ensuring healthy structure. Nitrogen and phosphorus are the key elements for
root development, and K is a key element for regulating water uptake and osmotic pressure of the
roots. The complex interactions among soil conditions and plant behavior affect tremendously the
faculty of the crop to express its potential under favorable conditions or to adapt and survive under
stressful conditions.
Mediterranean areas, the practice for cereal fertilization is that P, K, and a fraction of N are
applied as basal application at sowing. N is usually split in two or three dressing applications
that target tillering and heading stages. The risk of a shortage of adequate moisture in midseason
can jeopardize crop yields (Nageswara Rao et al. 1985; Matthews et al. 1990; Manyowa 1994;
Ben Naceur et al. 1999; Fischer et al. 2003). In many situations, farmers are reluctant to apply
nitrogen when there is no upcoming rain, fearing that nitrogen may be wasted and avoiding addi-
tional salinity stress to the crops.
IAEA (2005) reported on nutrient and water management project cases in rainfed dominated agri-
culture (<300 mm) in 11 countries with a wide range of cropping systems, characterized by low nutri-
ent and organic matter status. These included wheat–maize systems on the Loess Plateau of China
(Cai et al. 2005), sorghum–castor rotations in Andhra Pradesh of India (Ramana et al. 2005), maize-
based systems in the Machakos District of Kenya (Sijali and Kamoni 2005), peanut production in
Senegal (Sene and Badiane 2005), and wheat–vetch rotations in the Safi-Abda region of Morocco
(El Mejahed and Aouragh 2005). The results from all the studies showed that irrespective of man-
agement practices, an important portion (20% to 60%) of applied fertilizer N was lost. These losses
were attributed mainly to alkaline soil pH conditions, and occurred essentially at the beginning of
the crop vegetative period. On the other hand, the residual value of applied N available to subsequent
crops was very low, rarely exceeding 9% of the crop N requirement. Their findings underlined the
importance of fertilizer-management practices to minimize losses, especially during the early part of
the cropping season. Split application during the dry season allowed an important increase of wheat
yields, but the amount of N to be applied at each split needs to be based on the soil N status and crop
demand for N. The combined manure with mineral fertilizers in correct proportions could provide
10% to 15% of the crop-N requirement and contribute to increasing observed yields.
Another example of constraining fertilizer use is the case of rainfed fruit tree production. Olive
orchards are one of the main crops in many dryland areas, especially the Mediterranean. The cycle
of the olive tree starts with blooming, which usually occurs in mid or late spring (the start of the dry
season). Most of the active growing cycle occurs in summer and early fall. If P and K can be applied
at once early in the season, N splitting is a major problem. Most farmers can apply a first fraction
with P and K, but the rest will depend on the rainfall conditions in late spring. The most important
vegetative growth and fruit setting occur in summer when no water is available for N mobility in the
soil. P and K mobility in this case is even worse.
Methods of application and placement of fertilizers are critical to achieving good distribution of
nutrients in the rhizosphere and their uptake by the roots. They should be adapted depending on the
planting density and root system (structure and depth). For instance, wheat’s root system is shallow
compared to that of maize. The latter is often row planted and tends to have a deep and pivoted root.
When soil moisture is deficient, the more the nutrients are away from the root, the less chance there
is for their uptake, regardless of the absorption mechanism. Interception is reduced due to limited
root growth, and mass flow is hindered by the lack of water needed for the nutrients to be drawn by
water movement exerted by roots in response to transpiration.
Conservation tillage and reduced tillage have gained increasing attention in drylands (Unger 2002;
Vere 2005; Cai et al. 2006; Wang 2006; Avci 2011; Mrabet et al. 2012). They are defined as any tillage
and planting practices that can leave, respectively, 15% to 30% and 30% or more crop residues on the
soils after planting (CTIC 2018). Among the benefits of such a management approach are the main-
tenance and accumulation of organic matter, as well as water and nutrient use efficiencies in the soil.
Results of long-term experiments in drylands of China (Wang 2006) showed that the positive effect
of reduced tillage on soil water availability, nutrient balance, and soil fertility indices were strongly
improved by use of crop residue, either incorporated or applied as surface mulch. Simulations using
the Century model revealed a positive effect on carbon sequestration under reduced tillage. Johnson
et al. (2018) reported that conservation tillage systems are much better options for the cultivation of
different drought-tolerant common bean varieties in semiarid areas of Kenya due to their soil mois-
ture conservation ability as compared to conventional tillage systems, which are not a sustainable
practice in such marginal areas. Sainju et al. (2012) and Sainju et al. (2016) studied N balance in
dryland agroecosystems in response to tillage, crop rotations (involving cereals and legumes), and
cultural practices (involving planting date, seeding rates and spacing, and application of N fertiliza-
tion), over several years in the northern Great Plains of the United States. They reported that surface
residue N was 30%–34% greater in no-till (NT) than in conventional tillage (CT). They also found
that N sequestration rate at 0–20 cm from 2004 to 2011 varied from 29 to 89 kg N ha−1 year−1 under
CT and NT with spring wheat–pea rotations. Long-term experiments conducted using NT under
Mediterranean conditions showed significant increase of SOM and N (Mrabet et al. 2001; Bessam
and Mrabet 2003). Lal (2004) suggested that the adoption of conservation tillage practices is among
the appropriate management practices that can increase soil carbon sequestration.
Surface residue management is recognized as a water conservation practice and has received
important research attention in arid and semiarid regions (Duley and Russel 1939; Van Doren 1978;
Unger 1984; Smika and Unger 1986; Bussière and Cellier 1994; Peng et al. 2014). Surface residues
management and residues incorporation greatly affect nutrient cycling, especially that of N (Sauerbeck
and Gonzalez 1977; Seligman et al. 1986; Schomberg et al. 1994; Vanlauwe 1996; Rescous 1995;
Jensen 1997; Liwang et al. 1999; Schomberg and Steiner 1999a). Mulching, as a surface residue man-
agement, is of great importance in water conservation in drylands. Mulch farming, when it is adopted
in dryland farming, contributes to modulate soil temperature, reduce water evaporation, protect soil
from erosion, and contribute to the sequestration of C (FAO 2004). As stated earlier, any practice that
contributes to improving soil moisture will contribute also to better conditions for nutrient bioavail-
ability and uptake.
Several studies conducted in drylands of the Loess Plateau of China reported on the importance
of mulching on water and N dynamics. Jin et al. (2008) showed that minimum tillage and mulching
over a period of seven years consistently increased the yield of winter wheat, primarily by better
water harvest. N uptake by grain and straw, N export, and residual soil N were the highest compared
to conventional tillage with no mulching. Bayala et al. (2011) evaluated several studies relative to
the effect of several conservation agricultures in drylands of Africa (Burkina Faso, Mali, Niger,
and Senegal) for various crops. They also found that mulching was among the best practices for
improving soil fertility and crop yields, especially when rainfall is less than 600 mm. Qin et al.
(2015) reviewed the effects of mulching on wheat and maize, using data from 74 studies conducted
in 19 countries. They indicated that mulching significantly increased yields, water use efficiency,
and N use efficiency by up to 60%, compared with no-mulching. Effects were larger for maize than
wheat, and larger for plastic mulching than for straw mulching. Plastic mulching performed better
at relatively low temperatures, while straw mulching had the opposite trend. The effects of mulching
tended to decrease with increasing water input. Mulching effects were not related to SOM content.
They concluded that soil mulching can significantly increase maize and wheat yields and improve
water and nitrogen use efficiencies, and thereby may contribute to closing the yield gap between
attainable and actual yields, especially in dryland and low nutrient input agriculture. Wang and
Xing (2016) reported that mulching improved significantly soil water content, soil nitrate-N content,
Nitrogen Dynamics and Management in Rainfed Drylands 301
and its vertical distribution in maize root zones. The results of a three-year field experiment by Gao
et al. (2009) assessing the effect of mulching with different materials (straw and plastic) showed
that N uptake, NUE, and yield of wheat were higher with mulching. In addition, after three years,
residual nitrate-N in 0–200 cm soil averaged 170 kg ha−1, which was equivalent to ~40% of the total
N uptake by wheat in the three growing seasons.
Although plastic mulching has been evaluated in many studies and proved effective for water
and N conservation, organic residues mulching is a much-preferred practice because it is the most
appropriate for smallholder farmers and has limited or no environmental impact. Plastic mulching,
used for a variety of crops including row vegetables and fruit crops, despite its multiple uses, is
slowly degradable and represents a threat to the environment. Organic mulches, on the other hand,
provide a source of organic matter and nutrients, and their cycling in the soil contributes to improv-
ing soil properties. When previous crop or fallow residues mulching is practiced with conservation
tillage in dryland agriculture, the benefits are not only on soil water and nutrients but also on the soil
health as a whole (Schomberg et al. 1994; Schomberg and Jones 1999; Fuentes et al. 2003).
Song et al. (2007) investigated crop yield and various chemical and microbiological properties in
the rhizosphere of wheat, maize, and faba bean grown in the field solely and intercropped (wheat/
faba bean, wheat/maize, and maize/faba bean). They found that intercropping increased crop yield,
changed N and P availability, and affected the microbiological properties in the rhizosphere of the
three species compared to sole cropping. Bouhafa et al. (2015) and Daoui et al. (2012) reported that
legumes improve soil N and P and contribute indirectly to improving soil nutrient status for olive
(Olea europea) trees in Mediterranean rainfed olive orchards. The question remains whether inter-
cropping can be adapted in all situations. It may be feasible in smallholder farming systems, but
would be of controversial practicability in the more intensive large farms of favorable rainfed areas.
FIGURE 12.8 Conceptual relationship between the agronomic efficiency of fertilizers and organic resources
and the implementation of various components of ISFM. (From Vanlauwe, B. et al., Outlook Agric., 39, 17–24,
2010.)
Nitrogen Dynamics and Management in Rainfed Drylands 303
different. For instance, land ownership status is a major factor toward investing in the long-term
improvement of soil fertility. Itinerant farming as a result of drought and soil degradation causes
continuous decline of soil fertility in many countries in the Sahel and sub-Saharan Africa (Reich
et al. 2001; Darkoh 2003; FAO 2005a, 2005b).
A number of management practices were drawn from several case studies in Senegal and Sudan
(FAO 2004). Any soil fertility management approach to be adopted or adapted to drylands needs to
comply with the principles of one or more of these categories of practices.
N management needs also to obey to four stewardship principles, commonly referred to as
the four Rs: “Right amount,” “Right time,” “Right place,” and “Right form” (Ryan et al. 2011).
In the context of drylands, since N availability to crops is highly dependent on several management
approaches, especially those related to organic matter and water, we suggest considering an addi-
tional, fifth “R,” which is the “Right approach,” as explained below:
12.5 CONCLUSIONS
Dryland agriculture is constrained by many interacting factors, but the main one remains the limi-
tation of water, which in turn affects soil nutrient bioavailability, organic matter dynamics, and
overall productive capacity. Limitation of water is not only in terms of total amount of rainfall,
but also in terms of its erratic distribution with regard to crop growth stages. Dryland agricul-
ture encompasses a diversity of cropping systems, varying from subsistence farming to intensive
agriculture. Many factors of soil degradation threaten the potential production capacity in these
areas. Nutrient depletion, wind and water erosion, and salinity are very common issues. However,
nutrient inputs and management, especially N, remain the main concern for crop production. Most
drylands around the world suffer from low fertilizer use and inappropriate management practices.
N use and use efficiency is considered more critical than that of other nutrients, as it is highly
affected by the amount and distribution of rain during crop season. N and organic matter dynam-
ics are intimately interrelated, and both are affected by soil water status, which is determinant for
nutrient bioavailability and uptake in water stress conditions. Mineralization of organic matter is
a process favored by warm conditions. It is regarded as a good source of N in low input farming
systems. However, it tends to deplete SOM, which is needed in dryland soils for other positive
traits. Biological nitrogen fixation represents a good source of N, especially in rotations and inter-
cropping systems involving legume crops, but can be significantly affected by water stress in dry
conditions. Combining organic and mineral fertilizer sources can enhance mineral N availability
as well as crop growth better than either form alone. Synergies among nutrients are important
under dryland soil conditions. N uptake and use by plants is highly affected by other nutrients such
as potassium, a key element for water stress tolerance, and phosphorus, a crucial element for root
development. Enhancing N use and use efficiency is more of a challenge under dryland conditions.
It requires a good understanding of the processes governing N dynamics under water-limited con-
ditions as well as the choice of appropriate management practices (fertilizer amounts and forms,
crop rotations, reduced tillage, mulching, intercropping, etc.). These practices have interactive
effects on soil properties, water status, N-cycling, organic matter dynamics, etc. They need to be
adapted to the multitude of situations that can be encountered under dryland areas as a result of the
interaction of variable climatic, physical, and socioeconomic factors, in order to guarantee effec-
tive N strategies that may also impact C strategies. It is recommended that N management needs to
obey the “5Rs” stewardship principles – which consider an additional “R” for “Right approach” – a
set of practices and methods that would ensure sustainable and optimal N-dynamics under dryland
conditions.
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
AGDP agriculture gross domestic product
AWC available water capacity
Bha billion hectares
BNF biological nitrogen fixation
C carbon
CBD Convention on Biological Diversity
C/N carbon/nitrogen ratio
CT conventional tillage
CTIC Conservation Technology Information Center
306 Soil and Fertilizers
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13 The Need of the Times
Tailored Fertilizers
Amit Roy
CONTENTS
13.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 317
13.2 Soils...................................................................................................................................... 321
13.3 Fertilizers............................................................................................................................. 321
13.3.1 Nitrogen Fertilizers................................................................................................ 322
13.3.2 Phosphate Fertilizers.............................................................................................. 322
13.3.3 Potassium Fertilizers.............................................................................................. 323
13.3.4 Secondary and Micronutrients............................................................................... 325
13.4 Shortcomings of Today’s Fertilizers.................................................................................... 325
13.4.1 Economic and Environmental Sustainability of Fertilizers in Use........................ 326
13.5 Approaches to Improving Efficiency................................................................................... 328
13.5.1 Management........................................................................................................... 328
13.5.2 Technology............................................................................................................. 330
13.5.2.1 Slow-Release Nitrogen Fertilizers......................................................... 330
13.5.2.2 Controlled-Release Nitrogen Fertilizers................................................ 331
13.5.2.3 Stabilized Nitrogen Fertilizers, Urease Inhibitors................................. 332
13.5.2.4 Stabilized Nitrogen Fertilizers, Nitrification Inhibitors........................ 332
13.5.3 Policy...................................................................................................................... 334
13.6 Next Fertilizers – Nutritious Food and Healthy Soils.......................................................... 335
13.7 Summary.............................................................................................................................. 336
References....................................................................................................................................... 336
13.1 INTRODUCTION
The quality of man’s life is directly dependent upon that thin layer of the earth’s crust we refer
to as “soil.” The soil supports our food and fiber production, and thus the welfare of the world’s
inhabitants. Our management of the soil determines its productivity over the long term. Management
has many facets, including ensuring an adequate supply of plant nutrients for use by growing plants.
What we know as plant nutrients are composed of 16 chemical elements that are generally found in
the soil, but their supply can be depleted with year after year of growing crops. Also, some nutrients
are lost by natural processes. Farmers, ranchers, and generally growers use chemical fertilizers to
supplement depleted nutrients for optimum crop production.
Plant nutrients usually are grouped in three categories: primary, secondary, and micronutrients.
The primary nutrients are nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. Secondary nutrients are calcium,
magnesium, and sulfur. Micronutrients are boron, chlorine, copper, iron, manganese, molybdenum,
and zinc; they are needed in much smaller amounts than other nutrients. Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
round out the 16.
Agriculture has been constantly evolving since the initial agricultural revolution when domesti-
cation of plants and animals led to food production in excess of population growth. But along with
this increase in food production came increases in human population growth (Figure 13.1), that put
317
318 Soil and Fertilizers
further pressure on food supplies. More land was required to produce more food, since the increase
in crop production was limited by the relative scarcity of the inputs in the agricultural process
(Hayami and Rutten 1971) with the resultant decline in soil fertility of existing croplands. The sys-
tem relied heavily upon forage and green manure crops and higher levels of manure application, all
coming exclusively from the farming sector. But this approach could not sustain soil productivity;
thus the drive for manufactured fertilizers.
The reliance on manufactured (often referred to as chemical or mineral) fertilizers can be traced
back to the nineteenth century when Justus von Liebig articulated the theoretical foundations of
crop production and when John Bennett Lawes began producing fertilizers containing phosphorus
(Smil 1997). However, only since the 1960s, when global starvation became a real possibility, have
fertilizers assumed a predominant role in increasing agricultural productivity. Fertilizer was an
integral part of the technological trinity – seed, water, and fertilizer – responsible for bringing about
the “Green Revolution” that helped many densely populated countries, including India, China, and
Indonesia, achieve food self-sufficiency in a short span of 20–25 years.
While recognizing the importance of maintaining soil fertility, advances in breeding and crop
protection products, and the expansion of irrigation, there is evidence that 40%–60% of the produc-
tion gains are directly attributable to fertilizer use, and this has kept food prices much lower than
they otherwise would have been (Figure 13.2) (Stewart et al. 2005). Chemical fertilizers are avail-
able in solid, liquid, and gaseous forms. Solid and liquid fertilizers are available as single nutrient or
multinutrient with varying nutrient release rates. The quantity, type, and form of fertilizers depend
on several factors, including: (1) characteristics of the soil, (2) the crops grown, (3) the natural
level of soil nutrients available for plant growth, and (4) desired economic returns. Globally, about
190 million metric tons of fertilizer nutrients were used for crop production, with China, India,
Brazil, and the United States accounting for about 50% of the total amount of nutrients applied
through fertilizers in the world. Fertilizer consumption and consequently food production in most
countries has increased except in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), where per capita food production has
Tailored Fertilizers 319
FIGURE 13.2 Yield attributed to fertilizer: (a) N and P from 1930 to 2000, in the Oklahoma State University
Magruder plots; (b) N, P, and K from 1989 to 1998 in the University of Missouri Sanborn Field plots; (c) N, P, K,
and lime from 1955 to 2000 in the University of Illinois Morrow plots; and (d) N with adequate P and K versus
P and K alone from 1852 to 1995 (years between 1921 and 1969 excluded because part of the experiment was
fallowed each year for weed control) in the Broadbalk Experiment at Rothhamsted, England. (From Stewart,
W. et al., Agron. J., 97, 2005.)
FIGURE 13.3 Per hectare fertilizer use by regions and markets, 2018 (kg/ha).
decreased since the 1970s. This decline can be attributed to several factors, including low soil
fertility, agroclimatic conditions, and low fertilizer use. Compared with a world average of 132 kg
of nutrients per hectare, SSA uses only 18 kg of nutrients per hectare, resulting in a significant
mining of inherent nutrients from soils that are already low in nutrient status (Figure 13.3). Over
132 million tons of N, 15 million tons of P, and 90 million tons of K have been lost from cultivated
land in 37 African countries in 30 years due to nutrient mining (Smaling 1993).
320 Soil and Fertilizers
FIGURE 13.4 Global cereal production, fertilizer consumption, and partial factor productivity (PFP) since
1960. (Derived from Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO), FAOSTAT database
http://faostat.fao.org, Rome, Italy, 2019.)
The global crop yields driven by developing countries continue to increase in direct proportion
to fertilizer application; this has resulted in progressive decrease in partial factor productivity
(PFP), which indicates kilogram of grain produced per kilogram of fertilizer used (Figure 13.4).
This progressive decrease in PFP is partly due to fertilizers that do not match the need of the soil
and plant, particularly the absence of secondary and micronutrients. Application timing and place
are also contributing factors. For example, urea, a commonly used nitrogen fertilizer, breaks
down in the soil and results in the release of reactive nitrogen in the air and nitrates that travel
easily through the soil (Figure 13.5). Because it is water soluble and can remain in groundwater
for decades, the addition of more nitrogen over the years has an accumulative effect. Groundwater
contamination has been linked to some forms of cancer and birth defects. Similarly, excess
phosphates in rivers and tributaries cause algae growth, depleting water of oxygen and resulting
in fish kill. Hence, the overarching issue is the drive to enhance nutrient use efficiency through a
combination of new fertilizer formulation, including enhanced-efficiency fertilizers, and better
management practices.
Since the 1960s, the population has more than doubled and is estimated to reach 9.8 billion
by 2050 (UN 2019). While the population increase in developed regions is expected to remain
virtually unchanged at 1.3 billion, developing regions will see an increase from 5.7 billion in 2010
to 8.3 billion by 2050. Given this population growth, coupled with increasing income levels and
economic development, and changes in the food preferences of consumers, food demand is pre-
dicted to increase by nearly 70%. However, the absolute increase in food required by 2050 will
be as large as the increase since the Green Revolution was launched in the 1960s – as available
arable land and water become scarcer. Going forward we not only have to produce more food,
but it must be sufficiently nutritious to overcome the malnutrition that continues to disproportion-
ately affect children, particularly in SSA and Southeast Asia. As the need to produce more food
and fiber accelerates, so too does the urgency to reduce air and water pollution from overuse and
misuse of fertilizers.
This chapter reviews the effects of fertilizer management, fertilizer products, and government
policies on food production and environmental issues from the use of fertilizers. Recent develop-
ments related to new fertilizers, new formulations, and management are reviewed for meeting the
need of the crops in the face of climate changes, and also help produce more nutritious food.
13.2 SOILS
The environmental components of crop production systems are soil, water, air, and solar energy.
The following is a definition for “soil” given by Buckman and Brady (1969):
The soil may be defined as a natural body, synthesized in profile form from a variable mixture of broken
and weathered minerals and a decaying organic matter, which covers the earth in a thin layer and which
supplies, when containing the proper amounts of air and water, mechanical support and, in part, suste-
nance for plants.
Fertile and productive soils are vital for sustenance for plants, so maintaining soil fertility is essential
for plant growth. Soil productivity is a measure of the ability of soil to produce a crop or sequence
of crops under a specified management system. Soil productivity includes soil fertility plus factors
such as soil moisture and temperature. Soil acidity and salinity and biotic stresses can reduce the
productivity of even the most fertile soils. Farmers have no control over climate but can influence soil
productivity through past and present activities that can maintain and/or enhance the organic carbon
level to influence nutrient availability to the plant.
Soils differ widely in their ability to meet the nutrient requirements of plants since most have only
natural fertility. To meet production targets, more nutrients are usually required than can be supplied
by the soil. High crop yield results in removal of more nutrients unless additional nutrients are added
to maintain its fertility. There are soils with high soil fertility, such as in Uganda, that can produce
substantial crop yields without added fertilizer for a period of cropping cycle. However, under con-
tinuous cultivation, yields tend to decline, primarily due to the removal (mining) of nutrients by
crops (Henao and Baanante 2006).
13.3 FERTILIZERS
Over the past eight decades, particularly after the creation of the Tennessee Valley Authority in
1934, many chemical fertilizers have been developed to supplement nutrients already available in
the soil and to meet the high requirements of crops. The customary classification into single- or
322 Soil and Fertilizers
multinutrient fertilizers usually refers only to the three primary nutrients (nitrogen, phosphorous,
and potassium). Fertilizer grade is used to classify different fertilizer materials based on the con-
tent of the three primary nutrients. The nutrient content, or grade, may refer either to the total or to
the available nutrient content, and may be expressed traditionally for some nutrients in oxide form
(P2O5, K2O) or in elemental form (N, P, K). For example, a fertilizer grade of 7-28-14 is 7% N, 28%
P2O5, and 14% K2O.
13.3.2 Phosphate Fertilizers
Phosphorous-containing fertilizers are produced from mined phosphate rock found in several loca-
tions around the world (UNIDO 1998). Phosphorus in fertilizer materials is usually expressed in
the oxide form (P2O5). Although this form does not actually exist in fertilizer materials, it has
been adopted as the standard form for comparison among different P fertilizers. Phosphate rock
is a finite, nonrenewable resource. There is no substitute for phosphorus. Phosphate deposits are
known in every continent of the world except Antarctica. Recently published total world phosphate
rock reserves range from 60 to 65 billion tons (Van Kauwenbergh 2010) and are an indication
of what can be mined at the current market price and technologies. The total world phosphate
rock resources may range from 290 billion tons to 460 billion tons of phosphate rock at varying
P2O5 grades (Herring and Fantel 1993). Both reserves and resources are a “snapshot at a point in
time” and not an indication of “all there is.” Phosphate deposits are not evenly distributed around
the globe. The most abundant known reserves, in descending order of abundance, are in Morocco,
China, the United States, Jordan, and Russia. At the current rates of extraction, these reserves
can support the current rate of use for 300–400 years. Of course, in the future, based mainly on
requirements due to population growth, increased demand for phosphorus-based products will
require increased rates of phosphate rock production and the rate of depletion of known reserves
may increase. This time horizon can be extended by exploiting known, incompletely explored,
and yet-unknown phosphate deposits at higher costs. Conservation and efficient use of this valu-
able natural resource and recycling of P is receiving increased attention through sustainable
P management initiatives (Scholz et al. 2014).
Tailored Fertilizers 323
Unprocessed phosphate rock may be applied as a source of P nutrition on acidic soils (soils below
pH 5.5), but most (more than 90%) phosphate rock is processed for production of phosphate fertil-
izers by reacting it with either sulfuric or nitric acid. Phosphate products include single superphos-
phate (SSP), triple superphosphate (TSP), MAP, DAP, and polyphosphates (Figure 13.7).
13.3.3 Potassium Fertilizers
Potassium fertilizers are mainly derived from geological saline deposits and as mined materials can
be used directly. Most fertilizer products now in use are high-concentration materials that are water
324 Soil and Fertilizers
soluble and quick acting. Potassium fertilizer is usually described in the oxide form (K2O). As is the
case with P, this form is a standard for comparison among K fertilizers, but it is not actually found
in K-containing fertilizer materials.
Potassium is of least concern among the three primary nutrients. Not only is this element abun-
dantly present in the earth’s crust, but also it can be found in conveniently concentrated deposits in
both deeply buried and near-surface sediments. Potassium deposits in descending order of known
reserves are in North America (Canada and the United States), Germany, Russia, Belarus, Brazil,
Israel, Ethiopia, and Jordan. Even the most conservative reserve base estimates indicate more than
400 years of reserve at the projected rate of use.
Tailored Fertilizers 325
FIGURE 13.9 Breakdown of fertilizer greenhouse gas emissions from production, transportation, and use.
FIGURE 13.10 Nutrient use efficiency of N (NUE-N) in selected countries and regions. (Derived from
Zhang, X. et al., Managing nitrogen for sustainable development, http://www.nature.com/doifinder/10.1038/
nature 15743, 2015.)
Tailored Fertilizers 327
in Canada and the United States, the NUE-N is about 65%, while China and India have rates of
25% and 30%, respectively. In contrast, the NUE-N in SSA is about 70%. There, despite a fertilizer
application rate that is nearly an order of magnitude lower than the world average of 130 kg nutrients
per hectare of arable land, the NUE-N remains high due to inherently low soil nutrient content and
nutrient needs of the plant. Even though SSA’s NUE-N is comparably high, SSA contributes to green-
house gas (GHG) emissions through slash-and-burn practices.
The economic impact of low NUE-N is significant. For example, assuming an annual
fertilizer-N consumption of 120 mmt and an NUE-N of 50%, up to $25 billion of the total price
paid by farmers is lost annually. In addition to the economic impact of low NUE-N, air and water
pollution from unused N is a major factor. Manure also contributes to air and water pollution.
In 2014, manure-N on cropland and pastures equaled manufactured fertilizer-N application of
around 100 million tons of N per year (FAO 2018). The production of current fertilizers involves
several steps where losses occur resulting in less than 10% of mined phosphates is in food and
feed (Scholz et al. 2014). Permanent losses from the field include leaching in the drainage, soluble
P runoff, and erosion of soil particles containing P (Syers et al. 2008). Another component that
is more difficult to account for are what are commonly referred to as fixation reactions, which
are P precipitation and other sorption processes with calcium in calcareous soils, and iron and
aluminum mostly in acid soils.
In addition to three primary nutrients, namely, N, P, K, there are 14 other elements identified
by Justus von Liebig, a nineteenth-century German scientist, as essential for plant growth. In soil
studies in India, there is evidence of the gradual reduction of essential secondary and micronutri-
ents required by plants (Figure 13.11), suggesting that these essential elements may now be limiting
yields and reducing efficiency of primary nutrients.
There are several reasons for these unintended nutrient deficiencies, but two critical factors
appear to be (1) fertilizers not containing enough secondary and micronutrients, and (2) imbal-
anced fertilizer applications. The latter, in some instances, relates to policies that disproportionately
subsidize one nutrient more than another. For example, in India, N, P, and K have been highly
subsidized. To rein in the subsidy, the government implemented the nutrient-based subsidy scheme
FIGURE 13.11 Emerging deficiencies of plant nutrients in relation to increased food grain production.
328 Soil and Fertilizers
to progressively deregulate the prices of N, P, and K fertilizers. Unfortunately, the scheme was only
implemented for P and K fertilizers, saving some subsidy but creating further imbalanced use of
N, P, and K (Gulati 2014). A recent decision by the government of India to introduce specialty urea
for agricultural application is designed to increase NUE-N, and thereby reduce N consumption and
correct nutrient imbalance.
13.5.1 Management
Site- and crop-specific production techniques and practices offer one approach to maximizing eco-
nomic, social, and environmental benefits. This approach includes soil and crop management to fit
the different conditions encountered in cropping areas. Sometimes this is also referred to as site-
specific nutrient management (SSNM), which, among others, includes a balanced use of all essen-
tial crop nutrients. The SSNM approach has proven to be an efficient way to reduce NOx emissions
to the atmosphere and leaching losses to surface and subsurface waters (Richards et al. 2015).
In Europe, a combination of balanced fertilizer application and management more than doubled
cereal yield per unit fertilizer N. For example, at an application rate of 200 kg, fertilizer N/ha yield
increased from 4t/ha to more than 8t/ha (Bindraban et al. 2008). In SSA, soil fertility is very low,
and they are, besides NPK, highly deficient in secondary and micronutrients and organic matter.
Addressing all soil fertility constraints, including macronutrients (NPK) as well as secondary and
micronutrients and pH correction, is vital to achieving optimal fertilizer use efficiency and eco-
nomic returns. Integrated soil fertility management (ISFM), which includes the use of organic mat-
ters, soil amendments, and balanced fertilizers, is an integral part of revitalizing SSA soils and
building up soil organic carbon, which in turn improves NUE.
In Burundi, Mozambique, and Rwanda, average field trial results clearly show that balanced fer-
tilizers (NPK + secondary + micronutrient) based on soil analyses performed better than control
plots and those with application of fertilizers containing just NPK (Figure 13.12). In all cases, adding
secondary and micronutrients (SMNs) significantly increased maize yield by more efficient uptake
of nutrients, resulting in less loss to the environment. In Mozambique, SMNs were Mg, S, Zn, and B.
In Rwanda, SMNs were S, Zn, and B. In Burundi, SMNs were Ca, Mg, S, Zn, and B (Wendt 2017).
Certainly, application of the right type of fertilizer in the right amount at the right time and in the
right place ensures increased crop production, better utilization of nutrients, and reduced losses of
nitrogen to the environment. This strategy, referred to as the 4Rs, has been adopted in several countries
with excellent results (Bruulsema et al. 2012). An advancement of the 4R principles is precision farm-
ing (also known as precision agriculture), which employs detailed, site-specific information to precisely
manage production inputs. The idea is to know the soil and crop characteristics unique to each part of
the field, and to only apply inputs (seed, fertilizer, chemicals, etc.) within small portions of the field.
Precision farming includes a set of technologies that combines sensors, information systems, advanced
machinery, and information management to optimize production, allowing for better use of resources to
maintain the quality of the environment while improving the sustainability of the food supply.
Tailored Fertilizers 329
FIGURE 13.12 Effect of balanced fertilization on maize yields in Burundi, Mozambique, and Rwanda. (Wendt
J, Senior Scientist, International Fertilizer Development Center [IFDC], 2017, personal communications, 2017.)
An adaptation of the 4Rs principle is subsurface application of urea, which is the prime nitrogen
fertilizer for the cultivation of rice and accounts for about 85% of rice fertilizer N (Gregory et al.
2010), but it is prone to high losses (as much as 70%) under the present application practice of broad-
casting, particularly in developing regions. However, research over several decades has shown that
if urea, instead of being broadcast, is point-placed below the soil surface (subsurface) near the root
zone of the rice plant, the N losses are lowered with simultaneous increase in yield. This application
method involves producing larger urea granules (1–3 g) which are inserted below the soil surface
(7–10 cm) approximately equidistant from four rice plants two weeks after transplanting of rice
seedlings once during the growing season (Figure 13.13). The weight of urea granules depends
FIGURE 13.13 Commercial urea (prilled) and urea briquettes produced by compacting prilled urea.
330 Soil and Fertilizers
on the rate of application. This technology, known as urea deep placement (UDP), makes N avail-
able to the rice plant throughout its growth cycle, thereby reducing losses and increasing yields.
Results in the greenhouse and in farmers’ fields show a consistent increase in yield compared with
broadcasting (Savant and Stangel 1990). The deep placement of urea also significantly reduces N
concentration in floodwater and NOx emissions under certain conditions (Figure 13.14).
13.5.2 Technology
Improving NUE in agriculture has been a concern for decades (Dobermann 2005), and the focus con-
tinues to be on technology to develop new products to achieve this. Increasing the efficiency of mineral
nitrogen (N) fertilizer use is complicated by the fact that plants take up N normally as nitrate or ammo-
nium ions through their roots from the soil solution. However, ammonium-N, unlike nitrate-N, can
be retained in the soil, where soil and plants compete for available ammonium-N in the soil (Trenkel
1997). This competition for N is the main problem when it is added as mineral fertilizer to feed plants.
Only a certain proportion of the N is taken up by the growing plants. The unused portion is lost to
the environment mainly through ammonium volatilization, denitrification, and leaching. Therefore,
researchers are pursuing several pathways to overcome such losses, including development of new fer-
tilizers. Two important special types of fertilizers are (1) slow- and controlled-release fertilizers with
the release of nutrients over several months, and (2) stabilized fertilizers (fertilizers associated with
nitrification or urease inhibitors), delaying either the nitrification of ammonia or the ammonification
of urea.
These special types of fertilizers are those that release, either by design or naturally, their nutri-
ent content over an extended period to match the nutrient requirements of the crop (Roy 2018).
Because of economics and environmental considerations, the slow- and controlled-release and sta-
bilized N fertilizers have been much more important than phosphate (or potash), particularly under
certain soil and climatic conditions. In most cases, unutilized phosphate and potash remain avail-
able for subsequent crops. Nevertheless, there are a few controlled-release water-soluble phosphate
and potash fertilizers in the market for specialty application.
climatic conditions and cannot be predicted with any accuracy. Example of SRNFs are organic-
N low-solubility compounds such as urea formaldehyde (UF) and isobutylidene-diurea (IBDU)
(Roy 2018).
TABLE 13.1
Effect of Controlled-Release Urea (Meister®) on Nutrient
Use Efficiency-N for Rice Production in Japan
Application N Rate, Kg/ha N Uptake by Rice, Kg N/ha NUE-N, %
Urea 100 30 30
Meister® 40 32 80
application (Shoji 2005) (Table 13.1). Although not currently practical for use in developing econo-
mies, the concept of polymer coating as used in ESN® and Meister® has spurred other companies to
research alternative chemicals to produce an affordable slow-release product for use in developing
economies.
The neem (Azadipachta indica) tree is indigenous to many tropical and semiarid countries.
Meliacins, a component of the neem oil, has the characteristic of retarding the nitrification process
(Mangat and Narang 2004). Neem cake has been used to coat urea to improve NUE-N. The efficacy
of neem-coated urea (NCU) has been confirmed through several years of field trials, mainly in
India. Compared with commercial urea, NCU results in 2%–10% higher rice yields. In some cases,
the rice yields with 80% NCU are comparable to that by application of 100% commercial urea.
In general, the farmers apply the same amount of NCU as uncoated urea but realize 5%–10% yield
increases and subsequently lower N losses. The total global market for SRNF, CRNF, and stabilized
N fertilizer is about 18% of the global nutrient consumption.
Unlike nitrogen fertilizers, there has been limited research with P fertilizers in altering
and/or improving existing products in order to improve uptake by plants and reduce losses.
However, the recent incidents of eutrophication of waterbodies that have decreased water qual-
ity both for aquatic life and for humans using these sources for drinking and recreation have
created an urgency to develop new products and/or management techniques to preserve this
finite resource.
The use of “as-mined” phosphate rock is obviously the most inexpensive option, but its effec-
tiveness depends on its solubility in neutral ammonium citrate (NAC); the higher the solubility, the
more reactive the rock and the more effective it is as a fertilizer (Figure 13.17). Grinding the rock to
micron particle size (nanoparticles) increases its solubility in NAC and thus makes it more effective
RAE % =
( yield of ground PR ) − ( yield of check ) x
( yield of TSP ) − ( yield of check )
as a phosphate fertilizer. Partial acidulation of a phosphate rock with sulfuric or phosphoric acid is
another option, particularly for medium-to-low-reactivity rocks. This product is known as partially
acidulated phosphate rock (PAPR). Acidulation levels vary between 25% and 50%, and the product
has a portion of its P2O5 in water-soluble form and the rest as phosphate rock. The water-soluble por-
tion helps to establish the plant and develop its root system, which can then utilize the unacidulated
portion of the rock (Shaviv 2005).
13.5.3 Policy
New technologies and management practices are essential to improving productivity and NUE,
increasing farmers’ income, and reducing environmental degradation. But without conducive policies,
neither technology nor management practices will be effective.
In Europe, NUE-N has progressively increased since the 1990s. In 2016, 30% more crop was pro-
duced with 20% less fertilizer-N application (Hoxa 2019). The European Union Common Agricultural
Policy partly triggered this increased production at a lower application rate by reducing crop subsi-
dies, and the European Union Nitrates Directive limited the manure application rates on agricultural
land (Zhang et al. 2015).
China and India, which collectively account for more than 30% of global nitrogen consumption,
both have a relatively low NUE-N (ranging between 25% and 30%). In China, an input subsidy
reached $17 billion in 2014, and farmers’ use of fertilizer-N exceeded the recommended amount by
20%–60% in cereals and even more in vegetables, whose NUE-N is around 15%. In China, farmers
made a conscious decision to shift to fruit and vegetable production partly because the crop-to-
fertilizer price ratio is more attractive than that of cereal production (particularly soybean, which is
imported mainly from the United States and has a much higher NUE-N (70%–80%). The Chinese
government, driven by low NUE-N and environmental challenges, has decided to cap fertilizer
consumption at the 2020 level, which will see an increased use of more efficient products and better
management practices (Reuters 2015).
In India, fertilizers are highly subsidized, and nitrogen more so than other nutrients, which results
in the overuse of nitrogen-based fertilizer, which distorts nutrient (nitrogen-phosphorus-potassium)
ratios, all of which results in a low NUE-N. To correct nutrient ratio distortion, the Indian govern-
ment introduced a nutrient-based subsidy in 2010 (Chander 2016). The subsidy had only a minimal
impact on improving NUE-N since urea was excluded from the scheme (Figure 13.18). To combat the
continued overuse of nitrogen, the government attempted to make fertilizer-N more efficient by
requiring that all agricultural urea be coated with an extract from neem cake, a nitrification inhibitor.
While early, the policy appears to yield the desired results of increasing NUE-N by 5% to 7%.
In general, Asian countries’ fertilizer subsidies are universal, whereby all farmers are entitled to
subsidized fertilizers. Consequently, as fertilizer consumption increases, so does the total subsidy
bill. In some cases, one nutrient is subsidized more than other nutrients, which leads to unbalanced
application and lowers NUE. In contrast, SSA countries have adopted the “smart subsidy” model
(IFDC 2007), which involves providing subsidized fertilizer to farmers and/or crops. The total sub-
sidy is dependent on the country’s budget. The challenge for the “smart” subsidy is the selection of
recipient farmers. The selection criteria differ by country, and political interference in the selection
process is a challenge that several countries are now addressing.
As mentioned earlier, compared with efforts to improve the efficiency of nitrogen, improving the
efficiency of phosphate fertilizers has not been a priority. But recently that has changed, and one
approach being heavily explored to improve P use efficiency is to limit the physical and temporal
association of the nutrient with the reactive component of the soil. The products that are being com-
mercially produced or are under development can be grouped in the following categories: (1) coat-
ings, (2) scaffolds, and (3) organic matrices and minerals of limited solubility. A detailed discussion
of these approaches is in Weeks and Hettiarachchi (2019). At a more fundamental level, there is a
need to evaluate the effect of phosphate-solubilizing bacteria in making the nutrient available more
predictably.
13.7 SUMMARY
The global population is projected to reach 9.8 billion by 2050, with more than 90% of this increase in
less-developed countries. Food production must increase by at least 70% to keep pace with the popu-
lation growth. Fertilizers will be key to increasing agricultural productivity and keeping pace with
population growth. But the type and application rates of these fertilizers need to be in sync with
plants’ nutrient requirements and need to be environmentally friendly and affordable. The raw mate-
rials needed to produce fertilizers’ primary nutrients – nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium – are
adequate for the foreseeable future. However, phosphorus and potassium are finite resources and need
to be sustainably managed to ensure availability for future generations. The deficiency of secondary
and micronutrients is affecting crop yields, and their application separately or as a component of
compound fertilizers is becoming essential. The current suite of fertilizers developed several decades
ago for temperate regions has characteristics that make them prone to losses to air and water unless
managed. To reduce this impact, adoption of technologies and management practices at the farm scale
is needed. Some common principles include the “4Rs” approach of applying the right source, at the
right rate, at the right time, in the right place. However, the technologies and management practices
needed to achieve the 4Rs vary depending on the cropping systems, soil types, climate, and socio-
economic situations. Improvements in plant breeding, irrigation, and application of available 4R tech-
nologies have already made large gains in improving NUE, but new technological developments may
be needed to achieve further gains, such as more affordable slow- and controlled-release fertilizers,
and nitrification and urease inhibitors. Precision agriculture that uses a combination of information
technology, remote sensing, and ground measurements is very promising, but for developing regions
to effectively use this technology, information should be readily available, accessible, affordable, and
site specific. However, the progress made so far is insufficient to achieve the projected 2050 goals of
both food security and environmental stewardship. Hence the development of the next generation of
fertilizers is vital to achieving the twin objectives of producing adequate nutritious food while protect-
ing the environment by reducing losses of nutrients to the environment. There are several pathways
to developing new fertilizers, but it would require a strong public–private partnership where the pub-
lic sector invests in developing fundamental knowledge of nutrient movements in the soils and their
uptakes by plants, while the private sector develops products that are affordable, eco-sensitive, and
result in improving farmers’ income. This approach also requires the fertilizer industry to invest more
in research to develop new products.
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14 Managing Soils for Reducing
Dependence on Chemicals
and Import of Resources
into Agroecosystems
Rattan Lal
CONTENTS
14.1 Introduction.......................................................................................................................... 339
14.1.1 The Soil–Climate–Vegetation Nexus...................................................................... 339
14.1.2 Soil Quality and Functionality................................................................................ 341
14.1.3 Sustainability of Agroecosystems.......................................................................... 341
14.2 Strategies to Reduce Use of Chemical Fertilizers and Minimize the Environmental
Impact................................................................................................................................... 343
14.3 Strategies to Reduce Dependence on Chemical Fertilizers.................................................344
14.3.1 Factors Affecting the Choice of Site-Specific Fertilizer Options........................... 345
14.4 Addressing the Fertilizer Addiction.....................................................................................346
14.4.1 Global Food Demand by 2050................................................................................346
14.4.2 Managing Soil Organic Matter and Soil Quality...................................................346
14.5 General Conclusions............................................................................................................ 347
14.5.1 Meeting Global Food Demand by 2050................................................................. 347
14.5.2 Way Forward........................................................................................................... 347
References.......................................................................................................................................348
14.1 INTRODUCTION
14.1.1 The Soil–Climate–Vegetation Nexus
The dynamic interaction between soil biota and the climate (Jenny 1941) is the basis of soil func-
tions for humans and for nature (Figure 14.1). Drastic perturbations of the soil-biota-climate nexus,
by natural phenomena or anthropogenic activities, can adversely impact the provisioning of essen-
tial ecosystem services and also lead to some disservices (e.g., accelerated erosion, disruption in
elemental and water cycling, energy imbalance, and shifts in flora and fauna). Perturbation of the
nexus in agroecosystems is also the cause of the high import of resources such as fertilizers, pesti-
cides, tillage, irrigation, etc. Such ameliorative measures aggravate the environmental impact and
footprint of agroecosystems. Among the symptoms of drastic perturbations are the drought–flood
syndrome, eutrophication and contamination of waters (e.g., algal bloom, hypoxia/anoxia of coastal
waters), desertification, heat waves, and extreme events. Anthropogenic activities are also impacting
the carbon (C) cycle and the attendant global warming (Lal 2004, 2010; Jackson et al. 2017; Chapin
III et al. 2009), the water cycle and the associated pedological and hydrological drought (Lal 2013),
and hypoxia (Zillen et al. 2008). Therefore, a judicious and prudential management of the nexus
(Figure 14.1) can minimize the need for the import of resources and enhance sustainability.
339
340 Soil and Fertilizers
FIGURE 14.1 The soil–biota–climate nexus is the basis for provisioning of essential ecosystem services for
nature including humans.
Global fertilizer use has increased drastically since the 1960s and is still increasing. Total annual
average fertilizer use between 2015 and 2020 is about 200 million Mg and increasing (Table 14.1).
The use of chemical fertilizer since 1960 is considered responsible for feeding a large proportion
of the world population. The number of people (billions) fed by fertilizer is estimated at 0.4 in
1960, 0.9 in 1970, 1.34 in 1980, 2.13 in 1990, 2.70 in 2000, and 3.54 in 2015 (Table 14.2; Richie
2017). However, the environmental impact is very high. The global average ratio of N:P2O5:K 2O
is 3.3:1.3:1.0, and has a decreasing trend over time. However, the ratio is more skewed in favor of
N in some emerging economies (i.e., India) because of high subsidies for N. The ratio should be
TABLE 14.1
Global Fertilizer Nutrient Demand
Global Demand (106 Mg)
Ratio
Year N P2O5 K2O Total N:P:K
2015 110.0 41.2 32.8 184.0 3.4:1.3:1.0
2016 111.6 41.9 33.1 186.7 3.4:1.3:1.0
2017 113.6 43.2 34.0 190.9 3.3:1.3:1.0
2018 115.4 44.1 34.9 194.4 3.3:1.3:1.0
2019 117.1 45.0 36.0 198.1 3.3:1.3:1.0
2020 118.8 45.9 37.0 201.7 3.2:1.2:1.0
Average 114.4 43.6 34.6 192.6 3.3:1.3:1.0
TABLE 14.2
World Population Supported with and
without Fertilizer
World Population (billion) Supported
Year Total Without Fertilizer With Fertilizer
1901 1.66 1.66 0.0
1960 3.04 2.64 0.4
1970 3.70 2.88 0.9
1980 4.46 3.12 1.34
1990 5.33 3.20 2.13
2000 6.15 3.44 2.70
2015 7.38 3.84 3.54
about 4:2:1 for input of N:P2O5:K 2O. Whereas prudential and supplemental use of chemical fertil-
izers, supplemental irrigation, and tillage are justified as ameliorative strategies, indiscriminate
and excessive/unbalanced use of inputs (i.e., pesticides, fertilizers, flood-based irrigation) can lead
to disruption of the nexus and the attendant degradation of the environment. In this regard, man-
agement of the soil surface is critical to sustainable use of agroecosystems (Wassenaar et al. 2006;
Amundson et al. 2015; Zhao et al. 2019). Management of soil C concentration and stock is essential
to several of these services and benefits (Lal 2004, 2010, 2018b; Milne et al. 2015).
14.1.3 Sustainability of Agroecosystems
Sustainability is a multidimensional attribute (Figure 14.3) (Lal et al. 2016b). It is composed of envi-
ronmental, social, economic, and institutional components. Management of the soil-biota-climate
342 Soil and Fertilizers
FIGURE 14.2 Ten key soil properties that impact soil quality and functionality.
FIGURE 14.4 Strategies to reduce the input of chemical fertilizers and minimize the environmental footprint.
TABLE 14.3
Estimates of Macronutrients Harvested in Grains
Nutrients Harvested (Kg/Mg)
Grain N P2O5 K2O Ca Mg S Total
I Cereals
Barley 18.2 7.8 5.2 0.5 1.0 1.6 34.3
Corn 13.8 7.5 5.5 0.2 1.4 1.2 29.6
Oats 19.5 7.8 5.9 0.8 1.2 2.0 37.2
Rye 20.9 6.0 6.0 1.2 1.8 4.2 40.1
Sorghum 14.9 7.4 4.5 1.2 1.5 1.5 31.0
Wheat 20.8 10.4 6.3 0.2 2.5 1.3 41.5
Average 18.0 7.8 5.6 0.7 1.6 2.0 35.6
II Pulses
Chickpea 60.7 9.2 39.2 8.7 18.7 7.3 143.8
Lentil 57.0 14.9 21.6 3.5 7.0 2.0 106.0
Pigeon pea 70.8 15.3 16.0 7.5 19.2 12.5 141.3
Soybeans 70.7 30.9 57.7 6.7 14.0 7.6 187.6
Average 64.8 17.6 33.6 6.6 14.7 7.4 144.7
Source: FAO, Current World Fertilizer Trends and Outlook to 2016, FAO, Rome, Italy, 2012; Bender, R.,
Nutrient Uptake and Partitioning in High-Yielding Corn, University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign, Urbana, IL, 2012.
Managing Soils for Reducing Dependence on Chemicals 345
TABLE 14.4
Nutrient Contents in Crop Residues
Concentration on Dry Mass Basis (%)
Crop Residue Grain: Straw Ratio N P2O5 K2O
I Cereals
Corn stover 1: 1.5 0.59 0.31 1.31
Millet stock 1: 2.0 0.65 0.75 2.50
Rice straw 1: 1.5 0.58 0.23 1.66
Sorghum stalk 1: 2.0 0.40 0.23 2.17
Wheat straw 1: 1.5 0.49 0.25 1.28
II Legumes
Chickpea 1: 1.0 1.19 – 1.25
Pigeon pea 1: 2.5 1.10 0.58 1.28
Pulses (average) 1: 1.0 1.60 0.15 2.0
III Sugarcane
Trash 1: 0.2 0.35 0.04 0.50
Source: FAO, Sources of Plant Nutrients and Soil Amendments, in Plant Nutrition for Food Security: A Guide
for Integrated Nutrient Management, FAO, Rome, Italy, pp. 91–235, 2006.
rhizobium (see Section 14.5.2). Maintaining an optimal soil moisture regime by minimizing the
drought–flood syndrome is also critical to achieving the dual goal of enhancing use efficiency of
both water and nutrients (e.g., N, P).
Management of soil quality requires adoption of improved practices of soil, crop, animal, and tree
management through a judicious integration of crops with trees, livestock, forages, and cover crops.
The strategy is to strengthen cycling of C and plant nutrients so that these elements are neither trans-
ported out of the ecosystem (by erosion, leaching, or volatilization) nor released into the environment
where they can be pollutants.
Then, there is a possibility of improved formulations of fertilizers so that use efficiency is maxi-
mized and losses into the environment (water, atmosphere) are minimized. Examples of some such
formulations include nanofertilizer (Liu and Lal 2015, 2017; Liu et al. 2016) and slow-release for-
mulations of highly soluble nitrogenous fertilizers (Staufenbeil 2018; Silva 2011).
improvements in soil health. Although there are some niches for the establishment of biofuel
plantations on degraded and drastically disturbed lands, bioenergy is not always a feasible option
(Stokstad 2019).
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Index
Note: Page numbers in italic and bold refer to figures and tables, respectively.
351
352 Index
NUE, see nitrogen use efficiency (NUE); nutrient use phosphorus (P), 44, 252
efficiency (NUE) estimated versus reported fertilizer, 229
nutrient(s) fertilizer, 229–230
crop performance, 214 inputs, agricultural land, 228
expert, 262 isotopes, soil–plant studies, 226
external sources, 254–255 management, agricultural soils, 225–230
imbalanced, 189–190 physiological efficiency, applied N, 219
management, 33–34, 210, 246, 256 plant nutrients, 317, 327
manager, 262 plastic mulching, 300–301
stratification, 48 polymer-coated urea, 331, 332
and water-management, 298 positive PE, 35
nutrient balance, 200, 304 potassium (K) fertilizers, 50–51, 252–253, 296,
agricultural soil, 190 323–325, 324
nitrogen and, 295–296 powdered rock fertilization
NPK fertilizer, 70 climate change, 280
nutrient-based subsidy (NBS), 191 oversalinized soils, 279–280
nutrient use efficiency (NUE), 184, 326, 326 precision nutrient management, 256
controlled-release urea on, 332 concept, 257
of N, 326 need, 256
root systems and, 297–298 prilled urea (PU), 82–83, 84, 329
water and, 88–92 priming effect (PE), 35–36
nutritious food, 335–336 protein deficiency, 96
PU, see prilled urea (PU)
O puddling, 253–254