Science of the Total Environment 838 (2022) 156328

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Science of the Total Environment

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/scitotenv

Review

Digital transformation of peatland eco-innovations (‘Paludiculture’):

Enabling a paradigm shift towards the real-time sustainable production of
‘green-friendly’ products and services
⁎
Neil J. Rowan a,b, , Niall Murray c, Yuansong Qiao c, E. O'Neill a,b, Eoghan Clifford d,
Damià Barceló e, Deborah M. Power a,f
a
Bioscience Research Institute, Technological University of the Shannon Midlands Midwest (TUS), Dublin Road, Athlone, Ireland
b
Empower Eco™ Sustainable Hub, Technological University of the Shannon Midlands Midwest (TUS), Dublin Road, Athlone, Ireland
c
Software Research Institute, TUS, Athlone, Ireland
d
School of Engineering and Informatics, NUI, Galway, Ireland
e
Catalan Institute for Water Research, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Bacrelona, (ICRA), Spain
f
Centro de Ciências do Mar (CCMAR), Universidade do Algarve, Campus de Gambelas 8005-139, Faro, Portugal

H I G H L I G H T S G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T

• Paludiculture is an emerging sector

transitioning towards a sustainable green
sector
• Harnessing digital transformation will en-
able peatland eco-innovations across the
full value chain
• Mount Lucas is a paludiculture demon-
strator for digital transformation
• Digital technologies developed for Agri-
culture 4.0 and Industry 5.0 will advance
paludiculture
• Digitisation will future-proof
paludiculture for climate change and sus-
tainable eco- intensification

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Editor: Frederic Coulon The world is heading in the wrong direction on carbon emissions where we are not on track to limit global warming to
1.5 °C; Ireland is among the countries where overall emissions have continued to rise. The development of wettable
Keywords: peatland products and services (termed ‘Paludiculture’) present significant opportunities for enabling a transition
Digital transformation away from peat-harvesting (fossil fuels) to developing ‘green’ eco-innovations. However, this must be balanced with
Peatlands
sustainable carbon sequestration and environmental protection. This complex transition from ‘brown to green’ must
Climate change
Disruption
be met in real time by enabling digital technologies across the full value chain. This will potentially necessitate creation
Sustainability innovation of new green-business models with the potential to support disruptive innovation. This timely paper describes digital
Natural-based solutions transformation of paludiculture-based eco-innovation that will potentially lead to a paradigm shift towards using
smart digital technologies to address efficiency of products and services along with future-proofing for climate change.
Digital transform of paludiculture also aligns with the ‘Industry 5.0 - a human-centric solution’. However, companies
supporting peatland innovation may lack necessary standards, data-sharing or capabilities that can also affect viable
business model propositions that can jeopardize economic, political and social sustainability. Digital solutions may re-
duce costs, increase productivity, improve produce develop, and achieve faster time to market for paludiculture.
Digitisation also enables information systems to be open, interoperable, and user-friendly. This constitutes the first

⁎ Corresponding author at: Bioscience Research Institute, Technological University of the Shannon Midlands Midwest (TUS), Dublin Road, Athlone, Ireland.
E-mail address: [email protected] (N.J. Rowan).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.156328
Received 19 April 2022; Received in revised form 25 May 2022; Accepted 25 May 2022
Available online 29 May 2022
0048-9697/© 2022 The Authors. Published by Elsevier B.V. This is an open access article under the CC BY license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
N.J. Rowan et al. Science of the Total Environment 838 (2022) 156328

study to describe the digital transformation of paludiculture, both vertically and horizontally, in order to inform sus-
tainability that includes process automation via AI, machine learning, IoT-Cloud informed sensors and robotics, virtual
and augmented reality, and blockchain for cyber-physical systems. Thus, the aim of this paper is to describe the appli-
cability of digital transformation to actualize the benefits and opportunities of paludiculture activities and enterprises
in the Irish midlands with a global orientation.

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2. Development of aquaculture, aquaponics and adjacent green innovation in the Irish peatlands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
3. Exploiting digitization to integrate and unlock vertical and horizontal value chains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
3.1. Robotics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.2. Drones and satellites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
3.3. Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.4. Photonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.5. Artificial intelligence and machine learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.6. Immersive technologies, augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
3.7. Georeferencing and mapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
3.8. Edge-internet of things (IoT) systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
4. Pollination and ecosystem service management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
5. Waste water recirculation – nexus between monitoring, treatment and energy using a paludiculture framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
6. Aquaculture and other aquatic systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
7. European Digital Innovation Hubs – Quo Vadis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
8. Business modelling and sustainability for enabling accelerating Mount Lucas green innovation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
9. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
9.1. Implications and recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
CRediT authorship contribution statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Declaration of competing interest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

1. Introduction noted that changing climatic conditions are accomplished by high and
low stress, altered rainfall patterns, elevated carbon dioxide, increased fre-
The onset of COVID-19 pandemic and commensurate disruption to sup- quency of extreme weather events like flooding, droughts, cyclonic distur-
ply chains worldwide has created opportunities for developing new solu- bances and increased saline soils. Okolo et al. (2019) reported that
tions to pressing societal challenges (Rowan and Laffey, 2020a; Rowan increased stress negatively influences agroecosystems' natural resilience;
and Laffey, 2020b; Rowan and Galanakis, 2020). However, a panoply of this is expected to cause dramatic environmental changes on a world
factors impact the sustainability of green innovations, but could be amelio- scale that can affect supply chains for food, feed and clean energy. The
rated by enabling real time data management, usage and protection by en- reader is also directed to the published work of Mondejar et al. (2021) for
gaging and implementing the vision of Industry 4.0 (a.k.a the fourth applications of digital technologies that provide sustainable solutions to dif-
industrial revolution, digital transformation) in the agriculture and food ferent agriculture problems.
sectors. The occurrence of COVID-19, an unpredictable and unexpected Peatlands are a unique ecosystem that constitute an important carbon
event that had severe worldwide consequences, coincided with the launch sink globally (Ziegler et al., 2021; O’Neill et al., 2022) and also represents
of the European ‘Green New Deal’, which was aimed at implementing solu- an environment that may potentially provide a win-win scenario for new
tions to combat climate change by supporting the sustainable intensifica- activities that could bring economic and social benefits while simulta-
tion of eco-innovation, products and services (Rowan and Pogue, 2021). neously contributing to reduce the harm to the climate (Rowan and
The European Just Transition initiative embraces and develops the vision Galanakis, 2020; Ziegler et al., 2021). The globalization of the current crisis
of sharing knowledge openly to enhance societal inclusiveness, regenerate (climate change, pandemics, population growth and food security) empha-
communities and ultimately promote a low carbon economy (Rowan and sise that solutions can only be found through global actions to co-create and
Casey, 2021). These ambitious programs and the attainment of their goals implement solutions for these complex societal challenges and make the
will be shaped and impacted by other mitigating factors including extreme United Nations' Sustainability Development Goals set for 2030 a reality
weather events brought on by climate change (Weiskopt et al., 2020), the (Rowan and Casey, 2021).
global energy crisis brought on by the Ukraine war and threat to the “bread- Peatlands are a type of wetland that covers 3% of global land surface
basket” of Europe and food production and security (http://www.dw.com). and currently approximately 15% of peatlands are degraded due to drain-
Despite the slowdown in carbon emissions caused by successive “lock- age for agriculture, forestry, and peat mining as a fossil fuel (Urák et al.
downs” worldwide, the current global models for business and production 2017; Ziegler et al., 2021; O’Neill and Rowan, 2022), Ziegler et al. (2021)
means the world continues to head in the wrong direction on carbon emis- reported that the adverse consequences of intensive peatland degradation
sions in spite of the narrowing window of less than a decade to contain a can contribute to inter alia undesirable greenhouse gas emissions, biodiver-
catastrophic rise in global temperatures (Intergovermental Panel on sity loss and pollution of receiving waters. However, “rewilding” peatlands
Climate Change (IPCC), 2022). The world is not on track to limit warming through controlled wetting can promote biodiversity and sustainable econ-
to 1.5 °C and only a major transition in the energy sector including a sub- omies through the unique practice of paludiculture (production under per-
stantial reduction in fossil fuel use, widespread electrification, improved manently wet, peat-conserving and potentially peat-forming conditions,
energy efficiency and the use of alternative fuels can halt what is becoming https://www.eurosite.org/). Indeed, peatlands are one of the world's
an irreversible warming trend (O’Sullivan, 2022). Mondejar et al. (2021) most vital ecosystems, supporting a range of rare and stress-hardened

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N.J. Rowan et al. Science of the Total Environment 838 (2022) 156328

plants and species, cleaning and filtering water, and mitigating flooding development of the global economy including preventing or mitigating
(Rowan and Casey, 2021). Peatlands cover just 3% of the planet, but against the impact of uncertainties created by increased frequency of ex-
store twice as much carbon as all the world's forests combined (Sargent, treme weather events and new global crisis (financial, health, war, food
2022). Ireland is rich in peatlands, which cover 20% of the land mass and water). Hrustek (2020) also advocated that organisations must un-
with near perfect conditions for peat soils and lock in 75% of all soil organic derstand the key drivers of digital transformation that affect technology
carbon (Rowan and Casey, 2021). Irish peatlands are estimated to actively development and industry. Similarly, for development and future inten-
capture around 57,000 t of carbon per year (Sargent, 2022) and constitute sification of peatland innovation, a balance must be achieved between
an important resource for carbon removal from the atmosphere and for en- striding towards a high rate of economic progress and protecting the en-
hancing sustainable carbon cycles (O’Neill et al., 2019). vironment that enables delivering a climate friendly and sustainable
Traditionally, use of wet peatlands (or ‘paludiculture’) is a poten- production sector (Mondejar et al., 2021; Weizkopt et al., 2020).
tially exciting means of alternative land use worldwide as this can lead The vision outlined by the authors in the present commentary is that
to new sustainable employment opportunities for farmers and create op- digital transformations can inform technological, societal and political
portunities for communities to fairly transition to a low carbon economy drivers of peatland, as it has for agricultural innovation. Moreover,
(Ziegler et al., 2021). However, promotion of paludiculture needs ro- 4IR should be deployed with the objective of enhancing the quality of
bust, evidence-based, collaborative research from pilot (pre-commer- life of the billions of people worldwide through creating a system that
cial) studies across a diversity of paludiculture activities to inform is secure and fair and establishing a framework that monitors and pro-
appropriate sustainable business models, such as for production of, motes sustainable practices (Shamin et al., 2019; Hrustek, 2020). Mov-
fuel, fodder, food and construction materials (Wichmaan et al., 2016; ing forward, peatland innovations should become an integral
Ziegler et al., 2021). Ziegler et al. (2021) and others (Tan et al., 2021; component of the value chain in the economy, providing products and
O’Neill et al., 2022) noted that support for the sustainable intensifica- services to society and informing food security and stability while pro-
tion of wet peatlands is a novel concept. O’Neill and co-workers moting environmental, economic and social sustainability (Rowan and
(2019) reported for the first time the development of an innovative inte- Galanakis, 2020). However, implementing innovative sustainable tech-
grated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) system for sustainable foods in nologies typically requires far-reaching changes of the macro environ-
peatlands of the Irish midlands. This freshwater IMTA system exploited ment in which innovating companies operate where there is a need to
a naturally occurring ecosystem of bacteria, algae and duckweed in strategically create an appropriate supportive external environment,
ponds for managing waste and ensuring water quality and was powered such as collective system building (Planko et al., 2016; Zeigler, 2020)
by wind turbines. The described recirculating aquaculture process does and quadruple helix innovation hub approach (Rowan and Casey,
not rely on complex end-of-circuit solutions for maintaining waste efflu- 2021). Commensurately, there will be a focus on achieving compliance
ent treatments (Rowan and Galanakis, 2020; Galanakis et al., 2021). with environmental and quality regulations as seen in agriculture sector
Current freshwater aquaculture production systems are resource- (Hrustek, 2020). The aforementioned also aligns with the tenets of In-
constrained and the production systems are unlikely to meet the increasing dustry 5.0 that provides a vision of the industry that looks beyond effi-
demand for aquatic foods, which is foreseen as one solution for feeding the ciency and productivity as the sole goals, but reinforces the role and
growing world populations that is estimated to reach approximately 10 bil- the contribution of industry to society (Skobelev and Borovik, 2017a,
lion by 2050 (Rasmussen et al., 2018; Xia et al., 2022). Moreover, there is 2017b; Nahavandi, 2019). It complements the fourth industrial revolu-
increasing anthropogenic-mediated destruction of natural resources caused tion named Industry 4.0 by using digital transformation to place re-
by increasingly frequent extreme weather events that will affect the supply search and innovation at the service of the transition to a sustainable,
of safe, affordable, and nutritious food (Weiskopt et al., 2020). Aquatic eco- human-centric and resilient industry. Industry 4.0 combines physical
systems encompass about 75% of planet’s surface, including that repre- world of real things with their ‘virtual twins’ (Table 1).
sented by the wet peatlands, which present new opportunities to intensify Peatland innovation will also potentially mitigate against impact of
and diversify eco-innovation transnationally (Rowan and Casey, 2021; reduced water supply and the environmental impact of intensive plant
FAO, 2020). A knowledge gap that will have to be filled is the development and livestock production to meet increased animal and human needs
and implementation of disruptive technologies in aquaculture to promote for high quality food production (Rowan and Casey, 2021; O’Neill
green, sustainable and profitable production models (Xia et al., 2022). Dig- et al., 2022), where the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO,
italization of aquaculture systems represents a new frontier and will be 2020) advocates adoption of digital technologies to enhance productiv-
transformative by allowing development of precision farming solutions im- ity and ensure food safety. Hrustek (2020) highlighted similarities to
prove yields of food rich in high quality protein and omega-3 fatty acids applying digital technologies to the agriculture sector where it is also
(Mondejar et al., 2021; Rowan and Casey, 2021). The development and envisaged that peatland innovation will require standardization and
adaption of sophisticated innovations, along with open knowledge and will be made available across the entire value chain where creative
technology exchange, is required to meet hurdles presented by low- and adaptable approaches will be required to support sustainable devel-
environmental impact aquatic-based innovations (O’Neill et al., 2022). opment of paludiculture. It is likely that peatland innovation will also be
There is increasing interest in adapting digital technologies such as advanced by applying smart and precise processes including process au-
artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning, the Internet of Things tomation and robotics, peatland applications and information systems,
(IoT), sensors, drones, blockchain for improving adjacent industries cyber-physical systems, related tools and machines, and collection and
(Hrustek, 2020; Mondejar et al., 2021). Indeed, the disruptive approach evaluation of large amounts of data (Mondejar et al., 2021). Lessons
of Industry 4.0 has started to be felt in some traditional agri-food activ- learnt from sustainable practices in adjacent agriculture infers that sus-
ities and cyber-physical systems, IoT, AI and machine learning, big-data tainability across the peatlands will be centred on delivering flexibility
and analytics, and cloud technology have been integrated with agricul- in tandem with efficiency where future digital transformative activities
tural machinery with exciting possible benefits (Tsolakis et al., 2019; will help unlock complex economic and societal challenges (Rowan and
Hrustek, 2020; Arvanitis and Symenonaki, 2020) (Table 1). Collec- Pogue, 2021). However, the complexity and diversity of such data is
tively, application of these next-generation digital technologies can sup- likely to be vast and will require systematic approaches to make digita-
port and accelerate Open knowledge exchange worldwide and can lization sustainable, including life cycle assessments (LCA) (Ruiz-
inform real time development of exciting new technologies to meet Salmón et al., 2020; Ruiz-Salmon et al., 2021; Laso et al., 2022), mate-
the challenges of today; although, the diversity and complexity of rial flow analysis (MFA, Abualtaher and Bar, 2019), principle compo-
agri-food activities makes sector-customized solutions a challenge nent analysis (Naughton et al., 2020), bioinformatics to mitigate
and a priority (Mondejar et al., 2021). Hrustek (2020) noted that mislabelling in worldwide seafood market and to protect consumer
digital transformation will help inform stability for the sustainable health (Vindigni et al., 2021) and so forth. Cooney and co-workers

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Table 1
Digital technologies – definitions and applications in peatland ecosystems.
Digital technologies Peatlands use

Information and communications technology (ICT) encompasses the capture, storage, retrieval, processing, display, Connects Peatlands ecosystem
representation, presentation, organization, management, security, transfer, and interchange of data and information.
Internet of things (IoT) – network of smart, interconnected devices and services capable of sensing or listening to requests and Aquatic systems
perform actions using actuators. IoT enables network sensors to remote connect, track and manage products and systems. Agroforestry
Vertical farming
Cloud computing – use of tools and applications (such as data storage, servers, databases, software) based on a network of severs Connects peatland ecosystem
through the internet. It enables user to rent computer resources on demand to store files and applications in a virtualised servers
and access all data via the internet.
Artificial Intelligence (AI) defines machines achieving human-like cognitive functions (ex. learning, reasoning, interacting) that Sensors, chips, robots, logistics, autonomous
comprises different forms of cognition and meaning understanding (such as speech recognition) and human interaction (signal machines
sensing, smart control, simulators) rooted in algorithms and software.
Machine learning (ML) – a subset of AI, use and development of computer systems that learn and adapt without following explicit Automated processes across peatland
instructions, by using algorithms and statistical models to analyse and draw inferences from patterns in data.
Big data – continuous increase in data & technologies that needs to be collected, stored, managed and analysed. Complex and Full peatland innovations and value chain
multidimensional that impacts processes, technologies. Characterised by Volume (amount of data sets), Velocity (speed of data
processing), Variety (types/sources of data), Veracity (quality of data analysed).
Blockchain is a shared digital, immutable ledger that facilitates the process of recording transitions and tracking assets in a Traceability, security of processes across peatlands,
business network using cryptographic algorithms). Blockchain protocols aggregate, validate, and relay transactions within the novel business models
blockchain network. The blockchain system records the transactions in sequence. A transaction may contain a value transfer or a
smart contract invocation. Almost anything of value can be tracked or transacted on a blockchain network, reducing risk and
costs in business.
Photonics is a multidisciplinary field related to light including energy generation, detection, and process management. Photonics Disease mitigation.
is the scientific study or application of electromagnetic energy whos basic unit is the photon, incorporating optics, laser Optic sensing to for protein levels in foods, water
technology, electrical engineering, material science, and information storage and processing. Photonic applications use the quality and fish health
photon in the same what that electronic applications use the electron. Agri-photonics is a growing area of precision agriculture
(Massaro et al., 2020).
Augmented reality – a technology that superimposes a computer-generated image on a user’s view of the real world; thus, provide Training
a composite view.
Virtual Reality – the computer-generated simulation of a 3D image or environment that can be interacted with in a seemingly real Training
or physical way by a person using special electronic equipment, such as helmet with screen inside or gloves fitted with sensors.
Quality of Experience (QoE) – is the degree of delight or annoyance registered by the use of an application or service. Training
Logistics – the detailed organization and implementation of a complex operation. Peatlands eco management
Robotics – a branch of technology that deals with the design, construction, operation and application of robots. In multi-robot or Aquaculture feed, monitoring
swarm robot systems, the robot collaborate to complete predefined tasks.
Cobot, or collaborative robot, is a robot intended for direct human robot interaction with a shared space, or where humans and Food processing, in field logistics
robots are in proximity.
Digital twin – a digital win is a virtual model designed to accurately reflect a physical object. Wind turbine fitted with various sensors for control
Edge Cloud – Edge computing is developed as complement to cloud computing, encompassing storage and compute assets located Peatland ecosystem networking
at the edge and interconnected by a scalable, application-aware network that can sense and adapt to changing needs, securely &
in real time
Cybersecurity or information technology (IT) security – is the practice of protecting critical systems and sensitive information Security of production, products and services
from digital attack. It is how individuals and organisations reduce the risk of a cyber attack where cyber security code function
protects the devices (smartphones, laptops, tables).
Cyber-physical systems refer to systems where software and hardware components are seamlessly integrated towards performing Security of processes.
well defined tasks.

(2021) investigated impact categories that can also be applied to evalu- 2. Development of aquaculture, aquaponics and adjacent green
ate emerging peatland aquaculture systems, namely using LCA and in- innovation in the Irish peatlands
cluded global warming potential (GWP), acidification potential (AP),
eutrophication potential (EP), freshwater and marine ecotoxicity poten- Aquaculture is the fastest growing sector in agriculture and has a long
tial (EAETP and MAEPT), cumulative energy demand (CED), net pri- history of contributing high-quality proteins to humans (O’Neill et al.,
mary production use (NPPU) and water use. Rowan and Casey (2021) 2022). Aquaculture is diversifying compared to other agriculture sectors
evaluated the maturity of paludiculture eco-innovation in terms of tech- in terms of fish species, feeds, production systems, diseases, products, busi-
nology, society and policy readiness levels (O’Neill et al., 2022). The ness sectors and marketing (FAO, 2020; Yue and Shen, 2022). Developing
present article expands on the scope of the previous articles by: live feeds, including microalgae, rotifers, and brine shrimp in hatcheries
have bridged the bottleneck in aquaculture of some marine species (Yue
• Addressing what digital transformation of the peatlands simply means and Shen, 2022). Selective breeding has enabled progression of quantita-
and its' application to supporting sustainability in order to embrace tive genetics that has improved traits in over 60 commercial aquaculture
wide opportunities for the development of green enterprises, job creation species (Gjedrem and Robinson, 2014). This includes QTL (quantitative
and to improve competitiveness of the region with global orientations. trait locus) mapping and maker assisted selected (MAS) that have been a
• Describes and explores current state-of-the-art knowledge on sustainabil- basis for trait selection. Improved feed formulations to meet the nutritional
ity across a diversity of peatland innovation, and adjacent activities, requirements of each fish species have improved feed conversation rates,
framed upon the use case of a novel freshwater paludiculture site in the reduced costs and improved product quality (Tacon and Metian, 2015).
Irish midlands and digital transformation. Technologies and innovations for disease mitigation and management
• Unlocks challenges and opportunities for the development of peatland in- have controlled diseases in aquaculture (Kelly and Renekdas, 2020;
novation as it relates to environmental, economic and societal sustainabil- Pogue et al., 2021). However, it will be very challenging to meet increasing
ity informed by digital transformations. This includes the likely impact of demand for seafood seen as a viable option with a low environmental im-
climate change and the uncertainty arising from extreme weather events, pact for feeding the growing world population (FAO, 2020). It is important
habit loss or biodiversity disruption and mitigation using effective preci- to support and enable product diversification from aquaculture and adja-
sion systems. cent activities that are likely to be impacted by disruptive environmental

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conditions, reduced supply of fish meal and oils and extreme weather potentially meet several sustainable development goals of the United Na-
events brought on by climate change (Shen et al., 2020). These challenges, tions (Galanakis et al., 2021; Rowan and Casey, 2021; O’Neill et al., 2022).
and opportunities have stimulated innovations in aquaculture (Ab Rahman
et al., 2017; O’Neill et al., 2022), such as genomic selection (Houston et al., 3. Exploiting digitization to integrate and unlock vertical and hori-
2020; genome editing (Gratacap et al., 2019), information and digital tech- zontal value chains
nology (Hassan and De Filippi, 2021), recirculating aquaculture systems
(RAS), development of renewable energies such as solar (Aich et al., A definition of key terms and technologies that underpin digital trans-
2020) and wind (O’Neill and Rowan, 2022; O’Neill et al., 2022), vaccines formation can be found in Table 1 that also connects with the envisaged
(Shefat, 2018), and novel business strategies with blockchain (Anderson peatland aquaculture innovations.
et al., 2019). Vertical integration of processes crosscut the whole value peatland eco-
The Mount Lucas peatland site covers ca. 4 ha in the Irish midlands, has system from procurement of monitoring equipment and smart feeding re-
also a strong trajectory to support and enable green innovation and social gimes to optimised fish biomass to diversification of activities to include
enterprises including vertical farming, honey production, exotic fungi/ recycling of wastewater for irrigation of vertical farming and exploitation
mushroom cultivation, agro-forestry including provision for dark-sky eco- of the extensive “wilded” ecosystem for pollination/ecosystem service man-
tourism (Fig. 1). An advantage of peatland-based aquaculture is that it har- agement. Essentially, all data generated from production processes is con-
nesses water from rivers and lakes and doesn’t have the possible threats sidered from the perspective of real-time efficiency, quality, risk
from potential pollutants in raw, untreated wastewater, such as agricultural mitigation and organization planning by digital technologies that will be
run-off (O’Neill et al., 2020). The emphasis is on creating a balanced system optimised into an integrated system (Savastano et al., 2018).
in the four 1000m3 fish ponds, which were created using a natural glacial Horizontal integration extends beyond the internal operations at Mount
till (Fig. 1). The duckweed area is 1.2 ha, linked by channels to the pond. Lucas peatland site from suppliers to end-users including all key stake-
The full volume of water is exchanged every 4 h. Among the many green holders. In recent times, seamlessly connecting this broad holistic ecosys-
boxes the project ticks is low freshwater use, with any additional water re- tem can be potentially met by the Quadruple Helix ‘Empower Eco™’
quirements normally taken care of by the Irish weather (O’Neill et al., Concept that unites academia, industry, government and society regionally
2019). The Mount Lucas site has a licence for 25 t of fish biomass, which (Rowan and Casey, 2021). Digitization is the foundation for the develop-
works out at 13 t perch and 12 t of trout that are produced for high value ment of new strategic plans and enable opportunities in real-time through
markets across Europe (O’Neill et al., 2020). The underlying principle is de- specialist training across the water-energy and food nexus that will also
fine process for replication across peatland where the limited tonnage of stimulate new social enterprises, greater community engagement, and job
fish biomass is dictated by ‘organic status'. Thus, Mount Lucas hosts a creation in paliduculture. For example, exploiting the European Digital In-
blend of traditional social enterprises with emerging green technologies, novation Hub (EIDH) concept at Mount Lucas will manage the digital trans-
products and services that requires digital transformation to effectively formation of bespoke peatland eco-innovations, along with connecting this
manage their potential along the full value chain that includes efficient site trans-regionally with complementary EIHDs to create and add value
wastewater recirculation and bioprospecting of bioactives. Digital transfor- (Galanakis et al., 2021). Funding instruments such as Horizon Europe
mation can also highlight the maturity of key innovations that will MSCA RISE, Erasmus Plus, European Just Transition and Interreg

Fig. 1. Aerial view of Mount Lucas peatland site in the Republic of Ireland for development of aquatic innovations powered by wind turbines. The wind turbine indicated
(WT) provides all electrical requirements for the production site (red). The site consists for 4 D-end split culture ponds (blue), a 16-channel treatment lagoon (green)
which contains algae and duckweed, and a water reservoir (yellow) for the system. Water is taken is from an adjacent bog river (− − -). This occurs only to compensate
for loss of water from the system via evaporation. Discharge from the system only occurs during times of excessive rainfall whereby filling the overflow tank (orange).
The site is situated in the middle of a peatland which is undergoing natural restoration.

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N.J. Rowan et al. Science of the Total Environment 838 (2022) 156328

programmes can support and accelerate horizontal integration and at technologies (Xu et al., 2021), collaborative robots (cobots) will play vital
Mount Lucas will be matched with balanced rural enterprise and growth roles in agriculture, paludiculture and food production along the full
for economic, political and societal sustainability (Rowan and Casey, value chain. These cobots will work closely with human operators to per-
2021; Rowan and Pogue, 2021). form dangerous and less popular menial tasks along with more labor-
Digitization provides access to an integrated network of unexploited big intensive, monotonous and repetitive jobs (Wong et al., 2022). Cobots
data with potential benefits to society and to the environment (Mondejar can also be used as transportation for in-field logis0ics applications
et al., 2021); moreover, it is the integration of digital technologies into ev- (Ducket et al., 2018).
eryday life. Appio et al. (2021) noted that our ability to make well-informed
decisions underpinning how to efficiently use natural resources and ser- 3.2. Drones and satellites
vices has a significant impact on sustainability and equal access. The
Food Standards Agency UK (2021) highlighted the role of digital innova- In terms of aquaculture, drones can function above and below the water
tion as emerging technologies that will positively impact on the UK food (Sousa et al., 2019; Yue and Shen, 2022). Connolly (2018) noted that
system. Moreover, the Food Standards Agency UK (2021) stated “digital drones can be used for monitoring offshore fish farms such as for inspecting
technologies are been adopted rapidly across the value chain that includes under water cages for damage and holes. Drones can be used to monitor
discrete applications at the field, farm and factory level that includes auto- duckweed coverage and production in the ponds of the Mount Lucas
mation, robotics and performance monitoring – mostly aiming at process peatland site where they can contribute to increase operational efficacy of
optimisation; at the consumer level with a multitude of innovative new wastewater treatment, quality and recirculation (O’Neill et al., 2019). Yue
internet-enabled food distribution platforms and services; and increasingly and Shen (2022) noted research institutes and industries developing drones
at an integrated system level, connecting actors at all stages of the value for deployment in aquaculture include Subblue (https://www.subblue.
chain, including supply chain management, and secure and gap-less digital com/), Apium Swarm Robotics (http://apium.com), Blueye Pioneer
traceability of food items from farm to fork”. It loosely grouped digital tech- (https://www.avetics.com/) and SeaDrone (https://seadronepro.com/).
nologies (DT) across three main categories, (a) DTs applied directly to food Connolly (2018) reported that drones produced by Apium Swam Robotics
production processes (such as sensor-based agriculture, traceability, moni- can be deployed en masse to survey the oceans and use sensors for analysis.
toring of production and delivery) where resulting flow of information is Whereas Blueye Pioneer produced drones that provide live streaming of un-
based on input data from the food; (b) DTs that generate information rele- derwater exploration using a Blueye app on a smartphone, computer or
vant to food from input data, but not directly gathered from the actual food headset/goggles. Drones can be used to collect data that would be challeng-
(such as social marketing for customer awareness, behaviour and choice); ing for humans to obtain and can contribute data that can be used to gener-
(c) DT platforms used to aggregate and transmit data securely ate new algorithms for developing technologies (Yoo et al., 2020). Drones
(cyberphysical), record keeping and for making decisions either enable surveying of large areas and could be used to survey and monitor
automomously or with human input. It is appreciated that digitization is the status of the entire Irish peatlands (ca. 80,000 ha) and the collected
a vast topic; consequently, this article will provide examples of digital tech- data used to assist planning and monitoring of rewetting, rewilding and
nologies that are currently applied to, or will future enable peatland innova- to support eco-innovation developments. Salidrone (https://salidrone.
tion with particular relevance to the development of the Mount Lucas site in com/) is collecting data for evaluating fish stocks and environmental condi-
the Republic of Ireland. tions and by integrating AI and cloud computing the cost of aquaculture can
be reduced and the operational performance of aquaculture improved
3.1. Robotics (Chen and Zhang, 2017). The potential of drones for aquaculture is enor-
mous and currently the drone market is estimated to be worth $5.1 Billion
No robotics are currently deployed at Mount Lucas; but, are being used by 2025 (Yue and Shen, 2022).
and developed elsewhere for feeding, cleaning ponds (Osaka et al., 2010; Other adjacent studies have reported on the use of sensors for measur-
Yue and Shen, 2022), oral or injecting vaccines (Lee et al., 2013), monitor- ing water parameters can advance aquaculture (Xing et al., 2019; Su
ing behaviours and removing diseased fish (Antononucci and Costa, 2020), et al., 2020). Science Foundation Ireland (2021) reported on new
all labour intensive and costly processes (Lucas et al., 2019). For the first ‘Terrain_AI’ project between academic researchers and Microsoft Ireland fo-
time, consumption of farmed fish has exceeded that of wild-caught fish, cused on digital transformation that includes novel multimodal sensing
and by 2030, digitization of aquaculture (such as by use of robotics) and technologies, IoT devices, Microsoft Azure-informed AI and cloud-based in-
aquaculture production will potentially contribute for two-thirds of fish novation to monitor carbon sequestration of peatlands and other land types
that humans consume (Connolly, 2018). Robotics can facilitate risk mitiga- to improve our understanding of the relationship between human activity
tion and improve profit margins and sustainability (Table 1). For example, and land use and how this may relate to climate change. Terrain-AI will
in the salmon industry automated underwater robots have been deployed build artificial intelligence (AI) models that can inform more effective
for cleaning and inspecting nets and have reduced human operations and sustainable management practices, leading to significant carbon reduc-
(Paspalakisk et al., 2020) and have been used to evaluate fish health and tion. Data will be captured from satellites, airborne platforms, as well as in-
monitor and prevent escape of farmed fish (Ohrem et al., 2020). Some of field instruments, from 14 test sites strategically located across Ireland. This
the advantages of robots is that they more profitable as they can work con- digital project will help improve our understanding of the interactions be-
tinuously and can be substituted to address none-ideal human workforce tween the land and human activities that lead to carbon emissions that
conditions, labour intensity and sophistication. The high density of fish dur- will also support and enable comparison between peatlands and all land
ing aquaculture increases the risk of disease, which reduces production and types including grasslands, croplands, forestry, wetlands, to urban areas.
profits. Cermaq are overcoming this problem using robotics to sort diseased This will integrate the aforementioned-generated data into a modelling
or harmed fish from good quality fish for processing (Connolly, 2018). framework that will inform more effective policies to reduce carbon emis-
SINTEF (an independent research organization in Norway) is developing sions. Terrain-AI will also help to inform future land use practices that
underwater robots to examine and repair nets for marine aquaculture and will achieve reduced carbon outputs such as, precision aquaculture and
contributing to the cost-effectiveness and sustainability of the salmon in- farming, carbon sequestration of grassland, and new approaches to public
dustry (Connolly, 2018). A survey of the literature revealed that several ac- transport, along with other adjacent needs such as tree planting in urban
ademic/industry partnerships, Innovasea (https://www.innovasea.com/), areas. Terrain-AI will design a cloud platform that can use the insights
Cermaq (https://www.cermaq.com/), Robotfish (https://www.edlbf. from these Irish findings that will be shared with other countries to enable
com/), SeaVax (https://theexplorer.no/), and Sublue (https://www. everyone to explore land usage and carbon reduction in their respective
sinfet.no/en/) are developing robotics for aquaculture (Yue and Shen, geographical jurisdictions. Notable, Microsoft has been carbon neutral
2022). Moreover, with the development of Industry 5.0 human centric across the world since 2012 and is committed to achieving carbon negative

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status by 2030; it seeks to promote sustainable development and low- increasing demands of our growing populations. Optics and photonic tech-
carbon business practices through the use of cloud-enabled technologies nologies have been proven as state-of-the-art-solutions for helping with
(Science Foundation Ireland, 2021). This builds upon delivery of Airband crop production and harvesting technologies (Yeong et al., 2019); thus,
project in partnership with Teagasc (https://www.teagasc.ie/) tohelp the have potential applicability for transforming peatland innovations.
farming community to stay connected, where Terrain-AI will explore how
we can leverage technology to reduce carbon emissions across different 3.5. Artificial intelligence and machine learning
land types. This Triple HUB approach combines Earth Observation,
Geocomputation and Climate Modelling with stakeholders that will collect Artificial intelligence (AI) can help inform reliable and appropriate de-
high quality data, extract verifiable information and generate the facts to cision making based upon large data sets measured using digital devices,
enable society make informed decisions about changing how we manage such as drones, robots, and sensors (Yue and Shen, 2022) (Table 1). An
our climate and environment. It will deliver unique insights to help land- Australian company, the Yield, provides a diverse suite of technologies
owners and planners make better informed decisions to reduce carbon for all types of agriculture which it uses Sensing+Aqua technology to en-
emissions. This platform leverages off the latest in AI and IoT technologies able predictive analytics for enhanced data-driven decision- making
where open sharing of data and insights will collectively inform new solu- (Connolly, 2018). This author also noted that nearly 32% of wild-fish
tions to reduce carbon emissions globally and will support the delivery of caught are procured unsustainability where AI through cameras and data
a net zero future. collection can identify species, reduce overexploitation of fish species,
and enable greater accountability of harvesting methods. It is envisaged
3.3. Sensors that research from this peatland site will be linked to the Terrain-AI project
(Science Foundation Ireland, 2021). Indeed, the need to rapidly develop
Many of the drones and robots use sensors to navigate underwater to aquaculture and adjacent innovations is reflected in many global partner-
collect data such as physicochemical parameters, or above water for geo- ships between academia and aquaculture industry. Such efforts are
survey and referencing (Yue and Shen, 2022). Connolly (2018) noted the deploying AI to inform decision making (Evensen, 2020) that can reduce re-
biosensors, such as those produced by Sense-T can improve efficiencies liance on labour intensive practices such as feeders, water quality, harvest-
across he salmon to oyster industry by analysis of oxygen levels and ing and processing. Josthiswaran et al. (2020) highlighted the potential of
water temperature; even extended to measuring heart rate and metabolism. using AI in enhancing control systems in aquaculture, such as in the area
Sensorex devices are used to monitor dissolved oxygen levels and pH to cre- of reducing waste streams and improving costs. However, there is commen-
ate appropriate environment for improve shrimp efficiency and yields surate opportunities to use machine learning and development of algo-
(Connolly, 2018). The company YSI has also developed handheld sensing rithms based on increased data sets through Open Innovation and
devices for automatic feeding technology and transportation tanks that knowledge exchange for advancing the industry linked to academia and
maintains ideal environment for fish (Connolly et al., 2018). Recent studies digital companies. One research effort is to apply deep learning technolo-
at Mount Lucas has focused on the monitoring water physicochemical pa- gies in aquaculture, e.g. for fish classification, counting, behaviour monitor-
rameters along with matching use of handled algal-Torch for monitoring ing, and fish fillet defect detection (Sun et al., 2020, Yang et al., 2021a,
algal populations to that of using flow cytometry for real time determina- 2021b). Deep learning has outperformed the traditional machine learning
tions in living laboratories (O’Neill et al., 2022). algorithms in many application areas. However, one major drawback of
Biosensors have been exploited to advance the aquaculture industry for deep learning is that it requires a large dataset to train the model, which
determining DO levels, water salinity and temperature (Antononucci and is a significant challenge for applying deep learning in aquaculture.
Costa, 2020). Svendsen et al. (2020) has used biosensors to monitor heart Digital transformation can also advance bioprospecting of key bioac-
rate and other physiological conditions in salmon. While Zhou et al. tives from microalgae, duckweed and other peatlands resources for one
(2019) described the potential of using underwater sensors linked to the in- health application. For example, AI can be used to potentially screen and in-
ternet to inform efficacy of feeding based upon hunger status of cultured form the appropriate type of bioactives that elicit pro- and anti-
fish in various aquatic environments including ponds and rivers. Yue and inflammatory responses for fish welfare with view to fortification of feed
Shen (2022), reported on a European consortium project comprising acade- (Murphy et al., 2020a; Murphy e al., 2020b; Murphy et al., 2022; Pogue
mia and aquaculture companies that are developing an automated/inte- et al., 2021). Masterson et al. (2020) reported on the use of lentinan from
grated platform to detect and monitor chemical contaminants, harmful Shiitake mushroom to ameliorate against clinical isolates of Klebsiella
algal blooms, pathogens and toxins. Mount Lucas aquaculture can be ad- pneumoniae exhibiting antimicrobial resistance using novel lung infection
vanced by developing and testing sensors combined with cloud manage- models. Commensurately, Felix and Angnes (2018) also highlighted in-
ment along with mobile phone apps to help inform the establishment of creased interest in electro-chemical immunsensors that may potentially dis-
an optimised environment for fish and feeding; Yue and Shen (2022) also ruptive the bioprospecting of such high value peatland products; such
advocate need for sensors to monitor stress levels in individual fish species immunosensors explore measurements of an electrical signal produced
and emergence of pathogens in water, where devices could be inserted into from an electrochemical transducer. Moroever, this signal can be
live fish in such a manner to support detection on land, boats or satellites. voltammetric, potentitiometric, conductiometric, or impedimetric that
Measurement of changes in microalgae species in the aquaculture pond can be harnessed as tools since they are specific, simple, portable, generally
(O’Neill et al., 2022; O’Neill and Rowan, 2022), and disruption brought disposable, and can carry out in situ or automated detection (Felix and
on by flooding to IMTA system due to frequent storms were attributed to cli- Angnes, 2018). Use of bioinformatics linked to machine learning can be ap-
mate change (O’Neill et al., 2022). plied to understand diversity and richness of microbial and algal species in
the aquaculture ponds (O’Neill et al., 2022). Use of drones and satellites can
3.4. Photonics support and enable digital transformation of in situ living labs connected to
environmental test beds at Mount Lucas (Rowan and Casey, 2021).
Optical and photonic technologies are currently adopted to measure
crop health and agri-food quality using remote sensing data in the visible, 3.6. Immersive technologies, augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR)
near-infrared, and thermal-infrared wavebands (Massaro et al., 2020)
(Table 1). Agri-photonics constitutes a new area of research that encom- Augmented reality is an interactive experience within which digital and
passes electronic and opto-electronic technological advances implemented context-based content is overlayed upon real-world objectives (Egan et al.,
on unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV), decision support systems (DSS), multi- 2016; Braga Rodrigues et al., 2020). As such, AR could be employed to in-
spectral imaging, and precision agriculture sensing. Traditional methods in form aquaculture activities by their nature are highly variable and labor-
agriculture cultivation is labour-intensive and struggles to meet the intensive that are frequently influenced by species, location and

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aquaculture process (FAO, 2020; Yue and Shen, 2022). Connolly (2018) re- for Peatlands to manage these resources, similar to what is been achieved
ported that the U.S.Navy uses Divers Augmented Vision Display (DAVD) for European River Basins.
that superimposes high-resolution sonar imagery on a diver’s visual experi- Digital transformation of data sets would enable real-time and improve
ence. AR can be used to improve efficiency of aquaculture production, mon- reliability of water quality determinants for risk management and policy
itor mortalities and welfare status of fish under a plethora of environmental decision making. There is help identify key constraints, such as knowledge
conditions. This was also noted by Yue and Shen (2022) that the use of AR, underpinning sensitivity of existing sophisticated analytical equipment to
in combination VR, for training and education as it pertained to fish wel- measure low-level pollutants in real time; therefore, the commensurate de-
fare, disease prevention, escaping fish and dangerous working conditions. velopment of appropriate risk management models will also inform future
Yue and Shen (2022) highlighted the capability of AR to inform efficacy intensification and diversification of aquatic industries including
and economics of deploying underwater drones and robots that encom- peatland-based innovation. For example, Tahar et al. (2017) developed a
passed monitoring fish behaviour and mortality. Yue and Shen (2022) semi-quantitative risk assessment model for evaluating the environmental
have reported on the use of AR with a cloud system to advance aquaculture threat posed by three EU watch list pharmaceutials namely, diclofenac,
to increase fish biomass, and to monitor fish health linked to water param- 17-beta-estradiol, and 17 alpha-ethinyestradiol, to aquatic ecosystems
eter determinants. Augment and Virtualh Reality in may be possible to re- using Irish data; this model adopts EPA’s Source-Pathway-Receptor concept
view and evaluate appropriate locations across ca. 80,000 ha of peatland to define relevant parameters including low, medium and high risk score
for both sustainable carbon cycles and deployment of aquaculture systems for each agglomeration of waste water treatment plants, including catch-
that includes risk mitigation. ment, treatment, operational and management. It is envisaged that a similar
type semi-quantitative RA approach may aid development of peatlands
3.7. Georeferencing and mapping globally in terms of screening for potential risks where there is a need to
measure or predict environmental pollutant concentrations and where hy-
ArcGIS mapping can be used to inform restoration and rehabilitation of drological data are available. This approach is semi-quantitative, as other
peatlands linked to ecology/biodiversity to inform carbon cycles (Rowan factors such as climate change will need to be considered for estimating
and Casey, 2021). ArcGIS mapping of the 80,000 ha of peatlands under and predicting risks with new aquatic innovations. Nair and Domnic
the management of Ireland's Bord Na Mona (State Body) would enable pro- (2022) noted the influence of machine leaning in advancing many aspects
filing of peatlands to match locations for development of aquatic innova- of this industry’; specifically, these authors described a combined strategy
tions in terms of desirable production sites balanced with environmental including non-learning enhanced method and deep CNN (convolution neu-
protection and ecology. ArcGIS mapping of peatlands, linked to ecology/ ral networks) for picture reduction and reconstruction in underwater imag-
biodiversity, ensures appropriate use of carbon cycles. Bord na Móna is re- ine in aquaculture. These authors suggested that this model outperforms
habilitating and restoring bogs as part of its Peatlands Climate Action existing methods in terms of picture enhanced, compression, and recon-
Scheme with the aim of reducing carbon emissions and the eventual crea- struction quality.
tion of carbon sinks. This is complex as raised bog is very dependent on
sphagnum moss activity that prefers acidic conditions; however, the ground 3.8. Edge-internet of things (IoT) systems
water in cutaway bog from peat harvesting will have become alkaline.
Thus, it is important to map the peatlands linked to physiochemical profiles Globalization has radically informed the development of sustaining and
that would be extremely challenging without using digital tools such as disruptive technologies (Schuelke-Leech, 2018), where traditional indus-
ArcGIS. For example, given differences in peatland acidity, solutions are tries such as agriculture and aquaculture employ vanguard technologies
more so focused not on bog restoration, but bog rehabilitation, which de- to expand upon opportunities that has enabled smart farming and the
pends on the peatland providing a suite of habitat types, such as wetlands, agri-food industry 4.0 (Klerkz et al., 2019). Perez-Pons et al. (2021) high-
fens, scrub and woodland that would benefit from end-to-end monitoring lighted pressing need to make farms more profitable and sustainable via
and use of cloud edge computing (Table 1). Bord na Móna, with Ireland's the analysis of data envelopment analysis and the application of the Inter-
Economic and Social Research Institute (ESRI) has a trajectory to actively net of things and Edge computing; this approach allows monitoring envi-
restore and rehabilitate 33,000 ha of peatlands. It uses ArcGIS to design ronmental conditions with real-time data from the different sensors
the most appropriate rehabilitation measures and then implements a wide installed on the farm; thus, minimizing costs and achieving robustness by
range of measures in real time; moreover, ArcGIS rapidly visualises the way of transitioning important data to the cloud after edge computing. Es-
existing conditions across thousands of hectares of bogs using numerous sentially, the edge devices process the data and then decide either to send
datasets that informs design and implementation of the most appropriate this data to the cloud for further processing or make decision locally at
rehabilitation measures to restore peatland function and deliver climate ac- the edge (Table 1). Edge computing can also be applied to sensor fault diag-
tion benefits. For example, for each bog identified for rehabilitation, GIS nosis and data repair (Wang et al., 2021). Technology requirements are in-
specialists and ecologists use the desktop solution ArcGIS Pro and 3D spa- creasingly important for agri-food industry with particular emphasis on
tial analysis tools to examine the ground level and create detailed, map- meeting challenges faced by producers along value chain that also reflects
based rehabilitation plans. a diversity of types of farms such as crop-cultivating or mixed farms that
Tahar et al. (2018a, 2018b, 2018c) reported on the use of ArcGIS to en- grow crops and produce livestock. These also rely upon fragile water re-
able monitoring and mapping of emerging contaminants of concern in sources; moreover, Eurostat noted that that total irrigable are in the EU-
aquatic environments for subsequent risk mitigation and management deci- 28 was ca. 15.5 Mha (8.9% of the total) whereas only 10.2 Mha (5.9% of
sion making (Tahar et al., 2017). Effective risk assessment and prediction the total) was irrigated thus highlighting the opportunities for imple-
for deployment of appropriate interventions to mitigate pollutants in menting low-cost technological solutions (Fleming et al., 2016). The Indus-
waste water is at best ‘semi-quantitative’ given the enormous number of trial Internet of Things (IIoT) potentially enables technologies focused on
contributory factors and variables to inform management decision making implementation of monitoring and resource management solutions across
(Tahar et al., 2017). Tahar et al. (2018a, 2018b, 2018c) highlighted that oc- many Industry 4.0 applications that embraces cloud computing, big data,
currence and geodatabase mapping of contaminations of emerging concern AI or distributed ledger technologies (such as blockchain) that will improve
onto appropriate river basin catchment management tools will inform pre- traceability and productivity of commercial processes (Yu et al., 2017).
dictive and simulated risk determinations to inform strategic investment in Perez-Pons et al. (2021) noted that when transmitting data to the cloud,
necessary mitigation infrastructure to protect rivers and economic activities there remains several challenges including data privacy, energy consump-
that rely on clean water. The medium to longer term ambition would be to tion, or costs associated with cloud services. Essentially, service providers
utilize relevant European software and models for the development of spa- charge users relative to the amount of data transferred, stored or processed
tially explicit Geography-Referenced Regional Exposure Assessment Tool in the cloud. However, by using Edge Computing technologies, one can

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decrease the amount of data transferred between the IoT layer and the livelihoods, and environmental sustainability (Rowan and Casey, 2021).
cloud that will also allow for deployment of machine learning models at While the concept of Industry 4.0 is now well established, when evaluating
the edge of the network reducing response time and enabling service provi- food production systems in terms of the use and reuse of resources such as
sion even if communication with the cloud is interrupted (such as rural water it is appropriate to consider the newer concept of Industry 5.0. Indus-
areas associated with peatlands) (Alonso et al., 2020). Perez-Pons et al. try 5.0 sees digitisation as not just about productivity and growth; but is
(2021) had also reflected on the findings of Pedra-Munoz et al. (2016) also part of a broader need for sustainable, human-centric and resilient in-
who reviewed years of improvements of applying technologies at family- dustry. In the context of the positive transformation of peatland eco-
farm level with sustainability, where the former reported that IoT and systems, digitisation, applied to water resources can be seen in the context
Edge computing can present a competitive advantage when measuring effi- of Industry 4.0 and 5.0 concepts. The “Digital Water” programme within
cacy of decision making units. Perez-Pons et al. (2021) reported on differ- the International Water Association offers key lessons on how the water in-
ent variables from the Environmental Performance Index with real-time dustry (or industry’s where water is a key resource) can uptake and inte-
sensors and the application of Edge-computing platforms that can reduce grate next generation digital technologies. A series of white papers
the data traffic to the cloud. In addition, 5G is a key enabler of edge comput- describe the various opportunities and challenges associated with the Digi-
ing, which provides low latency and high bandwidth communication ser- tal Water Concept. Challenges with adoption include technical issues such
vices between sensors/edge devices and the cloud, and as well as direct as integrating smart actuators, sensors, and autonomous control systems
device to device communication (Wang et al., 2021). in a sensible and transparent manner, cybersecurity issues, human
resources issues and, crucially ensuring the need to have a clear value
4. Pollination and ecosystem service management proposition.
Water management is key in paludiculture and should (i) maintain ap-
Mount Lucas is an abundant source of heather and other peatland propriate water levels for the activity in question and (ii) may be required
flowering plants, this provides a rich opportunity for honey production to enable the supply of nutrients through the water inlet (Vroom et al.,
from nectar or from secretions from living part of plans by native bees; 2018). This may be required to address nitrogen losses after rewetting
this can be addressed in on site living labs. The stressful environment cre- due to denitrification processes and anaerobic ammonium oxidation. In-
ated by the peatlands can influence emergence of novel bioactive properties deed this can provide an opportunity for local reuse of N rich agricultural
produced in heather-honey. Shafiee et al. (2013) has previously reported wastewaters (Vroom et al., 2018). Recent work in the UK, analysed water
on the use of machine learning to differentiate and classify polyfloral management requirements through pumping of water to rivers when inputs
from monofloral honey where latter has a higher commercial value. to peatlands, due to rainfall, exceed evapotranspiration (Mulholland et al.,
There is a correlation between honey colour and its floral origin and 2020). Despite this there can be significant reductions in energy use, costs
some chemical parameters that can be discerned using image analysis and and associated greenhouse gas emissions for paludiculture when compared
algorithms. Different monofloral honeys have distinctive flavour and colour to arable activities on deep fen peat (Mulholland et al., 2020). Real time
due to variance in their main nectar sources (Escriche et al., 2011). Use of control of storm water control measures has been shown to have significant
imagine analysis is an area of emerging importance that reflects a method potential for urban water management (Xu et al., 2021) and reinforcement
that supports rapid, real-time, simple, selective and low-cost properties ap- learning has also potential to mitigate flooding when compared to passive
propriate for honey characterization. Moreover, honey industry requires control and rule-based control systems (Bowes et al., 2021). Such innova-
simple, non-invasive, fast and economic technologies for characterizations tion could be adapted for water management in paduciculture activities
– other digital approaches include an electronic tongue and data fusion of Furthermore, a digital transformation of how water and wastewater re-
electronic nose (Escriche et al., 2011) where there is good correlation evi- sources are managed, can impact both the use of water abstracted directly
dent by applying data fusion. The latter aids human panels in making deci- for paladiculture activities (e.g. for aquaculture) and the management
sions for application to honey quality evaluation that captures adulteration, from wastewaters resulting from such activities. Recent work in the water
classification of flora types along with their geographical sources. Image and wastewater treatment sectors can point the way forward in terms of
analysis can help discern honey colour that depends on a plethora of factors digital adoption for efficient management of water resources in
including phenolic and flavonoid contents, mineral contents and antioxi- paludiculture. This can also help reduce concerns in terms of digital adop-
dant activity (Dominiguez and Centurion, 2015). Machine learning as an in- tion through visibility of related case studies.
novation has been shown to enable objective assessment of visual attributes Artificial intelligence can be applied within the water sector under three
of food quality including colour. There are other multiple opportunities for headings namely (i) modelling, prediction and forecasting, (ii) decision
machine learning for informing pollination; for example, Goblirsch et al. support and operational management, and (iii) optimization. A broad digi-
(2021) describe the potential of electron-beam for low-temperature treat- tal transformation would also impact these areas but also a fourth, namely
ment of pollen contaminated by complex bee parasites and viruses that system and infrastructure design could be considered. There are lessons for
may be used for commercial bumble bee purposes. The complexity of pol- paduliculture that can be gleaned from other sectors such as storm and
len contamination can be unravelled be potentially unravelled by use of flood management, wastewater treatment and the water treatment and dis-
flow cytometry using a suite of specific biomarkers in real time- where tribution sectors. Table 2 summarises, in the context of paludiculture how a
this non-invasive enumeration approach is potentially appropriate for ma- digital transformation could impact the sector. Developments in remote
chine learning and automation applications. The Irish company Apis Pro- sensing could have significant implications for paludiculture. Weiss et al.
tect developed a digital platform using sensors and machine learning for (2020) presented a meta-review of remote sensing for agricultural applica-
monitoring hives; specifically, key parameters encompassing temperature, tions. Technological improvements have meant that global, regional and
sound, humidity and temperature are recorded suing a wireless in-hive sen- local data on crop mapping, yield forecasting, biodiversity loss, water and
sor device (Robb, 2021). soil impacts are, in many situations, readily available. Chawla et al.
(2020) reviewed remote sensing products for analysis of water quality
5. Waste water recirculation – nexus between monitoring, treatment (e.g. surface water), water quantity (e.g. river or stream flow) and extremes
and energy using a paludiculture framework (e.g. flooding and drought impacts). Remote sensing also provides an alter-
native for locations where in-situ sensing is problematic where satellite re-
The Farm to Fork Strategy which is at the heart of the EU Green Deal is a mote sensing can now monitor in near-real-time retrievals, most
key driver for efficiency within the nexus of food production, water and components of the terrestrial water cycle. Challenges remain relates to ac-
wastewater resources and treatment and broad sustainability issues. Indeed curacy, data consistency, utility and also in retrieving data related to
across the OECD Farm to Fork strategy reflects the requirements of food sys- groundwater, water quality, surface water levels, and river flows and in re-
tems in terms of the “triple challenge” of food security and nutrition, lation to the products themselves (Chawla et al., 2020).

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N.J. Rowan et al. Science of the Total Environment 838 (2022) 156328

Table 2
Examples of impacts of digital transformation on water resources in paludiculture.
Modelling, prediction and forecasting System and infrastructure design Decision support and Optimization
operational management

• Scenario analysis to support design (e.g. robust design • Optimise design to enable future expansion • Management of water levels • Optimised pumping regimes for
under varying conditions) and digitisation • Real-time control of waste- water level management
• Links to process optimisation and potential for real-- • Reduce life cycle costs through development of water treatment processes • Minimise energy consumption
time process modelling using digital twins. digital models and/or digital twins • Fault detection and diagnosis • Optimised system maintenance (e.g.
• Design to enable future expansion on water systems preventative maintenance)
• Regulatory compliance • Optimise on-site productivity

Data collection in the water sector has long been recognised as a key issues around sensor accuracy and transient operational conditions
challenge. In many cases the may be collected from relatively harsh envi- (Sundui et al., 2021).
ronments which results in added maintenance. Furthermore there can be Nature based solutions (NBS) have been identified as key in addressing
concerns including (i) lack of trust in data veracity, (ii) poor data manage- challenges in water management across urban, agricultural and ecological
ment systems and (iii) the use of systems that are over-complicated and un- settings. In the agricultural landscape, NBS can be applied for soil health,
operable for end-users. Therrien et al. (2020) also highlighted key steps and carbon mitigation, downstream water quality protection, biodiversity ben-
ways forward for ensuring the steps from adequate data collection to action efits as well as assisting agricultural production and supply chains to
can be completed. Corominas et al. (2018) conducted a comprehensive re- achieve net-zero environmental emissions (Rowan and Casey, 2021).
view of computer based techniques for data analysis to improve operation Evaluting the ecotoxicological safety of NBMS will also be importnat
of wastewater treatment plants. The EU have led in terms of research in moving forward (Garvey et al., 2015). Examples of recent applications in-
this area with the most cited techniques including artificial neural net- clude wastewater treated using naturally occurring algae, bacterial and
works, principal component analysis, independent component analysis duckweed using IMTA process (O’Neill et al., 2020), use of earthworms
and partial least squares. However the review acknowledged a lack of ob- based technology for composing and wastewater treatment applications
jective comparison of techniques, the need for guidelines, the requirement (Cooney et al., 2021; Hylton et al., 2022; Arora and Saraswat, 2021), zoo-
for validation at full-scale, and the limited options for active optimization of plankton for tertiary wastewater treatment to enable wastewater reuse
data information content and quality. Clifford et al. (2017) proposed an ap- (Pous et al., 2021). The INNOQUA (H2020) project presented reviewed
proach balancing spatial resolution of data with the costs involved in col- and demonstrated various pathways for nature based treatment of waste-
lecting such data and It is clear the use of real-time monitoring and water and options for enabling wastewater reuse (Bumbac et al., 2021).
control systems has significant potential but further case-specific validation The study reviewed constructed wetlands, waste stabilisation ponds, anaer-
is necessary. obic treatment systems and vermifilters and presented details of perfor-
Newhart et al. (2019) comprehensively reviewed specific applications mance, design and maintenance requirements and ability to meet various
of various real-time control in wastewater treatment facilities and pre- regulatory standards across a wide variety of applications. NBS technology
sented examples of on-site applications across various industrial and munic- can be underpinned by models and tools that support better land use, en-
ipal sectors. While Newhart et al. (2019) pointed out the potential for such able accurate nutrient flow modelling and support the development of sus-
control to be more difficult to implement in decentralised wastewater treat- tainability metrics via life cycle assessment; moreover, while NBS are
ment facilities, Fox et al. (2022) demonstrated how data driven real-time designed to minimise technological requirements, there are significant op-
control of a decentralised wastewater treatment system (in this case a se- portunities to further enhance their benefits and enable process flexibility
quencing batch reactor) can be optimised to achieve regulatory compli- through targeted real-time control (Basil et al., 2021).
ance, reduce energy consumption and increase system throughput. Both
standard statical approaches and more advanced approaches using neural 6. Aquaculture and other aquatic systems
networks and regression modelling (Fox et al., 2022) were implemented.
Key to these approaches was their compatibility with standard (low-cost) Peatlands presents an opportunity to establish new food production sys-
programmable logic controllers and enabling the end-user optimise the tems that can offset negative environmental consequences of resource
control approach. constrained conventional terrestrial farming. Peatlands aquaculture can ful-
Fault detection and diagnosis, while common across various engineer- fil consumer needs by both intensifying and diversifying production of new
ing sectors, has focused mainly on leak detection at a municipal water sup- freshwater areas and fish species. The emerging nature of the industry pro-
ply level rather than building or industrial settings (Seyoum et al., 2017; vides an opportunity to build in digital solutions that can enable high tech-
Hashim et al., 2020). Fault detection in these settings can reduce leaks nological developments tailored to the specific needs of the production
but also enable efficient monitoring and preventative maintenance of model. Technology interfaced with digital solutions can be used to address
equipment such as sensors, valves, pumps and motors used for water and the challenges of low impact paludiculture (such as low-trophic IMTA, RAS,
wastewater management. There are various approaches that can be used organic) and environmental services. Digital technologies can support effi-
to leverage data from water systems in industrial processes. Mulligan cient development of paludiculture products and can be used to develop
et al. (2021) developed a series of water distribution system performance climate-friendly, sustainable production systems generating high quality
assessment rules and demonstrated how these would result in significant proteins and other products.
energy and water savings and associated greenhouse gas emissions. Essentially, Mount Lucas peatland demonstrator is ideal for establishing
Hashim et al. (2020) used principal component analysis and support vector digital systems to allow digitalization and use of collected data across the
machine techniques to enable accurate detection of various faults in a large full value chain to inform new eco-innovation balanced with environment
public building and an industrial setting. The problem of false alarm mod- protection. Digital tools such as Edge-cloud sensors, AI, machine learning
eration (false alarms can undermine user confidence) has also received re- and augmented reality can be used to build models from collected data
cent attention using both modelled data (Chen, 2010) and using case-study and facilitate implementation of a circular strategy to produce biomass of
data from industrial settings and large buildings (Hashim et al., 2020). Fault high value fish (such as trout and perch). At the same time models that in-
detection in wastewater treatment also requires further testing in full-scale tegrate biological constraints (microbiome, fish growth and health), system
facilities and a pathway forward of using hybrid models such as linking functioning, and effluent outputs can improve biomass productivity and
gaussian process regression, artificial neural networks with principal com- represent a step towards precision aquaculture. Moreover, the integration
ponent analysis or reinforcement learning to challenges associated with of customized management systems throughout the supply chain will

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N.J. Rowan et al. Science of the Total Environment 838 (2022) 156328

Fig. 2. Imagery of microalgae from the genera Scenedesmus, Nitzschia, Monoraphidium, Chlorella, Chlamydomonas and Cyclotella identified in Mount Lucas IMTA.

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N.J. Rowan et al. Science of the Total Environment 838 (2022) 156328

enable a well-managed, responsive and crisis proof system with improved supplies globally. Naughton et al. (2020) highlighted the potential benefit
traceability and authentication (Fig. 2). Such a digitally transformed, intel- of digital technologies for connecting ‘in field’ monitoring devices with liv-
ligent management system will enable development, testing and validation ing lab sophisticated equipment for real-time decision making in freshwater
of optimised integrated multi-trophic aquaculture and recirculating aqua- aquaculture.
culture systems (IMTA/RAS) on the peatlands by integrating multi- Previous researchers have also highlighted that microalgae species that
sensing (heterogenous sensors), multifunctional real-time modelling for de- constitute a major proportion of the peatland aquatic-biome are excellence
cision making with provision for climate resilience through full system candidates for CO2 bio-capture (Lopez-Pacheco et al., 2021; Wang et al.,
monitoring (microbiome, water physicochemical parameters). 2021); thus, use of end-to-end monitoring linked to sensors that will en-
There is a pressing need to design, implement and deploy ICT technolo- hance efficacy will be important going forward. The microalgae in the
gies to provide end-to-end monitoring systems for aquatic-based foods pro- aquaculture ponds constitute potentially thousands of species (O’Neill
duced in the peatlands (O’Neill et al., 2022). Integrated software, and et al., 2022) where there is a pressing use machine learning with bioinfor-
establishment of smart sensors for real-time monitoring and remote data matics to unlock their real-time monitoring and occurrence. O’Neill et al.
logging of production, is being implemented at the Mount Lucas peatland (2022) has also reported on using the occurrence of key microalgae in aqua-
site. LCA, PCA, MFA models can contribute to green business models and culture ponds as potential biosensors for assessing the impact of climate
the standardization of emerging peatland aquaculture and associated busi- change on IMTA process, which can be informed by using Cloud-edge com-
nesses globally. The latter also includes use of AI, machine learning and puting. It is notable that microalgae represent a superior option for carbon
Edge – cloud to develop and evolve strategies to reduce waste and to consol- fixation than terrestrial plants for higher growth and faster biomass produc-
idate gains achieved in aquaculture supply chain management. On a related tion, doubling their biomass in less than 24 h for most species (Farrelly
point, Ruiz-Salmón et al. (2020) noted that the water-energy-food nexus al- et al., 2013; Guo et al., 2017; Lopez-Pacheco et al., 2021). Fig. 2 illustrates
lows assessment of the life cycle of seafood products that enables clustering the different microalgae represented of the genera Chlorella, Raphidocelis,
and knowledge transferring to add value in the European Atlantic region. Scendesmus, Desmodesmus, Monaraphidium and Graesiella that were isolated
LCA can be applied to help understanding the benefits of ecolabelling and from Mount Lucas aquatic environment and were previously noted to ex-
eco-design in aquculture under a circular economy approach (Ruiz- hibit CO2 capture abilities (Lopez-Pacheco et al., 2021). Tabatabaei et al.
Salmón et al., 2020). Open knowledge sharing can also help advance (2011) noted that microalgae use carbon dioxide for energy conversion
paludiculture, such as software that integrates sensors (cameras, remote while producing approximately half of the atmospheric oxygen. While
sensing), and predictive analysis (biomass estimation and forecasting, Zhao and Su (2020) estimated that microalgae can capture a maximum of
water quality monitoring) to enable improved operational decisions for 2.35 GtCO2 in 100,000 km2 culture area, which shows the potential of
optimised production balanced with environmental protection. Combined using these organisms that naturally occur in the peatlands for CO2 capture
use of augmented reality and virtual reality can be used for training to pro- (Ramaraj et al., 2014). Use of microalgae in this IMTA closed system have
mote human resource development, so it accompanies 4IR and becomes many advantages, including easy control, insufficient space required, high
part of the digital transformation and Just Transition. ICT can be used to CO2 sequestration rate, and no contamination risk, nearby all microalgae
create a quality of experience (QoE) that enables specialist training in species may be cultivated, and high biomass density (Lopez-Pacheco
paludiculture on site and remote by linking to living labs. Hatch blue accel- et al., 2021). Lopez-Pacheco et al. (2021) also noted that through photosyn-
erator is gaining in popularity as a novel sustainable aquaculture and inno- thesis microalgae can fixate CO2 by what is known as phyco-capture pro-
vation programme offered globally for innovators that includes those cess. Thus, there is a pressing need to use digital tools to enable end-to-
converging disciplines (https://www.hatch.blue/accelerator). end monitoring and to optimise ponds systems to cultivate microalgae for
Traditionally, there has been worldwide reliance upon ‘end-of-pipe’ en- CO2 bio-capture.
gineering solutions for discharge wastewater control to safeguard water re-
sources (Barrett et al., 2016; Tahar et al., 2017). This IMTA system of Mount 7. European Digital Innovation Hubs – Quo Vadis
Lucas will provide solutions and data for wastewater management and be a
model system for social marketing and studies of consumer awareness and Digital Innovation Hubs (DIHs) are one-stop shops that help companies
acceptance of aquatic paludiculture processes (Domegan, 2021) that may to become more competitive with regard to their business/production pro-
lead to disruptive innovation (Schuelke-Leech, 2018; Schuelke-Leech, cesses, products or services using digital technologies, while remaining en-
2021a, 2021b). Mount Lucas will also enable emerging innovations such vironmentally sustainable and reducing greenhouse gas emissions. DIHs
as oral vaccine testing and the potential use of other safety indicators are based on technology infrastructure (Competence Centre) and provide
(Taufek, 2020; Usuldin et al., 2021; Wan-Mohtar et al., 2021). The digital access to the latest knowledge, expertise and technology to support their
transformation “Terrain-AI” project uses drones across the peatlands for customers with piloting, testing and experimenting with digital innova-
monitoring carbon sequestration as a means for sustaining carbon sinks tions. DIHs also provide business and financing support to implement
(SFI, 2021). ICT systems coupled to drones for data collection can provide these activities, if needed across the value chain. As proximity is considered
real-time ecosystem management to promote and preserve pollinators essential, DIH act as first regional point of contact; consequently, a DIH is a
across the peatlands by preserving and enhancing habitats, improving regional multi-partner corporation (RTOs, universities, industry associa-
food sources through rewilding and decrease bee-disease through use of in- tions, chambers of commerce, incubator/accelerators, regional develop-
novative technologies (Goblirsch et al., 2021). ment agencies, and potentially governments), and can also provide strong
The development of fully recirculated systems, such as this aforemen- nexus with other service providers outside their region supporting compa-
tioned IMTA system, that relies upon natural processes for remediating nies with access to their services. The rationale behind this DIH initiative
water quality, and do not discharge to receiving water presents a step is to help European industry, small or large, high-tech or not, to grasp the
change or potential disruptive sustainable solution. O’Neill et al. (2020) de- digital opportunities. The EC will focus 500 M€ over the next 5 years
scribed the first IMTA system developed in the Irish peatlands that uses a from Horizon Europe budget to support the development of DIHs as the
balanced ecosystem of naturally occurring microalgae, bacteria and poten- level of digitalisation remains uneven, depending on the sector, country
tially duckweed that regulates waste and maintains water quality. An on- and size of company: only 20% of SMEs in the EU are highly digitised.
site wind turbine provide a renewable source of energy to operate aeration This challenge is particularly pertinent for the digital transformation of
systems in the circulatory aquaculture ponds. However, global warming has peatland eco-products and services. Key assets aligned with DIHs include
created greater opportunities for extreme weather events that can influence (a) information on infrastructures; (b) expertise; (c) network contacts of
vital food production, by way of droughts and flooding. The ability to mon- key players and communities at large; (d) expertise in initiating robust col-
itor and predict the impact of extreme weather events through digitaliza- laborations of key stakeholders to meet specialist USP offerings; (e) access
tion of the pilot IMTA processes will help future proof and protect food to financial capital; and (f) effective digital marking to ensure trustworthy

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brand that attracts stakeholders and ensures high quality delivery. Thus, authors with subject matter-expertise in peatland innovation have appro-
digital transformation of a peatland-focused hub will enable real-time ac- priately noted that digital transformation of paludiculture products and ser-
cess to networks; upskill and satisfy R&D opportunities; track and commu- vices will have limited utility in the absence of a robust and valid green
nicate technical expertise and consultancy, enable seamless and managed business model that delivers scale. Ziegler et al. (2021) described
access to facilities; and support the contribution to policy measures. paludiculture to be an emerging, science driven, and collaborative innova-
Currently, there are 706 DIHs registered on the Catalogue of Candidate tion that are rarely directly commercially viable, where the authors focused
European DIHs tool that are in following evolutionary stages; fully opera- on fuel, fodder, horticulture substrate and construction material. These
tional (413), in preparation (223), and potential new DIHs from H2020 peatland products are currently not under development at Mount Lucas.
(70) (https://europa.eu/!NX87WD). The purpose of this European cata- Moreover, Ziegler et al. (2021) reported that paludiculture faces significant,
logue is to support networking of DIHs and to provide an overview of the adverse path-dependency due to subsidies and regulations that appear to
landscape of DIHs in Europe supported by regional, national and preferentially support agriculture on drained peatlands. Paludiculture ini-
European initiatives for the digitization of the industry. European DIHs tiatives to date typically involve landowners and users where further eco-
(EDIHs) will play a central role in the Digital Europe Programme to stimu- nomic models supporting experimentation and scaling up of paludiculture
late the broad uptake of AI, high performance computing (HPC) and cyber- products and services are required (Ziegler et al., 2021). Zeigler (2020)
security, as well as other digital solutions/interoperability for the public also reported that paludiculture is the productive use of wet and rewetted
sector. EDIHs will support companies, and the public sector organisations, peatlands and proposed a 3Ms-schema of mission, modes and making inno-
in the use of digital technology to improve the sustainability of their pro- vation as a device to create space for a wide and inclusive discussion of
cesses and products, in particular with regard to energy consumption and paludiculture. The reader is directed to the published work of Planko
reduction in carbon emissions. The 325 candidate EDIHs are the DIHs et al. (2016) for key processes for building up a technological innovation
(existing or not) that are assigned by Member States to participate in the system (that includes paludiculture) and arguments supporting a system
Call for Proposal of the EC to obtain funding to become European DIHs; a building model approach in strategic management.
network of 200 EDIHs will be financed in Europe via the new Digital Pro- Entrepreneurs and SMEs at Mount Lucas are supported and enabled
gramme 2021–2027. Currently, the EC is verifying all entries in the cata- through a quadruple helix hub approach under an Empower Eco sustain-
logue tool based on information provided by each DIH as to whether or ability framework, which connects stakeholders across the business ecosys-
not the comply with 4 criteria; (1) be part of a regional, national, or tem including academia, industry, government and society (end-users).
European policy initiative to digitise the industry; (2) be a non-profit orga- This reflects that need to adopt far-reaching changes of the macro environ-
nization; (3) have a physical presence in the region and present an updated ment in order to implement innovative sustainable technologies (Planko
website clearly explaining the DIHs' activities and services provided for the et al., 2015; Planko et al., 2016). This Empower Eco holistic approach aligns
digital transformation of SMEs/Midcaps or industrial sectors currently in- with previous scholars who reported on the combined insights from the
sufficiently taking up digital technologies; and (4) have at least 3 examples strategic management literature and the technological innovations system
of how the DIH has helped a company with their digital transformation, re- (TIS) literature in order to provide a strategy framework for entrepreneurs
ferring to publicly available information, identifying for: client profile, cli- to collectively build a favourable environment for their sustainable technol-
ent need, and solution provided to meet the needs. Generally, the main ogy (Planko et al., 2016). It is notable that insights from system-building lit-
functions of EDIHs include (1) Test before invest, (2) Skills and training, erature originate mainly from the systems perspective (Musiolik et al.,
(3) Support to Find Investments, and (4) Innovation ecosystem and net- 2012) that had previously not considered specific subject-matter insights
working. EDIHs are embedded in a local economy; for example, if from the company perspective (Planko et al., 2016). The holistic system
manufacturing is important, the hub will enable companies in adopting In- building approach, aligned strongly with Quadruple Helix Hub concept
dustry 4.0 and circular economy methods. Traditional ICT method, such as depicted by Empower Eco, connects actors across their ecosystem to collab-
simulation and supply chain integration, will take on an important role orate strategically in order to shape their environment (Rowan and Casey,
where these are becoming more AI and HPC orientated. In addition, by in- 2021). Planko et al. (2016) noted that term ‘system building’ originates
troducing digital manufacturing, cybersecurity becomes a prerequisite. . from the TIS literature and is defined as the “deliberate creation or modifi-
It is likely that the applicability and digital maturity of entities sup- cation of broader institutional or organizational structures in a technologi-
ported by Digital Innovation Hubs alone or embedded in Quadruple Helix cal innovation system carried out by innovative actors” (Musiolik et al.,
concepts will be profiled using the categories described in Table 3. Innova- 2012). While this system building approach harnesses the use of a diverse
tion Radar methodology is an approach adopted by the European Commis- suite of assets, facilities and expert in collaborating universities for address-
sion to assess the impact of “test before invest” and “support to find ing broad ranging enterprise needs, this approach as supports entrepre-
investments” services of EDIHs. Mount Lucas peatland HUB will support neurs and start-ups in co-creation and testing of low cost green solutions
and enable ‘train the trainer’ developing ways to transfer knowledge gener- (Table 4).
ated in a HPC, AI and Cybersecurity through regular workshops. This will For example, Accelerate Green is the first Irish accelerator dedicated to
also enable community building for stakeholders that includes agriculture, scaling companies based in the peatlands with a particular focus on climate
horticulture, health, public administration and so forth. Other activities to action and sustainability by developing eco-products and services based on
be adopted, aligned with EDIH framework, digital matchmaking market- green innovation with a base in Boora, which is adjacent to Mount Lucas
place, InvestEU, short term training courses, engagement with regional (Rowan and Galanakis, 2020). Accelerate Green combines Bord Na
and national policy makers, deploy effective media presence to highlight Móna’s commercial expertise and Resolve Partners expertise in building in-
peatland activities across the network, and impact assessment of activities novative companies, and is an equity-free scaling accelerator designed to
that includes analysis of indicators, and KPIs, developing targets, generat- create step change in green innovation (Bord Na Móna, 2022). It delivers
ing new knowledge including Open access provision to support eight 2-day deep progamme sessions that action planning, offsite innova-
benchmarking and policy recommendations. tion, strategic and business planning along with working with a peer
group of successful entrepreneurs or ‘green-change leaders'. Accelerate
8. Business modelling and sustainability for enabling accelerating Green also provides an ‘invest and enable’ funding strategy with an initial
Mount Lucas green innovation focus on established scaling climate tech companies, high-growth SMEs
pivoting to climate change economy, earlier stage innovative-driven enter-
Ziegler et al. (2021) highlighted that despite increasing sustaining or prises, renewables/carbon reduction, waste/circular, and AgTech.
disruptive potential, it remains challenging for value propositions and Use of this systems building approach has also supported UNIVIV
value network for new paludiculture products and services remains to be OneHealth/Emerald SME partners to map a business canvas that includes
hurdled, which presents a barrier for commercial applicability. Several the economic feasibility for commercially producing high value protein

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from duckweed (Fig. 3) harvested from the aquaculture ponds at Mount Table 3
Lucas that includes scalability. Irish demand for plan protein in animal Categories used to describe common functions of European Digital Innovation
feeds is approximately 900,000 tons, where current protein rich native Hubs.
crops (peas and beans) provide approximately 52,000 tons on 10,000 ha. Source: https://europa.eu/!NX87WD
The National Protein Stakeholders Group aspires to increase this produc- Category Description
tion to 120,000 on 20,000 ha. Notably, 3000 ha of rewetted peatland INTELLIGENCE are intelligent systems used for decision making that both
ponds will produce 5000 tons of protein concentrate with zero artificial in- understand and adjust to specific circumstances; these are systems
puts including fertiliser and pesticide. Some 5000 tons of duckweed protein than can predict or plan to improve quality and to optimise
capacity
concentrate would displace 50% of imported protein concentrate Irish or-
CONNECTIVITY the ability to access data in a secure and real-time manner;
ganic salmon industry. Thirty thousand hectares of duckweed on marginal appropriate systems and machine will exchange data that may also
lands would produce 50,000 tons of 65% protein concentrate that is ap- be an integrated part of the business process.
proximately equivalent to 20,000 ha of pea and bean protein at approxi- FLEXIBIITY the ability to adapt and customise systems and business processes
mately 30% to 35% protein. The direct commercial value is in excess of to specific needs so that personalized products can be produced at
affordable, mass-production prices?
€50 m; thus, potentially displacing €50 m of imports from an Irish feed pro-
AUTOMATION can repetitive task be automated in a reliable way.
duction and security perspective. Thus, rewetting peatland is commercially SUSTAINABILITY are natural resources used in a sustainable manner, whereby not
feasible from a farmers' perspective, if duckweed is cultivated as an alterna- wasting fragile resources, also ensuring that no harm is done to the
tive sustainable crop. Topics that require attention include processing duck- environment nor quality of life of citizens. SERVICES – are new
sustaining or disruptive business models used where products are
weed to produce animal feed, optimizing duckweed growth conditions, and
offered as a service.
identifying lands most suitable for rewetting and change of use. The Mount SOCIAL are workers motivated, engaged and empowered to carry out their
Lucas site is licensed for fish farming where the fish waste stream supports work in an autonomous manner when working within the new
the linked commercial production of duckweed that can be potentially used systems.
in the animal feed industry (O’Neill et al., 2022). O’Neill et al. (2019) also
reported that duckweed is important for waste aquaculture stream quality
and recirculation at Mount Lucas peatland site where duckweed works in
concert with algae and microbes for this purpose. De Beukelaar et al. embed regional actors that can promote diffusion of best practices and
(2018) reported that duckweed is considered to be a promising source of knowledge transfer; expand project opportunities; facilitate learning, ex-
protein for human food products due to its high protein content and envi- perimentation and capacity building; manage workshops, SAPs and
ronmentally friendly production properties. Albeit not peatland focused, supporting specialist modules for PhDs; promote and foster ad-hoc alliances
Bonomo et al. (1997) had previously described the use of a pilot duckweed to enable open innovation; broker/match make academia with industry; ac-
as biological approach to produce reliable, simple and cost-effective small celerate entrepreneurial activities; align interests to local industries and op-
wastewater treatment system. In spite of the profitable characteristics of portunities for converging these; connecting with complementary EIDH for
duckweed (high productivity, high protein content, wide geographic distri- information flow and sharing on EU topics; support trusted partners that
bution, control of negative impacts from conventional wastewater treat- will provide subject-matter expertise and complementary services; develop
ment ponds), the results intimate that extensive use in Italy seems successful business models for collaborations; an efficient channel to other
difficult due to the high requirement of land area and the ceasing of growth EIHs, regional and markets that includes access to capacities, best practices
in winter months (at least in Northern Italy). However, the peatlands repre- and skills.
sents a large expansive area in many countries internationally, including Mount Lucas has focused on development innovations to support pri-
Ireland. In temperate climates, a reasonable use of duckweed looks to be mary production of freshwater fish and to improve ecological performance
the production of good quality secondary effluents (BOD and SS removal) with future provision for secondary process and diversification towards re-
from small communities, especially in seasonal (summer) wastewater treat- duced waste and improving shelf-life. Development of customized ICT solu-
ment plants. Duckweed is the smallest and fastest-growing aquatic plant, tions for production and supply chain management to improve safety,
and has advantages including simple processing and the ability to grow quality and awareness towards enabling transition to eco-friendly aquacul-
high biomass in smaller areas. Therefore, duckweed could also be used as ture and adjacent innovations. This will be achieved by digitally connecting
a new potential bioreactor for biological products such as vaccines, anti- the living labs with in field aquatic and adjacent innovation in the peatlands
bodies, pharmaceutical proteins, and industrial enzymes. Moreover, Yang (Fig. 1). Mount Lucas will support multi-stakeholder engagement to stimu-
et al. (2021a, 2021b) recently reported on plant bioreactors have flourished late creation of innovative and disruptive solutions for eco-friendly aquatic
into an exciting area of synthetic biology due to their product safety, inex- food systems. Met through generation, validation and application of new
pensive production cost, and easy scale-up. knowledge at both pilot-scale and commercially in order to sustainably im-
Currently, the commercial production of high value ‘organic’ cultured prove performance by enabling knowledge and technology exchanges that
perch and trout at Mount Lucas is no likely to be commercially viable considers Open innovation. Means to consolidate sustainability include es-
given the low fish biomass or tonnage on a 4 ha site, but this also provides tablishing and deploying best practice, quality assurance and risk manage-
an excellent innovation system for education, training and research given ment that can be met by specialist training and infrastructure with
it’s state-of-the-art IMTA system focus. Fish health/welfare and the linked partnering companies. Essential is the development of effective and appro-
microbiome profile in cultured pond water will also strongly contribute priate ICT management and related innovative tools throughout the supply
as indicators or tools for studying impact of climate change on sustainable chain that will embrace traceability and safety.
food production systems (O’Neill and Rowan, 2022; O’Neill et al., 2022), Mount Lucas will rely upon digital tools to develop, optimise, automate
where these activities will also support social enterprises (Rowan and and validate land-based IMTA-RAS (IMRAS) models that include high pro-
Casey, 2021), and the development of digital technologies. tein foods that have a low environmental footprint or impact. Peatland-
The EIDH smart specialisation strategy for structured support and devel- focused models to satisfy a circularity approach to produce high-value
opment of peatland innovation includes provision for Entrepreneurial Dis- fish (such as Perch and Trout) along with low trophic plant species, such
covery process using bottom up approach. Typically, this embraces five as duckweed. Monitor and control physicochemical parameters of culture
categories– (1) launching strategic initiatives; (2) re-entering existing ponds to reflect optimised ratio of microalgae and bacteria with duckweed
programmes; (3) updating stakeholder strategic agencies; (4) aligning in- (Lemna minor) to produce biomass of fish along with using this natural eco-
frastructure; and (5) setting up strategic fora. Digitising Peatland activities system to regulate waste and maintain water quality through recirculation.
to manage projects, networks, skills and training, tech transfer, consultancy Develop sensors that will respond to key performance indicators in the
and strategy; transnational connectivity and communication; profile and pond to match aquaculture effluent and biomass productivity, along with

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N.J. Rowan et al. Science of the Total Environment 838 (2022) 156328

commercial production of duckweed that feeds of aquaculture waste activities, models, products and services arising from the convergence of bi-
stream. ological with digital domains over the next decade is illustrated in Fig. 4; it
Integrated digital (intelligent) management system for IMTA that in- noticeable that some of these may lead to disruptive innovation.
cludes provision for multi-sensing technologies aligned with multi-
functional management platforms (advanced monitoring, modelling, data
9. Conclusions
analytics, and decision making); this system should also measure and
model variances in climate and other disruptive fluxes to system through
There is a strong trajectory towards development of wet peatland inno-
real-time system monitoring (microbiome, water physicochemical parame-
vation for new green job creation where this novel aquatic ecosystem must
ters, toxic microalgae) and modelling.
balance economic, environmental and social sustainability. Peatlands rep-
Schuelke-Leech (2021a, 2021b) recently described disruptive innova-
resents an important carbon sink where it is commensurately imperative
tion and how it applies to the changes proposed for the Green New Deal
to protect the environment, ecology aligned with regulatory policies. Digi-
era, which is also highly relevant to digital transformation of the peatlands.
tal transformation has radically changed adjacent Agriculture 4.0 that has
This author noted that achieving the ambitions of the Green New Deal will
been mainly driven new business models focusing on local productivity.
require social, economic, and industrial revolutions, rarely experienced in
Green innovation and social enterprises across the peatlands value chain
our history. However, climate change is going to force monumental
will be accelerated through digital transformation, which will be harnessed
changes; the latter has already decoupled the end-to-end value chain at
through EDIH model structure that is complementary to that of the quadru-
Mount Lucas where O’Neill et al. (2022) recently reported that IMTA pro-
ple helix hub (academic-industry-government-society) concept. This new
duction for trout and perch was affected by extreme weather events that
paludiculture enterprise ecosystem will test-the-tech and digitally connect
lead to fish mortality. O’Neill and co-workers (2022) also reported also
green-minded companies, stakeholders, enables and end-users. It is advo-
noted that the emergence of different species of microalgae in this IMTA
cated that future strategic orientation of digital policies and plans will be
peatland process can be used as an early warning tool for disruptive climate
aimed at ensuring and achieving international consensus and agreement
variance events. Schuelke-Leech (2021a, 2021b) reported that the Green
on harmonization of processes. For example, digital tools for enabling fu-
New Deal offers a vision for controlling and directing society’s transforma-
ture strategic development of this Irish Mount Lucas peatland demonstrate
tion through the development of new green technologies and public poli-
will include focusing on protecting biodiversity; monitoring and ensure sus-
cies that mitigate and support the transformation to a sustainable and just
taining carbon sink with net zero gas emissions; developing new aquatic
society. The reader is directed to the model of Schuelke-Leech (2018) for
green-innovations that includes high quality protein sources, fully
an understanding of magnitudes of disruptive technologies and applicabil-
ity. Rowan (2019) also provided examples of potential disruptive technolo-
gies for disease mitigation that can be applied to safeguard peatlands
aquatic products. A summary of potential key emerging innovative

Table 4
Digital transformation of the multi-actor ecosystem (Quadruple Helix Hub) along
with commensurate infrastructure, supports and enterprise activities.
Concentrated single-access Linked acceleration Digitisation
supports for industry, activities
entrepreneurs, disruptors

Step-Change Physical R&D Collaborative End-to-end Edge

Infrastructure & Systems Facilitation computing
Supports AI, ARVR, QoE,
blockchain,
cyber-physical
systems
Pre-start Ups Design Maturation ARVR, QoE, AI.
Activities
Ideation & Design Thinking Technical Maturation AI, machine learning,
Activities augment reality, IoT
Market Research Financial Planning Blockchain
-Early Needs Analysis Legal Assistance Blockchain
-Product Market Fit Analysis Social and Digital ARVR, IoT
Marketing (including
informing customer
behavioural change)
Early Technical Validation Networking Edge – IoT systems
-Test the Tech Dedicated Grant End-to-end
Writing/Reporting monitoring, Edge
computing (sensors,
robotics), photonics.
-Experimentation/Validation Connection to Academic Edge computing,
in Pre-Pilot Staff/Expertise and ARVR (QoE).
-Scaled to Real-Life Setting Equipment to support
commercialisation
“Living lab” – specialist Test beds in the Big data, machine
equipment usage for data environment (traditional learning AI, ARVR.
generation (real-time slow analysis and
analysis) hand-held devices)
Conduit to State Financial Enable Social Enterprise - Blockchain,
Supports/Agencies Outreach Functions cyper-physical
systems, AI.
Specialist training Technical training - ARVR/QoE; digital
Fig. 3. Duckweed harvested from the IMTA peatland site at Mount Lucas in the
ecotourism twin
Republic of Ireland.

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N.J. Rowan et al. Science of the Total Environment 838 (2022) 156328

Fig. 4. Summary of potential key emerging innovative activities emerging from peatlands enabled by digital transformation over next decade.

recirculated waste water without need for end-of-pipe disease mitigation services for end-users. Examples include using AI, machine learning,
treatments, development of renewable energies, bioprospecting of bioac- immersive technologies (AR/VR)
tives from waste streams, in field testing of sensors and robotics, smart de- • Over the past 5 years there has been an accelerated transition from
velopment of vertical farming and exotic mushrooms, agro-forestry, and ‘Brown to Green’ that reflects what has become the paradigm shift away
pollination and ecosystem service management. Peatlands innovation will from harvesting peat as a fossil fuel to developing sustainable eco-
be advanced through digital solutions that address process automation, innovations on the same peatlands. Therefore, there is a pressing need
data analytics and processing, control and management systems; moreover, to understanding the roles of local government, industry and society in
these activities reflect those applied to inform the 4th technological revolu- the management development of paludiculture innovations, which will
tion under Industry 4.0 along with alignment with the main tenets of Indus- inform new policies and job creation.
try 5.0 human-centric model, and with many of the UN’s sustainable • It is important to create an awareness surrounding Peatlands innovations
development goals. Digital transformation of paludiculture products and and to understanding how the digital transformation of such enterprises
services as described herein will yield the next generation of can powerful contributors to new business models and regional econo-
multidisciplinary-trained researchers equipped with the necessary cross- mies, which includes meeting several of the United Nations' sustainable
cutting knowledge and skills to advance sustainability and climate action development goals.
agendas for society with a global orientation. Funding instruments such • Big data created from digital transformation of peatlands using drones
as the European Just Transition, Interreg, and Horizon Europe will advance will inform geo-referencing of sites with view to optimised usage bal-
these opportunities by fostering and supporting key partnerships with anced with protecting environment and biodiversity including ecosystem
stakeholders for the betterment of society. service management.
• There is a trend to develop new regional digital innovation hubs to meet
9.1. Implications and recommendations community transitions to low carbon economy; however, there is a press-
ing need to provide clear guidance on the roles of each of the separate 706
• There is much to be learnt by generating a deeper appreciation of the cen- DIHs across Europe so as to optimise cross-cutting usage by stakeholders
tral role of key digital technologies supporting Agriculture 4.0 for that includes provision for integration trans-regionally.
unlocking adjacent and cross-cutting opportunities for the peatlands • There are growing opportunities to support the swarm of new green start-
that will be met by more collaborate projects aligned with EIDH and Qua- ups companies that will be enabled through digitised living labs con-
druple Helix Hub concepts. For example, this holistic approach should nected to environment test beds that will include AI/ML informed process
also focus on gaining a better understanding of the impacts of climate automation, blockchain and cyber-physical systems for transparency,
change for the intensive sustaining of peatland innovations at Mount safety and security, IoT Cloud based approach to optimise sensors, drones
Lucas (Ireland), which will potentially provide a useful blueprint to repli- and satellites for carbon sequestration and development of aquatic inno-
cate across peatlands globally using an Open access knowledge-sharing vations ranging from aquaculture to vertical farming.
model. • Digital technologies will be enable Peatland enterprises to become more
• There remains a lack of clear understanding as to what the concept of sus- efficient through effective business models in real time; moreover, lessons
tainability means for industries supporting paludiculture; therefore, it is learnt from Agriculture 4.0 suggests that key activities will include pro-
envisaged that digital technologies will help meet this gap by way of pro- cess automation and robotics, information systems and applications,
moting and implementing virtual training, management and creating cyber-physical systems, data analytics and logistics.
greater awareness of these emerging eco-enterprises, products and • Digital technologies will unlock societal challenges for rural and poor

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N.J. Rowan et al. Science of the Total Environment 838 (2022) 156328

regions as attested by the Irish peatland – midlands that will inform a fair Acknowledgments
and just transition across Europe.
• Digital technologies will help develop green innovation that will contrib- The author acknowledges provision of aerial image of Mount Lucas
ute to strategic management in order to mitigate against disruption in peatland site furnished by Bord Iascaigh Mhara (BIM). The authors would
supply chains; this topic including mitigating against emerging risks in- like to thank Interreg Atlantic Area Neptunus (Project EAPA_576/2018),
cluding climate change, global conflict, and pandemics. Regional University Network European University (RUN-EU Project), and
• Digital tools will help us appreciate key data outputs across several envi- Bord Iascaigh Mhara (Project 2019 BIM-KGS-008) for funding support.
ronmental test bed, such as use of LCA, PCA, MLF for generating data to We thank the SME, UNIVIV OneHealth Solutions, for providing business
help inform societal, political and technological readiness levels (or matu- model information informing the commercial development of their their
rity) of green innovation across the aquatic peatlands ecosystem. Digital Green paludiculture innovation.
technologies will help define international standards for peatland innova-
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