Actuators and Sensors:

Encoders

ME 423: Machine Design

Instructor: Ramesh Singh
1
 Sensors
• Optical encoders
• Interferometric sensors
• Laser triangulation sensors
• Focus Variation

ME 423: Machine Design

Instructor: Ramesh Singh
2
 Encoders
• Encoders are digital transducers that are used
for measuring angular displacements and
velocities
• Encoders can be generally categorized into:
– optical (photoelectric)
– magnetic encoders
– mechanical contact

ME 423: Machine Design

Instructor: Ramesh Singh
3
 Optical Encoders
• Shaft Encoders are digital transducers that are
used for measuring angular displacements and
velocities
• Relative advantages of digital transducers over
their analog counterparts:
– High resolution (depending on the word size of the
encoder output and the number of pulses per
revolution of the encoder)
– High accuracy (particularly due to noise immunity of
digital signals and superior construction)
– Relative ease of adaptation in digital control systems
(because transducer output is digital)

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Instructor: Ramesh Singh
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 Shaft Encoders
• Shaft Encoders can be classified into two
categories depending on the nature and
method of interpretation of the output:
– Incremental Encoders
– Absolute Encoders

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Instructor: Ramesh Singh
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 Incremental Encoders
• Output is a pulse signal that is generated when the transducer
disk rotates as a result of the motion that is being measured.
• By counting pulses or by timing the pulse width using a clock
signal, both angular displacement and angular velocity can be
determined.
• Displacement, however, is obtained with respect to some
reference point on the disk, as indicated by a reference pulse
(index pulse) generated at that location on the disk. The index
pulse count determines the number of full revolutions.

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Instructor: Ramesh Singh
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 Incremental Encoder

• Direction of rotation for incremental encoders can

also be a problem since the pulsed don’t indicate
direction.
• Bidirectional incremental encoders generally have
two tracks placed so that the pulses will be 90
degrees out of phase with each other.

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Instructor: Ramesh Singh
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 Schematic of an Incremental Encoder

(slits)

Courtesy: K. Craig
Schematic Representation of an Optical Encoder
One Track and One Pick-Off Sensor Shown
Actuators & Sensors in Mechatronics K. Craig
ME 423: Machine Design
Optical Encoders Instructor: Ramesh Singh 6
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 Absolute Encoders
• An absolute encoder has many pulse tracks on its
transducer disk.
• When the disk of an absolute encoder rotates,
several pulse trains – equal in number to the
tracks on the disk – are generated
simultaneously.
• At a given instant, the magnitude of each pulse
signal will have one of two signal levels (i.e., a
binary state) as determined by a level detector.
This signal level corresponds to a binary digit (0
or 1). Hence, the set of pulse trains gives an
encoded binary number at any instant.
ME 423: Machine Design
Instructor: Ramesh Singh
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 Absolute Encoders
• The pulse windows on the tracks can be
organized into some pattern (code) so that
each of these binary numbers corresponds to
the angular position of the encoder disk at the
time when the particular binary number is
detected.
• Pulse voltage can be made compatible with
some form of digital logic (e.g., TTL)
• Direct digital readout of an angular position is
possible
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Instructor: Ramesh Singh
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 Absolute Encoder
• Absolute encoders are commonly used to measure
fractions of a revolution. However, complete
revolutions can be measured using an additional
track that generates an index pulse, as in the case of
an incremental encoder.

ME 423: Machine Design

Instructor: Ramesh Singh
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 Encoder
In Binary Code, bit
switching may not take
place simultaneously.

Absolute
Schematic Diagram of an Encoders must be
Absolute Encoder Disk powered and
monitored only
Pattern when a reading is
(a) Binary code taken. Also, if a
(b) Gray code reading is missed,
it will not affect
Ambiguities in bit switching can be the next reading.
avoided by using gray code.
However, additional logic is needed
to covert the gray-coded number to a
corresponding binary number.
Actuators & Sensors in Mechatronics ME 423: Machine Design K. Craig
Optical Encoders Instructor: Ramesh Singh 7
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 Other Encoders
Pulse peak: nonmagnetic are
Pulse valley: magnetic area

(Electrically Insulating Material)

Schematic Representation of a Sliding Contact Encoder

Schematic Representation of a Magnetic Encoder
Actuators & Sensors in Mechatronics K. Craig
Proximity sensor:
Optical Encoders 8 Magnetic induction
Actuators & Sensors in Mechatronics K. Craig
Optical Encoders 9

ferromagnetic material

Schematic Representation of a Proximity Probe Encoder

ME 423: Machine Design
Actuators & Sensors in Mechatronics K. Craig
Optical Encoders Instructor: Ramesh Singh 10

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 Reference Signal

Incremental Optical Encoder Disk

Offset-Sensor Configuration
Actuators & Sensors in Mechatronics K. Craig
Optical Encoders ME 423: Machine Design 16
Instructor: Ramesh Singh
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 Schematic of Quadrature

Clockwise (CW) rotation:

V1 lags V2 by a quarter of a cycle
(i.e., a phase lag of 90 )
Counterclockwise (CCW) rotation:
V1 leads V2 by a quarter of a cycle

Incremental Encoder Pulse Signals

(a) CW rotation (b) CCW rotation (c) reference
Actuators & Sensors in Mechatronics K. Craig
Optical Encoders 17
ME 423: Machine Design
Instructor: Ramesh Singh
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 • Displacement Computation
• Displacement Resolution
Computation
– Maximum count possible: M pulses n pulses
–• Maximum count
Maximum countpossible:
possible:M M pulses
pulses n pulses max
– Range of the encoder: max M
max
– Range of– the encoder:
If the data size is maxr bits, allowing for Ma sign bit, M = 2r-1,
–• IfRange of the
the data sizeencoder:
where is zero
r bits, ±allowing
countθmax
is alsoforincluded.
a sign bit, M = 2r-1,
• If the data
where zero size
count is r
isbits,
also allowing
included. for a
– If zero count is not included, M = 2 – 1 sign bit, M
r-1 = 2r-1, where

– Ifzero
zerocount
count isisalso
not included.
included,
– If max is 2 and min is zero, M = 2 r-1 – 1
then max and min will
IfIf zero countand is not included, M = position
2 –and 1 of thewill
r-1
–• max is 2correspond min istozero, then
the same max min code disk. To
• If θmax is 2π
correspond toand
avoid θsame
thethis is position
zero, then
minambiguity, of θthe
we and θdisk.
maxcode
use min will
To correspond
max
to thethis
avoid same position we
ambiguity, of theusecode disk. Tomaxavoid min thisr ambiguity,
2 1
min
• The conventional definition for digital resolution
2 r 1
– The conventional definition for digital resolution is: (θmax is:
– −θmin
The )
conventional definition for max digitalminresolution is:
max min 2r 1
1
2r 1
1
Actuators & Sensors in Mechatronics ME 423: Machine Design K. Craig
Optical Encoders Instructor: Ramesh Singh 18
Actuators & Sensors in Mechatronics K. Craig 16
Optical Encoders 18
 Glossary of Encoders
• ACCURACY is a measure of how close the output is to where it should
be. It is usually expressed in units of distance, such as ±30 arc seconds
or ±0.0001 inch. If it's expressed as a percent, make sure to state
whether it's a percent of full scale (not usually meaningful with a
rotary encoder) or a percent of nominal resolution.
• BIT is an abbreviation for Binary digit; it refers to the smallest element
of resolution.
• ERROR is the algebraic difference between the indicated value and the
true value of the input.
• FREQUENCY RESPONSE is the encoder's electronic speed limit,
expressed in kilohertz (1 kHz = 1000 Hz = 1000 cycles/sec). For
calculations, rotational speed must be in rev/sec (rps = rpm/60); linear
speed must be either in/sec or mm/sec, depending on the scale line
count.

ME 423: Machine Design

Instructor: Ramesh Singh
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 Glossary of Encoder
• INDEX SIGNAL is a once-per-rev output used to
establish a reference or return to a known starting
position; also called reference, marker, home, or Z.
• INTERPOLATION involves an electronic technique for
increasing the resolution from the number of optical
cycles on the disc or scale to a higher number of
quadrature square waves per revolution or per unit
length. These square waves can then be quadrature
decoded.
• MEASURING STEP is the smallest resolution element; it
assumes quadrature decode. (see also QUANTUM)

ME 423: Machine Design

Instructor: Ramesh Singh
18
 Glossary of Encoder
• PPR (pulses per revolution) Commonly (but mistakenly)
used instead of cycles/rev when referring to
quadrature square wave output.
• QUADRATURE refers to the 90-electrical-degree phase
relationship between the A and B channels of
incremental encoder output.
• QUADRATURE DECODE (or 4X Decode) refers to the
common practice of counting all 4 quadrature states
(or square wave transitions) per cycle of quadrature
square waves. Thus, an encoder with 1000 cycles/rev,
for example, has a resolution of 4000 counts/rev.

ME 423: Machine Design

Instructor: Ramesh Singh
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 Glossary of Encoder
• QUANTIZATION ERROR is inherent in all digital systems; it reflects
the fact that you have no knowledge of how close you are to a
transition. It is commonly accepted as being equal to ±1/2 bit.
• REPEATABILITY is a measure of how close the output is this time to
where it was last time, for input motion in the same direction. It's
not usually specified explicitly, but it is included in the accuracy
figure. (As a rule of thumb, the repeatability is generally around
1/10 the accuracy.) RESOLUTION is the smallest movement
detectable by the encoder. It can be expressed in either electrical
terms per distance (e.g., 3600 counts/rev or 100 pulses/mm) or in
units of distance (e.g., 0.1° or 0.01 mm).
• SLEW SPEED is the maximum allowable speed from mechanical
considerations. It is independent of the maximum speed dictated by
frequency response.

ME 423: Machine Design

Instructor: Ramesh Singh
20
 Linear Encoders
• Provide actual location feedback of a position and increase
system accuracy.
• Allow a tight servo loop (when used with a linear servo
motor).
– Although it is physically impossible to mount a linear encoder’s read
head in the same exact place as the user’s load, it can be mounted
nearby, telling you actual position (regardless of the drive mechanism
accuracy).
• Optical encoders use imaging and interferometric techniques
• Magnetic encoders use magentorestrictive sensors with a
magnetic tape
• For applications with particularly demanding accuracy
requirements, laser interferometers be considered.

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Instructor: Ramesh Singh
21
 Imaging Scanning
• The imaging scanning principle functions by means of projected-
light signal generation: two graduations with equal grating periods
are moved relative to each other—the scale and the scanning
reticle.
• The carrier material of the scanning reticle is transparent, whereas
the graduation on the measuring standard may be applied to a
transparent or reflective surface.
• When parallel light passes through a grating, light and dark surfaces
are projected at a certain distance. An index grating with the same
grating period is located here. When the two gratings move relative
to each other, the incident light is modulated.
• If the gaps in the gratings are aligned, light passes through. If the
lines of one grating coincide with the gaps of the other, no light
passes through. Photovoltaic cells convert these variations in light
intensity into electrical signals.

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Imaging Scanning

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Instructor: Ramesh Singh
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 Interferential Scanning Principle
• Interference of light on a fine graduation to produce signals
used to measure displacement.
• A step grating is used as the measuring standard: reflective
lines 0.2 µm high are applied to a flat, reflective surface. In
front of that is the scanning reticle—a transparent phase
grating with the same grating period as the scale.
• Interferential encoders function with grating periods of, for
example, 8 µm,4 µm and finer. Their scanning signals are
largely free of harmonics and can be highly interpolated.
• These encoders are therefore especially suited for high
resolution and high accuracy.

ME 423: Machine Design

Instructor: Ramesh Singh
24
Interferometric Encoder

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Instructor: Ramesh Singh
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 Magnetic Encoder
• Magnetic linear encoders use a read head with a sensing
element in conjunction with a scale that is magnetically coded
with alternating polarity.
• The alternating north and south magnetic poles are spaced at
a precise distance, referred to as the pole pitch.
• The read head contains either Hall or magnetoresistive
sensors, and as the read head moves over the tape, it detects
the magnetic poles on the scale through either a change in
voltage or a change in magnetic resistance.
• Usually less precise than the optical encoder

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Instructor: Ramesh Singh
26
 Laser Interferometer
Applications of Laser Measurement
• Work on the interference dueSystem
to path difference
• Can be used for verywafer
• Typical precise measurements
stage metrology in semiconductor
using a laser
industry measurement system (Courtesy of Zygo Corp.):

11-125

ME 423: Machine Design

Applications of Laser Measurement

Instructor: Ramesh Singh
27
 Laser Triangulation Sensor
Laser Triangulation Sensors
• Typically used as non-contact
• Typically used as displacement sensors.
non-contact displacement
sensors.
• Very useful for gaging applications.
• Very useful for gauging applications.

11-127

ME 423: Machine Design

Instructor: Ramesh Singh
Laser Triangulation 28
 Laser Triangulation Sensor
Laser Triangulation
• This type of sensor determines the
position of a• target
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You can now
the light reflected from its precision
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contactdiode) projects
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triangulation sensors.
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(Classonto2),
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sensorscalled
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If the target changes its microns.
position Sensors
are point,
from the reference available
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operate at ranges from 2
position of theto projected
700 mm.
spot on
the detector changes as well. 11-129
Source: http://www.sensorsmag.com/articles/0702/laser/main.shtml

ME 423: Machine Design

Measurement Principle
Instructor: Ramesh Singh
29
 Focus Variation Sensors
• Focus-Variation integrates the small depth of focus of an
optical system with vertical scanning to give color and
topographical data from the variation of focus.
• The key component of the system is a precision optic that
contains a variety of lens systems that can be fitted with
different objectives, enabling measurements with different
resolution.

ME 423: Machine Design

Instructor: Ramesh Singh
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