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56 views7 pagesElementary Stats Notes - 1
Uploaded by
Ali HassanCopyright
© © All Rights Reserved
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/ 7
POPULATIO neal dun
r
Population, ae asi ob
0
SAMPLE: ree
$3 different meanings
A-STATISTICS IN PLURAL SENSE;
2:STATISTICS IN SINGULAR SENSE:
In singular sense itis a
! science consistin
interpretation of nume:
of meth
rial data, Of Methods used in collection, presentation analysis and
3: STATISTICS AS PLURAL OF sTaTisTiC:
In this sense statistics i
is used as plural of statisti i
tS tic. By statistic we mean numerical value calculated from
PARAMETER:
Anumerical meaure that
lescribes the characteristic o
Parameter is denoted by G
a population is called population params
reek letters. Itis a constant. ae Parameter.
BRANCHES OF STATISTICS:
Statistics is divided into two branches.
1: DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS:
Descriptive statistics consists of methods and techni
analysis of data. This area of study includes graphic:
quantities that provide information about centre of
2+ INFERENTIAL STATISTICS:
iques used in collection summarization, presentation and
al display of data and computation of some numerical
9f data and dispersion of observations,
Inferential statistics consists of methods used to draw conclusions about the characteristic of the population
(on the basis of information contained in the sample. This area of study includes estimation of population
parameter and testing of statistical hypothesis. itis based on probability theory. FUNCTIONS OR USES OF STATISTICS; \
1 Statistics presents facts in a form which Is easily understood,
2- Numerical facts glve more precise information than facts expressed in general terms,
3-It facilitates comparison,
4-It helps in prediction
5-Ithelps in the formation of suitable policies
UMITATIONS OF sTaristics
* Statistical results are true only on the average orn the long run.
2+ Statistics deals with facts which can be ‘numerically measured,
3 Use of statistical techniques demands great expertise and experience
‘4 Statistical results sometimes lead to confusion
5+ Statistical laws and rules do not hold
VARIABLE:
good in every case,
A characteristic that varies from one individual or object to another i called a variable, For example heights of
Students, number of children per family, eye color, education level etc,
Variables are of two types,
1 QuaNTTanive Vanes
Crample eights of students, speed of car, shoe sizes ete
Quantitative variables are further subdi
i) DISCRETE VaRiaBLs
Avariable which can assume only some s;
‘xample number of students in the class,
') CONTINUOUS VaRiaBLe;
livided into two types,
Pécifc values within a given range is called discrete variable. For
shoe size etc, These are counts,
2: QUALITATIVE VARIABLE:
A characteristic that varies only in quality from
cxample sex, religion, eye color etc itis also kn
‘CONSTANTS
one individual or object to another is called qualitative. For
}OWN as attribute
An observed characteris
or time to time.
QUANTITATIVE DaTA:
‘Any data observed in numerical f
‘QUALITAIVER DATA:
“Any data observed in non numerical form is Called qualitative data,
St called constant fit attains identical values from person to person, place to place
form is called quantitative data, y
eae
yy
y
7 DISCRETE DATA:
DISCRETE DATA:
Any data obsery
‘ed in countin,
CONTINUOUS Data, BstVle numerals is caleg discrete data
Any data observed
in
in measurin
PRIMARY Data, @ style numerals is called Continuous data,
SECONDARY Dara:
The data that have und
SOURCES OF SECOND,
een collected and
havernot undergone any Statistical treatment are called primary data
‘ergone some statistical t
reatment at least onc
a least once are called secondary data
Indirect oratinvestigation
Through questionnaire
iv. Registration
METHODS OF COLLECTING SECONDARY Dar,
METHODS OF COLLECTING SECONDARY DATA:
|. Official sources
M
Semi-official sources
I. Private sources
IV. Research organi
Measurement Scales
ions
There are four types of measurement scales.
1. Nominal
2. Ordinal
3. Interval
4. Ratio
Nominal Scale
For the nominal level of measurement observations of a qualitative variable can only be classified and
counted. There is no particular order to the labels.
Examples of nominal variables: Religion, Gender, Country
For the nominal level, the only measurement involved consists of counts. Sometimes we convert these counts
to percentages.
The nominal level has the following properties
1. The variable of interest is divided into categories or outcomes
2. There is no natural order to the outcome. meatal Han nie
Ordinal Scale
These scales allow for categorization as in a nominal scale, but they allow for ranking.
For example :our preferences for linking different cties,Linking of different products
Even though differences in ranking of objects, persons or events investigated are clearly known but we do not
know their magnitude
Permitted statistics Frequencies, Median, Mode
Interval Scale
Interval scale contains information available in ordinal scale but with added benefit ofthe magnitude of
ranking. Interval scales have equal distances between the points of a scale.
For Example : Our opinion about the quality of education in scaling in college
1) Strongly disagree 2) Somewhat disagree _3) Neither
4) Somehow agree 5)Strongly agree
It is more powerful scale then nominal and ordinal scales.
Ratio Scale
Ratio scale is the most comprehensive scale and it overcomes the disadvantage of the arbitrary origin point of
the interval scale. It has all the characteristics of other three measurement scales with the additional benefits
of an absolute, meaningful zero point.
Example: Weight, Age, Income, Profits, Expenses etc
Time Series Data:
‘An arrangement of data by successive time periods is called times series data OR
Set of Observations recorded according to the time of their occurrence is called time series Data.
For example automobile sales figures, stock prices, gross domestic product, etc
Cross-sectional data:
The data which is collected on one or more variables at a single period of time.
A cross-sectional data-set consists of a sample of individuals , households etc taken at a given point in time.
Panel data(Pooled Data):
‘These are models that combine Time series data and cross-section data.
In panel data the same cross-sectional unit is surveyed over time, so we have data which is pooled over space
‘as well as time.
Ithas dimensions of both time series and cross-section.
For Example: suppose we have wage, education, and employment history for a set of individuals follow over @
ten-year period Presentation of Data
ARRAY:
The arrangement of data in ascending or descending order of magnitude is called Array.
CLASSIFICATION:
The process of arranging data into classes or groups according to some common characteristic present in the
data is called classification.
‘TYPES OF CLASSIFICATION
ONE-WAY CLASSIFICATION:
‘When data are classified by one characteristic, classification is said to
be one way classification.
‘TWO-WAY CLASSIFICATIONS:
When data are classified by two characteristic at a time, classification is,
said to be two way classifications.
BASES OF CLASSIFICATION
There are four important bases for the classification of data.
(1) QUANTITATIVE CLASSIFICATION:
When data are classified by quantitative characteristics, then it is called quantitative classification. For
example height, weight, income etc
(li) QUALITATIVE CLASSIFICATION:
When data are classified by qualitative characteristics, then itis called qualitative classification. For example:
sex, religion ete.
(lil) GEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION:
When data are classified by geographical regions, called Geographical Classification. For example population
of a country by province-wise.
(iv) TEMPORAL CLASSIFICATIOI
When data are classified by their time of occurrence, called Temporal Classification.
TABULATION:
‘The process of arranging data into rows and columns is called Tabulation.
CONSTRUCTION OF TABLE:
{A statistical table has following parts. First four are main parts of table.
(1) TITLE:
[Atitle is the heading at the top of the table. It usually describes the nature, time and place of the data.
(ii) COLUMN CAPTIONS AND BOX HEAD:
The headings for various columns are called column caption. The portion of table containing column captions
is called Box Head.
(iil) ROW CAPTIONS AND STUB:
‘The headings for various rows are called row captions. The portion of table containing row captions Is called
Stub. (iv) BoDy:
The entries in different cells of columns and rows in a table is called Body of the table. It is main part of the
table.
{v) SOURCE NOTE:
Source notes are given at the end of the table. It indicates the source
from where the information has been taken.
(vi) FOOT NOTE AND PREFACTORY NOTE:
‘The foot Note is given at the bottom of the table. The prefatory note
is given after the title of the table,
UNGROUPED DATA OR RAW DATA:
‘The most original or fresh data, which have been collected for the frst time and have not undergone any
statistical treatment are called ungrouped data or Row data,
GROUPED DATA:
Data presented in the form of a frequency distribution are called Grouped data,
FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION:
‘The arrangement of a set of data in the form of a table, showing, the breakup of data into groups along with
‘number of observations falling in each group or class is called Frequency Distribution.
RELATIVE FREQUENCY:
Relative frequency of a class is the proportion of observed frequency to total frequency. The sum of relative
frequency should be equal to one. The table showing relative frequencies is called relative frequency
distribution.
‘CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION:
The total frequency of a variable from its one end to a certain value is known as cumulative frequency. The
table showing cumulative frequencies is called a cumulative frequency distribution,
‘OPEN-END CLASS:
A class having either no lower class limits or no upper class limit is called open-end class.
|
CLASS UMITS: : |
‘The values that separate different classes are called class limits. CLASS BOUNDARY:
|
boundaries.
The values which describe true class limits of a class are called class boundaries.
CLASSMARK OR MID POI
A class mark is the average of lower and upper class limits or class |
CLASS INTERVAL SIZ!
A class interval size is the difference between two successive lower or upper class limits. It may also be
obtained by finding the difference between upper and lower class boundaries ofa class. Or the difference
between two successive mid points is called class Interval size. it s denoted by h’,
GRAPHS oo _ST =
HISTOGRAM: (CONTINOUS DATA): iis the graph of a frequency distribution '0 draw a histogram class
): It is the graph of a frequency I
18 X-axis and rectangles ;
ct See Se fe are constructed with widths equal to the class interval sizes
HISTOGRAM (01: ;
ae een DATA): To construct histogram for discrete data mark possible values of variable on x-
S on y-axis and draw a rectangle centered on each value with equal width on each side.
FREQUEN '
aa cede, onyGON: A frequency polygon is a graphic from of a frequency distribution, which is
