A Tutorial On How To Conduct Meta-Analysis With IB

Article
A Tutorial on How to Conduct Meta-Analysis with IBM

SPSS Statistics
Sedat Sen 1, * and Ibrahim Yildirim 2, *
1 Education Faculty, Harran University, Sanliurfa 63190, Turkey

2 Education Faculty, Gaziantep University, Gaziantep 27310, Turkey
* Correspondence: [email protected] (S.S.); [email protected] (I.Y.)
Abstract: Meta-analysis has started to take place among the most used methodologies in psycholog-
ical research. Such a technique allows researchers to combine the data sets obtained from several
individual studies on the same topic and thus is particularly useful for finding solutions to con-
troversial issues that cannot be solved with individual studies. This paper presents a detailed
tutorial of the IBM SPSS software, which enables one to implement the statistical analyses for meta-
analysis. Examples are also provided to highlight the main analyses conducted in the meta-analysis.
The tutorial ends by discussing the differences between IBM SPSS capabilities and those of other
software packages.
Keywords: meta-analysis; meta-regression; IBM SPSS; software
1. Introduction
Scientific research is a cumulative process in which each scientist makes unique
contributions to their area of study. After a certain period of time, these individual studies
Citation: Sen, S.; Yildirim, I. A may reveal different findings about the subject studied. When we look at the research on
Tutorial on How to Conduct
a particular subject as a whole, we may not be able to see whether the methods applied
Meta-Analysis with IBM SPSS
or developed are really effective. An example of this situation was experienced in the
Statistics. Psych 2022, 4, 640–667.
field of psychotherapy in the 1950s. In 1952, Hans Eysenck initiated a fierce debate in
https://doi.org/10.3390/
clinical psychology by publishing a study arguing that psychotherapy had no beneficial
psych4040049
effect on patients [1]. By the mid-1970s, hundreds of psychotherapy studies had produced
Academic Editor: Alexander a dizzying array of positive, neutral, and negative results, and reviews of these studies
Robitzsch failed to settle the debate. To evaluate Eysenck’s claim, Gene V. Glass calculated an overall
Received: 21 August 2022
mean value for 375 psychotherapy studies by statistically standardizing the differences
Accepted: 15 September 2022
between treatment and control groups. Smith and Glass [2] published their findings in a
Published: 22 September 2022
journal and showed that psychotherapy was actually an effective practice. Glass called
this method “meta-analysis”. Despite criticism from some scientists [3], meta-analysis
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
is now accepted as an appropriate method of statistically summarizing the results of
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
individual quantitative studies in the behavioral, social, and health sciences [4]. Although
published maps and institutional affil-
the term meta-analysis was first used by Glass in 1976, the first meta-analysis in the sense
iations.
of combining quantitative studies is attributed to Pearson [5], who analyzed data from five
studies on the correlations between inoculation and immunity and mortality. In the late
1970s and early 1980s, following Glass’s work, among others, Rosenthal [6], Glass, McGaw
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
and Smith [7], Hedges [8,9], Hunter, Schmidt, and Jackson [10], and Light and Pillemar [11]
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. popularized meta-analysis and further developed the statistical methods necessary for
This article is an open access article its application.
distributed under the terms and It is known as systematic review, in which scientists systematically review the results
conditions of the Creative Commons from a large number of studies and synthesize the results in order to make inferences about
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// the typical findings and sources of variability between studies. Over the past 40 years,
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ there has been a large increase in the use of systematic reviews in both medicine and the
4.0/). social sciences, including psychology and education. The focus on evidence-based practice
Psych 2022, 4, 640–667. https://doi.org/10.3390/psych4040049 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/psych

Psych 2022, 4 641
in many professions has increased interest in understanding both the known and unknown
parts of important interventions and clinical practice [12]. Systematic reviews promise a
transparent and repeatable method for summarizing the literature to help improve both
policy decisions and the design of new studies. Although systematic reviews have a certain
potential, this potential is also observed to be compromised by inadequate methods and
misinterpretation of results [12]. In short, a systematic review is a critical evaluation to seek
the answer to a focused question in the light of available research. However, meta-analysis
differs from systematic review in that it only focuses on quantitative studies. The present
study focuses on the meta-analysis method, which was developed based on quantitative
research and has emerged as a methodological and statistical approach to draw conclusions
from the empirical literature.
Meta-analysis is a quantitative method used to combine the results of multiple studies
into a single conclusion. The term “meta-analysis” was first coined by Gene Glass in 1976 as
the statistical analysis of a large collection of analysis results from individual studies for the
purpose of integrating the findings [13] (p. 3). A meta-analysis collects quantitative results
from multiple studies and draws conclusions about the overall effect between studies. In
doing so, it does not look at what results the original studies found. The word “meta”
is used because it is a kind of research of research or analysis of analysis [13]. To put it
briefly, it is a systematic quantitative research method to reveal the big picture of a topic.
In order to conduct a meta-analysis study, Glass suggested using the effect size value
when combining the findings of multiple studies correctly [13,14]. Any standardized index
(standardized mean difference, correlation, and odds ratio) can be used as an effect size as
long as it is comparable between studies, independent of the sample, and indicates the size
and direction of the effect. The effect size is the value that makes meta-analysis possible.
The effect size is taken as the “dependent variable” in the meta-analysis and results in a
comparable statistic as it is obtained by standardizing between studies.
The general purpose of meta-analysis is to combine the results of individual studies to
reach summary conclusions about a research question. It is used to calculate a summary
estimate of effect size, to explore the causes of differences in effects between studies, and to
identify heterogeneity in the effects (or differences in risk) of the intervention in different
subgroups. It is worth mentioning here that the meta-analysis calculates the weighted
average of the effect size, not the arithmetic mean between studies. It is an approach that
gives more weight to more precise estimates. In other words, it gives greater weight to
studies with a large sample size. The weighting factor is equal to 1/(standard error)2 .
Studies with a low standard error (i.e., large sample size) contribute more to the overall
average estimated as a result of the meta-analysis.
In meta-analysis, the overall average estimate can be typically obtained with either a
fixed-effect or random-effects model. The model assuming that the parameter measuring
the effect size is the same in all studies is called the “fixed-effect” model. The model that
allows this parameter to act as a random variable that takes different values from one study
to another is called the “random-effects” model. The fixed effect model and the random-
effects model make different assumptions and apply different weights in the calculation of
the average effect size. There is only one source of variation (i.e., the sampling error) in the
fixed-effect model. That is, the difference between each effect size is due to the difference
in sample size, and the population effect size is the same for each study. It is assumed
that each effect size value in the study comes from a fixed population. On the other hand,
there are two sources of variation in the random-effects model. The random-effects model
assumes that each observed effect size differs from the population mean by an individual-
level sampling error plus a value representing other sources of variability assumed to be
randomly distributed. Although there are different ways of performing meta-analysis, the
most common and popular approaches are those offered by Hunter and Schmidt [10,15,16],
Glass [7,13], and Hedges and Olkin [17]. All three approaches aim to transform the results
of individual studies into a common measure.
Psych 2022, 4 642
An excellent literature review is at the heart of the meta-analysis. A common threat to

literature reviews and meta-analyses is known as publication bias. The term “publication
bias” is often used to express that statistically significant results are more likely to be
presented and published than non-significant and null results [18]. Publication bias is a
systematic error that occurs in a statistical inference conditioned on gaining publication
status [19]. As a matter of fact, published studies alone do not represent all studies in a
research area. This situation is also called the file drawer problem [20]. It is seen as a threat
because it adds systematic error to the meta-analysis. This threat arises because studies that
have not found a statistically significant effect (or have not found the expected effect) are less
likely to be published and therefore less likely to be available to the meta-analyst. Lipsey
and Wilson [21] provided evidence for publication bias by showing that published studies
had a larger mean effect size than unpublished studies. A study group included in a meta-
analysis may be over-representative of published studies, as it is much easier to identify and
screen published studies than unpublished studies that were never written due to negative
or null findings. Another source of bias is the presence of gray literature [22]. This includes
conference presentations, technical reports, or obscure publications, and is kept between the
drawer and the publication process. This situation is also referred to as “fugitive literature”
by Rosenthal [23]. In order to eliminate publication bias, a comprehensive search should be
conducted to find these missing studies. To counter this threat, one should seek to obtain
unpublished work (for example, dissertations and conference proceedings) that will either
eliminate this threat or at least allow one to assess the magnitude of this bias. That is, the
primary way to avoid publication bias in meta-analysis is to include both published and
unpublished studies. Card (2011) states six methods that can be used to examine whether
there is a publication bias. These are moderator analysis, funnel plot, fail-safe N, regression
analysis, trim and fill, and weighted selection methods. Apart from these, there is another
method proposed by Begg and Mazumdar [24] based on rank correlations.
1.1. Steps of Meta-Analysis

Researchers who want to perform these analyses through meta-analysis should follow
certain steps. Although it is presented in different ways in many sources, the steps required
to perform a meta-analysis can be listed as follows:
• The research question should be formulated.
• A decision should be made on how to select appropriate studies from the collected studies.
• Appropriate studies should be collected according to research questions and keywords.
• Quality control/sensitivity analyses should be done.
• The effect size to be used in the selected studies should be decided and calculated for
each study.
• The data should be pooled and a summary measure and confidence interval should
be calculated.
• Additional analyses (heterogeneity, publication bias, etc.) should be done.
• Moderator analyses for moderator variables should be performed.
• Results should be interpreted and inferences should be made.
• In addition, the details of the above-mentioned steps should be reported together with
the meta-analysis findings.
Meta-analysis is used extensively in education, psychology, health, and several other
areas to summarize the results of individual studies conducted on the same topic. This
method helps researchers to estimate the mean effect size using the effect size and variance
(or standard error) values from each individual study. While this method may seem
straightforward, statistical analyses of meta-analysis data resulting from individual studies
often present great challenges. Thus, several software packages have been developed for
this purpose.
Psych 2022, 4 643
1.2. Software Options

Meta-analysis studies are very demanding in terms of both data collection and data
analysis. It is a very time-consuming process to identify the studies that will be included in
the meta-analysis and to extract the necessary information for calculating the effect size.
In light of the summary information obtained, calculating the effect size value for each
study and obtaining the overall mean is another time-consuming step where researchers
with poor statistical knowledge are likely to make mistakes. Unfortunately, while the
creation of the data file specified here is mandatory by the researcher himself, there are
several software packages developed to perform the second step, the data analysis process.
Researchers have two options when it comes to software that can be used—using special-
ized software designed for meta-analysis (e.g., Comprehensive Meta-Analysis) or using
statistical software designed for general purposes (e.g., SPSS).
In the literature, several standalone software packages have been made available,
especially for meta-analysis. Commercial packages include MetaWin [25] and Comprehen-
sive Meta-Analysis (CMA) [26]. DSTAT [27] and Advanced Basic Meta-analysis [28] are
other commercial software programs that are less well-known than MetaWin and CMA.
In addition to these software packages, free meta-analysis specific software packages are
also available, including RevMan (Review Manager), MetaGenyo [29], MetaStat [30], Meta-
Analysis [31], META (Meta-Analysis Easy to Answer) [32], and OpenMeta [Analyst] [33].
Some of the existing software packages have also been expanded for meta-analysis.
Examples of these packages are MIX 2.0 [34], metaXL [35], and MetaEasy [36] add-ins
developed for Excel. Functions and macros have also been prepared for meta-analysis in
Stata [37]. Using the proc mixed command, meta-analysis can be conducted through the
SAS program [38]. Various meta-analysis packages are also available in R [39] including
meta [40], metafor [41], rmeta [42], robumeta [43] and metaSEM [44]. Detailed information
about other meta-analysis packages in the R program can be found in the study of Polanin,
Hennessy and Tanner-Smith [45]. A module called MAJOR in Jamovi, developed by Kyle
Hamilton, allows users to conduct a meta-analysis using different types of input (e.g., effect
sizes, correlation coefficients). Similarly, another open-source statistical software called
JASP can also be used for meta-analysis. The engine behind these two software packages
comes from the R package metafor. In addition, some macros have been developed to
conduct meta-analysis using the SPSS program [4,46]. The existing SPSS macros, however,
currently only provide limited capabilities for conducting analyses and enable researchers
to conduct only main analyses (i.e., mean ES, subgroup analyses, and meta-regression
analyses). Publication bias and other graphical options (e.g., forest plot and funnel plot)
were not available in these SPSS macros (see also [47]). SPSS macros also require researchers
to write SPSS syntax, which would be cumbersome for most practitioners. Very recently,
IBM SPSS introduced a point-and-click meta-analysis menu with Version 28. Although
many programs have been developed in the literature, the SPSS program remains the first
choice for many researchers. Thus, researchers familiar with using SPSS may want to
conduct the statistical analyses required for meta-analysis via SPSS. To date, no study has
been conducted on how to conduct meta-analysis with IBM SPSS. The tutorial in this study
provides guidance for students and researchers who originally plan to use IBM SPSS for
meta-analysis of the data collected from individual studies.
1.3. Properties of IBM SPSS Statistics

It is possible to conduct most of the analyses required for meta-analysis studies using
IBM SPSS Statistics with Version 28 (SPSS28). The trial version of SPSS28 can be downloaded
from the official website (https://www.ibm.com/products/spss-statistics) (accessed on 31
July 2022). After clicking the “Try SPSS Statistics at no cost” link, to start the trial period,
you should enter some information (e.g., name, e-mail address). With this information, you
can obtain an IBMid and code. With this code you can set up SPSS28 on your PC. The trial
period is limited to 30 days. After the trial period, one may want to purchase the software.
Psych 2022, 4 644
Whether you have the demo or the full version, SPSS28 has several procedures,
including mean effect size calculation, heterogeneity statistics, publication bias, and moder-
ator analyses.
1.3.1. Main Analyses

There are three main submenus under the Meta Analysis menu of SPSS28: Continuous
Outcomes, Binary Outcomes, and Meta Regression. Users can perform meta-analysis
with either continuous or binary outcomes on raw data. In addition, similar analyses can
be performed when the pre-calculated effect size data are available with continuous or
binary outcomes. These are presented in the Continuous Outcomes and Binary Outcomes
submenus. The users with summary data (e.g., N, mean, and SD) should use the Raw
Data submenu, and the users with pre-calculated effect sizes (ES and its variance) should
use the Pre-calculated Effect Size submenu. Both fixed-effect and random-effects models
are available under the model section. Users can also conduct subgroup analyses under
these menus.
When the Raw Data submenu of the Continuous Outcomes menu is selected, the
Effect Size section has four types of effect size indices: Unstandardized mean difference,
Cohen’s d, Hedges’ g, and Glass’ delta. In addition to Study ID, the summary statistics
required for meta-analyses are sample size, mean, and standard deviation (or variance)
values for both control and treatment groups. When the Raw Data submenu of the Binary
Outcomes menu is selected, the Effect Size section has four types of effect size indices: Log
Odds Ratio, Peto’s Log Odds Ratio, Log Risk Ratio, and Risk Difference. In addition to
Study ID, the summary statistics required for meta-analyses are success and failure rates
for both control and treatment groups. When the Pre-Calculated Effect Size submenu of
the Continuous Outcomes or Binary Outcomes menus is selected, the Effect Size and its
standard error or variance should be selected. In addition, one of the effect size types (Log
Odds Ratio, Peto’s Log Odds Ratio, Log Risk Ratio, and Risk Difference) should be selected
for binary outcomes data.
Whichever of the data entry types aforementioned above you choose, you can modify
several options, including Criteria, Analysis, Inference, Contrast, Bias, Trim-and-Fill, Print,
Save, and Plot menus (see Figure 1). The Criteria dialog has several options for confidence
interval, missing data, iteration, and convergence. Cumulative analysis and subgroup
analysis can be selected under the Analysis submenu. Estimator type and standard error
adjustment can be determined under the Inference dialog. Currently, there are seven
estimators available in SPSS: Restricted maximum likelihood (REML), which is the default,
Maximum likelihood (ML), Empirical Bayes, Hedges, Hunter–Schmidt, DerSimonian–
Laird, and Sidik–Jonkman. The standard error adjustment dialog includes three options:
no adjustment, Apply the Knapp–Hartung adjustment, and Apply the truncated Knapp–
Hartung adjustment. As mentioned on the IBM website, the Contrast dialog provides
settings for controlling the contrast test for meta-analysis with continuous outcomes on
raw data that are provided in the active data set for the estimation of the effect size.
1.3.2. Publication Bias Analyses

Several analyses for publication bias assessment can be applied in SPSS28. Egger’s
regression test can be applied via Bias dialog, while the trim-and-fill method can be per-
formed with the Trim-and-Fill dialog. A funnel plot can also be obtained in SPSS28 to
examine whether the relationship between standard errors and effect sizes shows a sym-
metrical shape. In addition to Funnel Plot, several plots, including Forest Plot, Cumulative
Forest Plot, Bubble Plot, and Galbraith Plot, can be created via this Plot dialog. The Print
dialog can be used to show test of homogeneity and heterogeneity statistics in the output
screen. The Print dialog also enables users to print effect size and prediction intervals.
Lastly, the Save dialog can be used to save several statistics including individual effect size,
standard error, confidence interval lower bound, confidence interval upper bound, p-value,
study weight, and percentage of study weight (Please visit IBM website for more details:
Psych 2022, 4 645
Psych 2022, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 6

https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/spss-statistics/SaaS?topic=features-meta-analysis) (ac-
cessed on 30 July 2022).
Figure 1. Screenshot of the Continuous Outcomes Submenu.

Figure 1. Screenshot of the Continuous Outcomes Submenu.
1.3.2.Subgroup
1.3.3. Publication Bias Analyses
Analyses and Meta-Regression
Severalenables
SPSS28 analysesusers
for publication bias assessment
to conduct both can be applied
subgroup analyses in SPSS28. Egger’s
and meta-regression. Sub-
regression
group testcan
analysis canbebeselected
appliedunder
via Bias
thedialog,
Analysis while the trim-and-fill
submenu. In order tomethod
conductcan be per-
a subgroup
formed with
analysis, usersthe
needTrim-and-Fill dialog. Aoffunnel
to add the variables interestplot can also moderator)
(categorical be obtainedfrom in SPSS28 to
the ‘Vari-
examine whether the relationship between standard errors and effect
ables’ box into the ‘Subgroup Analysis’ box. Using the Meta Regression submenu, users can sizes shows a
symmetrical shape. In addition to Funnel Plot, several plots, including
perform meta-regression analyses by selecting the effect size, standard error (or variance Forest Plot, Cu-
mulative
and Forest
weight), Plot, Bubble
factor(s), Plot, and Galbraith
and covariate(s). CategoricalPlot, can be created
moderators via this
are listed Plot dialog.
in factor(s) and
The Print dialog can be used to show test of homogeneity and
numeric variables are listed in covariate(s). The Meta Regression submenu has heterogeneity statistics
somein of
thedialogs
the output mentioned
screen. The above:
Print dialog also Inference,
Criteria, enables users to print
Print, Save,effect size and
and Plot. Whileprediction
options
intervals.
under Lastly, the
the Criteria andSave dialogdialogs
Inference can be remain
used to the
save several
same, thestatistics including
Print dialog allowsindivid-
users to
ual effect
display size, standard
exponentiated error, confidence
statistics and modelinterval lower
coefficient bound,
tests. Saveconfidence
dialog enablesinterval
usersup-
to
per bound, p-value, study weight, and percentage of study weight (Please
save several statistics, including predicted values, standard error of predicted values, confi- visit IBM
website
dence for
interval lower bound, confidence interval upper more
bound, residuals, standard details:error of
residuals, leverages, fixed linear predictions, standard error of fixed linear predictions, (ac-
https://www.ibm.com/docs/en/spss-statistics/SaaS?topic=features-meta-analysis) best
cessedunbiased
linear on 30 July 2022).
predictions (BLUPs), and standard error of BLUPs. A Bubble plot can also
be created using the Plot dialog under the Meta Regression submenu.
1.3.3. Subgroup Analyses and Meta-Regression
SPSS28
1.4. Steps enables users
of Conducting to conduct
Meta-Analysis bothSPSS
in IBM subgroup analyses and meta-regression.
Statistics
Subgroup
Step analysis
1: Prepare yourcan
databesetselected under the Analysis submenu. In order to conduct a
subgroup analysis, users need to add the
In order to conduct a meta-analysis, the variables
effect sizeofand
interest (categorical
variance moderator)
(or standard error) of
from the ‘Variables’ box into the ‘Subgroup Analysis’ box. Using the Meta Regression
each individual study should be collected or calculated. Sometimes, researchers may have
submenu, users can perform meta-regression analyses by selecting the effect size, stand-
only summary data instead. SPSS28 allows users to save data as pre-calculated effect size or
ard error data.
summary (or variance and weight),
The researchers factor(s),
planning and covariate(s).
to perform Categorical
a meta-analysis basedmoderators are
on continuous
listed in factor(s) and numeric variables are listed in covariate(s). The Meta Regression
data should collect sample size (N), mean, and SD values for both the control and treatment
submenu
groups has some
of each study.of theresearchers
The dialogs mentioned
planning above: Criteria,
to perform Inference, Print,
a meta-analysis basedSave, and
on binary
Plot. While options under the Criteria and Inference dialogs remain the same, the Print
data should collect success and failure rates for both the control and treatment groups
dialog allows users to display exponentiated statistics and model coefficient tests. Save
dialog enables users to save several statistics, including predicted values, standard error
Psych 2022, 4 646
of each study. However, the researchers planning to perform a meta-analysis based on

correlation should collect correlation and sample size for each individual study. Then,
Pearson correlation coefficients should be transformed to Fisher’s z values. In addition,
the variance or standard error of Fisher’s z values should be computed. For continuous
and binary data, pre-calculated effect size and its variance or standard error can also be
calculated and saved in a data set. Table 1 shows an example data file for pre-calculated
effect size for correlation data. The example data file for raw data (means, SDs, and Ns)
is demonstrated in Table 2. Each variable measured is represented by a column, and each
measurement of that variable is represented by a row in what is known as a wide data
format. A variable representing study ID would usually be placed in the first column,
followed by the variables defining the effect size and its variance, or summary variables.
Study in tables are explained in Supplementary Materials.
Table 1. Sample Dataset for Correlation and Moderator Analyses [48].
Study n r vr Country Region Business Female % z vz

Chen & Yang, 2012 227 0.365 0.003 Taiwan FE Others 49.4 0.383 0.004
Kaya, 2015 383 0.600 0.001 Turkey ME Education 50.5 0.693 0.003
Hunsaker, 2016 263 0.500 0.002 South Korea FE Others 33 0.549 0.004
Wu & Li, 2015 239 0.470 0.003 Taiwan FE Others 38.6 0.510 0.004
Bozkurt & Töremen, 2015 409 0.524 0.001 Turkey ME Education 52.81 0.582 0.002
Nafei, 2018 285 0.603 0.001 Egypt ME Others 60 0.698 0.004
Çimen, 2016 301 0.430 0.002 Turkey ME Education 56.48 0.460 0.003
Göçen & Kaya, 2020 102 0.490 0.006 Turkey ME Education 22.56 0.536 0.010
Chen & Li, 2013 122 0.433 0.006 China FE Others 0.8 0.464 0.008
Phuong et al., 2018 329 0.285 0.003 Vietnam FE Others 45 0.293 0.003
Note. n = Sample size, r = Pearson correlation, vr = variance of Pearson r, z = Fisher z, vz = variance of Fisher z.
Table 2. Sample Raw Dataset [49] for Standardized Mean Difference Example.
Study Blended n Blended Mean Blended SD Face-to-Face n Face-to-Face Mean Face-to-Face SD

Unsal, 2007 24 31 2.5 22 31.05 2.82
Turkcapar, 2011 28 18.14 3.67 28 15.89 4.67
Aygun, 2011 35 18.91 2.72 36 15.23 4.003
Aksogan, 2011 32 53.8 11.9 31 50.25 16.76
Yapici, 2011 47 25.11 5.04 60 19.08 2.657
Yildiz, 2011 36 8.41 0.996 35 7.6 1.03
Turk, 2012 51 71.57 13.47 64 58.36 14.28
Saritepeci, 2012 52 12.36 4.11 55 10.25 4.1
Demirkol, 2012 27 78.7 13.05 27 72.22 9.12
Akgündüz, 2013a 25 20.44 5.874 24 15.792 6.29
Akgündüz, 2013b 25 18.08 6.211 24 15.792 6.29
Pesen, 2014a 38 32.23 2.87 38 29.86 2.56
Pesen, 2014b 41 28.17 3.77 41 28.43 3.16
Kahyaoglu, 2014 25 31.44 3.78 25 26 8.14
Step 2: Open IBM SPSS Statistics and import your data set
Researchers either prepare data sets in the SPSS program or save them in other file
formats such as MS Excel. In the case of other data formats, the data file should be imported
into the SPSS program. For example, to import the meta-analysis data from Excel to SPSS:
Select File > Import Data > Excel.
It is important to click on the “read variable names from first row of data” box when
you have the variable names on the first row of Excel file. As an alternative, users can
enter the data on the blank page opened in the variable and data view sections in the
SPSS program.
It is important to click on the “read variable names from first row of data” box
you have the variable names on the first row of Excel file. As an alternative, us
enter the data on the blank page opened in the variable and data view sections
Psych 2022, 4 SPSS program. 647
Step 3: Open Meta Analysis menu

The
StepMeta
3: OpenAnalysis procedure
Meta Analysis menu performs meta-analysis on the data in the activ
set in orderThetoMeta
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Analysisthe overall
procedure effectmeta-analysis
performs size. To open
on thethe
dataMeta Analysis
in the active menu (s
data set
ure 2):in order to estimate the overall effect size. To open the Meta Analysis menu (see Figure 2):
Select Analyze > Meta
Select Analyze > MetaAnalysis.
Analysis.
Figure Figure
2. SPSS Meta
2. SPSS Analysis
Meta AnalysisMenu.
Menu.
Step 4:Step
Calculate mean effect size
4: Calculate mean effect size
There are several options under the Meta Analysis menu. As a result, the researchers
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the option under
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and research menu. AsThe
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choice de-
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chooseon thethe
dataoption that best
type (continuous fits their
or binary) data set
and whether it isand research
summary question. The
or pre-calculated
depends on the data type (continuous or binary) and whether it is summ
effect size. To be able to analyze a continuous raw data set:
pre-calculated
• Select effect
Analyzesize.
> MetaToAnalysis
be able> Continuous
to analyzeOutcomes
a continuous raw. . data
> Raw Data . set:
• Add the variables of the treatment group (sample size, mean, and SD) into the ‘Treat-
 Selectment
Analyze
Group’>boxMeta Analysis > Continuous Outcomes > Raw Data...
 Add
• the the
Add variables ofthe
variables of the treatment
control group
group (sample size,(sample
mean, andsize, mean,
SD) into and SD) in
the ‘Control
Group’ box
‘Treatment
• Group’ box
Add the identifying variable (Authors’ names) into the ‘Study ID’ box
 Add
• the variables
Select of the
the effect size typecontrol
(Cohen’s group (sample
d, Hedges’ g, Glass’size,
delta,mean, and SD)Mean
Unstandardized into the ‘C
Group’ box
Difference) in the ‘Effect Size’ box
• Select the model type (fixed-effect or random-effects) under the ‘Model’ box
 Add
•
the identifying variable (Authors’ names) into the ‘Study ID’ box
Click ‘OK’
 SelectSimilar
the effect sizebetype
steps can (Cohen’s
followed d, Hedges’
for binary g, Glass’
data sets. Users need delta, Unstandardized
to add success and
Difference) in the ‘Effect Size’ box
failure variables into the treatment group and control group boxes. The effect size type
 Select the
would model
be one of the type (fixed-effect
following: or random-effects)
Logg Odds Ratio, under
Peto’s Logg Odds Ratio, theRisk
Logg ‘Model’
Ratio, box
and Risk Difference.
 Click To‘OK’
be able to calculate the mean effect size with pre-calculated effect sizes:
Similar
• steps
Select can>be
Analyze Metafollowed
Analysis >for binary
Binary data> Pre-Calculated
Outcomes sets. Users Effect
needSizeto add succe
failure variables into the treatment group and control group boxes. The
• Select the effect size type (Logg Odds Ratio, Peto’s Logg Odds Ratio, Logg Risk effect siz
Ratio,
and Risk Difference) in the ‘Effect Size’ box
would•be one of the following: Logg Odds Ratio, Peto’s Logg Odds Ratio, Logg R
Add the effect size variable (e.g., Logg Odds Ratio) into the ‘Effect Size’ box
tio, and• Risk
AddDifference.
the variance variable into the ‘Variance’ box
To• beAlternatively,
able to calculate the mean
add the standard effect
error size
variable with
into pre-calculated
the ‘Standard Error’ boxeffect sizes:
• Add the identifying variable (Authors’ names) into the ‘Study ID’ box
• Select the model type (fixed-effect or random-effects) under the ‘Model’ box
• Click ‘OK’
When these steps are applied, the mean effect size and other statistics will be shown in
three tables (Meta-Analysis Summary, Case Processing Summary, and Effect Size Estimates)
as a part of the output. The table labeled as ‘Effect Size Estimates’ shows the mean effect
size, its standard error, Z-value, two-tailed p-value, and 95% confidence interval.
Step 5: Check heterogeneity
Psych 2022, 4 648
One of the important analyses requires an assessment of heterogeneity. This can

be checked with several statistics, including Q-statistics, Tau-squared, H-squared, and
I-squared in SPSS28. To be able to obtain heterogeneity statistics:
• Select Analyze > Meta Analysis > Continuous Outcomes > Raw Data . . .
• Click on the ‘Print’ dialog
• Check the dialog boxes labeled as ‘Test of homogeneity’ and ‘Heterogeneity measures’
• Click ‘Continue’ to go back to the main screen
• Click ‘OK’
When these steps are applied, the heterogeneity statistics in two tables (Test of Residual
Homogeneity and Residual Heterogeneity) will be shown in the output.
Step 6: Create plots
Another way of checking the heterogeneity is to create some plots. For example, a
forest plot can be examined to do a visual assessment of heterogeneity. To be able to create
a forest plot:
• Select one of the input screens under the Meta Analysis menu
• For example, Select Analyze > Meta Analysis > Continuous Outcomes > Raw Data
• Click on the ‘Plot’ dialog
• Select ‘Forest Plot’
• Check the dialog box under the ‘Display Columns’
• Decide ‘Position of plot column’, ‘Annotations’, and ‘Reference lines’
• Click ‘OK’
When these steps are applied, the forest plot will be shown in the output. Other
plots, including cumulative forest plot, bubble plot, funnel plot, and Galbraith plot, can be
obtained using the ‘Plot’ dialog under the Meta Analysis menu.
Step 7: Assess publication bias
A meta-analyst should ensure that publication bias is not an issue for the studies
included in the meta-analysis. This can be examined using several statistics in SPSS28,
including funnel plot, Egger’s regression test, and trim-and-fill methods. The funnel plot
can be obtained using the ‘Plot’ dialog described in the previous step. To be able to perform
Egger’s regression test:
• Click on the ‘Bias’ dialog
• Select ‘Egger’s regression-based test’
• Check the dialog boxes under the ‘Include intercept in regression’ and ‘Estimates
statistics based on t-distribution’
• Click ‘OK’
When these steps are applied, the results of the Egger’s regression test will be shown
in the output. To be able to perform trim-and-fill method:
• Click on the ‘Trim-and-Fill’ dialog
• Select ‘Estimate number of missing studies’
• Check the dialog boxes under the ‘Side to Impute Studies’ as left or right. Another
option is to click on ‘Determined by the slopes of Egger’s test’
• Other options can be determined by clicking the boxes under ‘Method’, ‘Iteration
Process’
• Click ‘OK’
Psych 2022, 4 649
When these steps are applied, the results of the trim-and-fill method will be shown in
the output.
Step 8: Perform subgroup analyses
A meta-analyst should examine the possible source of heterogeneity in the case of
lack of homogeneity among the individual studies. To do this, subgroup analyses can be
applied using the categorical moderators (e.g., publication type) collected from individual
studies. To be able to perform subgroup analysis:
• Click on the ‘Analysis’ dialog
• Add the variables of interest (categorical moderator) from the ‘Variables’ box into the
‘Subgroup Analysis’ box
• Click ‘OK’
When these steps are applied, the results of the subgroups of the categorical variable
will be shown in the output. For each category, the table labeled as ‘Effect Size Estimates
for Subgroup Analysis’ will show the mean effect size, its standard error, Z-value, two-
tailed p-value, and 95% confidence interval and prediction interval. Overall results will be
reported in the last row of the table.
Step 9: Perform meta-regression analyses
Another way of examining the possible source of heterogeneity is to conduct a meta-
regression analysis using continuous (e.g., mean age of the sample) and categorical mod-
erators (e.g., publication type) collected from individual studies. However, subgroup
analysis can be done with only categorical variables. With meta-regression analysis, re-
searchers can analyze both continuous and categorical moderators. This method also allows
us to include more than one moderator in the regression model. To be able to perform
meta-regression analysis:
• Select Analyze > Meta Analysis > Meta Regression
• Add the effect size variable (e.g., Cohen’s d) from the ‘Variables’ box into the ‘Effect
size’ box
• Add the effect size variance from the ‘Variables’ box into the ‘Variance’ box. Alterna-
tively, one can use the standard error or weight of the effect size
• Add the variables of interest (continuous moderator) from the ‘Variables’ box into the
‘Covariate(s)’ box
• Add the variables of interest (categorical moderator) from the ‘Variables’ box into the
‘Factor(s)’ box
• Click ‘OK’
When these steps are applied, the results of the meta-regression analysis will be shown
in the tables (Model Summary, Case Processing Summary, Model Coefficient Test, and
Parameter Estimates) as a part of the output. The table labeled as ‘Parameter Estimates’
shows the regression coefficient, its standard error, t-value, two-tailed p-value, and 95%
confidence interval. As mentioned above, the Meta Regression submenu has several dialogs,
including Criteria, Inference, Print, Save, and Plot. These dialogs can be used to obtain
additional information such as bubble plots, diagnostic statistics, etc.
2. Empirical Examples
2.1. Example 1 (Standardized Mean Difference)
In this section, we will present an example of applying a standardized mean difference-
based meta-analysis containing two group comparisons. For this purpose, we used the
sample data retrieved from Çırak Kurt, Yıldırım, and Cücük’s [49] study (see Table 2).
The sample data set includes student achievement comparisons in blended learning and
Psych 2022, 4 650
face-to-face learning environments. Additionally, the data set includes only 14 studies
and post-test scores of students. Çırak Kurt et al. [49] collected sample size, mean, and
standard deviation values for experimental (blended learning) and control (face-to-face
learning) groups.
With the values presented in Table 2, the Cohen’s d value (standardized mean differ-
ence) can be calculated for each study as follows:
_ _
xexp . − xcontrol
Cohen’s d = (1)
SDpooled
Cohen’s d value is calculated by dividing the difference between means by the pooled
standard deviation (SDpooled ) that can be calculated as below:
s
(nG1 − 1)s2G1 + (nG2 − 1)s2G2
SD pooled = (2)
(nG1 − 1) + (nG2 − 1)
where nG1 and nG2 are sample sizes of control and treatment groups and s2G1 and s2G2 are
variances. For Cohen’s d, the standard error can be calculated as below:
s
nG1 + nG2 ( d )2
S.E. = + . (3)
nG1 nG1 2(nG1 + nG2 )
Another standardized mean difference index is named Hedges’ g, which applies a

correction for bias due to small sample sizes as follows:
!
3
Hedges’ g = Cohen’s d × 1 − (4)
4 nexp. + ncontrol − 9
Although Glass’ delta is a less preferred effect size, it is used in some studies. Glass’
delta assumes that the standard deviations are different between groups. Additionally,
Glass’ delta only uses the standard deviation of the control group [50]. Glass’ delta and its
variance can be calculated as follows:
_ _
xexp . − xcontrol
Glass’ delta = (5)
SDcontrol
nexp + ncontrol Glass’ delta2

vGlass’ delta = + (6)
nexp .ncontrol 2(ncontrol − 1)
The sample analyses here were conducted with Hedges’ g value. However, similar
analyses can be applied with Cohen’s d and Glass’ delta. To obtain a mean Hedges’ g value,
there are two data entry options in SPSS: raw data or pre-calculated effect sizes. If one cal-
culates effect size values from online platforms (e.g., https://www.campbellcollaboration.
org/research-resources/effect-size-calculator.html) (accessed on 30 July 2022), the follow-
ing steps can be used:
• Select Analyze > Meta Analysis > Continuous Outcomes > Pre-Calculated Effect Size
An easier way to do this is to conduct the analysis using raw data when you have
the data ready as entered in Excel. For this option, the following steps can be used (see
Figure 3):
• Select File > Open > Data
• Select “Files of Type” as “Excel”
• Find the data > Open
• Select Analyze > Meta Analysis > Continuous Outcomes > Raw Data (see Figure 4)
Figure 3):
 Select Analyze > Meta Analysis > Continuous Outcomes > Pre-Calculated Effe
 Select File > Open > Data
An easier way to do this is to conduct the analysis using raw data when yo
the data ready as entered in Excel. For this option, the following steps can be use
Psych 2022, 4 Figure 3): 651
 Select File > Open > Data
Figure 3. Open Data Menu.
 Select “Files of Type” as “Excel”

 Find the data > Open
Figure 3. Open DataData
Menu.
 Select Analyze > Figure
Meta3.Analysis
Open > Continuous Outcomes > Raw Data (see Figure 4)
Menu.
 Select “Files of Type” as “Excel”

 Find the data > Open
 Select Analyze > Meta Analysis > Continuous Outcomes > Raw Data (see Figu
Figure 4. Meta-analysis Figure

with 4.Raw Data.
Meta-analysis with Raw Data.
 Add the variables • of Addthe treatment

the variables of thegroup
treatment(sample size, size,
group (sample mean,
mean,and SD)intointo
and SD) the
the ‘Treat-
ment Group’ box
‘Treatment Group’ box
Figure 4.
• Meta-analysis
Add the variableswithof Raw Data.group (sample size, mean, and SD) into the ‘Control
the control
 Add the variables ofGroup’the control
box group (sample size, mean, and SD) into the ‘Control
Group’ box •
Add
Add the identifying variable (Authors’ names [Study]) into the ‘Study ID’ box
the variables oftype
theas treatment
 • Select the effect size ‘Hedges’ g’ ingroup (sample
the ‘Effect Size’ box size, mean, and SD) in
 Add the identifying variable
‘Treatment
• (Authors’
Group’
Select the model typebox‘Random-effects’ under the ‘Model’‘Study
names [Study]) into the box ID’ box
 Select the effectAdd
size
• the type
Open as ‘Hedges’
variables
‘Print’ of the
Dialogue g’control
inthethe
> Select ‘Test‘Effect
group Size’
(samplebox
of homogeneity’ andsize, mean,Measures’
‘Heterogeneity and SD) into the ‘C
> Click
 Select the model type ‘Random-effects’
‘Continue’
Group’ box
(see Figure 5) under the ‘Model’ box
• Open ‘Plot’ Dialogue > Select ‘Forest Plot’ box and all the ‘Display Columns’ boxes >
 Add the
Clickidentifying
‘Continue’ variable (Authors’ names [Study]) into the ‘Study ID’ box
 Select the ‘OK’
• Click effect size
(see type
Figure 6) as ‘Hedges’ g’ in the ‘Effect Size’ box
 Select the model type ‘Random-effects’ under the ‘Model’ box

EVIEW 13
 Open ‘Print’ Dialogue > Select the ‘Test of homogeneity’ and ‘Heterogeneity652
Psych 2022, 4
Measures’ > Click ‘Continue’ (see Figure 5)

 Open ‘Print’ Dialogue > Select the ‘Test of homogeneity’ and ‘Heterogeneity
Measures’ > Click ‘Continue’ (see Figure 5)
Figure 5. Data Identification Menu.
 Open ‘Plot’ Dialogue > Select ‘Forest Plot’ box and all the ‘Display Columns’ boxes >
Figure 5. Data Identification
FigureMenu.
Click ‘Continue’
5. Data Identification Menu.
 Click ‘OK’ (see Figure 6)
 Open ‘Plot’ Dialogue > Select ‘Forest Plot’ box and all the ‘Display Columns’ boxes >
Click ‘Continue’
Figure 6. Forrest Plot Menu.

Figure 6. Forrest Plot Menu.
When these steps are applied, the outputs will be presented in the new window as
in Figure 7.
Psych 2022, 4
When these steps are applied, the outputs will be presented in the new window as653
in
Figure 7.
Figure
Figure 7. Outputs.
7. Outputs.
Figure
Figure 7 shows
7 shows that
that thethe meaneffect
mean effectsize
sizeestimate
estimatewas was0.644
0.644(95%
(95%CI:.411,.878)
CI:.411,.878)and and
statistically significant (p < 0.001). The estimated Hedges’ g value (0.644)
statistically significant (p < 0.001). The estimated Hedges’ g value (0.644) corresponds to corresponds toaa
medium-level
medium-level positive
positive effect
effect according
according to Cohen
to Cohen [51]. [51]. For heterogeneity,
For heterogeneity, Q-statistics,
Q-statistics, Tau-
Tau-squared,
squared, H-squared,
H-squared, and I-squared
and I-squared values be
values should should be examined.
examined. The Q-statistics
The Q-statistics (Q =
(Q = 42.731,
df 42.731,
= 13, p <df0.001)
= 13,was p <found
0.001) wasstatistically
to be found to significant.
be statistically significant.
In addition, In addition,
Tau-squared, H-
Tau-squared,
squared, H-squared,
and I-squared valuesandwere
I-squared
foundvalues were 3.18,
to be 0.134, foundandto 68.6,
be 0.134, 3.18, andAs
respectively. 68.6,
a
respectively. As a result, there is a statistically significant heterogeneity
result, there is a statistically significant heterogeneity between studies. Another way of between studies.
Anotherthe
checking way of checkingisthe
heterogeneity to heterogeneity
create a forest is to (see
plot create a forest
Figure plotshown
8). As (see Figure 8). As
in Figure 8,
shown in Figure 8, individual studies appeared to be distributed heterogeneously.
individual studies appeared to be distributed heterogeneously. In this case, researchers In this
maycase,
wantresearchers
to conductmay want to conduct
the moderator analysis thethat
moderator analysis
will be shown that will3.be shown in
in Example
Example 3.
2.2. Example 2 (Odds Ratio)
In the previous example, it was explained how to conduct the meta-analysis with
continuous variables. In this section, how to conduct a meta-analysis using an odds ratio
or risk ratio is demonstrated. There are treatment and control groups (as in the previous
one) in meta-analyses based on odds ratio or risk ratio, but the data is binary. In this type
of meta-analysis, studies that report numbers showing whether an event has occurred or
not within two groups are included. For this purpose, we used the sample data retrieved
from Cummings and Del Beccaro’s [52] study. This data set is presented in Table 3.
Psych2022,
Psych 2022,4 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 15
654
Figure 8. Forest Plot.

Figure 8. Forest Plot.
2.2. Example 2 (Odds Ratio)
Table 3. Sample data set for binary meta-analysis [52].
In the previous example, it was explained how to conduct the meta-analysis with
continuous
Antibiotic variables. In this
Antibiotic section, how toControl
Antibiotic conduct a meta-analysis
Control using anControl
odds ratio
Publication or
(Infected)risk ratio is demonstrated.
(Uninfected) There
(Total) are treatment and
(Infected) control groups
(Uninfected) (as in the previous
(Total)
one) in meta-analyses based on odds ratio or risk ratio, but the data is binary. In this type
Beelsey, 1975 1 63 64 1 64 65
Day, 1975 12of meta-analysis, 44 studies that report
56 numbers showing
4 whether52an event has occurred
56 or
Roberts, 1977 18not within two groups are included.
187 205 For this purpose,
12 we used 88
the sample data 100
retrieved
Hutton, 1978 10from Cummings 132 and Del Beccaro’s
142 [52] study. 9This data set is presented
134 in Table143
3.
Worlock, 1980 5 66 71 2 32 34
Grossman, 1981 2 Table 3. Sample172
data set for binary
174meta-analysis [52].
1 90 91
Thirlby, 1983 16 211 227 17 255 272
Antibiotic Antibiotic Antibiotic Control Control Control
Publication
(Infected) (Uninfected) (Total) (Infected) (Uninfected) (Total)
The sample data set contains the infected and total numbers of treatment and control
Beelsey, 1975 1 63 64 1 64 65
group subjects. In seven studies included in the meta-analysis, it was examined whether a
Day, 1975 12 44 56 4 52 56
simple wound could cause infection with or without antibiotics. Using the data of Roberts
Roberts, 1977 18 187 205 12 88 100
and Teddy [53], the odds ratio and log (odds ratio) calculation can be conducted based on
Hutton, 1978 10 the values presented
132 in Table142
4. 9 134 143
Worlock, 1980 5 66 71 2 32 34
Grossman, 1981 2 Table 4. Sample
172Data for Calculation
174 Odds Ratio [53].
1 90 91
Thirlby, 1983 16 211 227 17 255 272
Infected Uninfected Total
The sample
Treatment group data set contains
18the infected and total187
numbers of treatment205and control
group
Controlsubjects.
group In seven studies included
12 in the meta-analysis,
88 it was examined100whether a
simple
Total wound could cause infection 30 with or without antibiotics.
275 Using the data
305of Roberts
and Teddy [53], the odds ratio and log (odds ratio) calculation can be conducted based on
the values
Using presented in Table
the information 4.
presented in Table 4, the odds ratio and its logarithm (log odds
ratio) are calculated as follows:
Table 4. Sample Data for Calculation Odds Ratio [53].
18 × 88 ∼
Infected
Odds ratio = Uninfected
= 0.706 Total
187 × 12
Treatment group 18 187 205
Control group 12
logodss ratio = ln ( 0.706 ) ∼
= − 88
0.348 100
Psych 2022, 4 655
The variance of the odds ratio index is calculated as follows:

1 1 1 1 ∼
Vodds ratio = + + + = 0.007
18 187 12 88
The odds ratio was calculated as 0.706, indicating that the infection rate among those
who use antibiotics is lower than those who do not use antibiotics. The critical odds ratio
value is 1.00. Since the odds ratio value is less than 1, the interpretation was made like this.
The risk ratio, log (risk ratio) values, and its variance can be calculated as below.
18/205 ∼
Risk ratio = = 0.732
12/100
logrisk ratio = ln(0.732) ∼

= −0.312
1 1 1 1 ∼
Vrisk ratio = − + − = 0.124
18 205 12 100
In addition, meta-analysis can also be conducted with the risk ratio value, but, in this
example, we will use the odds ratio. Like in the previous example, there are two options in
SPSS: raw data or pre-calculated effect sizes. In the case of pre-calculated effect size values,
one can follow these steps:
• Select Analyze > Meta Analysis > Binary Outcomes > Pre-Calculated Effect Size
• An easier way to do this is to conduct the analysis using raw data when you have the
data ready as entered in Excel. For this option, the following steps can be used.
• Select File > Open > Data
• Find the data > Open
• Select Analyze > Meta Analysis > Binary Outcomes > Raw Data
• Add the variables of the experimental group (success and failure) into the ‘Treatment
Group’ box
• Add the variables of the control group (success and failure) into the ‘Control Group’ box
• Add the identifying variable (Authors’ names [Study]) into the ‘Study ID’ box
• Select the effect size type as ‘Log Odds Ratio’ in the ‘Effect Size’ box
• Select the model type ‘Random-effects’ under the ‘Model’ box
Psych 2022, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW • Open ‘Print’ Dialogue > Select the ‘Test of homogeneity’ and ‘Heterogeneity Measures’ 17
> Click ‘Continue’ (see Figure 9)
Figure 9. Data identification menu.

 Open ‘Plot’ Dialogue > Select ‘Forest Plot’ box and all ‘Display Columns’ boxes >
Select ‘Overall effect size’ box > Click ‘Continue’
Psych 2022, 4 656

• Open ‘Plot’ Dialogue > Select ‘Forest Plot’ box and all ‘Display Columns’ boxes >
 Open ‘Plot’ Dialogue > Select ‘Forest Plot’ box and all ‘Display Columns’ boxes >
• Click ‘OK’ (seeFigure
Click ‘OK’ (see Figure10)10)
Figure 10. Forest Plot Menu.

Figure 10. Forest Plot Menu.
When these steps are applied, the outputs will be presented in the new window as in
When these steps are applied, the outputs will be presented in the new window as
Psych 2022, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW Figure 11. 18
in Figure 11.
Figure 11.
Figure 11.Output
Outputfor Binary Data. Data.
for Binary
As seen in Figure 11, the mean effect size estimate was found to be −0.127 (95% CI:
−0.534, 0.281) and statistically non-significant (p = 0.542). Additionally, for heterogeneity,
Q-statistics, Tau-squared, H-squared, and I-squared values should be examined. The
Q-statistics (Q = 4.923, df = 6, p = 0.554) value was found to be statistically non-significant.
In addition, Tau-squared, H-squared, and I-squared values were estimated to be 0.004,
Figure 11. Output for Binary Data.
Psych 2022, 4 657
As seen in Figure 11, the mean effect size estimate was found to be −0.127 (95% CI:
−0.534, 0.281) and statistically
As seen non-significant (p =effect
in Figure 11, the mean 0.542).
sizeAdditionally,
estimate was found fortoheterogeneity,
be −0.127 (95% CI:
Q-statistics, Tau-squared,
−0.534,H-squared, and I-squared
0.281) and statistically values
non-significant should
(p = 0.542). be examined.
Additionally, The
for heterogeneity,
Q-statistics (Q = 4.923, df = 6, p = 0.554) value was found to be statistically non-significant.
Q-statistics, Tau-squared, H-squared, and I-squared values should be examined. The Q-
statistics (Q = 4.923, df = 6, p = 0.554) value was found to be statistically non-significant. In
In addition, Tau-squared,
addition,H-squared,
Tau-squared, and I-squared
H-squared, valuesvalues
and I-squared werewere
estimated tobebe
estimated to 0.004,
0.004, 1.012,
1.012, and 1.2, respectively. The forest plot is presented in Figure 12.
and 1.2, respectively. The forest plot is presented in Figure 12.
Figure 12. Forest Plot forFigure

Binary Data.Plot for Binary Data.
12. Forest
2.3. Example 3 (Correlation)

In this example, we will show you how to conduct a meta-analysis based on correla-
tional data. Correlational meta-analyses are used to find the overall correlation estimate
between two continuous variables. For example, researchers may want to examine the
relationship between schizotypy and creativity as in Acar and Sen [54]. In this case, a
meta-analyst should collect Pearson correlation and sample size values. However, Pearson
correlation (r) cannot be used directly in meta-analysis due to its dependency on its own
variance (see [4]). Thus, Pearson correlation values should be transformed to Fisher’s z
values using the following equation [55]:

1+r
z = 0.5 × ln , (7)
1−r
where r represents the Pearson correlation value. In addition, the variance of the Fisher’s
Z-transformed correlations can be calculated as
1
Vz = (8)
n−3
where n represents the sample size. The SPSS program does not have an option to calculate
Fisher’s Z-transformed correlations and its variance. Thus, the users need to compute
these values. A simple-to-use Excel function called FISHER() can be used for this purpose.
Another option would be using online calculators (https://www.campbellcollaboration.
org/research-resources/effect-size-calculator.html) (accessed on 30 July 2022). The sample
data set presented in Table 1 was used for this empirical example. The data set in Table 1 was
taken from Göçen and Şen [48] that showed the overall relationship between organizational
commitment and spiritual leadership. Only ten studies were drawn from the original
study and are presented in Table 1. As you can see, Fisher’s Z-transformed correlations
(z) and their variances (vz) are presented in Table 1. There are four moderator variables
this purpose. Another option would be using online calculators
(https://www.campbellcollaboration.org/research-resources/effect-size-calculator.html)
(accessed on 30 July 2022). The sample data set presented in Table 1 was used for this
empirical example. The data set in Table 1 was taken from Göçen and Şen [48] that
Psych 2022, 4 showed the overall relationship between organizational commitment and spiritual 658 lead-
ership. Only ten studies were drawn from the original study and are presented in Table 1.
As you can see, Fisher’s Z-transformed correlations (z) and their variances (vz) are pre-
sented
(i.e., in Tableregion,
country, 1. There are and
sector, fourfemale
moderator variables
percent) (i.e.,tocountry,
in addition sample sizeregion, sector, and
(n), Pearson
female percent)
correlation (r),in addition
and to sample
its variance size
(vr) (see (n), 13).
Figure Pearson correlation
As always, (r), and
a variable its variance
of study ID was (vr)
(seepresented
Figure 13). As first
in the always, a variable
column. of study of
The screenshot IDthis
wasdata
presented in the
set in SPSS first column. The
is demonstrated
screenshot of this data set in SPSS is demonstrated in Figure 13.
in Figure 13.
Figure 13. Dataset.

Figure 13. Dataset.
ToTo
perform
performthe
thenecessary
necessary analyses, onehas
analyses, one hastoto open
open thethe data
data in SPSS
in SPSS and and
clickclick on the
on the
Meta
Meta Analysis menu. For this purpose, the following steps should be performed in thein the
Analysis menu. For this purpose, the following steps should be performed
SPSS menu:
SPSS menu:
 • Select Analyze
Select Analyze>>Meta
MetaAnalysis
Analysis >> Continuous
ContinuousOutcomes
Outcomes > Pre-Calculated
> Pre-Calculated Effect
Effect Size Size
 • Add the effect size variable (e.g., z) into the ‘Effect Size’ box
Add the effect size variable (e.g., z) into the ‘Effect Size’ box
• Add the variance variable (e.g., vz) into the ‘Variance’ box
 Add the variance variable (e.g., vz) into the ‘Variance’ box
• Add the identifying variable (e.g., authors) into the ‘Study ID’ box
• Select the model type as random-effects under the ‘Model’ box
• Click ‘OK’ (see Figure 14)
When these steps are applied, the mean effect size estimate can be obtained as 0.519
(95% CI: 0.436, 0.602). This estimate was found to be statistically significant (p < 0.001).
In order to interpret this value, one needs to retransform this mean value into Pearson
correlation. This can be achieved with the following formula:
e2z − 1
r= . (9)
e2z + 1
Alternatively, an easy-to-use Excel function called FISHERINV() can be used for this
purpose. As applied in Excel, FISHERINV(0.519) yields the mean effect size as 0.477 in
terms of Pearson correlation. To perform the heterogeneity analyses, one has to click
on the ‘Print’ dialog on the main screen shown in Figure 14. The boxes called ‘test of
homogeneity’ and ‘heterogeneity statistics’ should be checked. When the necessary analyses
were performed in SPSS, the Q-statistics value was found to be 44.468 (df = 9, p < 0.001).
In addition, Tau-squared, H-squared, and I-squared values were found to be 0.014, 4.534,
and 77.9, respectively. As a result, there is a significant and a large amount of heterogeneity
between studies. As stated above, the ‘Plot’ dialog can be used to obtain several plots,
including forest plots and funnel plots. The forest plot presented in Figure 15 also shows
the heterogeneity between studies.
 Add the identifying variable (e.g., authors) into the ‘Study ID’ box
Psych 2022, 4 659
 Select the model type as random-effects under the ‘Model’ box
OR PEER REVIEW 21
Figure14.
Figure 14.Data
DataIdentification
IdentificationMenu.
Menu.
When these steps are applied, the mean effect size estimate can be obtained as 0.519
(95% CI: 0.436, 0.602). This estimate was found to be statistically significant (p < 0.001). In
order to interpret this value, one needs to retransform this mean value into Pearson cor-
relation. This can be achieved with the following formula:
𝑟= . (7) (9)
Alternatively, an easy-to-use Excel function called FISHERINV() can be used for this
purpose. As applied in Excel, FISHERINV(0.519) yields the mean effect size as 0.477 in
terms of Pearson correlation. To perform the heterogeneity analyses, one has to click on
the ‘Print’ dialog on the main screen shown in Figure 14. The boxes called ‘test of ho-
mogeneity’ and ‘heterogeneity statistics’ should be checked. When the necessary anal-
yses were performed in SPSS, the Q-statistics value was found to be 44.468 (df = 9, p <
0.001). In addition, Tau-squared, H-squared, and I-squared values were found to be
0.014, 4.534, and 77.9, respectively. As a result, there is a significant and a large amount of
heterogeneity between studies. As stated above, the ‘Plot’ dialog can be used to obtain
several plots, including forest plots and funnel plots. The forest plot presented in Figure
15 also shows the heterogeneity between studies.
Figure 15. Forest PlotFigure

for Correlation Data.
15. Forest Plot for Correlation Data.
Publication bias was also assessed using the funnel plot presented in Figure 16. To
perform Egger’s test, the ‘Bias’ dialog was used, and the intercept value was estimated as
0.607 (p = 0.014). When the ‘Trim-and-fill’ dialog was selected, the results suggested that
Figure 15. Forest Plot for Correlation Data.
Psych 2022, 4 660
Publication bias was also assessed using the funnel plot presented in Figure 16. To
perform Egger’s test, the Publication
‘Bias’ dialog wasalso
bias was used, andusing
assessed the intercept value
the funnel plot was estimated
presented in Figure 16.as
To
0.607 (p = 0.014). When the ‘Trim-and-fill’
perform dialog
Egger’s test, the ‘Bias’ dialogwas selected,
was used, the
and the results
intercept suggested
value thatas
was estimated
no imputation was needed
0.607 (p based
= 0.014).on
Whenthetheslopes of Egger’s
‘Trim-and-fill’ dialog test. Thus, the
was selected, publication biasthat
results suggested was no
imputation was needed based on the slopes of Egger’s test. Thus, publication bias was not
not a concern for the example
a concern fordata set. data set.
the example
Figure 16. Funnel Plot for Correlation

Figure Data.
16. Funnel Plot for Correlation Data.
Given the statistically significant heterogeneity, it would be a good idea to conduct

Given the statistically
subgroup significant
analysis andheterogeneity,
moderator analysis.itThe
would be ofa this
final part good ideashows
example to conduct
the appli-
subgroup analysis and moderator analysis. The final part of this example shows the ap-
cation of moderator analyses with categorical (region) and continuous (female proportion)
variables listed in Table 1. To perform the subgroup analysis, one needs to open the ‘Anal-
plication of moderator analyses with categorical (region) and continuous (female pro-
ysis’ dialog when the screen presented in Figure 14 is open. Under the ‘Analysis’ dialog,
you need to add the categorical variable (e.g., region) into the ‘Subgroup Analysis’ box
(see Figure 17).
The results of subgroup analysis with region variable are presented in Figure 18. As
shown in Figure 18, there is a statistically significant difference between the mean effect
size values of studies conducted in the Far East and the Middle East (Q(1) = 5.564, p = 0.018).
The average effect size for studies that were conducted in the Middle East (.599) was
significantly higher than the average effect size for studies that were conducted in the Far
East (0.436). Additionally, the variance within the Far East studies indicated statistically
significant heterogeneity (QW = 11.957, df = 4, p = 0.018), similar to the variance within
Middle East studies (QW = 12.346, df = 4, p = 0.015).
portion) variables listed in Table 1. To perform the subgroup analysis, one needs to o
the ‘Analysis’ dialog when the screen presented in Figure 14 is open. Under the ‘An
sis’ dialog, you need to add the categorical variable (e.g., region) into the ‘Subgr
Psych 2022, 4 661
Analysis’ box (see Figure 17).
Figure 17. Subgroup Analysis Screen.
The results of subgroup analysis with region variable are presented in Figure 1
shown in Figure 18, there is a statistically significant difference between the mean
size values of studies conducted in the Far East and the Middle East (Q(1) = 5.564
0.018). The average effect size for studies that were conducted in the Middle East
was significantly higher than the average effect size for studies that were conduct
the Far East (0.436). Additionally, the variance within the Far East studies indicated
tistically significant heterogeneity (QW = 11.957, df = 4, p = 0.018), similar to the var
within17.
Figure Middle EastAnalysis
Subgroup studiesScreen.
(QW = 12.346, df = 4, p = 0.015).
Figure 17. Subgroup Analysis Screen.
The results of subgroup analysis with region variable are presented in Figure 18
shown in Figure 18, there is a statistically significant difference between the mean e
size values of studies conducted in the Far East and the Middle East (Q(1) = 5.564
0.018). The average effect size for studies that were conducted in the Middle East (
was significantly higher than the average effect size for studies that were conducte
the Far East (0.436). Additionally, the variance within the Far East studies indicated
tistically significant heterogeneity (QW = 11.957, df = 4, p = 0.018), similar to the vari
within Middle East studies (QW = 12.346, df = 4, p = 0.015).
Figure 18. Results of Subgroup Analysis with Region Variable.

OR PEER REVIEW 23
Psych 2022, 4 662

Figure 18. Results of Subgroup Analysis with Region Variable.
To perform the meta-regression analysis with both categorical and continuous var-
To perform the meta-regression analysis with both categorical and continuous vari-
iables, the following steps should be performed in the SPSS menu:
ables, the following steps should be performed in the SPSS menu:
 Select Analyze
• > Meta
Select Analysis
Analyze >>Meta
MetaAnalysis
Regression
> Meta Regression
 Add the effect
• size variable (e.g., z) into
Add the effect size variable the(e.g.,
‘Effect Size’
z) into thebox
‘Effect Size’ box
 Add the variance
• variable
Add (e.g., vz)
the variance into the
variable ‘Variance’
(e.g., box
vz) into the ‘Variance’ box
 Add the continuous
• Addvariable (e.g., FemalePercent)
the continuous into the ‘Covariate(s)’
variable (e.g., FemalePercent) box
into the ‘Covariate(s)’ box
 Add the categorical variable (e.g., Region) into the ‘Factor(s)’ box
• Add the categorical variable (e.g., Region) into the ‘Factor(s)’ box
 • type
Select the model Selectas
the model type as random-effects
random-effects under the ‘Model’ underboxthe ‘Model’ box
• Click ‘OK’ (see Figure 19)
Figure 19. Data Identification Menu for Meta Regression.

Figure 19. Data Identification Menu for Meta Regression.
The results of theThe

meta-regression analysis with female
results of the meta-regression analysispercentage
with female arepercentage
presentedare
in presented
Figure 20. Meta-regression analyses
in Figure 20. were performed
Meta-regression analyseswith
werea performed
random-effects
with amodel using
random-effects model
unrestricted maximum likelihood maximum
using unrestricted estimation. As shown
likelihood in Figure
estimation. As 20,
shownresults of me-
in Figure 20, results of
ta-regression analysis suggestedanalysis
meta-regression that none of these
suggested thatvariables (region
none of these and (region
variables female and
per-female per-
centage) were statistically significant
centage) were predictors
statistically significantofpredictors
the relationship betweenbetween
of the relationship organiza-
organizational
tional commitment and spiritual leadership (p > 0.05).
commitment and spiritual leadership (p > 0.05).
OR PEER REVIEW 24
Psych 2022, 4 663
Figure 20. Results of20.

Figure Meta-regression Analysis
Results of Meta-regression with Female
Analysis Percentage.
with Female Percentage.
3. Conclusions
The present article is meant to provide a general overview of the capabilities of the
IBM SPSS software package for conducting meta-analysis. Therefore, this tutorial article
Psych 2022, 4 664
3. Conclusions
The present article is meant to provide a general overview of the capabilities of the
IBM SPSS software package for conducting meta-analysis. Therefore, this tutorial article
introduced readers to the key features of IBM SPSS Statistics. The steps of meta-analysis
using IBM SPSS were described and demonstrated over three examples. In summary, this
tutorial covered the following technical considerations necessary for the meta-analysis
application in IBM SPSS: creating data sets includes measures of effect sizes and their
variances as well as study identifiers, choosing appropriate options, estimating the mean
effect sizes (Hedges’ g, odds ratio, and correlation), checking the heterogeneity, creating the
plots, assessment of publication bias, and conducting moderator analyses via subgroup
analysis and meta-regression model.
As it is known, several software packages are used for meta-analysis. Among these
software packages, there are those that are used only for meta-analysis, those that work
as a submenu of comprehensive software, macros, and statistical packages, paid or free
ones. IBM SPSS is a comprehensive but paid statistical program that offers a 30-day trial
version. While some of the statistical analyses for meta-analysis were possible with SPSS
Macros until the latest version (see [47]), a meta-analysis submenu was added into SPSS28.
It would be useful to compare IBM SPSS with other meta-analysis software packages to
better understand its features. A comparison of the capabilities of the IBM SPSS, CMA,
and metafor packages for conducting meta-analyses is presented in Table 5 as in [56]. As
shown in Table 5, IBM SPSS can be considered in between the CMA and R metafor package
in terms of the meta-analysis capabilities. There are several options for meta-analysis
applications. In addition to other properties not listed in Table 5, IBM SPSS has most of
the features listed in Table 5. For example, IBM SPSS Statistics has options for Glass’ delta,
which is not available in most of the other packages. Another positive aspect is that it
allows analysis by entering both raw data and pre-calculated effect size. However, its
current version does not have options for likelihood ratio tests and permutation tests as in
the metafor package. Another limitation of IBM SPSS is that it does not allow simultaneous
analysis of different data formats as in CMA software. Perhaps one of the most important
shortcomings in SPSS28 is the ability to calculate the effect size for only one measurement
(e.g., posttest) of the two groups in the standardized mean difference. In this case, it is
necessary to calculate the effect size with online calculation tools and enter pre-calculated
effect sizes into the SPSS28. Despite these limitations, it is clear that IBM SPSS will be
among the main programs to be preferred by meta-analysis practitioners for future research
in psychology and other areas. This is mainly because it is relatively straightforward and
user-friendly, so this tutorial is intended to be a basic guide for first-time users who wish to
familiarize themselves with the meta-analysis capabilities of IBM SPSS.
Table 5. Comparison of the Capabilities of the IBM SPSS, CMA, and Metafor Packages for Conducting
Meta-analyses.
IBM SPSS CMA Metafor

Model fitting:
Fixed-effect models yes yes yes
Random-effects models yes yes yes
Heterogeneity estimator various various various
Mantel–Hanszel method yes yes yes
Peto’s method yes yes yes
Plotting:
Forest plots yes yes yes
Funnel plots yes yes yes
Radial plots yes no yes
L’Abbe plots yes no no
Q-Q normal plots yes no yes
Psych 2022, 4 665
Table 5. Cont.
IBM SPSS CMA Metafor

Moderator analyses:
Categorical moderators single * single multiple
Continuous moderators multiple * multiple multiple
Mixed-effects models yes yes yes
Testing/Confidence Intervals:
Knapp and Hartung adjustment yes yes yes
Likelihood ratio tests no no yes
Permutation tests no no yes
Other:
Leave-one-out analysis no yes yes
Influence diagnostics yes yes yes
Cumulative meta-analysis yes yes yes
Tests for funnel plot asymmetry yes yes yes
Trim-and-fill method yes yes yes
Selection models no no no
Prediction interval yes no yes
* The number of moderators that can be analyzed simultaneously.
We hope that this presentation, along with the screenshots and available data presented
in tables, helps psychological researchers to learn and appropriately apply meta-analyses
in IBM SPSS. We also hope this tutorial article fosters increased awareness, knowledge, and
skills in relation to meta-analysis and sparks further enthusiasm for adding meta-analysis
to the methodological toolbox in psychology and other areas.
Supplementary Materials: The following supporting information can be downloaded at: https://
www.mdpi.com/article/10.3390/psych4040049/s1.
Author Contributions: S.S.: Conceptualization, Methodology, Writing, and Formal Analysis. I.Y.:
Methodology, Formal Analysis, Writing—Review and Editing. All authors have read and agreed to
the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: Data is contained within the article.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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A Tutorial on How to Conduct Meta-Analysis with IBM

1 Education Faculty, Harran University, Sanliurfa 63190, Turkey

Keywords: meta-analysis; meta-regression; IBM SPSS; software

Psych 2022, 4, 640–667. https://doi.org/10.3390/psych4040049 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/psych

An excellent literature review is at the heart of the meta-analysis. A common threat to

1.1. Steps of Meta-Analysis

1.2. Software Options

1.3. Properties of IBM SPSS Statistics

1.3.1. Main Analyses

1.3.2. Publication Bias Analyses

Psych 2022, 4, FOR PEER REVIEW 6

Figure 1. Screenshot of the Continuous Outcomes Submenu.

of each study. However, the researchers planning to perform a meta-analysis based on

Table 1. Sample Dataset for Correlation and Moderator Analyses [48].

Study n r vr Country Region Business Female % z vz

Study Blended n Blended Mean Blended SD Face-to-Face n Face-to-Face Mean Face-to-Face SD

Step 3: Open Meta Analysis menu

One of the important analyses requires an assessment of heterogeneity. This can

Another standardized mean difference index is named Hedges’ g, which applies a

nexp + ncontrol Glass’ delta2

 Select File > Open > Data

Figure 3. Open Data Menu.

 Select “Files of Type” as “Excel”

 Select “Files of Type” as “Excel”

Figure 4. Meta-analysis Figure

 Add the variables • of Addthe treatment

 Select the model type ‘Random-effects’ under the ‘Model’ box

Measures’ > Click ‘Continue’ (see Figure 5)

Figure 5. Data Identification Menu.

Figure 6. Forrest Plot Menu.

Figure 8. Forest Plot.

The variance of the odds ratio index is calculated as follows:

logrisk ratio = ln(0.732) ∼

Figure 9. Data identification menu.

Figure 9. Data identification menu.

Figure 10. Forest Plot Menu.

Figure 12. Forest Plot forFigure

2.3. Example 3 (Correlation)

Figure 13. Dataset.

Figure 15. Forest PlotFigure

Figure 16. Funnel Plot for Correlation

Given the statistically significant heterogeneity, it would be a good idea to conduct

Analysis’ box (see Figure 17).

Figure 17. Subgroup Analysis Screen.

Figure 18. Results of Subgroup Analysis with Region Variable.

Psych 2022, 4 662

Figure 19. Data Identification Menu for Meta Regression.

The results of theThe

Figure 20. Results of20.

IBM SPSS CMA Metafor

IBM SPSS CMA Metafor

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