Operationalizing Cross-Cultural Research Design Practical, Cost-Effective, And a Minimalistic Application of Cross-Cultural Research Design to Minimize Cultural Bias in Research and Reconcile Diverse Viewpoints

Volume 8, Issue 4, April – 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology
ISSN No:-2456-2165
Operationalizing Cross-Cultural Research Design:

Practical, Cost-Effective, and a Minimalistic
Application of Cross-Cultural Research Design to
Minimize Cultural Bias in Research and Reconcile
Diverse Viewpoints
Sujay Rao Mandavilli
Abstract:- We begin this paper by providing a brief I. INTRODUCTION

overview of the history of science in different civilizations
and cultures around the world since ancient times, in order Science knows no country, because knowledge belongs to
to show that different cultures and traditions across humanity, and is the torch which illuminates the world.
geographies have contributed to human thought since time Science is the highest personification of a nation because that
immemorial, and that “Eurocentrism” in science the way nation will remain the first which carries further the works of
we understand it, is a more recent phenomenon, traceable thought and intelligence.
particularly to the renaissance and the enlightenment Louis Pasteur (1822–1895), French chemist, biologist,
which took place in those regions. Much has been talked and founder of microbiology
about globalization in the twenty-first century, and the
emergence of Japan, Korea, China, India, and countries in There will come a time, when the world will be filled with
the Middle East as potential powers in the twenty-first one science, one truth, one industry, one brotherhood, one
century. It is imperative too, that science today be friendship with nature.
endowed with a cosmopolitan character and outlook, and Dimitry Mendeleyev (1834–1907), Russian chemist
students of science around the world no longer be fed on a
diet of Eurocentric perspectives alone; this is additionally II. DEFINITION OF SCIENCE
important because scientific endeavour is the basis of the
design of educational systems and pedagogical theory, and Science may be defined as a systematic study of different
the nurturing of future generations of researchers and phenomena both in the physical and natural world through
scholars. This has been the raison d’etre, focus, and careful and meticulous observation, experimentation, and
emphasis of all our work over the past several years. testing of theories against evidence obtained systematically
Science should not only therefore not only become more and in a structured fashion in order to formulate generalized
and more fieldwork driven, but also embrace a multitude laws and principles (or derive general truths), and construct a
of perspectives of denizens of major and minor cultures generalized body of knowledge there from. Science also
across the world. Thus, ivory tower approaches should involves collecting data, ascertaining facts, and establishing
become a thing of the past, and science should become the hierarchical order that exists between different
increasingly culture-neutral and ideology-free. This is as observations and phenomena, both in the social and natural
such, our fourth paper on the philosophy of science, and worlds. Many different philosophers of science have attempted
our earlier work focussed, among other things, on the many different definitions of science. For example, Thomas
importance of the social duties of every researcher and Hobbes states, "Science is the knowledge of consequences,
scholar, the principle of exceptionism or the sociological and dependence of one fact upon another." The
ninety ten rule, and the certainty uncertainty principle. word science has been used in Middle English since the
This paper can also be therefore seen as the logical fourteenth century and has meant "the state of knowing". The
culmination of all our earlier endeavours, and is an word can be traced to the Latin word scientia, which means
integral part of the “Globalization of science” movement. "knowledge, awareness, or understanding". Science and
scientific principles are the foundation of most of research
activity and technological progress that have profoundly
changed the way we live: science can also be categorized into
broad categories such as basic science and applied science,
IJISRT23APR1755 www.ijisrt.com 1095

ISSN No:-2456-2165
and there are many different operational and widely-practiced easily leading to a quantum increase in scientific activity,
fields of scientific inquiry in the world today. 1 2 many innovations are older still. Many other innovations also
led to a ripple effect, and contributed to an increase in
Science depends on scientific method. Scientific scientific endeavour. Agriculture for example, which is
method is may be defined as an empirical method for associated with the Neolithic revolution, allowed for a surplus
acquiring knowledge and the processing of information that of food (and thereby a diversity of activities), and was one of
has characterized much of scientific endeavour and activity the triggers for the emergence of civilization. It also ended the
over the course of the past several centuries. It involves hunter gatherer stage, and paved the way for a more settled
several deliberate and usually explicit sequenced steps such as life. The earliest stone tool making is believed to have
careful observation, the application of originated some two and a half million years ago, and this is
rigorous skepticism regarding observations made, elimination also associated with many cultural changes, as it gave humans
of cognitive biases and prejudices or cognitive a better control over their environment.
assumptions the formulation of hypotheses, refinement of the
hypotheses through constant experimentation, and collection Different types of tools are associated with the old
and analysis of data. However, many research philosophers Paleolithic age, the middle Paleolithic age and the new
such as Karl Popper have argued against a rigid or a one size Paleolithic age which are also associated with hunter-
fits all approach, and have underlined the necessity for gathering and nomadism. The Early Stone Age began with
flexibility in scientific method with possible variations based crude and basic stone tools and implements made by early
on the field of inquiry, current exigencies or the researcher’s humans such as cleavers, usually entirely out of stone.
personal preferences. This approach has gained some These tools include tools such as stone cores, hammer stones,
currency and traction in the recent past.3 4 5 6 and sharp stone flakes, which later developed into hand axes
and spear heads. Techniques such as flintknapping and lithic
III. HISTORY OF SCIENCE reduction were also used for tool making. Tools became much
more sophisticated in the new stone age or the Upper
Contrary to popular perception and belief, the history of Palaeolithic age, and polished celts and axe heads came to be
science is almost as old as the history of humankind itself. used; many tools in this period were made of a wide variety of
Science has always been a universal and a world-wide activity relatively rare stones, and were used for complex tasks such as
too, and cannot be definitively traced to any particular cutting and pounding. Tools belonging to various periods have
ideology or origin. Thus, many important early contributions been found in Africa, the Middle East and Europe, implying
to science have originated in different parts of the world thus that different types of tools evolved in different parts of the
making it a culture-neutral activity or a pan-cultural activity in world, even if at different points in time. Different traditions in
antiquity. The history of science covers the progress and tool making are known by different names such as Levallosian
development of science from the earliest ancient times right up tools, Acheulean tools, Clactonian tools, Olduvan tools and
to the present. Even though many researchers and scholars Mousterian tools based on the cultures that produced them.8
trace science's earliest beginnings to Ancient Egypt and
Mesopotamia in the third millennium BC, the roots of science The earliest rafts and boats were probably used one
are much older still, and the study of its history encompasses hundred thousand years ago, and this was probably the earliest
technological and cultural processes, and a wide gamut of form of transport used by man, long before the invention of
fields and disciplines too. The earliest science may not have the wheel, and the subsequent development of the bullock cart
been documented, structured or written, the way we know it or the ox cart, the horse cart and the chariot. These rafts and
today, and is often referred to as proto-science.7 boats were probably made of hollow barks or reeds. It is likely
that boats were developed independently in many different
Though true writing which is only around five thousand parts of the world, and were used by earliest humans to travel
years old enabled knowledge to be stored and communicated over rivers, streams and small bodies of water.
1
The meaning of science, Tim Lewens, 2015 The first clear evidence of the regular use of fire comes
2
A brief history of science, John Gribbin, 2004, Eagle press from Europe, North Africa and the Middle East dating back to
3
A summary of scientific method, Peter Kosso, Springer, between 800,000 and 700,000 years ago, and it found several
2011 uses in cooking, tool making, and chasing away darkness and
4
The scientific method: An evolution of thinking from Darwin wild animals. It was also later used in making pottery. Earlier
to Dewey, Henry. M. Cowles, Harvard University press, 2020 indirect evidence for the use of fire is dated to about one and a
55
Research Methodology: Tools and techniques, CR Kothari, half million years ago, while Frances D. Burton and Richard
New Age Publishers, Second revised edition Wrangham argue for even earlier dates. The next stage was the
6
Research design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and mixed control of fire, which was not only a significant cultural
method approaches, John W. Cresswell, Fourth edition, Sage
publishers 8
Stone tools in the Paleolithic and Neolithic near East: A
7
The History of Science By T. Jackson · 2019 guide, John J. Shea, Cambridge, 2013

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advance by itself, but also led to other cultural advances: this such as the rebus principle, or the use of determinatives. The
may have occurred some 200,000 years ago. 9 10 first full-fledged writing systems were cuneiform and
Egyptian hieroglyphs, though these were not alphabetic scripts
The Neolithic revolution that occurred some 10,000 yet. We had also argued previously based on preliminary
years ago, is not only associated with agriculture, it is also evidence, that the Indus script had reached the linguistic stage,
associated with the domestication of farm animals like cattle and this observation would stand the test of common sense.
and sheep which were first domesticated during this time The first alphabetic script in the world was probably Proto-
followed by draft animals such as donkeys, oxen and camels. Sinaitic which evolved around 2000 BC, and this was the
This led to the production of milk, fur, hides, and meat among grandfather of most alphabets, abjads and abugidas included.
other things, and diversification of income, and a further True writing would have led to an intellectual revolution of
enhancement of leisure time. Pottery is also one of the oldest, sorts; as such, modern science would not have been possible
and one of the most significant and influential human without it. 12
inventions, originating before the Neolithic period, with
ceramic artistic and decorative objects such as Venus figurines Metals were another great invention of humans. The
found in Europe, in the late Paleolithic period dating back to Chalcolithic or Copper Age is a transitional period between
around 30000 YBP. Regular pottery production is evidenced the Neolithic and the Bronze Age, and involved the use of
in places like Japan and the Nile valley some 10,000 years copper. It began around 4500 BC or earlier, and ended with
ago. The potter’s wheel which helped ramp up production, the beginning of the Bronze Age, which was a technologically
was probably invented in Mesopotamia some 5000 years ago, superior metal, around 3000 BC, or earlier, variations of dates
while kilns were probably invented in Egypt at the same time. representing regions. This was in turn followed by the Iron
Pottery became more complex, ornate, and decorative well age, which began sometime after 2000 BC, by latest accounts,
into the metal age, and was widely used by the masses. and after the collapse of the Bronze age. These are part of the
three age system first proposed by Christian Jurgensen
The wheel was probably invented in the late Neolithic Thomsen. 13
period some 8,000 years ago in the Halaf culture, though this
date is not widely accepted; its origin therefore remains IV. SCIENCE IN EARLY CIVILIZATIONS
relatively obscure with many researchers attributing its
invention to many cultures. It was however certainly widely Scholars typically acknowledge various cradles of
used in the 4th millennium BC in Ancient Mesopotamia. civilization, examples being Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt,
Wheeled transportation using solid wooden wheels and spoked Ancient India, and Ancient China which rank as among
wheels probably began in 4000 BC or after, and the bullock humanities oldest. These are much older than other cradles of
cart began to be used in Mesopotamia in 3500 BC, before civilization such as the cradle of western civilizations
spreading to other Old World civilizations eventually. Horse (examples being Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome), and
drawn chariots were probably used by 2000 BC in the Middle other Mesoamerican civilizations such as the Incas, Mayas and
East and Ancient Egypt, before spreading to Post-Harappan Aztecs. Earliest proto-cities such as Catal Huyuk (seventh
India in the Iron age; horse riding itself is much older, and is millennium BC) in Turkey, also rank as among humanities
usually dated to around 3500 BC, and may have begun in oldest large settlements. These eventually gave way to much
Central Asia (the Kazakhstan region) following domestication larger cities such as Ur, Uruk, Kish and Eridu (in
of horses there, and their usage as beasts of burden. 11 Mesopotamia), Susa (in Elam), Memphis (in Egypt), and cities
of the Indus valley civilization in South Asia. The latter are
The forerunner of full-fledged writing and full-fledged associated with full-blown Bronze age civilizations, with
literacy is proto-writing. Proto-writing consists of signs or complex hierarchies and societies, specialization of craft,
marks communicating non-linguistic information, using long-distance trade, complex metalworking, proto-industrial
ideographic symbols as mnemonic tools. These in turn, enterprise, and writing through monarchical diktat, or for trade
followed petro glyphs which emerged as a medium of artistic and accounting purposes, and some literary traditions thrown
expression and creativity. Writing systems emerged from in.
rudimentary potter’s marks and later traditions of symbol
systems such as Vinca symbols (which gradually became more The achievements of ancient Egyptians in various fields
complex, abstract and standardized) in the early Neolithic of science were stellar and impressive. They made giant
period in different parts of the world. Early humans soon strides in diverse fields such as paper and writing, astronomy,
began to encode speech using different tools and techniques mathematics, medicine, mummification, irrigation and
agriculture, engineering, construction and architecture,
9 Early History of Fire By N. Joly, John A. Garver
10 Fire: A brief history, Second edition, Stephen J. Pyne, 2019, University of Washington press 12
Senner, Wayne M. (1991). The Origins of
11
The Ceramic art: A compendium of the history and the Writing. University of Nebraska Press
13
manufacture of pottery and porcelain, Jennie J. Young, Avnir, David (2014). "Molecularly doped metals". Acc.
Library of Alexandria, USA Chem. Res. 47 (2)

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navigation and ship-making, and the measurement of Christian era was another important Indian mathematician.
time. The sphinx and the pyramids were the marvels of the The Indian polymath Chanakya or Kautilya wrote an
ancient world, and the famed library of Alexandria lit the lamp important treatise called the Arthasastra. 15 Science in the
of ancient knowledge. 14 Mesopotamian people are credited for medieval Islamic world refers to the science developed during
having invented many important technologies including metal the Islamic Golden Age under various kingdoms and
and copper-working, writing, glass and lamp making, boats caliphates, between the eighth and thirteenth centuries.
and ships, astronomy, map making, production of textile, Islamic scientific achievements covered a wide range of
clocks, medicine, surgery, water storage, and irrigation. They topics, especially mathematics (including algebra and the
were also one of the first Bronze Age societies in the world. number system), astronomy, and medicine. Alchemy,
They developed from copper, bronze, and gold on to iron. chemistry, botany, zoology, agronomy, ophthalmology and
Science and technology in Ancient Mesopotamia began in the cartography were also studied. Scientific work during this age
Uruk period, and continued well into the dynastic period, and often had a religious undercurrent.
Sumerian culture as well. The Harappans whose civilization
was spatially larger, were known for many accomplishments The Renaissance is a period in European history which
including architecture, urban development, irrigation, trade, marks the transition from the Middle Ages (sometimes
measurement, metallurgy, seal-writing, the development of the referred to as the dark ages) to the modern age and spans the
earliest drainage systems and sanitation. fifteenth and sixteenth centuries; this period is marked by a
resurgence in science and scientific activity which spread
The achievements of the Ancient Greeks in science were unevenly across Europe. It followed the invention of the
unrivalled and unsurpassed in their day. Greek scientists printing press by Gutenberg. This period is marked by a
extended the works of Egyptians and Babylonians, and took renewed interest in art, architecture, science, politics, and
them to new heights. Scholars such as Pythagoras, Plato, literature. Scientific method and inductive reasoning also
Socrates, Thales of Miletus and Aristotle developed new ideas developed during this period. Nicholas Copernicus, Isaac
in the fields of mathematics, philosophy, astronomy, scientific Newton, Galileo Galilei, Leonardo Da Vinci and
method, and logic that influenced Western thought, science, Michelangelo are also products of this age. The
and philosophy greatly. Other scholars of eminent fame and Enlightenment, sometimes known the Age of Reason, was an
glory were Ptolemy, Aristarchus, Thales, Archimedes, intellectual movement that occurred in Europe in the
Anaximander, Empedocles, Euclid, Philolaus and Hippocrates. seventeenth and eighteenth centuries after the scientific
The Romans built on Greek science to suit their own practical revolution which is associated with the work of Sir Francis
purposes. While relatively weak in pure science, the Romans Bacon, Rene Descartes, and John Locke. The Enlightenment
were brilliant engineers. They understood the laws of physics led to an exponential increase in knowledge in various
and developed aqueducts and other marvels of engineering scientific fields and the birth of new values such as liberty,
such as an extensive network of roads. Romans also respected fraternity, peace, progress, tolerance and happiness. Another
Greek scientists and scholars greatly. In many ways, Roman important idea of this age was the separation of church and
science was a logical continuation of Greek science. state, and the gradual rejection of the church’s dogma. This
period is also more or less concurrent with the Industrial
Science developed in Ancient China more or less revolution which began in Great Britain, greatly increased
independently, and important advances and inventions were mechanization, and paved the way for the modern age. 16 17
made in the fields of engineering, astronomy, medicine,
mathematics, geology and the natural sciences. Among the During the Nineteenth century, science made great
earliest notable Chinese inventions were the sundial, the progress. John Dalton for example, published his atomic
abacus, and the Kongming lantern. The other four great theory in 1808. A Russian Dmitri Mendeleev formulated the
Inventions, namely the compass, gunpowder, printing and Periodic Table. Scientists also continued to study and
papermaking were other important Chinese technological experiment with electricity, and the study of Physics continued
advances, and were not known to Europe until the end of the to make great strides during this period. Sir Humphrey Davy
Middle Ages some one thousand years later. Indians invented and Michael Faraday also made many contributions to science,
zero and the decimal number system, which proved important and Louis Pasteur and Marie Curie made many contributions
to mankind. They also made contributions to algebra, to medicine. Railways revolutionized travel, and shrunk
trigonometry, and calculus. Building on the Harappan
tradition, medicine was developed in the Gangetic plains as
evidenced from the Atharva Veda. The Indian physician 15
Evans, James. The History and Practice of Ancient
Sushruta developed surgery in the Eighth century BC. Astronomy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998.
Aryabhata was an important astronomer and mathematician 16
Burckhardt, Jacob, The Civilization of the Renaissance in
from the Indian classical period. Bhaskara of the post- Italy (1860), a famous classic; excerpt and text search 2007
edition; also complete text online.
14 17
Ancient civilizations, Third edition, Cristopher Scarre and "Industrial History of European Countries". European Route
Brian M. Fagan, Routledge, 1997 of Industrial Heritage. Council of Europe

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distances just as did the steamship. Charles Darwin’s theory of of view. Some Euro-centric thinkers may claim rightly or
evolution revolutionized science, and is among the greatest otherwise, that Oriental cultures are pre-scientific, and are
contributions made to science ever. Scientific racism existed, scientifically-illiterate, because they are ignorant of Western
but slowly whittled down. In Anthropology, arm chair scientific method, and apparatus, and are thereby incapable of
methods were replaced by fieldwork. Researchers unearthed logical or critical thought. Some of this stereotyping and
Dinosaur fossils, thus proving the Biblical theory of evolution generalization may even have been deliberate, or born out of
false. Gregor Mendel discovered the laws of heredity. Science deliberate bias and prejudice, even though it may be partially
and technology progressed greatly in the twentieth century, true. Oriental cultures have lagged behind the west for
and this period is often known as the age of scientific miracles. centuries. This notwithstanding, who should begin to break the
Henry Ford mass produced automobiles. Electricity became cabals, then? 18
common, and many electrical appliances were invented.
Einstein developed his famous special and general theories of China is now publishing a large number of research
relativity. The telephone, the phonograph, the motion pictures, papers, and India remains in the fourth position, above many
the radio and the aeroplane also changed people’s lives European nations, notwithstanding a large quality gap between
greatly. Great strides were made in the field of genetics as the west and the east. Contributions of Asians to various fields
well, and the double helix nature of DNA was discovered by of inquiry forming a part of the social sciences is also low,
James Watson and Francis Crick. New theories on the origin though there is a flourishing and thriving post-colonial
of the universe such as the Big Bang theory were developed, movement driven by Asians. Also, another welcome change is
and superconductivity was explained. More evidence was that Asian researchers are gravitating towards the USA to
discovered in support of the theory of evolution. The internet pursue scientific pursuits, and such researchers are unlikely to
which was first unveiled in 1993 revolutionized embrace Eurocentric paradigms unquestioningly. Rebellious
communication (it has also triggered horizontal cross-cultural anti-colonial stances like the Hindutva movement raised their
flows of ideas and information, and fuelled cognitive heads during this period, and other researchers like Michael
dissonance in some parts of the world, by dislodging well- Witzel fought them with heroism. (Such movements are also
entrenched ideas. Additionally, it may have succeeded in born of parochialism, and erroneously seek to reconstruct
weakening cultural identity to some degree), and in the field of India’s real or imagined past glory in science or otherwise,
astronomy, many planets known as exoplanets, were rather than striving to make it a scientific superpower that it
discovered orbiting neighbouring stars. needs to be at present). We would fervently hope science
becomes more and more of a global and a culture-neutral
Colonialism had by and large ended by the 1950’s, but activity, and only this can serve to tame anti-science
many formerly colonized countries followed socialism, movements and counter-science movements which have raised
perhaps inhibiting their growth. Many Asian economies had their ugly head in different parts of the world. Should there be
taken off by the 1980’s, and more followed suit by the 2000’s. Chinese, Indian and Islamic renaissances, and enlightenments
In spite of this, scientific output in Asian countries remains then? Should Asians only challenge Western scholarship
abysmally low (In African nations, it is almost non-existent), constructively, and remain a strong counter-balancing force, or
and even today, the USA remains the epicentre of scientific should scholars and researches across cultures collaborate with
activity. Even though countries like Japan and South Korea each other is a spirit of bonhomie through a formal and
have shone in different fields of technology (becoming structured process of ‘cross-cultural research design”? These
producers of technology rather than mere users of technology), are questions on everybody’s lips.19 20
their contributions to theoretical science is relatively low.
Eurocentrism reigns supreme; According to Brohman The following then could be the remedy to the current
(Brohman 1995) Eurocentrism "perpetuated intellectual predicament, situation and malaise, though only a part of the
dependence on a restricted group of prestigious Western overall solution. 21 22 23 24 25 26
academic institutions that determine the subject matter and
methods of research". Eurocentric science also caters
primarily to intellectual, social, and cultural causes,
influences, attitudes and ideals arising within Europe, and also 18
Franzki, Hannah. "Eurocentrism." 2012, Concepts and
believes implicitly in European exceptionalism (as observed Critical Perspectives.
by Ward Churchill and others), see it as a driving force behind 19
Krebs, Robert E. (2004). Groundbreaking Scientific
scientific activity. Euro-centric scientists also developed most Experiments, Inventions, and Discoveries of the Middle Ages
frameworks and paradigms in major fields of science and the Renaissance
representing ethnosciences, and set the educational curriculum 20
Smith, Pamela H. (2009). "Science on the Move: Recent
accordingly. Thus, Eurocentrism which may be conscious or Trends in the History of Early Modern Science". Renaissance
sub-conscious, may have arisen due to the desire to pander or Quarterly. 62 (2)
cater to western audiences: this is especially true of 21
Introducing Anthropological Economics: The quest for an
Ethnography. In some cases, Eurocentrism may have been Anthropological basis for Economic theory, growth models
born due to ignorance of non-European cultures or their points and policy development for wealth and human welfare

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(a) Cross-cultural research and sharing of perspectives must audiences; this must become a mindset, and techniques
become more widely practiced and commonplace through such as ‘Reflective equilibrium through role swapping’
debate, discussion, mutual consensus and the setting up of must be consciously (and conscientiously) practiced.
cross-cultural research teams. This kind of a research Biases and prejudices must be systematically recorded and
design can be used in virtually all kinds of sociological analyzed, and differing perspectives taken into account and
research, and can be extended to other fields of research consideration (or at least the perspectives that are pertinent
too. Cross-cultural research design involves the to the research question). One of the guiding principles of
participation of researchers, or subjects of study from this approach is the psychic unity of mankind, a concept
various cultural backgrounds (The process of selection that we have reiterated several times in our papers, and the
must involve a careful consideration of various factors universality of scientific and research goals too;
such as time and effort, and selection process must be consequently, there must be bonhomie, camaraderie, and
meticulous too) This can greatly override the dangers mutual respect for scientists across the world, and criticism
associated with ideologies (such as nationalism, must be constructive or issue-based, and not ideology or
parochialism, or racism), ivory tower approaches (thereby vendetta-driven. The term cross-cultural research design
mitigating esoteric pursuits and intellectual nerdism). For already exists, but this paper attempts to take the concept
this all participants in scientific activity should be trained to a much higher level by introducing several new terms
in ‘universals’ such as critical, logical, and rational and concepts. Cross-cultural research may be defined as a
thought, and ideologies of all hues and colours should be systematic study that investigates cultural differences in
systematically got rid of. The selection of participants must behaviour and phenomenon. It can also be accompanied by
be structured, and must form a logical process. Even an annotated approach, where opinions elicited are
though the world is becoming increasingly globalized, and systematically recorded.
even managements of organizations are practicing culture- (b) Creating Sociological and Anthropological revolutions
neutrality, ideology-free science has proven elusive. across the world. Our papers on Anthropological pedagogy
Scientific research must also be targeted at cross-cultural and the sociology of science, along with Twenty-first
century historiography should do the trick here, though this
maximization Sujay Rao Mandavilli ELK Asia Pacific Journal should essentially be a continuous process driven by better
of Social Sciences Volume 6, Issue 3 (April –June 2020 education and pedagogical methods designed for different
22
Introducing Anthropological Historiography as an integral contexts and settings. Thus, revolutions in various social
component of Twenty-first Century Historiography: The role sciences such as economics, sociology, and social and
played by Anthropological Historiography in the attainment of cultural anthropology must happen, and these subjects
long-term Anthropological goals and objectives International must be geared to produce emancipation of peoples in
Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology, various parts of the world, rather than providing a limited
February 2018, Volume 3, Issue 2 White man’s perspective on various states of affairs. This
23
Introducing Anthropological Pedagogy as a Core is all the more important given the fact that only these
Component of Twenty-first Century Anthropology: The Role sciences lend themselves to any type of ‘centrism’. This
of Anthropological Pedagogy in the fulfilment of would in turn facilitate better cross-cultural research design
Anthropological and Sociological objectives Sujay Rao in the long term.
Mandavilli International Journal of Innovative Science and (c) Better pedagogical techniques (refer our papers on
Research Technology (IJISRT) Volume 3, Issue 7, 2018 Anthropological pedagogy and the sociology of science)
(Summary published in Indian Education and Research Thus, a ‘cultural frame of reference’ in various cultures,
Journal Volume 4 No 7, 2008 and a cross-cultural frame of reference’ across cultures.
24
Unleashing the potential of the ‘Sociology of Science’: We have defined these in the past to mean carefully
Capitalizing on the power of science to usher in social, thought through paradigms that systematically override all
cultural and intellectual revolutions across the world, and lay traditional or pre-scientific beliefs and belief systems to
the foundations of twenty-first century pedagogy, Sujay Rao gravitate cultures towards modern scientific and logical
Mandavilli, Elk Asia Pacific Journal of Social Science, thought. Thus, these would be scientific frames of
October – December 2020 reference, people of a specific culture or groups of cultures
25
Historiography by Objectives: A new approach for the study could relate to (against the backdrop of their own culture),
of history within the framework of the proposed Twenty-First and not get overwhelmed by. The former would work
Century School of Historiography Sujay Rao Mandavilli ELK appreciably and admirably in the context of a particular
Asia Pacific Journal of Social Sciences Vol 1, Issue 2 (2015) culture, while the latter would be more universal, making it
26
Enunciating the Core principles of Twenty-first Century a universal paradigm or set of paradigms. Thus, modern
Historiography: Some additional extrapolations and inferences scientifically-designed historiography bereft and devoid of
from our studies and observations on Historiography Sujay ideologies, and the development of a suitably designed
Rao Mandavilli ELK Asia Pacific Journal of Social Science culture-specific syllabus, should do the trick in most case
(ISSN: 2394-9392) in Volume 2, Issue 4 July to September and instances, and override pre-scientific beliefs. This
2016 may also be the crying need of the hour and day. Abraham

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Kovvur debunked the invincibility of Indian God men, and ‘cross-cultural frame of reference’ to edge out pre-scientific
so did H Narasimhaiah, and bemoaned their widespread beliefs. 27
popularity. Most Indian rationalists such as Joseph and
Sanal Edamaruku have lamented the fact that even Indian New atheists such as Sam Harris, Christopher Hitchens
scientists cling on tenaciously to pre-scientific beliefs. This and Richard Dawkins have also been accused of placing too
belief has been reiterated by Dr. Innaiah Narisetti, much reliance on empirical science; Thomas Nagel and
Chairman of the centre of inquiry. Luckily, all this could Anthony Kenny have been their notable critics. Paul
change in a generation or two. This would again facilitate Feyerabend later moved away from scientism, and
better cross-cultural research design in the long term as subsequently declared it highly limited and flawed. It is also
people of different nationalities become more scientifically anathema from our perspective, and flies in the face of the
inclined and oriented. It would also require the emergence ideals of globalized science. It can also lead to what we called
of apposite social science research tools, techniques and ‘self-reinforcing cognitive dissonance’, and reinforce faith in
methods, and a better collaboration between social religion and religious dogma more. Our perspective and stance
scientists and other scientists. Only this can lay the is that a globalized approach to science, and human-centric
foundations for a more rational society, and relegate and culture-encompassing techniques, could raise the bar, and
religious dogma to the background. But perhaps religion expand the utility of science greatly, though it cannot render it
and belief in God will not die down entirely, and religion invincible. Dialectics and cross-cultural research design are
will remain important social and cultural symbols in most among the ways this can be materialized and fructified.
societies. Many of the concepts we proposed in our two Dialectics must also be an integral and an essential part of
papers on social and cultural change can perhaps help cross-cultural research design; the latter is meaningless
model future changes in different societies. without the former. This will additionally allow all points of
view to be evaluated against the backdrop of a grander scheme
 Towards An Ideology-Free Science of things, and move science away from an ideology-smeared
The word “Ideology” is derived from the French word past to an ideology-neutral one. The ‘Structured and
“ideologie” which is usually dated to the time of the French Annotated Participant driven Appraisal’ technique in
Revolution, and is believed to have been introduced by a ethnography was based on dialectics; we hope this paper will
philosopher, by the name of A.L.C. Destutt de Tracy. To put it take things to the next level. Thus, the principle of equi-
in plain and simple English, an ideology may be referred to a distance with respect to ideologies is extremely important; all
collection of beliefs that are usually not completely tested and our work this far has been targeted at the achievement of this
therefore lack universal applicability. Ideologies may either be singular objective. 28 29
consciously harmful or harmless, though there is often an
unnatural influence or manipulation of thought. An ideology is  Towards A Post-Ideology World In Science
sometimes also associated with rigidity of thought or dogma, Much of scientific endeavour particularly in the social
and non-applicability of values or ideals outside usually a sciences is still not entirely ideology-free, and the bias is
narrow or closed group (or incompatibility with external usually either conscious or unconscious. Consequently, much
criteria), whether bearing internal consistency or not. of scientific research in these fields of science is still not of the
desired or required quality. Much of scientific research in the
Different definitions of the term ideology have been social sciences is still targeted at popular audiences or
proposed by researchers like David. W. Minar, Terry Eagleton European or American scholars often, not at global scholars
and others, but the core characteristics that define an ideology and researchers, though ideally, only distilled and sanitized
are usually the same in all definitions. Science itself can form versions must be targeted at popular audiences; thus
the basis for negative ideologies. For example, an exaggerated polarization still persists to an extreme degree, with adherents
belief that science is the panacea for all ills, or that all of different ideology seldom talking to each other in an
phenomena can be quantified, (psychological and cultural atmosphere free of distrust or suspicion. We are still living in a
factors are highly discounted or even peremptorily dismissed) dark era of inter-disciplinary research and cross-cultural
is known as scientism. This term was described in detail by F research particularly in the social sciences. As the adage goes,
A Hayek and Karl Popper, among others. Thus, there may be a
temptation and a tendency to pass pompous statements and 27
Taylor, James E. "The New Atheists". Internet
rhetoric as true, and also appeal to (or refer to) “scientific Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
authority”. This position may also at times encompass the 28
Hacohen, Malachi Haim (2002). Karl Popper: the formative
naïve belief that science will automatically replace religion. years, 1902–1945: politics and philosophy in interwar Vienna.
This may be a self-defeating belief, because it may obviate the Cambridge University Press
need for better grounds-up and human-centric methods, 29
Presenting the ‘Structured and Annotated Participantdriven
particularly in various fields of the social sciences, and Appraisal’ technique in Ethnography: Towards the universal
develop what we called a ‘cultural frame of reference’, and a realization of Multivocality in Ethnographic studies Sujay Rao
Mandavilli ELK's International Journal of Social Science Vol
4, Number 4, 2018

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“one kind of bias legitimizes every other kind of bias” “Every create an unhealthy atmosphere characterized by polarization,
ideology feeds on other rival ideologies, and either directly or and create an unhealthy atmosphere for other scholars to
indirectly promotes or instigates them in the long run”. This emulate based on an “I am free to follow my own ideology,
rings resoundingly and represents the sad state of affairs today. and so can you” approach.
This is still the age of crooks, knaves, ideology and dogma.
This is akin to the 1970’s which were the dark ages of office Many Marxist intellectuals have opposed globalization
automation. The personal computer had not yet been invented; and the rise of a multi-polar world ignoring the fact that it has
Microsoft’s office suite was still a decade away, and so was propelled India ahead. BT Ranadive and others blindly
email; the world wide web would not appear until two decades opposed liberalization in India in the 1980’s while others
later. As quixotic as it may sound today, ideologues many one blindly advocated it. In the view of some, Marxists have
day be called enemies of science, society and the education become enemies of anything good. Many left-leaning
system, or plainly “public enemies”, to recall a Franklin D. intellectuals have ignored the rise of India, or have even been
Roosevelt era term. critical of it. Arundhati Roy likened India to a plane flying
backwards; Aakar Patel has emerged a strident critic of
Marxist historians scarcely followed inter-disciplinary Narendra Modi. Ashoka Mody thinks India has been an
approaches, and saw everything through the lens of class economic failure. Amartya Sen has provided a better-informed
conflict, class struggles and historical materialism, therefore critique of the Gujarat model of development, however, and
possessing a rather limited intellectualism. This has bred this comes like a breath of fresh air. Thus, there are ideologies
unfortunate counter-reactions, and we proposed a new in intellectualism too, necessitating a new school of thought.
approach called the “Twenty-first century historiography” to Intellectuals are the lifeblood of a free society; but, alas a new
bring order to the state of affairs. They followed outdated twenty-first century school of Intellectualism (relevant to
historical models to boot (associated with colonialism and today’s ideals) has failed to emerge. Do Marxist intellectuals
imperialism), and may have even practised an ideologically- care about gender equality, human rights, child rights and
driven discrimination between religions. This has had an abuse, drug trafficking, substance abuse, global warming,
unfortunate spill over into Indology and Indo-European sustainable development, prevalence or absence of a scientific
studies as well, and has begotten dangerous counter-reactions temper, trickle up economics, international peace,
such as the unfortunate rise of the Hindutva. It is said that universalisation of education, pedagogical techniques, racism
even the path to hell can be paved with the best of intentions, in science, Eurocentism in science, racism, apartheid (apart
and we may even call for a “God that failed” parts two and from a narrow focus based on the principles of class struggle)
three, representing Marxist historiography and Marxist and social duties of researchers? The answer is an unfortunate
intellectualism (or other current forms of intellectualism) no.30
respectively. (“The God that Failed” refers to a collection of
six essays by Louis Fischer, Arthur Koestler, Andre Gide, Hindutva has proven to be much more dangerous in the
Stephen Spender, Ignazio Silone, and Richard Wright recent past, and Hindutva groups had attempted to rewrite
denouncing Communism) Even eminent writers like George history textbooks completely to present their views of history
Orwell have been critical of Communism in praxis since the and nationalism. This involved some calumny and deceit, and
1940’s. He published a dystopian novel “Nineteen Eighty- institutions such as the ICHR were briefly, more or less
four” and a satirical novel “Animal farm” both of which are completely taken over. Film makers like Ashutosh Gowariker
highly critical of Communism. Marxism also has all the used other means to promote the Hindutva point of view.
trappings of a cult. Just because Marx didn’t believe in a Hindutva is usually taken to represent a Brahminical Hindu
Christian God, most Marxists do the same: In fact, this issue is view point, ignoring all other traditions within Hinduism; it is
much more complex than that, given that there are many as such an affront on Indian science and composite
different definitions of God across cultures and societies. intellectualism; there is hardly a nugget of truth in Hindutva
Thus, despite the Asiatic modes of production, and other well- approaches, as scientific and academic rigour is often given
meaning extensions of Marxism, Marxism essentially remains the go-by. Even well-meaning scholars and intellectuals such
a Eurocentric ideology both in Economics and Historiography, as BB Lal and SP Gupta moved dangerously close to Hindutva
reflecting a mid-Nineteenth century viewpoint, and seeking to constructs of history during the heyday of Hindutva
address mid-Nineteenth century European concerns. The revisionism, and it took an intellectual bulldozer (many
Marxist contention that other rival ideologies have been intellectuals participated) to avoid a complete Hindutva
permitted is ill-conceived; this leads to even greater takeover of institutions and the public consciousness.
polarization. What we need is a post-ideology world, brought This kind of parochialism represented a “pre-scientific
about through better science, and better scientific research. view” of sorts. As Witzel (who fought Hindutva valiantly
Marxist intellectuals have also collaborated with colonial either due to altruistic considerations, or to protect his
Indologists, and have furthered the cause of Western nineteenth century Indology) commented, N S Rajaram’s (A
intellectual cabals. This is not to say that we need intellectual
McCarthyism, but the truth must be gleaned nonetheless. 30
Routledge Handbook of Marxism and Post-
Marxist historians must be called out for what they do: they Marxism". Routledge & CRC Press.

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rabid Hindutva proponent) views stemmed from “The ugliest and rationality also followed the prevailing cultural (i.e.
corners of the pre-scientific mind”. Witzel went on to expose Western) mould. Periyar did not appreciate North India and
Hindutva in an article, “Horseplay in Harappa” published in South India cultural contacts (and even that Tamil Brahmi had
the Indian magazine Frontline in 2000; Some criticism was a North Indian origin) because he followed obsolete historical
made by the left-leaning author and scholar Meera Nanda in models too, and viewed all North Indians as interlopers. The
her book “Prophets facing backwards”, or by Michael Witzel Dravidian theory that Tamil as the oldest language of mankind
in his German essay “Ruckwarts gewandte Propheten”. The does not cut ice even though Tamil is 2500 years old as a
Historian Audrey Truschke went on to state that Hindutva written language, and Tamil civilization is genuinely 2300
positioned Hinduism as a “constricted, flattened religion”; years old. They operated alongside many colonial Indologists
Alan Sokal baldly called it a pseudo-science; even Koenraad such as Kamil Zvelebil, Thomas Burrow and Asko Parola, and
Elst has called Hindutva a “fairly crude ideology based on Afrocentrists such as Clyde Winters. Other intellectuals such
older European ideologies promoting homogeneity”. Even as Clarence Maloney have also operated alongside the
though Hindutva proponents may have fought Western elitism Dravidian movement. Even today, some people of Tamil nadu
in science valiantly, their struggle was largely an unstructured, believe in the old Aryan Dravidian divide (or the old Aryan
rebellious, and a pre-scientific one. (More recently, Hindtuva Invasion theory) conveniently ignoring the fact that the term
groups have been attempting to remove Charles Darwin’s “Aryan” was a cultural term in the Rig Veda, and the term
theory of evolution from textbooks, much to the horror of “Dravidian” was a geographical term in Sanskrit literature,
intellectuals) It is our opinion therefore, that all ideologies are later connoting a geographical label .
more or less pre-scientific. Better scientific and historical
constructs (besides better pedagogical techniques) can put an Any successful scholar must therefore, bring about
end to these. All that a scientific perspective of Hinduism change in society; a successful scholar must produce science
requires, is that the diversity within Hinduism be accepted; Is that transcends ideologies. A successful scholar must also
this that difficult given that the RSS is now reaching out to have created a generation gap between the old and the new
Muslims and Christians as well? Interestingly, cross-cultural generations; this would be an important metric of the success
research design, with western researchers roped in, can fight of a scholar in the modern world. Even atheists (and
this kind of a malaise, too. rationalists) naively believe religion can be done away with
(this remains a flawed or erroneous belief not validated by
Dalit leaders like BR Ambedkar helped emancipate their experience), thus we must move towards an era of greater
ilk greatly; BR Ambedkar was a well-rounded intellectual, and convergence of thoughts and ideas. Religion can never die; it
represents one of the greatest intellectuals of our times. His can gradually wither away as people become less and less
views on most issues were well-founded and holistic, yet he religious, but can never entirely bite the dust. Powerful
had to depend on the outdated historical models of his time. religions will remain powerful cultural and social symbols
He stated that he would not die a Hindu, and embraced probably for millennia to come.
Buddhism. Jyothiba Phule, likewise was a nineteenth century
social activist who opposed Brahminical hegemony, and Thus, concepts of atheism (and rationality), which are
fought for the education of Dalits and women. However, Dailt based on a refutation of a Christian idea of a God (which is
leader Kancha Ilaiah (author of “Why I am not a Hindu”) clearly scientifically untenable), and are based on Eurocentric
criticized Hinduism not realizing that Dalit religious traditions principles, may polarize more, and antagonize peoples of non-
were an intrinsic part of Hindu religious tradition, and Christian cultures. (The idea of God varies in various cultures.
Hinduism was merely a geographical expression. Likewise, For example, we have the idea of the universal consciousness,
Gauri Lankesh may also have been unknowingly biased or a cosmic force or energy in some cultures, Phan Ku, the
because she subscribed to outdated historical models. She met creator in Chinese culture, Prose Edda, Icelandic creation
her fate in the hands of a Hindu extremist who assassinated myth, the vast blue God Wulbari of the Krachi people of
her in 2017. Hindutva groups have been critical of the Togo, and Olurun, the owner of the sky of for the Yoruba
intentions of Dalit intellectuals and thinkers, and Hindutva people of West Africa all of which are completely different
writers such as Rajiv Malhotra and Aravindan Neelakandan from one another). For example, it is a crime to publicly
accuse many of them of anti-national activities. Thus, there are promote atheism in Saudi Arabia; even though this is a
ideological fault lines even today, with the situation scarcely violation of human rights, Eurocentric atheism is misleading
improving. 31 too as there are many definitions of God in different cultures,
The Dravidian nationalist Periyar rabidly opposed and different definitions by different philosophers. Some
Hinduism and Hindu practices not realizing that many aspects definitions of God define Him as merely a cosmic force or
of Hinduism originated in Tamilnadu. His ideas of atheism cosmic energy.
31
Agarwal, Kritika. "The Rise of Dalit Studies and Its Impact Furthermore, religion and the idea of God are two
on the Study of India: An Interview with Historian different things, and many confuse the two. The concepts
Ramnarayan Rawat". AHA Blog. American Historical underlying the rationality movement may be steeped in
Association Eurocentric ideals too, and may need a thorough revamp in the

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twenty-first century. The rationalist movement in India has developed India for mutual benefit and extended their stay
made great strides in fighting superstitions and blind faith, but here. However, Ideology was a barrier and the British were
is dogmatically tied to atheism in the European mould, instead impervious to the cultural needs of Indian society, due to
of promoting genuine discourse and debate among people widely differing cultural perspectives, or even outright
holding different ideas and ideals. Since people are so condescension. Some Englishmen even saw the rest of the
completely drowned in their respective ideologies, they world as “The white man’s burden”, and thought it was the
scarcely talk to each other. Why should humans of great white man’s mission to bring civilization to remote corners of
intellectual calibre be so enamoured of ideologies to such an the world. This impacted science too, and theories such as the
extent that they can barely see reason, or talk to each other? theory of unilinear evolution flourished in Anthropology. By
The answer is the absence of a suitable overarching the end of the colonial period, the Indian economy was in
framework. We had called this the ‘cultural frame of shambles, and India was among the poorest nations on earth.
reference’ and ‘cross-cultural frame of reference’, and only
this can provide a frame of reference for different cultures to For all its contributions to science and humanism,
transcend their pre-scientific beliefs. All social scientists and western science is not without its flaws. Work not designed for
researchers must operate within the ambit and the framework reader of average intellectual faculties; work deliberately
of these to stand a chance of succeeding. 32 designed to confuse; condescending attitude towards other
cultures; careerism; changing theories at the drop of a hat;
Hindi chauvinism that existed from the 1940’s to the excessive theorization; jettisoning older theories without a
1960’s also did not take into consideration India’s rich and proper refutation; belief in (or desire to perpetuate) western
diverse linguistic heritage. As observed by Granville Austin, exceptionism or western elitism; non-collaboration with non-
Hindi zealots often disturbed the parliament in an western scholars or hesitation to consider non-western points
unreasonable quest for homogeneity. The statements made by of view; adoption of a left-leaning stance, etc are some
R V Dhukekar and Seth Govind Das come to mind here. This criticisms commonly leveled against western scientific
kind of an ideology was opposed to the science of language enterprise, particularly in the social sciences.
dynamics, which probably did not formally emerge until much
later, and the legal position of Hindi, English and other To reiterate, all Ideologies can be negated and countered
languages in central and state governments. Thus, better through better science, and better and more robust frameworks
science including language dynamics, study of enculturation and empirical models. Ideologies can be negated through
and acculturation patterns, and first and second language better research methods and techniques such as dialectical
acquisition, can counter ideologies, and can aid in language approaches. Cross-cultural research design tied to dialectical
planning and the design of education system, not only in India, approaches should also be one of the foundations of modern,
but also elsewhere. 33 empirical science. This must be conceived and executed in
letter and spirit, and must cover pre-research design activities,
Capitalist dogma is dangerous too; it believes in laissez- and post-research design activities such as review and
faire capitalism, trickle down economics, and the idea of an ratification of already conducted research not only in good
invisible self-regulating hand. Such beliefs form the staple diet faith, but also holistically and comprehensively. This is easier
of Republicans even today. Herbert Hoover believed in it even said than done, and a complete transition will perhaps be
after the beginning of the Great Depression, and unwittingly accomplished only when the older generations die off. This is
dragged the USA deeper into the quagmire. Keynesian of course subject to scientific frameworks being available to
economics however, called for greater government allow such a transition to take place.34
intervention, and it was only the pragmatism of Franklin D
Roosevelt that pulled the USA out of the great depression. V. RESEARCH DESIGN
Thus, from our perspective, trickle up economics works better,
and we have worked towards making economics a more A research design can be defined as a blueprint that is a
empirical and a quantifiable science. We had presented a paper pre-requisite of a scientific study. It includes in its purview,
on Anthropological Economics earlier, and proposed concepts different types of research methodologies, tools, and
such as ‘Econoethnography’ to boost our case. Dogma extends techniques which are used to conduct and perform the
to employment laws, and the doctrine of ‘Employment at will’ research. It can also help to identify problems that may arise
is practiced in the USA, conveniently ignoring the fact that during the process of research and propose solutions to
employers and employees rarely have the same bargaining address and overcome them, and can help identify fallacies in
capacity. Quantified and empirical science has therefore yet to logic and reasoning. It is also used to establish internal and
replace dogma in many fields of the social sciences. external consistency, and is used both in qualitative and
Colonialism was a disaster, but the British could have quantitative research, and in structured or semi-structured
32 34
Honderich, Ted (Ed.) (1995). "Humanism". The Oxford Stilwell, Frank. Political Economy: the Contest of Economic
Companion to Philosophy. Oxford University Press. Ideas (1st ed.). Oxford University Press. Melbourne, Australia.
33
Hindi Nationalism, Alok Rai, Sangam books, 2002 2002.

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research too. Experimental or quasi-experimental research  Details of the literature review that needs to be carried out,
design may also be used, with the operationalization of control along with possible sources of data. Sources of data may
and experimental groups. include primary sources or field sources, and secondary
sources or literature survey. Methods of data collection,
According to Fred N. Kerlinger, research design refers to along with tools and techniques for data collection are also
“the plan, structure and strategy of investigation conceived in often specified as a part of the research design.
order to obtain answers to different research questions and  Sampling strategy, if any, shall also be specified as a part
control variance and distortions as well. The plan can include of the research design.
everything the investigator may do from writing the  Details of previous research the present research is based
hypothesis and their operational implications to the final on are also specified as a part of the research design.
analysis of data. The structure of research design usually  Weaknesses of previous research the present study seeks to
encompasses the outline, the scheme, and the paradigms of the remediate are also typically highlighted as a part of the
operation of the variables. The strategy may also include the research design.
methods that are to be used to collect and analyze the data. At  Operational definitions, if any to be used during the course
the beginning of the study, this plan (or design) is typically of the research, are also made as a part of the research
tentative and vague. It may then undergo many modifications design.
and changes as the study or research progresses, and insights  Details of human and non-human resources used in the
into it enlarge and deepen. The working out of the plan also research, are also specified as a part of the research design.
consists of making a series of decisions with respect to how,
 Time and cost budget shall also be mentioned as a part of
what, why, where, and when of various important aspects of
the research design.
the research.” As per the definition provided by Pauline V.
 Whether modelling is done appropriately: The most
Young, “a research design is the logical and systematic
common type of model is a scientific-experimental model
planning and directing of a piece of research.” In the words of
including an experimental or quasi-experimental research
Reger E. Kirk, “research designs are plans that specify how
model including random assignment of subject to a control
data should be collected and analyzed.” 35 36
group and an experimental group (quasi-experiments do
not use randomization). Qualitative and anthropological
Thus, the functions of a research design are:
models are also common, and these include a
 It provides researchers with a blueprint for studying,
phenomenological component. These also comprise
investigating and analyzing different research questions
naturalistic or fourth generation evaluation, various
that form a part of a study.
qualitative schools, critical theory or art criticism
 It helps identify boundaries of research activity and approaches, and the grounded theory approach of Glaser
enables investigators to channel and focus their energies and Strauss (This approach explained how theories could
and resources in a particular direction as well. be developed from data inductively, contrasting it with
 It helps investigators to anticipate any potential problems deductive approaches) among others.
that may arise during the course of the study or research.  A survey of administrative and managerial aspects of the
 It also helps investigators to look for answers to various study must also be included as a part of the research
kinds of research questions that may prove to be elusive. design.
 A description of further extensions of research, and further
Thus, the components of a research design are: downstream applications, if any.
 A definition and brief description of the study being  Whether cultural biases are neutralized (cross-cultural
carried out. research design) are subjects are selected ethically: for
 A justification of the need for the study. example, voluntary participation, confidentiality, informed
 A definition of the core and allied objectives of the study. consent and anonymity are a must.
 Scope of the study, including a statement of what is  A statement of whether all exceptions have been
included and what is excluded in the study. The scope will considered must also be made (Refer to our paper on the
usually include subject content, geographical coverage, Sociological ninety-ten rule).
and time period as well.  Whether the research design is as robust as possible, and
 The anticipated benefits of the study, which may be direct whether a plan exists to make downstream research and
or indirect benefits. analysis as robust as possible (refer to our paper on the
certainty uncertainty principle).
35
Claybaugh, Zach. "Research Guides: Organizing Academic Research design can be used for various types of research
Research Papers: Types of Research including (a) Descriptive research which is usually used to
Designs". library.sacredheart.edu. describe what is going on (a current state of affairs), or what
36
Wright, Sarah; O'Brien, Bridget C.; Nimmon, Laura; Law, exists. (b) Relational studies or co-relational research which
Marcus; Mylopoulos, Maria (2016). "Research Design looks at the relationships between two or more defined
Considerations". Journal of Graduate Medical Education

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variables (c) Causal studies which are usually designed to cultures, representing diverse viewpoints, and their selection
determine whether one or more independent variables causes must become an art and science in itself. Cross-cultural
or effects one or more dependant or outcome variables. (d) research design may also be classified into geographical cross-
Explanatory research, which is research designed to explain cultural research design and non-geographical research design;
why events occur, and to build, or test theories or hypotheses. sub-altern studies and feminist studies are examples of the
(e) Exploratory Research which involves a search for new latter; cross-cultural research design can also be designed to
objects, places, or cultures. (f) Analytical research, where a take into consideration various stances or points of view,
great deal of analysis is required. (g) Conceptual research examples being dialectics between supporters or non-
which is used to develop new concepts. (g) Diagnostic supporters of various schools of thought such as post-colonial
research which is used to diagnose problems. (h) Comparative studies, or proponents or opponents of various sub-schools of
research design which is used to make comparisons and draw thought, to reconcile differences in points of view brought
conclusions. Other types of research are cross-sectional about on account of cultural differences. It can also be a
research, longitudinal study, experimental research, survey discourse between people with different mental makeups and
research, panel study and cohort study which were described characteristics. This can do a great service to science too, and
by us in our previous papers. Cross-cultural research design override many flawed and implicit assumptions researchers
can be used for all these types of research with varying take for granted today, and make many ideologies redundant
degrees of efficacy, and can be used in different phases of the in the process.38 39
research design too (including review and ratification). It can
also be used in action research design, case study research  The philosophical and epistemological basis of cross-
design, evaluation research, and ethnographic research. Other cultural research design
research methods like interviews, questionnaires and focus The basis of cross-cultural research design is two-fold.
group discussions can also employ cross-cultural research Firstly, people in marginalized cultures can throw fresh light
design effectively. Cross-cultural research design can be on issues that concern them, and can understand their own
specific too, with regard to a particular circumstance or topic struggles and perspectives much better. One the other hand,
of study, and subjects or evaluators may be chosen oppressors, subjugators or other third parties would gloss over
accordingly. This principle is also related to that of such issues, (or resort to cherry-picking or distortion of
triangulation, with investigators, or subjects changed during evidence, selective obfuscation and selective amnesia) and see
the course of research.37 them as less important and trivial. (This perspective could then
be vetted or ratified by other third parties who could be chosen
VI. DIALECTICAL APPROACHES for non-bias, after an identification of their vested interests, if
any) Thus, men are not likely to start a feminist movement,
The term Dialectic is derived from the word dialogue, Brahmins and not likely to lead a struggle against caste, Dalits
and refers to a structured discourse, debate or discussion are unlikely to support Brahminical hegemony or support the
between people holding different points of view (employing Hindutva movement, whites did not fight against apartheid (or
reasoning and logic) with a view to establishing the truth. It is fight for civil rights), and so on. Likewise, the Indian
well-meaning, avoiding polemics and arguments for independence movement had few supporters, if any, in the
arguments sake, and is therefore non-didactic and non-eristic. west, and Hindus and Muslims had different concerns during
A formal, structured method employing dialectics is known as the First war of Indian independence in 1857. The fight
the dialectical method, and this may at times employ against colonial biases in Indology was not launched by
subjective elements such as emotional appeal and rhetoric as Witzel, Gregory Possehl, or Asko Parpola, but by Indians,
well. Dialectics was developed by Georg Wilhelm Friedrich particularly Hindutva proponents who were the worst offended
Hegel, based on the ideals of Zeno of Elea, Plato, and by Colonial-Marxist enterprise. Likewise, the Hindi belt was
Socrates, (Thomas Aquinas and William of Ockham also used the action area of the ‘Angrezi hatao’ or ‘Banish English
dialectics) but Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels gave it a movement’, and not the West or South of India. Tamils were
material slant. The latter is known as Dialectical Materialism. the most vociferous opponents of Hindi imposition, and have
The classical version of dialectics does not include cross- been fighting is since 1937. There are likewise, differing
cultural dialogue (thus, endowing it with a highly Eurocentric views between caste Hindus, Muslims and Christians even
bias which is characteristic of much of scientific endeavour: today, and between North Indians and South Indians, too.
Few, in any European or American thinkers worth their salt Western scientists don’t understand accusations of western
mention cross-cultural dialectics, though individual-cultural
dialectics in sometimes mentioned, and subaltern and feminist
studies have taken off to some degree), hence we emphasize 38
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (1975b). H. B. Nisbet
cross-cultural dialectics or cross-cultural dialectical method; in (ed.). Lectures on the Philosophy of World History:
this case, subjects must be carefully chosen from diverse Introduction. Translated by Nisbet, H. B. Cambridge
University Press.
37 39
OECD (2015). Frascati Manual. The Measurement of "Subaltern Studies: The Encyclopedia of Postcolonial
Scientific, Technological and Innovation Activities Studies : Blackwell Reference Online".

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biases in science, (Gregory Possehl even vehemently denied de Vijver, & Leong, 2011; Helfrich, 1999) Choice of subjects
it), and Indians (except hidebound Marxists) are likely to based on their emic or etic perspectives forms an integral part
support globalization if it benefitted them, and so on. All these of cross-cultural research design, and etic views may be
instances go on to show the dichotomy of the emic and etic biased, too. It is therefore necessary to choose etic researchers
perspectives, (although there can be guardian angels and well- from as many cultures as possible so as to achieve intellectual
wishers) and there are many more such instances that can be multi-polarity and multi-vocality, and neutralize cross-cultural
noted. As such this principle would form the philosophical and bias. Emic perspectives must also be carefully culled from as
epistemological basis of cross-cultural research design. many sources as possible from within the culture in order to
neutralize bias and prejudice.
Also note that the subaltern studies group and post-
colonial studies were led mostly by South Asian scholars who Another form of emic studies is autoethnography (this is
wanted to establish post-colonial and post-imperialist similar to insider ethnography) which is a form
societies. Leading theorists are Ranajit Guha, Sumit Sarkar, of ethnographic research in which a researcher connects
Gayatri Spivak, Dipesh Chakrabarty, Vivek Chibber, Partha personal experiences to wider cultural, political, and social
Chatterjee, Arjun Appadurai, Gyanendra Pandey, and others. meanings and understanding and seeks to bridge worlds.
Feminism began as a Western movement for equal gender (Bochner & Ellis) (Adams et al) From our perspective, as
rights, and women in traditional societies such as Islamic many diverse emic and etic perspective as are practically and
societies did not participate equally. Feminist ethnography was economically possible (if not all substantial or significant
pioneered by anthropologists such as Sally Slocum, Peggy ones) should be collected since the construction of knowledge
Golde, Michelle Zimbalist Rosaldo, Lousie Lamphere, and depends on the perspectives of the researchers and the
others, and some rich American women supported the feminist subjects. Thus, cross-cultural research in its extreme form can
cause. be labelled extreme cross-cultural ethnography. We will now
discuss some more terms pertaining to emic and etic studies,
VII. EMIC AND ETIC APPROACHES and these can be used with regard to the participant
observation technique (ethnography) or otherwise. As a matter
In anthropology and different fields of the social of fact, it can be used with respect to any research technique in
sciences, emic and etic approaches refer to two entirely the social sciences, and the researcher must understand the
different kinds of research carried out. The emic approach following concepts fully and completely. As always, the
refers to an insider's perspective, which analyzes the belief requisite sample size and the appropriate sampling technique
systems, value sets, and different kinds of practices of a must be used. Though the number of subjects is almost always
particular culture from the perspective and point of view of the more than the number of investigators in any research design,
people who belong to and live within that culture, and more than one researcher from different cultural backgrounds
therefore lacks a cross-cultural focus. It analyzes how subjects may be preferred in many cases.40 41 42 43 44
of a research think, and look at the world, and produces emic
knowledge or situated knowledge which is embedded in the
social, cultural, historical, and linguistic context of the
knowing person. The etic approach, however, is a chiefly 40
Seeing Things for Themselves: Winch, Ethnography,
outsider's perspective, which looks at a culture from the Ethnomethodology and Social Studies
perspective of an outsider or the researcher; the latter is based By Phil Hutchinson, Rupert Read, Wes Sharrock, Routledge,
on the premise that a researcher is usually more 2008
knowledgeable, better trained on research tools, techniques 41
On the Emic Gesture: Difference and Ethnography in Roy
and frameworks, and is therefore better qualified to carry out Wagner, Iracema H. Dulley, 2019
the research. It also assumes that the researcher is detached 42
Observations on language spread in multi-lingual societies:
from the daily humdrum and monotony of a subject’s life, and Lessons learnt from a study of Ancient and Modern India
can therefore carry out research much better. Most researchers Sujay Rao Mandavilli, ELK Asia Pacific journal of social
also think that etic approaches can produce universal and studies, 2015
culture-neutral knowledge. These two approaches, which were 43
Towards a comprehensive compendium of factors impacting
first defined in the field of linguistics, have their own strengths language dynamics in post-globalized scenarios: Presenting
and limitations, and can productively also be used in principles, paradigms and frameworks for use in the emerging
conjunction with one another, in order to achieve and science of language dynamics Sujay Rao Mandavilli ELK
accomplish a well-rounded and holistic study (Berry, 1989; Asia Pacific Journal of Social Sciences Volume 6, Issue 3
Van de Vijver, 2010). (April –June 2020)
44
On the origin and spread of languages: Propositioning
According to most researchers today, the terms emic and Twenty-first century axioms on the evolution and spread of
etic cannot be rigidly defined, and certainly cannot be languages with concomitant views on language dynamics
mutually exclusive; rather, research usually lies on a Sujay Rao Mandavilli ELK Asia Pacific Journal of Social
continuum between the two extreme endpoints. (Cheung, Van Science Volume 3, Number 1 (2016)

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 Diverse emic refers to the collection and analysis of as  Biased etic refers to a scenario where the research is highly
many diverse emic view points as possible, if not all biased, and is driven by a hidden agenda or ulterior
significant and substantial ones. This approach should also motives. For example, a young French philosopher,
significantly and positively impact the outcome of an Joseph-Marie Degerando wrote the field guide for
analysis. For this, a stratified sampling technique may be ethnographers as a guide for members of the Societe des
used. observateurs de l’ Homme and referred to his subjects as
 Diverse etic refers to the collection and analysis of as savage. This undermines the principles of cultural
many diverse etic view points as possible, if not all relativism discussed by us in previous papers. Etic studies
significant and substantial ones. This approach should also may possess good intentions but may be ill-informed; one
significantly and positively impact the outcome of an can draw parallels to early Indological studies where
analysis. For this, a stratified sampling technique may be western researchers lacked an understanding of Indian
used. culture, and most Indian scholars lacked academic rigour
 A representative emic sample is representative of all major and scholarly objectivity. Thus, there may be no such thing
and significant emic viewpoints. as perfect objectivity, though properly-conceived cross-
 A representative etic sample is representative of all major cultural research design can overcome that somewhat.
and significant etic viewpoints. According to Peter Winch, it is not possible to cross the
 A non-representative emic sample is not representative of barriers of “fundamental assumptions and interests”.
all major and significant emic viewpoints. According to Marilyn Strathern (1999:1), “The ideas and
 A non-representative emic sample is not representative of narratives which make sense of everyday field experiences
all major and significant emic viewpoints. have to be rearranged in order to make sense in the context
 A typical emic viewpoint refers to the typical or the most of arguments and analyses addressed to other audiences.”
common or widespread emic viewpoint. As an integral part of this process, vested interests should
be identified first; these would precede the identification of
 A typical etic viewpoint refers to the typical or the most
biases because they would determine them.
common or widespread etic viewpoint.
 Non-biased etic (or neutral etic) must be differentiated
 A one-sided etic view point is usually one-sided and does
not take emic perspectives into consideration; E.g. German from emic as there will still be a fundamental difference
between the two; the former may be characterized by an
researchers studying India from only their perspective.
absence of bias or prejudice, nonetheless. For example,
 Non-typical emic or atypical emic refers to a non-typical
when Gregory Bateson visited the Iatmul in New Guinea,
emic viewpoint.
Frank Cushing lived among the Zuni, and when Evans-
 Non-typical etic or atypical etic refers to a non-typical etic Pritchard went to live among the Azande, they had genuine
viewpoint.
considerations, and wanted to achieve a balanced
 Individual versus cultural emic: Refers to a dichotomy perspective of the cultures they studied. Similarly, Edmund
between individual viewpoints of subjects and one emic Leach’s monograph on the Kachin and Shan population of
viewpoint obtained for the culture as a whole. north-east Burma during the Second world war, was born
 The term Near emic can have two connotations; one is that out of a prolonged interaction with them spanning several
of a ‘marginal native’ or ‘professional stranger’ where a years.
researcher absorbs himself in the culture of the subjects  Non-scientific emic refers to a situation where the subject
being studied, becomes one with the people, and mingles does not possess a logical or analytical view point and
freely with them. Another meaning is the study of a people misleads the study or where the viewpoints are not
or peoples by researchers who possess similar cultural processed by the researcher using some scientific method
attributes. Examples of the latter include the study of or technique. For example, subjects may be steeped in
specific ethnic groups by mainstream Indian folklore or mythology, and may have differently
Anthropologists or Ethnographers; SC Dube had carried constructed view of the world that may prevent a logical or
out a study of the economic aspects of a North Indian a scientific study. One may refer to Levy-Bruhl’s theory of
village soon after India’s independence; TN Madan had primitive mentality. (However, his work was highly
carried out a study of Kashmiri Pandits; MN Srinivas had criticised by other western fellow researchers, and he was
studied the people and the customs of Coorg; and accused of not having understood the processes that
DN.Majumdar carried out another study in Uttarakhand. produced primitive thought).
Other examples include a study of American kinship by  Indeterminate emic refers to a situation where emic
David Schneider, a fellow American who studied the viewpoints cannot be elicited or processed properly. For
American family system in detail.
example, the thought worlds or world views of the
 Biased emic sample refers to a situation where the subject Sentinelese tribes’ of the Andaman islands of the are not
being studied or interviewed is highly biased or prejudiced known apart from the fact that they want to be left alone;
and is not representative of the views of the participants of as such, it may not be possible to determine them; in such a
a study, and misleads the study completely. case, an ethnographic study is virtually impossible. It may
also be impossible likewise, to ascertain the thought worlds

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of the Americans of the Jazz Age, except thought VIII. SELECTION OF CULTURES AND
secondary literature review, and as such, these are PARTICIPANTS IN A CROSS-CULTURAL
constraints on the research. STUDY
 Marginalized emic refers to a non-dominant emic point of
view that may need to be obtained in certain and specific Selection of cultures and participants in a cross-cultural
cases; in order to identify and obtain marginalized emic study can be carried out based on any component of identity
view points, the researcher or ethnographer must which could include national, class, caste, ethnic, religious, or
understand the structure of the society as a whole, and the linguistic identity. This would be akin to a sampling
background and constraints under which it operates. technique; this is extremely important, because as much as one
Marginalized emic may either be within a single culture, or would like to, it is not possible to include all cultures and
across cultures. individuals in a cross-cultural research design, (if the research
 A dominant etic point of view represents the more standard is a highly theoretical one, or would require a comparison of
and usually western-centric point of view with prevails on many different cultures) constraints usually being time and
any given issue; this may encompass standard research cost. (In some cases, only cultures relevant to the study are
tools and techniques too. This would lead to a margin of selected) The formation of individual and cultural identity has
error, and this may often be unwitting. been discussed by us in a paper on generic identity theory.
 Mutual emic etic loop refers to a situation where the Different concepts in identity building such as project identity
subject cross-verifies the work of the researcher, and the (used by social actors to build a new identity), legitimizing
methods, tools and techniques employed. These techniques identity (used by dominant institutions to legitimize their
can also be made to work in specific situations. For foothold) and resistance identity (action and attitudes
example, we have authored papers on language dynamics promoted by subjugated peoples), as proposed by Manuel
of language spread, but understanding the rise of Nouichi Castells can also be used here. Individual participants
and the causes thereof, and the dynamic status of Wolof, (participants and researchers both included) can be chosen
English and French in Senegal (or whether the French based (on their thought worlds, belief systems and points of
language will continue for the foreseeable future in the view, and we can refer to the section on emic and etic
Maghreb, or will be replaced by Creole, definitely requires perspectives here. The comparative method can also be used
emic (or near-emic input)) as no researcher with no prior here, but must be strictly cross-cultural and must encompass
experience in the region can understand the issue fully in emic and etic perspectives.45
just a month or two, or a year or two.
 Self-emic or auto-emic studies are self-initiated studies, Another approach can be to identify cultures based on the
and encompass auto-ethnography, and autobiographical postulates of the culture and personality school which was
methods, which are also a part of social science research developed by Ruth Benedict and Margaret Mead in the USA
techniques. in the 1930’s under the tutelage of Franz Boas. This school of
 Complex emic and etic relationships can also be formed thought states that socialization practices in a given society
between two or more groups of people, and participants shape cultural attributes. This school of thought, among other
(researcher and subject included) can be selected on the things developed the concept of an Apollonian and Dionysian
basis of ethnicity, religion, language, nationality, culture, and categorized cultures such as the Zuni and the
prevailing ideology, thought worlds, worldviews, mind- Kwakiutl into these two groups. This as such is an unreliable
orientation or cultural orientation. They could also be method, and is not to be recommended; it is too incoherent and
chosen on the basis of the socio-cultural groups, socio- divided to be considered a school of thought. (LeVine 2001)
economic groups, occupational groups they belong to.
Thus, subjects can be chosen based on their cultural Cultures can also be bucketed based on the schools of
identity, or the attributes of the culture they belong to, and unilinear evolution (as proposed by EB Tylor and Lewis H
cultural bucketing can be done based on suitably selected Morgan), multilinear evolution (proposed by Leslie A White
parameters. and Julian Steward), historical particularism (proposed by
 In extreme cases, marginalized cultures or individuals can Franz Boas), and cultural diffusionism, which comprises the
present their points of view on a wide range of issues, both British, American and German schools of thought. National
within and outside their culture, and this would be akin to character studies refer to a field of anthropological studies
subaltern studies. These could then be reconciled with which evolved during the Second World War, and involves the
wider scientific views, an element that is absent in identification and grouping of people based on assumed
traditional scientific studies. cultural characteristics. This is based on the work of Geoffrey
45
Generic Identity Theory for the Twenty-first Century:
Towards grand unified approaches in identity formation,
identity transformation and identity dilution or neutralization
Sujay Rao Mandavilli Elk Asia Pacific Journal of Social
Sciences Volume 5, Issue 3, 2019

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Gorer (known for his Russian studies), Ludwig Rudel, techniques, and mean, median or modal values computed.
Margaret Mead (a study of American national character), and Personality attributes and traits (both positive and negative)
Ruth Benedict (study of Japanese national character), among such as honesty, sincerity, hard work, truthfulness, pessimism,
others. This approach is by and large may be outdated in the cynicism and ego could also be quantified and mapped to a
age of globalization, and can even represent an over- culture, and these could also be quantified or measured
generalization of sorts. An important work noting is “Patterns likewise. These could in turn be used to categorize cultures. 49
of culture” by Ruth Benedict who seeks to explain how 50
cultures cohere and distinguish themselves from other

cultures. 46 47 Other researchers have also made attempts to break up
cultures into different traits and assign these different
Taxonomy refers to the science of naming, classifying developmental sequences, or develop other generalized
and describing organisms which include all plants, animals heuristic techniques which could then be used to benchmark
and microorganisms in different parts of the world. The them against, and study other cultures. Anthropologists and
concept of a taxonomy is often extended to include non-living sociologists such as Emile Durkheim, Donald Brown, George
things as well, and from our perspective, a cultural taxonomy Peter Murdock, Claude Levi Strauss, and others also made
is very important, as it helps classify cultures into different efforts to analyze and infer the cultural universals that were
types. A taxonomy is usually hierarchical, and resembles a common across cultures. Murdock also developed the concept
tree structure. The term taxonomy was coined by the Swiss of the Human Relations Area Files (known in short as the
botanist AP de Candolle in the year 1813, though the first HRAF) in which common categories of cultures were filed
elaborate classification of living beings was made by Carl together, in order to study and analyze them together with the
Linnaeus earlier. objective of gathering ethnographic data from different
cultures across the world, developing databases, and studying
A cultural group may be defined as a group of variations and commonalities across cultures. An organization
individuals who share a core set of beliefs, patterns of by the same name was also founded to promote cross-cultural
behavior and thought, and cultural values. Such groups may be research and better cultural understanding between different
large or small (major or minor and marginalized), but they can cultures in the world. George Peter Murdock and Douglas R.
all be identified by their specific ways of behaving and White in 1969 also introduced the concept of “Standard cross-
thinking. However, there can be no stereotyping. There can be cultural sample” (or SCCS in short) by analyzing 186 sample
a wide intra group variation within a culture. Cultural groups cultures from different parts of the world such as Africa,
include groups based on attributes such as ethno-biological Europe, Asia, North America, South America in order to use
identity, nationality, caste, gender, class, or religion. 48 them as a benchmark to study other cultures comparatively,
and in Anthropological terms. These efforts eventually led to
We had proposed an approach for classifying cultures in the compilation of the ‘World Ethnographic Sample’, in which
two earlier papers. Per this approach, each culture could have cultures were categorized into ethnographic categories.
a subculture, each culture or sub-culture could have
subcategories or subclasses (Examples being language, Another very interesting idea is that of Memetics (this
religion, symbols, literature, music, art, drama and theatre, refers to a study of information and culture) which is used to
cinema, folklore, cuisine, and various other aspects of represent the different units of a culture which aid in cultural
tradition). Additionally, all other dimensions of a culture such transmission e.g. attitudes towards various issues, ways of
as philosophies, values, norms, principles, ideas, beliefs, dressing, cooking etc, and replicate themselves in the context
ideals, attitudes, traditions, associated ideologies and dogmas, of the culture. This idea was first developed and popularized
and cultural artifacts should be included. Each subcategory by the British Biologist Richard Dawkins in the 1970’s.
could further have subcomponents, which would be similar to
various classes under each subcategory. For example, we can
have a many different subcomponents under language,
examples being language policy, teaching methods, teacher 49
The relevance of Culture and Personality Studies, National
training methods, student evaluation mechanisms etc. These Character Studies, Cultural Determinism and Cultural
would help identify topics of research, and avenues for cross- Diffusion in Twenty-first Century Anthropology: As
cultural comparison. The value of these could then be assessment of their compatibility with Symbiotic models of
measured using statistical techniques such as quantification Socio-cultural change ELK Asia Pacific Journal of Social
Science Volume 4, Issue 2, 2018 Sujay Rao Mandavilli
46 50
Patterns of Culture, Ruth Benedict, Houghton Mifflin Articulating comprehensive frameworks on socio-cultural
Harcourt, 2005 change: Perceptions of social and cultural change in
47
Lewin, Ellen (2006). Feminist anthropology: a reader. contemporary Twenty-first century Anthropology from a
Malden: Blackwell ‘Neo-centrist’ perspective Published in ELK Asia Pacific
48 Tylor, Edward. (1871). Primitive Culture. Vol 1. New Journal of Social Sciences Volume 3, Number 4 (July 2017 –
York: J.P. Putnam's Son September 2017) Sujay Rao Mandavilli

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Memetics also involves breaking down of a culture or a sub- civilization (encompassing primarily Europe and North
culture into many discrete and manageable units. 51 52 53 America), Latin American civilization (encompassing Mexico
and South America), Orthodox civilizations (South-east
A judgmental approach may also be adopted for cultural Europe), the Muslim word, Sub-Saharan Africa, and the
grouping, and cultures may be grouped into major and minor Eastern world centred around India, China and Japan. Minhaz
cultures. Alternatively, cultural grouping based on mean, Merchant, on the other hand, in his thesis ‘New clash of
median or modal values relating to different attributes we civilizations’, proposed that conflicts would occur between the
discussed, and the concept of a critical case, rare or unique United States, China, India and Islam. 55 56
case and revelatory case may also be used to select cultures.
Another useful theory is the Hofstede's cultural dimensions IX. BENEFITS OF CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH
theory which was developed by the Dutch Social psychologist DESIGN
Geert Hofstede, is a framework for cross-cultural
communication, developed by Geert Hofstede, and is based on The following are the various benefits of cross-cultural
national cultural preferences. The original version of the research design, cross-cultural research design, if applied
theory proposed four dimensions along which cultural values properly, can led to a quantum and exponential increase in
were to be analyzed, and these were individualism- human knowledge. In order for this to happen the underlying
collectivism; power distance (strength of social hierarchy) principles of this approach must be truly followed in letter and
uncertainty avoidance; and masculinity-femininity (person- in spirit.
orientation versus task-orientation). Professor Hofstede also  This approach leads to a culture –neutral science; and helps
provided six aspects of national culture country comparison elimination of cultural biases and prejudices, manifest or
scales, which were the power distance index (or PDI), hidden of different types. We recommend that this
uncertainty avoidance index (or UAI), individualism vs. approach become de rigeur and indispensible to social and
collectivism (or IDV), masculinity versus femininity (or cultural studies
MAS), long term orientation versus short term normative  Ideology-free science: Can dissipate ideologies by
orientation (or LTO), and indulgence versus restraint (or IVR). allowing people of different cultural backgrounds to talk to
each other; this could neutralize various points of view.
We had also developed the concept of mind-orientation,  It has a wide variety of uses and can greatly contribute to
and the types of mind-orientation were individual mind- good quality research. It can be used in a comparative
orientation, family orientation, employment or business study of two or more cultures. It can also be used in study
orientation, societal orientation, intellectual or creative of specific attributes or characteristics of cultures, and
orientation, militant orientation, or the anarchist or the queer comparisons of such attributes. It can be used in qualitative
man. The cultural orientations we had discussed were past- and quantitative studies, too. It can thus promote the ideals
orientation versus future orientation, Inward-looking cultures of cultural relativism in a globalized context. There can
versus outward cultures, Rigid versus flexible cultures, also be many variations of our basic theme. For example,
Individualistic versus collective cultures, Material and non- another kind of ratification was carried out after the study
material orientation, Contentment versus innovation, and of the Alorese in the Dutch East Indes by Cora du Bois,
Rational-orientation versus Non Rational-orientation. 54 and her work was independently ratified by Abram
Kardiner, Emil Oberholzer and Trude Schmidt-Waehner
The Clash of Civilizations is a thesis proposed by the for absence of bias. It can even be used in intellectual
American political scientist Samuel P Huntington which states debate; one is reminded of a series of lively exchanges
that people's cultural and religious identities will be the between students of various countries around the world (in
primary source of conflict in the post–Cold War world, and the early to the late 1950’s) on various topics such as
that wars would be fought on the basis of cultures (and apartheid, and communism. Students of Asia and Africa
ideologies) rather than nationalities per se. Huntington divided too participated in these debates. Unfortunately, cross-
the world into major civilizations which included the Western cultural research design or dialogue does not appear to
have moved forward much since then.
51
Dawkins, R. (1976), The selfish gene. Oxford University  This approach could foster a dialectical approach, and lead
Press to healthy dialogue. As such, it could take dialectical
52
Modernization of the structure of societies, Princeton approaches to a higher level..
University Press, 1966
53
Benedict, R. (1946). The chrysanthemum and the sword:
Patterns of Japanese culture. London, England: Routledge &
55
Kegan Paul Limited Huntington, Samuel P. (1993). "The Clash of
54
Sent, Esther-Mirjam; Kroese, Annelie L. J. Civilizations?". Foreign Affairs. 72 (3)
56
(2021). "Commemorating Geert Hofstede, a pioneer in the The New Clash of Civilizations: How the Contest Between
study of culture and institutions". Journal of Institutional America, China, India and Islam will Shape Our Century,
Economics. 18: 15–27 Minhaz Merchant, 2014

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 It could promote subaltern studies and give a voice to the  It helps further the goals of positivism which is used in the
oppressed; as such it could take subaltern studies to a scientific study of different social phenomena. It helps
higher level. formulate abstract and universal laws to describe social
 It challenges ivory tower approaches, all forms of phenomena. In positivism, laws must be tested against
‘centrisms’, dyed in the wool approaches, and intellectual collected data systematically.
nerdism.  Can help develop culture-specific and region-specific
 It could also help provides a ‘cultural frame of reference’, frameworks and approaches e.g. in pedagogy through
and a ‘cross-cultural frame of reference’, by understanding wider dialogue.
pre-scientific views in specific cultures, and enumerating  Can help in deconstructionist studies, which arose in a
methods to overcome them. Thus, it helps expand the role hermeneutical context, and a study of the part in relation to
of science in the age of globalization manifold: It helps the whole. This concept of deconstruction was introduced
bring the benefits of science to peoples across different by the French philosopher Jacques Derrida.
cultures in a language and a style they can understand  It can be used to achieve very detailed cultural studies; an
easily. We argued that the ‘Sociology of science’ and example is that of thick description which was developed
‘anthropological pedagogy’ could bring about an by Gilbert Ryle, and Clifford Geertz, and helps study the
anthropological revolution of sorts. context of an observation. It promotes a more analytical
 Science will no longer be a caroussel or a merry go-round; and interpretive approach in social sciences.
it leads to faster progress in science, and reduces the  Can help promote better science by helping us evaluate
latency time for the acceptance of new ideas. hypotheses better. For example, theories such as the Sapir
 It moves us from ethnocentrism to cultural relativism; the Whorf hypothesis, Noam Chomsky’s theories of Universal
latter argues that cultures must be studied based on their Grammar, Steven Pinker’s theories on language, theories
perspectives, and also analyzed based on their strengths. on classification of languages, theories of phylogenetic
 It leads to better quality grounds-up hypothesis: It is tied to change, theories of phonogenetic change, etc, can more
the certainty uncertainty principle which we have proposed easily be called into question by people belonging to other
in a previous paper. cultures. We had even briefly described this approach in
 It helps us identify exceptions more easily: It is tied to the our paper on the ‘Indo-Europeanization of the world’. It
sociological ninety-ten rule that we proposed in a previous can therefore help put questionable and over-simplified
paper, and the principle of exceptionism. theories such as the Out of Africa theories on the block.
 It can help in inductive approaches which are grounds up We have been criticizing this theory all along, given that it
approaches; thus, better theorization will result due to does not reconcile diverse and complex evidence received
inductive reasoning, and the elimination of pre-determined from around the world this far properly (Even the test of
generalizations, if any. Mitochondrial DNA many be inconclusive); and that many
 It can help in nomothetic approaches which are contrasted species are universal; cross-cultural research design can
with idiographic approaches; thus, better science and help bring additional criticism of Eurocentric theories to
theorization will result. General laws can be derived, but the table.
based on grounds up approaches.  Cross-cultural research design is particularly useful in
 Can help in Grounded theory: This approach involves an different fields of social and cultural anthropology (and an
active participation of the researcher in the activities of the overlap between social and cultural anthropology and other
culture, group, or the community under study or fields of study), and can help elicit a wide variety of
observation. Data is usually collected through observation. perspectives on different topics, examples being the race
This approach can be used for developing grounded and intelligence debate (which we have discussed at length
theories or testing them. in a previous paper), and the nature versus nurture debate,
 This approach suits the ideals of participatory approach and can therefore add great value to scientific activity. it
such as action research and participatory action research can be used in studies on attitudes pertaining to
very well. (where problems are sought to be solved) In colonialism, racism, and apartheid, for example, and for
such a case rapport and credibility must also be built up, more trivial topics such as a comparison of the metric
and findings can also be used in downstream policy versus the imperial system of measurement. Another
making. The dilemmas of Anthropologists, and their possible area of study is a comparison between Western
supposed and claimed neutrality can be observed from the and Ancient Indian educational systems. Mahatma Gandhi,
experiences of Scheper-Hughes, whose approach and for example, erroneously believed Western education was
points of view while dealing with the inhabitants of the completely wrong, and ruined his son’s (Harilal Gandhi)
favelas in Brazil changed over time. life; this approach can negate Indocentric perspectives, too.
 This approach Is compatible with the ideals of Likewise, Western Indological scholars from Thomas
phenomenology (deriving meaning through lived Burrow to Asko Parpola have been largely ignorant of the
experience, social interpretation, and social cognition) mechanics of Indian culture and made erroneous
conclusions. Moreover, most theories in the origin of
language are puerile, cross-cultural perspectives can help

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here. Thus, cross-cultural research design can be used in a Eddington’s criticism of his work was partly racially
wide variety of situations and can induce a beneficial motivated. The concept of careerism is also a kind of
change in attitude from all sides. ideology which may throw well-meaning endeavours out
 This should also serve the aims of the post-colonial of gear. Another interesting case is that of Project
movement which aims to challenge colonial constructs, Camelot. This project began in the year 1964 under the
and many scholars from around the world have launched management of the Special Operations Research Office
the post-colonial movement in recent decades. (SORO) of the U.S. Army, to help end the proliferation of
 Can help avoid different types of fallacy such as ecological communism, and included a motley group of sociologists
fallacy (characteristics of a group are attributed to an and anthropologists. Even though it used social science
individual) and exception fallacy (group conclusion research methods, it had an underlying political objective.
reached based on exceptional case). As such, it proved to be unscientific. (van Willigen, 2002)
 It can help further the goals of inter-subjectivity which is a  Anthropologists, even if they are without any hidden or
term coined by social scientists to refer to different types underlying agenda, may not understand their subjects’
of human interaction. According to social cultural make up completely. An example of this was the
psychologists Alex Gillespie and Flora Cornish, and other “Thailand project’ carried out by anthropologists to study
researchers such as Thomas Scheff, inter-subjectivity could Thailand’s hill tribes; this project did not take into
include research on items of consensus, understanding and consideration the cultural makeup of its subjects and their
misunderstanding among different groups. relationship with lowlanders and the Thai government, and
 It promotes a cultural brokerage approach: A cultural the study failed. (Belshaw 1976) (Jones 1971)
brokerage approach refers to a practice where practicing  Absence of a scientific temper in other cultures. There may
anthropologists mediate between people of different be little scientific, intellectual or anthropological curiosity
cultures; these approaches can be used in a wide variety or and intransigent dogmas may reign supreme. For
social and cultural studies. (Downum and Price 1999). example, Hindutva groups have preferred autochthonous
 It can also lead to a wider choice of topics, and one that Aryan theories, out of India theories, or what Witzel has
would represent a greater diversity of research interests; called the “Sanskrit as the mother of all world languages
research would resultantly encompass concerns and hypothesis”. This is an extreme position and betrays the
considerations of different groups of people around the absence of scientific knowledge of most people in such
world given that cross-cultural research design would cultures. Per this view and position, Sanskrit is placed at
cover all phases of research; we had discussed research the top of the cladistic tree, and all world languages are
methodology in great detail in a previous paper. derived from it. Mind-orientations, cultural orientations,
worldviews and thought worlds of subjects may vary
 Problems associated with, and limitations of, cross- across cultures, and some individuals and cultures may not
cultural research design be geared for scientific inquiry.
The following are some of the problems associated with  People from other cultures may also adopt mainstream
cross-cultural research, and are the limitations of cross-cultural positions so as not to offend researchers, and this kind of
research design; many of these can certainly be overcome approach has been witnessed in many studies including
through the strategies we have proposed in this paper. managerial studies carried out throughout the world and a
 Complexity and cost: This type of research design can study of employer-employee relationships as well. From
greatly increase complexity and cost, but we have example, Anthropologist Jill Kleinberg has observed wide
proposed methods to overcome such problems including variations between Japanese and American workers on
methods for the sampling of cultures and individuals issues pertaining to power and loyality, and another
belonging to different cultures. anthropologist Jasmin Mahadevan has captured differences
 Cultural bucketing may be erroneous, and the wrong kinds in attitude and openness between managers and employees
of cultures may be chosen which could lead to erroneous in an organization she studied.
conclusions. We have proposed methods to categorize  People from other cultures may adopt a rebellious stance
cultures, and select cultures based on such categorizations against western science and this has happened in the past,
in our paper, and these could resolve the problem to a examples being N S Rajaram; as a matter of fact, much of
certain degree. the Hindutva ideology is based on this fundamental
 An incorrect choice of participants may be adopted within premise.
a culture, and this could skew the results of a study; we  Viewpoints may not be reconciled easily in some cases to
have proposed criteria for the selection of individuals in arrive at meaningful conclusions, and at times, a
this paper which could remediate the issue somewhat. counterbalancing force may be required. There may also be
 Continuing ideology or ideologies of different types such a need for a strong umpire or ombudsman, and this may be
as racism (for example, the Indian Nobel prize-winning easier said than done.
Astrophysicist Subramanyam Chandrashekar who  A particular ideology may still dominate: for example,
discovered the concept of Black Holes, believed Sir Arthur Gregory Possehl and Witzel have collaborated with Asians
and Indians, but have not abandoned the Eurocentric

ISSN No:-2456-2165
mould. This collaboration is therefore mostly name sake, would also do a whole world of good to scientific enterprise as
as in some case, Asians and others were mostly used as a whole by leading to much higher quality research, and by
servile lackeys. Asko Parpola and Iravatham Mahadevan allowing different viewpoints to be aired.
have also collaborated, but both have pushed an ideology
or a point of view which may have been detrimental to
science: The latter has even claimed he is a proud
Dravidian nationalist. Thus, cross-cultural research design
may not work as long as ideologies reign supreme. The
Colonial Social Science Research (CSSRC) on the other
hand, was established by Raymond Firth and Audrey
Richards from the London School of Economics with
noble objectives, but they did not follow a cross-cultural
research design, and its efficacy may have been limited.
Many cultures may also not want to abandon their
traditional way of life, and in such cases any attempt to
reconcile views may be utterly futile and irrelevant; for
example, many Andamanese tribes were dragged into
modern civilization unwillingly, often with disastrous
consequences for them. Max Weber, Neil Smelser, Everett
Hagen, Daniel Learner. Gunnar Myrdal have proposed
developmental models, and WW Rostow proposed a
‘stages of economic growth’ approach, but there is no one
size fits all approach. People of many non-western cultures
have been suspicious and skeptical of such models. Many
developmental anthropologists such as Escobar have
proposed that social and economic considerations be
included in developmental models, but there are wide
variations in thought among anthropologists as well.
 May not be of any use in some types of research where
cultural bias is not significant, or even wholly
insignificant, irrelevant or absent, and common examples
are research areas pertaining to non-cultural studies, and
physical or non-cultural anthropology besides other
sciences. An example is different theories on the origin of
life such as biogenesis and abiogenesis, and transition from
the prebiotic era to the biotic era. In such a case, cross-
cultural research design may not only be not required, but
may also add to cost and time overheads.
X. CONCLUSION
This is our fourth paper on the ‘philosophy of science’

after our paper on ‘Academic freedom versus social
responsibility’, ‘the sociological ninety ten rules’, and ‘the
certainty uncertainty principle’, and is an essential part of our
globalization of science movement, particularly for the social
sciences. The idea of cross-cultural research design we
believe, can lead to a quantum increase in scientific
knowledge if applied properly and conscientiously; we have
explained the how and why of this in this paper. We even
believe this should become an essential pre-requisite of
modern research. If research doesn’t meet all these parameters
and criteria, we should even declare it pre-modern and
inadequate. This would naturally help us transition to an
ideology-world and lay the foundations for a better and a
much more scientific tomorrow where researchers from across
the world can fearlessly participate in scientific enterprise. It

Operationalizing Cross-Cultural Research Design Practical, Cost-Effective, And a Minimalistic Application of Cross-Cultural Research Design to Minimize Cultural Bias in Research and Reconcile Diverse Viewpoints

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Volume 8, Issue 4, April – 2023 International Journal of Innovative Science and Research Technology

Operationalizing Cross-Cultural Research Design:

Abstract:- We begin this paper by providing a brief I. INTRODUCTION

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cultures cohere and distinguish themselves from other

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This is our fourth paper on the ‘philosophy of science’

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