ST/ESA/STAT/SER.

M/91

Department of Economic and Social Affairs

Statistics Division

Statistical papers Series M  No. 91

International Recommendations
for Water Statistics

asdf
United Nations
New York, 2012
DESA
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policy frameworks developed in United Nations conferences and summits into programmes
at the country level and, through technical assistance, helps build national capacities.

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cerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.
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ST/ESA/STAT/SER.M/91
UNITED NATIONS PUBLICATION
Sales No.: E.10.XVII.15
ISBN: 978-92-1-161545-6
Copyright © United Nations, 2012
All rights reserved
 iii

Preface

International Recommendations for Water Statistics (IRWS) provides coherent principles,

concepts and definitions for the collection and compilation of water statistics on a comparable
basis. IRWS constitutes the first publication of international recommendations in the field of
environment statistics and joins a family of international recommendations published by the
United Nations Statistics Division.
IRWS is designed to assist all countries in the establishment and strengthening of a
multipurpose information system for water in support of integrated water resources manage-
ment. In particular, it:
(a) Supports the collection, compilation and dissemination of internationally compa-
rable water statistics in countries;
(b) Supports the implementation of the System of Environmental-Economic Account-
ing for Water (SEEA-Water);
(c) Provides the necessary information for deriving coherent and consistent indicators,
enabling comparisons over time and between countries based on an agreed list of
data items.
IRWS is organized in two parts. Part one, “International recommendations”, provides
the main concepts on water statistics, including definitions and classifications of statistical
units related to water and a list of recommended data items that countries are encouraged to
compile. Part two, “Guidelines for implementation”, provides general guidelines on the col-
lection and compilation of water statistics, in particular as regards data sources, data quality,
data-collection strategies and dissemination. Annexes I to VI provide additional reference
information, including supplementary data items; links between data items and SEEA-Water
standard tables; links between data items and commonly used water-related indicators; and
links between data items and international questionnaires.
IRWS supports a broad range of producers of water statistics, with varying levels of
expertise and from a wide range of disciplines (e.g., statistics, hydrology, meteorology, agricul-
ture, engineering, environmental sciences and economics). Although it is primarily designed
for the producers of official national statistics, other organizations producing or using water
statistics are also encouraged to use IRWS. In applying IRWS, countries should take into
account their priorities with regard to water and the information required to inform deci-
sions on water.
The drafting of IRWS was undertaken as part of the United Nations Statistics Division
work programme on environment statistics and the implementation strategy for SEEA-Water,
under the auspices of the Committee of Experts on Environmental-Economic Accounting.
The Statistical Commission, at its forty-first session in February 2010, adopted IRWS and
encouraged its implementation in countries.
 v

Acknowledgements

International Recommendations for Water Statistics (IRWS) consolidates the experiences and
practices of countries and international organizations in the field of water statistics. It has
been developed in close collaboration and consultation with the Expert Group on Water Sta-
tistics, which reviewed successive drafts of IRWS and commented on the issue papers drafted
by the United Nations Statistics Division; other experts who provided advice on specific
subjects; countries and international organizations that responded to the global consultation
on the final draft of IRWS; and the Committee of Experts on Environmental-Economic
Accounting, which recommended its adoption to the Statistical Commission.
The Expert Group on Water Statistics included (in alphabetical order of countries and
agencies): Michael Nagy (Austrian Federal Environment Agency); Judicael Clevelario Jun-
ior (Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics); François Soulard (Statistics Canada);
Gan Hong (China Institute of Water Resources and Hydropower Research); Olga Luciano
Lopez (former member of the Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources of the
Dominican Republic); Amit Yagur-Kroll (Israeli Central Bureau of Statistics); Ricardo
Martinez-Lagunes (previously with the National Water Commission of Mexico and cur-
rently with the Statistics Division); Karen Frenken (Food and Agriculture Organization of
the United Nations (FAO)); Ashbindu Singh (United Nations Environment Programme);
Jürgen Förster (Statistical Office of the European Communities (Eurostat); Kristina Taboul-
chanas (Economic and Social Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean); Engin
Koncagül (World Water Assessment Programme); and officials of the United Nations Sta-
tistics Division.
The following experts provided additional feedback on drafts of IRWS: David Bar-
ratt, Louise Minty and Robert Argent (Australian Bureau of Meteorology); Dianne Bourke,
Bernard Morrison and Steven May (Australian Bureau of Statistics); Wafa Aboul Hosn
(Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia); Amit Kohli (FAO); Cesar Augusto
Ruiz (Guatemala National Statistics Institute); Pál Aujeszky (Hungarian Central Statisti-
cal Office); Jac van der Gun and Sophie Vermooten (International Groundwater Resources
Assessment Centre); Sjoerd Schenau (Statistics Netherlands); Ulrich Looser (Department of
Water Affairs and Forestry of South Africa); and Ester Koch (Statistics South Africa).
The following experts participated in the global consultation on the final draft of
IRWS, in addition to the members of the Expert Group: Katharina Lenz (Austrian Federal
Environment Agency); Parmod Kumar Sharma (Census and Statistics Department, Hong
Kong Special Administrative Region of China); Kong Pek Fong (Statistics and Census
Service, Macao Special Administrative Region of China); Thomas Olsen (Statistics Den-
mark); Thomas Grundmann and Christine Flachmann (German Federal Statistical Office);
Munther Daoud Badriyah (Department of Statistics of Jordan); Danguole Krepstuliene
(Statistics Lithuania); Anand Sookun (Mauritius Central Statistics Office); Roberto López
Pérez (National Institute of Statistics and Geography of Mexico); Stephen Oakley (Statistics
New Zealand); Daniela Anastasiu (National Institute of Statistics of Romania); Alexander
Pflügler and Gabriela Mózesová (Statistical Office of Slovakia); Polonca Razboršek (Statisti-
cal Office of Slovenia); Fernando Celestino Rey (Institute of National Statistics of Spain);
Anna-Karin Westöö and Marianne Eriksson (Statistics Sweden); Monika Schaffner (Federal
vi International Recommendations for Water

Office for the Environment of Switzerland); Panut Manoonvoravong (Bureau of Research,

Development and Hydrology of Thailand); Salvador Marconi (Economic and Social Com-
mission for Latin America and the Caribbean); Beate Werner, Jean-Louis Weber, Markus
Erhard, Philippe Crouzet and Stefan Jensen (European Environment Agency); Stephan Moll
(Eurostat); Margaret Fitzgibbon (International Monetary Fund); Khamis Raddad (United
Arab Emirates). The following organizations also provided feedback: the Brazilian Electric
National System Operator; the Brazilian National System of Sanitation Information; the
National Water Commission of Mexico; and the State Statistical Committee of Azerbaijan.
The following experts provided advice to the Statistics Division on specific issues: Fran-
çois Guerquin and Koen Overkamp (United Nations Secretary General’s Advisory Board on
Water and Sanitation); Frederik Pischke (UN-Water); Rolf Luyendijk (WHO/UNICEF Joint
Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation); and Mike Muller (World Water
Assessment Programme).
A number of Statistics Division staff contributed to the preparation of IRWS, including
Bram Edens (currently with Statistics Netherlands), Gulab Singh, Herman Smith, Ilaria Di
Matteo and Ralf Becker. Initial drafts and research were undertaken by Michael Nagy, while
a member of the staff of the Statistics Division (currently with the Austrian Federal Environ-
ment Agency), and Khamis Raddad (Jordan), while consultant to the Statistics Division.
This publication was prepared under the responsibility of the Statistics Division. It
was edited by Michael Vardon (previously with the United Nations Statistics Division and
currently with the Australian Bureau of Statistics) and Jeremy Webb, with guidance and
review provided by Alessandra Alfieri (Environmental-Economic Accounts), Eszter Horvath
(Environment Statistics) and Ivo Havinga (Economic Statistics).
 vii

Contents
Page

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . iii
Acknowledgements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v
Abbreviations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xiii
Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
A. Background. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
B. The purpose of international recommendations and IRWS. . . . . . . . . 1
C. The need for IRWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
D. A note on terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
E. Data items of IRWS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
F. Users of IRWS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
G. Future work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

Part one.  International recommendations

I. Scope of water statistics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
A. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
B. Coverage of IRWS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
1. Water statistics covered by IRWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2. Water statistics not covered by IRWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
C. The integrated nature of water statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1. Integrated water resources management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2. System of Environmental-Economic Accounting for Water . . . . 11
D. Relationship of IRWS with other international statistical activities. . . 12
1. IRWS and other international statistical standards and
guidance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2. International statistical data collections, compilations,
indicators and reports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
II. Main concepts and frameworks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
A. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
B. Main concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1. Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2. The environment and water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3. The economy and water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4. Society and water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
5. Integrated water resources management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
C. Inland water resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1. Renewable and non-renewable water resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2. Internal renewable water resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3. Internal flow. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
4. External renewable water resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
viii International Recommendations for Water

Page

5. Natural and actual renewable water resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

6. Exploitable water resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
7. Links between water resources and water accounts. . . . . . . . . . . 22
D. System of Environmental-Economic Accounting for Water . . . . . . . . 23
1. Stocks (assets). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2. Flows. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3. Water consumption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
E. Spatial and temporal (time) references. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
1. Spatial references. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2. Temporal (time) references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
III. Statistical units and classifications. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
A. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
B. Statistical units of the environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1. Surface water bodies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2. Aquifers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3. Soil water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
4. Problems of classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
C. Statistical units of the economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1. Enterprises and establishments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2. Households. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3. Residence principle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
D. Classification of establishments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1. Classification by industries: International Standard Industrial
Classification of All Economic Activities, Revision 4 . . . . . . . . . 35
2. Products and the Central Product Classification, Version 2 . . . . 36
3. Industries important for water statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
4. Classification of unit by institutional sectors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
E. Characteristics of statistical units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1. Characteristics of inland water resources (bodies). . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2. Characteristics of economic units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
IV. Water data items. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
A. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
B. Collection and compilation of data items. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1. Units of measurement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2. Spatial and temporal (time) references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3. Industry classification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
4. Prioritization of data items for collection and compilation. . . . . 49
C. Physical water data items. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1. Stocks of water in the environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2. Flows of water within the environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3. Flows of water from the environment to the economy . . . . . . . . 55
4. Flows of water within the economy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
5. Flows of water from the economy to the environment . . . . . . . . 60
6. Losses of water from distribution networks and sewerage
systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
 Contents ix

Page

7. Waterborne emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
8. Types of waterborne emissions to be measured. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
D. Monetary water data items. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1. Value and costs of water and sewerage services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2. Taxes, subsidies and investment grants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3. Assets and investment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4. Tariffs and charges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
E. Water-related social-demographic data items. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
1. Main source of drinking water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2. Main sanitation facilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

Part two.  Guidelines for implementation

V. Data-collection strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
A. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
B. Determination of data needs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
C. Stakeholders and institutional arrangements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
1. Stakeholders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
2. Institutional arrangements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3. Data-sharing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
D. Review of existing water statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
E. Prioritization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
1. Prioritizing data items. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2. Prioritizing geographic regions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3. Prioritizing frequency of data production. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4. Prioritizing industries and households . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
5. Prioritizing water resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
F. Agreement on roles and responsibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
VI. Data sources and methods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
A. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
1. Note on terminology and references. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
B. Overview of data sources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
C. Survey data and methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
1. Approaches to collection of water statistics via surveys. . . . . . . . 96
2. Household surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3. Industrial surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
4. Agricultural surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
5. Summary of survey data-collection methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6. Questionnaire design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
D. Administrative data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
1. Administrative data from government agencies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2. Administrative data from non-governmental organizations . . . . 106
E. Hydrological and meteorological data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
F. Research data
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
G. Survey frames. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
VII. Metadata and data quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
A. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
x International Recommendations for Water

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B. Dimensions of data quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117

1. Prerequisites of data quality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
2. Accessibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3. Accuracy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4. Coherence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5. Credibility. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
6. Interpretability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7. Relevance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
8. Timeliness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
C. Metadata. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
VIII. Data dissemination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
A. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
B. Dissemination principles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
1. Statistical confidentiality. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
2. Equality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3. Objectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
C. Information products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
1. Organization and presentation of data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
2. Description and explanation of data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
3. Review of information products. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4. Release and promotion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5. Revisions of data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
D. Monitoring the use of water statistics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
E. International data-reporting. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193

Annexes
I. List of recommended data items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
II. List of supplementary data items. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
A. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
B. Sources for supplementary data item definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
III. Links between data items and inland water resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
IV. Links between data items and SEEA-Water. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
A. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
B. Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
V. Water indicators and links between data items and WWAP and other
indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
A. Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
1. Use of indicators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
B. Selection and characteristics of indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
C. Links with indicators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
1. Links with MDG indicators related to water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
2. Links with SEEA-Water indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3. Links with World Water Development Report indicators . . . . . . . 185
VI. Measurement units and conversion factors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
 Contents xi

Page

Figures
II.1. The hydrological cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
II.2. The relationship between hydrological and water resources concepts . . . . . 20
II.3. Types of renewable water resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
II.4. Main flows within the inland water system and the economy. . . . . . . . . . . 24
II.5. Representation of stocks and flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
III.1. Relationships between enterprises, establishments and industry
classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
IV.1. Flows of water in the environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
IV.2. Example of shared surface water resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
IV.3. Flows of water in the economy and related data items. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
V.1. Process for developing a data-collection strategy for water statistics . . . . . . 83
VIII.1. Information pyramid and audiences requiring different levels of
information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
AI.1. Summary of recommended data items related to physical flows of water
between statistical units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

Tables
III.1. Characteristics of inland water bodies relevant to water statistics. . . . . . . . 42
III.2. Characteristics of economic units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
IV.1. Physical data items for inland water stocks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
IV.2. Physical data items for flows into and out of the territory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
IV.3. Natural transfers of water between inland water resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
IV.4. Types of natural transfers of water between inland water resources. . . . . . . 55
IV.5. Physical data items for flows from the environment to the economy. . . . . . 55
IV.6. Physical data items for flows of water within the economy. . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
IV.7. Physical data items for flows from the economy to the environment. . . . . . 61
IV.8. Physical data items for losses from distribution networks and sewerage
systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
IV.9. Data items for flows of waterborne emissions in the economy. . . . . . . . . . . 63
IV.10. Data items for flows of waterborne emissions from the economy to the
environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
IV.11. Value and costs of water and sewerage services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
IV.12. Taxes, subsidies and investment grants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
IV.13. Assets and investment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
IV.14. Tariffs and charges for water supply and sewerage services. . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
IV.15. Data items for the main source of drinking water used by populations
(MDG). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
IV.16. Data items for the main type of toilet and sewage disposal used by
populations (MDG) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
V.1. Organizations generally responsible for specific data items. . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
VI.1. Summary of data items supported by different data sources. . . . . . . . . . . . 95
VI.2. Types of data items that might be supported by adding water-related
questions to existing surveys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
VI.3. Data items supported by water-specific surveys of industries and
households. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
xii International Recommendations for Water

Page

VI.4.
Data items supported by administrative data from government agencies . . 107
VI.5.
Data items supported by administrative data from NGOs. . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
VI.6.
Data items supported by hydrological and meteorological agencies. . . . . . 110
VI.7.
Data items supported by research agencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
VI.8.
Frames that can be used for the collection and compilation of particular
data items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
VII.1. Examples of errors that directly affect data accuracy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
VII.2. Example of a bridge table used to demonstrate the effects of changing a
definition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
AI.1. Recommended data items and their definitions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
AII.1. Supplementary data items and definitions providing alternative or more
detailed breakdowns of recommended data items. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
AII.2. Supplementary data items that support the calculation of recommended
data items or provide significant contextual information regarding water. . 157
AIII.1. Links between data items and inland water resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
AIV.1. Physical use (SEEA-Water standard table III.1 A) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
AIV.2. Physical supply (SEEA-Water standard table III.1 B). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
AIV.3. Gross and net emissions (SEEA-Water standard table IV.2 A). . . . . . . . . . . 170
AIV.4. Emissions to water by ISIC 37 (SEEA-Water standard table IV.2 B). . . . . . 171
AIV.5. Hybrid supply (SEEA-Water standard table V.1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
AIV.6. Hybrid use (SEEA-Water standard table V.2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
AIV.7. Hybrid account for supply and use of water (SEEA-Water standard table
V.3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
AIV.8. Hybrid account for water supply and sewerage for own use (SEEA-Water
standard table V.4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
AIV.9. Asset accounts (SEEA-Water standard table VI.1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
AV.1. OECD criteria for selecting environmental indicators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
AV.2. Links between data items and MDG indicators related to water. . . . . . . . . 181
AV.3. Links between data items and selected SEEA-Water indicators of water
intensity and water productivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
AV.4. Links between data items and selected SEEA-Water indicators of
opportunities to increase effective water supply. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
AV.5. SEEA-Water indicators regarding costs and price of water and wastewater
treatment services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
AV.6. Links between data items and WWDR indicators regarding
the level of stress on water resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
AV.7. Links between data items and WWDR indicators regarding the state of
water resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
AV.8. Links between data items and WWDR indicators for health. . . . . . . . . . . . 190
AVI.1. Measurement units and conversion factors related to water. . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
AVI.2. Prefixes used in association with measurement units. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
 xiii

Abbreviations

ABS Australian Bureau of Statistics

BOD biochemical oxygen demand
COD chemical oxygen demand
CPC Central Product Classification
EDR electronic data reporting
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
GEOSS Global Earth Observation System of Systems
GIS geographic information system
GLAAS Global Annual Assessment of Sanitation and Drinking Water
GWP Global Water Partnership
HS Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System
IB-NET International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities
ICOLD International Commission for Large Dams
INSPIRE Infrastructure for Spatial Information in the European Community
IRIS International Recommendations for Industrial Statistics
IRWS International Recommendations for Water Statistics
ISIC International Standard Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities
IWRM integrated water resources management
JMP Joint Monitoring Programme
MDGs Millennium Development Goals
NGOs non-governmental organizations
OECD Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
SDMX Statistical Data and Metadata eXchange
SEEA-Water System of Environmental-Economic Accounting for Water
SMOS Soil Moisture Ocean Salinity (satellite)
SNA System of National Accounts
TOC total organic carbon
TOD total organic oxygen demand
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNICEF United Nations Children’s Fund
USGS United States Geological Service
VAT value added tax
WCO World Customs Organization
WHO World Health Organization
WHYCOS World Hydrological Cycle Observing System
WMO World Meteorological Organization
WWAP World Water Assessment Programme
WWDR World Water Development Report (published as part of WWAP)
 1

Introduction

A. Background
1. Water is essential for life. It is a key element in ensuring the integrity of ecosys-
tems and the goods and services they provide as well as in growing food, generating energy
and producing all kinds of products and services. The growth of population, together with
increasing competition for freshwater among agriculture, urban and industrial uses, results
in unprecedented pressures on water resources, with many countries reaching conditions of
water scarcity and facing limits to economic development. Moreover, water quality continues
to decline, further limiting the availability of freshwater resources, and there is change in the
global hydrological cycle due to human pressures.1
2. The integral role of water in development is widely recognized, and water issues are
very high in the national and international development agendas, with several international
agreements specifying targets for water supply and sanitation. At the global level, the most
notable are the targets in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), namely, target 7.C, to
halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to safe drinking water and
basic sanitation, and the two related indicators: proportion of population using an improved
water source, and proportion of population using an improved sanitation facility (indicators
7.8 and 7.9, respectively).2 The vital role of water is reflected also by the recent inclusion of a
new indicator under target 7.A, the proportion of total water resources used (indicator 7.5),
whose purpose is to integrate the principles of sustainable development into country policies
and programmes and reverse the loss of environmental resources.
3. At the regional level, the European Union has established a community framework
for water protection and management. By means of the European Union Water Framework
Directive, the European Union provides for the management of inland water resources in
order to prevent and reduce pollution, promote sustainable water use, protect the aquatic
environment, improve the status of aquatic ecosystems and mitigate the effects of floods and
droughts. The water framework directive also introduces the principles of cost recovery and
polluter pays to achieve a common target value of good ecological status for all European
water bodies by 2015 in the most cost-effective way, taking into account an economic analysis
of water services and natural resources, including environmental costs.
4. Integrated water resources management (IWRM) and the assessment and moni-
toring of water resources and their use call for improved water statistics that are based on
consistent concepts, definitions and terminology and are better integrated with economic,
social and environmental statistics.

B. The purpose of international recommendations and

IRWS
5. International recommendations are an agreed intermediate output framework, con-
sisting of a coherent set of principles, concepts and definitions of data items to be collected
1 UNEP, 2007, Global Environmental Outlook. Available from http://www.unep.org/geo/geo4/media/ (accessed
23 September 2009).
2 See United Nations Statistics Division website for the definition of MDG targets and indicators (http://mdgs.
un.org/unsd/mdg/Metadata.aspx).
2 International Recommendations for Water

and published in a particular field of statistics. The United Nations has published recom-
mendations in a range of statistical fields to help establish coherent and uniform measure-
ment of information. Examples of recommendations are those for distributive trade (United
Nations, 2008), industry (United Nations, 2007), tourism, (United Nations, 2001), interna-
tional migration (1998), population and housing censuses (United Nations, 2008) and a vital
statistics system (United Nations, 2001). The users of international recommendations need
to assess the applicability and practicability of implementing the recommendations, taking
into account their circumstances; for example, identified user needs, resources, priorities and
respondent burden.
6. International Recommendations for Water Statistics (IRWS) is the first of its kind in
the field of environment statistics. Its development had started as part of the United Nations
Statistics Division’s regular work programme to support countries in the establishment and
strengthening of water statistics. With the adoption of the System of Environmental-Economic
Accounting for Water (SEEA-Water) as an interim statistical standard by the Statistical Com-
mission at its thirty-eighth session, the development of IRWS has been fully aligned with
SEEA-Water and its implementation plan. Besides SEEA-Water, IRWS supports and uses pre-
existing statistical standards and recommendations, for example, the International Standard
Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities (ISIC), the Central Product Classification
(CPC) and the International Recommendations for Industrial Statistics (IRIS).
7. The primary objective of IRWS is to assist countries in the establishment and
strengthening of a multipurpose information system for water in support of IWRM; in
particular, the recommendations to:
(a) Support the collection, compilation and dissemination of internationally compa-
rable water statistics in countries;
(b) Support the implementation of SEEA-Water;
(c) Provide the necessary information for deriving coherent and consistent indicators,
enabling comparisons over time and between countries from an agreed list of data
items. This includes indicators used by the World Water Assessment Programme
(WWAP), the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)
and others.

C. The need for IRWS

8. This publication consolidates the experiences and practices of countries and inter-
national organizations in the field of water statistics for the first time. The more important
factors that have guided the preparation of IRWS are the following:
(a) The recognition of the need to improve basic water data and the integration of data
from social, economic and environmental realms for the better management of
water, in particular to enable the principles of IWRM to be implemented and to
allow for issues that require high levels of data integration, such as climate change,
to be assessed and analysed;
(b) The adoption of SEEA-Water as an interim international statistical standard, which
strongly links data from the economy and the environment;
(c) The need for consistency in concepts, definitions and terminology in major statisti-
cal collections and publications on water by international organizations, such as
FAO, the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), WWAP, the Statistical
Office of the European Communities (Eurostat), the European Environmental
Agency (EEA) and the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development
(OECD);
 Introduction 3

(d) The System of National Accounts, 2008 (2008 SNA), the International Standard
Industrial Classification of All Economic Activities, Revision 4 (ISIC, Rev. 4) and
the Central Product Classification, Version 2 (CPC, Ver. 2);
(e) The experience of countries in developing water statistics systems and conducting
data collections adapted to their particular needs.

D. A note on terminology
9. Water statistics are multidisciplinary and span many different fields, and hydrolo-
gists, national accountants and environment statisticians need to be able to communicate
using a common terminology. IRWS uses a terminology for water statistics that builds on
that developed for SEEA-Water. An achievement of SEEA-Water was to reach an agreement
on a common language and terminology which is consistent with the specific terminologies
of each field.
10. The terms and definitions of SEEA-Water were developed via an Electronic Discus-
sion Group (EDG)3 moderated by the United Nations Statistics Division in cooperation with
the Division for Sustainable Development of the United Nations Secretariat. These terms and
definitions were further discussed and elaborated during the development of IRWS. When
necessary, notes on terminology are provided at the beginning of the chapters and in the text.

E. Data items of IRWS

11. IRWS provides a comprehensive list of “recommended data items” for the collection,
compilation and reporting of basic water statistics. The recommended data items cover the
stocks of water in the environment and the economy, the flows of water in and between the
environment and the economy, and the social-demographic data needed for the monitoring
of MDG target 7.C. Additional data items that complement the recommended data items to
meet specific requirements are listed as “supplementary data items”.
12. The recommended data items are elaborated in chapter IV and listed in full in
annex I. The data items are fully consistent with the concepts and definitions of SEEA-Water
and are, to the greatest extent possible, consistent with other information sources, including
the United Nations Statistics Division/United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP)
Questionnaire on Environment Statistics, the OECD/Eurostat joint questionnaire on the
state of the environment, the FAO AQUASTAT, the MDG indicators, the UNICEF/WHO
Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS3) and the
International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IB-NET).
13. Each recommended data item has a unique alphanumeric code and items are ordered
in a hierarchical classification that has 3 main headings and 15 tables, as follows:
• Physical data items
• Inland water stocks (data items A)
• Flows of water into and out of the territory (data items B-C)
• Natural transfers of water between inland water resources (data items D)
• Flows of water from the environment to the economy (data items E)
• Flows of water within the economy (data items F-G)
• Flows of water from the economy to the environment (data items H)
• Losses of water from distribution networks and sewerage systems (data items I)

3 The work of EDG was based in particular on the review of the following glossaries: 2001 United Nations Statis-
tics Division questionnaire on water resources; 2002 Joint OECD/Eurostat questionnaire on inland waters; 2001
FAO/AQUASTAT questionnaire; UNESCO/WMO international glossary of hydrology, 2nd ed., 1992; FAO/
AQUASTAT online glossary; working copy of Terminology of Water Management: Flood Protection TERMDAT
(United Nations, 1997); Glossary of Environment Statistics; Studies in Methods, Series F, No. 67.
4 International Recommendations for Water

• Flows of waterborne emissions in the economy (data items J)

• Flows of waterborne emissions from the economy to the environment (data items K)
• Monetary data items
• Value and cost of water supply and sewerage services (data items L)
• Taxes, subsidies and investment grants (data items M-N).
• Assets and investment in water supply and sewerage infrastructure (data items
O-Q)
• Tariffs and charges for water supply and sewerage services (data items R)
• Social-demographic data items
• Main source of drinking water used by populations (data items S)
• Main type of toilet and sewerage disposal used by populations (data items T)
14. Many countries have experience in building water statistics programmes. The pre-
sent set of recommended data items has not been ranked by assigning priorities of importance
based on the various stages of implementation of the recommendations. Rather, the approach
adopted by IRWS is to adopt a universal list of water data items, statistics on which are to
be collected and published and can be used for multiple purposes. IRWS is expected to be
applicable to all countries, with no distinction between developed and developing countries,
and therefore all countries are encouraged to adopt them.
15. Depending on user needs, further disaggregation of recommended data items and
additional data items that go beyond the scope of those recommended may be necessary to
meet specific requirements. A longer and more detailed list of “supplementary data items”,
which complement the hierarchical classification of the recommended data items, is also
presented in IRWS.
16. IRWS is not intended to be prescriptive. Countries may choose a particular method
for implementation of the recommendations, depending upon their own needs and capabili-
ties, the needs of data users and the availability of data through statistical, administrative
and other sources. It is recognized that water statistics systems have to balance the need for
detailed data with the cost and response burden of collecting the data. The prioritization of
data items for collection and compilation is discussed alongside institutional arrangements
in chapter V.
17. It is important to note that the data items in IRWS may be coupled or compared with
other official statistics and data. As such, the data items are useful for a range of analyses, for
example, of issues related to IWRM or climate change.

F. Users of IRWS
18. IRWS is designed to support a broad range of producers of water statistics with vary-
ing levels of expertise from a wide range of disciplines (e.g., hydrology, meteorology, statistics,
agriculture, engineering, environmental sciences and economics). While it has been primarily
designed for the producers of official national statistics, those working in other organizations
producing or using water statistics may also use it.
19. Water statistics are used for a variety of purposes, and the producers of water statis-
tics need to closely liaise with the users of water statistics, including:
• Policy- and decision-makers, who use water statistics for integrated water resources
policy and management at the international, national, regional and river basin levels,
for allocating water resources efficiently, assessing the level of waterborne emissions
and understanding the impacts of water management from and on all users and the
environment
• The business community, which uses water statistics for evaluating competing demands
from other industries for water resources, for assessing the efficiency of investments
in water infrastructure, water use, emission control and water trading, where it exists.
 Introduction 5

• Researchers, who study water resources, water use, water efficiency, waterborne emis-
sions, competition for water resources, etc., at the international, national and subna-
tional levels
• Compilers of water accounts, who make extensive use of water statistics for the compila-
tion of (a) physical and monetary supply and use tables, (b) emissions accounts and
(c) asset accounts
• The public, who benefit from the availability of timely water statistics to assess the
conditions of water resources, the impact of economic activities on the availability
of water, levels of waterborne emissions and the effectiveness of water management
20. IRWS data items may be used to develop a range of indicators for policy and
analytical purposes. Annex IV provides a discussion of indicators and also links the data
items directly with the indicators of the World Water Development Report (WWDR) of the
WWAP.4,5 WWDR is a three-yearly review of the state of the world’s freshwater resources.
WWAP is the flagship programme of UN-Water, which is a consortium of United Nations
agencies and programmes that work together on water-related issues.

G. Future work
21. IRWS consolidates the experiences and practices of country and international
organizations into a set of recommendations for water statistics. However, there are several
areas of water statistics that require further investigation before they can be standardized,
including water quality, environmental flows, water rights, water incorporated into prod-
ucts, and the further integration of water data with social-demographic statistics and other
statistical fields.
22. IRWS does not fully develop the link between water and related social and demo-
graphic aspects. While some social aspects can be included by disaggregating, for example,
the household sector on the basis of social-demographic characteristics (rural versus urban,
income, etc.), further work is needed to expand the statistical framework to include more
of the social and demographic aspects of water, and in particular those relating to gender
and health.
23. Water quality is an area of great interest, but at present there are no international
standards or recommendations for water quality statistics. Some guidance on water quality
is available from UNEP (2008)6 and is also included in part two of SEEA-Water, which
contains the elements of water accounting that are not sufficiently mature to qualify as
international standards.
24. Environmental flows and water rights are emerging areas of interest. Environmental
flows, sometimes called minimum flows, are the volumes of water formally allocated for the
benefit of the environment and not, for example, for economic purposes. Water rights are the
legal instruments used to regulate access to particular bodies of water or to use precipitation.
At present, there is little country or international experience in these areas, so further work
is needed before the relevant international recommendations can be formulated.
25. Climate change is at the forefront of international concerns and water is a key con-
sideration for policy- and decision-makers working on this topic. While water statistics can
be used to show changing patterns of water availability and to assess some of the options
available to deal with these changes, they need to be more fully integrated with other areas

4 WWAP, 2006, 2nd World Water Development Report: “Water: A Shared Responsibility”. Available from http://
www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr/index.shtml (accessed 20 July 2009).
5 WWAP, 2009, 3rd World Water Development Report: “Water in a Changing World”. Available from http://
www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr/wwdr3/pdf/WWDR3_Water_in_a_Changing_World.pdf (accessed 20
July 2009).
6 UNEP, 2008, Water Quality for Ecosystem and Human Health, 2nd ed. Available from http://www.gemswater.
org/publications/pdfs/water_quality_human_health.pdf (accessed 20 June 2009).
6 International Recommendations for Water

of statistics, in particular energy and air emission statistics, so as to provide a more fully
integrated statistical system to deal with the topic of climate change.
26. IRWS does not cover guidance on actual measurements or methods for the collection
or calculation of the data items. Following the completion of IRWS, the United Nations Sta-
tistics Division, with the assistance of the statistical community, will develop more detailed
practical compilation guidelines to support IRWS and SEEA-Water. The guidelines will con-
tain country examples and best practices, as well as additional details on how to collect and
compile the data items, compile standard tables of SEEA-Water, fill in international question-
naires and develop water indicators.
Part one
International recommendations
 9

Chapter I
Scope of water statistics

A. Introduction
1.1. Chapter I describes the scope of water statistics covered by International Recommen-
dations for Water Statistics (IRWS), notes specific exclusions in coverage and summarizes the
international context in which these recommendations have been developed. The integrated
nature of water statistics and the relationship of IRWS to other international statistical activi-
ties are also presented.

B. Coverage of IRWS

1. Water statistics covered by IRWS

1.2. IRWS covers physical and, where relevant, monetary data items relating to the stocks
and flows of water within the environment, the flows of water from the environment to the
economy (water abstraction), the stocks and flows of water within the economy (storage and
use of water by the economy), and the flows of water from the economy to the environment
(returns of water). This includes inflows and outflows of water to a particular territory of
reference from neighbouring territories, the sea and the atmosphere (i.e., precipitation).
1.3. All inland waters are covered by IRWS, irrespective of their quality. These include
freshwater, brackish water and saltwater. Freshwater is naturally occurring water having a low
concentration of salt. Saltwater is found in the sea but also occurs as groundwater or in other
inland water resources (e.g., the Dead Sea). Marine water resources are mostly outside the
scope of IRWS but are considered when saltwater is abstracted from the sea (e.g., for desalina-
tion or cooling).
1.4. While IRWS does not cover social aspects of water, it does include information on
the population using improved water sources and sanitation facilities to support the produc-
tion of the MDG indicators.
1.5. While the “recommended data items” follow a systems approach focusing on the
stocks and flows of water and are structured in accordance with the concepts of the System of
Environmental-Economic Accounting for Water (SEEA-Water), the “supplementary data items”
cover several other data items that countries may wish to collect to meet specific information
requirements (e.g., physical data on water-related infrastructure).

2. Water statistics not covered by IRWS

1.6. As noted in the introduction, some areas of water statistics are not included in IRWS
for a variety of reasons. These include surface water and groundwater quality (i.e., water qual-
ity in the ambient environment), drinking water quality, environmental flows, water rights,
and health and gender statistics related to water use. In addition, the water incorporated into
10 International Recommendations for Water

products, such as soft drinks, fruits and vegetables, are not covered. Bottled water, however,
is listed as a supplementary data item because of its importance in some countries.
1.7. Surface water and groundwater quality is not covered because at present there is
not sufficient international consensus to recommend data items related to water quality.
Some guidance on compiling water statistics regarding water quality is available from the
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) (2008)7 and is also included in part two
of SEEA-Water, which contains the elements of water accounting that are not sufficiently
mature to qualify as international standards. It should be noted that waterborne emissions
are addressed in IRWS, and SEEA-Water includes waterborne emissions accounts as standard
tables in part one.
1.8. Related to water quality are drinking water quality and certain special forms of pol-
lution, for example, from solid waste. IRWS does not address drinking water quality because
the World Health Organization (WHO) provides guidelines for the quality of drinking water
(WHO, 2008).8 The dumping of solid waste in surface water bodies can cause pollution of
surface water and groundwater. The relationship between solid waste and water quality is
complicated and there is little national statistical practice in this area.
1.9. Environmental flows and water rights are two emerging areas of water statistics. In
general, environmental flows are flows of water that could be used for economic purposes but
instead are formally allocated for the benefit of the environment. Water rights are the legal
instruments used to regulate access to particular bodies of water or to use precipitation. At
present, there is relatively little country or international experience in collecting and reporting
data on these issues. With time, it is expected that country practices can be developed into
recommendations for these areas.
1.10. While statistics concerning health and gender are related to water statistics, they
are not included in these recommendations. The WHO9 and others address issues related
to health, while gender statistics are addressed by a range of agencies, including the United
Nations Statistics Division.10

C. The integrated nature of water statistics

1.11. Because water is critical and intimately linked with socio-economic development, it
is necessary for countries to move away from sectoral development and management of water
resources and to adopt an integrated overall approach to water management (United Nations
and World Water Assessment Programme, 2006).
1.12. Only by integrating economic, social, environmental and hydrological information
can cohesive policies be designed in an informed and integrated manner. Water policy- and
decision-makers need to assess and be aware of the likely consequences of different develop-
ment paths on the environment, the economy and the people that depend on the economy
and the environment for their livelihoods. Those determining the development of industries
making extensive use of water resources, either as inputs in the production process or as sinks
for the discharge of wastewater, need to be aware of the long-term consequences for water
resources and the people that depend on them. This is particularly important in view of cli-
mate change that is changing the distribution of water spatially and temporally, for example,
decreasing rainfall in some places and increasing it in others.

7 UNEP, 2008, Water Quality for Ecosystem and Human Health, 2nd ed. Available from http://www.gemswater.
org/publications/pdfs/water_quality_human_health.pdf (accessed 20 June 2009).
8 WHO, 2008, Drinking Water Guidelines. Available from http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/
gdwq3rev/en/index.html (accessed 22 September 2009).
9 See, for example, WHO Water Sanitation and Health Project. Available from http://www.who.int/water_
sanitation_health/diseases/en/index.html.
10 See http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/products/indwm/default.htm.
 Scope of water statistics 11

1. Integrated water resources management

1.13. Integrated Water Resources Management (IWRM) is based on the perception of
water as an integral part of the ecosystem, a natural resource and a social and economic
good whose quantity and quality determine the nature of its utilization. To this end, water
resources have to be protected, taking into account the functioning of aquatic ecosystems and
the perenniality of the resource, in order to satisfy and reconcile needs for water in human
activities. In developing and using water resources, priority has to be given to the satisfaction
of basic needs and the safeguarding of ecosystems. Beyond these requirements, however, water
users should be charged appropriately (see para. 18.8 of Agenda 2111).
1.14. IWRM calls for a sustainable management of water resources to ensure that there is
enough water for future generations and that water meets appropriate quality standards. An
IWRM approach promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land
and related resources in order to maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an
equitable manner, without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems. This includes
more coordinated development of (a) land and water, (b) surface and groundwater, (c) river
basins and their coastal and marine environment, and (d) upstream and downstream interests
(Global Water Partnership, 2004).12
1.15. For policy development, decision-making and planning, taking an IWRM approach
requires that (a) policies and priorities take water resources implications into account, includ-
ing the two-way relationship between macroeconomic policies and water development, man-
agement and use; (b) there be cross-sectoral integration in policy development; (c) stakehold-
ers be given a voice in water planning and management; (d) water-related decisions made at
local and river-basin levels be in line with, or at least not in conflict with, the achievement
of broad national objectives; and (e) water planning and strategies be integrated into broader
social, economic and environmental goals (Global Water Partnership, 2004).
1.16. IRWS supports IWRM by providing the definitions and structure of the basic water
statistics needed to monitor progress towards many of the goals of IWRM. In particular, via
the compilation of water accounts from water statistics, policy developers and decision mak-
ers are provided with an integrated information system for understanding water resources,
how they are used, and the benefits and costs of this use. While IRWS addresses many of the
information needs of IWRM, it does not address them all.

2. System of Environmental-Economic Accounting for Water

1.17. SEEA-Water was developed to address the need for integrated information on water
resources and their management. It was recognized that SEEA-Water provides a much-needed
conceptual framework for organizing hydrological and economic information in support
of IWRM.13 The Statistical Commission adopted SEEA-Water as an interim international
statistical standard at its thirty-eighth session in March 2007.
1.18. SEEA-Water is an elaboration of the handbook Integrated Environmental and
Economic Accounting 2003 (United Nations and others, 2003), commonly referred to as
SEEA-2003, which describes the interaction between the economy and the environment
and covers the whole spectrum of natural resources and the environment. Both SEEA-2003
and SEEA-Water use as a basic framework the System of National Accounts (SNA), which is
the standard system for the compilation of economic statistics and derivation of economic

11 Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 3-14 June 1992, vol. I,
Resolutions Adopted by the Conference. Sales No. E.93.I.8 and corrigendum. Resolution I, annex II (Agenda 21).
12 Catalyzing Change: A handbook for developing integrated water resources management (IWRM) and water efficiency
strategies (see http://www.gwpforum.org/servlet/PSP?iNodeID=215&itemId=496).
13 See report of the Committee of Experts on Environmental-Economic Accounting (E/CN.3/2007/9), para. 22.
12 International Recommendations for Water

indicators, the most notable being gross domestic product (GDP). The most recent version
of SNA is the 2008 SNA.14
1.19. SEEA-Water is a conceptual framework that describes a set of standard tables focus-
ing on hydrological and economic information, which permits the analysis of the interaction
between water and the economy. The standard tables constitute the minimum data set that
all countries are encouraged to compile. It also includes a set of supplementary tables that
consist of items that may be of interest to a country’s analysts, policy developers and decision
makers. The supplementary tables are still experimental or not directly linked with SNA. The
set of tables, standard and supplementary, were designed with the objective of facilitating the
compilation of the accounts in countries and to obtain information that is comparable across
countries and over time. Additional information on SEEA-Water is presented in chapter II.

D. Relationship of IRWS with other international

statistical activities
1. IRWS and other international statistical standards and guidance
1.20. IRWS is part of a suite of United Nations Statistics Division publications on water
statistics. While SEEA-Water provides the integration framework to link hydrological infor-
mation with economic statistics, IRWS explicitly defines a range of data that are needed for
IWRM, collected by countries and compiled by international organizations, and it provides
more details and guidance on the basic statistical data needed to populate SEEA-Water.
1.21. SEEA-Water and IRWS are to be further supported by compilation guidelines. These
guidelines will present the best practices and country examples of how to collect and compile
the data items. They will also provide practical guidance on the compilation of the SEEA-
Water standard tables, the completion of international questionnaires and the construction
of indicators for national and international monitoring and reporting.
1.22. IRWS is also part of a wider set of statistical standards, recommendations and
guidance documents that support the international statistical system and ensure coherence
between all types of official statistics. As such, IRWS draws information from other pre-
existing international standards, recommendations and guidance documents.
1.23. SNA and SEEA-Water have already been mentioned, but IRWS relies on many other
existing international standards or recommendations. For example, IRWS builds on the expe-
rience of the World Programme for the Census of Agriculture 2010, which has a list of data
items that includes a set of water-related data items under the themes of irrigation and water
management, and aquaculture. The publication International Recommendations for Industrial
Statistics (IRIS) includes data items regarding water use and special data items to be collected
from water suppliers or sewerage service providers. The publication Principles and Recommen-
dations for Housing and Population Censuses, Revision 2, includes core topics, such as questions
on the main source of drinking water, type of toilet and type of sewage disposal.
1.24. IRWS also uses standard classifications, such as the International Standard Indus-
trial Classification of All Economic Activities (ISIC) and the Central Product Classification
(CPC), which constitute the basic infrastructure of official economic statistics.

2. International statistical data collections, compilations, indicators and

reports
1.25. There are three regular international data collections regarding water resources and
their use that collect data directly from countries. These are conducted by the Organization

14 See United Nations Statistics Division website (http://unstats.un.org/unsd/sna1993/draftingPhase/volume1.asp).

 Scope of water statistics 13

for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) with Eurostat,15 the United Nations
Statistics Division16 with UNEP and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations (FAO).17 In addition, the Joint Monitoring Programme conducted by WHO and
the United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF) collects information on populations using
improved sources of water and sanitation.18 Data are shared between international organiza-
tions and are used by a range of organizations around the world.
1.26. Data collected by the international organizations serve multiple purposes. Much of
the data collected by them is consistent with SEEA-Water and can also be used to populate
the water accounts. The international questionnaires include a range of additional data items
that are needed for water management and analysis. All these data items are covered by the
recommended or supplementary data items of IRWS.
1.27. In addition to the international data collections, regional organizations and others
collect water statistics regularly or from time to time. In many instances, such organizations
use simplified versions of the questionnaires used by the United Nations Statistics Division/
UNEP, OECD/Eurostat or FAO. International water data collections rely on national and
subnational water data supplied by countries; it is therefore important to use consistent and
coherent classifications and definitions for data items. In other cases, there are regional data
collections that collect data at subnational levels corresponding to river basins. Regional data
collections by river basin include the Mekong River Commission and the State of the Envi-
ronment (SOE) reporting to the European Environment Agency and the Water Information
System for Europe (WISE).
1.28. There are other international data compilations and indicator sets that rely on water
statistics and these include the MDG indicators.19

15 See OECD website (http://www.oecd.org/topicstatsportal/0,3398,en_2825_495628_1_1_1_1_1,00.html) and

Eurostat datasets and EU agency data (http://water.europa.eu/).
16 See UNSD website (http://unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/datacollect.htm).
17 See FAO Aquastat website (http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/main/index.stm).
18 Global annual assessment of sanitation and drinking water; see http://www.unwater.org./downloads/
GLAAS_2008_Pilot_Report.pdf.
19 See MDG indicators website (http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Default.aspx).
 15

Chapter II
Main concepts and frameworks

A. Introduction
2.1. Water statistics use and integrate concepts, definitions, classifications and frame-
works from the hydrological sciences and environmental, economic, demographic and social
statistics. Chapter II provides a brief overview of the main concepts related to water in the
environment, the economy and society and the concepts related to inland water resources.
It also introduces SEEA-Water, which provides the overarching framework for integrated
environment and economic statistics for water. Additional details on the statistical units that
make up the economy and the environment are provided in chapter III.
2.2. Section B outlines the key concepts used in environmental, economic and social-
demographic statistics; section C covers inland water resources and related concepts; sec-
tion D covers SEEA-Water; and section E covers spatial and temporal references used in
water statistics.

B. Main concepts
1. Water
2.3. Water is a colourless, tasteless and odourless chemical substance composed of one
oxygen atom and two hydrogen atoms with the chemical formula H2O. In most cases, water
contains other dissolved chemicals that affect its colour, taste, odour, acidity and conductiv-
ity. In water statistics, water refers to water and any dissolved, suspended or other chemicals
or materials carried in the water (e.g., water includes saltwater and polluted water).
2.4. The distinction between freshwater and saltwater is an important consideration in
water statistics. The International Glossary of Hydrology defines freshwater as naturally occur-
ring water having a low concentration of salts, or generally accepted as suitable for abstraction
and treatment to produce potable water (ISO/6107).20 However, an international standard
for the definition of fresh water in terms of the salt content (e.g., in parts per million, grams
per litre or electrolytic conductivity) is not available, although there is a considerable body
of practice (engineering, agricultural and other practices). Different countries have different
definitions regarding salinity. For example, the definition of freshwater in the United States
of America and Canada is water with a concentration of salt of less than 1,000 parts per
million,21 while in Australia it is water with a salt concentration of less than 500 parts per
million.22

20 UNESCO-IHE, Freshwater (http://www.cig.ensmp.fr/~hubert/glu/HINDEN.HTM).

21 United States Geological Survey, Saline Water (http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/saline.html; and Environment
Canada: Fresh water http://www.ec.gc.ca/water/en/info/gloss/e_gloss.htm#F).
22 Australian Bureau of Statistics, Water Account, Australia (1993-94 to 1997-98: http://www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/
ausstats/subscriber.nsf/0/B1828F089084E50CCA2568D4000280DF/$File/46100_1998.pdf).
16 International Recommendations for Water

2.5. Water has a number of special properties that make it essential for life, sanitation and
many industrial processes. For example, water is a super solvent as it can dissolve many other
chemicals, such as salt, sugar and even stone. Because of this property, water is essential for life
on Earth because all organisms use water to transport chemicals within their bodies. Water
is also used in many industrial processes to dissolve, transport or remove soluble chemicals,
and in households water is used for hygiene and sanitation because it can dissolve and remove
waste and germs. Water has a high specific heat capacity, which means it is able to absorb a
lot more heat than most other chemicals. Water also has a high thermal conductivity, mean-
ing it can absorb and release heat very quickly, making it suitable for use as a coolant. The
abundance of water in the environment (mainly as salt water in seas and oceans), coupled
with its high specific heat capacity and high thermal conductivity, means it is an essential
component for the regulation of energy and climate on Earth. Water’s high specific heat
capacity also makes it highly suitable for transporting energy, for example, by steam. Water
has a high surface tension, allowing it to move into soils, roots and through very small blood
vessels in animals. Water has many other physical and chemical properties. Information on
these properties is available from the Internet and other sources.23

2. The environment and water

2.6. The environment is the physical surroundings, the living organisms and the interac-
tions within and between the physical surroundings and living organisms. The Earth’s envi-
ronment is seen by ecology and other physical sciences as comprising four principal spheres:
• The atmosphere: the gaseous layer surrounding the planet
• The biosphere: the collection of all living organisms together with the decaying matter
produced by them
• The hydrosphere: the water found on and below the planet’s surface in seas and oceans,
lakes, wetlands, rivers, soils, snow and ice and in aquifers (groundwater)
• The lithosphere: the upper layer (100 km) and surface of the planet’s solid mass
2.7. These spheres or systems do not exist independently but interact constantly. For
example, water vapour in the atmosphere condenses and falls to the ground, where it joins
the hydrosphere to nourish plants and animals in the biosphere.24
2.8. The environment can be divided into the natural environment and the built or
man-made environment, which includes built-up areas, parks and gardens, farm land, arti-
ficial reservoirs, etc. Sometimes it is not easy to make the distinction between natural and
man-made environments, and it will be based on the level of human influence exerted on a
given environment.
2.9. Within the environment water occurs on the land’s surface in lakes, rivers, artificial
reservoirs, snow, ice and glaciers, etc.; below the land’s surface (in groundwater and the soil);
in the seas and oceans; in the air (e.g., as clouds); and in living organisms (e.g., in plants
and animals). Natural processes create flows of water between inland water resources, the
atmosphere, the seas and oceans. The natural processes of water movement are referred to
as the hydrological cycle or the water cycle. Figure II.1 shows the main components of the
hydrological cycle, which are reflected in the definition, classification and characteristics of
the inland water resources; these are described in detail in chapter III and the data items of
chapter IV. It should be noted that figure II.1 is not intended to show all components of the
hydrological cycle.

23 For more information on water and its properties, see http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/waterproperties.html, http://
www.physicalgeography.net/fundamentals/8a.html and http://www.uni.edu/~iowawet/H2OProperties.html.
24 Statistics Canada, November 2009, A Framework for Developing Environmental Statistics.
 Main concepts and frameworks 17

Figure II.1
The hydrological cycle

Precipitation
Evapotranspiration (dew, mist, rain, sleet, hail, snow)

Snow, ice & glaciers

Evaporation

Surface water Rivers, reservoirs,

ater
River w lakes & wetlands

r
dwate
Groun
Sea/ocean
Seawater

Groundwater

Unconfined aquifer
Aquitard
Soil water
Confined aquifer Ground water system
n
Infiltratio Unsaturated zone

2.10. Inland waters include all types of water, regardless of quality (e.g., all freshwater,
brackish water, saltwater and polluted water).25 Water quality is a key determinant of the
health of the plants, animals and other life forms (including human health). Water quality is
also a key factor determining the use of water in the economy.

3. The economy and water

2.11. The economy, its entities, transactions and boundaries are defined in the 2008
SNA.26 In general, an economy is the sum of economic activities of production, consump-
tion27 and accumulation undertaken by entities within an economic territory. The entities
include the economic units that can engage in economic transactions and are capable of
owning assets and incurring liabilities on their own behalf. The total economy of a country is
defined as the entire set of resident economic units.28 This is explained in detail in chapter III;
in brief, the residence of each economic unit is the economic territory with which it has the
strongest connection, in other words, its centre of predominant economic interest.29 For water

25 For more information regarding the environment, see SEEA-Water, paras. 2.4-2.13.
26 See 2008 SNA, paras. 2.16, 4.2, 4.23, 4.25, for example.
27 The term consumption here is used in the sense of national accounts; for an explanation of how the term con-
sumption is used in hydrology and water statistics, see para. 2.45.
28 Ibid., para. 4.23.
29 Ibid., para. 4.16.
18 International Recommendations for Water

statistics, the economy includes all resident economic units that abstract or receive water for
production, consumption27 and accumulation purposes or that put in place the infrastructure
to store, treat and distribute water and to discharge it back into the ­environment.
2.12. The economic territory of a country includes the land area, airspace and territorial
waters, including jurisdiction over fishing rights and rights to fuels or minerals. In a maritime
territory, the economic territory includes islands that belong to the territory. The economic
territory also includes territorial enclaves in the rest of the world. These are clearly demarcated
land areas (such as embassies, consulates, military bases, scientific stations, information or
immigration offices, aid agencies, central bank representative offices with diplomatic immu-
nity, etc.) located in other territories and used by Governments that own or rent them for
diplomatic, military, scientific or other purposes with the formal agreement of the Govern-
ments of the territories where the land areas are physically located.30 Any units with a centre
of interest outside of this territory are part of the economy of the rest of the world. More
detail on the statistical units of the economy and the location or residence of economic units
within an economic territory is provided in chapter III.
2.13. The economy uses water in different ways. It can physically remove water from the
environment for production and consumption27 activities. For example, water is abstracted by
farmers and used to irrigate crops or it is supplied to households, where it is used for drinking,
bathing and cooking. Water can also be used by abstracting it and almost immediately dis-
charging it to the environment, as in, for example, the case of hydroelectric power generation.
Water can also be used without physically removing it from the environment, and these are
the so-called in situ uses (e.g., for transport, recreation and fishing). In addition to hydro-
power generation, other economic activities also discharge water back into the environment,
and this water may contain waterborne emissions (pollution) that can have negative impacts
on water quality.31

4. Society and water

2.14. A society is defined as the aggregate of people living together in a more or less ordered
community or a particular community of people living in a country or region, and having
shared customs, laws and organizations.32 Various aspects of societies and social behaviour are
the subject of social-demographic statistics, including the size, age, geographical distribution,
health and well-being of human populations.
2.15. Water is essential for the functioning of the environment, societies and the economy.
Drinking water is needed to sustain the life of the population, while clean water is essential
for a healthy population and is needed for sanitation, bathing, cooking, etc. Water is also
essential for the production of the food that supports the population, the production of other
goods and services used by societies, and for transport and recreation. Thus, water scarcity
can affect the production of food, other economic activities and the health of the population.
While the supply of households with water and sewerage services is recorded by economic
statistics, there are many water-related social issues that are also in the realm of social and
demographic statistics, such as the access to safe drinking water and sanitation or the various
diseases caused by the use of unsafe water in human populations.
2.16. Data on societies and their use of water are collected by a variety of means and often
as part of a programme of demographic and social statistics conducted by national statisti-
cal offices, such as via population and housing censuses and household surveys. Principles
and Recommendations for Population and Housing Censuses, Revision 233 has been developed

30 Ibid., para. 4.11.

31 For more information regarding water and the economy, see SEEA-Water, paras 2.14-2.21.
32 Oxford English Dictionary, available from http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/society?view=uk.
33 Principles and Recommendations for Population and Housing Censuses Revision 2. Available from http://unstats.
un.org/unsd/demographic/sources/census/docs/P&R_Rev2.pdf.
 Main concepts and frameworks 19

to support statistical activity in this area, while the Joint Monitoring Programme (JMP) for
Water Supply and Sanitation34 deals specifically with the water aspects of household surveys.

5. Integrated water resources management

2.17. Integrated water resources management (IWRM) is “a process which promotes the
coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources, in order to
maximize the resultant economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without com-
promising the sustainability of vital ecosystems”.35 This process includes the monitoring and
evaluation of progress.36 Thus, IWRM takes into account and requires data at the river basin
level on the links between water and the environment, the economy and water, as well as
society and water.

C. Inland water resources

2.18. Within the concept of inland water resources are a suite of water resources concepts,
such as renewable and non-renewable water resources, natural and actual water resources,
internal and external renewable water resources, and exploitable water resources. These con-
cepts are used as a basis for many international water indicators regarding inland waters, and
can be calculated using the data items listed in chapter IV and annex II, although care is
required because there are special exceptions that need to be taken into account when calcu-
lating some of these indicators (e.g., the exclusion of brackish or saline inland waters). These
exceptional calculations are addressed in annex III. Key water resource concepts are defined
below, based on chapter II of the FAO Review of World Water Resources by Country.37
2.19. It should be noted that the so-called non-conventional sources of water include the
production of freshwater by desalination of brackish or saltwater and the reuse of water, which
reduces the need for abstracting water. These sources may be substantial in regions affected by
extreme scarcity of renewable water resources but are excluded from renewable water resource
estimates (see figure II.2).

1. Renewable and non-renewable water resources

2.20. Water resources are either renewable or non-renewable. Renewable water resources
are represented by the long-term annual average flow of surface water and groundwater. Non-
renewable water resources are groundwater bodies (usually contained in deep aquifers) that
have a negligible rate of recharge relative to the size of the aquifer (i.e., the storage or stock).

2. Internal renewable water resources

2.21. Internal renewable water resources (IRWR) are that part of the water resources (sur-
face water and groundwater) generated from endogenous precipitation (see figure II.2). The
IRWR figures are the only water resources estimates that can be added up for countries to
create a regional IRWR figure. By way of contrast, total renewable water resources (see sect.
5) cannot be added to create a regional figure since this would result in double counting (the

34 See, for example, the 2008 Millennium Development Assessment Report. Available from http://www.wssinfo.
org/en/40_MDG2008.html.
35 Global Water Partnership 2000, Integrated Water Resources Management, Technical Advisory Papers, No. 4.
Available from http://www.gwpforum.org/gwp/library/Tacno4.pdf (accessed 22 December 2009).
36 UN-Water and Global Water Partnership (GWP), 2007, “Roadmapping for advancing integrated water resources
management (IWRM) processes”. Available from http://www.gwpforum.org/gwp/library/Roadmapping%20
for%20Advancing%20IWRM.pdf (accessed 22 December 2009).
37 FAO, 2003, Review of World Water Resources by Country. Available from http://www.fao.org/docrep/005/y4473e/
y4473e00.HTM (accessed 26 October 2009).
20 International Recommendations for Water

Figure II.2
The relationship between hydrological and water resources concepts
Source : Modified from FAO 2003.
Hydrological concepts Water resources concepts
a This refers to evapotranspiration from
rainfed annual and permanent crops,
including planted forests, and from Evapotranspiration
pastures and forest areas. from areas such as
b Surface water flows can contribute to natural lakes, ponds
groundwater recharge through seepage and wetlands
in the river bed. Aquifers can discharge Evapotransipiration
into rivers and contribute to their base
Evapotranspiration
flow, the sole source of river flow during
from plants and soils
dry periods. Therefore, the respective
(e.g., rainfeda)
flows of both systems are not wholly
Precipitation Surface water
additive. The concept of “overlap” is
(within the runoff
used to define the part of the country’s
territory)
water resources that is common to rivers
Internal
and to aquifers.
Overlapb renewable water
c This refers to water in rivers and resources (IRWR)
aquifers that can, in theory, be made
available for ex situ uses such as Groundwater
irrigating crops, water supply, or use in recharge
manufacturing, etc. In most cases, only a Renewable water
fraction of renewable water resources resourcesc
can actually be made available ex situ
(see figure II.4), and water also needs to See figure II.4
be available for other purposes, for Inflows from
External
example for low-consumptive uses such other territories
renewable water
as hydroelectricity generation, or for of surface water
resources (ERWR)
navigation (e.g., the use of rivers and and groundwater
lakes as transport routes) and tourism, or
to sustain the environment.

part of the IRWR of a country that flows to a downstream country would be added to the
IRWR of the downstream country to estimate its total renewable water resources).
2.22. Although the hydrological cycle links all waters, in many instances surface water
and groundwater are studied separately and represent different opportunities for use.
2.23. Surface water flows can contribute to groundwater replenishment through seepage
in the river bed. Aquifers can discharge into rivers and contribute to their base flow, which
is the sole source of river flow during dry periods. In some cases, instead of only calculat-
ing surface water run-off and groundwater recharge from precipitation, total surface water
flows are added to total groundwater recharge, in which case the “overlap” between surface
water and groundwater needs to be removed.38 For more information on the calculation of
IRWR and overlap, see annex III.

3. Internal flow
2.24. Similar to the concept of IRWR is the concept of internal flow used by OECD and
Eurostat. Internal flow is the total volume of river run-off and groundwater generated in
natural conditions, exclusively by precipitation into a territory, and is calculated as pre-
cipitation less evapotranspiration. 39 In many cases, internal flow and IRWR are the same,
for example, in countries where there are no significant inflows from other territories and
there is relatively insignificant evapotranspiration of water used to irrigate. However, in
some cases where there are large inflows of water from neighbouring territories and there
is evaporation of this water, internal flow can be much lower than IRWR, and may even

38 See FAO, 2003, Review of World Water Resource by Country, chap. 3.

39 OECD/Eurostat joint questionnaire on inland water, 2006.
 Main concepts and frameworks 21

be negative. In other cases, there may be significant evapotranspiration of water used for
irrigation. In these cases, the evaporation of inflows and evapotranspiration of irrigation
water should not be deducted from precipitation. Only the evaporation of endogenous
precipitation should be deducted from precipitation. If these adjustments are made, then
internal flow and IRWR will be equal even though they are calculated differently.

4. External renewable water resources

2.25. External renewable water resources are that part of a country’s renewable water
resources which enters from upstream countries through rivers, including a part of the
resources of shared lakes or border rivers (for more information on the allocation of border
waters, see chap. IV and data items B.2 and C.2).
2.26. Most of the inflow from neighbouring territories consists of surface water inflows,
but it can also consist of groundwater transfers between countries. However, groundwater
transfers are rarely known and their assessment requires a good knowledge of the piezom-
etry of the aquifers at the border. In arid areas, they may be important in comparison with
surface flow.
2.27. In assessing the external flow of a country, FAO distinguishes between natural
incoming flow and actual incoming flow from neighbouring territories. “Natural” inflow
is the average annual amount of water that would flow into the country in natural condi-
tions, i.e., without human influence. “Actual” inflow is the average annual quantity of water
entering the country, taking into account that part of the flow which is secured through
treaties or agreements and possible water abstraction in upstream countries (for the calcula-
tions behind these concepts, see annex III).

5. Natural and actual renewable water resources

2.28. Natural renewable water resources correspond to a situation without human influ-
ence, while actual renewable resources correspond to the current situation, taking into
account possible reductions in flow resulting from the abstraction of water in upstream
countries (figure II.3).

Figure II.3
Types of renewable water resources

Types of renewable water resources

Water resources under “actual”
conditions, taking into account Water resources available for
water secured (i.e., reserved) by ex situ use, taking into
Water resources under upstream and downstream account social, economic and
“natural” conditions territories environmental considerations

Total resources Total natural renewable Total actual renewable Exploitable renewable water
water resources water resources resources

Water resources Internal renewable Exploitable

from inside the water resources internal renewable
territory of reference water resources

Water resources Natural external Actual external Exploitable external

from outside the renewable water renewable water renewable water resources
territory of reference resources resources
Source : Modified from FAO, 2003.
22 International Recommendations for Water

2.29. Natural renewable water resources are the total of a country’s IRWR and natural
external renewable water resources (ERWR), including both surface water and groundwater
generated annually, calculated as a long-term annual average.
2.30. Actual renewable water resources are the sum of IRWR and ERWR, taking into
consideration the quantity of flow reserved to upstream and downstream countries through
formal agreements (e.g., treaties) and possible reduction of external flow due to upstream
water abstraction. Unlike natural renewable water resources, actual renewable water resources
vary with time and water use patterns.

6. Exploitable water resources

2.31. Exploitable water resources are that part of the renewable water resources which is
accessible for use (i.e., can be abstracted). These are sometimes referred to as manageable water
resources or the water development potential. To determine the quantity of exploitable water
resources, many factors have to be considered, such as the economic and environmental fea-
sibility of storing floodwater behind dams or extracting groundwater; the physical possibility
of catching water which naturally flows out to the sea; and the minimum flow requirements
for navigation, environmental services, aquatic life, etc.
2.32. The volume of exploitable water resources varies according to:
(a) The natural conditions that may affect the development of water resources (regu-
larity of the water regime, fragmentation of the hydrographic or hydrogeological
systems, convenience of the sites for dams and water quality);
(b) The importance of demand for water, which will determine the acceptability of
internal and external costs of water development and management;
(c) The allocation of, and arbitration between, competing in situ and ex situ uses (e.g.,
for transport versus irrigation).
It is important to note that flow conditions and other factors affect how much water is exploit-
able. Regular flows of surface water (i.e., baseflow) and groundwater are generally exploitable,
depending on such factors as how much surface water baseflow is evaporated and how much
water is required to maintain minimal flow into the sea. Irregular flows of surface water con-
sist of extreme irregular flows, which cannot be used, and potentially manageable irregular
flows. How much of this water can be managed and used depends on such factors as artificial
reservoir capacities, the variability of inflows to reservoirs, the quantity of water evaporated
from artificial reservoirs and lakes, how much surface water run-off can be used directly, and
what capacity there is for artificial recharge of aquifers.
2.33. In general, exploitable resources are significantly smaller than the total precipitation
or run-off. Preferably, national data on exploitable water resources should include an indica-
tion of the set of criteria considered, because this is important metadata (for information on
metadata, see chap. VII). What is included and excluded in exploitable resources depends on
the choice of a set of criteria (physical, socio-economic, environmental, etc.). What is included
and excluded from exploitable resources varies from country to country and can change with
time according to changes in national legislation or available technology. As such, exploitable
water resources is an estimate of the renewable resources available for use in a given situation
and period (i.e., expressed as volume per year).

7. Links between water resources and water accounts

2.34. Inland waters can be measured, using a systems approach, as stocks and flows as
described in SEEA-Water. For renewable water resources, the physical quantity of the resource
is expressed as a flow over time, e.g., the long-term annual average flow in millions of cubic
metres per year, while for non-renewable water resources the resource is expressed as a physi-
 Main concepts and frameworks 23

cal stock, e.g., millions of cubic metres of fossil groundwater.40 Inland water resources and
the water abstracted from them have values which in principle can be measured in monetary
units as stocks or flows. The SEEA-Water framework is elaborated in section D.

D. System of Environmental-Economic Accounting for

Water
2.35. The SEEA-Water framework provides an integrated information system to study
the interactions between the environment and the economy, thus supporting IWRM and
other analyses. An overview of the SEEA-Water framework is presented in figure II.4, which
provides a simplified presentation of the economy, the system of water resources and their
interactions. The economy and the inland water resource system of a territory—or the “ter-
ritory of reference”—are represented in figure II.4 as two separate boxes. The inland water
resource system of a territory is composed of all water resources in the territory (surface water,
groundwater and soil water) and the natural flows between them. The economy of a territory
consists of resident water users who abstract water for production and consumption purposes;
put in place the infrastructure to store, treat, distribute and discharge water; and discharge
water back into the environment.
2.36. SEEA-Water covers the stocks and flows associated with water. Stocks can be within
the environment or within the economy, while flows of water can be within the environment,
within the economy, and between the environment and the economy.
2.37. By convention, water contained in artificial reservoirs and artificial channels are con-
sidered part of inland water resources (i.e., the environment) rather than part of the economy.
In many instances, natural watercourses have been modified and the distinction between what
is natural and artificial is less important than the fact that these are surface water resources.

1. Stocks (assets)
2.38. Stocks are the quantity of a particular product or natural resource at a point in time.
Stocks are identified in both economic and environment statistics, although the terminology
varies depending on the context, and they can be measured in physical and monetary terms.
Physical stocks of water may also have different levels of water quality. Assets are usually asso-
ciated with stocks that have economic values, and in the SNA stocks are recorded in balance
sheets in monetary terms for non-financial assets (produced and non-produced), financial
assets and liabilities. In SEEA-Water, stocks are recorded in the asset accounts in physical
terms (i.e., volume of water).
2.39. Stocks are measured at a point in time—and preferably at more than one point in
time, such as the beginning and end of a year. The stocks at the beginning of a time period are
called the opening stocks and those at the end of a period are called closing stocks. The dif-
ference between opening and closing stocks is the result of flows (additions and subtractions)
to the stocks. Stocks are typically measured on 31 December, i.e., at the end of the period (see
also temporal references in sect. E). Stocks and flows are represented in figure II.5, and in this
example a stock of 100 units exists at time 1 (31 December 2007) and a stock of 110 units at
time 2 (31 December 2008). The difference of 10 is due to inflows of 30 and outflows of 20
over the period.
2.40. Water stocks (or assets) are classified by SEEA-Water as surface water, groundwater
and soil water. Surface water is further disaggregated into artificial reservoirs, lakes, riv-
ers, snow, ice and glaciers, etc. This classification is described in more detail in chapter III.

40 See FAO, “Non-renewable water resources”. Available from http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/glossary/

search.html?termId=7314&submitBtn=s&cls=yes (accessed 22 October 2009).
24 International Recommendations for Water

Figure II.4
Main flows within the inland water system and the economy

Atmosphere
Vapour

Precipication

Evapotranspiration
Wastewater
Territory of reference
Liquid water

Inland water system

Surface water
(reservoirs, lakes, Soil
rivers, snow, ice water
and glaciers)
Natural transfers
Upstream basins (e.g., infiltration, seepage) Downstream
and aquifers basins and
outside the Inflows Outflows
aquifers
territory of outside the
reference territory of
reference
Groundwater
Abstraction

Collection
Returns

Returns

of precipitation

Abstraction Evapotranspiration Sea

Sea

Returns
Sewerage

Households
Returns

Other industries
(incl. agriculture)

Rest of the Imports Water collection

world economy Exports
treatment and supply Rest of the
world
economy
Economy

Source: SEEA-Water.
Changes in water stocks are due to flows of water within the environment or flows between
the economy and the environment. Changes in stocks can also result from increased know-
ledge regarding stocks (e.g., the discovery of new aquifers or the reassessment of already
identified inland water resources).
 Main concepts and frameworks 25

Figure II.5
Representation of stocks and flows

Stock

Stock at time 1
Inflows e.g., 31 Dec. 2010: 100 units Outflows

(between time 1 and time 2) Change in stock (between time 1 and time 2)
e.g., I Jan. 2010 to (between time 1 and time 2) e.g., I Jan. 2010 to
31 Dec. 2010: 30 units e.g., 30 - 20 = +10 units 31 Dec. 2010: 20 units

Stock at time 2
e.g., 31 Dec. 2011: 110 Units

2.41. The water in rivers is usually presented as a flow of water, but it can also be viewed as
a stock for particular points in time. However, the volume of the stock of a river at a particular
point in time is usually very small compared to the volume that flows through the river over a
year. For example, a river 10,000 metres (m) long, which on average is 25 m wide and 2 m deep,
would have a stock of 500,000 cubic metres (m3) of water at any point in time.41 If this river
had a flow rate of 50 (m3) per second, then the annual flow would be 1,576,800,000 (m3).42
Thus, the stock of water in rivers at any particular point in time is only a tiny fraction of the
total annual flow and in the example is just less than one third of one per cent (0.032 per cent).
Stocks of water in other resources, such as groundwater and artificial reservoirs, are usually
much more important to measure as they can represent many times the annual inflows.

2. Flows
2.42. Flows are the quantity that is added or subtracted from a stock during a specific period
of time. Flows are identified in both economic and environment statistics. Economic flows
reflect the creation, transformation, exchange, transfer or extinction of economic value; they
involve changes in the volume, composition or value of an economic unit’s assets and liabilities.
2.43. In water statistics, flows are measured as a quantity (volume, mass or value) per unit
of time, such as cubic metres per year, tonnes per year or dollars per year. The flows are usu-
ally related to particular stocks of water and result in a change in quantity of the stocks. The
flows described in water statistics are:
• Flows within the environment (between inland water resources and the atmosphere,
between the sea and inland water resources, and between the different inland water
resources, such as surface water, groundwater and soil water)
• Flows from the environment to the economy (abstraction)
• Flows within the economy (exchanges of water between economic units)
• Flows between the economy and the economy of rest of the world (exports and
imports)
• Flows from the economy to the environment (returns and waterborne emissions)
• Flows with other territories (inflows and outflows with neighbouring territories)
2.44. Sometimes it is not possible to establish a simple physical boundary between the
economy and the environment. Nonetheless, it remains necessary to look at the type of flows
of interest within the economy, the flows into and out of the economy and the flows within
the environment.43

41 500,000 m 3 =10,000 m x 25 m x 2 m. The calculation relies on a uniform shape of the river bed.
42 1,576,800,000 m 3 /year = 50 m 3 /second x 31,536,000 seconds; 31,536,000 seconds = 365 (days) x 24 (hours) x
60 (minutes) x 60 (seconds).
43 Modified from 2003 SEEA, para. 2.21.
26 International Recommendations for Water

3. Water consumption
2.45. The concept of consumption in water statistics and accounts differs from that of the
SNA. In water statistics and accounts, the concept of water consumption gives an indication
of the amount of water that is lost by the economy during use in the sense that it has entered
the economy but has not returned either to water resources or to the sea. This happens because
during use, part of the water is incorporated into products, evaporated, transpired by plants
or simply consumed by households or livestock. It can be computed for each economic unit
and for the whole economy (for links between data items and SEEA-Water, see annex IV).
The concept of water consumption used in SEEA-Water is consistent with the hydrological
concept. It differs, however, from the concept of consumption used in national accounts,
which instead refers to water use.44

E. Spatial and temporal (time) references

1. Spatial references
2.46. Water statistics can provide data for water management at many geographic levels,
from the local, to the river basin to the national and multinational levels. The choice of
the spatial reference for the compilation of water statistics ultimately depends on the data
needed by users (e.g., decision makers, analysts and researchers) and the resources available
to data producers.
2.47. In general, four types of spatial boundaries are used in water statistics:
• Physical boundaries:
• River basins and other surface water boundaries, such as sub-basins, drainage
basins and water catchments
• Aquifers and other subsurface boundaries, including aquifer beds, complex
­aquifer-aquitard systems, groundwater provinces and groundwater regions
• Administrative regions
• Service areas
• Accounting catchments
2.48. Physical boundaries, in the form of river basins or aquifers, are fundamental to the
hydrological cycle. These physical boundaries can span large areas and countries. Aquifers
are below-ground reservoirs of water, while a river basin is an area having a common outlet
for its surface run-off.45 River basins vary in size, depending on the common water body of
interest, and large river basins may contain smaller sub-basins (or catchments). River basins
are fundamental to understanding surface water resources because the water suppliers and
users within a river basin directly affect the availability of water. In addition, water can flow
naturally between river basins, or can be imported and exported by economic units located
in different river basins but within the same country.
2.49. It is internationally recognized that a river basin is the most appropriate spatial ref-
erence for IWRM (e.g., Agenda 21;46 and European Water Framework Directive, 200047).
This is because the people and economic activities within a river basin will have an impact
on the quantity and quality of water in the basin, and conversely the water available in a
basin will affect the people and economic activities that rely on this water. Thus, river basins

44 Modified from SEEA-Water, para. 3.44.

45 UNESCO/WMO, International Glossary of Hydrology, 2nd ed., 1992.
46 Report of the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, loc. cit.
47 Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a frame-
work for Community action in the field of water policy. Available from http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/
LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32000L0060:EN:NOT.
 Main concepts and frameworks 27

are suggested for the compilation of water statistics.48 However, in areas where groundwater
is an important source of water, aquifers may also be appropriate spatial references for the
compilation of water statistics.
2.50. An administrative region is a geographic area usually corresponding to a level of
government (e.g., local, state/provincial or national). Since administrative regions are usually
responsible for planning and economic policies within their jurisdiction, different regions
are likely to have different laws, regulations, institutional arrangements and management
practices relating to water.
2.51. Water suppliers or sewerage service providers, which may be government or non-
government, will often have service areas that are related to the physical infrastructure which
they own or operate to supply water or sewerage services.
2.52. Accounting catchments are defined in SEEA-Water because, depending on the char-
acteristics of the administrative regions and river basins in a country, especially where there
is a mismatch of boundaries, it may be useful to define regions for the compilation of water
statistics and accounts for which both economic and physical data are more easily available.
Such regions are statistical constructs or hybrids of administrative regions and river basins.
Accounting catchments are used to provide the best possible match of economic, environmen-
tal and social data, and they use a variety of spatial references. They are usually large enough
that economic information is available.49
2.53. In practice, an accounting catchment is an administrative region, composed of all
or parts of several river basins or a river basin composed of all or parts of several administra-
tive regions.50 Usually, whole administrative regions are added together to form the nearest
approximation of a river basin or vice versa.51 In defining accounting catchments, it is neces-
sary to compare river basins and administrative boundaries to determine the best possible
match based on practical considerations of data availability and data collection. Over time, the
use of accounting catchments should lead to improvements in data collection and availability.
2.54. Each administrative region, river basin, service area or accounting catchment used
for water statistics should have a unique identification code and name. If more than one
spatial reference is used, then there should be more than one identification coding system
and the codes used should be distinct. When the relevant boundaries are available electroni-
cally, a geographical information system (GIS) can help clarify boundary issues related to
water statistics.

2. Temporal (time) references

2.55. When integrating or collecting water data, it is important that the reference periods
for the different data items be aligned. In water and economic statistics, the calendar year is
the recommended temporal reference. However, in practice, water and economic data may
not be available for calendar years. For example, for national accounts, many countries use
a financial year, while for water statistics, they may use a hydrological year. A hydrological
year is a 12-month period such that the overall changes in storage are minimal and carryover
is reduced to a minimum.52 Financial and hydrological years may be the same as or different
from calendar years.

48 An example of this in practice is Statistics Canada’s Standard Drainage Area Classification (SDAC) 2003.
Available from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/subjects-sujets/standard-norme/sdac-ctad/sdac-ctad-eng.htm (accessed
20 December 2009).
49 SEEA-Water, para. 2.90 (available from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/SEEA-WaterDraftManual.
pdf).
50 After SEEA-Water, para. 2.90.
51 See Edens and others, 2007, “Regional water accounts and the transformation of spatial data” (http://unstats.
un.org/unsd/envaccounting/londongroup/meeting11/LG11_SSWA_2a.pdf).
52 UNESCO/WMO, International Glossary of Hydrology, 2nd ed., 1992.
28 International Recommendations for Water

2.56. It is generally recommended that annual water statistics be developed for the time
period used in the national accounts, which in SNA is recommended to be the calendar year.
This allows direct temporal comparability between the economic and environmental aspects
of water statistics.
2.57. Annual water statistics will often hide seasonal variability in data, which in many
cases is important to understand for water management purposes. Some water statistics, such
as precipitation and other meteorological and hydrological data, are compiled more frequently
(e.g., daily, weekly or monthly) to address these needs. However, while subannual data for
aggregate water statistics would be ideal for the analysis of intra-annual variations, they are
very resource-intensive to collect and, for the time being, are not considered feasible in many
countries. For some water statistics, such as those on renewable water resources, long-term
annual averages are the most appropriate temporal references.53 The temporal references for
particular data items should be addressed in a data-collection strategy (see chap. V).
2.58. In social and demographic statistics, a range of reference periods are used. For cen-
suses of population and housing, the reference period is usually a particular day of a particular
year. This is referred to as the census day, although some censuses may take place over longer
periods. Other household surveys may refer to a particular point in time or to other reference
periods (e.g., a month or a year).

53 For example, a long-term annual average of 20 years is used in the OECD/Eurostat joint questionnaire on the
state of the environment, section on inland waters, and by the United Nations Statistics Division/UNEP ques-
tionnaire on the environment, section on water. FAO Aquastat uses a 30-year long-term annual average for the
measurement of precipitation in countries.
 29

Chapter III
Statistical units and classifications

A. Introduction
3.1. The purpose of chapter III is to address the definition and classification of statisti-
cal units as they relate to the collection, compilation, analysis and dissemination of water
statistics. A statistical unit is the entity about which information is sought and for which
statistics are ultimately compiled.54 It is the unit at the base of statistical aggregates and to
which tabulated data refer.
3.2. The determination of the statistical units of statistics on water in the environment,
water in the economy and their interactions will help to:
• Define in more detail the components of the hydrological system and the economy
about which data are compiled or from which data are collected
• Describe the main classifications of statistical units relevant to water statistics and
provide recommendations on classification specific to water statistics
• Define the main characteristics of statistical units so that survey frames and the
related statistical infrastructure needed for water statistics can be constructed or exist-
ing infrastructure adapted
• Understand the classifications of statistical units for the disaggregation of the data
items of chapter IV
3.3. The statistical unit may be an observation unit in which information is received and
statistics are compiled or an analytical unit which statisticians create by splitting or combin-
ing observation units with the help of estimations and imputations in order to supply more
detailed and/or homogeneous data. A reporting unit is the entity from which the recom-
mended data items are collected.
3.4. Section B addresses the statistical units of the environment, defines them for statis-
tics on the hydrological system and introduces the classification of inland water resources.
Section C presents the statistical units of the economy, including the description of enter-
prises, establishments and households and the concept of residence. Section D addresses
the classification of establishments to industries, and in so doing introduces ISIC, Revision
4, and CPC, Version 2, and the industries and products of particular importance for water
statistics. Section E presents the characteristics that are recommended to be recorded for the
statistical units.

B. Statistical units of the environment

3.5. The statistical units of the environment are the parts of the environment about which
information is collected and statistics are compiled. In the case of water in the environment,

54 See United Nations Statistics Division, October 2007, “Statistical units”, para. 14 (http://unstats.un.org/unsd/
isdts/docs/StatisticalUnits.pdf).
30 International Recommendations for Water

these units are the inland water resources or water bodies (the areas or spaces that contain the
water). The statistical units of the environment (in particular the hydrological system) may
be observation units or analytical units but not reporting units. For example, a lake can be
a statistical unit but any information about the lake will have to be reported by a unit of the
economy that owns, manages or monitors the lake or any part thereof.
3.6. Each of the inland water resources has a range of complex and interrelated character-
istics. For example, a river consists of the water flowing through the river, the riverbed, river-
bank, the primary channel and maybe a series of secondary channels. The river also provides
a habitat for living organisms (e.g., plants and animals) in the water or along the riverbed. In
addition, the water in the river may also provide goods and services to the economy, such as
water for irrigation, or serve as a transport route or a sink for emissions. A river, a riverbed
or a riverbank may be owned or owned in part by different economic units. A river may also
define administrative boundaries, such as national borders.
3.7. For the purposes of IRWS, the statistical units of the environment for inland
waters are classified as surface water bodies (including artificial reservoirs) and aquifers,
with a number of divisions below these levels. For example, a river may be divided into
stretches or segments and a large lake may be divided into parts. The data items in chapter
IV cover flows between environmental units and flows between environmental units and
economic units. For IWRM and other purposes, information may be collected and com-
piled regarding river basins or sub-basins (for example, resident population, land cover, land
use or economic activities in these areas) and therefore such river basins and sub-basins may
constitute statistical units.55 Water is also contained in soils and although they are also part
of water resources, it is not necessary to include soil as a statistical unit for the purposes of
water statistics.56

1. Surface water bodies

3.8. Surface water is contained in:
• Lakes: depressions in the Earth’s surface occupied by bodies of standing water; lakes
generally contain large bodies of standing water but also include small and shallow
water bodies, such as ponds and lagoons
• Rivers and streams: channels where water flows continuously or periodically
• Wetlands: areas of marsh, fen, peatland, swamp or shallow water that are perma-
nently, intermittently or seasonally saturated with water
• Glaciers: accumulation of ice of atmospheric origin, generally moving slowly on land
over a long period, including ice sheets, ice caps, ice fields, mountain glaciers, valley
glaciers and cirque glaciers.57
• Snow and ice: areas where seasonal or permanent layers of snow and ice form on the
ground surface
• Artificial reservoirs: man-made reservoirs used for storage, regulation and control of
water resources

55 For example: Statistics Canada has a classification of such areas called the Standard Drainage Area Clas-
sification (SDAC) 2003, available from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/subjects-sujets/standard-norme/sdac-
ctad/sdac-ctad-eng.htm (accessed 21 December 2009); and the European Union has an Infrastruc-
ture for Spatial Information in the European Community (INSPIRE), which includes river basins and
sub-basins, along with rivers, etc., as hydrographic elements, available from http://inspire.jrc.ec.europa.eu/
reports/ImplementingRules/DataSpecifications/D2.3_Definition_of_Annex_Themes_and_scope_v3.0.pdf
(accessed 21 December 2009).
56 Soils can be a relevant statistical unit for the environment where monthly data are available, for example, for
agricultural areas; such data are often unavailable or difficult to collect and compile over large areas.
57 For an extensive list of types of glaciers, see the National Snow and Ice Data Center website. Available from
http://nsidc.org/glaciers/questions/types.html (accessed 19 May 2009).
 Statistical units and classifications 31

3.9. Artificial reservoirs represent a special case because their placement as a unit of the
economy or the environment is the subject of an ongoing discussion. The issue is addressed
in a paper of the London Group58 and is identified in SEEA-Water:
All water resource assets (. . .) are considered in the SEEA-Water as non-produced
assets, that is, they are “non-financial assets that come into existence other than
through processes of production” (para. 10.6, 1993 SNA). It could be argued, how-
ever, that water contained in artificial reservoirs comes into existence through a
production process: a dam has to be built, and, once the dam is in place, activities
of operation and management of the dam that regulate the stock level of the water
have to be exercised on a continuous and regular basis. The discussion on whether
to consider water in a reservoir as a produced asset has not yet concluded. For this
reason, the SEEA-Water has retained the classification of the SEEA-2003.59
3.10. The present situation is that while the wall of the reservoir (or dam wall) is part of
the economy, the water behind it is not. Until the matter is resolved, it is recommended that
artificial reservoirs be identified separately from other surface water resources, and countries
may choose to adopt a presentation of data items that does not show artificial reservoirs as
part of the environment.

2. Aquifers
3.11. Aquifers are underground zones that contain sufficient saturated permeable material
to yield significant quantities of water to wells and springs. It is important to note that aquifers
receive water from surface water bodies and precipitation that infiltrates into the ground, and
from other parts of the groundwater system, such as aquitards.60 For the purposes of water
statistics, only the groundwater in aquifers is measured because only that water can be used.
Thus, aquifers are statistical units of the environment. Aquifers may be classified according
to depth (e.g., shallow or deep) or as being unconfined or confined, as follows:61
• Unconfined aquifer: An unconfined aquifer, also known as a water table aquifer, is
bounded below by an aquitard and has no overlying confining layer. Its upper bound-
ary is the water level, which rises and falls freely. The water in a well penetrating an
unconfined aquifer, which is at atmospheric pressure, does not rise above the water table.
• Confined aquifer: A confined aquifer is bounded above and below by an aquitard. The
groundwater pressure is usually higher than the atmospheric pressure and if a well is
drilled into the aquifer, the water level may rise above the top of the aquifer.
• In addition to confined aquifers there are semi-confined aquifers (so called leaky
aquifers) that are bound above and below by aquitards that are either thin or absent
in places, allowing leakage of water from surrounding aquifers or infiltration from
surface water or precipitation. As in a confined aquifer, the groundwater pressure is
usually higher than the atmospheric pressure.

3. Soil water
3.12. Water can be contained in the soil. Soil water is defined as water suspended in the
uppermost belt of soil or in the zone of aeration near the ground surface that can be dis-

58 Water in artificial reservoirs: a produced asset? Available from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/

londongroup/meeting14/LG14_13a.pdf (accessed 22 June 2009).
59 SEEA-Water, para. 6.23.
60 An aquitard is a geological unit that is relatively impermeable over a short time frame. The unit may be perme-
able enough to transmit water in significant quantities when viewed over large areas and long periods, but the
hydraulic conductivity of an aquitard is low enough to typically act as a “floor” for the groundwater table (FAO
Aquastat glossary, available from http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/glossary/search.html (accessed
23 June 2009).
61 For the definition of unconfined and confined aquifers, see FAO Aquastat glossary, available from http://www.
fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/glossary/search.html (accessed 23 June 2009).
32 International Recommendations for Water

charged into the atmosphere by evaporation of soil water and transpiration from plants that
take up soil water. When this water is used in agriculture production (i.e., plant evapotran-
spiration in rain-fed agriculture) it is sometimes termed green water.
3.13. The soil containing water and the area it occupies could be considered a statistical
unit of the environment but this is not necessary for IRWS.56
4. Problems of classification
3.14. It is important to note that it is sometimes difficult to classify or find the exact
boundary between different water resources, such as where a lake ends and a river begins,
where a river ends and an artificial reservoir begins or where a river ends and the sea begins.
In practice, the units for inland waters need to be classified on the best information available,
which may require some subjective judgement.
3.15. It is important to recognize that the classification of units is exclusive. That particu-
lar unit must be either a lake or wetland—it cannot be both.
3.16. The classification of wetlands is a particularly difficult task. The definition of wet-
lands provided is based on that of the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. However, for the
purposes of water statistics it has been modified, since the Convention takes a very broad
approach in defining wetlands. Article 1.1 of the Convention states:
For the purpose of this Convention wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peatland or
water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water that is static
or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which
at low tide does not exceed six metres.
3.17. Wetlands are further described in the Ramsar Convention Manual 2006 62 as:
Areas where water is the primary factor controlling the environment and the associ-
ated plant and animal life. They occur where the water table is at or near the surface
of the land, or where the land is covered by shallow water.
3.18. Thus, the Ramsar definition of wetlands cuts across other definitions of water
resources. That is, under the Ramsar definition, artificial reservoirs, lakes and ponds, rivers
and streams could all be defined as wetlands. Also, the Ramsar definition includes marine
areas outside the scope of IRWS, as in the classification of wetlands developed to support the
Convention.
3.19. It is recommended that, for the purposes of IRWS, countries base the categorization
of wetlands on water depth, and that areas of shallow water or permanently or temporary
saturated soils be identified as wetlands, as indicated in the Ramsar Manual. Countries can
record the classification of a particular water resource under the Ramsar Convention as one
of the characteristics of statistical units (see sect. D).
3.20. Each of the environmental units for inland waters has a range of characteristics (see
sect. D) and data items in chapter IV that are associated with them (i.e., data items A-E), such
as the volume of water at a particular point in time held in artificial reservoirs (see chap. IV,
data item A.1.1).

C. Statistical units of the economy

3.21. The information on the statistical units of the economy is drawn from the 2008
SNA63 and the IRIS.64

62 Ramsar Convention Secretariat, 2006, The Ramsar Convention Manual: a guide to the Convention on Wetlands
(Ramsar, Islamic Republic of Iran, 1971), 4th ed. Ramsar Convention Secretariat, Gland, Switzerland. Available
from http://www.ramsar.org/lib/lib_manual2006e.htm#cap1 (accessed 19 May 2009).
63 2008 SNA, available from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/sna1993/draftingPhase/WC-SNAvolume1.pdf.
64 United Nations Statistics Division, February 2008, International Recommendations for Industrial Statistics.
Available from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/statcom/doc08/BG-IndustrialStats.pdf.
 Statistical units and classifications 33

3.22. It is essential to understand and define the statistical units of the economy as they
interact with water. The economy abstracts water from the environment. Water is exchanged
and used within the economy and discharged into the environment. The statistical units of
the economy about which information is sought (e.g., how much water they abstract from
the environment) and from which this information may be collected (e.g., via survey) are the
establishments and households. These are referred to as economic units in IRWS (e.g., in the
definition of data items). Economic units are units which can also report information about
environment units.

1. Enterprises and establishments

3.23. An enterprise is an economic unit in its capacity as a producer of goods and services.
An enterprise may operate one or more establishments, and may produce a variety of goods
and services.65 In the course of the production, other goods and services will be consumed.
The goods and services produced and consumed include water and sewerage services (for more
information on these goods and services and CPC, Ver. 2, which is used to classify them, see
paras. 3.24-3.71).
3.24. An establishment is an enterprise or part of an enterprise that is situated in a single
location and in which (a) only a single (non-ancillary) productive activity is carried out or
(b) the principal productive activity accounts for most of the value added.66 Establishments
are also known as local kind-of-activity units (local KAUs).67 Establishments are classified to
industries using ISIC, Rev. 4, on the basis of their principal productive activity (see sect. C).
Establishments also include government (i.e., a government office is an establishment).
3.25. Since establishments have a single location, economic activities can be linked to
specific locations and placed within river basins or administrative areas (see chap. II, sect.
D). It is important to distinguish establishments within enterprises when an enterprise has
more than one establishment, especially when establishments are involved in different pro-
ductive activities, or when they have the same productive activities but are located in differ-
ent river basins or administrative areas. For example, if an enterprise that is engaged in the
making and selling of clothes consists of three establishments, including a factory making
clothes (ISIC 14—manufacturing of wearing apparel) and two shops, in different cities, sell-
ing clothes (both ISIC 47—retail trade), then it is important to separate the establishments
within the enterprise. If they are not separated, then the water use (and other data of interest)
might be incorrectly attributed to one ISIC (e.g., ISIC 47) rather than two (e.g., ISIC 14 and
ISIC 47). In addition, if the establishments are located in different river basins or administra-
tive areas, then the water use may be incorrectly allocated to one river basin or administrative
area rather than two.

2. Households
3.26. A household is defined as a group of persons who share the same living accommo-
dation, who pool some or all of their income and wealth, and who consume certain types
of goods and services collectively, mainly housing and food. In general, each member of a
household should have some claim upon the collective resources of the household. At least
some decisions affecting consumption68 or other economic activities (as households can be
producers) must be taken for the household as a whole.69

65 See 2008 SNA, para. 5.1.

66 Ibid., para. 5.3.
67 Ibid., para. 5.14.
68 The term consumption here is used in the sense of national accounts; for an explanation of how the term con-
sumption is used in hydrology and water statistics, see para. 2.45.
69 See 2008 SNA, para. 4.149.
34 International Recommendations for Water

3.27. In demographic and social statistics, the concept of a household is based on the
arrangements made by persons, individually or in groups, for providing themselves with food
and other essentials for living.70 In general, the definition of a household used in demographic
and social statistics and economic statistics are very closely approximated.71
3.28. The majority of the population live in households, but there are also persons liv-
ing in institutions that are not members of a household and who constitute institutional
households.72 Persons living permanently in an institution, or who may be expected to reside
in an institution for a very long or indefinite period of time, are treated as belonging to a
single institutional household when they have little or no autonomy of action or decision in
economic matters.73 Some examples of persons belonging to institutional households are
members of religious orders living in monasteries, convents or similar institutions; long-term
patients in hospitals, including mental hospitals; prisoners serving long sentences; persons
living permanently in retirement homes; and persons living on military bases.
3.29. Households receive water from other economic units and discharge water or water-
borne emissions to economic units. They may also abstract water directly from the environ-
ment or discharge water and waterborne emissions into the environment. Households can
produce goods and services, including water, for sale or own use.

3. Residence principle
3.30. The residence principle is used to allocate economic units to an economic territory
of reference. While each unit will have a physical location which can be assigned to a spatial
reference (e.g., a geo-code, administrative area, river basin or accounting catchment), it is also
necessary to determine whether the unit is a part of a country’s economic territory.
3.31. The residence of each unit is the economic territory with which it has the strong-
est connection, in other words, its centre of predominant economic interest. In its broadest
sense, an economic territory can be any geographic area or jurisdiction. The connection of
entities to a particular economic territory is determined by such aspects as physical presence
and being subject to the jurisdiction of the Government of the territory. The most commonly
used concept of economic territory is the area under the effective economic control of a single
Government. However, economic territory may be larger or smaller than this, as in a currency
or economic union or a part of a country or the world.74
3.32. An economic unit is resident in a country when it has a centre of predominant
economic interest in the economic territory of that country. An economic unit has a centre
of predominant economic interest in an economic territory when there exists, within the
economic territory, some location, dwelling, place of production or other premises on which
or from which the unit engages and intends to continue engaging, either indefinitely or over
a finite but long period of time, in economic activities and transactions on a significant scale.
The location need not be fixed as long as it remains within the economic territory. Actual or
intended location for one year or more is used as an operational definition; while the choice
of one year as a specific period is somewhat arbitrary, it is adopted to avoid uncertainty and
facilitate international consistency.75
3.33. In population statistics, in particular for population census purposes, the “usual resi-
dence” is the place where the person lives at the time of the census and has been living for
some time or intends to live for some time.76 Generally, most individuals enumerated have not

70 See Principles and Recommendations for Population and Housing Census, Revision 2, para. 1.448.
71 See 2008 SNA, para. 4.150.
72 See Principles and Recommendations for Population and Housing Census, Revision 2, para. 1.455.
73 See 2008 SNA, para. 4.152.
74 Ibid., para. 4.10.
75 Ibid., para. 4.14.
76 See Principles and Recommendations for Population and Housing Census, Revision 2, paras. 1.461-1.463.
 Statistical units and classifications 35

moved for some time and thus defining their place of usual residence is clear. For others, the
application of the definition can lead to many interpretations, particularly if the person has
moved often. Principles and Recommendations for Population and Housing Censuses, Revision
2, para. 1.463, recommends that countries apply a threshold of 12 months when considering
place of usual residence.

D. Classification of establishments
3.34. To examine the production and production functions of an economy in detail it is
necessary to refer to more homogeneous groups of establishments of production.77 For that
reason, establishments are classified to an industry based on the process applied in the pro-
duction of goods and services.78 Establishments can also be classified by institutional sector
based on the principal function, behaviour and objective of the establishment.
3.35. The classification of establishments by industry facilitates the aggregation, interpreta-
tion and analysis of the data collected from or about the units. For example, it enables data
users to monitor or target particular groups of establishments for policy- or decision-making.
It enables the volumes and cost of water used (whether abstracted directly from the environ-
ment or received from other economic units) by different industries to be compared. It can also
show the relative reliance on different water resources of the various industries. In addition,
because the classification of units is consistent with other statistical frameworks, it enables data
to be more easily integrated, for example, to link the macro-aggregates of the 2008 SNA (e.g.,
industry valued added, intermediate consumption) to water statistics by water accounts.
3.36. The ideal situation is to identify and observe establishments engaged in only one
productive activity. In practice, however, this is not always feasible, and establishments are
classified on the basis of the principal activity using the International Standard Industrial
Classification of All Economic Activities, Revision 4 (ISIC, Rev. 4).79

1. Classification by industries: International Standard Industrial

Classification of All Economic Activities, Revision 4
3.37. An industry is a group of the establishments within the economy that are engaged
in the same or similar kinds of production activity 80 (i.e., the type of activity undertaken
to produce certain goods or services). Thus, the term industry includes agriculture, mining,
manufacturing, service industries, etc.
3.38. The productive activity of economic units is termed a principal, secondary or ancil-
lary activity, as follows:
• The principal activity of an economic unit is the activity whose value added exceeds
that of any other activity carried out within the same unit and whose output must be
suitable for delivery outside the economic unit81
• A secondary activity is an activity carried out within a single economic unit in addi-
tion to the principal activity and whose output must be suitable for delivery outside
the economic unit82
• An ancillary activity is incidental to the main activity of the economic unit. It facili-
tates the efficient running of an enterprise but does not normally result in goods and
services that can be marketed83

77 See 2008 SNA, para. 2.38

78 Ibid., para. 2.37.
79 Ibid., para. 2.39.
80 Ibid., para. 5.5.
81 Ibid., para. 5.8.
82 Ibid., para. 5.9.
83 Ibid., para. 5.10.
36 International Recommendations for Water

3.39. Economic units are classified to an industry using ISIC, Rev.4. When defining
industries, ISIC, Rev. 4, uses such criteria as input, output and use of the products produced
and the character of the production process in defining and delineating ISIC classes. ISIC,
Rev. 4, is a hierarchical classification of all economic activities, including 21 sections (a one-
letter alpha code, A-U, most aggregated level); 88 divisions (two-digit code); 238 groups
(three-digit code) and 420 classes (four-digit code, most detailed level).
3.40. Figure III.1 shows the relationships between enterprises, establishments and industry
classification. An enterprise may have only one establishment and can be classified to indus-
try on the basis of its principal activity, as is the case for enterprise 1 and establishment 1 in
figure III.1. Establishment 1 is classified to industry 1; in this case, it could be one farm. An
enterprise may have two or more establishments, as is the case for enterprises 2, 3, 4 and 5.
In the case of enterprise 2, the principal activities of both of its establishments are the same
and hence are classified to industry 1 (agriculture, ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 01). It could be that the
establishments are two farms, separated by distance, but owned and operated by one enter-
prise. Enterprise 3 has three establishments, which each have a different principal activity and
are thus classified to three different industries. Enterprise 4 also has two establishments, and
in the example shown, which is common in many countries, enterprise 4 has establishments
engaged in water supply (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 36) and sewerage (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 37) industries.
Figure III.1
Relationships between enterprises, establishments and industry classification
Enterprise 1 2 3 4 5

Establishment 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Industry 1 2 3 4 5 6
(e.g., agriculture, (e.g., electricity (e.g., water supply (e.g., sewerage (e.g., mining, (e.g., manufacturing,
ISIC Rev. 4, industry, ISIC Rev. 4, industry, ISIC Rev. 4, industry, ISIC Rev. 4, ISIC Rev. 4, ISIC Rev. 4,
division 01) division 35) division 36) division 37) divisions 5-9) divisions 10-33)

2. Products and the Central Product Classification, Version 2

3.41. Products are the goods and services that are the result of production and are trans-
acted. They are used for various purposes: as inputs in the production of other goods and
services, for final consumption84 or for investment. Products are classified using the Central
Product Classification, Version 2 (CPC, Ver. 2).85
3.42. CPC, Ver. 2, constitutes a comprehensive classification of all goods and services
produced by the economies of the world. It presents categories for all goods and services that
can be the object of domestic or international transactions or that can enter into stocks. CPC,
Ver. 2, is aligned with the Harmonized Commodity Description and Coding System 86 (or HS)

84 The term consumption here is used in the sense of national accounts; for an explanation of how the term con-
sumption is used in hydrology and water statistics, see para. 2.45.
85 Central Product Classification (CPC), Version 2. Available from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/regcst.
asp?Cl=25.
86 The Harmonised Commodity Description and Coding System (or HS) of tariff nomenclature is an internationally
standardized system of names and numbers for classifying traded products developed and maintained by the
World Customs Organization. Available from http://www.wcoomd.org/home_online_services_hs_online.htm.
 Statistical units and classifications 37

and is also based on the physical characteristics of goods or the nature of the services rendered.
Each type of good or service distinguished in CPC, Ver. 2, is defined in such a way that it is
normally produced by only one industry as defined in ISIC.
3.43. CPC, Ver. 2, identifies two products related to water: natural water (CPC, Ver. 2,
1800) and sewerage services (CPC, Ver. 2, 9410). A third product that is also of interest is
bottled water (CPC, Ver. 2, 2441).
3.44. The definition of natural water (CPC, Ver. 2, 1800) is very broad and covers all
types of water: water abstracted from the environment, water supplied and used within the
economy and water discharged back into the environment. The exact boundaries of this class
are sometimes difficult to distinguish and are usually determined by the statistical framework
that uses CPC, Ver. 2.
3.45. The distinction between natural water (CPC, Ver. 2, 1800) and sewerage services
(CPC, Ver. 2, 9410) is important. Water already used by one economic unit may be of suf-
ficient quality to be used by another economic unit without treatment and hence is a supply of
water (CPC, Ver. 2, 1800). However, other water supplied from one economic unit to another
may contain waterborne emissions, as is the case for sewage being supplied to sewerage
treatment facilities for treatment or disposal. In this case, the water is not classified as water
(CPC, Ver. 2, 1800) but the service provided by the economic unit receiving it is classified as
sewerage services (CPC, Ver. 2, 9410).
3.46. To reflect these different types of water flows, water statistics and accounts present
flows of water first in terms of the type of flow (from the economy to the environment, within
the economy and from the environment to the economy) and second in terms of the use of
water (for example, water supplied to other economic units is further disaggregated to water,
wastewater for treatment and disposal and wastewater not for treatment or disposal (for reuse)).

3. Industries important for water statistics

3.47. Some industries are of special relevance to water statistics because they use large
quantities of water, discharge large quantities of sewage to other economic units or the envi-
ronment or are major sources of waterborne emissions (pollution).87 They include:
• Agriculture (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 01)
• Mining and quarrying (ISIC, Rev. 4, divs. 05-09)
• Manufacturing (ISIC, Rev. 4, divs. 10-33)
• Electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 35)
• Hydroelectricity producers
• Other types of electricity producers (e.g., coal, natural gas, nuclear, solar, wind)
• Water collection, treatment and supply (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 36)
• Sewerage (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 37)

Agriculture
3.48. Agriculture (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 01)88 includes establishments engaged in the exploi-
tation of plant and animal natural resources, comprising the activities of growing crops, rais-
ing and breeding animals, harvesting timber and other plants, animals or animal products
from a farm or their natural habitats. Crop and animal production is a very large water user
in most countries. For example, irrigators abstract water from surface water or groundwater
or receive it from water suppliers, while rain-fed agriculture is a large direct user of water.

87 In SEEA-Water (see box 2.1), the economic activities primarily related to water, in the sense that they either
provide water or water-related services, are listed as ISIC, Rev. 4, 0161, 36, 37, 39, 4923, 4930 and 8412. For
analytical purposes, it is useful to collect and compile data for each of these industries, but in many cases data
may not be separately identified by industry; rather, they may be aggregated with other industries’ data.
88 See ISIC, Rev. 4, explanatory note for division 01. Available from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/
regcs.asp?Cl=27&Lg=1&Co=01.
38 International Recommendations for Water

Agriculture can also be a significant source of diffuse waterborne emissions, in particular

nitrogen and phosphorus.
3.49. Agriculture includes the class “support activities for crop production” (ISIC, Rev.
4, class 0161). This class includes the operation of agricultural irrigation systems but does
not include the provision of water (which activity belongs to ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 36) or any
construction involved in the provision of this service. It includes, for example, the operation
of spray or drip irrigation systems.

Mining
3.50. Mining (ISIC, Rev. 4, divs. 05-09)89 includes establishments engaged in the extrac-
tion of minerals occurring naturally as solids (coal and ores), liquids (petroleum) or gases
(natural gas) and also includes supplementary activities aimed at preparing the crude materi-
als for marketing, such as crushing, grinding, cleaning, drying, sorting, concentrating ores,
liquefaction of natural gas and agglomeration of solid fuels.
3.51. Mining industries may be significant water users and may also be significant sources
of water discharges and waterborne emissions (pollution). Water use by mining industries
includes abstracting water as a part of mine dewatering operations (i.e., removing water from
mines to make them passable by labour and equipment so that minerals can be recovered) or
the use of water in production processes (e.g., dust suppression and rock crushing). Water-
borne emissions (pollution) may be dissolved in water or suspended in water, making the
management of water around mine sites and mineral processing plants an important issue.
In some cases, in particular in the case of remote mining operations, the mining industry
may also supply water, as a secondary activity, to nearby towns for use in households or other
economic units or to facilities that accommodate mine workers.

Manufacturing
3.52. Manufacturing (ISIC, Rev. 4, divs. 10-33)90 includes establishments engaged in
the physical or chemical transformation of materials, substances or components into new
products, although this cannot be used as the single universal criterion for defining manu-
facturing. Units engaged in manufacturing are often described as plants, factories or mills
and characteristically use power-driven machines and materials-handling equipment. Units
that transform materials or substances into new products by hand or in the worker’s home
and those engaged in the selling to the general public of products made on the same premises
from which they are sold, such as bakeries and custom tailors, are also included.
3.53. The manufacturing industries use significant quantities of water in production pro-
cesses and for cooling. Manufacturing industries also usually account for a significant propor-
tion of the water discharged to sewerage industries (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 37) or the environment.
Since this water often contains waterborne emissions (pollution), many manufacturing estab-
lishments also have their own wastewater treatment facilities and hence produce sewerage
services (CPC, Ver. 2, 9410) as an ancillary activity. In some cases, these sewerage services are
also provided to other economic units and hence these establishments are producing sewerage
services as both a secondary activity and an ancillary activity.
3.54. Within the manufacturing industries, large water users typically include manufac-
turers of food products (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 10); beverages (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 11); textiles (ISIC,
Rev. 4, div. 13); leather and related products (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 15); paper and paper products
(ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 17); coke and refined petroleum products (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 19); chemicals

89 Ibid., explanatory note for sect. B. Available from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/regcs.asp?Cl=27&Lg=

­1&Co=B.
90 Ibid., explanatory note for sect. C. Available from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/regcs.asp?Cl=27&Lg=
1&Co=C.
 Statistical units and classifications 39

and chemical products (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 20); other non-metallic mineral products (ISIC,
Rev. 4, div. 23); basic metals (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 24); and fabricated metal products (except
machinery and equipment) (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 25).

Electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply

3.55. Electricity, gas, steam and air conditioning supply (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 35),91 the
“electricity industry” in IRWS), includes establishments engaged in the activity of providing
electric power, natural gas, steam, hot water and the like through a permanent infrastructure
(network) of lines, mains and pipes. Electricity generators use very large quantities of water
for hydroelectricity generation and for cooling in thermal electricity generation stations.
3.56. Hydroelectric power generation uses water pulled by gravity to pass through tur-
bines to generate electricity. Usually this water is directly abstracted by the power plant and
returned immediately to the environment or supplied to other units in the economy. It is
recommended that the units generating hydroelectricity be separately identified from other
types of electricity producers since the water used is in most cases returned to the environment
immediately after use. Generally, there are no waterborne emissions associated with water
returned after being used for hydroelectricity generation.92
3.57. A special feature of the economic units engaged in hydroelectric power genera-
tion is that they may produce two outputs—electricity and water. In most cases, where
these two outputs are produced, the value of the output of electricity (CPC, Ver. 2, 171) is
greater than that of the output of water (CPC, Ver. 2, 1800) and, thus, for the purposes of
national accounts, they are classified to ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 35 (because the principal output
is electricity). Again, where the units classified to ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 35 also supply water to
other economic units, which is often the case, then this is recorded as a secondary activity.
In national accounts, this is termed horizontal integration.93 In these cases, two establish-
ments are created from the one enterprise—one classified to ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 35, producing
electricity, and the other classified to ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 36, producing water. Creating two
establishments from one enterprise is often difficult because the factors of production are the
same, and assigning these factors of production to either water supply (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 36)
or electricity (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 35) may be arbitrary.

Water collection, treatment and supply industry and the sewerage industry
3.58. The water collection, treatment and supply industry (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 36), the
“water supply industry” in IRWS, includes establishments engaged in water collection, treat-
ment and distribution activities for household and industrial needs.94 The water supply indus-
try includes:
• Abstraction of water from surface water (e.g., from rivers, lakes) and groundwater (e.g.,
from wells, bores, springs)
• Collection of rain water
• Desalting of sea or groundwater to produce water as the principal product of interest
• Purification of water for water supply purposes
• Treatment of water for industrial and other purposes
• Distribution of water through mains, by trucks or by other means
• Operation of irrigation canals

91 Ibid., explanatory note for sect. D. Available from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/regcs.asp?Cl=27&Lg=

1&Co=D.
92 It is important to note that surface water quality can be affected by artificial reservoirs, including those used for
hydroelectricity generation, due to the change in water flows and other factors.
93 See 2008 SNA, para. 5.21.
94 See ISIC, Rev. 4, explanatory note for class 3600. Available from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/regcs.
asp?Cl=27&Lg=1&Co=3600.
40 International Recommendations for Water

3.59. The water collection, treatment and supply industry excludes:

• Operation or supply of irrigation equipment for agricultural purposes (ISIC, Rev. 4,
class 0161)
• Treatment of wastewater in order to prevent pollution (sewerage industry, ISIC, Rev.
4, div. 37)
• (Long-distance) transport of water via pipelines (ISIC, Rev. 4, class 4930)
3.60. The sewerage industry (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 37) receives large volumes of wastewater
with a range of waterborne physical, biological and chemical pollutants. The sewerage indus-
try (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 37) includes establishments engaged in the following activities:95
• Operation of sewer systems or sewer treatment facilities
• Collection and transportation of human or industrial wastewater from one or several
users, as well as rain water, by means of sewerage networks, collectors, tanks and other
means of transport (sewage vehicles, etc.)
• Emptying and cleaning of cesspools and septic tanks, sinks and pits from sewage and
servicing of chemical toilets
• Treatment of wastewater (including human and industrial wastewater, water from
swimming pools, etc.) by means of physical, chemical and biological processes
• Maintenance and cleaning of sewers and drains, including sewer rodding
3.61. In many countries, the activities of water supply and sewerage service industries
(ISIC, Rev. 4, divs. 36 and 37, respectively) are carried out within the same enterprise,
although often at different establishments. When possible, the establishments of these enter-
prises should be distinguished and allocated either to ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 36 or 37. This assists
in understanding the supply and use of water within the economy and will help in the analy-
sis of both the physical and monetary data items. This is usually possible since, unlike with
hydropower generation, it is not usually a case of horizontal integration because the factors of
production are usually separate (an exception is noted below). That is, the dams which collect
water and the pipes which distribute it are distinct from the pipes that collect wastewater and
deliver it to the wastewater treatment plants.
3.62. If it is not possible to split an enterprise involved in both water supply (ISIC, Rev. 4,
div. 36) and sewerage (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 37) into two establishments, then the enterprise will
need to be classified on the basis of the product that generates the greatest value added. If it is
water (CPC, Ver. 2, 1800) then it should be classified to ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 36, and sewerage
services (CPC, Ver. 2, 9410) would be a secondary activity. If the sewerage services produce
the greater value added, then the enterprise should be classified to ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 37, and
the water supply would be a secondary activity.
3.63. In some cases, wastewater treatment plants will also make water (with or without
treatment) available to other economic units for use. In this case, the factors of production of
water (CPC, Ver. 2, 1800) and sewerage services (CPC, Ver. 2, 9410) are the same and hence
it is a case of horizontal integration, and the collection and treatment (if any) of wastewater
results in another marketable product (i.e., water) being produced. In this case, as in the gen-
eration of hydroelectricity, it is difficult to separate the factors of production and hence the
establishment is classified on the basis of the product that generates the greatest value added.
3.64. An important point for water statistics and the classification of economic units to
industry is that in many countries Governments provide water (CPC, Ver. 2, 1800) or sewer-
age services (CPC, Ver. 2, 9410). However, these economic units are classified to an industry
on the basis of their productive activity, independently of their institutional sector, and thus
the government-run economic units providing water or sewerage services are classified to
water supply (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 36) and sewerage (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 37) industries, and not
to public administration, defence and compulsory social security (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 84).

95 Ibid., explanatory note for class 3700. Available from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/regcs.

asp?Cl=27&Lg=1&Co=3700.
 Statistical units and classifications 41

3.65. A related issue is the provision of water (CPC, Ver. 2, 1800) or sewerage services
(CPC, Ver. 2, 9410) by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) (e.g., for the benefit of house-
holds) or by cooperatives (e.g., an irrigation cooperative operated for the benefit of farmers).
Again, these establishments are classified to an industry on the basis of their productive activ-
ity, and if they are providing water (CPC, Ver. 2, 1800) or sewerage services (CPC, Ver. 2,
9410), then they should be classified to water supply (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 36) and sewerage (ISIC,
Rev. 4, div. 37) industries. Again, they are independently classified to an institutional sector.

Other industries
3.66. While the agriculture, electricity, water supply and sewerage industries are likely to
be the most important for most countries, other industries may be of significance for some
countries or for some users of water statistics, including:
• Forestry, fishing and aquaculture (ISIC, Rev. 4, divs. 02-03)
• Water transport (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 50)
• Accommodation (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 55)
• Food and beverage services (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 56)
• Sports activities and amusement and recreation activities (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 93)
3.67. Forestry and logging (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 02)96 includes establishments engaged in the
production of round wood for the forest-based manufacturing industries (ISIC, Rev. 4, divs.
16 and 17), as well as the extraction and gathering of wild growing non-wood forest products.
Besides the production of timber, forestry activities result in products that undergo little pro-
cessing, such as firewood, charcoal, woodchips and round wood used in an unprocessed form
(e.g., pit props, pulpwood). These activities can be carried out in natural or planted forests.
Economic units engaged in forestry will use water abstracted directly from the environment
or receive it from water suppliers (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 36). Where the forest industry is large or
makes a regionally significant contribution to the economy or impact on water (via abstrac-
tions or discharges), countries will need to distinguish between these units.
3.68. Fishing and aquaculture (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 03)97 includes capture fishery and aqua-
culture, covering the use of fish resources from marine, brackish or freshwater environments,
with the goal of capturing or gathering fish, crustaceans, molluscs and other marine organ-
isms and products. These activities, in particular freshwater fish farming, can use or pollute
significant amounts of water.
3.69. Water transport (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 50) includes inland water transport (ISIC, Rev.
4, group 502) and, for example, includes the units operating boats or barges on rivers and
lakes to transport goods and people. In general, this group does not abstract a significant
amount of water. However, this industry does use water “in situ” as the medium on which
the transport occurs and without using water in this way, the industry would not be able to
operate. In addition, this industry may also discharge water into the environment, and the
discharge of ballast water, for example, is an issue in some countries.
3.70. The use of water and the waterborne emissions by tourists is of particular interest in
some countries, such as places where there are large numbers of tourists but water is scarce.
Tourism is not defined as an industry in ISIC, Rev. 4, but is a collection of activities under-
taken by a range of establishments, classified to a large number of industries. The Australian
National Accounts Tourism Satellite Account for 2006-2007 98 provides guidance on the
definition of tourism and its relationship to industries. It is important to note that the con-

96 Ibid., explanatory note for division 02. Available from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/regcs.asp?Cl=

27&Lg=1&Co=02.
97 Ibid., explanatory note for division 03. Available from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/regcs.asp?Cl=
27&Lg=1&Co=03.
98 Australia Bureau of Statistics, Australian National Accounts, Tourism Satellite Account for 2006-07. Avail-
able from www.ausstats.abs.gov.au/ausstats/subscriber.nsf/0/C7681ACFEC530658CA25742D001621DA/$F
ile/52490_2006-07.pdf.
42 International Recommendations for Water

sistent coding of economic units to industry (and sector) and a clear understanding of the
principal, secondary and ancillary activities of the units enable the data from economic units
to be arranged in a variety of ways for a range of purposes, including national accounts, water
accounts and tourism satellite accounts. Where tourism is of particular policy interest, the
identification of units in the industries of accommodation (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 55)99 and food
and beverage services (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 56)100 may be important.
3.71. Sports activities and amusement and recreation activities (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 93)101
include the classes 9311 (operation of sports facilities) and 9329 (other amusement and recrea-
tion activities). These classes cover such activities as the operation of football, hockey, cricket
and baseball stadiums, swimming pools, golf courses or ski slopes. The operation and main-
tenance of the facilities needed for these activities can require significant volumes of water.

4. Classification of unit by institutional sectors

3.72. Information on institutional sectors is included here because there is sometimes con-
fusion in the classification of government-owned establishments supplying water or sewerage
services. Classification of establishments to industry is on the basis of activity, whereas classifica-
tion to sector is based on ownership and the type of legal identity. Therefore, government-owned
and -operated establishments that supply water or sewerage services will have the institutional
sector of government but will be classified by economic activity as belonging to the water sup-
ply (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 36) industry or sewerage (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 37) industry, respectively.
In activity-based classifications, government-owned units supplying water or sewerage services
should not be classified to public administration and defence (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 84).

E. Characteristics of statistical units

3.73. Statistical units may be characterized by a number of descriptive data items that help
to uniquely identify them and facilitate the process of producing water statistics, in particular
the survey design and sample weighting for estimation. The recommended characteristics of
the statistical units of inland water resources and the economy are presented below. These
characteristics should be recorded in the different registers of the statistical units. For more
information on business registers or maps of environmental units, see chapter VI, section G.

1. Characteristics of inland water resources (bodies)

3.74. Inland water bodies are recommended to be characterized by six descriptive data
items, as set out in table III.1. Additional characteristics may be added for particular water
resources (for example, aquifers may be divided into confined and non-confined).
Table III.1
Characteristics of inland water bodies relevant to water statistics

1. Name
2. Identification code
3. Location
4. Type of water body
5. Organization(s) responsible for management
6. Physical characteristics

99  See ISIC Rev. 4, div. 55. Available from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/regcs.asp?Cl=27&Lg=1&Co=55.

100 Ibid., http://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/regcs.asp?Cl=27&Lg=1&Co=56.
101 Ibid., http://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/regcs.asp?Cl=27&Lg=1&Co=93.
 Statistical units and classifications 43

3.75. It is usual for lakes, rivers, wetlands, artificial reservoirs, glaciers and groundwater
resources to be given a name, for example, Lake Baikal (Russian Federation), the Amazon
(Brazil), Lake Kariba (Zambia and Zimbabwe), Malaspina Glacier (United States of America)
and the Great Artesian Basin (Australia). In some cases, the name also accurately describes
the type of water resource, as is the case with Lake Baikal and the Malaspina Glacier in the
examples given above. However, this is not always true; for example, Lake Kariba is an arti-
ficial reservoir.
3.76. An identification code is a unique number assigned to each inland water resource.
This may comprise of digits identifying its geographic location, type, management or physical
characteristics. The unique identification of the inland water resources is useful for:
• Identifying and organizing the complete population of inland water resources, which
can, for example, be used as a sampling frame
• Assisting in the compilation of information about these units from a range of data
sources (see chap. VI)
• Providing a population for sampling for statistical surveys to collect hydrological data
3.77. Identification codes should not change as long as the water resource (i.e., statisti-
cal unit) exists, even if some of the statistical unit’s other characteristics change. Common
identification codes, shared with hydrological institutions and other water research-related
agencies, administrative authorities and other government departments greatly facilitate sta-
tistical work, for example, ensuring that shared data can be readily attributed to the correct
water resource (e.g., river, artificial reservoir, lake, aquifer).
3.78. The location of the water resources should ideally be recorded as a shape file readable
by a geographic information system (GIS), such as a line or polygon for a river and polygons
for lakes, artificial reservoirs and aquifers. The location can also be recorded as occurring
within a particular river basin or administrative area. The geographic centre (or centroid)
could be used for lakes and artificial reservoirs but is less meaningful for rivers. This infor-
mation may be available in GIS from agencies responsible for hydrology, and may include
elevation, depending on what the information is being used for.
3.79. The type of water body is allocated according to the classification provided in sec-
tion B: artificial reservoirs; lakes; rivers; wetlands; snow, ice and glaciers; and aquifers. In
many countries, there may be a further subdivision of these units. For example, rivers may
be subdivided into stretches or segments or may be classified on the basis of the amount
of water flowing through them over a particular period of time, while artificial reservoirs
may be classified by their storage capacity, and groundwater by the nature of the aquifer
(confined or unconfined). Some of these can be recorded in the physical characteristics of
these units.
3.80. The organization(s) responsible for managing the water resource is an economic
unit (or units) such as the Department of the Environment or a local government agency.
The characteristics of these units, as outlined in section 2 on economic units, should also
be recorded. This is important because it is from these units that information about the
water resources may be collected (e.g., via survey or administrative means). In cases where
more than one economic unit has responsibility for the management of a particular water
resource, it is useful to identify the organization with principal responsibility for manage-
ment and to note the roles of the other economic units.
3.81. The physical characteristics of inland water bodies include a range of data, some of
which are described in the data items presented in chapter IV. However, it is useful to record
some additional characteristics, such as the length, width and depth of artificial reservoirs,
lakes and rivers. It should be noted that the physical characteristics may vary over time and
that it may be useful to record ranges for particular characteristics (e.g., maximum, mini-
mum, average). The characteristics should also include the location of the unit.
44 International Recommendations for Water

2. Characteristics of economic units

3.82. Table III.2 lists the six characteristics recommended for recording economic units,
which usually equate to reporting units, in the IRIS. The text below elaborates IRIS in the
context of water statistics.
Table III.2
Characteristics of economic units

a  For water statistics, this should in-

clude the river basin in which the unit
1. Identification code
is located in addition to geographic 2. Locationa
coordinates.
3. Industry
b  For water statistics, this should
include an indication of the volume of 4. Type of economic organization
water abstracted from the envi- 5. Type of legal organization
ronment or the water supplied by
economic units. 6. Sizeb

3.83. The identification code is a unique number assigned to an economic unit, which may
comprise digits identifying its geographic location, industry, etc. The unique identification of
economic units is necessary in order to:
• Allow their registration in the statistical business register or inclusion in sampling
frames
• Permit the collection of information about them via administrative sources
• Provide a population for sampling for statistical surveys
• Permit demographic analysis of the population of units
3.84. Identification codes must not change throughout the life of the unit, although some
of the other unit’s characteristics may change.
3.85. Common identification codes shared with administrative authorities and other
government departments greatly facilitate statistical work, including the connection of the
statistical business registers, if established, with other registers.
3.86. The location is defined as the place at which the unit is physically performing its
activities. For economic and social-demographic statistics, this is usually recorded as an
address (e.g., 134 Second Street, Metropolis). It should be noted that this is not the mailing
address but the physical location of the establishment. The location can also be recorded as
geographic coordinates (i.e., a geo-code) and this is particularly important for water statistics.
The geo-code should be the latitude and longitude of the unit but may also be recorded as
within the bounds of a particular administrative area or river basin.
3.87. The location characteristic serves two important purposes: first, to identify the units
and to classify them by geographical regions at the most detailed level, as demanded by the
statistical programme; second, if a unit operates in more than one location, to allocate its
economic activity to the location in which it actually takes place. The latter is important
for measuring regional water use and regional economic analyses. Since the classification of
units by location is of particular national interest, any geographical classification should dis-
tinguish the major river basins, economic regions or administrative divisions of the country,
ranging from large areas (states or provinces) to intermediate areas to local areas (e.g., cities
and towns).
3.88. The details about mailing address, telephone and fax numbers, e-mail address and
contact person(s) are also important identification data items since those details are used for
mailing the statistical questionnaires, written communication with the unit or making ad
hoc queries about its activity. Up-to-date information about any changes in those data items
is crucial for the efficient work of statistical authorities.
 Statistical units and classifications 45

3.89. The location in the case of multi-establishment enterprises presents a special case.
Where an enterprise has only one establishment, it may or may not have one location and
address. Often, the enterprise address is used for administrative purposes and the establish-
ment address for statistical purposes. However, there is need for care when dealing with large
complex enterprises. It is recommended that multi-establishment enterprises be requested
to provide location details about each establishment they have, otherwise the establishment
may be asked about the name and location of the enterprise that owns it so that a data set in
the register on the enterprise and its own component establishments can be established. In
some cases, it may be necessary to correspond with both the establishment and the enterprise,
because in general the unit supplying information on water use, for example, may be different
from the establishment providing financial details.
3.90. For water statistics, it is useful to record, in addition, the location of places where
and from which water resource (e.g., surface or groundwater) economic units extract water
from the environment and where water is discharged back into the environment. For example,
an economic unit may extract water from a well (i.e., groundwater) for productive activities
and discharge water to a river (i.e., surface water). This can be especially important for large
agricultural operations, which may extract water from a number of sources over a wide area,
possibly spanning river basins and administrative areas.
3.91. The industry (or “kind of activity” in IRIS) of an establishment is defined by the
economic activities in which it is engaged and is classified according to ISIC, Rev. 4. Know-
ing the industry of an establishment provides the first insight into the types of water use that
might be occurring within an establishment. For example, establishments engaged in agri-
culture (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 01) may use water for irrigation, while an establishment engaged
in electricity generation (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 35) may use water for hydroelectricity generation
or cooling in the case of thermal electricity generation.
3.92. The characteristic “type of economic organization” is intended to indicate whether
the establishment is “the sole establishment” of the enterprise of immediate ownership or
part of a “multi-establishment enterprise”. If further details are required on this aspect of
the structure, the multi-establishment enterprises might be divided into classes according to
the number of their constituent establishments or by the criteria used for classifying estab-
lishments (employment, value added, etc.) that are most appropriate for each country. For
the purpose of accurate measurement of production and all other flows in the economy, it
is desirable to have the links between individual establishments and their parent enterprise
clearly defined.
3.93. The kind of “legal organization” is another important characteristic of economic
units and is a possible criterion for stratification of units for the purpose of statistical surveys.
The kind of legal organization is the legal form of the economic entity which owns the unit
(either the enterprise or the establishment). Further breakdowns of incorporated units by
“incorporated enterprises” (corporations), except limited liability partnerships and coopera-
tives, “limited liability partnerships” and “cooperatives” and “non-profit institutions”, and of
unincorporated units by sole proprietors and partnerships not recognized as independent legal
entities, may also be of interest. For more information on these categories and subcategories,
see IRIS. This information can be used to determine the institutional sector of the unit.
3.94. Size is an important characteristic of economic units, which is essential for the design
of statistical surveys and grossing up techniques (also called sample weighting). In general, the
size classes of economic units can be defined either in terms of physical units (e.g., employ-
ment or physical units of output) or in monetary terms (e.g., turnover or value of net assets).
Monetary criteria can be used separately or in conjunction with employment criterion. For
industry statistics, size is often based on the average number of persons employed because of
its simplicity, general applicability, usefulness and international comparability. IRIS provides
further guidance on the classification of economic units by size.
 3.95. For water statistics, size as measured by number of employees or turnover may not be
closely correlated with size in terms of total water use, including abstraction for own use and
use of water from other economic units, water supplied and total discharges. It is therefore
important for sample design and grossing up techniques to record the level of water use (both
that abstracted from the environment or received from other economic units) as an additional
size characteristic of economic units.
 47

Chapter IV
Water data items

A. Introduction
4.1. Chapter IV provides a comprehensive list of data items and their definitions recom-
mended for collection, compilation and dissemination of water statistics and accounts. The
data items are presented as part of a hierarchical classification and constitute the basic build-
ing blocks of water statistics. The data items can be used to produce national water statistics
for different purposes; populate the standard tables of SEEA-Water; respond to international
water questionnaires; and derive water indicators commonly used for national policymaking
and by international agencies for monitoring and assessment.
4.2. Producers of water statistics are encouraged to use the recommended data items for
developing basic water information. Depending on user needs, further disaggregation of the
recommended data items and additional data items may be necessary to meet specific require-
ments. A longer and more detailed list of these supplementary data items, which complements
the hierarchical classification of the recommended data items, is presented in annex II.
4.3. The lists of data items in the present chapter and in annexes I and II are based on an
assessment of existing country practices, user needs and the water statistics classifications in
use by international agencies. Using these data items will ensure coherence of concepts and
definitions, geographical areas and environmental domains. It is important, however, that
countries prioritize data items for collection and compilation according to their own data
needs (for more information on data-collection strategy, see chap. V).
4.4. The recommended data items are grouped under the main headings of physical,
monetary and social-demographic data items. Physical data items are listed under the follow-
ing subheadings:
• Stocks of water in the environment (data items A)
• Flows of water within the environment (data items B-D)
• Flows of water from the environment to the economy (data items E)
• Flows of water within the economy (data items F-G)
• Flows of water from the economy to the environment (data items H)
• Losses of water from distribution networks and sewerage systems (data items I)
• Flows of waterborne emissions (data items J-K)
4.5. Monetary data items are listed under the following subheadings:
• Value and costs of water and sewerage services (data items L)
• Taxes, subsidies and investment grants (data items M-N)
• Assets and investments (data items O-Q)
• Tariffs and charges for water supply and sewerage (data items R)
4.6. Social-demographic data items102 are listed under the following subheadings:
• Main source of drinking water used by population (data items S)
• Main type of toilet and sewage disposal used by population (data items T)

102 The social-demographic data items in this list are used to compile MDG indicators.
48 International Recommendations for Water

4.7. Each data item has an individual alphanumeric code. The first part of the code is a
capital letter that indicates the highest level of aggregation of the data item, which in most
cases is the sum of the subsequent breakdowns. In some cases, an alternative breakdown of
the primary data item is used; in those cases, the alternative secondary level is shown with a
lower-case letter of the alphabet (e.g., A.a, A.b, A.c). In the case of the alternative breakdowns,
the sum is still the same (A).
4.8. The same codes are used in annex I, which provides the full list of recommended
data items in a single table, and in annexes III and IV, which demonstrate the relationship
between the data items and the SEEA-Water standard tables and water indicators, respectively.
In Annex III, the codes are presented in the corresponding cells of the SEEA-Water standard
tables. Annex IV presents the water indicators used in the WWDR, along with formulas in
which the data items are denoted by their codes.

B. Collection and compilation of data items

4.9. It is important to ensure that the units of measurement, the relevant spatial and
temporal references and the characteristics of statistical units are recorded with the data
items. Those issues are addressed in detail in chapters II, III and VI but are briefly summa-
rized here. By recording this information, data items can be better aligned in terms of spatial
and temporal references and can be presented in a number of different ways, at different
levels of aggregation.

1. Units of measurement
4.10. The units of measurement depend on the data item. In general, for physical data
items, cubic metres (m3) are used, except for the waterborne emissions, which use measures
of mass (grams, kilograms, tonnes) or measured physical properties (e.g., chemical oxygen
demand (COD)) of emissions. For the collection of primary data, other units of measure
may also be used, such as units typically used by farmers to measure abstraction, but for the
purposes of presenting data and for comparison, it is important to convert data into standard
scientific measurement units (i.e., the metric system). Lists of units and conversion factors are
provided in annex VI.
4.11. For monetary data items, local currency is used. The unit of measurement for social-
demographic data items is the number of people or households belonging to defined groups.

2. Spatial and temporal (time) references

4.12. Data items can be collected with reference to a number of different spatial and
temporal levels. Ideally, the statistical units to which data items refer should include a spe-
cific geographic reference, allowing compilation of the data items at a number of geographic
levels. Data items should be compiled, at a minimum, at the national level. Countries are
also encouraged to compile data items at the level of river basins, aquifers (or groundwater
system boundaries), administrative areas or accounting catchments, to facilitate the transna-
tional and intranational spatial analysis of water information. This is particularly important
for international or transboundary water resources. Additional details on spatial references
are discussed in chapter II. Geographic information systems (GIS) are especially useful for
managing and compiling water data items at different spatial levels.
4.13. For temporal references, data items will refer to either a point in time (in the case
of stocks) or a period of time (in the case of flows). For stocks, the point in time may be
the first day of the year, while for flows the time period is typically one year, although
 Water data items 49

shorter time periods may be available or useful for many data items (e.g., daily data on
precipitation). For the purposes of SEEA-Water, the temporal reference should coincide
with the periods used in the national accounts to facilitate the integration of the physi-
cal and monetary data items. Additional details on temporal references are discussed in
chapter II.

3. Industry classification
4.14. As described in chapter III, it is important to record the principal economic activity
of the economic unit so that all data items can be disaggregated by industry. All economic
units should be classified at least to the division (i.e., two-digit) level of ISIC, Rev. 4, to ensure
that data items are disaggregated at this level.
4.15. The quality of data may not always support this level of disaggregation. Therefore,
the minimum level of disaggregation of data items should be in line with SEEA-Water stand-
ard tables, which identify the following:
• Agriculture, forestry and fishing (ISIC 01-03)
• Mining, manufacturing and construction (ISIC 05-33, 41-43)
• Electricity supply (ISIC 35)
• Water supply (ISIC 36)
• Sewerage (ISIC 37)
• All other industries (ISIC 38, 39, 45-99)
• Households
4.16. As noted in chapter III, in some countries it may also be important to identify addi-
tional industries or to further disaggregate the above-mentioned industries to meet national
data needs.

4. Prioritization of data items for collection and compilation

4.17. It is important to prioritize data items for the optimal allocation of resources avail-
able for their collection and compilation; however, priorities will differ for each region,
country and river basin. The prioritization of data items is addressed in chapter V on data-
collection strategies.

C. Physical water data items

1. Stocks of water in the environment
4.18. Inland water stocks (A) are the volumes (cubic metres) of water contained in surface
water stocks, groundwater stocks and soil water at a particular point in time. They include
freshwater, brackish and saline waters.
4.19. Inland water stocks (A) include water of all types of quality. In some cases, brack-
ish and saline inland water are used in significant quantities for production and consump-
tion activities, such as for desalination, cooling or irrigation of salt-resistant crops. Coun-
tries may disaggregate inland waters into classes based on salinity level or other aspects of
water quality.
4.20. The distinction between inland waters contained in different water bodies may not
always be precise. For example, it may be difficult to make the distinction between what is
a lake or an artificial reservoir, or where a river ends and a lake begins. When the separation
between two water bodies is not possible, a category combining the two water bodies may be
used for compiling statistics. It is important to remember that data items represent an exclu-
sive categorization. For example, a water body can either be a lake or an artificial reservoir
but not both a lake and an artificial reservoir.
50 International Recommendations for Water

Table IV.1
Physical data items for inland water stocks

A. Inland water stocks

A.1. Surface water stocks
A.1.1. In artificial reservoirs
A.1.2. In lakes
A.1.3. In rivers and streams
A.1.4. In wetlands
A.1.5. In snow, ice and glaciers
A.2. Groundwater stocks

Surface water stock (A.1)

4.21. Surface water stock (A.1) is the volume of water that flows over or rests on the
ground’s surface at a particular point in time. This includes water contained in artificial
reservoirs (A.1.1), which are man-made surface water bodies used for storage, regulation and
control of water; lakes (A.1.2), which are, in general, large bodies of standing water occupying
a depression in the Earth’s surface; rivers and streams (A.1.3), which are bodies of water flow-
ing continuously or periodically in channels; wetlands (A.1.4), which are transitional areas
where soils are frequently saturated or flooded and include swamps, marshes, playas and bogs;
and snow, ice and glaciers (A.1.5) which include seasonal layers of snow and ice on the ground
surface. Glaciers are accumulations of ice of atmospheric origin that are frozen and gener-
ally move slowly over land, over long periods. Snow, ice and glaciers (A.1.5) are measured in
water equivalent. Surface water also includes water contained in artificial watercourses, such
as canals for irrigation, drainage or navigation. These are included under rivers and streams
(A.1.3.), although countries may choose to identify them separately.
4.22. While lakes (A.1.2) are generally considered to be large bodies of standing water,
they also include smaller water bodies, such as ponds and lagoons. Countries may choose to
separately identify large and small lakes.
4.23. In the case of rivers and streams (A.1.3), stocks of water (i.e., the volume of water at
a particular point in time) are usually very small as a percentage of the total stocks of inland
waters (for a description of stocks, see chap. II, paras. 2.38-2.41), and it is generally not prac-
tical to measure them directly. These volumes are usually estimated and the estimated data
are usually sufficient for water statistics.

Groundwater stock (A.2)

4.24. Groundwater stock (A.2) is the volume of water at a particular point in time which
has collected in porous and permeable underground layers, known as aquifers, that can yield
significant quantities of water to wells and springs. An aquifer may be unconfined, when it
has a water table and an unsaturated zone immediately above the water table,103 or it may be
confined, when it is between two layers of impermeable or nearly impermeable material.
4.25. The concept of confined and unconfined aquifers is distinct and separate from the
concept of renewable and non-renewable aquifers. Groundwater abstracted from confined
and unconfined aquifers can be either renewable or non-renewable.
4.26. Countries may choose to disaggregate groundwater into renewable and non-
renewable groundwater and those divisions are included in the supplementary list of data

103 The top of an unconfined aquifer is defined by the water table.

 Water data items 51

items (see annex II). Renewable groundwater is the volume of water held in aquifers that
receive significant natural recharge relative to the stock of groundwater held in the aqui-
fer (i.e., storage) over a human lifespan. While the definition of renewable groundwater
requires that the recharge be natural, it should be noted that renewable groundwater may
also receive flows from artificial recharge and saltwater intrusion, which are excluded from
natural recharge. Non-renewable groundwater is water held in aquifers that have negligible
rates of recharge over a human lifespan, relative to the stock held in the aquifer104 (i.e.,
storage). Such aquifers do not receive natural recharge over a human lifespan but may be
artificially recharged or be subject to saltwater intrusion. Non-renewable groundwater is
sometimes called fossil groundwater.
4.27. Natural recharge is the volume of water added by natural transfer (see table IV.3)
to an aquifer by infiltration of surface water, precipitation or infiltration from one aquifer to
another. There is a distinction between net recharge and gross recharge. Gross recharge is the
quantity of water entering an aquifer. Net recharge is the change in water in the aquifer, i.e.,
gross recharge less abstraction and outflows. Recharge of freshwater aquifers with naturally
brackish or saline water is referred to as saltwater intrusion, and is often induced by abstrac-
tion from coastal aquifers connected to the sea. Recharge may also be artificial, whereby water
is deliberately infiltrated or pumped into an aquifer.
4.28. In some territories, the rate of recharge is highly variable, with long intervals between
recharge. If an aquifer is not likely to receive significant recharge over a human lifespan
relative to the stock of groundwater held in the aquifer, then it should be considered non-
renewable. Determining recharge rates and hence making the distinction between renewable
and non-renewable is problematic in many instances.

Soil water
4.29. Soil water stocks (i.e., soil water storage) is the volume of water suspended in the
uppermost belt of soil or in the zone of aeration near the ground surface that can be dis-
charged into the atmosphere by evaporation or taken up by the roots of plants and transpired.
Soil water is not included in the recommended list of data items because it is very difficult to
measure. It is included, however, in the supplementary list of data items. In countries where
there is a consistent and regular hydrological year with a distinct dry period, the stock of soil
water at the end of the hydrological year is negligible in comparison to groundwater or surface
water. While soil water can be distinguished from groundwater and surface water in theory,
at present it is difficult to measure it directly in a cost-effective way.105 When necessary, it is
estimated indirectly using a variety of data.

2. Flows of water within the environment

4.30. The flows of water in the environment that are within the scope of IRWS are the
volume of water that flows into and out of the inland water resources of the territory of refer-
ence, as well as the flows between the inland water resources within the territory of reference.
Most of the flows should be disaggregated by the type of inland water resource, namely,
surface water; artificial reservoirs; lakes; rivers and streams; wetlands; snow, ice and glaciers;
and groundwater.

104 The criteria used by FAO for whether groundwater is considered renewable is to have recharge equal to 1 per
cent or more of the stock (i.e., storage) per year (see “fossil groundwater”, FAO Aquastat Glossary). Available from
http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data/glossary/search.html (accessed 22 September 2009). Since it is very
difficult to estimate recharge, it is difficult to apply any such definition in practice.
105 There are efforts to measure soil moisture across large areas using remote sensing, including, for example, the
European Space Agency’s water mission and the Soil Moisture Ocean Salinity (SMOS) satellite. Available from
http://www.esa.int/esaLP/LPsmos.html (accessed 16 December 2009).
52 International Recommendations for Water

Figure IV.1
Flows of water in the environment

B.1. Precipitation C.1. Evapotranspiration

Territory
D.3. D.4.
D.2.
A.1. Surface water A.2. Groundwater
A.1. Artificial resevroirs
D.1.
A.1.2. Lakes
B.2. Inflow from A.1.3. Rivers
neighbouring A.1.4. Wetlands C.2.1. Outflow to
territories A.1.5. Snow, ice and glaciers neighbouring
territories

Soil water

C.2.2. Outflow to the sea

Inflow of water to a territory’s inland water resources (B)

4.31. Inflow of water to a territory’s inland water resources (B) consists of precipitation
(B.1) and inflows from neighbouring territories (B.2). Inflow excludes water and sewage
imported from the rest of the world by resident economic units, which are recorded as data
items under F and G.

Precipitation (B.1)
4.32. Precipitation (B.1) is the volume of water that flows from the atmosphere to inland
water resources via rain, snow, sleet, hail, dew, mist, etc. Precipitation falls onto land and
water surfaces. It is desirable to compile data on precipitation at different spatial levels, in
particular subnational data for administrative areas and river basins. It is also useful to iden-
tify separately precipitation falling on land used for non-irrigated agriculture, irrigated agri-
culture, commercial forestry and urban areas. Compilation of precipitation data at different
spatial levels is important for calculations of run-off, use of soil water (e.g., by rain-fed agri-
culture), the forecasting of groundwater recharge and the compilation of water accounts.

Inflow of water from neighbouring territories (B.2)

4.33. Inflow from neighbouring territories (B.2) is the volume of surface water and
groundwater that moves into a territory from other territories. This includes all water cross-
ing into a territory and a portion of the water moving into artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers or
aquifers that lie along the territory’s border. For example, in the case of a river that enters a
territory, the inflow is the total volume of water that moves (i.e., flows) across the border into
the territory during a year. If a river borders two countries without eventually entering either
of them, each country could claim a percentage of the flow to be attributed to their territory
(see figure IV.2). If no formal agreement exists between territories, a practical solution is to
attribute half (50 per cent) of the flow to each country. Consideration has to be made of any
water treaties when calculating the inflow of water. Inflow from neighbouring territories
consists of the inflow secured through treaties (B.2.1), and the inflow not secured through
treaties (B.2.2). This distinction makes it possible to show the volume of water that a territory
can expect to receive from neighbouring territories in normal circumstances. Inflow from
neighbouring territories excludes imported water and sewage (data items under F and G.),
since these are flows between the rest of the world economy and resident economic units.
 Water data items 53

Table IV.2
Physical data items for flows into and out of the territory

B. Inflow of water to a territory’s inland water resources

B.1. Precipitation
B.2. Inflow of water from neighbouring territories
B.2.1. Secured through treaties
B.2.2. Not secured through treaties
C. Outflow of water from a territory’s inland water resources
C.1. Evapotranspiration from inland water resources
C.1.1. Evaporation
C.1.2. Transpiration from plants
C.2. Outflow of water to neighbouring territories and the sea
C.2.1. To neighbouring territories
C.2.1.1. Secured by treaties
C.2.1.2. Not secured by treaties
C.2.2. To the sea

Outflow of water from a territory’s inland water resources (C)

4.34. The outflow of water from a territory’s inland water resources (C) consists of
evapotranspiration of water from inland water resources (C.1) and the outflow of water to
neighbouring territories and the sea (C.2). Outflow of water from a territory’s inland water
resources excludes exported water and sewage (data items under F and G) as these are flows
between resident economic units and the rest of the world, after being abstracted from the
environment.

Evapotranspiration of water from inland water resources (C.1)

4.35. Evapotranspiration of water from inland water resources (C.1) is the volume of water
that enters the atmosphere by vaporization of water into a gas through evaporation from land
and water surfaces (C.1.1) and transpiration from plants (C.1.2).
4.36. Water statistics use actual evapotranspiration, which represents the amount of water
that evaporates from land and water surfaces, as well as that which is transpired by vegeta-
tion/plants when the ground is at its natural moisture content as determined by precipitation.
Potential evaporation is a different concept and represents the amount of water that would be
evaporated if there was unlimited water. Potential evaporation from an open water surface is
sometimes called pan evaporation, because it is measured by recording the volume of water
evaporated from a pan of water that is replenished regularly. Potential evaporation is not one
of the recommended data items.
4.37. Evaporation of water (C.1.1) is the volume of water that enters the atmosphere by
vaporization of liquid and solid water to a gas from water and land surfaces. This includes
sublimation, which is water that is transformed from ice, snow or part of a glacier directly
to water vapour without going through a liquid phase, i.e., without melting. Evaporation
of water (C.1.1) consists of water that evaporates directly from surface water and water that
evaporates from soil water.
4.38. Transpiration of water from plants (C.1.2) is the volume of water that enters the
atmosphere by vaporization of liquid water to a gas from plant surfaces when the ground
is at its natural moisture content, as determined by precipitation. If data are available, then
transpiration from animals and people can be recorded as supplementary data item C.1.3.
54 International Recommendations for Water

Outflow of water to neighbouring territories and the sea (C.2)

4.39. Outflow of water to neighbouring territories and the sea (C.2) is the volume of
surface water and groundwater that moves from a territory’s inland water resources to other
territories (C.2.1) and the sea (C.2.2). This includes all water flowing out of a territory or land
area and a portion of the water flowing out of artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers or aquifers that
lie along the territory’s border. For example, in the case of a river that exits a territory, the
outflow is the total volume of water that moves (i.e., flows) across the border and out of the
territory during one year. If a river borders two territories without fully entering either terri-
tory, each country could claim a percentage of the outflow to be attributed to its territory. If
no formal agreement exists between such territories, a practical solution would be to attribute
half of the flow to each country.
4.40. Outflow to neighbouring territories (C.2.1) is the volume of surface water and
groundwater that flows from within a territory to another territory or territories. This includes
water flowing out of artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers or aquifers that lie along the territory’s
border (see figure IV.2). Outflow to neighbouring territories consists of the outflow secured to
neighbouring territories secured by treaties (C.2.1.1) and the outflow not secured by treaties
(C.2.1.2). This distinction makes it possible to show the volume of water that countries can
expect to make available to other countries in normal circumstances.
4.41. Outflow to the sea (C.2.2) is the volume of surface water and groundwater that
moves from a territory’s inland water resources into sea(s) and ocean(s).

Figure IV.2
Example of shared surface water resources

A.1.3. River
C.2.1 Outflow to Country WW
Country
neighbouring
territories

Country X X
Country B.2. Inflow from
Country Y
Shared inflow
neighbouring
Shared water resources territories
Shared water resources are
inland water resources that
A.1.2. Lake
either cross territorial borders Shared Lake
or lie between territories along
territorial borders. Shared
resources may include formal
Country Y
agreements between A.1.3. River
countries for certain minimum
Shared River
outflows to be guaranteed
(e.g., by treaty) to neighbour-
ing territories. Shared water C.2.1 Outflow to
resources may include surface neighbouring
water and groundwater territories
resources. Shared Outflow
B.2. Inflow from
neighbouring territories Country Z

Natural transfers of water (D)

4.42. The natural transfer of water (D) is the volume of water that moves between inland water
resources of a territory. There are a number of natural transfers that are possible between inland
water resources (table IV.3). For example, surface water infiltrates into aquifers and groundwater
emerges from aquifers and springs to form surface water (i.e., baseflow). Natural transfers are
often presented as a matrix (table IV.4). Transfers between the different surface water resources
(i.e., artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers and snow, ice and glaciers) can also be described.
 Water data items 55

Table IV.3
Natural transfers of water between inland water resources

D. Natural transfers with other resources in the territory

D.1. From surface water to groundwater
D.2. From groundwater to surface water
D.3. Between surface water resources
D.4. Between groundwater resources

4.43. It is difficult to collect these data items directly and in practice such information
is often derived from a variety of other data. These data items are important owing to the
interconnected nature of water resources; understanding such connections, in particular the
flows between surface water and groundwater, provides important support for the manage-
ment of connected water resources. There are also flows to and from soil water but these are
not included in the recommended data items.
Table IV.4
Types of natural transfers of water between inland water resources

To surface water To groundwater To soil water

From surface water D.3 D.1
From groundwater D.2 D.4
From soil water NA
Note: NA = not applicable; shaded area indicates that data on flow are difficult and/or not necessary to collect.

3. Flows of water from the environment to the economy

4.44. Flows from the environment to the economy include abstraction of water by eco-
nomic units from all sources measured in units of cubic metres.
Table IV.5
Physical data items for flows from the environment to the economy

E. Abstraction of water
E.1. From inland water resources
E.1.1. From surface water
E.1.1.1. From artificial reservoirs
E.1.1.2. From lakes
E.1.1.3. From rivers
E.1.1.4. From wetlands
E.1.1.5. From snow, ice and glaciers
E.1.2. From groundwater
E.1.3. From soil water
E.2. Collection of precipitation
E.3. Abstraction from the sea
Alternative breakdown
E.a. For own use
E.b. For distribution
56 International Recommendations for Water

Abstraction of water (E)

4.45. Abstraction of water (E) is the volume of water that is removed or collected by eco-
nomic units directly from the environment. The abstraction of water is disaggregated by the
source of water: inland water resources (E.1), collection of precipitation (E.2) and abstraction
of water from the sea (E.3). Brackish and saline water abstracted for desalinization, cooling or
other purposes from the sea, inland surface water or groundwater are recorded as abstraction
from the sea (E.3), abstraction of water from surface water (E.1.1) and abstraction of water
from groundwater (E.1.2), respectively. In some cases, it may be useful to disaggregate the
water sources by salinity class. The volume of water abstracted may also be disaggregated by
the purpose for which it is used. Examples of uses are included as supplementary data items
(E.a and b).
4.46. In addition to disaggregating by source of water, abstraction can be disaggregated by
the type of use, for example, for own use or for distribution. Further possible disaggregating of
own use is by purpose: hydroelectricity generation, irrigation, mining, urban run-off, cooling,
etc. (see annex II). Water used for hydroelectric power generation is considered an abstraction
of water and should be separately identified by the disaggregation of the electricity industry
(ISIC 35). In many cases, water abstracted for hydroelectric power generation is returned to
the same water body and then abstracted for hydroelectricity generation again downstream. In
some cases, the same water is used many times at different places in a river, e.g., in the Danube.
4.47. The water supply (ISIC 36), sewerage (ISIC 37) and agricultural (ISIC 03) indus-
tries are usually the most important industries for this group of data items. The water supply
industry (ISIC 36) is usually the main supplier of water to industries and households. Agri-
culture usually accounts for the largest volume of abstraction. In countries with significant
hydropower operations, the electricity industry (ISIC 35) is also an industry of importance.
The sewerage industry (ISIC 37) is responsible for the management of urban run-off. For
more details on these industries, see chapter III.

Abstraction of water from inland water resources (E.1)

4.48. Abstraction of water from inland water resources (E.1) is the volume of water that
is removed by economic units from surface water (E.1.1), groundwater (E.1.2) and soil water
(E.1.3). Abstraction of water from inland water resources excludes abstraction of water from
the sea or ocean because these are not inland water resources.
4.49. Abstraction of water from surface water (E.1.1) is the volume of water removed by
economic units from artificial reservoirs (E.1.1.1), lakes (E.1.1.2), rivers (E.1.1.3), wetlands
(E.1.1.4) and snow, ice and glaciers (E.1.1.5). Bank filtration106 is considered an abstraction of
surface water. The water supply and agricultural industries are the main industries of interest
for these data items.
4.50. Abstraction of water from groundwater (E.1.2) is the volume of water removed by
economic units from aquifers and springs. Abstraction of groundwater may be further disag-
gregated by abstraction from renewable and non-renewable groundwater. Water is usually
abstracted from aquifers via boreholes, dug wells107 or natural springs. Brackish and saline
water may also be abstracted from aquifers. By convention, spring water is considered ground-
water at the point of the spring.108

106 Bank filtration exploits sediments adjacent to surface water bodies to filter drinking water. Wells are dug in fine,
sandy sediments next to surface water bodies. Water abstracted from these wells is filtered through the sediments,
thus removing contaminants.
107 Boreholes are bored, driven or drilled into the ground to allow abstraction of groundwater from aquifers. To
prevent the holes from caving in, boreholes are constructed with casing or pipes, which also provide protection
against infiltration of contaminated run-off (e.g., urban run-off). Dug wells are dug into the ground to access
groundwater from aquifers. Dug wells may or may not have lining or casing.
08 It is important to check what convention is used by other agencies and if there is a national convention on whether
1
spring water is considered groundwater or surface water at the point of the spring.
 Water data items 57

4.51. Abstraction of water from soil water (E.1.3) includes water use in rain-fed or non-
irrigated agriculture and forestry. It is the volume of precipitation that falls onto agricultural
fields and is then transpired or incorporated into crops, plantations, orchards, etc. This is
broadly equivalent to the concept of green water.

Collection of precipitation (E.2)

4.52. Collection of precipitation (E.2) is the volume of water collected by economic units
directly from falling rain, snow, sleet and hail or collected by contact with dew and mist. A
typical example of collection of precipitation is roof rain harvesting by households, particu-
larly in rural areas.
4.53. Urban run-off is considered to be the collection of precipitation. Urban run-off is
the volume of water that does not naturally percolate into the ground or evaporate but flows
via overland flow, underflow, channels or in pipes to a defined surface water channel or a
constructed infiltration facility. By convention, urban run-off is recorded as a collection of
precipitation by the sewerage industry (i.e., part of data item E.2 by ISIC 37) because it is
this industry that has the responsibility for building and maintaining the infrastructure (e.g.,
drains) used to manage urban run-off.

Abstraction of water from the sea (E.3)

4.54. Abstraction of water from the sea (E.3) is the volume of saline water removed by
economic units from seas and oceans. Water abstracted from the sea may be desalinated
and supplied to other economic units or it may be used with or without desalinization (for
example, for cooling) by the economic unit that abstracted the water. The main industries of
interest for this data item are the water supply (ISIC 36) and electricity (ISIC 35) industries.
Abstraction of water for own use (E.a) and for distribution (E.b).
4.55. Abstraction of water for own use (E.a) is the volume of water abstracted and used
by the same economic unit. Abstraction for own use includes abstraction for hydroelectricity
generation, irrigation, mining, urban run-off, cooling water and other uses (see annex II).
In most cases, there is a close correlation between purpose of use and industry; for example,
most water abstracted for hydroelectricity generation is abstracted by the electricity industry
(ISIC 35) and water for irrigation is abstracted by the agricultural industry (ISIC 03).
4.56. Abstraction of water for distribution (E.b) is the volume of water abstracted for
the purposes of being supplied to other economic units, often after treatment. Most water
abstracted for distribution is abstracted by the water supply industry (ISIC 36). However,
there may be other establishments, whose primary activity is not the collection, treatment or
distribution of water, which abstract and supply water as a secondary activity. For example,
some establishments that generate hydroelectric power are classified to electricity generation
(ISIC 35) but may also supply water to other economic units as a secondary activity.

4. Flows of water within the economy

4.57. Flows of water within the economy include the supply and use of water by economic
units. Supply and use of water are measured in units of cubic metres. These data items make
use of the Central Product Classification (see chap. II). An overview of the data items related
to the flows of water within the economy is provided in table IV.6 and figure IV.3.
4.58. It is very important to distinguish the water supply (ISIC 36) and sewerage (ISIC
37) industries when disaggregating by industry, because these industries will supply most of
the water and receive most of the sewage, respectively, within an economy. Other industries of
particular importance to these data items are agriculture (ISIC 03) and electricity (ISIC 35).
4.59. It is important to note that the recycling of water by economic units (i.e., within
establishments) is not one of the recommended data items since it is not a flow between differ-
58 International Recommendations for Water

ent economic units. However, because such on-site water recycling can reduce the abstraction
of water from the environment or the use of water from other economic units, countries may
chose to collect information on water recycling as supplementary data (see annex II).
4.60. It should be noted that the amount of water supplied in an economy (data items
F) is equal to the amount of water received (data items G). However, the amount of water
abstracted from the environment for distribution (E.b) will not equal the amount of water
received or supplied in an economy because of losses in distribution (I) and losses in the
desalinization of saline and brackish water.

Water supplied to other economic units (F)

4.61. Water supplied to other economic units (F) is the volume of water that is provided
by one economic unit to another economic unit through mains, artificial open channels,
sewers, drains, trucks or other means. Water supplied to other economic units (F) excludes
the losses of water in distribution that are included in data item I and the supply of bottled
water (CPC, Ver. 2, 2441), which is one of the supplementary data items.
4.62. Water supplied to other economic units (F) consists of F.1 water (CPC 18000) supplied
by resident economic units, typically of the water supply industry (ISIC 36), to other resident
economic units; F.2 water (CPC 18000) supplied by resident economic units to the rest of the
world (water exports); F.3 wastewater supplied by resident economic units to other resident eco-
nomic units; and F.4 wastewater supplied by resident economic units to the rest of the world
(wastewater exports). Water (CPC 18000) supplied to other economic units (F.1 and F.2) includes
desalinated water and water abstracted for distribution. Desalinated water is water that has been
purified from brackish or saline water abstracted from the sea, ground or surface water.

Table IV.6
Physical data items for flows of water within the economy

F. Water supplied to other economic units

F.1. Water supplied by resident economic units to resident economic units
F.2. Water exported to the rest of the world (water exports)
F.3. Wastewater supplied by resident economic units to resident economic units
F.3.1. For treatment or disposal
F.3.2. For further use
F.4. Wastewater exported to the rest of the world (wastewater exports)
F.4.1. For treatment or disposal
F.4.2. For further use
G. Water received by economic units
G.1. Water received by resident economic units from resident economic units
G.2. Water imported by resident economic units from the rest of the world (water imports)
G.3. Wastewater received by resident economic units from resident economic units
G.3.1. For treatment or disposal
G.3.2. For further use
G.4. Wastewater received from the rest of the world (wastewater imports)
G.4.1. For treatment or disposal
G.4.2. For further use
 Water data items 59

Figure IV.3
Flows of water in the economy and related data items

Economy of rest
Economy of territory of reference
of the world

Water from the environment

Economic units F.2 Economic units engaged Economic units

Water F.1
(e.g., household in water supply (e.g., household
and establishments) (typically, ISIC 36) Wa and establishments)
te r
F.1 F.1 F.3.2
Wastewater for
Water Water
further use
G.1 G.1 G.3.2
G.1
Economic units engaged G.3 Economic units F.3.2 Economic units
Water
in water supply (e.g., household (e.g., a manufacturing
Wastewater for G.3.2 establishment)
(typically, ISIC 36) Wastewater for
and establishments)
further use
treatment F.3.1 G.1
or disposal

F.4 Wastewater for

Economic units engaged treatment
in treatmentor disposal or disposal
of wastewater
(typically, ISIC 37)
G.3.1

Water from the environment

Wastewater for

Returns to the environment

Returns to the environment

treatment
Economic units engaged
Economic units or disposal G.4 Water
in treatment or disposal
(e.g., household
of wastewater F.1
and establishments)
(typically, ISIC 37)

Flows within the economy Returns to the environment

imports and exports

Flows between the economy
and the environment
Rivers, lakes, etc.

Environment of territory of reference

4.63. Wastewater (F.3 and F.4) is further divided into wastewater for treatment and disposal
(F.3.1 and F.4.1) and wastewater for further use (F.3.2 and F.4.2). All water discharged into
drains or sewers is considered wastewater for treatment or disposal (i.e., F.3.1 or F.4.1), regardless
of the quality of water discharged. Wastewater for further use (F.3.2 and F.4.2) includes all water
supplied to others that has to be treated by the unit receiving the water before it can be used by
that unit. If the water does not need to be treated before it is used by the receiving economic
unit, then it is a supply of water (CPC 18000) (i.e., F.1 or F.2). It should be noted that the water
used for hydroelectric power generation or cooling is a special case as the water supplied after
use can be water (i.e., F.1 or F.2), wastewater (F.3 or F.4) or a return of water to the environment
(H). Water used for these purposes does not usually have emissions added to the water (which
would be recorded in data items J and K) because, other than the addition of heat to water used
for cooling, there is no other physical, chemical or biological pollution added. Countries may
choose to identify separately the water supplied to other economic units from hydroelectric power
generation or water-cooling (supplementary data items F.a, F.e, H.a or H.e).
4.64. For example, the electricity industry (ISIC 35) may be a supplier of water (F.1). In this
case, the water is used for hydroelectric power generation. Although the water has been used in
60 International Recommendations for Water

production processes, the quality of the water has been unaltered and it can be supplied for most
uses without treatment. Similarly, the sewerage industry (ISIC 37) may also supply water (F.1)
to economic units, such as to the water supply (ISIC 36) or agricultural (ISIC 01) industries. In
many cases, this water has been treated by the sewerage industry and does not need to be treated
by the receiver. However, if this water requires treatment by the receiver prior to use (i.e., it is
supplied untreated), then it is a supply of wastewater not for treatment or disposal (for further
use, F.3.2 or F.4.2). It should be noted that data items J and K record the waterborne emissions
(or volume of pollution) contained in the water discharged by economic units.
4.65. There are two exceptions to the treatment before use criteria for classifying waste-
water. The first is water that is treated to be made suitable for specialized processes, such as
the sterilization of water for medical purposes or the purification or distillation of water for
other industrial purposes. The second is the use of water filters by households. By convention,
these flows are recorded as a supply of water (CPC 18000) (F.1 or F.2).
4.66. It is important to note that economic units of the water supply industry (ISIC 36)
may supply water to other units of the water supply industry. These are known as intra-
sectoral transfers and it is important to identify and record them. These transfers do not
usually involve many units but may involve large volumes of water. How these transfers are
presented depends on the purpose for which the data are used. In water accounts, the main
supply and use tables are presented after deducting intra-sectoral transfers within the water
supply industry (ISIC 36).

Water received from other economic units (G)

4.67. Water received from other economic units (G) is the volume of water that has been
delivered from one economic unit to another economic unit, through mains, artificial open
channels, sewers, drains, trucks or other means. Water received from other economic units
(G) excludes water abstracted directly from the environment (included in data item E), and
bottled water (CPC, Ver. 2, 2441), which is included as a supplementary data item.
4.68. Water received from other economic units (G) consists of G.1 water (CPC 18000)
received by resident economic units from other resident economic units; G.2 water (CPC
18000) received by resident economic units from the rest of the world (water imports); G.3
wastewater received by resident economic units from other resident economic units; and
G.4 wastewater received by resident economic units from the rest of the world (wastewater
imports). Wastewater (G.3 and G.4) is further divided into wastewater received for treatment
and disposal (G.3.1 and G.4.1) and wastewater received not for treatment and disposal (for
further use, G.3.2 and G.4.2).

5. Flows of water from the economy to the environment

4.69. Flows of water (including polluted water) from the economy to the environment are
called returns or discharges to the environment. They are measured in units of cubic metres.
Returns should be disaggregated to industries and households.
4.70. The sewerage industry (ISIC 37) is particularly important, because this industry
will return much of the water to the environment. Discharges are classified according to the
receiving media (i.e., inland water resources, the sea or land) and to the type of water (e.g.,
treated water or untreated water). It is important to record the main waterborne emissions
(K) contained in this water.

Returns of water to the environment (H)

4.71. Returns of water to the environment (H) are the volumes of water that flow from
economic units directly to inland water resources (H.1), the sea (H.2) or to land (H.3). An
alternative disaggregation is by treated (H.a) or untreated (H.b) water, while discharges after
 Water data items 61

Table IV.7
Physical data items for flows from the economy to the environment

H. Returns of water to the environment by economic units

H.1. To inland water resources
H.1.1. To surface water
H.1.1.1. To artificial reservoirs
H.1.1.2. To lakes
H.1.1.3. To rivers
H.1.1.4. To wetlands
H.1.1.5. To snow, ice and glaciers
H.1.2. To groundwater
H.2. To the sea
H.3. To land
Alternative breakdown
H.a. Returns of water to the environment after treatment by economic units
H.a.1. After primary treatment
H.a.2. After secondary treatment
H.a.3. After tertiary treatment
H.b. Returns of water to the environment without treatment

particular uses (e.g., hydroelectric power generation and cooling water) are included as sup-
plementary data items (H.a). Evaporation to the atmosphere is excluded (see data item C.1.1).
4.72. Returns of water to inland water resources (H.1) are disaggregated by returns to
surface water (H.1.1) and returns to groundwater (H.1.2). Returns of water to surface water
include discharges of cooling water, urban run-off (including storm water) and run-off from
agricultural land. It may also include the discharges of water used for hydroelectricity power
generation. Returns to surface water (H.1.1) are also disaggregated by the receiving surface
water body, such as artificial reservoirs (H.1.1.1), lakes (H.1.1.2), rivers (H.1.1.3), wetlands
(H.1.1.4) and snow, ice and glaciers (H.1.1.5). Returns of water to groundwater (H.1.2)
include the artificial recharge of aquifers, urban run-off (and storm water) that is collected
and allowed to infiltrate into groundwater, and water from agriculture that infiltrates into
groundwater. Aquifers may also be used to store hot or cold water (e.g., in buildings which
use geothermal heating).
4.73. Returns of water to the sea (H.2) are the volumes of water discharged directly into
the sea or ocean by economic units. These discharges may occur near the coast or further
offshore. Returns of water to land (H.3) is the water discharged from economic units onto
land surfaces, where the water may evaporate, run-off into other surface water or percolate
into the ground and recharge soil water or groundwater.
4.74. Returns of water after treatment (H.a) are the volumes of water discharged into
the environment by economic units after waterborne emissions (or pollutants) have been
removed. This includes water discharged by the sewerage industry (ISIC 37) and by other
industries after on-site treatment. While the sewerage industry (ISIC 37) is likely to be
the largest industry to discharge treated water, other industries, such as the manufacturing
industries (ISIC 10-32), may also treat water before it is discharged into the environment. The
treatment may remove pollutants by mechanical, chemical, biological or thermal methods.
4.75. Treated water discharges are disaggregated by the level of treatment prior to discharge.
The levels of treatment are primary treatment, secondary treatment and tertiary treatment.
62 International Recommendations for Water

4.76. Primary treatment (H.a.1) is a mechanical, physical or chemical process involving

settlement of suspended solids or any other process in which the biochemical oxygen demand
(BOD) of the incoming water is reduced by at least 20 per cent before discharge and the total
suspended solids of the incoming water are reduced by at least 50 per cent.109
4.77. Secondary treatment (H.a.2) is a process, following primary treatment of water
and generally involving biological or other treatment with a secondary settlement or other
process, that results in a BOD removal of at least 70 per cent and a COD removal of at
least 75 per cent.109
4.78. Tertiary treatment110 (H.a.3) is a process, following secondary treatment, of remov-
ing nitrogen, phosphorous or any other pollutant affecting the quality or a specific use of
water, such as microbiological pollution or colour. For organic pollution in water, the treat-
ment efficiencies that define a tertiary treatment are the following: organic pollution removal
of at least 95 per cent for BOD and 85 per cent for COD and at least one of the following:
nitrogen removal of at least 70 per cent, phosphorus removal of at least 80 per cent or microbi-
ological removal achieving a faecal coli form density less then 1,000 in 100 millilitres (ml).109
Dilution of polluted water is not considered as treatment.
4.79. Returns of water without treatment (H.b) are the volumes of water discharged into
the environment by economic units where any pollutants have not been removed. In many
cases, it is useful to identify separately returns of water used for hydroelectricity generation or
for cooling (supplementary data items H.i and H.v, respectively) because the volumes of water
returned after these uses are typically very large but contain little, if any, waterborne emissions.

6. Losses of water from distribution networks and sewerage systems

4.80. Most losses of water in distribution are from the water supply industry (ISIC 36) and
most losses from sewerage systems are from the sewerage industry (ISIC 37). Although such
losses are difficult to measure or estimate, they are important for determining the efficiency
of water supply and sewerage infrastructure. Therefore, this information is often kept by the
water supply industry (ISIC 36) and, to a lesser extent, the sewerage industry (ISIC 37). It
is possible for water to infiltrate into distribution networks and sewerage systems, in which
case the water may be recorded as a special case of “abstraction”.
Table IV.8
Physical data items for losses from distribution networks and sewerage systems

I. Losses of water
I.1. Losses of water (CPC, Ver. 2, 1800) in distribution
I.2. Losses of water sent for treatment or disposal in collection

Losses of water (I)

4.81. Losses of water in distribution (I.1) is the volume of water (CPC, Ver. 2, 1800) that
is lost during distribution and transportation, between the point of abstraction and the point
of use or between the points of use and reuse (e.g., from mains, artificial open channels and
trucks). Losses of water sent for treatment or disposal in collection (I.2) consists of water lost
from the system used to collect, treat or dispose of discharged water, including artificial open
channels and trucks used to collect discharged water.

109 Modified from OECD/Eurostat joint questionnaire on inland waters.

110 For industrial wastewater treatment, tertiary treatment in some countries means the reduction of pollutants to
a concentration not adversely affecting the aquatic environment and human water uses before direct discharge.
 Water data items 63

4.82. Losses may be disaggregated to those due to theft, leakage, burst mains, evapora-
tion, meter errors and unaccounted losses. A classification of losses is included in the list of
supplementary data items (see annex II). Losses of water in distribution due to leakage is
water slowly escaping from mains, artificial open channels and trucks through infiltration,
small cracks, holes or gaps between the point of abstraction and the point of use, or between
the points of use and reuse. Losses of water in distribution due to burst mains include water
escaping through breaks in large pipes used for distributing water. Losses of water in distribu-
tion due to evaporation include water escaping from distribution networks to the atmosphere
(e.g., from artificial open channels used for distribution) due to vaporization of liquid water
to gas. Losses of water in distribution due to meter errors are apparent water losses due to
mistaken meter readings, malfunctioning meters and other meter errors. Meters are devices
that measure the quantity of water passing through a pipe. Unaccounted losses are water that
escapes from distribution networks in ways other than those classified above (i.e., not due to
theft, leakage, burst mains, evaporation or meter errors).
4.83. The receiving media for losses are inland water resources, which may be further
disaggregated into surface water and groundwater, and losses to the atmosphere (i.e., evapora-
tion) or sea.

7. Waterborne emissions
4.84. Waterborne emissions are the pollutants, or their measured properties, that have
been added to water by economic units as a result of production and consumption processes.
In principle, they should exclude background levels of chemicals, other substances or other
measured properties (contained originally in the water as received for use), but in practice
this may be very difficult to do. Waterborne emissions are usually measured in units of mass
(kilograms, tonnes, etc.) but a number of other measured properties are in common use
(BOD, COD, etc.), as described briefly below. Waterborne emissions may be transported to
another economic unit (J) or discharged directly into the environment (K).

Waterborne emissions to other economic units (J)

4.85. Waterborne emissions to other economic units (J) consist of the waterborne emissions
supplied by resident economic units to resident economic units in wastewater (J.1), usually for
treatment or disposal by the sewerage industry (ISIC 37); the export of waterborne emissions by
resident economic units to the rest of the world (J.2); and the import of waterborne emissions by
resident economic units from the rest of the world (J.3). Although treatment or disposal is usu-
ally undertaken by the sewerage industry (ISIC 37), other economic units may engage in sewage
treatment or sewage disposal as a secondary activity. An example of waterborne emissions being
treated as a secondary activity is when emissions from households in remote mining communi-
ties are collected by the mining industry for treatment and disposal. Some emissions may be
received for purposes other than treatment or disposal; for example, a farm may receive untreated
wastewater from a neighbouring farm or sewerage treatment plant to use on fields as fertilizer.

Table IV.9
Data items for flows of waterborne emissions in the economy

J. Waterborne emissions to other economic units

J.1. Waterborne emissions supplied by resident economic units to resident economic units
J.2. Exports of waterborne emissions by resident economic units to the rest of the world
J.3. Imports of waterborne emissions by resident economic units from the rest of the world
64 International Recommendations for Water

Waterborne emissions to the environment (K)

4.86. Waterborne emissions to the environment (K) are the emissions discharged by eco-
nomic units into ambient water. These emissions may be from point sources (K.1) or from
diffuse (non-point) sources (K.2). Waterborne emissions may be further disaggregated by receiv-
ing media and by emissions after on-site treatment and emissions without on-site treatment.
4.87. Waterborne emissions from point sources to the environment (K.1) are those emis-
sions for which the geographic location of the discharge is clearly identified. They include, for
example, emissions from wastewater treatment plants, power plants and other manufacturing
establishments.
4.88. Waterborne emissions from point sources to the environment (K.1) are disaggregated
to emissions received by inland water resources (K.1.1), the sea (K.1.2) or land (K.1.3). Water-
borne emissions from point sources to inland water resources (K.1.1) can be disaggregated
further, with regard to the receiving environment, into emissions to surface water (K.1.1.1)
and groundwater (K.1.1.2). Point source emissions can also be disaggregated into waterborne
emissions after on-site treatment (K.1.1.a and K.1.2.a) and emissions without on-site treat-
ment (K.1.1.b and K.1.2.b). On-site treatment is any removal of waterborne emissions that is
conducted at the economic unit that generated the emissions.

Table IV.10
Data items for flows of waterborne emissions from the economy to the environment

K. Waterborne emissions to the environment

K.1. From point sources to the environment
K.1.1. To inland water resources
K.1.1.1. To surface water
K.1.1.2. To groundwater
K.1.1.a. After on-site treatment
K.1.1.b. Without on-site treatment
K.1.2. To the sea
K.1.2.a. After on-site treatment
K.1.2.b. Without on-site treatment
K.1.3. To land
K.2. From diffuse sources to the environment
K.2.1. To inland water resources
K.2.1.1. To surface water
K.2.1.2. To groundwater
K.2.2. To the sea
K.2.3. To land

4.89. Waterborne emissions from diffuse sources to the environment (K.2) are emissions
without a single point of origin or a specific outlet into a receiving water body. These are
disaggregated by emissions to inland water resources (K.2.1), to the sea (K.2.2) or to land
(K.2.3). Waterborne emissions from diffuse sources to inland water resources (K.2.1) can be
disaggregated further, with regard to the receiving environment, by emissions to surface water
(K.2.1.1) and to groundwater (K.2.1.2).
4.90. Waterborne emissions from diffuse sources to the environment include emissions that
are the result of individual and small-scale polluting activities, which for practical reasons can-
 Water data items 65

not be treated as individual point sources of pollution. An example is the run-off from urban
areas or agricultural land. Urban run-off emissions occur when pollutants are washed away
after being deposited in urban areas, often as a result of transport or other economic activities.
Diffuse waterborne emissions of nutrients and hazardous chemicals occur when nutrients and
hazardous chemicals from fertilizers and pesticides that have been spread over the soil and
crops dissolve into water, which infiltrates into groundwater or runs off into surface water.

8. Types of waterborne emissions to be measured

4.91. The data items on waterborne emissions correspond with data items on water dis-
charged to other economic units and to the environment. For example, point source water-
borne emissions from the sewerage industry (ISIC 37) will record the emissions borne in
the discharges of water from the sewerage industry (ISIC 37) to the environment. Diffuse
waterborne emissions from agriculture correspond with the discharges of water from agricul-
tural land. Diffuse emissions from urban areas correspond with the discharges of water from
urban run-off. Waterborne emissions from other diffuse sources are not normally estimated
for practical reasons.
4.92. Waterborne emissions can be measured directly as the quantity of pollutant con-
tained in the water discharged, or indirectly by measuring the properties (i.e., the effects) of
pollutants contained in the water. Measures of waterborne emissions include oxygen demand,
quantities of nutrients (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium), salts, the quantity of sus-
pended solids, and quantities of specific hazardous substances (e.g., arsenic or cyanide). Ide-
ally, natural background levels of oxygen demand, nutrients, suspended solids or hazardous
substances (contained originally in the water as received for use) should be excluded from
emissions statistics. In practice, these background concentrations are not always known and
may be difficult to distinguish.
4.93. The recommended measures of waterborne emissions for which statistics should
be collected and compiled include BOD, COD, nitrogen, phosphorus and total suspended
solids. Countries should seek expert advice to determine which other hazardous substances to
produce statistics on, because hazardous substances contained in waterborne emissions differ
from country to country, depending on the existing economic activities and technologies or
other biological and chemical considerations.111
4.94. It is important to be aware that the measurement of waterborne emissions can be
expensive and may limit the number of hazardous substances for which waterborne emissions
data are collected.

Oxygen demand
4.95. Oxygen demand is the demand for dissolved oxygen in water caused by organic
and inorganic matter, and is measured using parameters such as BOD, COD and TOD
(total organic oxygen demand). BOD refers to the content of biodegradable organic matter
in water. This is the organic matter that can be easily destroyed (e.g., 5 days at 20°C and
in the dark) by biological life, mainly bacteria, present in the wastewater. COD is the mass
concentration of oxygen consumed under specific conditions by the chemical oxidation of
organic and inorganic matter, in water, with bichromate. Other parameters describing the
content of organic and oxidizable matter are TOC (total organic carbon) or TOD. They
are relevant for operation of wastewater treatment plants but are not usually collected or
compiled for water statistics.

111 For more information on the measurement for waterborne emissions, see European Environment Agency, “Guid-
ance on the reporting required for assessing the state of, and trends in, the water environment at the European
level”, 2009. Available from http://eea.eionet.europa.eu/Public/irc/eionet-circle/water/library?l=/reporting_
eionetwfd/guidance_2009pdf/_EN_1.0_&a=d (accessed 15 December 2009).
66 International Recommendations for Water

Nutrients
4.96. Nutrients are the substances that organisms (i.e., plants and animals) need to grow
and survive. However, too many nutrients can have serious impacts on human health and
may lead to rapid plant growth and the depletion of oxygen and life in water (e.g., algal
blooms, red tides). Key nutrients include nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Nitrogen
occurs in several compounds, e.g., ammonia, ammonium, nitrite or nitrate, depending on
such factors as acidity, temperature and oxygen concentration. Similarly, phosphorus can be
found in different compounds, e.g., orthophosphates, condensed phosphates and organically
bound phosphorus. Potassium is found in many minerals and clays and can be found in
compounds dissolved in water, e.g., potassium hydroxide, potassium dichromate, potassium
permanganate or potassium iodide.

Suspended solids
4.97. Suspended solids are small particles of solid pollutants in water that contribute to
turbidity and resist separation by water treatment. Suspended solids are usually measured in
terms of total suspended solids, which are also referred to as total suspended non-filterable
solids (i.e., they cannot be filtered out of water using a filter).

Hazardous substances
4.98. Hazardous substances are substances that can harm humans or other organisms.
Due to the large number of such substances and their highly varied effects under different
circumstances, it should be decided on a case-by-case basis which substances are suitable for
inclusion in statistical data collections. Examples of such substances, include.112
• Persistent hydrocarbons and persistent and bioaccumulable organic toxic substances
• Arsenic and its compounds
• Metals and their compounds (e.g., cadmium, mercury, copper, chromium, nickel,
lead and zinc)
• Cyanides
• Biocides and plant protection products
• Organohalogen compounds and substances, which may form such compounds in
the aquatic environment. These are usually measured as AOX (absorbable organically
bound halogens).
• Organophosphorous compounds
• Organotin compounds
• Substances and preparations (or the breakdown products of such) which have been
proven to possess carcinogenic or mutagenic properties or properties that may affect
steroidogenic, thyroid, reproduction or other endocrine-related functions in or via
the aquatic environment

D. Monetary water data items

4.99. Monetary data items relate to the abstraction of water by the economy from the envi-
ronment, the supply and use of water, wastewater and sewerage services within the economy,
and the discharge of water from the economy into the environment. They relate to water
abstracted for own use and for distribution, as well as the wastewater received for treatment
and disposal (e.g., by sewerage networks) and the water treated on-site before being discharged.

112 This list is not comprehensive and includes substances according to chemistry in some cases and their effects in
other cases.
 Water data items 67

4 .100. These data items include information on the monetary value of the physical flows of
water to, within and out from the economy, as well as on the value of the infrastructure used
for water supply and sewerage services. The data items are measured in local currency.
4.101. The data items in this section are consistent with the data items of the IRIS, but
have been interpreted and further elaborated to show details important for water statistics.
In particular, they have been expanded to cover households as well as establishments. The
equivalent data items of IRIS are indicated in the text as well as in the relevant tables (see
tables IV.11-IV.14).

1. Value and costs of water and sewerage services

4 .102. The data items below should be collected for all economic units (establishments
and households), in particular for those engaged in water collection, treatment and supply,
or sewerage collection and treatment activities for data items L.1, L.2 and L.3. Water collec-
tion, treatment and supply are the primary activities of the water supply industry (ISIC 36),
while wastewater collection and treatment are the primary activities of the sewerage industry
(ISIC 37). Economic units classified to other industries may also undertake these as secondary
activities and households may also have costs associated with supplying water and sewerage
services for own use.

Value of shipments/sales/turnover (L.1) (IRIS 5.1)

4 .103. Value of shipments/sales/turnover (L.1) is data item 5.1 of IRIS. For water statistics,
it is further disaggregated to L.1.1, value of water sales (CPC 18000) and L.1.2, value of sales
of sewerage services (CPC 94100). Each of these is further disaggregated by sales to resident
economic units (L.1.1.1 and L.1.2.1) and sales (or exports) to the rest of the world (L.1.1.2 and
L.1.2.2). For both sales of water and sewerage services, this excludes product taxes (e.g., value
added taxes (VAT)) collected on behalf of government and subsidies, which are included in
data items M.1 and N.1, respectively. In national accounts terms, this is known as the value
at basic price. It should be noted that, since water is usually sold directly to water users by
producers, there are usually no wholesale or retail margins and therefore these do not usually
contribute to the difference between the basic price and the purchaser’s price.
4.104. The value of sales of water (CPC 18000) (L.1.1) includes charges for water and water
supply service charges. For units of the water supply industry (ISIC 36), data item L.1.1 should
represent the majority of the value of data item L.1. Data item L.1.1 is important where other
industries, such as the electricity (ISIC 35) or sewerage industries (ISIC 37), supply water as a
secondary activity. In national accounts terms, this is known as the purchaser’s price.
4.105. Sale of sewerage services (CPC 94100) (L.1.2) includes all charges for the supply
of sewerage services. For units of the sewerage industry (ISIC 37), data item L.1.2 should
represent the majority of the value of data item L.1. In national accounts terms, this is known
as the purchaser’s price.

Compensation of employees (L.2) (IRIS 3.1)

4 .106. Compensation of employees (L.2) is data item 3.1 of IRIS. This represents the remu-
neration (in cash or in kind) paid to employees of economic units. For water statistics, data
item L.2 is disaggregated to L.2.1, compensation of employees related to water supply activi-
ties, and L.2.2, compensation of employees related to sewerage services. For units of the water
supply industry (ISIC 36), the value of L.2.1 should be the majority of the value of L.2.
Similarly, for units of the sewerage industry (ISIC 37), the value of L.2.2 should represent
the majority of the value of L.2.
4.107. The data items L.2.1 and L.2.2 are directed also at units that produce water as a
secondary product (e.g., hydroelectric power producers of the electricity industry (ISIC 35))
68 International Recommendations for Water

Table IV.11
Value and costs of water and sewerage services

L. Value and costs of water and sewerage services

L.1. Value of shipments/sales/turnover (IRIS 5.1)
L.1.1. Value of water sales (CPC 18000)
L.1.1.1. To resident economic units
L.1.1.2. To the rest of the world (export of water)
L.1.2. Value of sales of sewerage services (CPC 94100)
L.1.2.1. To resident economic units
L.1.2.2. To the rest of the world (export of sewerage services)
L.2. Compensation of employees (IRIS 3.1)
L.2.1. Compensation of employees related to water supply activities
L.2.2. Compensation of employees related to sewerage service activities
L.3. Purchases of goods and services (combined IRIS 4.1, 4.2, 4.4, 4.6 and 4.7)
L.3.1. Purchases of goods and services related to water supply activities
L.3.2. Purchases of goods and services related to sewerage service activities
L.4. Purchases of water (IRIS 4.3.1)
L.4.1. Purchases of water from resident economic units
L.4.2. Purchases of water from the rest of the world (import of water)
L.5. Purchases of sewerage services (IRIS 4.3.2)
L.5.1. Purchases of sewerage services from resident economic units
L.5.2. Purchases of sewerage services from the rest of the world (import of sewerage service)

or for own use (e.g., households and agriculture (ISIC 03)). The data items can be further
disaggregated according to whether the employees are engaged in a secondary activity or in
production for own use. It is important to note that this data item also includes the employ-
ees of households which supply themselves with water (i.e., water abstracted for own use) or
sewerage services.

Purchases of goods and services (L.3) (combined IRIS 4.1, 4.2, 4.4, 4.6 and 4.7)
.108. Purchases of goods and services (L.3) represents the combination of IRIS data items
4
4.1, 4.2, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6 and 4.7 but is expanded to cover the water and sewerage services pur-
chased by households. This includes the cost of raw materials, fuel, gas, electricity, services
(e.g., maintenance), rent and insurance used by economic units in the production process. It
excludes expenditure on fixed capital (data item P.1) and depreciation of assets (or consump-
tion of fixed capital) (data item Q.1). It should be noted that IRIS data item 4.3 includes
the purchase of both water and sewerage services, but because of their importance to water
statistics, they are separately identified in IRWS as data items L.4. and L.5.
4.109. Purchases of goods and services (L.3.) are disaggregated to L.3.1, purchases of goods
and services for water supply activities, and L.3.2, purchases of goods and services for sewer-
age services. In the case of units of the water supply industry (ISIC 36), the value of L.3.1
will be the majority of L.3. Similarly, in the case of units of the sewerage industry (ISIC 37),
the value of L.3.2 will be the majority of L.3.
4.110. Purchases of goods and services for water supply activities for own use (L.3.1) includes
the costs (excluding employees) to economic units (both establishments and households) asso-
ciated with removing or collecting natural water from the environment for own use, or treating
 Water data items 69

and cooling water for further use by the economic unit. These costs include the operating and
maintenance costs of equipment used to abstract water but exclude government fees, which
are included in other taxes on production (M.1), capital costs (P.1) and depreciation (Q.1).
4.111. Similarly, purchases of goods and services for sewerages services for own use (L.3.2)
includes on-site wastewater treatment and the costs (excluding employees) of removing emis-
sions or heat from wastewater generated, before discharging the water into the environment
or supplying wastewater to other economic units. These costs include operating and mainte-
nance costs of equipment used to treat wastewater but exclude government fees for discharg-
ing water to the environment, which are included in other taxes on production (M.1), capital
costs (P.1) and depreciation (Q.1).
4.112. Both L.3.1 and L.3.2 can be further disaggregated, according to whether the pur-
chases are related to a secondary activity or production for own use.

Purchase of water (L.4) (IRIS 4.3.1)

4 .113. Purchase of water (L.4) is equivalent to IRIS data item 4.3.1 but is expanded to cover
the water purchased by households. It is the value of water received by establishments and
households that has been supplied by other economic units, typically from the water supply
industry (ISIC 36). This includes the cost of the water plus associated delivery charges. For
example, the cost of water may be the price (e.g., $ per m3) of water multiplied by the volume
(m3) received, plus any associated service charges for water supply. The purchase of water (L.4)
is disaggregated to L.4.1, purchases from resident economic units, and L.4.2, purchases (or
imports) from the rest of the word.
4.114. The purchases of both water (L.4) and sewerage services (L.5) are measured at the
purchaser’s prices, which is the amount paid by the purchaser, excluding any deductible VAT
or similar deductible tax, in order to take delivery of a unit of a good or service at the time
and place required by the purchaser. The purchaser’s price of a good includes any transport
charges paid separately by the purchaser to take delivery at the required time and place.113

Purchase of sewerage services (L.5) (IRIS 4.3.2)

4.115. The purchase of sewerage services (L.5.) is equivalent to data item 4.3.2 of IRIS but is
expanded to cover the sewerage services purchased by households. It is the value of sewerage
services received by establishments and households that have been supplied by other economic
units, typically from the sewerage industry (ISIC 37). The purchase of sewerage services (L.5)
is disaggregated to purchases from resident economic units (L.5.1) and purchases (or imports)
from the rest of the word (L.5.2).

2. Taxes, subsidies and investment grants

4 .116. Taxes are compulsory unrequited payments, in cash or in kind, made by economic
units to the Government. Two main groups of taxes are identifiable—taxes on products and
other taxes on production. It is recommended that only other taxes and subsidies be col-
lected on production since these payments or receipts affect the behaviour of producers and
are recorded in their business accounts. It is recommended that in statistical questionnaires,
countries refer to the specific names and descriptions of taxes and subsidies as they exist in
their national fiscal systems.
4.117. For water statistics, the main interest is in the taxes and fees related to water supply
and sewerage services (M.1.1 and M.1.2, respectively) and the subsidies for water (N.1.1.1)
and sewerage services (N.1.1.2). Government subsidies are common for the water supply (ISIC
36) and sewerage (ISIC 37) industries, but households and other industries may also receive

113 See 2008 SNA, paras. 6.215, 15.28, 2.73 and 3.83.
70 International Recommendations for Water

Table IV.12
Taxes, subsidies and investment grants

M. Taxes
M.1. Taxes (IRIS 7.1)
M.1.1. Taxes on products
M.1.1.1. Taxes on water supplied
M.1.1.2. Taxes on sewerage services
M.1.2. Other production taxes (IRIS 7.1.1)
M.1.2.1. Other production taxes related to water supply
M.1.2.2. Other production taxes related to sewerage services
N. Subsidies and investment grants
N.1. Subsidies received (IRIS 7.2)
N.1.1 Subsidies on products (IRIS 7.2.1)
N.1.1.1. Subsidies for water
N.1.1.2. Subsidies for sewerage services
N.1.2. Other subsidies on production (IRIS 7.2.2)
N.1.2.1. Other subsidies for water
N.1.2.2. Other subsidies for sewerage services
N.2. Investment grants (i.e., capital transfers)
N.2.1. Investment grants related to water supply
N.2.2. Investment grants related to sewerage services

subsidies for the use of these services or for products designed to reduce water consumption
(e.g., more efficient irrigation technologies, dual flush toilets or reduced flow shower heads).

Taxes (M.1) (IRIS 7.1)

.118. Taxes (M.1.) are the equivalent of IRIS data item 7.1. Taxes are compulsory unre-
4
quited payments, in cash or in kind, made by units to the Government. Two main groups
of taxes are identifiable: taxes on products and other taxes on production. In both IRIS and
IRWS, it is recommended that, in statistical questionnaires, countries refer to the specific
names and descriptions of taxes as they exist in their national fiscal systems.
4.119. Taxes on products (M.1.1) are taxes that are payable per unit of some good or service
produced. The tax may be a specific amount of money per unit of quantity of a good or service,
or it may be calculated ad valorem as a specified percentage of the price per unit or value of the
goods or services transacted. A tax on a product usually becomes payable when it is produced,
sold or imported, but it may also become payable in other circumstances, such as when a good is
exported, leased, transferred, delivered or used for own consumption or own capital formation.
An economic unit may or may not itemize the amount of a tax on a product separately on the
invoice or bill that it charges its customers.114 In the case of water statistics, IRWS is interested
in taxes on water supplied (M.1.1.1), which may be charged per unit of water delivered or per
the value of the water delivered; and taxes on sewerage services (M.1.1.2), which may be charged
per unit of sewage removed or per the value of the sewerage service provided.
4.120. Other taxes on production (M.1.2) are the equivalent of IRIS data item 7.1.1 and
comprise taxes that the producing units are liable to pay as a result of engaging in produc-

114 Ibid., para. 7.88.

 Water data items 71

tion. As such, they represent a part of production costs and should be included in the value
of output. Units pay them irrespective of profitability or otherwise of the production. These
taxes consist mainly of taxes on the ownership or use of land, buildings or other assets used
in production, or on the labour employed or compensation of employees paid. Examples are
motor road vehicle taxes, duties and registration fees, business licences, payroll taxes, taxes
on non-life insurance on assets and levies on the use of fixed assets. Also included are official
fees and charges—that is, duties payable for specific public services, such as the testing of
standards of weights and measures and provision of extracts from official registers of crime.
4.121. For water statistics, the taxes (M.1) paid by the water supply and sewerage industries
(ISIC 36 and 37) are of particular interest. In cases where water and sewerage services are
supplied by other industries as a secondary activity, then the proportion of taxes paid associ-
ated with these activities should be identified separately. For example, if 10 per cent of the
activity of an enterprise is associated with water supply and 90 per cent with other activities,
the 10 per cent of the taxes should be identified separately as being for water supply. This
treatment would also apply to subsidies received (N.1).
4.122. Other production taxes include the licence fees payable to the Government for the
right to abstract water from the environment or to discharge water into the environment, and
these are separately identified as other taxes on production related to water supply (M.1.2.1)
and sewerage services (M.1.2.2). For water statistics, this includes the taxes paid by households.
4.123. It may not be possible to collect data about all taxes at the establishment level because
these taxes are paid for by the parent enterprise. In such cases, these data items may need to
be estimated or collected via statistical survey. In the first case, estimates may be based on
all available information (administrative data from taxation offices, knowledge of fees for
water abstraction, etc.), while in the second case the design of statistical questionnaires and
subsequent data compilation should clearly indicate the type of taxes that have been reported.

Subsidies received (N.1) (IRIS 7.2)

4 .124. Subsidies received (N) is the equivalent of IRIS data item 7.2 but is extended to
cover households. This covers payments that government units make to producing units
on the basis of their production activities or the quantities or values of the goods or services
that they produce, sell or import. Subsidies are divided into subsidies on products (N.1.1)
and other production subsides (N.1.2). Each of these is further disaggregated to subsidies
on production for water (N.1.1.1 and N.1.2.1) and sewerage services (N.1.2.1 and N.1.2.2).

4.125. Subsidies on products (N.1.1) correspond to subsidies payable per unit of a good or
service produced, either as a specific amount of money per unit of quantity of a good or ser-
vice, or as a specified percentage of the price per unit; it may also be calculated as the differ-
ence between a specified target price and the market price actually paid by a buyer. Subsidies
for water (N.1.1.1) are payments to economic units to offset the cost of water and related water
supply charges. For example, the water supply industry may receive subsidies for the volume
of water supplied to the agriculture industry (ISIC 01) and households. Subsidies for sewerage
services (N.1.1.2) may also be paid to the sewerage industry (ISIC 37).
4.126. Other subsidies on production (N.1.2) consist of subsidies, except subsidies on prod-
ucts, which resident enterprises may receive as a consequence of engaging in production (e.g.,
subsidies on payroll or workforce or subsidies to reduce pollution).
4.127. Other subsidies for water (N.1.2.1) include payments not linked to the volume of
water supplied to users. For example, the maintenance of water supply infrastructure (i.e.,
fixed assets) used to collect, treat or supply water.
4.128. Other subsidies for sewerage services (N.1.2.2) include payments not linked to the
volume of sewage removed or the number of connections served, such as payments for the
maintenance of the infrastructure used to collect, treat or dispose of wastewater.
72 International Recommendations for Water

Investment grants
.129. Investment grants (i.e., capital transfers) (N.2) are payments from government units,
4
in cash or in kind, to economic units to invest in infrastructure (i.e., fixed assets). These pay-
ments may cover all or only part of the cost of constructing or purchasing this infrastructure.115
4.130. Investment grants related to water supply (N.2.1) include, for example, grants for
water supply infrastructure (i.e., fixed assets) used to collect, treat or supply water. For the
water supply industry (ISIC 36), this includes grants for investments in artificial reservoirs
(i.e., dam construction), pipes, pumps, water tanks, water meters, buildings116 and land.
Households may also receive grants for the installation of rainwater tanks or water efficient
devices, such as dual flush toilets and reduced flow shower heads. The agriculture industry
(ISIC 01) and other industries may also receive grants, for example, to install water efficient
devices (e.g., drip irrigation) or on-site water recycling facilities.
4.131. Investment grants related to sewerage services (N.2.2) include grants for the con-
struction of wastewater treatment plants, sewers, pumps, septic tanks, sewerage meters,
buildings,117 drains for urban run-off and land.

3. Assets and investment

.132. The value of the infrastructure or assets used in the productive process is referred to
4
as fixed capital in the 2008 SNA. Gross fixed capital formation is measured by the total value
of a producer’s acquisitions, less disposals, of fixed assets during the accounting period, plus
certain specified expenditure on services that adds to the value of non-produced assets. Table
IV.13 lists the recommended data items related to fixed capital.
Table IV.13
Assets and investment

O. Assets
O.1. Gross value of fixed assets (IRIS 11.1)
O.1.1. Gross value of fixed assets for water supply
O.1.2. Gross value of fixed assets for sewerage services
P. Capital expenditures
P.1. Capital expenditure (IRIS 11.2)
P.1.1. Capital expenditure for water supply
P.1.2. Capital expenditure for sewerage services
Q. Depreciation of assets
Q.1. Depreciation of assets (IRIS 11.4)
Q.1.1. Depreciation of assets for water supply
Q.1.2. Depreciation of assets for sewerage services

Gross value of fixed assets (O.1) (IRIS 11.1)

.133. Gross value of fixed assets118 (O.1) is equivalent to IRIS data item 11.1. This data
4
item represents the value of fixed assets at a point in time. It includes the value of all durable

115 Ibid., paras. 10.208 to 10.209.

116 Includes buildings owned and used for administrative purposes supporting water collection, treatment and sup-
ply activities.
117 Includes buildings owned and used for administrative purposes supporting sewerage activities.
18 Fixed assets are defined in 2008 SNA, paras 1.46, 10.11, 10.33 and 13.27, as produced assets that are used repeat-
1
edly or continuously in production processes for more than one year.
 Water data items 73

goods expected to have a productive life of more than one year and intended for use by the
establishment (land, mineral deposits, timber tracts, etc., buildings, machinery, equipment
and vehicles). Included are major additions, alterations and improvements to existing fixed
assets that extend their normal economic life or raise their productivity.
4.134. Also included are the value of new fixed assets and additions and improvements to
existing fixed assets made by the establishment’s own labour for its own use. While capital
repair is included, expenditures for current repair and maintenance are excluded. Transac-
tions in respect of financial claims and intangible assets (such as rights to mineral deposits
and copyrights) are excluded. For water statistics, the data item is disaggregated into gross
value of water supply (O.1.1) and of sewerage (O.1.2), which are expanded to cover the
infrastructure owned by households.
4.135. Gross value of fixed assets for water supply (O.1.1) is the value of the infrastructure
used to abstract, manage, store, treat, distribute, pump and apply water. This includes artifi-
cial reservoirs, pipes, pumps, water tanks, sprinkler systems, water meters, buildings and land
owned and used for these activities. While the majority of this is likely to be owned by the
water supply industry (ISIC 36), other industries (e.g., agriculture ISIC 01, electricity ISIC
35) and households will also possess water supply infrastructure.
4.136. Gross value of fixed assets for sewerage services (O.1.2) includes the value of the
infrastructure used to collect, treat, store, distribute and discharge sewerage. This includes
wastewater treatment plants, sewers, pumps, septic tanks, sewerage meters, buildings and
the land owned and used for these activities. It includes infrastructure owned by the sewer-
age industry (ISIC 37), as well as agriculture (ISIC 01), other industries and households used
for the collection of sewage and disposal of water.
4.137. The value of urban run-off infrastructure is also included in data item O.1.2. This
includes drains, culverts, pumps, pipes, infiltration facilities, buildings and land owned and
used for the collection, treatment and discharge of urban run-off.
4.138. Where the same assets are used for multiple purposes, such as water supply and
hydroelectric power generation, then the value of these assets should be divided between the
two purposes. This should be done with all available information. In the absence of detailed
information, this may be done using the value added from the assets used for economic
production. For example, if an artificial reservoir is used to generate hydroelectricity and
to supply water, then the proportion of value added from electricity production and water
production may be used to assign the value of the asset for water supply. For example, if the
value added from water supply is 30 per cent of the total value added by the establishment
operating the reservoir, then 30 per cent of the total value of the reservoir asset value should
be attributed to water supply. This method may also be used to attribute capital expenditure
and depreciation for water supply and sewerage (data items P.1 and Q.1).

Capital expenditure (P.1) (IRIS 11.2)

4 .139. Capital expenditure (P.1) is equivalent to IRIS data item 11.2 but is expanded to cover
household expenditure on infrastructure for water supply and sewerage services.119 Capital
expenditure (P.1) is the expenditure over a period of a year on fixed assets. Capital expendi-
ture for water supply (P.1.1) is the expenditure on the water supply infrastructure used by
economic units (i.e., both industries and households) for water collection, treatment or supply.
This includes expenditure on the acquisition of pumps, pipes, dams, buildings, water tanks,
vehicles, drilling rigs and land. Most of the expenditure may be expected in the water supply
industry (ISIC 36). Capital expenditure for sewerage services (P.1.2) is expenditure on fixed
assets used to collect, treat and dispose of wastewater, including urban run-off by establishments

119 Household expenditure on infrastructure is considered capital expenditure in the 2008 SNA, as opposed to
consumption expenditure (see 2008 SNA, para.10.34).
74 International Recommendations for Water

and households. This includes expenditure used to buy wastewater treatment plants, sewers,
pumps, septic tanks, sewerage meters, buildings, drains to collect and transport urban water
run-off, and land. Most of the expenditure may be expected in the sewerage industry (ISIC 37).

Depreciation of assets (Q.1) (IRIS 11.4)

.140. Depreciation of assets (Q.1) is equivalent to IRIS data item 11.4. Depreciation as cal-
4
culated in business accounting is a method of allocating the cost of past expenditures on fixed
assets over subsequent accounting periods. Depreciation represents the loss in value of a fixed
asset due to its ageing or use in a production process. Depreciation is related to the consump-
tion of fixed capital in national accounting and is calculated separately for the purposes of
national accounts. Depreciation of assets applies to households as well as industries (see IRIS).
4.141. Depreciation of assets for water supply (Q.1.1.) is the loss in value of the water sup-
ply infrastructure used by economic units (i.e., both industries and households) for water
collection, treatment or supply. This includes depreciation of pumps, pipes, dams, buildings,
water tanks, vehicles and drilling rigs. Most of the depreciation may be expected in the water
supply industry (ISIC 36). Depreciation of assets for sewerage services (Q.1.2) is the loss of
value on the infrastructure used to collect, treat and dispose of wastewater, including urban
run-off. This includes depreciation of wastewater treatment plants, sewers, pumps, septic
tanks, sewerage meters, buildings and drains to collect and transport urban water run-off.
Most of the expenditure may be expected in the sewerage industry (ISIC 37).

4. Tariffs and charges

.142. There are many possible tariffs and charges related to water and wastewater treat-
4
ment services. In many cases, tariffs and charges may differ between administrative areas
or river basins, and the range may be large. In other cases, tariffs and charges may differ
depending on the economic activity of the economic unit paying. For example, it is com-
mon for tariffs and charges for households to be lower than for industries. Consequently,
each category of tariffs and charges listed below should be presented as a list or schedule of
tariffs and charges disaggregated by administrative area, river basin, industry and house-
hold, and any other major characteristic that is used to distinguish tariffs and charges for
different users.
4.143. Volumetric tariffs and charges for water supply (R.1) are charges to the users (eco-
nomic units) per unit of water supplied. Fixed charges for water supply (R.2) are fixed levies,
flat rates and other charges that are charged regardless of the volume of water supplied.
4.144. Volumetric tariffs and charges for sewage collected (R.3) are charges charged by eco-
nomic units per unit of sewage collected. Fixed charges for sewerage services (R.4) are fixed
levies, flat rates and other charges that are charged regardless of the volume of sewage collected.
4.145. In many countries, tariffs and charges vary from one national area to another. Tariffs
and charges should be presented as a list of tariffs and charges for each area.

Table IV.14
Tariffs and charges for water supply and sewerage services

R. Tariffs and charges for water supply and sewerage services

R.1. Volumetric tariffs and charges for water supply
R.2. Fixed charges for water supply
R.3. Volumetric tariffs and charges for sewage collected
R.4. Fixed charges for sewerage services
 Water data items 75

E. Water-related social-demographic data items

1. Main source of drinking water
4 .146. Main source of drinking water is the origin of drinking water used most of the time
by the population (i.e., the main source of drinking). The source of drinking water is disag-
gregated into two categories: improved drinking water sources (S.1) and unimproved drink-
ing water sources (S.2). These data items are aligned with MDG indicator 7.8 (for additional
guidance, see WHO, 2006).120
Table IV.15
Data items for the main source of drinking water used by populations (MDG)

S. Population by main source of drinking water

S.1. Population using improved water sources
S.1.1. Piped water into housing unit/living quarters
S.1.1.1. Connection to water supply network
S.1.1.2. Other piped water into housing unit/living quarters
S.1.2. Public standpipe
S.1.3. Boreholes
S.1.4. Protected dug wells
S.1.5. Protected springs
S.1.6. Rainwater collection (collection of precipitation)
S.1.7. Bottled water (along with other improved sources for hygiene and cooking)
S.2. Population using water from unimproved drinking water sources
S.2.1. Bottled water along with other unimproved water sources for hygiene and cooking
S.2.2. Other drinking water sources

4.147. The population using an improved drinking water source (S.1) is the number of
people using household water connections, public standpipes, boreholes, protected dug wells,
protected springs, rainwater collection and bottled water (if a secondary available source is
also improved). For some purposes, it is useful to know whether the sources of drinking water
are shared between many people or are for the exclusive use of a particular household.
4.148. The population using an improved drinking water source (S.1) is disaggregated by
type of improved water source: piped water into housing units/living quarters (S.1.1), public
standpipe (S.1.2), borehole (S.1.3), protected dug well (S.1.4), protected spring (S.1.5), rain­
water collection (S.1.6), and bottled water if other improved water sources are used for hygiene
and cooking (S.1.7).
4.149. The population with piped water into their housing unit/living quarters (S.1.1) is the
number of people with their main source of drinking water coming from pipes connected to
their living quarters. This consists of population connected to water supply networks (S.1.1.1)
where the living quarters are connected by pipe to water mains, and the population with water
piped into the living quarters from another improved source (S.1.1.2) such as a protected well
or rainwater tank. The population connected to water supply networks (S.1.1.1) have their
water supplied by economic units engaged in the collection, treatment and supply of water.
This consists of people supplied by the water supply industry (ISIC 36) as well as other eco-
nomic units that collect, treat and supply water as a secondary activity.

120 WHO, 2006, “Core questions on drinking water and sanitation”. Available from http://www.wssinfo.org/pdf/
WHO_2008_Core_Questions.pdf (accessed 25 September 2009).
76 International Recommendations for Water

.150. Population using public standpipes (S.1.2) is the number of people with their main
4
source of drinking water coming from a public water point. Standpipes are also known as
taps or water fountains. Public standpipes can have one or more taps and are typically made
of brickwork, masonry or concrete. The water from the pipes is usually supplied by economic
units engaged in the collection, treatment and supply of water.
4.151. Population using boreholes (S.1.3) is the number of people with their main source
of drinking water being water abstracted from groundwater via holes in the ground that have
protective casings and covers. Boreholes may be bored, driven or drilled into the ground to
allow abstraction of groundwater from aquifers. Casings prevent the holes from caving in
as well as protecting against the infiltration of contaminated run-off (e.g., urban run-off).
Protective covers on top of casings ensure that bird droppings and animals cannot fall down
the borehole. Water is normally abstracted from boreholes using pumps.121 Boreholes include
tube wells.
4.152. Population using protected dug wells (S.1.4) is the number of people with their main
source of drinking water being water abstracted from groundwater via wells that were dug
into aquifers, with a protective lining or casing that rises above ground level, a platform and a
protective cover. A protected dug well is protected from run-off (e.g., urban run-off) because
the well lining or casing is raised above ground level, the platform diverts spilled water away
from the well, and the protective cover ensures that bird droppings and animals cannot fall
down the well. Water may be drawn from wells via pumps or other mechanical means (e.g.,
a rope and bucket).
4.153. Population using protected springs (S.1.5.) is the number of people belonging to
households and institutions with their main source of drinking water being abstracted from
groundwater via springs protected by spring boxes. A spring box is a structure constructed
of brick, masonry or concrete, built around the spring so that water flows directly out of
the box into a pipe without being exposed to outside contamination from bird droppings,
animals or run-off.
4.154. Population using rainwater collection (collection of precipitation) (S.1.6) is the num-
ber of people with their main source of drinking water being the collection of rain, snow,
sleet, hail, mist or dew, stored in containers, tanks or cisterns (e.g., roof rainwater harvesting).
This water can be collected, or harvested from such surfaces as roofs, paved surfaces and other
types of impermeable surfaces that direct water into storage tanks.
4.155. Population using bottled water (along with other improved sources for hygiene and
cooking) (S.1.7) is the proportion of people with their main source of drinking water being
from other economic units in closed bottles (20 litres in size or less). Bottled water includes
only water that has been commercially bottled and excludes bottles filled by household mem-
bers to store water collected from other sources. MDG indicator 7.8 requires that for bottled
water to be included in the proportion of population using an improved drinking water
source, there must be a source of improved water available for personal hygiene and cooking.
4.156. Population using unimproved drinking water sources (S.2) consists of the number of
people using bottled water where an unimproved water source is used for hygiene or cooking
(S.2.1), and all other sources of water (S.2.2). Other sources of water include mobile vendors,
tanker trucks, unprotected wells, unprotected springs and surface water.

2. Main sanitation facilities

4.157. Main sanitation facilities are the facilities used most of the time to receive human
excreta—faeces and urine. Main sanitation facilities are disaggregated into two categories:
improved sanitation facilities (T.1) and unimproved sanitation facilities (T.2). These data
items are aligned with MDG indicator 7.9. For assessing the access of the population to the

121 The pump may be powered by humans, animals, wind, electricity, diesel fuel or solar energy, for example.
 Water data items 77

sanitation facilities, it is important to know whether these facilities are shared by more than
one household or are for the exclusive use of a particular household.
Table IV.16
Data items for the main type of toilet and sewage disposal used by populations (MDG)

T. Population by type of toilet and sewage disposal used

T.1. Population using improved sanitation facilities
T.1.1. Flush/pour or flush toilet to piped sewer system
T.1.1.1. Connected to wastewater treatment
T.1.1.2. Not connected to wastewater treatment
T.1.2. Flush/pour or flush toilet to septic tank
T.1.3. Flush/pour or flush toilet to pit
T.1.4. Ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine
T.1.5. Pit latrine with slab
T.1.6. Composting toilet/latrine
T.2. Population using unimproved sanitation facilities

4 .158. Population using improved sanitation facilities (T.1) is the number of people that use
flush/pour flush toilets or latrines piped to sewers (T.1.1), septic tanks (T.1.2) and pits (T.1.3);
ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrines (T.1.4); pit latrines with slabs (T.1.5); or composting
toilets/latrines (T.1.6).
4.159. A flush toilet uses a cistern or holding tank for flushing water and has a water seal,
which is a U-shaped pipe, below the seat or squatting pan that prevents the passage of flies
and odours. A pour flush toilet uses a water seal, but unlike a flush toilet, a pour flush toilet
uses water poured by hand for flushing (no cistern is used).122
4.160. Population using a flush/pour or flush toilet to a piped sewer system (T.1.1) is the
number of people that use flush toilets or pour flush toilets that empty by pipe into sewers
(a network of pipes designed to collect and remove sewage, including human excreta—i.e.,
faeces and urine122). Sewers are usually operated by the sewerage industry (ISIC, Rev. 4, div.
37) but are also operated by economic units engaged in sewerage collection as a secondary
activity. Sewers or sewerage systems may deliver sewage to treatment plants or may discharge
it without treatment into the environment.
4.161. Population using a flush/pour or flush toilet to a piped sewer system connected to
wastewater treatment (T.1.1.1) is the number of people who use flush toilets or pour flush
toilets that empty by pipe into a sewer system where the sewer ultimately leads to wastewater
treatment facilities.
4.162. Population using a flush/pour or flush toilet to a piped sewer system not connected
to wastewater treatment (T.1.1.2) is the number of people that use flush toilets or pour flush
toilets that empty by pipe into sewers where the sewer does not lead to wastewater treatment
facilities, but instead the sewage is ultimately discharged into the environment without any
treatment.
4.163. Population using a flush/pour or flush toilet to a septic tank (T.1.2) is the number of
people who use flush toilets or pour flush toilets that empty by pipe into a watertight settling
tank normally located underground, away from the house or toilet.122 Septic tanks are usually
emptied by economic units classified as part of the sewerage industry (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 37) but
may also be emptied by economic units engaged in sewerage collection as a secondary activity.

122 See UNICEF, Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (MICS 3), “Instructions for interviewers”.
78 International Recommendations for Water

.164. Population using a flush/pour or flush toilet to a pit (T.1.3) is the number of people
4
who use flush toilets or pour flush toilets that empty by pipe into a hole in the ground.122
4.165. Population using a ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine (T.1.4) is the number of
people who use pit latrines that are ventilated by a pipe extending above the latrine roof, where
the open end of the vent pipe is covered with gauze mesh or fly-proof netting and the inside
of the superstructure is kept dark.122
4.166. Population using a pit latrine with a slab (T.1.5) is the number of people who use
holes in the ground for excreta collection, with a squatting slab, platform or seat that is firmly
supported on all sides, easy to clean and raised above the surrounding ground level to prevent
surface water from entering the pit.122
4.167. Population using a composting toilet/latrine (T.1.6) is the number of people who
use toilets into which excreta and carbon-rich material are added (vegetable wastes, straw,
grass, sawdust, ash) and for which special conditions are maintained to produce inoffensive
compost.
4.168. Population using unimproved sanitation facilities (T.2) is the number of people who use:
• Flush or pour flush toilets that empty into the street, a yard or plot, artificial channel
or some other nearby location, excluding flush or pour flush toilets that empty into
pits, septic tanks or sewers122
• Pit latrines without slabs, for example, a hole in the ground for excreta collection,
which does not have a squatting slab, platform or seat122
• Open pits, that is, simple holes in the ground to collect excreta122
• Buckets for the collection of faeces (and sometimes urine and anal cleaning material),
which are periodically removed for treatment or disposal122
• Hanging toilet/hanging latrines built over the sea, a river or other body of water, into
which excreta drops directly122
• No toilet facilities; for example, using bushes, trees, ditches or open spaces (such as
fields, drainage channels, beaches, rivers or the sea) as a toilet, or burying excreta in
dirt122
Part two
Guidelines for implementation
 81

Chapter V
Data-collection strategy

A. Introduction
5.1. Part one of IRWS outlines the key concepts (chaps. II and III) and data items
(chap. IV) that countries are recommended to compile as part of a comprehensive water
statistics programme. Part two provides information on how those concepts and data items
can be used in countries to produce water statistics. The establishment of a water statistics
programme will start with the development of a data-collection strategy.
5.2. A data-collection strategy provides an agreed understanding of data needs and insti-
tutional arrangements, as well as a set of priorities for the development of water statistics
within countries. It clearly describes the roles and responsibilities of the main water data users
and producers, including the institutional arrangements for ensuring the regular production
of high-quality water statistics. This is particularly important since in many countries the
institutional arrangements (e.g., legislation, formal and informal arrangements between agen-
cies and data flows) for IWRM are poorly defined or confusing,123 which can lead to similar
challenges in the production of water statistics. An important benefit of the development
of a data-collection strategy is that it encourages the decision makers and policy analysts to
consider the data they need to be more effective.
5.3. The development of a data-collection strategy is a difficult undertaking because of
the large number of institutions typically involved in water management and the production
of water statistics. This often results in overlapping or ambiguous responsibilities that may
lead to unnecessary duplication of data-collection activities, significant gaps and deficiencies
in existing water statistics, and an inability to integrate water statistics from different data
sources. Integration of water statistics with other social-demographic, economic and environ-
mental statistics can also be affected.
5.4. The purposes of a data-collection strategy include:
• Determining the needs of the users of water statistics
• Reviewing existing water statistics, including:
• Increasing the knowledge of existing water statistics and related data sources and
methods
• Assessing the use, accessibility and quality of existing water statistics (see chap.
VII)
• Identifying the gaps or deficiencies of current data collections
• Setting priorities for the production of water statistics
• Strengthening the institutional arrangements for the production and use of water
statistics, including:
• Facilitating the coordination between data producers and data users (i.e., all stake-
holders in water statistics)

123 GWP, 2004, Catalyzing Change: A handbook for developing integrated water resources management (IWRM) and
water efficiency strategies, available from http://www.gwpforum.org/servlet/PSP?iNodeID=215&itemId=496; see,
in particular, section entitled “Institutional roles”.
82 International Recommendations for Water

• Facilitating collaboration and coordination within agencies

• Providing a realistic plan for improving water statistics, including:
• Increasing the accessibility of data to decision makers and others
• Eliminating or at least greatly reducing duplication of data collection by differ-
ent agencies (thus enabling resources to be freed to address gaps or deficiencies in
water statistics)
• Ensuring that different data sources use consistent concepts and definitions—these
should be the definitions of the data items (see chap. IV) and the related concepts
and classifications (see chaps. II and III), including consistent temporal and spatial
references and harmonizing of data presentation formats
5.5. A data-collection strategy should balance the needs of data users with the resources
available to data producers and devise an appropriate work programme to meet the objectives
of the strategy. A critical part of the development of the strategy is to involve data users and
the developers of water policy, in particular, to ensure that the issues of most relevance to
them are supported by data as quickly as possible. This is usually done by prioritizing data
items, reviewing currently available data and their quality, and then assessing the options for
increasing the number of data items produced and improving the quality of existing data. The
options for producing the data items and for addressing the information gaps and deficiencies
are outlined in more detail in chapter VI. Cost will be a major consideration when collect-
ing data, and in most cases priorities and data quality will have to be balanced with the cost
of data collection. Data producers should also consult with other data producers and data
compilers to identify common data requirements and coordinate activities, thus minimizing
respondent burdens and ensuring consistency of data.
5.6. Data-collection strategies address both short-term and long-term aspects of improv-
ing water statistics. Long-term aspects include identifying the priority areas for improvements
(e.g., increasing the scope, coverage and quality of water statistics, using common classifica-
tions), while the key short-term aspect is to provide a clear plan for efficiently producing and
developing water statistics. This includes identifying what can be done with existing resources
and what additional resources may be needed to address priority information gaps and defi-
ciencies. The short-term aspects of the strategy can be addressed in an implementation plan.
5.7. Figure V.1 presents an overview of the process of developing a data-collection strat-
egy for water statistics. It is presented as a series of discrete steps, although in reality some of
the steps are undertaken simultaneously and may overlap. In addition, it is important to note
that the process is a cycle.
5.8. To begin the process, an agency needs to take the lead. The lead agency usually
identifies the issues at a general level and then engages other agencies to develop a process
whereby the data issues can be explored in greater depth. Leadership can come from a range
of agencies, but it is most often assumed by the national statistical office or a water or envi-
ronment government agency.
5.9. Chapter V guides users through the necessary steps in the development of a data-
collection strategy and describes the issues that need to be addressed by such strategies.
This information is arranged under the following headings: determination of data needs
(sect. B), stakeholders and institutional arrangements (sect. C), review of existing water sta-
tistics (sect. D), prioritization (sect. E) and agreement on roles and responsibilities (sect. F).

B. Determination of data needs

5.10. IWRM recognizes that stakeholder participation and the institutional framework
are vital considerations for efficient water management.124 This is also true for the produc-

124 See GWP, 2008, “Developing and managing river basins: the need for adaptive, multilevel, collaborative insti-
tutional arrangements” (http://www.gwpforum.org/gwp/library/River%20basins_Brief%20IWMI_GWP.pdf).
 Data-collection strategy 83

Figure V.1
Process for developing a data-collection strategy for water statistics

1. Determination of data needs

• Identify and consult with users and
producers of water statistics (i.e., stakeholders)
• Identify water-related environmental,
social or economic issues
• Identify key water
policy questions to be answered

5. Production of data-collection strategy, covering: 2. Review of existing water statistics, including:

• Water statistics to be produced • Legal and institutional arrangements (i.e., current
and frequency of production roles, responsibilities and resources for collection,
• Legal and institutional arrangements compilation and dissemination of water statistics)
for producing water statistics and any barriers to producing water statistics
• Roles and responsibilities for the • Resources available for producing water statistics
different agencies in the production • Identification of data gaps and data-quality issues
of water statistics
• Timeline for implementation

4. Agreement on roles and 3. Prioritization of data by:

responsibilities and resources for • Data item
producing water statistics, including:
• Geographic region (i.e., spatial reference)
• Agreement on data access
and confidentiality • Reference period and frequency
• Industry or household
• Water resource

tion of water statistics and the determination of data needs. The stakeholders are the users
and producers of water statistics, while an institutional framework refers to the laws or
other formal provisions that assign responsibilities to agencies for water management or the
production of water statistics. This includes the arrangements or procedures used to facili-
tate data-sharing and the coordination of statistical activity. Stakeholders and institutional
arrangements are described in more detail in section C. Data needs also include those of the
international community.
5.11. The first step in the process of developing a data-collection strategy is the determi-
nation of data needs based on the policy questions or issues of greatest significance to coun-
tries. Many countries have national water strategies or water policies that include explicit
statistical requirements or may have specific questions related to water issues. However,
it is common that the data required be inferred from the objectives and goals of national
water policies, other documents and specific water policy questions. For example, a policy
that establishes the goal of full cost recovery in water supply and sewerage treatment may
not state the need for data but would infer the need for the monetary data items L-R. It is
also the case that some data items may be needed to address issues in particular industries
or regions.
5.12. In many cases, a national water policy does not exist or, if one does exist, the data
needs may not be easy to identify. In such cases, it is particularly important for stakeholders
to work together to determine data needs, prioritize those needs and agree on the responsi-
bilities of particular agencies for the production of different data items. This can be a difficult
84 International Recommendations for Water

task, particularly where human and financial resources are limited and the institutional
framework for data production is poorly developed.

C. Stakeholders and institutional arrangements

1. Stakeholders
5.13. The stakeholders typically involved in the production and use of water statistics
include:
• National statistical offices
• Government agencies (at the national, state/provincial or local levels) responsible for:
• Water
• Meteorology and hydrology
• Agriculture
• Environment (including environment protection authorities)
• Energy (especially where there is significant use of hydropower)
• Central planning
• Finance (or central banks)
• Geology or geological survey
• Land use and land planning
• Water suppliers and sewerage service providers (government and non-government)
• Water research organizations (e.g., government agencies, universities)
• Non-governmental organizations (e.g., water industry associations, farmer associa-
tions)
5.14. The types of data used and produced by these organizations vary, as do the methods
used in the production of statistics (for more detail, see chapter VI). Some agencies will be large
and operate in a number of locations and it is common for one agency to have management or
data-collection functions in a variety of places. In addition, different parts of a single agency
may have different responsibilities and interests. In such cases, high-level coordination may be
needed to address the possibility of conflicting views originating from within one agency.

2. Institutional arrangements
5.15. The development of a data-collection strategy occurs within the context of institutional
arrangements and the historical roles and responsibilities of different agencies. It is essential to
fully understand the legal and administrative responsibilities of the agencies producing and
using water statistics. It is common for government agencies to have responsibilities for water
policy, water management and the production of water statistics. It is also common to have
responsibilities spread over different levels of government. For example, sometimes water man-
agement is the responsibility of state/provincial or local governments or regional authorities.
5.16. Responsibilities for water management and water statistics are often divided by
economic activity. For example, a government agency responsible for agriculture may have
responsibility for the management of irrigated agriculture and the collection of data on the
water used by agriculture (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 01), while a national statistical office may have
responsibility for the economic statistics related to all industries, including water supply and
sewerage industries (ISIC, Rev. 4, divs. 36 and 37, respectively).
5.17. Responsibilities for water statistics can also be divided in terms of data items. For
example, an agency responsible for the environment may have responsibility for statistics
related to water pollution (e.g., data items J-K), while an agency responsible for meteorology
may monitor and report precipitation (data item B.1). In some cases, there will be overlapping
areas (i.e., the same or similar data are collected by different organizations).
 Data-collection strategy 85

5.18. Many agencies produce water information for their own monitoring, analysis or
enforcement purposes. Often these data are unknown or unavailable to other agencies (both
users and producers of water statistics) that could use these data for other purposes. Even
if agencies are aware of what data exist, they may not have access to the data, metadata or
information on data quality. In such cases, they may be unable to determine how well these
data might meet their own needs or those of other potential data users.
5.19. The legal framework, official roles and responsibilities of the agencies involved in water
management and the production of water statistics vary between countries. All countries need
mechanisms for the coordination of water statistics and these should be described in the data-
collection strategy. Some countries may need to establish coordination mechanisms, while oth-
ers will already have them. Coordination is often done through committees or working groups
on water statistics composed of the main users and producers of data. These committees or
working groups can be the result of formal agreements or memorandums of understanding.
5.20. Regardless of whether they have to be established or already exist, the committees
or working groups need to address both strategic issues and practical considerations. Stra-
tegic issues include what data should be produced, when it should be produced and which
organizations should be responsible for the collection, integration and dissemination of water
statistics. Practical considerations include such issues as what methods are to be used to collect
and process the data, as well as in what format the data are to be disseminated. Coordination
usually works at two levels. For example, a high-level committee addresses the strategic issues
of what to produce and who will produce it, while a working group (or working groups) focus
on the practical considerations of how to produce water statistics.
5.21. The coordination mechanisms should include regular meetings of stakeholders. This
provides a platform for cooperation and helps to promote a sound understanding of data
requirements. It may also help to identify in advance changes to surveys or administrative
processes that may affect the availability of data, and alternative arrangements to be made.
Similarly, a coordination mechanism may enable surveys or administrative processes to be
modified to suit the data needs of a larger number of users, and allow for the synchronization
of survey activity and publication of data. To assist with coordination, it is useful for each
producer of water statistics to identify a focal point or main contact for data-related issues,
such as a person in charge of water statistics or information management.
5.22. As mentioned in the introduction, an agency needs to take the lead in water statis-
tics. However, in some countries there may be no single lead agency but rather several agen-
cies taking leadership in different areas of water statistics or at different times. For example,
national statistical agencies may take the lead in the physical flows within the economy and
the monetary data items, while water or environment agencies may take the lead in physical
stocks and waterborne emissions. Whether or not a lead agency is identified, it is imperative
that agencies work together to produce a comprehensive range of water statistics.

3. Data-sharing
5.23. The sharing of data between agencies has many benefits. For the collectors, cost
may be eliminated or reduced compared to the cost of initiating a new data collection, if the
information can be obtained from existing data sources. Data-sharing also eliminates the pos-
sibility of conflicting data being produced, and can reduce the burden (i.e., data are collected
only once and used by multiple agencies) of respondents, in this case the establishments or
households that are reporting the data.
5.24. The sharing of data between agencies can occur in a number of ways, but because of
sensitivities about data confidentiality, such arrangements need to be formalized, usually by
data-sharing agreements. In some cases, environmental information systems may be estab-
86 International Recommendations for Water

lished.125 Some of the practicalities and legal aspects of accessing water statistics and sharing
data will be discovered during the identification and review of current water statistics (see
sects. D and E); a common problem is that some agencies are unwilling or unable to share
data for legal, institutional or other reasons.
5.25. Often, agencies will be unwilling to share data because they fear that the sharing
of data will reveal information that may be used unfairly against them, or that it will expose
data gaps and deficiencies for which they could be criticized. They may also believe that there
is no benefit in sharing data and that by sharing data they will weaken their own position.
5.26. In such cases, the data-collection strategy will need to articulate clearly the value
added by sharing data and should address the concerns of agencies worried about the conse-
quences of exposing their data to great scrutiny or that their importance may be diminished
by so doing. If these concerns are not addressed, there is little chance that the agencies will
accept the strategy and agree to share data.
5.27. Data-sharing agreements should clearly define procedures for requesting, sharing
and attributing data. Since data are usually transferred in electronic formats, these formats
must be agreed on and special attention should be paid to the security of the data dur-
ing transfer (e.g., during transmission via the Internet). They also need to include agreed
metadata (see chap. VII) and provide a clear statement of the purposes for which the shared
data may be used. It is usual to specify that the data may be used only for statistical pur-
poses and that data relating to individual statistical units will remain confidential. That is,
the data of individual units cannot be disclosed to third parties and the data collected for
statistical purposes cannot be used for compliance and enforcement. National statistical
offices in particular will always need to guarantee the confidentiality of the data collected
by them in surveys. Agreements should also specify how the data are to be acknowledged
in the publications of other agencies.
5.28. To maintain the trust and confidence of those providing data via surveys or other
means (i.e., the respondents), all producers of water statistics need to have procedures in place
to prevent the disclosure of individual unit record data. These include:
• Rules and regulations to prevent disclosure, including penalties for disclosing confi-
dential data
• Restrictions of access to individual data to those that require the information in the
performance of their statistical duties
• Special aggregation rules and output review procedures to prevent residual disclo-
sure when aggregations of survey or other confidential data are disseminated (see
chap. VIII)
• Protection of the individual data when unit records are made available for research
purposes (e.g., by making all records anonymous or ensuring that access to data is
bound by confidentiality provisions)
• Appropriate guarding of the confidentiality of data during storage and the process of
the destruction of records
• Steps to secure the premises of the data-producing agency and its computer systems
to prevent unauthorized access to individual data
5.29. In the case of water statistics, confidentiality can present a problem for the water
supply and sewerage industries (ISIC, Rev. 4, divs. 36 and 37), because in some countries
there are very few establishments engaged in the activities of these industries and there may
be monopoly providers for water supply and sewerage services. This problem grows with
increasing levels of geographic detail (i.e., it is more serious at the river basin level than at
the national level) and industry disaggregation (i.e., it is more serious at the class or 4-digit
125 See, for example, Status of Environment Statistics in Mauritius: Country Report (2007). Available from http://
unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/envpdf/UNSD_UNEP_ECA%20Workshop/Mauritius.pdf (accessed 4 Janu-
ary 2010).
 Data-collection strategy 87

level than at the division or 2-digit level of ISIC, Rev. 4). In these cases, data producers
will need to work with the units and industries affected and agree on the level of detail that
may be disclosed.

D. Review of existing water statistics

5.30. The development of water statistics in countries and the production of a data-
collection­strategy requires a careful review of the existing water statistics. The purpose is to
identify what data currently exist, determine the quality of the data and assess it against data
needs identified, in order to establish priorities for the collection of additional data or the
improvement of the quality of existing data.
5.31. The water statistics identified will probably be in the form of data sets, which are a
collection of data items about a particular statistical population or populations, such as house-
holds, establishments, or a particular water resource (e.g., artificial reservoirs or rivers). The
information in the data sets identified should be compared against the list of recommended
data items (chap. IV) and catalogued.
5.32. The catalogue should include metadata (see chap. VII), including the name of the
dataset, the agency responsible for its production, a contact name within the agency, the data
items contained in the dataset, the methods and classifications used, the frequency of pro-
duction, and the scope and coverage of the data set (e.g., the temporal and spatial references,
industries covered, the types of economic units or water resources about which data are held).
5.33. Each data set should also be assessed against data quality criteria. A number of frame-
works for assessing the quality of statistics have been developed by international, national and
other statistical organizations.126 The elements of data quality and how these may be assessed
are set out in more detail in chapter VII.
5.34. The data gaps and deficiencies identified from the review should be listed explicitly.
This process should identify data items not collected by any agency; those that are collected
but are of poor quality or limited in scope or coverage (temporal, geographic, industry, etc);
those that are based on historical estimates or on limited data; and those that are inaccessible
for legal reasons or because the institutional framework is poor.
5.35. A common finding from this process is that government agencies do not use the
same classification systems. In particular, the classification of industries may not be consist-
ent with ISIC. In this case, agencies should be encouraged to use ISIC and, as an interim
measure, a concordance between the industry classification in use and ISIC can be developed.

E. Prioritization
5.36. While the recommended list of data items (chap. IV) should be compiled by all coun-
tries, it is recognized that not all countries will have the resources available to produce high-
quality statistics for all data items in the short to medium terms. Therefore, it will be necessary
for many countries to identify the highest-priority data items, industries (e.g., agriculture, water
supply industry) and geographic regions (e.g., densely populated regions, water-scarce regions) for
their particular circumstances. It is often the case that there is a significant overlap of priorities.
For example, because agriculture is a large water user, data item E, abstraction of water (in par-
ticular by agriculture (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 01)) in rural regions will be a priority for most countries.
5.37. While recognizing resource constraints and the need for prioritization, the long-term
aim of a data-collection strategy should be to provide a clear view of how all of the data items
in chap. IV for the main ISIC groupings and all of the river basins wholly or partly within a
country can be produced.

126 For more details, see chap. VII.

88 International Recommendations for Water

1. Prioritizing data items

5.38. Chapter IV breaks the data items down into 16 categories. Different data items will
be more relevant to some countries than to others. For example, water-scarce countries (e.g.,
those with low or highly variable rainfall) could be expected to focus more on water avail-
ability (data items A-E) and water use within the economy (data items F-G). Countries with
a large manufacturing industry may focus more on waterborne emissions (data items J and
K) than countries without significant manufacturing. In addition, agencies within countries
will have different priorities based upon their mandate and the needs of their data users. For
example, a meteorological agency will have as one of its first priorities data on precipitation
(data item B.1), whereas a national statistical office will probably have as priority data the
population using improved water sources (data item S).

2. Prioritizing geographic regions

5.39. National water statistics need to be disaggregated to be more useful for water man-
agement and policymaking. Within countries, different geographic regions will have differ-
ent environmental, economic and social-demographic characteristics. With respect to envi-
ronmental characteristics, regions that have low levels of precipitation or are dependent on
groundwater or water from neighbouring territories are likely to have a higher priority for
data when compared to regions with relatively abundant amounts of water.
5.40. With respect to the economic characteristics of different regions, those with large
water-using industries or industries that generate large amounts of pollution will be more
important than the regions with industries using lesser amounts of water and producing
less pollution. Rural regions will be important because agriculture (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 01)
uses large volumes of water and is also a significant source of diffuse waterborne emissions.
Regions where there is a significant concentration of manufacturing industries (ISIC, Rev. 4,
divs. 10-33) may also be important since they are typically a significant producer of point-
source pollution (i.e., waterborne emissions). Regions regularly subjected to flooding, where
water quality is naturally low or where historical activity has polluted the environment may
also be important areas for water statistics.
5.41. Regions with large or growing populations or economies may also be a priority.
These are likely to have a large or increasing demand for water and sewerage services by
households, as well as growing demands for water in use by industries.
5.42. Water resources that are shared between countries, for example, where a river forms
a border or where water flows from one country to another, are likely to be priority regions
for countries. They may be especially important where rivers and river basins span several
countries (e.g., the Danube, Mekong, Nile and Zambezi rivers).

3. Prioritizing frequency of data production

5.43. For the purposes of higher-level decision-making by Governments, it is usually suf-
ficient to have water statistics produced at annual intervals. However, different data items
may be available at different frequencies from different data sources. For example, it is usual
for water suppliers (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 36) to monitor the amount of water stored in artifi-
cial reservoirs (data item A.1.1) daily. This is because the amount changes frequently due to
natural transfers (data item D) and the abstraction of water by the economy (data item E),
which is important for the purposes of managing this particular water resource. However,
for national, high-level decision-making it is usually not necessary to have such detail, even
if it is available. The frequency of data production should be dictated by the rate of change in
the data item being measured and the purpose for which the data are used. This will mean
that some data may be produced annually, while other data may be produced at shorter (e.g.,
monthly or quarterly) or longer (e.g., biennial, three-, four- or five-yearly) intervals.
 Data-collection strategy 89

4. Prioritizing industries and households

5.44. Industries of particular relevance to water statistics because they supply or use signifi-
cant volumes of water or are significant sources of waterborne emissions are the water supply
(ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 36), sewerage (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 37), agriculture (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 01),
electricity (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 35) and manufacturing (ISIC, Rev. 4, divs. 10-33) industries.
These industries are described in detail in chapter III. There may be other industries that are
important for particular countries, such as the industries associated with tourism in areas
with high tourism where water may be limited (e.g., small islands). Furthermore, while some
countries will find the divisions (two-digit code) of ISIC, Rev. 2, sufficient, other countries
may find that disaggregation of some divisions to groups (three-digit code) or classes (four-
digit code) is required.
5.45. It is also common practice in most countries to prioritize the larger establishments
of the economy (as determined by economic measures such as value added and employment),
regardless of their industry classification. This is because large establishments are generally
more important than smaller units in estimation procedures (and therefore should be com-
pletely enumerated if they are surveyed).
5.46. In addition to industries, households are almost always a high priority in countries.
The health and well-being of people are closely associated with access to water and improved
sanitation facilities, and in recognition of these data items (S and T, respectively) are included
in the Millennium Development Goals.

5. Prioritizing water resources

5.47. Within countries, different water resources will be important. In all countries, pre-
cipitation (B.1) will be a critical data item, especially because of changing patterns of precipi-
tation due to climate change. In addition, in most countries the volume of water in artificial
reservoirs (A.1.1) and groundwater (A.2), as well as the abstractions of water by economic
units from these and other water resources (data item E.1), will be priority data items. For
countries with water flowing into or out of their territory via rivers or groundwater, the data
items on inflow (B.2) and outflow (C.2) are also critical.

F. Agreement on roles and responsibilities

5.48. Once the existing data and institutional arrangements are known, understood and
assessed against the priorities for information, an agreement on which data items are to be
produced by which agencies is needed. This agreement should be accepted by the main users
and producers of water statistics and published as part of the data-collection strategy.
5.49. The identification of the agencies responsible for specific data items is a critical part
of the agreement and the strategy. It may be useful to show the agencies responsible for the
different data items in a tabular form (see table V.1; this example is a generalization but it
provides a clear overview of which agencies will produce which data items). Such tables can
be elaborated by countries to show the organizations and data items appropriate to them, as
well as to show the details of frequency, time of production, spatial resolution, etc.
5.50. The strategy should also provide the main working details of data production, such
as a timetable, the identification of methods (see chap. VI) and general strategies to be used
to produce the required data items. For example, the strategy may identify a “bottom-up” or
“top-down” approach to the collection and compilation of different data items.
5.51. An example of the “bottom-up” approach would be to collect or compile the statis-
tics from sources associated with each river basin within a territory of reference and to add
these together to provide a national total. This is typically the starting point for the inland
water resources stocks and flows within the environment (data items A-D). The “top-down”
90 International Recommendations for Water

Table V.1
Organizations generally responsible for specific data items

Organization responsible

Government
Government Government Government agency responsible
agency agency agency Government agency for hydrology/
responsible responsible for responsible for responsible for meteorology/geological Research
Data items for water the environment agriculture national statistics surveys organization
Stocks of For all data items except Data item A.3
water in the A.3
environment
(data item A)
Flows of water For all data items except Data item C.1
within the C.1
environment
(data items B
and C)
Flows of water For all For agriculture For all industries
from the industries except water supply
environment to and agriculture
the economy
(data item E)
Flows of water For water For all industries
within the supply and except water supply
economy (data sewerage and sewerage
items F and G) industries industries
Flows of water For water For agriculture For all industries
from the supply and except agriculture,
economy to the sewerage water supply and
environment industries sewerage industries
(data items H)
Losses of water For water
from distribution supply and
networks and sewerage
wastewater industries
collection
systems (data
item I)
Waterborne For all data
emissions (data items
items J and K)
Monetary stocks For water For agriculture For all industries
and flows related supply and except agriculture,
to water (data sewerage water supply and
items L-R) industries sewerage industries
Population (data For all data items
items S and T)

approach would be to collect or compile information for the total territory of reference from
national sources, which is often the starting point for the flows of water within the economy
(data items F and G) and the monetary data items (data items L and R). When both of these
approaches are used for the same data items, the strategy should address how these data will
be integrated.
 Data-collection strategy 91

5.52. The fully elaborated data-collection strategy, covering the statistics to be produced,
the legal and institutional arrangements, the roles and responsibilities of the different agencies
and the timeline for implementation, should be made available in a published form and its
implementation should be regularly monitored.
5.53. In the Latin America and Caribbean region, it has been very useful to have a formal
inter-agency committee or round table that plans, at the national level, the collection of water
statistics and environmental statistics in general. These committees are composed of high-
level decision makers representing the major stakeholders in the country. These committees
have improved the sustainability of the inter-agency work on water statistics in countries
where such programmes have traditionally been vulnerable to changes in the administration,
for example, as well as to staff turnover. This mechanism also has the benefit of allowing agen-
cies to plan and allocate the necessary time and resources to collaborative work with other
agencies, knowing they have the support of high-level decision makers.
 93

Chapter VI
Data sources and methods

A. Introduction
6.1. Water statistics rely on many data sources and a variety of data-collection and com-
pilation methods. In general the data falls into two distinct categories: data on the physical
environment (i.e., stocks and flows of water in the environment) and physical and monetary
data regarding water and economic units (e.g., flows of water between the environment and
the economy and flows of water within the economy). The data sources and collection meth-
ods used to produce the data items depend on the practices in countries, including the insti-
tutional arrangements and level of human and financial resources available.
6.2. Data on the physical environment are usually collected by direct (scientific) observa-
tion by agencies responsible for hydrological and meteorological monitoring and research.
Data from or about economic units (i.e., establishments and households)127 are usually col-
lected by two basic means: accessing data collected for administrative and other non-statistical­
purposes or by direct statistical surveys. In either case, the original providers of the data and
the original sources of the data are the same, namely, the economic units and the records
kept by these units. Surveys are usually conducted by the national statistical system, while
administrative data are held by many government agencies and some NGOs.
6.3. Chapter VI describes the main data sources and methods used in water statistics. A
general overview (sect. B) is followed by the detailed description of survey data and methods
(sect. C), administrative data (sect. D), hydrological and meteorological data (sect. E), and
research data (sect. F). Each of these data sources are discussed with reference to a description
of the data, the agencies that keep the data, advantages and difficulties of using each data
source and how they are related to the data items in chapter IV. Section G deals with survey
frames, which are the lists of statistical units for/from which data are collected and compiled.
6.4. More detailed information on data sources and methods will be provided in the
data-compilation guidelines that will be published to support IRWS and may also be found
in a range of other resources accessible via the Internet, many of which are referenced in the
following sections of chapter VI.

1. Note on terminology and references

6.5. The terminology and definitions used in chapters VI to VIII are derived primarily
from the common vocabulary for the Statistical Data and Metadata eXchange (SDMX),128
although other sources, such as the OECD glossary of statistical terms129 and other references
are also used, as appropriate.

127 See chap. III.

128 See SDMX, available from http://www.sdmx.org/ (accessed 15 June 2009); SDMX is sponsored by BIS, ECB,
Eurostat, IBRD, IMF, OECD and the United Nations.
29 OECD, Glossary of Statistical Terms. Available from http://stats.oecd.org/glossary/ (accessed 15 June 2009).
1
94 International Recommendations for Water

6.6. The following terms used in chapter VI are taken from the SDMX Glossary of
Statistical Terms,130 unless otherwise noted:
• Data source: a specific data set, metadata set, database or metadata repository from
which data or metadata may be obtained
• Datasets: any organized collection of data
• Derived data: data items derived from other data items using mathematical, logical or
other types of transformations, e.g., arithmetic formula, composition or aggregation
• Estimates: values inferred from incomplete data sets by applying rules or methods.
Incomplete data sets include sample survey data
• Frame (or survey frame): a list, map or other specification of the units which define a
population to be completely enumerated or sampled
• Metadata: data that defines and describes other data
• Survey: an investigation about the characteristics of a given population by means of
collecting data from a sample of that population and estimating their characteristics
through the systematic use of statistical methodology

B. Overview of data sources

6.7. The main data sources used for producing the data items of IRWS consist of:
• Survey data
• Administrative data
• Hydrological/meteorological data
• Research data
6.8. Surveys and administrative data sources are used mostly to produce the data from or
about economic units, while hydrological/meteorological data and research data are used mostly
to produce the data items related to the environmental units (their stocks and flows). National
statistical offices traditionally collect data via surveys and by accessing administrative records,
and this can also include the collection of hydrological/meteorological data from other agencies.
6.9. Survey data are collected directly from the economic units concerned. This is done
either by collecting data from all the units in the population (i.e., a census) or by collecting
data from only a few representative units scientifically selected from the survey frame (i.e., a
sample survey). It should be noted that surveys under this definition are restricted to those
which collect information directly from economic units (households or establishments). Sur-
veys of physical resources, such as groundwater, conducted by technical teams are included
in hydrological/meteorological data.
6.10. Government administrative processes are often set up to monitor and enforce legislation
and regulations and this sometimes includes compiling a register of the economic units. These
registers may be of households or establishments and also contain a variety of data about these
units. For statistical purposes, most administrative data are received from government agencies.
However, administrative data may also come from NGOs, such as industry associations.
6.11. Hydrological and meteorological data concern the water cycle (see figure II.1). Such
data are usually collected by agencies responsible for weather forecasting and water resources
management but may also be collected by agencies responsible for mining or geological
surveys. Collection methods include the use of field monitoring stations (i.e., constituting a
sample) and remote-sensing, and modelling techniques are frequently used when estimating
related data items. Agencies collecting hydrological data may also collect data regarding flows
between the environment and the economy.
6.12. Research data are typically collected and compiled by universities, research agencies
or NGOs, which may have a number of research projects and programmes related to water and
130 SDMX Metadata Common Vocabulary, 2008. Available from http://data.un.org/Glossary.
aspx?q=datamart[SDMX (accessed 10 July 2009).
 Data sources and methods 95

associated with agriculture, Earth sciences, economics, engineering and environmental studies.
NGOs sometimes undertake water-related research to influence decision-making and priority-
setting in Governments, while industry associations may also undertake research or collect
data to influence government decisions, benchmark their performance or better understand
the demand for water or sewerage services by industries and households. Research data are
often used in water statistics to fill in data gaps or to derive coefficients for estimation purposes.
6.13. Comprehensive water statistics are compiled from a combination of data sources
and a mix of microdata and macrodata. For example, a national statistical office may use the
aggregated data (i.e., macrodata) on precipitation (data item B.1) from an agency responsible
for meteorological information in a statistical publication but may derive an estimate of the
purchases of water (data item L.4) by aggregating microdata or unit record data from an
agency responsible for water management.
6.14. An overview of the data items supported by each data source is presented in table VI.1.
In general, statistical surveys and administrative records are used for compiling data items on

Table VI.1
Summary of data items supported by different data sources

Data sourcesa

Hydrological/
Types of data items (for a complete Survey Administrative meteorological Research
list, see chap. IV) data data data data
Inland water stocks (A) • • • •
Environmental flows into and out of
• •
the territory (B and C)
Natural transfers of water between
• •
inland water resources (D)
Flows from the environment to the
• • • •
economy (E)
Flows within the economy (F and G) • • •
Flows from the economy to the
• • •
environment (H)
Losses from distribution networks and
• • •
wastewater collection systems (I)
Flows of waterborne emissions within
• • •
the economy (J)
Flows of waterborne emissions from
• • • •
the economy to the environment (K)
Value and costs of water and sewerage
• • •
services (L)
Taxes and subsidies for water and
• • •
sewerage services (M and N)
Assets and capital expenditures
related to water supply and sewerage • • •
services (O-Q)
Tariffs and charges for water supply
• • •
and sewerage services (R)
Population using improved water
• • •
sources (MDG) (S)
Population using improved sanitation
• • •
facilities (MDG) (T)
a  Links between data items and data sources are indicative.
96 International Recommendations for Water

flows of water between the environment and the economy and within the economy, while hydro-
logical and meteorological data sources are usually used for compiling data items on stocks and
flows of water within the environment. Data from research agencies may cover all data items.

C. Survey data and methods

6.15. There are two types of surveys: (a) censuses and (b) sample surveys. A census is a
survey that collects data from the entire population of interest. A sample survey is a survey
carried out using a sampling method, i.e., in which data are collected from a portion of the
population of interest only and not the whole population.131 The portion of the population
surveyed is called the sample. Sampling methods are used to select the sample and ensure
that certain levels of accuracy are achieved from the survey.
6.16. Many of the data items in chapter IV are or can be collected by census or sample
survey. The type and accuracy of water data items derived from these sources depends on
many factors: the characteristics of the target population, the sample size, the survey mode,
the ability of respondents to recall or to have stored records on the data sought, the design of
questionnaires, the response rate to the survey, and the response rate to specific questions in
the survey.

1. Approaches to collection of water statistics via surveys

6.17. There are two general approaches used to collect water statistics by statistical survey.
The first approach involves adding water-related questions to surveys primarily intended
to collect data on other topics, such as adding questions to regular surveys of households
or establishments. The second approach uses surveys primarily intended to collect water
statistics. The latter approach is typically used for the water supply (ISIC 36) and sewerage
(ISIC 37) industries and large water-using industries, such as agriculture (ISIC 01) and energy
(ISIC 35), particularly if there is a significant level of hydropower generation.
6.18. A third approach is to combine the first two approaches. In this case, some basic
water-related questions are added to another questionnaire, and depending on the responses,
a second and more detailed questionnaire primarily about water may be sent. For example,
an agricultural survey may contain the question whether the respondent used water for irri-
gation. If the answer is yes, then a second, more detailed questionnaire is sent on different
aspects of water use. This approach is sometimes referred to as a two-stage survey or the use
of “trigger” questions. A two-stage survey is useful if it is expected that a large number of
population selected in the first sample survey would be out of scope or would be insignificant
contributors to total estimates.
6.19. Regardless of which approach is used, provision should be made for intensive follow-
up. All questionnaires should ask for contact details of a person to whom follow-up ques-
tions may be asked. A summary of survey data-collection methods that can be used, such as
personal interviews, self-completed survey forms and electronic data collections, is provided
in section C.5.
6.20. It is important to ensure that the measurement units used are clearly identified and
correctly reported in the questionnaire. Good questionnaire design will help to minimize the
chances of misreporting units. In some instances, conversion factors will need to be provided
(e.g., between cubic metres and acre-feet or cubic metres and megalitres).
6.21. Regardless of the approach used, in many instances the respondents to question-
naires may not have the data or knowledge necessary to answer all questions. This can lead
to a high rate of non-response or inaccurate responses. Some respondents, in particular

131 See International Statistical Institute, The Oxford Dictionary of Statistical Terms, Yadolah Dodge, ed. (Oxford
University Press, 2003).
 Data sources and methods 97

small water users, may have difficulty quantifying some water data items. To assist such
respondents, the questionnaire should provide an instruction to the effect that where the
information is not known from direct measurement, careful estimates may be reported.
Large water users will usually be able to estimate water abstraction and use figures. Over
time, the responses to questions of water can be expected to improve as those surveyed
become more familiar with the questions and as they start to store the information required
in their own recording systems.
6.22. While respondents to surveys have less reason to deliberately misreport data, when
compared with some administrative data collections used for monitoring and enforcement,
deliberate misreporting can still occur. Again, this can be minimized by good survey design,
but the degree to which the respondents trust the agency undertaking the survey will affect
the quality of the data. Surveys conducted by national statistical offices usually guarantee
that the individual data collected are strictly confidential and will be used only for statisti-
cal purposes (i.e., not for compliance or enforcement (see chap. VIII)). However, in practice
respondents may not fully trust the confidentiality guarantee and it is highly unlikely that
they will voluntarily report gross violations of the law.

Adding questions on water data items to other surveys

6.23. Adding questions on the water data items to surveys not primarily intended for
the purpose of collecting water data is a practice used in many countries. Examples include
questions added to agriculture (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 01), mining (ISIC, Rev. 4, divs. 05-09),
manufacturing (ISIC, Rev. 4, divs. 10-33) and service industry surveys, as well as house-
hold surveys and censuses of population and housing (see table VI.2). Such surveys are
usually conducted by national statistics offices or by other parts of the official statistical
system of a country.
6.24. The main advantages of adding questions to other surveys are:
• It is less expensive than collecting data by a separate survey
• The response burden is minimized
• Water data can be directly compared with other data collected
6.25. Adding questions to other surveys is less expensive than developing and running
separate surveys that primarily concern water. For example, savings are made with regard
to printing questionnaires, postage, data capture and other processes, such as questionnaire
design and testing. Using existing questionnaires minimizes response burden because only
a few extra questions are usually added. The water data collected in this way can be directly
linked to and compared with other social-demographic or economic data collected as the
primary purpose of the survey.
6.26. The main difficulties of collecting water data items by adding water-related questions
to other surveys include:
• Limited space available for additional questions in existing surveys
• The survey frame, stratification of the population and sample selection may not be
ideal for water statistics, since the main subject of the survey is not water
• Respondents may not be familiar with water terms or the information needed to
answer water-related questions
• Acceptance of additional water questions on the questionnaire by stakeholders
6.27. There is a limit to the size of survey questionnaires, which will in turn limit the
amount of water data that can be collected. In many instances, it is possible to add a small
number of questions (one to four) about water. In most cases, these will be at the end of the
questionnaire and probably as a separate group of questions, but it may also be possible to
integrate water-related questions into the original structure of the questionnaire. In industrial
surveys, for example, expenditures on water or sewerage services and investments in water
supply and sewerage infrastructure may be grouped with other types of expenditures, while
98 International Recommendations for Water

the value of water supply and sewerage infrastructure may be included under the value of
fixed assets.
6.28. Most surveys use frames and sampling strategies designed to collect and compile
accurate economic or population data. The frames and sampling strategies used for indus-
try surveys may not be particularly ideal for compiling water statistics. For example, large
water-using enterprises may not necessarily be correlated to large enterprises as measured by
number of employees or output. This may mean that the weighting of responses or imputation
for non-responses (for weighting/grossing-up procedures) may be biased for the purposes of
water statistics. It is possible to overcome this difficulty by ensuring that the variables used
to determine weights are correlated with the water data item or by adding sample units to
particular strata.
6.29. When water-related questions are added to industry surveys, it is likely that the
person responding to the questionnaire will not be familiar with water terms, concepts or the
information required to respond accurately. Typically, respondents to economic surveys are
business managers or accountants used to reporting economic data. It is therefore advisable to

Table VI.2
Types of data items that might be supported by adding water-related questions to existing
surveys

Suitability of adding questions to:a

Surveys of Surveys of establishments

population or (i.e., of industry, including
Types of data items (for a complete list, see chap. IV) households agriculture)

Inland water stocks (A) •

Environmental flows into and out of the territory
(B and C)
Natural transfers of water between inland water
resources (D)
Flows from the environment to the economy (E) • •
Flows within the economy (F and G) • •
Flows from the economy to the environment (H) • •
Losses from distribution networks and wastewater
•
collection systems (I)
Flows of waterborne emissions within the
•
economy (J)
Flows of waterborne emissions from the economy
•
to the environment (K)
Value and costs of water and sewerage services (L) • •
Taxes and subsidies for water and sewerage
• •
services (M and N)
Assets and capital expenditures related to water
• •
supply and sewerage services (O-Q)
Tariffs and charges for water supply and sewerage
• •
services (R)
Population using improved water sources (MDG) (S) •
Population using improved sanitation facilities
•
(MDG) (T)
a  Links between data items and the types of survey questions that could be added are indicative.
 Data sources and methods 99

ask for the contact details of a person to whom follow-up questions on water can be directed.
In large businesses, this could be an environmental manager.
6.30. When proposing to add water questions to existing questionnaires, there is often
resistance from those responsible for conducting the survey. Concerns about the difficultly of
questions and the ability of respondents to provide accurate data may be raised. In such cases,
it is necessary to explain the importance of the data to those responsible for conducting the
survey; to ensure that the questionnaire is well designed; and to ensure that interviewers, if
used, are appropriately trained. These issues are discussed in more detail below.

Surveys primarily intended for collecting water data

6.31. Water-specific surveys can be censuses or sample surveys. Examples of water-specific
surveys include censuses and surveys of agriculture (ISIC 01), electricity (ISIC 35),132 water
supply (ISIC 36) and sewerage (ISIC 37), other industries and households.
6.32. The advantages of collecting data by surveys primarily intended for collecting water
data are:
• The survey frame and sampling used can be selected with the specific purpose of col-
lecting and compiling water statistics
• Consistent concepts and definitions can be used in survey questions
• Confidentiality of survey data encourages honest reporting
• The most suitable type of survey mode for collecting water data can be selected
• If used, interviewers can be trained to provide clarification and guidance to responders
on water terms, concepts and definitions
6.33. Surveys primarily intended for collecting water data can use frames and sample selec-
tion that are tailored to water statistics. This ensures that the sample is better able to represent
the target population in terms of estimating the water data items. For example, the coverage
of economic units engaged in industries and geographic regions can be tailored specifically
to the needs of water statistics.
6.34. Undertaking a survey to collect data items on water allows greater control in ensur-
ing that water statistics concepts and definitions are used. Terms used in surveys may differ
from the terms used to describe the data items in chapter IV because they may be understood
to mean different things in the survey population. For this reason, the terms used in a survey
should reflect (i.e., should be translated into) the common language used by the population
being surveyed. All questionnaires should be tested to assess the best questionnaire design
to collect the data required.
6.35. When undertaking a water-specific survey, the most appropriate method for collect-
ing data can be selected. For example, because of the need to clarify some of the terms and
concepts used in water statistics, personal interviews rather than mail-out/mail-back ques-
tionnaires may be preferred (see sect. C.5). Enumerators can be trained in the use of terms
and concepts and may therefore be able to increase both the response rate and the accuracy
of responses. The method of data collection needs to be selected on the basis of expected
improvements in the quality of responses relative to the additional costs involved.
6.36. When collecting survey data from water-specific surveys, the main difficulties are:
• Additional respondent burden
• Cost in terms of finance, human resources and time
• Lack of a suitable register, list or map to use as a survey frame
6.37. Every additional survey or question in a survey adds to the response burden.
Increased response burden is known to reduce both the response rate to questionnaires and
the accuracy of those responses.

132 Electricity generators use significant quantities of water for hydroelectricity generation and for cooling in thermal
or nuclear electricity generation plants. For this reason, surveys of electricity generators often include questions
on water.
100 International Recommendations for Water

6.38. Conducting a water-specific survey is resource-intensive. For example, a frame needs

to be selected or developed, the target populations identified, samples selected, questionnaires
designed and tested and data items collected and compiled. These tasks require skilled staff
and significant amounts of time to ensure successful data collection and compilation.
6.39. In some instances, the frames for surveys may not be ideal. For example, survey
designers may lack information on the location of economic units in river basins and hence
may not allow for a sample selection to be optimized for estimating data items by river basin.

2. Household surveys
6.40. Household surveys can be used to collect water statistics. Detailed guidance on
household surveys can be found in Principles and Recommendations for Housing and Popula-
tion Censuses 2010 (PRHPC) 133 and the UNICEF/WHO Joint Monitoring Programme’s
Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 3 Manual (MICS3).134
6.41. Principles and Recommendations for Housing and Population Censuses recommends
that the following data related to household water and sanitation be collected by countries:
the water supply system, the main source of drinking water, the type of toilet, the type of
sewage disposal, bathing facilities, and the availability of hot water.
6.42. The Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey 3 Manual survey collects data about water and
sanitation, including the main source of drinking water for members of the household; the
main source of water used by the household for other purposes, such as cooking and hand-
washing; household water treatment; the time to the source of water; the person collecting
the water; and the type of toilet facility used by the household.
6.43. Data from the population and housing censuses and household surveys can be used
to compile data items on the population using improved water sources (S) and sanitation
facilities (T). These data items correspond with MDG indicators 7.8, on the use of improved
drinking water sources, and 7.9, on the use of improved sanitation facilities.
6.44. Social and demographic statistics can also be used, together with other information
and coefficients, to derive estimates on the abstraction of water from inland water resources
(E.1), the use of water (G.1), the discharge of wastewater to other economic units (e.g., sewer-
age) (F.3), and waterborne emissions to other economic units (J). This macrodata may have
significant margins of error, depending on the quality of coefficients and other information.
6.45. Household budget surveys can be used to collect monetary data on household expen-
ditures related to the use of water and sewerage services.
6.46. Household surveys with the primary purpose of collecting water data may also be
implemented. The data items that can be supported by household surveys are listed in table
VI.3. The advantages and disadvantages of water-related surveys of households are described
in paragraphs 6.31 to 6.39.

3. Industrial surveys
6.47. Industrial surveys include surveys of mining (ISIC 05-09), manufacturing (ISIC
10-33), electricity (ISIC 35), water supply (ISIC 36), sewerage (ISIC 37) and other industries
(excluding agriculture (see sect. C.4)). Surveys of these industries are usually undertaken as a
regular part of an economic statistics programme. IRIS135 provides guidance on the content
of the surveys for these industries.
6.48. IRIS recommends that the costs of water and sewerage services be collected and
compiled for all industries. These data items correspond with the purchases of water (L.4)

133 United Nations Statistics Division, 2008, available from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic/sources/

census/docs/P&R_Rev2.pdf (accessed 3 January 2009).
134 UNICEF/WHO, available from http://www.childinfo.org/mics3_manual.html (accessed 4 April 2009).
35 United Nations Statistics Division, 2008. Available from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/industry/docs/M90.pdf
1
(accessed 14 June 2009).
 Data sources and methods 101

and the purchases of sewerage services (L.5). IRIS recommends that surveys of economic
units engaged in water supply or sewerage also collect and compile data on losses in distribu-
tion, sources of water and the location of water abstraction and discharge. Industrial surveys
may include other water-related data, especially in water-scarce countries or from water-
intensive industries such as the pulp and paper, food and beverages, metal manufacturing
and electricity­-generation industries.
6.49. In addition to the data items recommended by IRIS, the water data items E-H and
K-P defined in chapter IV can be added to industry surveys. For industries of particular
interest (large water abstractors, users or significant water polluters), specific surveys may be
implemented with the primary purpose of collecting water-related data. The types of data
items that may be collected using surveys of particular industries and households are pre-
sented in table VI.3.
Table VI.3
Data items supported by water-specific surveys of industries and households

Mining and Water supply

manufacturing and sewerage
Agriculture (ISIC 5-33 and Energy (ISIC 36 and
Types of data items (for a complete list, see chap. IV) (ISIC 1)a 41-43)a (ISIC 35)a 37)a Householdsa
Inland water stocks (A) •
Environmental flows into and out of the territory (B and C)
Natural transfers of water between inland water resources (D) • •
Flows from the environment to the economy (E) • • • • •
Flows within the economy (F and G) • • • • •
Flows from the economy to the environment (H) • • • • •
Losses from distribution networks and wastewater
collection systems (I) • •
Flows of waterborne emissions within the economy (J) • • •
Flows of waterborne emissions from the economy to the
environment (K) • • • • •
Value and costs of water and sewerage services (L) • • •
Taxes and subsidies for water and sewerage services (M
and N) • • • • •
Assets and capital expenditures related to water supply
and sewerage services (O-Q) • • • • •
Tariffs and charges for water supply and sewerage
services (R) • • • • •
Population using improved water sources (MDG) (S) • •
Population using improved sanitation facilities (MDG) (T) • •
a  Links between data items and types of survey are indicative.

4. Agricultural surveys
6.50. In A system of integrated agricultural censuses and surveys, volume 1, World Pro-
gramme for the Census of Agriculture 2010,136 guidance is provided for agricultural surveys,
including the following data related to water: the area of land irrigated according to land-use
type, the area irrigated according to method of irrigation, the area irrigated for each crop

136 FAO, 2005, available from http://www.fao.org/es/ess/census/ (accessed 15 June 2009).

102 International Recommendations for Water

type, the sources of irrigation water, payment terms for irrigation water, other types of water-
management­ practice, and the presence of drainage equipment.
6.51. In addition, the water data items E-H and K-P defined in chapter IV can be col-
lected from economic units engaged in agriculture by adding questions to regular agriculture
surveys or censuses. However, because of limitations on the number of questions which may
be added, countries may choose to run a separate water-specific survey of agriculture.

5. Summary of survey data-collection methods

6.52. A range of survey methods can be used to collect water data, including personal
interviews, self-completed surveys and other methods.137 In general, personal interviews are
preferable where the data to be collected are more complex, while self-completed question-
naires are suitable where the questions are relatively straightforward and concepts are clear.

Personal interviews
6.53. Face-to-face interviews involve trained interviewers visiting people to collect ques-
tionnaire data. It is a good approach for ensuring a high response rate to a sample survey or
census, and trained interviewers usually gather better quality data. However, there are some
disadvantages to this approach. Respondents may not always be available for interviews and
the costs associated with the employment, training and travel of interviewers can be high.
6.54. Computer-assisted personal interviewing (CAPI) is a form of personal interviewing,
but instead of completing a questionnaire, the interviewer brings along a laptop or hand-held
computer to enter the information directly into the database. This method saves the time
involved in processing the data, as well as saving the interviewer from carrying around hundreds
of questionnaires. However, this type of data-collection method can be expensive to set up and
requires that interviewers have computer and typing skills. Also, in remote areas there can be
problems associated with the breakdown of computers and lack of access to repair facilities.
6.55. Telephone interviews involve trained interviewers phoning people to collect ques-
tionnaire data. This method is quicker and less expensive than face-to-face interviewing.
However, only people with telephones can be interviewed and the respondent can end the
interview very easily.
6.56. Computer-assisted telephone interviewing (CATI) is a type of telephone interview,
but in this case the interviewer keys respondent answers directly into a computer. This saves
the time involved in processing data but can be expensive to set up and requires interviewers
to have computer and typing skills; however, it is still less expensive than CAPI.

Self-completed surveys
6.57. A mail survey is a common method of conducting economic surveys. It is a relatively
inexpensive method of collecting data that can distribute large numbers of questionnaires in
a short time. It provides the opportunity to contact hard-to-reach people and respondents are
able to complete the questionnaire in their own time. Mail surveys do require an up-to-date
list of names and addresses, however. In addition, there is also the need to keep the question-
naire simple and straightforward. A major disadvantage of a mail survey is that it usually has
lower response rates than other data-collection methods. This may lead to problems with data
quality. Also, people with a limited ability to read may experience problems.
6.58. A hand-delivered questionnaire is a self-enumerated survey hand-delivered to
respondents and mailed back by them after completion. This method usually results in better
response rates than a mail survey and is particularly suitable when information is needed from

137 The present summary of survey data-collection methods is adapted from Statistics Canada, Power from
Data: Data Collection Methods. Available from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/edu/power-pouvoir/ch2/methods-
methodes/5214773-eng.htm (accessed 11 June 2009).
 Data sources and methods 103

several household members. The hand-delivered with pick-up method can also be used. The
hand-delivered with respondent mail-back method can reduce the cost of collecting forms
and gives a greater sense of privacy for respondents concerned with someone entering their
home or business to collect the forms.
6.59. Often the most satisfactory collection strategy uses a combination of methods. For
example, mail surveys have proven to be quite efficient when designed as a follow-up for those
who did not respond to telephone interviews.

Other methods
6.60. Electronic data reporting (EDR) gives the respondents the option of reporting data
electronically rather than filling out the usual paper questionnaire. The growing use of the
Internet has brought greater attention to EDR. However, it is difficult to find a quick and
easy way of reporting answers through the Internet without compromising confidentiality,
privacy and data quality. At present, use of EDR is rare but countries are undertaking pilot
projects to further develop EDR methods.
6.61. Other methods include direct observation, such as that used in pricing surveys, or
the use of existing administrative records. The choice of method depends on various factors,
including complexity and length of questionnaire, sensitivity of requested information, geo-
graphical dispersion of survey population, cost and time frame.

6. Questionnaire design
6.62. Questionnaire design is a fundamental consideration when conducting a survey and
it is therefore important to be aware of some of the considerations that should be addressed
in this regard.138 A range of materials are available to assist with questionnaire design.139
6.63. A questionnaire is a set of questions designed to collect information from a respond-
ent. Regardless of how data are collected, questionnaires play a central role in the data-
collection­process. They have a major impact on respondent behaviour, interviewer perfor-
mance, collection cost and respondent relations, and therefore on data quality. The biggest
challenge in developing a questionnaire is to translate the objectives of the data-collection
process into a well conceptualized and methodologically sound study.
6.64. In light of the foregoing, the design of questionnaires should take the following into
account:
• Survey objectives and data requirements
• Method of data collection
• Response burden and the target population
• Data capture requirements
• Data quality
• The language used (e.g., complex words and terminology should be avoided)
• How questions are framed (e.g., double-barrelled and loaded questions should be
avoided. Decisions need to be made about whether the questionnaire should include
open questions in addition to closed questions.)
• Formatting and layout (e.g., clear headings, spaces for responses and clear instruc-
tions)
6.65. A well-designed questionnaire efficiently collects the required data with a minimum
number of errors. It facilitates the coding and capture of data and it leads to an overall reduc-

138 The present summary of questionnaire design considerations is adapted from Statistics Canada, Statistics Can-
ada Quality Guidelines 2003, available from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/12-539-x/index-eng.htm (accessed
27 May 2009); and Statistics Power from Data, available from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/edu/power-pouvoir/ch2/
questionnaires/5214775-eng.htm (accessed 25 May 2009).
139 For example, D. A. Dillman, 2007, Mail and Internet Surveys: The Tailored Design Method, 2nd ed. (Wiley,
Hoboken, United States of America).
104 International Recommendations for Water

tion in the cost and time associated with data collection and processing. Good questionnaires
impose a low response burden and are both respondent and interviewer friendly. They ask
relevant questions and minimize the amount of editing and imputation that is required. All
questionnaires should be evaluated periodically.

D. Administrative data
6.66. Administrative data are kept by government agencies and NGOs and may be used
for statistical purposes. Government agencies keep administrative records of economic
units (e.g., registers of households and establishments), as well as information about these
units (e.g., number of employees, amount of tax paid and connections to water supply
and sewerage networks) in response to legislation and regulations as well as for internal
management purposes. Traditionally, most administrative data have been obtained from
government agencies but they may also come from NGOs. For example, industry associa-
tions will have lists of their members and may also have information about their members.
In particular, associations of water suppliers and sewerage providers are good sources of
information in many countries, and in some countries conduct surveys of their members.
6.67. The main advantages of administrative data sources are:
• The cost of collecting such data is less than that for surveys
• The level of response burden on economic units is minimized
• Complete coverage is assured of units under administration
6.68. The main benefit of using administrative data is that the cost of collecting such
data is usually much less than establishing and conducting a survey. In addition, the level
of response burden on economic units is minimized because units only have to respond to
the administrative organizations rather than to the administrative organizations and the
organization(s) conducting the survey(s).
6.69. Administrative data sources usually have complete coverage of the population to
which the administrative process applies. While this is an advantage, it may cause certain
difficulties as the population of interest (or target population) for the purposes of admin-
istration may differ from the population of interest for water statistics, resulting in sample
bias or under-coverage. For example, a permit may be required for groundwater abstrac-
tions greater than a certain limit (or threshold) and it may be that many economic units
abstract water at quantities below the limit for which permits are required and hence are
not included in the data collected by the administrative agency. In addition, the spatial
and temporal coverage of the administrative data may also be different from that required
for water statistics. Administrative data are usually related to administrative regions (see
chap. II), rather than river basins.
6.70. The main difficulties with using administrative data sources include:
• Differences between administrative and statistical terms and definitions
• Administrative data collection that may change without regard to statistical consid-
erations
• Multiple databases managed by multiple authorities
• Risk of bias in data due to deliberate misreporting
• Data that may not be checked or validated for statistical purposes
• Possible restriction of access to data
• Coverage of economic units or geographic regions that may not match statistical
requirements
6.71. With administrative data, there is a risk of differences between administrative and
statistical terms and definitions. When using administrative data, the terms and definitions
used by administrative datasets should be compared with the terms and definitions used in
 Data sources and methods 105

chapter IV. A concordance can often be developed and over time it is possible to work with
the agencies responsible for the administrative data to harmonize terms and definitions.
6.72. Administrative processes may change in response to new legislation, polices or pro-
cedures, usually without regard for the impact on statistical systems. It is important to work
with the administrative data sources and maintain good communication, so that any changes
to administrative data collection are at least known in advance.
6.73. Administrative data related to water are likely to be kept by several agencies, espe-
cially when water management is decentralized to regional water authorities or state, pro-
vincial and local governments, as advocated by IWRM. When there is more than one gov-
ernment agency administering water, there is a risk that the data from each agency may be
conflicting or cannot be directly compared owing to differences in terms and definitions or
for other reasons. For example, some agencies may include only water abstraction for con-
sumptive uses and will not record water abstracted for use as cooling water or hydroelectric
power generation. In addition, it is usual for government agencies to have different identifiers
for the same unit, as well as different filing systems and computer databases, which can make
finding and comparing data difficult and time-consuming.
6.74. Since many of the administrative data are collected for regulatory purposes, there
may be an incentive for units to misreport data (e.g., to hide violations of regulations). Delib-
erate misreporting can lead to biases in data, for example, the under- (or over-)estimation of
abstraction of water (E), waterborne emissions (J-K), or water returned to the environment
(H) based on information from permits.
6.75. Administrative agencies should verify that the data collected are accurate, particu-
larly if the purpose of the data is to ensure compliance with regulations. However, this type
of data validation may be different from statistical validation because the purpose of adminis-
trative validation is usually to identify violations of regulations or collect payments in respect
of permits. For example, validation may only involve a check that the data do not exceed a
certain threshold, rather than checking consistency in time, within and among reporting
units. Data validation should ensure that data are accurate, for example, that the data items
have been classified correctly, the correct measurement units used, totals add up and data are
consistent internally and with other available data.
6.76. Access to administrative data may be limited by laws or policies, particularly those
regarding privacy or confidentiality. It is usually necessary to have access to the microdata
to validate their quality and if necessary to re-aggregate. To gain access to microdata,
national statistics offices and others compiling water statistics should provide guarantees
of confidentiality and data security to administrative data sources. In many cases, national
statistics offices and other agencies will already have the legal, administrative and practical
measures necessary to protect privacy and confidentiality and statistical laws will guar-
antee access to administrative data by statistical offices for statistical purposes. If this is
not the case, in order to facilitate the use of administrative data for statistical purposes,
it will be useful to negotiate a data-sharing agreement with administrative organizations
(see chap. V).

1. Administrative data from government agencies

6.77. Administrative data may be held by national, state/provincial or local government
agencies. Each country will have its own institutional arrangements and laws related to admin-
istering inland water resources, water supply, sewerage, irrigation, hydroelectricity, etc. There
may also be other laws, such as on taxation or public health, that may be associated with water
data items.
6.78. In general, water data items may be sourced from government agencies with respon-
sibilities for:
• Agriculture
106 International Recommendations for Water

• Environment
• Energy
• Water resource management
• Water supply and sanitation
• Taxation
6.79. Table VI.4 shows the data items that may be held by such agencies. Government
agencies with responsibilities for water management, supply or sanitation are usually a major
data source for many data items. In many countries, Governments own and operate eco-
nomic units engaged in water supply and sewerage operations. Even when economic units
engaged in water supply and sewerage are not owned by the Government, government agen-
cies are likely to collect information from these units regularly for administrative purposes.
In addition, water agencies are likely to issue permits for water abstraction or the discharge
of wastewater and waterborne emissions.
6.80. Agencies responsible for agriculture may have data on the use of water in this indus-
try as well other data that may be useful for estimating data items for which there is no direct
information. For example, an agricultural agency may issue permits for water abstraction or
permits to irrigate land. In addition, use of water by an irrigated crop can be approximated
by the area of the crops irrigated, the soil type and meteorological conditions, all of which
may be collected by agricultural agencies.
6.81. In countries where there is significant generation of electricity by hydropower, the
agencies responsible for energy will usually have information relating to data items. Large
volumes of water are used for hydropower generation and the economic units involved usually
supply water to other economic units. Even when countries do not have hydropower, energy
agencies may have information on water because large volumes are used for cooling.
6.82. Government agencies concerned with other areas are also potential sources of data,
such as agencies concerned with taxation, health, social welfare or emergency management.
In the case of taxation, in many countries there are tax concessions for water use or the pur-
chase or construction of water supply and sanitation infrastructure, while in some counties
VAT applies to water. In addition, taxation agencies will have a range of economic data on
the economic units using water. Agencies responsible for health and social welfare may have
data relating to population data items.

2. Administrative data from non-governmental organizations

6.83. Administrative data or their equivalent may also be collected by NGOs, such as
industry associations for irrigation, mining, energy or water supply and sanitation, as well as
charities and aid organizations (table VI.5). Industry associations could have, for example,
lists of economic units engaged in the economic activity they represent (e.g., irrigation, water
supply and sewerage). They may also have information on some of the data items they have
collected. In addition, some water suppliers and sewerage service providers may voluntarily
provide data for the purposes of international comparisons.140
6.84. Other NGOs, such as humanitarian or civil society organizations with expertise in
housing or health, may have data on the numbers of households abstracting water from the
environment or those with access to toilets connected to sewers. It is important to note that
data from NGOs are often collected in part for advocacy purposes, and it is important to
understand the reasons why an NGO has collected and compiled data and any bias that may
arise from its interest.

140 See International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities (IB-NET). Available from http://
www.ib-net.org/ (accessed 16 June 2009).
 Data sources and methods 107

Table VI.4
Data items supported by administrative data from government agencies

Government agencies with responsibilities for:a

Water Health
Types of data items (for a complete (including water supply or Public works
list, see chap. IV) and sanitation) Environment housing (infrastructure) Taxation Agriculture Energy Mining

Inland water stocks (A) • •

Environmental flows into and
out of the territory (B and C) • •
Natural transfers of water
between inland water resources
(D) • •
Flows from the environment to
the economy (E) • • • • •
Flows within the economy (F
and G) • • •
Flows from the economy to the
environment (H) • • • • •
Losses from distribution
networks and wastewater
collection systems (I) • •
Flows of waterborne emissions
within the economy (J) •
Flows of waterborne emissions
from the economy to the
environment (K) • • • •
Value and costs of water and
sewerage services (L) • • •
Taxes and subsidies for water
and sewerage services (M and N) • • • •
Assets and capital expenditures
related to water supply and
sewerage services (O-Q) • • • •
Tariffs and charges for water
supply and sewerage services (R) • • • • •
Population using improved
water sources (MDG) (S) • •
Population using improved
sanitation facilities (MDG) (T) • •
a  Links between data items and types of administrative data held by government agencies are indicative.

E. Hydrological and meteorological data

6.85. Hydrological and meteorological data are related to the water cycle (see figure II.1),
weather and the atmosphere. These data are collected by direct measurement using a variety of
methods, including the use of remote-sensing and field-monitoring stations (e.g., for precipita-
tion and stream flow).
6.86. Most countries will have agencies that are primarily responsible for hydrological
and meteorological information that monitor water resources and atmospheric conditions,
108 International Recommendations for Water

Table VI.5
Data items supported by administrative data from NGOs

Industry associationsa

Water supply Other

Types of data items (for a complete list, see chap. IV) Irrigation Mining Energy and sanitation NGOsa
Inland water stocks (A) • • •
Environmental flows into and out of the territory (B and C) • •
Natural transfers of water between inland water resources (D) • •
Flows from the environment to the economy (E) • • • • •
Flows within the economy (F and G) • •
Flows from the economy to the environment (H) • • •
Losses from distribution networks and wastewater collection systems (I) •
Flows of waterborne emissions within the economy (J) • •
Flows of waterborne emissions from the economy to the environment (K) • • •
Value and costs of water and sewerage services (L) • • • •
Taxes and subsidies for water and sewerage services (M and N) • • • •
Assets and capital expenditures related to water supply and sewerage services
• • • • •
(O-Q)
Tariffs and charges for water supply and sewerage services (R) • •
Population using improved water sources (MDG) (S) • •
Population using improved sanitation facilities (MDG) (T) • •
a  Links between data items and types of administrative data held by NGOs are indicative.

respectively. These agencies can be entities in their own right, but in many cases government
agencies with other primary functions will have departments that deal with hydrological or
meteorological matters. For example, geological, agricultural, environmental or water agen-
cies may have hydrological departments, while government agencies associated with aviation,
maritime transport or civil defence may have a meteorological capacity. The data collected
directly by these agencies may in turn be collected from them (usually in a processed and
aggregated form) by other agencies via an administrative or survey process.
6.87. Agencies responsible for hydrological and meteorological data will typically have the
following records:141
• Measured data (i.e., direct observation, field measurements, remote sensing):
• Precipitation (e.g., pluviographs or daily precipitation)
• Evapotranspiration (actual evapotranspiration and potential evapotranspiration)
• Surface water or groundwater levels (e.g., stage readings with a fixed reference point)
• Snow and ice levels
• River and stream flows (i.e., gauging)
• Abstraction of water from surface and groundwater at particular sites
• Discharge of water into the environment at particular sites
• Calculated (derived) data:
• Urban run-off
• Volume of snow, ice and glaciers and changes therein (accumulation and melt)
• Inflows and outflows of water from and to neighbouring countries and between
regions within countries
• Natural transfers with other resources in the territory (D)

141 See WMO, Infohydro, available from http://www.wmo.ch/pages/prog/hwrp/INFOHYDRO/INFOApplication.

html (accessed 16 May 2009).
 Data sources and methods 109

6.88. The main advantages of hydrological and meteorological data are that:
• They are based on observations
• They are usually collected using scientific methods
• They are usually validated
• They are usually available as a time series
• Models may have been used to cross-reference observations in order to improve overall
data quality
6.89. Methods associated with the collection of hydrological and meteorological data can
be obtained from a variety of sources, such as the WMO142 for surface water and precipitation
and the International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre143 for groundwater.
6.90. Another advantage of hydrological and meteorological data is that observations have
usually been collected over a long period of time and hence data are available as a time series. In
some countries, there may be over a century of records for some data items (e.g., rainfall) in some
locations.
6.91. The use of models to generate hydrological and meteorological data can improve
overall data quality, including accuracy and coverage, especially when models draw upon
two or more sets of observations, such as field observations coupled with global satellite-based
observations.144 Models may also incorporate administrative data in some instances, such as
from agencies responsible for irrigation or hydroelectricity, or may be used to reprocess data,
for example, in the case of climate reanalysis data.
6.92. The main difficulties with using hydrological and meteorological microdata include
the following:
• Meteorological coverage is usually limited to main urban centres, airports and agri-
cultural research facilities
• Hydrological coverage is usually limited to large artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers,
aquifers or easily accessible surface water bodies and aquifers
• Data may be insufficient for accurately deriving national or other aggregations of
water statistics
• Some data may require processing or modelling to be converted into data items
6.93. Meteorological data are collected at weather stations as well as by remote-sensing
(e.g., weather radar, satellite images). Weather stations collecting, among other things, pre-
cipitation, temperature and wind speed, are found at airports, in urban centres and in agricul-
tural areas. However, due to the cost of data collection, including the need for appropriately
trained technicians to physically visit the weather stations, the geographic coverage of weather
stations is often incomplete.145
6.94. Hydrological data are collected from field-monitoring sites as surface or groundwater
levels (i.e., stage readings or water levels relative to a fixed point) and river gauges (i.e., measur-
ing discharges/water flows).146 Usually, only large rivers and streams, artificial reservoirs, lakes
and aquifers that are accessible to field technicians are monitored. Smaller or remote surface
water bodies and aquifers may not be monitored or may be monitored infrequently by field
monitoring, but remote-sensing may also be used to monitor the stocks and flows of surface
water and groundwater.

142 WMO, 2006, Guidelines on the Role, Operation and Management of National Hydrological Services. Available from
http://www.wmo.ch/pages/prog/hwrp/documents/WMO%201003.pdf (accessed 15 June 2009).
143 International Groundwater Resources Assessment Centre, “Database on guidelines and protocols for groundwa-
ter data acquisition”. Available from http://www.igrac.net/publications/128# (accessed 30 May 2009).
144 For examples of global satellite observations and data sets derived from these observations, see Global Earth
Observation System of Systems (GEOSS).
145 See WMO, 2008, Guide to Meteorological Instruments and Methods of Observation. Available from http://www.
wmo.int/pages/prog/www/IMOP/publications/CIMO-Guide/CIMO_Guide-7th_Edition-2008.html (accessed
15 June 2009).
146 See WHYCOS, WHYCOS: Training Materials. Available from http://www.whycos.org/rubrique.php3?id_­
rubrique=65 (accessed 15 June 2009).
110 International Recommendations for Water

6.95. Deriving volumes of water and flows of water is difficult. For example, precipitation
varies over short spaces and short periods of time; groundwater resources can be measured
only where there are wells or springs; and river beds change shape and course with time. Since
meteorological data and hydrological data are collected from a sample of all possible locations,
models are required to extrapolate available data and derive data items at the river basin, aquifer
area or national levels.147 Ideally, spatial variability is captured by monitoring at a sufficiently
large number of stations, while fluctuations over time are captured by recording time series.146
Table VI.6
Data items supported by hydrological and meteorological agencies

Type of agencya

Types of data items (for a complete list, see chap. IV) Hydrological Meteorological
Inland water stocks (A) •
Environmental flows into and out of the territory (B and C) • •
Natural transfers of water between inland water resources (D) •
Flows from the environment to the economy (E) • •
Flows within the economy (F and G)
Flows from the economy to the environment (H) •
Losses from distribution networks and wastewater collection
systems (I)
Flows of waterborne emissions within the economy (J)
Flows of waterborne emissions from the economy to the
•
environment (K)
Value and costs of water and sewerage services (L)
a  Links between data items and types
of data held by hydrological or mete- Taxes and subsidies for water and sewerage services (M and N)
orological agencies are indicative.
Assets and capital expenditures related to water supply and
sewerage services (O-Q)
Tariffs and charges for water supply and sewerage services (R)
Population using improved water sources (MDG) (S)
Population using improved sanitation facilities (MDG) (T)

F. Research data

6.96. Research data are collected by universities, other research agencies and organizations
which may be governmental or non-governmental. Data from these sources potentially cover
all the data items listed in chapter IV (see table VI.7). Governments undertake research in
order to fill gaps in knowledge, assess effectiveness of current policy issues, develop alterna-
tive water policies, etc. NGOs also undertake water research in order to improve their own
performance (e.g., to increase water efficiency) and influence government decision-making
and policy development. In many instances, Governments and NGOs commission research-
ers from universities or other research agencies to undertake research on their behalf.
6.97. Universities and other research agencies may have a number of water-research
programmes, which may be associated with agriculture, Earth sciences (including remote-
sensing), economics, engineering, industrial, health and environmental programmes. It is

147 United States Geological Service, “Techniques of water-resources investigations reports”. Available from http://
pubs.usgs.gov/twri/ (accessed 15 June 2009).
 Data sources and methods 111

Table VI.7
Data items supported by research agencies

Type of researcha

Geographic Hydrological and

Types of data items (for a complete list, see chap. IV) Agricultural Engineering and geological meteorological
Inland water stocks (A) • • • •
Environmental flows into and out of the territory (B and C) • •
Natural transfers of water between inland water resources (D) • •
Flows from the environment to the economy (E) • • • •
Flows within the economy (F and G) • •
Flows from the economy to the environment (H) • • •
Losses from distribution networks and wastewater collection systems (I) •
Flows of waterborne emissions within the economy (J) • •
Flows of waterborne emissions from the economy to the environment (K) • •
Value and costs of water and sewerage services (L) • •
Taxes and subsidies for water and sewerage services (M and N) • •
Assets and capital expenditures related to water supply and sewerage
• •
services (O-Q)
Tariffs and charges for water supply and sewerage services (R) • •
Population using improved water sources (MDG) (S) •
Population using improved sanitation facilities (MDG) (T) •
a  Links between data items and types of research are indicative.

common for there to be multiple ongoing water research programmes within a single organi-
zation. The data collected and produced depend on the focus of the research.
6.98. Water-related agricultural research will focus on abstraction of water by agriculture
(part of E.1), waterborne emissions to the environment (K), and the economic aspects of water
use and wastewater disposal (e.g., data items L-P). Research data often includes water use
coefficients for crops grown under rain-fed or irrigated conditions (i.e., rain-fed agriculture or
irrigated agriculture).
6.99. Engineering research into water may include data on the abstraction of water (E) by
industry, particularly by the water supply industry (ISIC, Rev. 3, div. 36), flows of water in the
economy (F-G), waterborne emissions (H), returns to the environment (H) and losses in distri-
bution (I). Civil engineering programmes may also be interested in stocks of water in artificial
reservoirs (A.1.1), and water abstracted from inland water resources (E.1) for hydroelectricity
generation or cooling in electricity generation. Engineering and economic programmes may
include data regarding the economics of water supply and sewerage collection (L-R). Civil
engineering and geography programmes may also collect data on storm water run-off and
wastewater collection systems.
6.100. Earth sciences, including geography, geology and remote-sensing programmes, usu-
ally focus on collecting microdata and deriving macrodata regarding inland water resources
(A), inflows (B) and outflows (C), natural transfers (D), the abstraction of water from inland
water resources (E.1), returns of water (L) and waterborne emissions to the environment (H).
Geography programmes that include human geography may also be interested in water supply
(S) and sanitation (T).
6.101. The main advantages of research data are the following:
• The are usually available for free or for low cost
• They minimize the response burden
• They can be used to fill data gaps
• They are useful for developing water coefficients
112 International Recommendations for Water

.102. In many instances, research data will be available for free or at a small cost. This
6
makes such data relatively cheap, compared to conducting a water-specific survey. Because
research data has already been collected, using this data minimizes the response burden.
6.103. Research data are often used for filling data gaps. Case studies or limited time
series data can be used to estimate coefficients, which can then be used with other data to
derive data items listed in chapter IV. The application of coefficients is similar to weighting
statistical survey data. Research data can also be used to provide the context to water-related
issues and to explain or help interpret data from other sources. For example, research may
be able to demonstrate a causal link between certain data items, whereas data from other
sources may show only a correlation.
6.104. The main difficulties with research data include the following:
• Data will often use terms and definitions that differ from those used in statistics
• Access to microdata may be limited
• Metadata may be missing
• Often data are available only for case examples (i.e., limited areas or industries)
• Often data are available on a one-time basis.
.105. Research data often use terms and definitions that are not consistent with terms and
6
definitions used in other studies or the data items listed in chapter IV. It is important to check
terms used in research data and any other metadata that are available regarding the methods
used to collect data. The amount of metadata available will vary significantly between differ-
ent NGOs and research organizations.
6.106. Many research projects consist of case studies. Case studies tend to be one-off studies
with limited time series and a specific location and context. The results can be extrapolated
to other areas if other relevant information is available. Much research is limited to areas sur-
rounding universities, research institutes or field stations. This information may be used to
generate estimates for larger areas by converting the results of research into coefficients that
allow relationships between the water data items to be extrapolated.148

G. Survey frames
.107. To conduct surveys, it is necessary to have a survey frame, which is a list, map
6
or other specification of units that defines a population for which information is wanted.
The frame defines the units of interest that may be completely enumerated (i.e., census) or
sampled via survey.
6.108. For water statistics, a frame is required for the units of the environment (e.g., a
list of artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers, wetlands, glaciers, snowfields and aquifers) and
the economy (e.g., lists of establishments and households). Frames can be developed
from a number of different sources, such as hydrological data (e.g., hydrological maps),
business registers, censuses (e.g., housing and population censuses), membership lists for
industry associations (e.g., water supply and sewerage associations or irrigation associa-
tions) or administrative records (e.g., lists of organizations undertaking activities that
Governments regulate). More than one frame is usually required to produce comprehen-
sive water statistics.
6.109. There are two types of frames used in data collection:
• List-based frames
• Area-based frames
.110. In a list-based collection, the initial sample is selected from a pre-existing list of
6
units; in the case of economic statistics this will ideally consist of establishments, but in
many cases will consist of enterprises (for more details on the distinction between establish-

148 For more information on the use and limitations of coefficients, see United States Geological Service, 2007,
Guidelines for Preparation of State Water-Use Estimates for 2005. Available from http://water.usgs.gov/watuse/.
 Data sources and methods 113

ments and enterprises, see chap. II). There are a number of lists that can be used as a frame
for organizing the collection and compilation of water data from statistical units. These are
summarized in table VI.8.
6.111. In an area-based survey, the initial sample units are a set of geographic areas. After
one or more stages of selection, a sample of areas is identified, within which establishments
or households are listed. From this list, the sample is selected and data collected.
6.112. Lists of artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers, wetlands, glaciers and snow fields, and
aquifers may be held by agencies responsible for water-resources management, hydrology,
geology and mining. If information is missing or there is no such list for a particular type of
unit, gaps can be filled using an area-based frame. Thus, for a particular area, all units (e.g.,
rivers or glaciers) located within the area and their characteristics as identified in chapter III
are recorded using GIS149 or a map. In some cases, it may be necessary to visit some areas
in order to determine some of the characteristics. Lists of artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers,
wetlands, glaciers and snow fields, and aquifers are used for the data items regarding inland
water resource stocks (A), environmental flows into and out of the territory (B and C), and
natural transfers of water between inland water resources (D).

6.113. A list of units engaged in economic activities usually takes the form of a business
register. The development and use of business registers is covered in detail by IRIS.150 The
business register is important for data items on the flows of water from the environment to
the economy (data item E), flows within the economy (data items F-G, J and L-R) and the
flows from the economy to the environment (data items H and K).
6.114. Lists of establishments engaged in the activities of water supply and sewerage
are often held by industry associations. They may also have other information about
their members (e.g., location of establishment, size of establishment) that would enable a
survey frame to be created. Many national associations are members of the International
Water Association.151
6.115. In some countries, business registers only exist for enterprises and not for establish-
ments. In these cases, the enterprises with the activities of water supply and sewerage need
to be disaggregated to the establishment level. Ideally, all registers should be of establish-
ments and should include all the characteristics of economic units described in chapter
III. While business registers will normally contain information on the economic size of
the business, such as employment, output and registration requirements (including legal
organization), they do not usually include information directly related to their importance
in water statistics, such as the volume of water use or discharges. This can limit the useful-
ness of such lists for the design of water-specific surveys, especially stratified random sample
surveys of water use.
6.116. Since business registers usually lack information regarding water use, additional
lists can be used to gain more information on characteristics that support the development
of water statistics on industries. Lists of irrigators, units engaged in water supply and the
sewerage industry or electricity generators may be kept for administrative or other purposes.
There may also be lists of large water users available from water suppliers or government
agencies regulating water use. Having such lists facilitates the collection and compilation of
data items for industries known to be large water users.
6.117. The survey frame for households is discussed extensively in the Principles and
Recommendations for Housing and Population Censuses 2010. A frame for households is
important for the data items on the type of water supply used by populations (S) and the

149 This may include aerial photographs or satellite images.

150 See United Nations Statistics Division, 2008, International Recommendations for Industry Statistics 2008. Avail-
able from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/industry/guidelines.asp (accessed 15 June 2009).
151 See International Water Association, available from http://www.iwahq.org/templates/ld_templates/
layout­_ 632897.aspx?ObjectId=632922 (accessed 9 July 2009).
 114

Table VI.8
Frames that can be used for the collection and compilation of particular data items

List of artificial List of List of water List of water

reservoirs, lakes, businesses suppliers and List of water discharge List of
rivers, aquifers (e.g., a business List of sewerage abstraction permit house-
Types of data items (for a complete list, see chap. IV) and soilsa register)b irrigatorsc servicesd permit holderse holderse holdsf
Inland water stocks (A) • • •
Environmental flows into and out of the territory (B and C) •
Natural transfers of water between inland water resources (D) •
Flows from the environment to the economy (E) • • • • • •
Flows within the economy (F and G) • • • •
Flows from the economy to the environment (H) • • • • •
Losses from distribution networks and wastewater collection • • • •
systems (I)
Flows of waterborne emissions within the economy (J) • • •
International Recommendations for Water

Flows of waterborne emissions from the economy to the • • • •

environment (K)
Value and costs of water and sewerage services (L) • • • • • •
Taxes and subsidies for water and sewerage services (M and N) • • • • •
Assets and investment related to water and sewerage services • • • • •
(O-Q)
Tariffs and charges for water supply and sewerage services (R) • • •
The type of water supply used by populations (MDG) (S) •
The type of toilet and sewage disposal used by populations •
(MDG) (T)

a  E.g., from agencies responsible for water management, hydrology, geology/mines or surveys.
b  E.g., from agencies responsible for taxation, the economy or industry surveys.
c  E.g., from agencies responsible for agriculture or from irrigation associations.
d  E.g., from agencies responsible for water supply and sewerage services or from water supply and sewerage industry associations.
e  E.g., from agencies responsible for water permits and water resources management.
f  E.g., from agencies responsible for housing and population censuses, housing registers, taxation registers and education registers.
 Data sources and methods 115

type of toilet and sewage disposal used by populations (T). These frames are typically area-
based, with enumerators physically visiting particular areas and identifying each household
within that area.
6.118. The identification codes used in the different frames should provide the possibility
of linking the individual environmental and economic units. Examples include linking a
business establishment to the lake, aquifer or soil they abstract water from; linking an envi-
ronmental unit, such as an artificial reservoir or river, with the economic unit responsible for
its management; and linking the economic unit that discharges water to the environment
with the surface water bodies or aquifers into which they discharge water.
 117

Chapter VII
Metadata and data quality

A. Introduction
7.1. Metadata and assessments of data quality are essential because they provide data
users with the information necessary to properly analyse, understand and use a given set of
data. In general, metadata are the information about a set of data in terms of the concepts,
sources and methods used to collect, compile and disseminate statistics. Data quality is usu-
ally described as a suite of data quality dimensions.
7.2. Metadata and data-quality assessment apply to all areas of statistics and, as a result,
much of the discussion below is relevant to other fields of statistics. Similarly, the discussions
of metadata and data quality found in other international recommendations or in the guide-
lines produced by international agencies (e.g., the discussion on data quality in the IRIS 152
and the data-quality indicators developed by Eurostat153) are relevant to water statistics.
7.3. While metadata are mainly intended for data users, there are also benefits for the
producers of information. The knowledge gained from generating metadata may lead to
enhancements in both the production of data (e.g., lower costs and improved data quality)
and the dissemination of data (e.g., dissemination of comprehensive, timely, accessible and
reliable data). For example, while documenting metadata, it may become apparent that some
data regarding the water supply industry has had to be derived, but the addition of extra
questions to an existing questionnaire could improve data quality by collecting actual data.
Metadata also provide a mechanism for comparing practices in the compilation of statistics
within and between countries. This may encourage agencies and countries to implement
international standards and to adopt best practices in the compilation of water statistics.
7.4. Chapter VII first describes the dimensions of data quality (sect. B), and then dis-
cusses metadata and provides a recommended list of metadata items for water statistics data
sets (sect. C). It should be noted that because the concepts of data quality and metadata are
interrelated, the listing of metadata elements includes most of the dimensions of data quality
described in section B.

B. Dimensions of data quality

7.5. To assess data quality, it is necessary to go beyond assessing accuracy, i.e., the degree
to which data correctly represents the real world, which is how data quality has traditionally
been assessed. Countries are encouraged to systematically assess data quality using the fol-
lowing eight dimensions:154
152 United Nations Statistics Division, 2008, International Recommendations for Industrial Statistics 2008. Available
from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/industry/docs/M90.pdf (accessed 15 June 2009).
153 See Eurostat, 2005, “Standard quality indicators”. Available from http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/pls/portal/
docs/PAGE/PGP_DS_QUALITY/TAB47143233/STANDARD%20QUALITY%20INDICATORS.PDF
(accessed 22 April 2009).
54 OECD, 2003, Quality Framework for OECD Statistical Activities Version 2003/1. Available from http://www.
1
oecd.org/document/43/0,3343,en_2649_33715_21571947_1_1_1_1,00.html (accessed 9 December 2010).
118 International Recommendations for Water

• Prerequisites of quality
• Accessibility
• Accuracy
• Coherence
• Credibility
• Interpretability
• Relevance
• Timeliness
7.6. It is important to note that the dimensions of quality are interrelated. Any action
taken to address one aspect can affect other elements of data quality. For example, in increas-
ing the timeliness of data, the degree of accuracy may be reduced.
7.7. Indications of data quality may be quantitative or qualitative.155 Data quality assess-
ments have traditionally focused on the statistical measures of accuracy, such as standard
error. However, accuracy is only one dimension of data quality, and scoring systems that
allow comparison across data-quality dimensions have been developed.156 Qualitative state-
ments to indicate data quality and to highlight priority areas for data improvement have also
been used,157 and in practice a combination of both quantitative and qualitative methods are
applied to indicate data quality.

1. Prerequisites of data quality

7.8. The prerequisites of data quality are the systems, methods and resources required to
support the effective collection, compilation and dissemination of water statistics, including
all institutional and organizational conditions that have an impact on the quality of statistics.
The elements of this dimension cover the legal basis for the compilation of data; the adequacy
of data-sharing and coordination among data-producing agencies; the assurance of confiden-
tiality of data provided by data producers to respondents; the adequacy of human, financial
and technical resources for implementing water statistics programmes; the implementation
of measures to ensure the efficient use of resources, and the awareness of quality issues by
data producers. For example, it is important to have adequately trained staff that understand
statistical principles and methods as well as water concepts and data. Those staff in turn need
adequate information technology and office facilities, along with training, to ensure they can
produce quality water statistics.
7.9. Since there are many agencies involved in water data collection, compilation and
dissemination (see chap. VI), it is important to have effective legal and institutional arrange-
ments and working relations that facilitate the sharing of data and cooperation on water
statistics of mutual interest. Examples of the prerequisites for water statistics would be:
• Laws that clearly define the responsibility of agencies for the collection, integration
and distribution of water statistics
• Laws that require economic units to report water statistics to the agencies responsible
for their collection
• The existence of formal committees or councils responsible for coordinating water sta-
tistics

155 IMF, 2003, Data Quality Assessment Framework–Generic Framework. Available from http://dsbb.imf.org/vgn/
images/pdfs/dqrs_Genframework.pdf (accessed 23 September 2009).
156 See, for example, W. F. M. de Vries, 1998, “How are we doing? Performance indicators for national statistical
systems”, in Netherlands Official Statistics, vol. 13, Spring 1998, available from http://dsbb.imf.org/vgn/images/
pdfs/nld.pdf (accessed 31 March 2009); and ECB, 2006, Euro Area Balance of Payments and International Invest-
ment Position Statistics, available from http://www.ecb.int/pub/pdf/other/bop_intinvpos-2006en.pdf (accessed
31 March 2009).
57 See, for example, I. P. Fellegi and J. Ryten, 2000, A Peer Review of the Swiss Statistical System. Available from http://www.bfs.
1
admin.ch/bfs/portal/en/index/institutionen/oeffentliche_statistik/bundesstatistik/entwicklungen__trends/peer
_review.parsys.0005.downloadList.00051.DownloadFile.tmp/peerreviewe.pdf (accessed 31 March 2009).
 Metadata and data quality 119

• The existence of formal agreements for the sharing of data between data-collecting
agencies
7.10. Having a legal basis for water statistics can help data quality in a number of ways; for
example, it may help prioritize data for collection and compilation. If it includes a budget for
water statistics, it may help ensure adequate resources to support the collection and compilation
of water statistics. Additional information on institutional arrangements, laws and agreements
related to water statistics and the coordination of water statistics may be found in chapter V.

2. Accessibility
7.11. Accessibility is the ease with which statistics can be obtained from data producers
and understood by users. This includes the ease with which the existence of information can
be ascertained, the suitability of the form of data (e.g., tables, graphs, maps, indicators), and
the mode of dissemination (e.g., web or paper publications). Other aspects of accessibility
include the availability of metadata and the existence of user support services. Accessibility
also includes the affordability of data. The accessibility of data is related to dissemination
and how effectively water statistics are promoted, published and made searchable on the web.
Chapter VIII provides additional information on these issues.
7.12. For water statistics, accessibility can be assessed by:
• The amount and clarity of the information available, both on the web and in paper
publications
• The range of information products available (see chap. VIII, sect. C)
• The availability of staff to answer specific questions about water statistics and the data
sources and methods used to produce them

3. Accuracy
7.13. The accuracy of statistics is the degree to which the data correctly estimate the true
value of the data item (i.e., how closely they approximate reality). Accuracy is fundamental to
all statistics. It has many attributes and in practice there is not a single aggregate measure of
accuracy. In general, it is characterized in terms of sampling and non-sampling errors. Sam-
pling errors are traditionally decomposed into bias (systematic error) and variance (random
error). Table VII.1 provides some examples of the types of errors that affect data accuracy.
7.14. Common causes of inaccuracy in water statistics include:
• D
irect measurement errors (e.g., due to uncalibrated or inaccurate water meters or
errors associated with river flow gaugings)
• Modelling errors, associated with estimates requiring hydrological models (e.g., river
flows estimated on the basis of stage readings or estimated quantities of groundwater)
• Response errors in water surveys (e.g., respondents to surveys are usually not experts
in water and may make estimates which are inaccurate). Other common response
errors include:
• Measurement unit errors (e.g., respondents report in gallons instead of cubic
metres)
• Transcription errors (e.g., respondents accidentally fill in numbers in the wrong
order, changing the value)
• Misplaced decimal point and multiples of measurement units (e.g., respondents report
in cubic metres when the measurement unit requested is thousands of cubic metres)
• Specification errors, often due to a lack of suitable frames (e.g., large water-using
establishments may be omitted from a survey because they are unknown, i.e., they
were not on the list)
• Systematic errors, when collecting and compiling administrative data (e.g., due to a
lack of data quality control)
120 International Recommendations for Water

Table VII.1
Examples of errors that directly affect data accuracy

Dimensions of
data accuracy Specification errors Non-response errors Response errors Compilation errors
Sampling error
Overcoverage E.g., duplication of statistical units E.g., double counting data from
in sample different data sources
Incomplete E.g., omission of statistical units E.g., statistical unit E.g., interviewer not able
coverage from sample inaccessible or to effectively conduct the
unable to answer interview, or data unknown
to respondent
Biased sample E.g., use of inappropriate,
incomplete or inaccurate frame,
resulting in incorrect weighting
of units
Non-sampling error
Systematic E.g., poor questionnaire design, E.g., interviewer bias or E.g., systematic
errors mistaken assumptions in model conditioning effects on misclassification of economic
design respondents units to an industry
Random errors E.g., interviewer error E.g., typographical or
transcription errors

• Poorly designed survey instruments (e.g., concepts are not understood by survey
respondents, units of measurement are inappropriate or the respondents cannot be
reasonably expected to know the answer to questions)
• Insufficient training of staff conducting personal interviews
7.15. An error common in water statistics occurs in the reporting of water use by farmers.
In many cases, water use is not metered and the amount of water used for irrigated crops will
have to be estimated by respondents (i.e., farmers). In these cases, it is recommended that the
questionnaires cover the following:
• The area of irrigated crops by crop type (e.g., rice, wheat, vegetables)
• The amount of time for which crops were irrigated
• The amount of water use by these crops from metered sources
• The amount of water use by these crops from unmetered sources
7.16. Data collected in this way allow metered and unmetered data sources to be separated
and allow for the unmetered estimates to be compared against metered data and against data
on the irrigated area. If necessary, the unmetered data can be adjusted.
7.17. Documenting the accuracy of published data is essential. This can be done with foot-
notes to tables, in graphs and by other presentational means. The statistical variability of data
can be indicated by including a table of standard errors and, when necessary, via appropriate
marking in tables. For example, data with standard errors above 10 per cent can be asterisked
(*). The asterisk system can also be applied to qualitative assessments of accuracy, denoting
data for which accuracy is considered low or questionable and which should therefore be used
with varying degrees of caution. For example, one asterisk (*) may be used to denote “use
with caution” and three asterisks (***) may be used to denote “use with extreme caution”.
7.18. The accuracy of the data should be reflected in the number of significant digits used
in the data’s presentation. The level of accuracy and the number of significant digits require
judgement on the part of the data producer, based on an understanding of the likely errors
related to methods used to collect and compile the data.
7.19. The use of rounding is an important related issue. Rounding reduces the chances of
data users identifying false trends below the level of significant digits. Data should therefore
 Metadata and data quality 121

be rounded up if the next digit is 5 or more and rounded down (i.e., the last significant figure
remains the same) if the next digit is 4 or less.

4. Coherence
7.20. Coherence is the degree to which data are logically connected and mutually consist-
ent, that is, can be successfully brought together with other statistical information within a
broad analytical framework and over space and time. The use of standard concepts, classifica-
tions and target populations promotes coherence, as does the use of common methodology
across water-data collection. Coherence does not necessarily imply full numerical consistency.
7.21. Coherence has three subdimensions:
• Coherence within and between different data sources
• Coherence over time
• Coherence across space, both within and between countries
7.22. Coherence within and between data sources means that the data items are based on
compatible concepts, definitions and classifications and can be meaningfully combined. If
a particular data source uses concepts, definitions and classifications different from those in
IRWS, they should be explained in the metadata.
7.23. Coherence over time means that the concepts, definitions and methodology used
are stable over time. Any changes over time should be clearly identified and included in the
metadata and, where necessary, a bridge provided, i.e., the data should be presented for one
or more years using both the past and current concepts, definitions and methods. An example
of a bridge table is presented in table VII.2.
Table VII.2
Example of a bridge table used to demonstrate the effects of changing a definition

Year 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008

Data item 1: old definition 2031 2347 2499 2281 2643 3100
Data item 1: revised definition 2403 2789 2366 2870

7.24. Coherence over time can also relate to the availability of different data items at par-
ticular times for specific temporal references. It is common for countries to have many data
items that are available for different reference periods. For example, physical water supply
(data item F) may be available for one particular year, but the matching monetary variable
(data item L.1.1) may be available only for a different year. In this sense, coherence would
mean that data items are available for each reference period.
7.25. Coherence across space is especially important for water statistics that are often
collected and compiled at subnational levels and compared between countries. Many water
datasets are already georeferenced (i.e., have locations recorded with coordinates), while other
datasets may exist for particular areas, such as an administrative area or a river basin. Ideally,
all water datasets should use the same geographic reference areas. In some instances, bounda-
ries for an area can change, such as when the boundaries of an administrative area are moved.
In such cases, it is important to either rebase other data to the new geographic area or make
sure to note that there has been a break in series due to a change in area covered. A problem
particular to water statistics is that the physical boundaries for surface water and groundwater
do not coincide and hence combining the data is problematic (see chap. II, sect. E, on spatial
and temporal references).
7.26. Information on the main concepts, frameworks, statistical units and data items
used in water statistics, all of which are necessary to maintain coherence, can be found in
chapters II to IV.
122 International Recommendations for Water

5. Credibility
7.27. The credibility of water statistics refers to the confidence that users have in the
producers of the data. User confidence is built over time. One important aspect is trust in
the objectivity of the data, that is, that they are perceived to be produced professionally in
accordance with appropriate statistical standards and transparent methods, and with confi-
dence that there is no external interference in the data produced or its timing of release.
7.28. For water statistics, a review process prior to publication will increase the credibility
of the data, especially if the publication is being published for the first time. The data should be
reviewed by the organizations that provide data as well as other relevant experts or stakeholders.
Joint publications also tend to increase credibility. For example, in some countries water statistics
are jointly published by the national statistical office and ministries of water or environment.
7.29. More information related to the credibility of data and the agencies producing data,
including the review process, is included in chapter VIII.

6. Interpretability
7.30. The interpretability of data is closely related to user understanding of data and
depends on how information, including adequate metadata, is communicated. Of particular
importance is the understanding of temporal and spatial references. Feedback and queries
from water data users will provide an indication of the interpretability of water data, but
quantitative measures of interpretability of data are difficult to establish.
7.31. The interpretability of data depends on how data are presented, and the same data
may need to be presented in a variety of forms for different users. For example, indicators,
summary graphs and maps may be needed for decision makers and the general public, while
more detailed tables and access to microdata may be needed for analysts and researchers. Data
are often interpreted in relation to issues of interest to particular interest groups, including
industry associations, environmental NGOs and households. This dimension of data quality
overlaps, to a degree, with relevance (see para. 7.32). The different audiences and their data
needs are discussed in chapter VIII, while chapter IX of SEEA-Water includes examples of
applications of water accounts.

7. Relevance
7.32. The relevance of water statistics reflects the degree to which they meet the needs of
users and potential users. To assess the relevance of water statistics requires the identification of
data users and topics, as well as the spatial and temporal reference periods for which they need
data. This is covered in detail in chapter V. In brief, data producers need to balance the different
needs of current and potential users to produce a water statistics programme that goes as far
as possible in satisfying the most important needs of users, including both the coverage and
content of water statistics, within resource constraints. A key consideration in the relevance of
data is the frequency with which data are available (e.g., annually, biennially, quinquennially).
7.33. Feedback regarding the relevance of water statistics and how well they address key
water questions should be gathered from data users. Agencies should also catalogue the use of
water statistics by other government agencies, business, the general public and international
organizations. Without this feedback and information, it is not possible to assess the relevance
of water statistics. For more information on working with user groups and stakeholders to
ensure that water statistics are relevant, see chapter V; for information on tracking the use of
disseminated water statistics, see chapter VIII.

8. Timeliness
7.34. The timeliness of water statistics refers to the amount of time between the end of
the reference period to which the data pertain and the date on which the data are available
 Metadata and data quality 123

for use. Data should be made available as soon as possible after the reference period. As a
general guide, data for a particular reference period (e.g., a year, a quarter or a month) should
be available within one additional reference period. For example, if the reference period is
one calendar year, then data for the year 2007 should be available before the end of 2008.
Similarly, if the data are for the first quarter of the year, then they should be made available
before the end of the second quarter. If this guideline is met, then the information can be
said to be timely.
7.35. Timeliness is also related to the existence and meeting of a publication schedule. A
publication schedule comprises a set of release dates or may involve a commitment to release
water data within a prescribed time period. If there is a long, unexplained delay between the
advertised release date and the actual release date of water statistics, then the information
would not be timely. More information on publication schedules and timeliness is included
in chapter VIII.

C. Metadata
7.36. Metadata are “data about data”, the pieces of information used to describe datasets.
The fundamental purpose of metadata is to enable users to understand, analyse and use sta-
tistics. Metadata are needed because most users are not familiar with statistical production
processes and thus need documentation to understand the data and the degree of confidence
they can attach to any decisions based on them. Metadata help users transform statistical data
into information that can be used for policy- and decision-making. Appropriate metadata
are especially important for water data shared between organizations since in most countries
water statistics are compiled from many data sources. Metadata can also facilitate efficient
searching, locating and sharing of data.
7.37. The wide range of possible users of water statistics also means that a broad spectrum
of metadata requirements has to be addressed. Data producers must make sufficient metadata
available to enable both casual and sophisticated data users to assess the suitability of the data
for their purposes.
7.38. In general, metadata include information on:
• Each of the dimensions of data quality
• Data items and their definitions, including any exceptions to international standards
• Classifications and frameworks used to organize data
• Data sources and methods
• Characteristics of statistical units for which data have been collected and compiled
• Spatial coverage of water statistics, including any gaps
• Temporal coverage of water statistics, including any gaps
• Publication details (e.g., publication date, agency or agencies publishing the data)
• Acknowledgements, especially with regard to any cooperation or collaboration on
water statistics with other organizations or individuals
• Contact details for enquiries
7.39. Countries may develop a layered approach to metadata presentation and dissemina-
tion for groups of users, in which each successive layer provides more detail. Two levels of
metadata are usually presented:
• Structural metadata—an integral part of the data presented, such as in table captions,
headings and footnotes
• Reference metadata—details on the content and quality of data that may accompany
the tables or be presented separately via the Internet or in occasional publications
7.40. At present, there is no single metadata standard that covers all applications. Rather,
a number of metadata frameworks have been developed for specific purposes. These include:
124 International Recommendations for Water

• SDMX158 for official statistics

• Dublin Core Metadata Initiative (the Dublin Core), 159 a general framework designed
for all types of data
• ISO-19115,160 for geographic information
• Data Documentation Initiative,161 for social data
• World Meteorological Organization Core Metadata Standard, v0-2(WMO2004)162
• Hydrologic Information—Metadata: Semantic structure for the description of hydro-
logic data (GRDC Metadata Profile—Final draft)163
• Infrastructure for Spatial Information in the European Community (INSPIRE): Data
Specification on Hydrography—Guideline164
• A draft proposal for a metadata standard for water statistics is in preparation by
UNEP and Eurostat, including 22 elements identified, based mainly on SDMX and
ISO-19115 definitions
7.41. In Europe, a major recent development has been the legal establishment of
the Infrastructure for Spatial Information in the European Community (INSPIRE).165
INSPIRE, along with technical annexes, defines how metadata and data quality are
described for environmental data, including water statistics. INSPIRE includes guidance
in relation to water or “hydrography”. Under INSPIRE, geo-referenced water statistics are
referenced to water bodies that are the “building blocks”166 in the context of the Water
Framework Directive (WFD).167
7.42. Despite the fact that metadata are essential, they are frequently of poor quality,
only partially complete or missing altogether. This may be because metadata documenta-
tion has been left to the end of the data collection and compilation processes and rushed
as a result, or in some cases has simply not been completed, such as when other projects
take priority.
7.43. For these reasons, it is important to plan time for metadata documentation and to
ensure that it is available and up to date when data are disseminated. If this is not the case,
then the accessibility and interpretability of data will suffer and the sharing of data between
agencies will be hampered. Metadata tend to improve over time, particularly when agencies
have rigorous documentation of data sources and methods.

158 Available from http://www.sdmx.org/ (accessed 26 June 2009).

159 Available from http://dublincore.org/ (accessed 26 June 2009).
160 Available from http://www.iso.org/iso/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=26020 (accessed 26 June 2009).
161 Available from http://www.icpsr.umich.edu/DDI/ (accessed 26 June 2009).
162 WMO, 2004. Available from http://www.wmo.int/pages/prog/www/WDM/Metadata/WMOCore_
v0-2_040916/ (accessed 26 July 2009).
163 GRDC, 2009. Available from http://www.bafg.de/cln_007/nn_317460/GRDC/EN/02__Services/04__
Report__Series/39__metadata.html?__nnn=true (accessed 27 July 2009).
164 INSPIRE Thematic WG Hydrography, 2009. Available from http://inspire.jrc.ec.europa.eu/documents/Data_
Specifications/INSPIRE_DataSpecification_HY_v3.0.pdf (accessed 9 July 2009).
165 INSPIRE was established through the entering into force of directive 2007/2/EC of the European Parliament
and Council on 14 March 2007 (available from http://eur-lex.europa.eu/JOHtml.do?uri=OJ:L:2007:108:SOM
:EN:HTML (accessed 12 December 2009)).
166 These “building blocks” are essentially environmental units for water.
167 Accompanying INSPIRE are explanatory documents covering several environmental reporting purposes; for
more information, see INSPIRE Drafting Team, “Data specifications”, 2008, available from http://inspire.
jrc.ec.europa.eu/reports/ImplementingRules/DataSpecifications/D2.3_Definition_of_Annex_Themes_and_
scope_v3.0.pdf (accessed 18 March 2008). It should be noted that access to reference documents and related
datasets is facilitated through the Water Information System for Europe (WISE), available from http://water.
europa.eu/en/welcome (accessed 12 December 2009).
 125

Chapter VIII
Data dissemination

A. Introduction
8.1. Data dissemination is the publication, distribution or transmission of water statis-
tics to a range of data users, such as policymakers, the business community and the general
public. Without effective dissemination, water statistics will be unknown and unused.
8.2. One of the most important considerations when disseminating data is to understand
the needs of data users or audiences (both actual and potential). Such an understanding
comes about through a dialogue between users and producers of data (see chap. V). The
information requirements of different data users or audiences can be represented by an infor-
mation pyramid (see figure VIII.1), and the information they require may be disseminated
in a variety of information products.
Figure VIII.1
Information pyramid and audiences requiring different levels of information

Information pyramid Main audiences

Water indicators
e.g., key figures/graphs e.g., decision makers, the general public,
managers, analysts and researchers.
Increasing aggregation of information

and other
Macrodata

Water accounts statistical

e.g., SEEA-Water compilations
standard tables, e.g., water resource
graphs, maps estimates, graphs
e.g.,managers, analysts and researchers
Microdata

Water statistics
e.g., basic aggregates at the data item level, time series e.g., researchers and others conducting
detailed analysis

Amount of data
e.g., data on water resources, water
supply and sanitation, or economic activites and water

8.3. The information needs of audiences can be divided into three dimensions: the level
of detail required; the subjects and issues of interest; and the geographic areas and temporal
periods of interest. The level of detail required varies according to the data user. Decision
makers and the wider public generally require indicators and other forms of summary infor-
mation. Managers and analysts need more information, including, for example, thematic
reports, downloadable tables (e.g., SEEA-Water standard tables), metadata, interactive maps,
126 International Recommendations for Water

presentations, seminars and access to staff that can explain the data. Researchers require the
greatest level of detail, for example, time series data, more detailed industry, temporal or
geographic breakdowns, and in some cases access to microdata. It is important to note that
for researchers, access to microdata may be provided as long as confidentiality is maintained
(e.g., via confidentialized unit record files168). Different audiences may also require informa-
tion at different spatial and temporal scales.
8.4. Chapter VIII describes the main principles of dissemination (sect. B), the different
types of information products (sect. C), monitoring the use of water statistics (sect. D) and
international data reporting (sect. E).

B. Dissemination principles
8.5. Water statistics are disseminated in a variety of information products matching the
different needs of each audience. Regardless of the audience or type of information product,
three basic principles guide the dissemination of water statistics: confidentiality, equality of
access, and objectivity.169

1. Statistical confidentiality
8.6. Statistical confidentiality primarily concerns the data collected by national statisti-
cal offices from establishments, households or persons but is also relevant to other govern-
ment agencies that collect data. Statistical acts and regulations usually require that the
individual data provided by respondents to surveys are kept confidential. This requirement
is embodied in the United Nations Fundamental Principles of Official Statistics,170 which states
that “individual data collected by statistical agencies for statistical compilation, whether or
not they refer to natural or legal persons, are to be strictly confidential and used exclusively
for statistical purposes”.
8.7. The requirement for confidentiality helps to build trust with data providers and
hence increases the likelihood of accurate and timely reporting of data.
8.8. Water statistics, whether collected by survey or from administrative and other
sources, are usually published in the form of tables, often accompanied by graphs or dia-
grams, such as maps. Water statistics should not reveal data about individual establishments,
households or persons but rather contain aggregated information.
8.9. It is sometimes possible to deduce information about these units from aggregated
information, especially when the contribution of a single unit dominates the total. To pro-
tect against the disclosure of data from an individual establishment, household or person,
statistical disclosure control techniques are used. These are a set of methods to reduce the
risk of disclosing information on the individual units. The first step in the statistical dis-
closure control is the identification of the sensitive statistics (or individual cells of tables)
that may reveal information about individual units. These are identified using a dominance
rule, as follows:
• If the sum of the contributions of a specified number of units accounts for more than
a specified proportion of the total cell value, then this cell value cannot be published
8.10. The logic of the dominance rule is that if the value regarding one unit dominates a
particular cell value then it is possible to deduce its contribution fairly accurately. For example:
• If there is data for only one unit in a cell, then the contribution will be disclosed
exactly

168 See ABS, 2009, Managing Confidentialised Unit Record Files. Available from http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/
[email protected]/mf/1406.0.55.004/ (accessed 17 July 2009).
169 Eurostat, 1998, Handbook on the Design and Implementation of Business Surveys (Luxembourg).
70 See Statistical Commission, Fundamental Principles of Official Statistics. Available from http://unstats.un.org/
1
unsd/dnss/gp/fundprinciples.aspx (accessed 16 June 2009).
 Data dissemination 127

• If a cell total comprises values from only two economic units, then each one of these
units can know (and hence disclose to others) the contribution of the other by sub-
tracting its own contribution from the total cell value
8.11. In business statistics, a commonly accepted rule is that each cell in a table should
have at least three establishments contributing to its value. For cells with the largest numbers,
the three units with the largest values should not dominate, i.e., they should not account for
more than 70 per cent of the cell value.
8.12. Common practices to protect against the disclosure of confidential data are:
• Aggregation
• Suppression
• Other methods
8.13. Aggregation means that a confidential cell in a table is aggregated with another cell
so that the information disseminated is the aggregate of the two individual cells. This often
results in aggregation of data that are confidential at the class (4-digit) level of ISIC and the
publication of this aggregate (non-confidential) data at the group (3-digit) level of ISIC.
8.14. Suppression means removing records from a database or table that contains confi-
dential data. This is a method that allows statisticians not to publish the values in sensitive
cells, while publishing the original values of the others (primary suppression). Suppressing
only one cell in a table, however, means that the calculation of totals for the higher levels
to which that cell belongs cannot be calculated. In this case, other cells must also be sup-
pressed to guarantee the protection of the values under the primary cells; this is called
secondary suppression.
8.15. Other methods of protecting against the disclosure of confidential data include
controlled rounding and perturbation, which are more sophisticated techniques. Controlled
rounding allows statisticians to modify the original value of each cell by rounding it up or
down to a near multiple of a base number. Perturbation represents a linear programming
variant of the controlled rounding technique.
8.16. The statistical units of the environment are a special type of unit from the point of
view of confidentiality. Data regarding environmental units should always be confidential if
they reveal information about individual economic units (i.e., establishments or households).
An example is an establishment that owns a particular artificial reservoir. However, if data
regarding an individual environmental unit are already publicly available (e.g., flow data for
a particular river), then there is no need to keep these data confidential.

2. Equality
8.17. All data users should be able to access data under equal terms; in particular, they
should be able to access data at the same time. To that end, water statistics should be
released at a predetermined time and data producers should develop and announce (e.g.,
post on the web) a release calendar or timetable for the release of water statistics. The cal-
endar and announcement should specify not only when but how the water statistics will
be released (e.g., as an electronic information product on the web or in hard copy). Data
should not be released ahead of the announced release date to any user: to do so could
bring into question the objectivity of the data producer. For countries in the early stages of
developing water statistics programmes, it may be necessary to qualify the release calendar
by noting that because water statistics are still developing, there may be some delays in
their production. In the event of a delay, the release calendar should be revised and key
data users advised directly.
8.18. In addition to the release calendar, the availability of water statistics can be made
public in a number of ways, such as by identifying and contacting key data users and posting
notices on websites and newsletters of other organizations. A press release (discussed in more
detail below) can also be used to announce the availability of water statistics.
128 International Recommendations for Water

8.19. It is important that all data users have access to the same level of information. That
is, more detailed data should not be available to some users but not to others. Differing levels
of access to data could bring into question the objectivity of the data producer.

3. Objectivity
8.20. Water statistics should not be accompanied by subjective interpretations, judge-
ments or recommendations. This principle also applies to producers of water statistics who
are responsible for policy development, decision-making, monitoring or enforcement. Since
it is often the case that organizations producing official water statistics are also responsible for
policy development and law enforcement, it is recommended that any subjective interpreta-
tions, judgements or recommendations related to the data be published separately, after the
release of the data. The Handbook of Statistical Organization171 and the Fundamental Principles
of Official Statistics172 provide more guidance on what is appropriate for official statistics with
regard to presenting facts, analysis and interpretation.
8.21. Objectivity also extends to the way water statistics are used and interpreted by users.
National statistical offices and other data producers are entitled to comment on erroneous
interpretation and misuse of statistics.173 For example, if an organization misrepresents data
on water use in a prominent newspaper article, then the statistical office can respond to the
newspaper by providing a brief letter, for publication in the newspaper, referring to the origi-
nal article and factually clarifying how to interpret the statistics correctly.

C. Information products
8.22. Water statistics are disseminated in many types of information products. For exam-
ple, it is common to disseminate water statistics in the form of water accounts or in thematic
reports. Water statistics can also be published in information products that focus on particu-
lar areas (e.g., river basins, states/provinces), parts of the economy (agriculture, water supply
and sewerage, households, etc.) or issues (water quality, water pricing, water scarcity and
drought, etc.). Water statistics are also published in general summary information products,
such as statistical yearbooks, or are published graphically along with other information (e.g.,
in an atlas) on the web.
8.23. Examples of the water statistics and accounts publications produced by countries can
be found in the Searchable Archive of Publications on Environmental-Economic Account-
ing.174 International examples of the publication of water statistics include the World Water
Development Reports 175 and the Human Development Report 2006: Beyond scarcity: Power,
poverty and the global water crisis.176 Many international agencies also include water data
on the web and in databases, such as the FAO Aquastat;177 the website of the Division for
Sustainable Development, Department of Economic and Social Affairs of the United Nations

171 United Nations Statistics Division, 2003, Handbook of Statistical Organization, 3rd ed. Available from http://
unstats.un.org/unsd/dnss/hb/default.aspx.
172 United Nations Statistical Commission, 1994, Fundamental Principles of Official Statistics. Available from http://
unstats.un.org/unsd/dnss/gp/fundprinciples.aspx (accessed 16 June 2009).
173 Ibid., principle 4, “Prevention of misuse”. Available from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/methods/statorg/default.
htm.
174 United Nations Statistics Division search archive. Available from http://unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/
ceea/archive/Introduction.asp.
175 WWAP, 2003, 2006, 2009. Available from http://www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr/ (accessed 17 June 2009).
176 UNDP, 2006, Human Development Report 2006: Beyond scarcity: Power, poverty and the global water crisis. Avail-
able from http://hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2006/ (accessed 18 June 2009).
177 See http://www.fao.org/NR/WATER/AQUASTAT/main/index.stm (accessed 30 June 2009).
 Data dissemination 129

Secretariat;178 the United Nations Statistics Division’s environmental indicators database;179

and the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme on Water Supply and Sanitation.180
On a regional basis, the Water Information System for Europe181 provides the main entry
point for Europe.
8.24. Water statistics can be disseminated in hard copy or electronic formats. Hard copy
information products are currently the most widely used and are particularly important in
countries where much of the population has limited access to the Internet (e.g., in developing
countries). It is increasingly common for hard copy information products to be released in an
electronic form as well, such as in a PDF file or as a set of accompanying data tables that can
be downloaded from the Internet. Searchable databases on the web are also becoming more
and more common.
8.25. When producing information products, a number of factors need to be considered,
including the organization and presentation of data, the description and explanation of data,
the review of information products, release and promotion, and the revision of data. These
are outlined in more detail below.

1. Organization and presentation of data

8.26. Information products need to be logically organized and well presented. The most
important data should be found at the beginning of the publication, with increasing levels of
detail progressively included. A short executive summary (e.g., one to two pages), containing
key data and interpretive text, should be included in all publications. Headings, subheadings
and sidebars can be used to strengthen the organization of information products. For all
information products, the classifications, definitions, spatial and temporal references used,
as well as the data sources and methods, should be clearly identifiable.
8.27. Standardized tables and graphs should be used for the presentation of data. For water
statistics, the standard tables of SEEA-Water are an example of how to present water data.
These tables can be elaborated to show, for example, additional industry and subnational data.
8.28. Standard templates for the presentation of figures and graphs should also be used.
Such templates specify the typeface (font), font size, line weight, spacing, wording, placement
of wording and appearance of titles and labels. There should be an explanation of rounding
practices, and data should not use more significant digits than are consistent with the accu-
racy of the data. Footnotes, asterisks (*) or other marks can be used in tables to highlight
issues of data quality (see chap. VII). The headings and captions for graphics and tables should
be concise and should accurately describe the data contained therein.
8.29. Maps are commonly used to present water statistics because water data and informa-
tion are strongly related to geographic areas, especially river basins. These maps may include
surface water bodies, river basins, aquifers, land-use information, emissions, the percentage of
population connected to water supply in an area, the volume of water abstracted in different
areas, or the unit cost of water in different areas. Many other data items can be presented in
maps, especially if GIS are being used to compile and present data. The use of maps and GIS
is particularly important when disseminating data to audiences interested in climate change
and its impacts.
8.30. For electronic information products, it is usual to keep tables, databases and geo-
graphic datasets as simple as possible. For example, it is often easier for data users to download
a CSV file or spreadsheet of data than to use an interactive table or database, which tend to
be difficult and costly to design and are in some cases used by relatively few users. Interactive
maps have a wide audience that may include water specialists and non-specialists alike.

178 See http://www.un.org/esa/dsd/dsd_aofw_wat/wat_index.shtml (accessed 18 June 2009).

179 See http://unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/qindicators.htm (accessed 8 December 2009).
180 See http://www.wssinfo.org/en/welcome.html (accessed 8 December 2009).
81 See http://water.europa.eu/en/welcome (accessed 6 July 2009).
1
130 International Recommendations for Water

8.31. Where data are made available in an interactive database or map, a pilot version
should be tested on a range of potential users. This should assist the database designers with
the layout of the interface, functionality, response time of the web connections to the database
and usability.

2. Description and explanation of data

8.32. The text contained in information products should not only describe and explain
data but also highlight important figures or trends, including, for example, actual values,
percentage distributions or rates of change.
8.33. The language used should be objective (see sect. B.3), precise and as simple as
possible. Depending on the intended audience, some loss of precision may sometimes be
an acceptable trade-off for a more readable text. It is also important to make sure that any
conclusions are consistent with the statistics presented. Always avoid drawing conclusions on
causality because this can be difficult to judge or prove and may undermine the impartiality
of water statistics.

3. Review of information products

8.34. Information products need to be reviewed carefully prior to their release. The pur-
pose of a review is to assess whether data and methods are adequately described, written
descriptions of data are consistent with numerical data, key data or findings have been high-
lighted, and data are consistent with other information sources.
8.35. For new information products, a formal review process should be established. The
review should be undertaken by at least three suitably qualified external stakeholders, includ-
ing reviewers from organizations that provided data or expertise used in the information
product. Experts on both water (i.e., the subject matter) and statistical methods should be
involved. For the organization producing the information, there should be a review by at
least two other persons from within the organization to check for consistency of figures used
in the text, tables and charts; the accuracy of external data and references; simple arithmetic
and other possible errors.182
8.36. In the case of a statistical agency, the data and text need to receive final approval of
the chief statistician or an official delegated by the Chief. In other agencies, this would be a
person whose authority is similar to that of the chief statistician (i.e., the head of agency).
8.37. For more information on reviewing water statistics information products, see the
guidelines on dissemination in the Statistics Canada Quality Guidelines 2003.183

4. Release and promotion

8.38. The release date of an information product is the date on which it is published, i.e.,
the date it is made available to data users. This date should be advertised in advance in a
release calendar and key stakeholders should also be made aware of the date prior to release.
8.39. To ensure wide use of information products, releases need to be accompanied by
promotional activities, and the timing of the release is an important consideration. Water
statistics may be released to coincide with special national or international water events,
such as World Water Day184 or World Water Week.185 This enables the producers of water
statistics to take advantage of the promotional activities undertaken by a range of national
and international agencies to make people aware of the importance of water. In many cases,
182 See Handbook of Statistical Organization, 3rd ed., The Operation and Organization of a Statistical Agency.
183 Statistics Canada, 2003. Available from http://www.statcan.gc.ca/bsolc/olc-cel/olc-cel?catno=12-539-
X&CHROPG=1&lang=eng (accessed 15 June 2009).
184 For more information on World Water Day, see http://www.worldwaterday.org/.
85 For more information on World Water Week, see http://www.worldwaterweek.org/worldwaterweek/about.asp.
1
 Data dissemination 131

the media will devote attention to water issues around these times and will be looking for
new material to illustrate a range of water issues. It is also important to avoid releasing water
statistics on days when there are other major data releases, since these may divert attention
away from water statistics. For example, water statistics should not be released at the same
time that results of the population census or the national accounts are published.
8.40. If different water statistics are going to be released by different government organiza-
tions, the timing of the release of data should be coordinated, in particular if the data relate
to the same spatial and temporal references. Release can be simultaneous or staggered, with
the aim being to maximize the use and understanding of each set of water statistics.
8.41. Promotional material must be targeted at specific audiences, in particular the media
(e.g., using press releases (see below)) and the key stakeholders. This is done by sending cop-
ies of reports and accompanying summary sheets to water decision makers, managers and
analysts in government agencies that have an interest in water statistics. This can also involve
holding seminars, which also enables interaction with data users so that, for example, ques-
tions on data can be answered immediately. Dissemination also includes the traditional
activities of placing information products in libraries and on the web.
8.42. The promotion of water statistics should include activities undertaken by data pro-
ducers to reach the public. Seminars have already been mentioned, but other activities may
include having exhibits regarding important water facts (i.e., important water statistics) at
relevant water meetings or events. Another way of increasing awareness of water statistics and
the importance of water is to create educational materials for inclusion in the curriculum of
schools or in university courses.
8.43. The media play an important role in disseminating water statistics. The press and
other mass media (e.g., television, radio and online news media) act as intermediaries in the
relay of information to both the general public and water specialists. The media relay informa-
tion at a range of scales from local to national levels, depending on whether the information
is of local or national interest.
8.44. Agencies producing water statistics will, to some extent, have to rely on the media
to ensure that availability of water statistics is known to all audiences. This creates a series of
challenges, which have to be addressed, including:
• Ensuring that online news media, newspapers, television, radio and magazines are all
aware of new water statistics
• Ensuring that the statistical office is responsive, even outside of normal office hours,
to the deadlines of the media
• Identifying a spokesperson for water information products from which the media may
seek clarification or comment
• Providing, along with the latest water data, an interpretive text so that press reports
are balanced and accurate
• Periodically reviewing with media the arrangements made to ensure efficient dis-
semination
• Making all possible efforts to present new water statistics in a manner that minimizes
misinterpretation and enhances clarity
8.45. Many agencies have made permanent arrangements with the media to help dissemi-
nate information products. It is important to work with media liaison sections or units when
promoting upcoming information products.186
8.46. All agencies that provided the data or expertise used in an information product
should be acknowledged and made aware that the data are to be published. Publicly acknow-
ledging all contributors, for example, in the acknowledgements or footnotes also encourages

186 For more information regarding the press and media, see Handbook of Statistical Organization, 3rd ed., The
Operation and Organization of a Statistical Agency.
132 International Recommendations for Water

the wider dissemination of information products by all contributors. When produced in hard
copy, these agencies should be given complimentary copies.

5. Revisions of data
8.47. The revision of data is an inescapable statistical activity in all countries. In some
cases, revisions are planned as part of a staged approach to the release of preliminary data
that are later replaced by final data, or when there are changes in data sources and methods
that result in a series break. It is also inevitable that some errors will occur in the collection
and compilation of statistics and no matter how diligent the quality assurance, some of
these errors will be published. It is essential that the revision of data be done transparently
and, in the case of the correction of errors, as soon as they are detected. Revised data must
be accompanied by a statement outlining clearly the reasons for the revision. In the case of
planned revisions, this can be done in the information product for which the data are released.
In cases where changes in data sources or methodology are expected, users should be given
advance notice both of this and of the likely impact on the quality of the data. In the case of
errors detected after publishing, this should be done by a public announcement (e.g., on the
website) and through direct contact with the data users.
8.48. All revisions, whether planned or not, must be explained to users in a way that gives
assurance that the changes are for statistical reasons alone (and are not politically motivated,
for example).

D. Monitoring the use of water statistics

8.49. To assess the relevance and accessibility of water statistics, it is necessary to under-
stand and monitor the use of the information products that include them, such as by:
• Contacting key data users and asking for feedback on the information products pro-
duced
• Keeping any news articles that refer to water statistics
• Monitoring web page statistics (e.g., hits, time spent on pages related to water statistics
web pages)
• Monitoring the number of hard-copy information products sold (this should also
include some indication of the types of organizations purchasing the information
products)
• Monitoring the number of requests for free water statistics information products
(including some indication of what types of organization request them)
• Recording enquiries regarding water statistics (e.g., enquiries about the meaning of
certain data or whether there are more detailed data available)
• Checking web search engines at least once a quarter to see how highly information
products are ranked by keyword
• Cataloguing any other information products that refer to published water statistics,
including government policies and related announcements, books, academic articles
and websites
8.50. At least once a year, this information should be consolidated to provide a picture
of the use of water statistics, and that picture should be reviewed by the producers of water
statistics and, if they have been established, working groups or steering committees for the
development of water statistics.
 Data dissemination 133

E. International data-reporting
8.51. In addition to the dissemination of water statistics within countries, data are also
provided by countries to a range of international organizations. The data reported to inter-
national organizations should be accompanied by metadata; in particular, the classifications
and methods used to produce the data. This is important because the data are used for inter-
national comparisons and the global assessment of water issues, and the reports that result
may have influence on the policies and decisions of countries. Submissions of national water
statistics to international organizations should be effectively coordinated to avoid reporting
inconsistent national figures.
8.52. The United Nations Statistics Division, along with other international organiza-
tions, continues to coordinate its data-collection activities and share data. At present, there
are several international initiatives collecting data from countries or agencies within countries
and, when necessary, estimating data from all available sources, including:
• FAO Aquastat
• OECD/Eurostat joint questionnaire on the state of the environment, section entitled
“Inland Waters”
• UNICEF Multiple Indicator Cluster Survey (for the MDGs)
• United Nations Statistics Division/UNEP water questionnaire
• WHO Global Annual Assessment of Sanitation and Drinking Water
• World Bank IB-NET
• WWAP (compilation of existing data by UN-Water)
 135

Annex I
List of recommended data items
Annex 1 consists of a complete list of data items as defined in chapter IV, with definitions
(table AI.1) and a summary table showing the relationship between statistical units and physi-
cal data items (figure AI.1).
Table AI.1
Recommended data items and their definitions.

Data item Definition

Physical data items for inland water stocks

A. Inland water stocks The volume of water contained in surface water, groundwater and soil water within the territory of
reference at a particular point in time. This includes freshwater, brackish water and saline water and all
types of water quality.
A.1. Surface water stocks The volume of water that flows over or rests on the ground’s surface within the territory of reference at
a particular point in time. This includes water contained in artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers, wetlands,
snow, ice and glaciers.
A.1.1. In artificial reservoirs The volume of water contained in man-made surface water bodies used for storage, regulation and
control of water within the territory of reference at a particular point in time.
A.1.2. In lakes The volume of water contained in generally large bodies of standing water occupying a depression in
the Earth’s surface within the territory of reference at a particular point in time.
A.1.3. In rivers and streams The volume of water contained in bodies of water flowing continuously or periodically in channels
within the territory of reference at a particular point in time. This includes water flowing through
artificial watercourses, such as canals for irrigation, drainage or navigation.
A.1.4. In wetlands The volume of water found in transitional areas where soils are frequently saturated or flooded,
including swamps, marshes, playas and bogs, within the territory of reference at a particular point in
time.
A.1.5. In snow, ice and glaciers The volume of water found in a naturally frozen state (ice and ice crystals), measured in water equivalent,
within the territory of reference at a particular point in time. This includes seasonal layers of snow and
ice on the ground surface and accumulations of ice (i.e., glaciers) that move slowly over land.
A.2. Groundwater stocks The volume of water in porous and permeable underground layers, known as aquifers, that can yield
significant quantities of water to wells and springs within the territory of reference at a particular point
in time.
Physical data items for flows into and out of the territory
B. Inflow of water to a territory’s inland The volume of water that flows into a territory’s inland water resources, consisting of precipitation and
water resources inflows from upstream territories, per year.
B.1. Precipitation The volume of water that flows from the atmosphere to inland water resources via rain, snow, sleet, hail,
dew, mist, etc., per year.
B.2. Inflow of water from The volume of surface water and groundwater that moves into a territory of reference from other
neighbouring territories territories, per year. This includes all water crossing into a territory and a portion of the water moving into
artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers or aquifers that lie along the territory’s border.
B.2.1. Secured through treaties The volume of surface water and groundwater that moves into a territory of reference from other
territories, or along its border, that is protected by formal agreements with upstream territories, per year.
B.2.2. Not secured through The volume of surface water and groundwater that moves into a territory of reference that is not
treaties protected by formal agreements with upstream territories, per year.
136 International Recommendations for Water

Table AI.1
Recommended data items and their definitions (continued)

Data item Definition

C. Outflow of water from a territory’s The volume of water that flows out of a territory’s inland water resources, consisting of evapotranspiration
inland water resources from inland water resources and the outflow of surface water and groundwater to downstream territories
and the sea, per year. This excludes water and sewage exported (K) since these are flows between
economic units and the rest of the world, after being abstracted from the environment.
C.1. E vapotranspiration from The volume of water from land and water surfaces that enters the atmosphere by vaporization of water
inland water resources into a gas and through evaporation and transpiration from plants, per year.
C.1.1. E vaporation The volume of water that enters the atmosphere by vaporization of liquid and solid water to a gas from
water and land surfaces, per year. This includes sublimation, which is water that goes from being ice,
snow or part of a glacier directly to a water vapour, without going through a liquid phase, i.e., without
melting. Evaporation of water consists of water that evaporates directly from surface water and water
that evaporates from soil water.
C.1.2. Transpiration from The volume of water that enters the atmosphere by vaporization of liquid water to a gas from plant
plants surfaces when the ground is at its natural moisture content, determined by precipitation, per year. If
data are available, then transpiration from animals and people can be recorded as supplementary data
item C.1.3.
C.2. Outflow of water to The volume of surface water and groundwater that moves from a territory’s inland water resources
neighbouring territories to other territories and the sea, per year. This includes all water flowing out of a territory or land area
and the sea and a portion of the water flowing out of artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers or aquifers that lie along the
territory’s border.
C.2.1. To neighbouring The volume of surface water and groundwater that flows from within a territory to another territory or
territories territories, per year. This includes water flowing out of artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers or aquifers that lie
along the territory’s border.
C.2.1.1. Secured by The volume of surface water and groundwater that moves out of a territory of reference and is made
treaties available to downstream territories by formal agreement, per year.
C.2.1.2. Not secured by The volume of surface water and groundwater that moves out of a territory of reference and is not
treaties guaranteed to downstream territories by formal agreement, per year.
C.2.2. To the sea The volume of surface water and groundwater that moves from a territory’s inland water resources into
sea(s) and ocean(s), per year.
Natural transfers of water between inland water resources
D. Natural transfers with other The volume of water that moves between inland water resources of a territory, per year.
resources in the territory
D.1. From surface water to The volume of water that infiltrates into aquifers from artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers, wetlands, snow,
groundwater ice and glaciers, per year.
D.2. From groundwater to surface The volume of water that moves from aquifers into artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers, wetlands, snow, ice
water and glaciers, per year.
D.3. Between surface water The volume of water that moves from one surface water body to another, per year.
resources
D.4. Between groundwater The volume of water that moves from one aquifer to another, per year.
resources
Physical data items for flows from the environment to the economy
E. Abstraction of water The volume of water that is removed or collected by economic units directly from the environment
within the territory of reference, per year.
E.1. From inland water resources The volume of water that is removed by economic units from surface water, groundwater and soil water
within the territory of reference, per year. This includes the abstraction of inland waters that are fresh,
brackish, saline or polluted. This excludes abstraction of water from the sea or ocean, since these are not
inland water resources.
 Annex I 137

Data item Definition

E.1.1. F rom surface water The volume of water removed by economic units from artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers, wetlands
and snow, ice and glaciers within the territory of reference, per year. Bank filtration is considered an
abstraction of surface water.
E.1.1.1. F rom artificial The volume of water removed by economic units from man-made surface water bodies, used for
reservoirs storage, regulation and control of water within the territory of reference, per year.
E.1.1.2. From lakes The volume of water removed by economic units from generally large bodies of standing water
occupying a depression in the Earth’s surface within the territory of reference, per year.
E.1.1.3. From rivers The volume of water removed by economic units from bodies of water flowing continuously or
periodically in channels within the territory of reference, per year.
E.1.1.4. From wetlands The volume of water removed by economic units from transitional areas where soils are frequently
saturated or flooded, including swamps, marshes, playas and bogs, within the territory of reference, per
year.
E.1.1.5. From snow, ice The volume of water removed by economic units from water found in a naturally frozen state (ice and ice
and glaciers crystals), measured in water equivalent, within the territory of reference, per year.
E.1.2. From groundwater The volume of water removed by economic units from aquifers and springs within the territory of
reference, per year.
E.1.3. From soil water The volume of water used by economic units in rain-fed or non-irrigated agriculture and forestry within
the territory of reference, per year. This is the volume of precipitation that falls onto agricultural fields
and is transpired by the crops, plantations, orchards, etc. This is broadly equivalent to the concept of
green water.
E.2. Collection of precipitation The volume of water collected by economic units directly from falling rain, snow, sleet and hail or
collected by contact with dew and mist within the territory of reference, per year. A typical example of
collection of precipitation is roof rain harvesting by households. The collection of precipitation includes
urban run-off.
E.3. Abstraction from the sea The volume of saline water removed by economic units from the sea and ocean within the territory of
reference, per year.
Alternative breakdown
E.a. For own use The volume of water abstracted and used by the same economic units within the territory of reference,
per year.
E.b. For distribution The volume of water abstracted by an economic unit for the purpose of being supplied to other
economic units, often after treatment, within the territory of reference, per year.
Physical data items for flows of water within the economy
F. Water supplied to economic units The volume of water that is provided by one economic unit to another economic unit through mains,
artificial open channels, sewers, drains, trucks or other means, per year. This excludes the losses of water
in distribution which are included in data item I and the supply of bottled water (CPC, Ver. 2, 9410),
which is one of the supplementary data items.
F.1. Water supplied by resident The volume of water (CPC 18000) that is provided by resident economic units, typically of the water
economic units to resident supply industry (ISIC 36), to other resident economic units through mains, artificial open channels,
economic units sewers, drains, trucks or other means, per year.
F.2. Water exported to the rest of The volume of water (CPC 18000) that is provided by resident economic units, typically of the water
the world (water exports) supply industry (ISIC 36), to other non-resident economic units (rest of world) through mains, artificial
open channels, drains, trucks or other means, per year.
F.3. Wastewater supplied by The volume of water discharged by resident economic units into drains or sewers for treatment or
resident economic units to disposal by other resident economic units, and water supplied by resident economic units to other
resident economic units resident economic units which have to treat this water before it can be used (by the same units), per
year. All water discharged into drains or sewers is considered wastewater for treatment or disposal,
regardless of the quality of water discharged.
F.3.1. For treatment or disposal The volume of water discharged into drains or sewers by resident economic units for treatment or
disposal by other resident economic units, per year.
138 International Recommendations for Water

Table AI.1
Recommended data items and their definitions (continued)

Data item Definition

F.3.2. For further use The volume of water supplied by resident economic units which has to be treated by the resident
economic units receiving the water before the water can be used (by the same units), per year.
F.4. Wastewater exported to the The volume of water discharged into drains or sewers by resident economic units for treatment or
rest of the world (wastewater disposal by non-resident economic units, and water supplied by resident economic units to non-
exports) resident economic units which has to be treated by these units before the water can be used (by the
same units), per year.
F.4.1. For treatment or disposal The volume of water discharged into drains or sewers for treatment or disposal by other non-resident
economic units, per year.
F.4.2. For further use The volume of water supplied to non-resident economic units which has to be treated by the economic
units receiving the water before the water can be used (by the same units), per year.
G. Water received by economic units The volume of water that has been delivered from one economic unit to another economic unit through
mains, artificial open channels, sewers, drains, trucks or other means, per year. Water received from
other economic units (G) excludes water abstracted directly from the environment (included in data
item E) and bottled water (CPC 9410), which is included as a supplementary data item.
G.1. Water received by resident The volume of water (CPC 18000) that has been delivered to resident economic units by other resident
economic units from resident economic units through mains, artificial open channels, drains, trucks or other means, per year.
economic units
G.2. Water imported by resident The volume of water (CPC 18000) that has been delivered to resident economic units by non-resident
economic units from the rest of economic units (rest of world) through mains, artificial open channels, drains, trucks or other means, per
the world (water imports) year. This excludes water abstracted directly from the environment (included in data item E) and bottled
water (CPC, Ver. 2, 9410), which is included as a supplementary data item.
G.3. Wastewater received by The volume of water removed by resident economic units, usually via drains or sewers, from other
resident economic units from resident economic units that requires either treatment or disposal, per year.
resident economic units
G.3.1. For treatment or disposal The volume of water removed by resident economic units from resident economic units, usually via
drains or sewers, to be purified (i.e., treated) or removed (i.e., disposed of), per year.
G.3.2. For further use The volume of water removed by resident economic units, often by pipe, artificial channel or truck, that
requires some degree of purification (i.e., treatment) by the economic unit receiving the water before
the water is used, per year.
G.4. Wastewater received from the The volume of water removed by resident economic units, usually via drains or sewers, from non-
rest of the world (wastewater resident economic units, that requires some degree of purification (i.e., treatment) and disposal, per
imports) year. This excludes water abstracted directly from the environment (included in data item E); and bottled
water (CPC, Ver. 2, 9410), which is included as a supplementary data item.
G.4.1. For treatment or disposal The volume of water removed by resident economic units from non-resident economic units, usually via
drains or sewers, to be purified (i.e., treated) or disposed of, per year.
G.4.2. For further use The volume of water removed by resident economic units from non-resident economic units, usually
via pipe, artificial channel or by truck, that requires some degree of purification (i.e., treatment) by
the economic unit receiving the water before the water is used, per year. This water may be imported
through pipes, artificial open channels, trucks or other means.
Physical data items for flows from the economy to the environment
H. R eturns of water to the environment The volume of water that flows from economic units directly to inland water resources, to the sea or to
by economic units land, within the territory of reference, per year. This includes urban storm water, losses due to leakage
and burst pipes, irrigation water that infiltrates into groundwater or ends up in surface water, and the
discharges of cooling water and water used for hydroelectricity generation. It excludes evaporation
because evaporation is consumption.
H.1. To inland water resources The volume of water that flows from economic units directly to surface water or groundwater within the
territory of reference, per year.
H.1.1. To surface water The volume of water that flows from economic units directly into artificial reservoirs, lakes, and rivers
and wetlands, within the territory of reference, per year. Discharges of water to surface water include
discharges of cooling water, urban run-off (including storm water) and run-off from agricultural land. It
may also include the discharges of water used for hydroelectricity power generation.
 Annex I 139

Data item Definition

H.1.1.1. T o artificial The volume of water that flows from economic units directly into man-made surface water bodies used for
reservoirs storage, regulation and control of water, within the territory of reference, per year.
H.1.1.2. To lakes The volume of water that flows from economic units directly into generally large bodies of standing
water occupying a depression in the Earth’s surface, within the territory of reference, per year.
H.1.1.3. To rivers The volume of water that flows from economic units directly into bodies of water flowing continuously
or periodically in channels, within the territory of reference, per year.
H.1.1.4. To wetlands The volume of water that flows from economic units directly to transitional areas where soils are
frequently saturated or flooded, including swamps, marshes, playas and bogs, within the territory of
reference, per year.
H.1.1.5. To snow, ice and The volume of water that flows from economic units directly onto naturally frozen water (ice and ice
glaciers crystals), within the territory of reference, per year.
H.1.2. To groundwater The volume of water that flows from economic units directly into aquifers, within the territory of
reference, per year. Discharges of water to groundwater include the artificial recharge of aquifers, urban
run-off (and storm water) that is collected and allowed to infiltrate into groundwater and water from
agriculture that infiltrates into groundwater. Discharge to soil water is water discharged from economic
units onto land surfaces where the water seeps rapidly into soil.
H.2. To the sea The volume of water that flows from economic units directly into the sea or ocean, within the territory of
reference, per year. These discharges may occur near the coast or further offshore.
H.3. To land The volume of water that flows from economic units directly to transitional areas where soils are
frequently saturated or flooded, including swamps, marshes, playas and bogs, within the territory of
reference, per year.
Alternative breakdown
H.a. Returns of water to the The volume of water discharged into the environment by economic units after some pollutants have
environment after treatment been removed, within the territory of reference, per year. This includes wastewater discharged by the
by economic units sewerage industry (ISIC 37) and other industries after undergoing on-site treatment.
H.a.1. A
 fter primary treatment The volume of water discharged into the environment by economic units after undergoing primary
treatment, including on-site primary treatment, within the territory of reference, per year (see primary
treatment, chap. IV, para. 4.76).
H.a.2. After secondary The volume of water discharged into the environment by economic units after undergoing primary
treatment and secondary treatment (including treatment on-site), within the territory of reference, per year (see
secondary treatment, chap. IV, para. 4.77).
H.a.3. After tertiary treatment The volume of water discharged into the environment by economic units after having been through
tertiary treatment, in addition to secondary treatment, within the territory of reference, per year (see
tertiary treatment, chap. IV, para. 4.78).
H.b. Returns of water to the The volume of water that is discharged into the environment by economic units where pollutants have
environment without not been removed, within the territory of reference, per year.
treatment
Physical data items for losses from distribution networks and sewerage systems
I. Losses of water The volume of water that is lost in distribution or lost when sent for treatment and disposal, within the
territory of reference, per year. This includes water (CPC 18000) and wastewater.
I.1. L osses of water (CPC, Ver. 2, The volume of water (CPC 18000) that is lost during distribution and transportation, between the point
18000) in distribution of abstraction and the point of use, or between the points of use and reuse (e.g., from mains, artificial
open channels and trucks), within the territory of reference, per year.
I.2. Losses of water sent for treatment The volume of wastewater lost from sewerage systems, artificial open channels and trucks used to
or disposal in collection collect wastewater, within the territory of reference, per year.
Data items for flows of waterborne emissions in the economy
J. Waterborne emissions to other The quantity of pollutants, or their measured properties, that have been added to water by economic
economic units units as a result of production and consumption processes, and are supplied to other economic units,
per year.
J.1. W
 aterborne emissions supplied The quantity of pollutants, or their measured properties, that have been added to water by resident
by resident economic units to economic units as a result of production and consumption processes, and are supplied to other resident
resident economic units economic units, per year.
140 International Recommendations for Water

Table AI.1
Recommended data items and their definitions (continued)

Data item Definition

J.2. Exports of waterborne The quantity of pollutants, or their measured properties, that have been added to water by resident
emissions economic units as a result of production and consumption processes, and are supplied to non-resident
economic units, per year.
J.3. Imports of waterborne The quantity of pollutants, or their measured properties, that have been added to water by non-resident
emissions economic units as a result of production and consumption processes, and are supplied to resident
economic units, per year.
Data items for flows of waterborne emissions from the economy to the environment
K. W
 aterborne emissions to the The quantity of pollutants, or their measured properties, carried in water discharged by economic
environment units into inland water resources and the sea, within the territory of reference, per year. This excludes
emissions to other economic units.
K.1. From point sources to the The quantity of pollutants, or their measured properties, carried in water discharged by economic units,
environment for which the geographic location of the discharge of water emissions is clearly identified, into inland
water resources and the sea, within the territory of reference, per year. These include, for example,
emissions from wastewater treatment plants, power plants and other industrial establishments
K.1.1. T o inland water resources The quantity of pollutants, or their measured properties, carried in water discharged by economic units,
from a clearly identified geographic location, into surface water, groundwater and soil water, within the
territory of reference, per year.
K.1.1.1. To surface water The quantity of pollutants, or their measured properties, carried in water discharged by economic units,
from a clearly identified geographic location into artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers and snow, ice and
glaciers, within the territory of reference, per year.
K.1.1.2.To groundwater The quantity of pollutants, or their measured properties, carried in water discharged by economic units,
from a clearly identified geographic location into groundwater, within the territory of reference, per
year.
K.1.1.a. After on-site The quantity of pollutants, or their measured properties, carried in water discharged by economic units,
treatment from a clearly identified geographic location after on-site treatment, into surface water, groundwater
and soil water, within the territory of reference, per year.
K.1.1.b. Without on-site The quantity of pollutants, or their measured properties, carried in water discharged by economic units,
treatment from a clearly identified geographic location without treatment, into surface water, groundwater and
soil water, within the territory of reference, per year.
K.1.2. To the sea The quantity of pollutants, or their measured properties, carried in water discharged by economic units,
from a clearly identified geographic location, into the sea, within the territory of reference, per year.
K.1.2.a. After on-site The quantity of pollutants, or their measured properties, carried in water discharged by economic units,
treatment from a clearly identified geographic location after on-site treatment, into the sea, within the territory of
reference, per year.
K.1.2.b. Without on-site The quantity of pollutants, or their measured properties, carried in water discharged by economic units,
treatment from a clearly identified geographic location without treatment, into the sea, within the territory of
reference, per year.
K.1.3. To land The quantity of pollutants, or their measured properties, carried in water discharged by economic units,
from a clearly identified geographic location, to the ground, within the territory of reference, per year.
K.2. From diffuse sources to the The quantity of pollutants, or their measured properties, carried in water discharged by economic units,
environment from numerous geographic locations or a wide area, into inland water resources and the sea, within the
territory of reference, per year.
K.2.1. To inland water resources The quantity of pollutants, or their measured properties, carried in water discharged by economic units,
from numerous geographic locations or a wide area, into surface water, groundwater and soil water,
within the territory of reference, per year. This excludes emissions to other economic units.
K.2.1.1. To surface water The quantity of pollutants, or their measured properties, carried in water discharged by economic units,
from numerous geographic locations or a wide area, into artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers, wetlands,
snow, ice and glaciers, within the territory of reference, per year.
 Annex I 141

Data item Definition

K.2.1.2. To groundwater The quantity of pollutants, or their measured properties, carried in water discharged by economic units,
from numerous geographic locations or a wide area, into aquifers, within the territory of reference, per
year.
K.2.2. To the sea The quantity of pollutants, or their measured properties, carried in water discharged by economic units,
from numerous geographic locations or a wide area, into the sea, within the territory of reference, per
year. This excludes emissions to other economic units.
K.2.3. To land The quantity of pollutants, or their measured properties, carried in water discharged by economic units,
from numerous geographic locations or a wide area, onto the ground, within the territory of reference,
per year.
Value and costs of water and sewerage services
L. Value and costs of water and Values and costs as described in the following data items.
sewerage services
L.1. V
 alue of shipments/sales/ The value of shipments, including transfers during the inquiry period to other establishments of the
turnover (IRIS 5.1) same enterprise, of all goods made by the establishment, whether in the reference period or in previous
periods (that is, all goods for which the establishment relinquished control during the period; all goods
sent abroad for sale or processing should be included even though legal title may not yet have passed),
per year. Included as goods produced by the establishment are goods produced by other organizations
from materials supplied by the establishment. The data obtained should cover all shipments of
principal products, secondary products, by-products, water supply, sewerage, waste management and
remediation activities arising from the production process; and all sales of electricity, gas and steam,
whether purchased or produced by the establishment.
L.1.1. V
 alue of water sales (CPC The value of charges for water and water supply service charges supplied by economic units engaged in
18000) water supply activities, either as a principal or a secondary activity, per year. This excludes product taxes
(e.g., VAT) collected on behalf of the Government and subsidies, which are included in data item N.1.
L.1.1.1. T o resident The value of sales of water (CPC 18000) supplied by economic units engaged in water supply activities to
economic units resident economic units, per year.
L.1.1.2. To the rest of the The value of sales of water (CPC 18000) supplied by economic units engaged in water supply activities to
world (export of non-resident economic units, per year.
water)
L.1.2. Value of sales of sewerage The value of sales of sewerage services (CPC 94100) provided by economic units engaged in sewerage
services (CPC 94100) service activities, per year. This includes all charges for the supply of sewerage services. This excludes
product taxes (e.g., VAT) collected on behalf of the Government and subsidies, which are included in
data item N.1. For units of the sewerage industry (ISIC 37), data item L.1.2 should represent the majority
of the value of data item L.1.
L.1.2.1. T o resident The value of sales of sewerage services (CPC 94100) to resident economic units, provided by economic
economic units units engaged in sewerage service activities, per year.
L.1.2.2. To the rest of the The value of sales of sewerage services (CPC 94100) to non-resident economic units, provided by
world (export of economic units engaged in sewerage service activities, per year.
sewerage services)
L.2. Compensation of employees The value of remuneration (in cash or in kind) paid to employees of economic units, per year.
(IRIS 3.1)
L.2.1. Compensation of The value of remuneration paid, by economic units engaged in water collection, treatment or supply
employees related to activities, to employees in return for work supporting abstraction, treatment and distribution of
water supply activities freshwater, per year. This includes remuneration in cash or in kind. This can be disaggregated according
to whether the employees are engaged in a secondary activity or the production is for own use. (See
1993 SNA, paras. 7.21 and 7.31.)
L.2.2. Compensation of The value of remuneration paid by economic units engaged in sewerage activities to employees
employees related for work supporting the collection, treatment or disposal of wastewater, per year. This includes
to sewerage service remuneration in cash or in kind. It can be disaggregated according to whether the employees are
activities engaged in a secondary activity or the production is for own use. (See 1993 SNA, paras. 7.21 and 7.31.)  
L.3. Purchases of goods and services The cost of raw materials and supplies, gas, fuels and electricity purchased, purchase of services except
(combined IRIS 4.1, 4.2, 4.4, 4.6 rentals, rental payments and non-life insurance premiums payable on establishment property, per
and 4.7) year. This includes the cost of raw materials, fuel, gas, electricity, services (e.g., maintenance), rent and
insurance used by economic units in the production process. It excludes the consumption of fixed capital.
142 International Recommendations for Water

Table AI.1
Recommended data items and their definitions (continued)

Data item Definition

L.3.1. P urchases of goods and The value of goods and services consumed by economic units engaged in water collection, treatment
services related to water or supply activities, as inputs in the processes of abstraction for distribution, fresh water treatment and
supply activities distribution, per year. This includes the costs (excluding employees) to economic units associated with
removing or collecting natural water from the environment for own use, or treating and cooling water
for further use by the economic unit. It also includes the operating and maintenance costs of equipment
used to abstract water but excludes government fees, which are included in other taxes on production
(M.1). The goods or services may be either transformed or used up by the production process. It excludes
the consumption of fixed capital. (See 1993 SNA, para. 6.147.) This data item is directed at economic
units that produce water as a secondary product (e.g., hydroelectric power producers of the electricity
industry ISIC 35) or for own use (e.g., in agriculture ISIC 03).
L.3.2. Purchases of goods The value of goods and services consumed by economic units engaged in sewerage activities, as inputs
and services related in the processes of collecting, treating or disposing of wastewater, per year. (See 1993 SNA, para. 6.147.)
to sewerage service This data item is directed at units that provide sewerage services as a secondary product or for own use.
activities
L.4. Purchases of water (IRIS 4.3.1) The value of water received by users (economic units) supplied by other economic units, per year. This
includes the cost of the water plus associated delivery charges.
L.4.1. Purchases of water from The value of water received by users (economic units) supplied by resident economic units, per year.
resident economic units
L.4.2. Purchases of water from The value of water received by users (economic units) supplied by non-resident economic units, per year.
the rest of the world
(import of water)
L.5. Purchases of sewerage services The value of sewerage services received by establishments and households that have been supplied
(IRIS 4.3.2) by other economic units, typically from the sewerage industry (ISIC 37), per year. For example, the cost
of water supply may be the price (e.g., $ per m3) of water multiplied by the volume ( m3) used, plus any
associated service charges for water supply.
L.5.1. P urchases of sewerage The value of sewerage services used by users (economic units) supplied by resident economic units, per
services from resident year.
economic units
L.5.2. Purchases of sewerage The value of sewerage services used by users (economic units) supplied by non-resident economic units,
services from the rest per year.
of the world (import of
sewerage service)
Taxes, subsidies and investment grants
M. Taxes The value of compulsory unrequited payments, in cash or in kind, made by economic units to the
Government, per year, as described below.
M.1. Taxes (IRIS 7.1) The value of compulsory unrequited payments, in cash or in kind, made by economic units to the
Government, per year. Two main groups of taxes are identifiable: taxes on products and other taxes on
production.
M.1.1. Taxes on products The value of taxes that are payable per unit of some good or service, per year. The tax may be a specific
amount of money per unit of quantity of a good or service (the quantity units being measured either
in terms of discrete units or continuous physical variables, such as volume, weight, strength, distance,
time), or it may be calculated ad valorem as a specified percentage of the price per unit or value of the
goods or services transacted. A tax on a product usually becomes payable when it is produced, sold or
imported, but it may also become payable in other circumstances, such as when a good is exported,
leased, transferred, delivered or used for own consumption or own capital formation. An enterprise may
or may not itemize the amount of a tax on a product separately on the invoice or bill that it charges its
customers.
M.1.1.1. T axes on water The value of taxes on the quantity of water supplied, per year.
supplied
M.1.1.2. T axes on The value of taxes on the quantity of sewage removed, per year.
sewerage
services
 Annex I 143

Data item Definition

M.1.2. Other production taxes The value of taxes that the producing units are liable to pay as a result of engaging in production, per
(IRIS 7.1.1) year. These taxes consist mainly of taxes on the ownership or use of land, buildings or other assets used
in production, or on the labour employed or compensation of employees paid. Examples are motor
vehicle taxes, duties and registration fees, business licences, payroll taxes, taxes on non-life insurance
on assets and levies on the use of fixed assets. Also included are official fees and charges, that is, duties
payable for specific public services, such as the testing of standards of weights and measures and the
provision of extracts from official registers of crime.
M.1.2.1. O
 ther production The value of taxes that the economic units are liable to pay as a result of engaging in the production of
taxes related to water supply services, per year.
water supply
M.1.2.2. Other production The value of taxes that the economic units are liable to pay as a result of engaging in the production of
taxes related sewerage services, per year.
to sewerage
services
N. Subsidies and investment grants The value of payments that government units make to resident-producing units on the basis of their
production activities or the quantities or values of the goods or services they produce, sell or import, per
year, as described below.
N.1. S ubsidies received (IRIS 7.2) The value of payments that government units make to resident-producing units on the basis of their
production activities or the quantities or values of the goods or services they produce, sell or import, per
year. Classification of subsidies closely follows the classification of taxes.
N.1.1. Subsidies on products The value of subsidies payable per unit of a good or service produced, either as a specific amount of
(IRIS 7.2.1) money per unit of quantity of a good or service, or as a specified percentage of the price per unit, per
year. This may be calculated as the difference between a specified target price and the market price
actually paid by a buyer.
N.1.1.1. S ubsidies for The value of unrequited payments from government units to economic units to offset the cost of water
water and related water supply charges, received from other economic units, per year. For example, economic
units classified to the agriculture industry (ISIC 01) and households may receive subsidies for the
consumption of water received from the water supply industry (ISIC 36) via rebates.
N.1.1.2. S ubsidies for The value of unrequited payments from government units to economic units to offset the cost of
sewerage services sewerage services received from other economic units, per year.
N.1.2. Other subsidies on The value of subsidies on production consisting of subsidies, except subsidies on products, which
production (IRIS 7.2.2) resident enterprises may receive as a consequence of engaging in production, per year. Examples
include subsidies on the payroll or workforce, or subsidies to reduce pollution.
N.1.2.1. O
 ther subsidies The value of unrequited payments from the Government to economic units for water, not linked to the
for water quantity of water supplied or used, per year.
N.1.2.2. O
 ther subsidies The value of unrequited payments from the Government to economic units for the collection or
for sewerage treatment of sewage, not linked to the quantity of sewage collected or treated, per year.
services
N.2. Investment grants (i.e., capital The value of payments from government units to economic units for investment in infrastructure, per
transfers) year.
N.2.1 I nvestment grants related The value of unrequited payments from government units to economic units for investments in
to water supply infrastructure used to abstract, treat and distribute water, per year.
N.2.2. Investment grants The value of unrequited payments from government units to economic units for investments in
related to sewerage infrastructure used to collect, treat or dispose of wastewater, per year.
services
Assets and investment
O. Assets The value of durable goods expected to have a productive life of more than one year, as described
below.
144 International Recommendations for Water

Table AI.1
Recommended data items and their definitions (continued)

Data item Definition

O.1. G
 ross value of fixed assets (IRIS The value of durable goods expected to have a productive life of more than one year and intended for
11.1) use by the establishment (land, mineral deposits, timber tracts, etc., buildings, machinery, equipment and
vehicles), owned by resident units, at a point in time. This includes the value of all durable goods expected
to have a productive life of more than one year and intended for use by the establishment (land, mineral
deposits, timber tracts, etc., buildings, machinery, equipment and vehicles). Included are major additions,
alterations and improvements to existing fixed assets that extend their normal economic life or raise their
productivity. Also included is the value of new fixed assets and additions and improvements to existing
fixed assets made by the establishment’s own labour for its own use. While capital repair is included,
expenditures for current repair and maintenance are excluded. Also excluded are transactions in respect
of financial claims and intangible assets (such as rights to mineral deposits, copyrights).
O.1.1. G
 ross value of fixed The value of infrastructure used to abstract, manage, store, treat, distribute, pump and apply water,
assets for water supply owned by resident units, at a point in time. This includes artificial reservoirs, pipes, pumps, water tanks,
sprinkler systems, water meters, buildings and land, owned and used for these activities. It includes
water infrastructure owned by the water supply industry (ISIC 36), agriculture (ISIC 01), electricity
generation (ISIC 35), other industries and households.
O.1.2. Gross value of fixed The value of infrastructure used to collect, treat, store, distribute and discharge wastewater, owned by
assets for sewerage resident units, at a point in time. This includes wastewater treatment plants, sewers, pumps, septic tanks,
services sewerage meters, buildings and the land, owned and used for these activities. It includes infrastructure
owned by the sewerage industry (ISIC, Rev. 4, div. 37), as well as agriculture (ISIC 01), other industries and
households, used for the collection of sewage and disposal of water. Included is the value of urban run-off
infrastructure, e.g., drains, culverts, pumps, pipes, infiltration facilities, buildings and land, owned and
used for the collection, treatment and discharge of urban run-off.
P. Capital expenditures The value of expenditure on new and used fixed assets (acquisitions), per year, as described below.
P.1. Capital expenditure (IRIS 11.2) The value of expenditure on new and used fixed assets (acquisitions), per year.
P.1.1. C
 apital expenditure for The value of expenditure on the water supply infrastructure used by economic units for water collection,
water supply treatment or supply, per year. This is called gross capital formation in SNA. It includes expenditure on the
acquisition of pumps, pipes, dams, buildings, vehicles, drilling rigs and land.
P.1.2. C
 apital expenditure for The value of expenditure on fixed assets used to collect, treat and dispose of wastewater, including
sewerage services urban run-off, per year. This includes expenditure used to buy wastewater treatment plants, sewers,
pumps, septic tanks, sewerage meters, buildings, drains to collect and transport urban water run-off and
land.
Q. Depreciation The loss in value of a fixed asset due to its ageing or use in a production process, per year, as described
below.
Q.1. Depreciation of assets (IRIS 11.4) The loss in value of a fixed asset due to its ageing or use in a production process, per year. Depreciation
as calculated in business accounting is a method of allocating the cost of past expenditures on fixed
assets over subsequent accounting periods. Depreciation is related to the consumption of fixed capital
in national accounting and is calculated separately for the purposes of national accounts. Depreciation
of assets applies to households as well as industries (see IRIS).
Q.1.1. D
 epreciation of assets for The loss in value of the water supply infrastructure used by economic units (i.e., both industries and
water supply households) for water collection, treatment or supply, per year. This includes depreciation of pumps,
pipes, dams, buildings, water tanks, vehicles and drilling rigs. Most of the depreciation may be expected
in the water supply industry (ISIC 36).
Q.1.2. Depreciation of assets for The loss of value on the infrastructure used to collect, treat and dispose of wastewater, including urban
sewerage services run-off, per year. This includes expenditure used to buy wastewater treatment plants, sewers, pumps,
septic tanks, sewerage meters, buildings, and drains to collect and transport urban water run-off. Most
of the expenditure may be expected in the sewerage industry (ISIC 37).
Tariffs and charges for water supply and sewerage services
R. T ariffs and charges for water supply Tariffs and charges as described below.
and sewerage services
R.1. Volumetric tariffs and charges The prices charged to users (i.e., economic units) per unit of water supplied, per connection.
for water supply
 Annex I 145

Data item Definition

R.2. Fixed charges for water supply The prices of fixed levies, flat rates and other charges that are charged regardless of the volume of water
supplied, per connection.
R.3. Volumetric tariffs and charges The prices charged by economic units per unit of wastewater collected, per connection.
for sewage collected
R.4. Fixed charges for sewerage The prices of fixed levies, flat rates and other charges that are charged regardless of the volume of
services wastewater collected, per connection.
Data items for the main source of drinking water used by populations (MDG)
S. Population by main source of The number of people belonging to a household or institution with their main source of drinking water
drinking water as described below.
S.1. Population using improved The number of people belonging to a household or institution with their main source of drinking water
water sources being household water connections, public standpipes, boreholes, protected dug wells, protected
springs, rainwater collection or bottled water (if a secondary available source of water is also improved),
from the resident population.
S.1.1. Piped water into the The number of people belonging to a household or institution with their main source of drinking water
housing unit/living piped into their living quarters, either from a piped water supply or from an improved source, such as a
quarters borehole, from the resident population.
S.1.1.1. C
 onnection to The number of people belonging to a household or institution with their main source of drinking water
water supply piped into their living quarters from a piped water distribution network, such as water mains or a
network community scheme, from the resident population.
S.1.1.2. Other piped water The number of people belonging to a household or institution with their main source of drinking water
into housing unit/ piped into their living quarters after being abstracted for own use from a borehole, protected well,
living quarters protected spring or the collection of precipitation, from the resident population.
S.1.2. Public standpipe The number of people belonging to a household or institution with their main source of drinking water
from a standpipe within 200 metres of the household or institution, from the resident population.
S.1.3. Boreholes The number of people belonging to households or institutions where their main source of drinking
water is abstracted from groundwater via a hole drilled into an aquifer, with protective casing and cover,
from the resident population.
S.1.4. Protected dug wells The number of people belonging to a household or institution where their main source of drinking
water is abstracted from groundwater via a well dug into an aquifer, with a protective lining or casing
that rises above ground level, a platform and a protective cover, from the resident population.
S.1.5. Protected springs The number of people belonging to a household or institution where the main source of drinking
water is water abstracted from groundwater via a spring protected by a spring box, from the resident
population.
S.1.6. Rainwater collection The number of people belonging to a household or institution where their main source of drinking
(collection of water is collected from rain, snow, sleet hail, mist or dew and stored in a container, tank or cistern (e.g.,
precipitation) roof rainwater harvesting), from the resident population.
S.1.7. B
 ottled water (along with The number of people belonging to a household or institution where their main source of drinking
other improved sources water is water from other economic units in closed bottles (up to 20 litres in size), where the household
for hygiene and cooking) uses other improved water sources for personal hygiene and cooking, from the resident population.
S.2. Population using water from The number of people belonging to a household or institution with the main source of water being
unimproved drinking water vendor-provided water, tanker truck, an unprotected dug well, an unprotected spring, surface water or
sources water distributed in artificial open channels, from the resident population.
S.2.1. B
 ottled water along with The number of people belonging to a household or institution where their main source of drinking
other unimproved water water is water from other economic units in closed bottles (up to 20 litres in size), where the household
sources for hygiene and uses other unimproved water sources for personal hygiene and cooking, from the resident population.
cooking
S.2.2. Other drinking water The number of people belonging to a household or institution with the main source of water being
sources vendor-provided water, tanker truck, an unprotected dug well, an unprotected spring, surface water
(including water distributed in artificial open channels) or some other source of water that is not
considered an improved source, from the resident population.
146 International Recommendations for Water

Table AI.1
Recommended data items and their definitions (continued)

Data item Definition

Data items for the main type of toilet and sewage disposal used by populations (MDG)
T. Population by type of toilet and The number of people belonging to a household or institution that use a toilet or sewage disposal as
sewage disposal used described below.
T.1. P opulation using improved The number of people belonging to households and institutions that use a flush/pour flush toilet or
sanitation facilities latrine to piped sewerage, septic tank or pit, a ventilated improved pit (VIP) latrine, a pit latrine with slab
or a composting toilet/latrine, from the resident population.
T.1.1. F lush/pour or flush toilet The number of people belonging to households or institutions that use a flush toilet or pour flush toilet
to piped sewer system that empties by pipe into a network of pipes designed to collect and remove wastewater, including
human excreta (faeces and urine), from the resident population.
T.1.1.1. C
 onnected to The number of people belonging to households or institutions that use a flush toilet or pour flush toilet
wastewater that empties by pipe into a network of pipes designed to collect and remove wastewater, including
treatment human excreta (faeces and urine), where the piped network ultimately leads to wastewater treatment
facilities, from the resident population.
T.1.1.2. N
 ot connected The number of people belonging to households or institutions that use a flush toilet or pour flush toilet
to wastewater that empties by pipe into a network of pipes designed to collect and remove wastewater, including
treatment human excreta (faeces and urine), where the piped network does not lead to wastewater treatment
facilities but the sewage is discharged to the environment elsewhere, from the resident population.
T.1.2. Flush/pour or flush toilet The number of people belonging to households or institutions that use a flush toilet or pour flush toilet
to septic tank that empties by pipe into a water-tight settling tank normally located underground, away from the
house or toilet, from the resident population.
T.1.3. F lush/pour or flush toilet The number of people belonging to households or institutions that use a flush toilet or pour flush toilet
to pit that empties by pipe into a hole in the ground, from the resident population.
T.1.4. Ventilated improved pit The number of people belonging to households or institutions that use a pit latrine that is ventilated by
(VIP) latrine a pipe extending above the latrine roof, the open end of the vent pipe being covered with gauze mesh
or fly-proof netting and the inside of the superstructure being kept dark, from the resident population.
T.1.5. Pit latrine with slab The number of people belonging to households or institutions that use a hole in the ground for excreta
collection with a squatting slab, platform or seat that is firmly supported on all sides, easy to clean and
raised above the surrounding ground level to prevent surface water from entering the pit, from the
resident population.
T.1.6. Composting toilet/latrine The number of people belonging to households or institutions that use a toilet into which excreta and
carbon-rich material are added (vegetable wastes, straw, grass, sawdust, ash) and special conditions
maintained to produce inoffensive compost, from the resident population.
T.2. Population using unimproved The number of people belonging to households or institutions that use a flush/pour flush toilet that
sanitation facilities empties to the local environment, pit latrines without slabs, open pits, buckets, hanging toilets or
latrines, no toilet facilities, or some other type of toilet or sewage disposal, from the resident population.
 Annex I 147

Figure AI.1
Summary of recommended data items related to physical flows of water between
statistical units

Physical flows

Snow, ice and glaciers

Neighbouring territories
Aquifers (groundwater)
Artificial reservoirs

Rivers and streams

Surface water bodies

Soilsa (soil water)

Economic units
Atmospherea

Wetlands
Lakes
Statistical units

Sea
To:

From:

Atmospherea B.1. Precipitation E.2

Surface water bodies

C.1. Evapotranspiration from inland waters

D.1. From surface to groundwater

C.2.2. Outflow of water to the sea

E.1.1. From surface water

C.2.1. Outflow of water to down-

Artificial reservoirs

See supplementary data items

Lakes

stream territories
D.3. Between surface water
resources
Rivers and streams

Wetlands

Snow, ice and glaciers

Aquifers (groundwater) D.2. From groundwater to surface water D.4 E.1.2

Soilsa (soil water) See supplementary data items E.1.3

Sea E.3

H.1.2, H.3, I.1 H.2, I.1 F.1, F.4, F.2, F.5,

Economic units H.1.1. Returns to surface water, I.1 & I.2 I.1 & I.2 & I.2 & I.2 G.1 & G.4 I.1 & I.2
F.3 &
Neighbouring territories B.2. Inflow of water from upstream territories G.3

*The atmosphere and soil are not considered statistical units of the environment for water, but flows are recorded from and to the atmosphere and soils.
Acknowledgement: Prepared by the Comisión Nacional del Agua (CONAGUA), Mexico, and edited by the United Nations Statistics Division
 149

Annex II
List of supplementary data items

A. Introduction
Annex II contains two tables listing supplementary data items. Table AII.1 presents alterna-
tive or more detailed breakdowns of data items described in chapter IV and listed in annex I.
These data items are given an alphanumeric code consistent with the recommended data items.
Table AII.2 lists the supplementary data items which fall outside the hierarchical classi-
fication used for the recommended data items. These data items either can be used with other
information to calculate recommended data items or they may provide significant contextual
information regarding water. The data items are sequentially numbered.
The supplementary data items are drawn from a number of sources (e.g., international
questionnaires, FAO Aquastat, IB-NET and other sources) but have been edited to ensure
they use consistent terms and have a style consistent with the recommended data items. For
example, IRWS uses only one term for any water-related concept and as a result many of the
definitions given below have had terms replaced with synonyms. As to style, the first sentence
of each definition contains only the essential information defining the data item; any other
information is contained in subsequent sentences. To ensure that this style is maintained
consistently throughout IRWS, many definitions have been split into two or more sentences.
The specific sources for the data items in annex II are described at the end of table AII.2,
in section B. The supplementary data items in table AII.1 include recommended data items (in
bold), followed by supplementary data items, organized in an alphanumeric hierarchy (item
indicators start with a capital letter, followed by numbers and lower-case letters).
Table AII.1
Supplementary data items and definitions providing alternative or more detailed
breakdowns of recommended data items

Data item Definition

Physical data items for inland water stocks

A.2. Groundwater stocks The volume of water in porous and permeable underground layers, known
as aquifers, that can yield significant quantities of water to wells and springs,
within the territory of reference, at the end of the year.
A.2.a. Confined The volume of water held in aquifers that have aquitards above and aquitards
below, within the territory of reference, at the end of the year. The groundwater
pressure is normally higher than atmospheric pressure, and if a well is drilled
into the aquifer, the water level will normally rise above the top of the aquifer,
sometimes above ground level (i.e., an artesian aquifer).
A.2.b. Unconfined The volume of water held in aquifers that have aquitards below but no overlying
aquitards, within the territory of reference, at the end of the year. The upper
boundary of the aquifer is the water level, which rises and falls freely.
A.2.i. Renewable The volume of water held in aquifers that receive natural recharge, within the
territory of reference, at the end of the year.
150 International Recommendations for Water

Table AII.1
Supplementary data items and definitions providing alternative or more detailed
breakdowns of recommended data items (continued)

Data item Definition

A.2.ii. Non-renewable The volume of water held in aquifers that do not receive natural recharge (but may
receive artificial recharge), within the territory of reference, at the end of the year.
Non-renewable groundwater is sometimes called fossil groundwater.
A.3. Soil water stocks The volume of water suspended in the uppermost belt of soil, or in the zone of
aeration near the ground surface, which can be discharged into the atmosphere by
evaporation or taken up by the roots of plants and transpired, within the territory of
reference, at the end of the year.
Physical data items for environmental flows into the territory
B.1. Precipitation The volume of water that flows from the atmosphere to inland water resources
via rain, snow, sleet, hail, dew, mist, etc., per year.
B.1.a. To run-off (i.e., surface run-off) The volume of water that flows from the atmosphere via rain, snow, sleet, hail, dew,
mist, etc., and upon reaching the Earth’s surface, either lands in surface water or
flows overland into surface water bodies, per year.
B.1.a.a. Urban run-off The volume of water that does not naturally percolate into the ground or evaporate
but flows via overland flow, underflow or channels, or in pipes, to a defined surface
water channel or a constructed infiltration facility.
B.1.a.b. Other run-off The volume of water that does not percolate into the ground or evaporate but flows
overland directly into surface water bodies. This excludes urban run-off.
B.2.1. Inflows of water from neighbouring The volume of surface water and groundwater that moves into a territory of
territories secured through treaties reference from other territories, or along its border, that is protected by formal
agreements with upstream territories, per year.
B.2.1.a. Secured through treaties The volume of surface water and groundwater that moves into a territory of
reference from other territories, or along its border, that is guaranteed by
formal agreements with neighbouring territories, per year.
B.2.1.a.a. Of which surface water a, b The volume of water that moves into a territory of reference, from other territories
via artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers, wetlands, and snow, ice and glaciers, that is
guaranteed by formal agreements with upstream territories, per year.
B.2.1.a.b. Of which groundwater The volume of water that moves into a territory of reference, from other territories
via aquifers, that is guaranteed by formal agreements with upstream territories, per
year.
B.2.2. Not secured through treaties The volume of surface water and groundwater that moves into a territory
of reference that is not protected by formal agreements with neighbouring
territories, per year. This includes water that may be covered by a formal
agreement but is not guaranteed by the agreement, such as water in excess of
an agreed volume.
B.2.2.a. But submitted to treaties The volume of surface water and groundwater that moves into a territory of
reference that is covered by a formal agreement but is not guaranteed by the
agreement, per year. This includes only water covered by agreements and excludes
water contained in surface water bodies or aquifers not covered by formal
agreements (i.e., submitted to a treaty).
B.2.2.a.a. Of which surface water a, b The volume of water that moves into a territory of reference, from other territories
via artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers, wetlands, and snow, ice and glaciers, that is
covered by a formal agreement with upstream territories but is not guaranteed by
the agreement, per year.
B.2.2.a.b. Of which groundwater The volume of water that moves into a territory of reference, from other territories
via aquifers, that is covered by a formal agreement with neighbouring territories
but is not guaranteed by the agreement, per year.
B.2.2.b. And not submitted to treaties The volume of surface water and groundwater that moves into a territory of
reference that is not covered by formal agreements with neighbouring territories,
per year.
 Annex II 151

Data item Definition

B.2.2.b.a. Of which surface water a, b The volume of water that moves into a territory of reference, from other territories
via artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers, wetlands, and snow, ice and glaciers, that is not
covered by formal agreements with upstream territories, per year.
B.2.2.b.b. Of which groundwater The volume of water that moves into a territory of reference, from other territories
via aquifers, that is not covered by formal agreements with neighbouring territories,
per year.
Notes to data items A.2.-B.2.
a These data items can be broken down, and coded, by the type of surface water body the water passes through. The are coded as: “a. via artificial reser-
voirs”; “b. via lakes”; “c. via rivers”; “d. via wetlands”; and “e. via snow, ice and glaciers”.
b This data item or the data items from footnote a can be broken down, and coded, by whether the water fully enters the territory or whether the water
flows only along the border without fully entering the territory (see figure IV.2). It is coded as: “i. that fully enters the territory”; and “ii. that runs along
the border”.
Physical data items for environmental flows out of the territory
C. Outflow of water from a territory’s inland water The volume of water that flows out of a territory’s inland water resources, per
resources year. This consists of evapotranspiration from inland water resources and the
outflow of surface water and groundwater to downstream territories and the
sea.
C.1. Evapotranspiration from inland water resources The volume of water from land and water surfaces that enters the atmosphere
by vaporization of water into a gas and through evaporation and transpiration
from plants, within the territory of reference, per year.
C.1.1. Evaporation The volume of water that enters the atmosphere by vaporization of liquid
and solid water to a gas from water and land surfaces, within the territory of
reference, per year. This includes sublimation, which is water that goes from
being ice, snow or part of a glacier directly to a water vapour, without going
through a liquid phase, i.e., without melting. Evaporation of water consists of
water that evaporates directly from surface water and water that evaporates
from soil water or land.
C.1.1.a. From surface water c The volume of water that enters the atmosphere by vaporization of water from
artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers, wetlands, and snow, ice and glaciers, within the
territory of reference, per year.
C.1.1.b. From soils The volume of vaporization of water suspended in the uppermost belt of soil,
or in the zone of aeration near the ground surface, including vaporization via
evaporation and by transpiration from plants, within the territory of reference, per
year.
C.1.2. Transpiration from plants The volume of water that enters the atmosphere by vaporization of liquid water
to a gas from plant surfaces when the ground is at its natural moisture content,
determined by precipitation, within the territory of reference, per year.
C.1.3. Transpiration from animals and people The volume of water that enters the atmosphere by vaporization of liquid water to a
gas from the surface of animals or in the process of breathing, within the territory of
reference, per year.
C.2. Outflow of water to neighbouring territories and The volume of surface water and groundwater that moves from a territory’s
the sea inland water resources to other territories and the sea, per year. This includes all
water flowing out of a territory or land area and a portion of the water flowing
out of artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers or aquifers that lie along the territory’s
border.
C.2.1. To neighbouring territories The volume of surface water and groundwater that flows from within a territory
to another territory or territories, per year. This includes water flowing out of
artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers or aquifers that lie along the territory’s border.
C.2.1.1. Secured by treaties The volume of surface water and groundwater that moves out of a territory of
reference that is guaranteed by formal agreements to adjacent territories, per
year.
152 International Recommendations for Water

Table AII.1
Supplementary data items and definitions providing alternative or more detailed
breakdowns of recommended data items (continued)

Data item Definition

C.2.1.1.a. Secured by treaties The volume of surface water and groundwater that moves out of a territory of
reference that is guaranteed by formal agreements to adjacent territories, per
year.
C.2.1.1.a.a. Of which, surface The volume of water in artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers, wetlands, and snow, ice
water c and glaciers that moves out of a territory of reference that is guaranteed by formal
agreements to adjacent territories, per year.
C.2.1.1.a.b. Of which, The volume of water in aquifers and aquitards that moves out of a territory of
groundwater reference that is guaranteed by formal agreements to adjacent territories, per year.
C.2.1.2. Not secured by treaties The volume of surface water and groundwater that moves out of a territory of
reference that is not guaranteed by formal agreement to adjacent territories,
per year.
C.2.1.2.a. But submitted to treaties The volume of surface water and groundwater that moves out of a territory of
reference that is not guaranteed by formal agreement to adjacent territories, per
year.
C.2.1.2.a.a. Of which, surface The volume of water in artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers, wetlands, and snow, ice
water c and glaciers that moves out of a territory of reference that is covered by formal
agreements but not guaranteed to adjacent territories, per year.
C.2.1.2.a.b. Of which, The volume of water in aquifers and aquitards that moves out of a territory of
groundwater reference that is made available by formal agreement to adjacent territories, per year.
C.2.1.2.b. And not submitted to The volume of surface water and groundwater that moves out of a territory of
treaties reference that is not covered by formal agreements with adjacent territories, per year.
C.2.1.2.b.a. Of which, surface The volume of water in artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers, wetlands, snow, ice and
water c glaciers that moves out of a territory of reference that is not covered by formal
agreements with adjacent territories, per year.
C.2.1.2.b.b. Of which, The volume of water in aquifers and aquitards that moves out of a territory of
groundwater reference that is not covered by formal agreements with adjacent territories, per
year.
C.2.2. To the sea The volume of surface water and groundwater that moves from a territory’s
inland water resources into sea(s) and ocean(s), per year.
C.2.2.a. Outflows of surface water to the seac The volume of water that enters into sea(s) and ocean(s) from artificial reservoirs,
lakes, rivers, wetlands, and snow, ice and glaciers, per year.
C.2.2.b. Outflows of groundwater to the sea The volume of water that moves from a territory’s aquifers into sea(s) and ocean(s),
per year.
Note to data items C.
c These data items can be broken down, and coded, by the type of surface water body. They are coded as being via/from: “a. artificial reservoirs”; “b.
lakes”; “c. rivers”; “d. wetlands”; and “e. snow, ice and glaciers”.
Natural transfers of water between inland water resources
D. Natural transfers with other resources in the territory The volume of water that moves between inland water resources of a territory,
per year.
D.1. From surface water to groundwater The volume of water that infiltrates into aquifers from artificial reservoirs, lakes,
rivers, wetlands, snow, ice and glaciers, per year.
D.1.a. From artificial reservoirs to groundwater The volume of water that infiltrates into aquifers from man-made surface water
bodies, used for the storage, regulation and control of water, per year.
D.1.b. From lakes to groundwater The volume of water that infiltrates into aquifers from generally large bodies of
standing water occupying a depression in the Earth’s surface, per year.
D.1.c. From rivers to groundwater The volume of water that infiltrates into aquifers from bodies of water flowing
continuously or periodically in channels, per year.
 Annex II 153

Data item Definition

D.1.d. From wetlands to groundwater The volume of water that infiltrates into aquifers from transitional areas where soils
are frequently saturated or flooded, including swamps, marshes, playas and bogs,
per year.
D.1.e. From snow, ice and glaciers to groundwater The volume of water that infiltrates into aquifers from naturally frozen water (ice
and ice crystals), measured in water equivalent, per year.
D.2. From groundwater to surface water The volume of water that moves from aquifers into artificial reservoirs, lakes,
rivers, wetlands, snow, ice and glaciers, per year.
D.2.a. From groundwater to artificial reservoirs The volume of water that moves from aquifers into man-made surface water
bodies, used for storage, regulation and control of water, per year.
D.2.b. From groundwater to lakes The volume of water that moves from aquifers into generally large bodies of
standing water occupying a depression in the Earth’s surface, per year.
D.2.c. From groundwater to rivers The volume of water that moves from aquifers into bodies of water flowing
continuously or periodically in channels, per year.
D.2.d. From groundwater to wetlands The volume of water that moves from aquifers into transitional areas where soils
are frequently saturated or flooded, including swamps, marshes, playas and bogs,
per year.
D.2.e. From groundwater to snow, ice and glaciers The volume of water that moves from aquifers into artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers,
wetlands, snow, ice and glaciers, per year.
D.3. Between surface water resources The volume of water that moves from one surface water body to another, per
year.
D.3.a. From artificial reservoirs to other surface The volume of water that moves from man-made surface water bodies (used for the
water resources storage, regulation and control of water) to other surface water bodies (i.e., artificial
reservoirs, lakes, rivers, wetlands, snow, ice and glaciers), per year.
D.3.b. From lakes to other surface water resources The volume of water that moves from generally large bodies of standing water
occupying a depression in the Earth’s surface to other surface water bodies (i.e.,
artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers, wetlands, snow, ice and glaciers), per year.
D.3.c. From rivers to other surface water resources The volume of water that moves from bodies of water flowing continuously or
periodically in channels to other surface water bodies (i.e., artificial reservoirs, lakes,
rivers, wetlands, snow, ice and glaciers), per year.
D.3.d. From wetlands to other surface water The volume of water that moves from transitional areas where soils are frequently
resources saturated or flooded (including swamps, marshes, playas and bogs) to other surface
water bodies (i.e., artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers, wetlands, snow, ice and glaciers),
per year.
D.3.e. From snow, ice and glaciers to other surface The volume of water that moves from a naturally frozen state to other surface water
water resources bodies (i.e., artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers, wetlands, snow, ice and glaciers), per
year.
D.3.i. From other surface water resources to artificial The volume of water that moves from artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers, wetlands,
reservoirs snow, ice and glaciers into man-made surface water bodies used for storage,
regulation and control of water, per year.
D.3.ii. From other surface water resources to lakes The volume of water that moves from artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers, wetlands,
snow, ice and glaciers into generally large bodies of standing water occupying a
depression in the Earth’s surface, per year.
D.3.iii. From other surface water resources to rivers The volume of water that moves from artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers, wetlands,
snow, ice and glaciers into bodies of water flowing continuously or periodically in
channels, per year.
D.3.iv. From other surface water resources to The volume of water that moves from artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers, wetlands,
wetlands snow, ice and glaciers into transitional areas where soils are frequently saturated or
flooded, including swamps, marshes, playas and bogs, per year.
D.3.v. From other surface water resources to snow, The volume of water that moves from artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers, wetlands,
ice and glaciers snow, ice and glaciers into a naturally frozen state, per year.
154 International Recommendations for Water

Table AII.1
Supplementary data items and definitions providing alternative or more detailed
breakdowns of recommended data items (continued)

Data item Definition

D.4. Between groundwater resources The volume of water that moves from one aquifer to another, per year.
D.5. From soil water to surface water The volume of water that moves from soils to artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers,
snow and ice on the land’s surface or glaciers, per year.
D.6. From soil water to groundwater The volume of water that infiltrates from soils into aquifers, per year.
D.7. From surface water to soil water The volume of water that moves into soils from artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers,
snow, ice and glaciers, per year.
D.8. From groundwater to soil water The volume of water that moves from aquifers into soils, per year.
Physical data items for flows from the environment to the economy
E.1.2. Abstraction of water from groundwater The volume of water removed by economic units from aquifers and springs
within the territory of reference, per year.
E.1.2.a. From confined aquifers The volume of water removed by economic units from aquifers and springs fed
by aquifers that have aquitards above and aquitards below, within the territory of
reference, per year.
E.1.2.b. From unconfined aquifers The volume of water removed by economic units from aquifers and springs fed by
aquifers that have aquitards below but no overlying aquitards, within the territory
of reference, per year.
E.1.2.i. From renewable groundwater The volume of water removed by economic units from aquifers and springs that are
naturally recharged, within the territory of reference, per year.
E.1.2.ii. From non-renewable groundwater The volume of water removed by economic units from aquifers and springs that are
not recharged, within the territory of reference, per year.
E.a. Abstraction of water for own use The volume of water removed or collected from any source by an economic unit
for use by the same economic unit, within the territory of reference, per year.
E.a.a. Abstraction of water for hydroelectric power The volume of water removed by an economic unit from any source for the purpose
generation of driving turbines to generate electricity, within the territory of reference, per year.
E.a.b. Abstraction of water for irrigation The volume of water removed by an economic unit from any source that is then
artificially applied to soil for the purpose of growing plants, within the territory of
reference, per year.
E.a.b.a. From inland water resources The volume of water removed by an economic unit from inland water resources that is
then artificially applied to soil for the purpose of growing plants, within the territory of
reference, per year.
E.a.b.a.a. From surface water The volume of water removed by an economic unit from artificial reservoirs, lakes,
rivers, wetlands or snow, ice and glaciers that is then artificially applied to soil for the
purpose of growing plants, within the territory of reference, per year.
E.a.b.a.b. From groundwater The volume of water removed by an economic unit from any source that is then
artificially applied to soil for the purpose of growing plants, within the territory of
reference, per year.
E.a.c. Abstraction of water for mining The volume of water removed by an economic unit from any source as a part of
mineral extraction and milling operations, including coal mining, ore mining, crude
oil and natural gas extraction and quarrying, within the territory of reference, per
year.
E.a.d. Urban run-off The volume of water that does not naturally percolate into the ground or evaporate
but flows via overland flow, underflow or channels or in pipes to a defined surface
water channel or a constructed infiltration facility, within the territory of reference,
per year. In many countries, urban run-off may be channelled or piped into
sewerage systems. Urban run-off is commonly referred to as urban storm water.
E.a.e. Abstraction of water for cooling water The volume of water removed by an economic unit from any source for the purpose
of being used to absorb and remove heat, within the territory of reference, per year.
 Annex II 155

Data item Definition

E.a.f. Abstraction of water for desalinization The volume of water removed by an economic unit from any source for the purpose
of removing dissolved salts (thereby freshening the water), within the territory of
reference, per year.
E.a.f.a. From inland water resources The volume of water removed by an economic unit from inland water resources for
the purpose of removing dissolved salts (thereby freshening the water), within the
territory of reference, per year.
E.a.f.a.a. From surface water The volume of water removed by an economic unit from artificial reservoirs, lakes,
rivers, wetlands, snow, ice and glaciers for the purpose of removing dissolved salts
(thereby freshening the water), within the territory of reference, per year.
E.a.f.a.b. From groundwater The volume of water removed by an economic unit from aquifers for the purpose
of removing dissolved salts (thereby freshening the water), within the territory of
reference, per year.
E.a.f.b. From the sea The volume of water removed by an economic unit from the sea or ocean for the
purpose of removing dissolved salts (thereby freshening the water), within the
territory of reference, per year.
E.a.g. Abstraction of water for other own use The volume of water removed by an economic unit from any source for all other
purposes, within the territory of reference, per year. This includes drainage water
from agriculture and construction activities, process water and abstraction from soil
water.
Physical data items for flows of water within the economy
F. Water (CPC, Ver. 2, 18000) supplied to other economic The volume of water that is provided by one economic unit to another economic
units unit through mains, artificial open channels, sewers, drains, trucks or other
means, per year. This excludes the losses of water in distribution, which are
included in data item I, and the supply of bottled water (CPC, Ver. 2, 94100),
which is one of the supplementary data items.
F.a. After being used for hydroelectric power generation The volume of water that is provided by one economic unit to another economic
unit through mains, artificial open channels, drains or other means, after being used
to turn electrical hydroelectric turbines.
F.b. After being used for irrigation The volume of water that is provided by one economic unit to another economic
unit through mains, artificial open channels, drains or other means, after being
artificially applied to land.
F.c. After being abstracted from a mine The volume of water that is provided by one economic unit to another economic
unit through mains, artificial open channels, drains or other means, after being
abstracted from a mine (i.e., used for mine dewatering).
F.d. After being collected as urban run-off The volume of water that does not naturally percolate into the ground or evaporate
but flows via overland flow, underflow or channels or in pipes to a defined surface
water channel or a facility, from which it is then provided to another economic unit
through artificial open channels, sewers, drains or other means.
F.e. After being used as cooling water The volume of water that is provided by one economic unit to another economic
unit through mains, artificial open channels, sewers, drains, trucks or other means,
after being used to absorb and remove heat.
F.f. After being used for other purposes The volume of water that is provided by one economic unit to another economic
unit through mains, artificial open channels, sewers, drains, trucks or other means,
after being used for any other purpose.
Physical data items for flows from the economy to the environment
H. Returns of water to the environment by economic The volume of water that flows from economic units directly to inland water
units resources, the sea or to land, within the territory of reference, per year. This
includes urban storm water, losses due to leakage and burst pipes, irrigation
water that infiltrates into groundwater or ends up in surface water, and the
discharges of cooling water and water used for hydroelectricity generation. It
excludes evaporation because evaporation is consumption.
156 International Recommendations for Water

Table AII.1
Supplementary data items and definitions providing alternative or more detailed
breakdowns of recommended data items (continued)

Data item Definition

H.i. From hydroelectric power generation The volume of water discharged into the environment by economic units, after
being used to drive turbines to generate electricity, within the territory of reference,
per year.
H.ii. From irrigation water The volume of water that infiltrates into groundwater or runs off into surface water,
after being artificially applied to soil for the purpose of growing plants, by economic
units, within the territory of reference, per year.
H.iii. From mining The volume of water discharged into the environment by economic units after
being abstracted as a part of mineral extraction and milling operations, within the
territory of reference, per year.
H.iv. From urban run-off The volume of water discharged from urban areas because it does not naturally
percolate into the ground or evaporate but flows via overland flow, underflow or
channels, or in pipes, to a defined surface water channel or a constructed infiltration
facility, within the territory of reference, per year. Urban run-off is commonly
referred to as urban storm water.
H.v. From cooling water The volume of water discharged into the environment by economic units, after
being used to absorb and remove heat, within the territory of reference, per year.
H.vi. After being used for other purposes The volume of water discharged into the environment by economic units, after being
used for purposes other than those listed above (includes water unintentionally
discharged into the environment), within the territory of reference, per year.
Physical data items for losses from distribution networks and sewerage systems
I. Losses of water The volume of water (including wastewater) that is lost during distribution
and transportation, between the point of abstraction and the point of use, or
between the points of use and reuse (e.g., from mains, artificial open channels
and trucks), within the territory of reference, per year. Includes water (CPC
18000) and wastewater.
I.1. Losses of water in distribution The volume of water (CPC 18000) that is lost during distribution and
transportation, between the point of abstraction and the point of use, or
between the points of use and reuse (e.g., from mains, artificial open channels
and trucks), within the territory of reference, per year.
I.1.a. Due to theft The volume of water taken illegally from mains, artificial open channels or trucks, or
from other means of distribution or transport, per year.
I.1.b. Due to leakage The volume of water slowly escaping from mains, artificial open channels and trucks
through infiltration, small cracks, holes or gaps, between the point of abstraction
and the point of use, or between the points of use and reuse, within the territory of
reference, per year.
I.1.c. Due to burst mains The volume of water escaping through breaks in large pipes used for distributing
water, within the territory of reference, per year.
I.1.d. Due to evaporation The volume of water escaping from distribution networks to the atmosphere (e.g.,
from artificial open channels used for distribution) due to vaporization of liquid
water to gas, within the territory of reference, per year.
I.1.e. Due to meter errors The volume of apparent water losses due to mistaken meter readings,
malfunctioning meters and other meter errors, within the territory of reference, per
year. Meters are devices that measure the quantity of water passing through a pipe.
I.1.f. Unaccounted losses The volume of water that escapes from distribution networks in ways other than
those classified above (i.e., not due to theft, leakage, burst mains, evaporation or
meter errors), within the territory of reference, per year.
I.2. Losses of water sent for treatment or disposal in The volume of wastewater lost from sewerage systems, artificial open channels
collection and trucks used to collect wastewater, within the territory of reference, per year.
 Annex II 157

Table AII.2
Supplementary data items that support the calculation of recommended data items
or provide significant contextual information regarding water

Data item Definition

Artificial reservoirs
1. Number of artificial reservoirs The number of man-made surface water bodies used for storage, regulation and
control of water, within the territory of reference.
1.1 Number of large artificial reservoirs The number of man-made surface water bodies used for storage, regulation and
control of water, held behind large dams (see ICOLD definition of large dam), within
the territory of reference.
1.2 Number of other artificial reservoirs The number of man-made surface water bodies used for storage, regulation and
control of water held behind structures not considered a large dam (see ICOLD
definition of large dam), within the territory of reference.
2. Artificial reservoir capacity The maximum volume of water that can be stored in man-made surface water
bodies used for storage, regulation and control of water, within the territory of
reference, at the end of the year.
2.1 Large artificial reservoir capacity The maximum volume of water that can be stored in man-made surface water
bodies behind large dams (see ICOLD definition of large dam), within the territory of
reference.
2.2 Other artificial reservoir capacity The maximum volume of water that can be stored in man-made surface water
bodies behind dams that are not large (see ICOLD definition of large dam), within
the territory of reference.
Water supply activities
3. Freshwater supply capacity The maximum quantity of water that can be effectively and safely supplied by water
supply infrastructure, within the territory of reference, per year.
4. Freshwater treatment capacity The maximum quantity of water that can be effectively and safely treated by water
treatment plants, within the territory of reference, per year.
5. Length of water distribution network The total length of the system of pipelines delivering water from the water supply
industry (ISIC 36) to households and business establishments, within the territory of
reference, at the end of the year. This excludes water service pipes and transmission
lines. Water service pipes are pipes, usually belonging to households and business
establishments, that join households and business establishments to water
mains. In many instances, water meters are installed at the point of connection.
Transmission lines are pipes between water intakes and water treatment plants, as
well as pipes between the treatment plant and water storage facilities. If there is no
water treatment, then transmission lines are the pipes between the water intakes
and water storage facilities.
6. Number of water connections The number of service pipes actively used, within the territory of reference, at the
end of the year.
6.1. Number of active water connections The number of water service pipes actively used by households and business
establishments, joined to a piped distribution network, within the territory of
reference, at the end of the year. All active connections should be included and
inactive connections (e.g., to vacant buildings) should be excluded.
6.1.1. With an operating meter The number of water service pipes with a functioning device that measures the
quantity of water passing through the pipe, within the territory of reference, at the
end of the year.
6.1.2. Without an operating meter The number of water service pipes without a functioning device that measures the
quantity of water passing through the pipe, within the territory of reference, at the
end of the year.
6.2. Number of inactive water connections The number of water service pipes joined to a piped distribution network but not
actually used, within the territory of reference, at the end of the year.
158 International Recommendations for Water

Table AII.2
Supplementary data items that support the calculation of recommended data items or
provide significant contextual information regarding water (continued)

Data item Definition

6.2.1. With a functional meter The number of water service pipes, not used, with a functioning device that can
measure the quantity of water passing through the pipe, within the territory of
reference, at the end of the year.
6.2.2. Without a functional meter The number of water service pipes, not used, without a functioning device that
can measure the quantity of water passing through the pipe, within the territory of
reference, at the end of the year.
7. Number of establishments engaged in water-supply The number of establishments engaged in the activities of collecting, distributing
activities and supplying water to other economic units, within the territory of reference, at
the end of the year.
7.1. As a principal activity (i.e., ISIC 36) The number of establishments engaged in the activities of collecting, distributing and
supplying water as their principal (i.e., main) activity (i.e., classified as belonging to the
water supply industry, ISIC 36), within the territory of reference, at the end of the year.
7.2. As a secondary activity The number of establishments engaged in the activities of collecting, distributing
and supplying water as a secondary activity, within the territory of reference, at the
end of the year.
8. N
 umber of employees engaged in water collection, The number of employees working in water collection, distribution and supply
treatment and supply activities activities, within the territory of reference, at the end of the year. These figures
should be reported in terms of full-time equivalent employees.
8.1. For establishments engaged in water supply as a The number of employees working for establishments engaged in the activities of
principal activity (i.e., ISIC 36) collecting, distributing and supplying water as their principal (i.e., main) activity (i.e.,
classified as belonging to the water supply industry, ISIC 36), within the territory of
reference, at the end of the year.
8.2. For establishments engaged in water supply as a The number of employees working on water collection, distribution and supply
secondary activity activities in establishments for whom these are secondary activities, within the
territory of reference, at the end of the year.
Sewerage activities
9. Wastewater collection design capacity The maximum volume of wastewater that can be effectively and/or safely collected
by wastewater collection infrastructure, within the territory of reference, per year.
10. Wastewater treatment capacity (volume of water) The maximum volume of wastewater that can be effectively and safely treated
(i.e., purified to some extent) by wastewater treatment infrastructure, within the
territory of reference, per year.
10.1. Primary wastewater treatment capacity (volume of The maximum volume of wastewater that can be effectively and safely treated (i.e.,
water) purified to some extent) by primary wastewater treatment infrastructure, within the
territory of reference, per year.
10.2. Secondary wastewater treatment capacity (volume The maximum volume of wastewater that can be effectively and safely treated (i.e.,
of water) purified to some extent) by secondary wastewater treatment infrastructure, within
the territory of reference, per year.
10.3. Tertiary wastewater treatment capacity (volume of The maximum volume of wastewater that can be effectively and safely treated (i.e.,
water) purified to some extent) by tertiary wastewater treatment infrastructure, within the
territory of reference, per year.
11. Wastewater treatment emission removal capacity The maximum quantity of emissions contained in wastewater that can be
effectively and safely removed by a wastewater treatment plant, within the
territory of reference, at the end of the year. This data item is usually compiled
for biochemical oxygen demand emissions but can also be compiled for other
emissions.
 Annex II 159

Data item Definition

12. Length of sewer system(s) The total length of the system of collectors, pipelines and conduits for taking
wastewater from households and business establishments to the place of disposal or
treatment, within the territory of reference, at the end of the year. This excludes service
connections, which are the pipes, usually belonging to households and business
establishments, that join households and business establishments to sewer networks.

13. Number of sewer connections The number of places where service connections (i.e., pipes) from households and
business establishments join a wastewater collection network (usually belonging
to the sewerage industry, ISIC 37), within the territory of reference, at the end of the
year. All active connections should be included and inactive connections (e.g., to
vacant buildings) should be excluded.

13.1. Connected to primary wastewater treatment The number of places where service connections (i.e., pipes) from households and
business establishments join a wastewater collection network (usually belonging
to the sewerage industry, ISIC 37) taking sewage to a primary treatment plant,
within the territory of reference, at the end of the year. All active connections
should be included and inactive connections (e.g., to vacant buildings) should be
excluded.

13.2. Connected to secondary wastewater treatment The number of places where service connections (i.e., pipes) from households and
business establishments join a wastewater collection network (usually belonging
to the sewerage industry, ISIC 37) taking sewage to a secondary treatment plant,
within the territory of reference, at the end of the year. All active connections should
be included and inactive connections (e.g., to vacant buildings) should be excluded.

13.3. Connected to tertiary wastewater treatment The number of places where service connections (i.e., pipes) from households and
business establishments join a wastewater collection network (usually belonging to
the sewerage industry, ISIC 37) taking sewage to a tertiary treatment plant, within
the territory of reference, at the end of the year. All active connections should be
included and inactive connections (e.g., to vacant buildings) should be excluded.

14. Number of establishments engaged in sewerage The number of establishments engaged in the collection, treatment and disposal of
activities wastewater, within the territory of reference, at the end of the year.

14.1. As a principal activity (i.e., ISIC 37) The number of establishments engaged in the collection, treatment and disposal
of wastewater as a principal (i.e., main) activity (i.e., establishments classified
by economic activity as belonging to the sewerage industry, ISIC 37), within the
territory of reference, per year.

14.2. As a secondary activity The number of establishments engaged in the collection, treatment and disposal of
wastewater as a secondary treatment, within the territory of reference, per year.

15. Number of wastewater treatment plants The number of facilities (i.e., establishments) where pollutants are removed from
wastewater, within the territory of reference, per year.

16. Number of establishments that collect and dispose of The number of establishments that collect wastewater from other economic units and
wastewater without treatment dispose of it without removing any pollutants, within the territory of reference, per year.

17. Number of employees engaged in sewerage activities The number of employees working in wastewater collection, treatment or disposal
activities, within the territory of reference, per year. These figures should be
reported in terms of full-time equivalent employees.

17.1. F or establishments engaged in sewerage as a The number of employees working in establishments engaged in wastewater
principal activity (i.e., ISIC 37) collection, treatment and disposal activities as principal activities (i.e., working for
an establishment classified by economic activity as belonging to the sewerage
industry, ISIC 37), within the territory of reference, per year.

17.2. For establishments engaged in sewerage as a The number of employees working in wastewater collection, treatment or disposal
secondary activity activities in establishments for whom these are secondary activities, within the
territory of reference, per year.
160 International Recommendations for Water

Table AII.2
Supplementary data items that support the calculation of recommended data items or
provide significant contextual information regarding water (continued)

Data item Definition

Water use, recycling and desalination

18. Water use The total volume of water abstracted for own use (E.a) and water received from
other economic units (G), within the territory of reference, per year.
19. Recycled water The volume of water that is used more than once by an economic unit, within
the territory of reference, per year. This water does not leave the site of the
establishment or household between uses.
20. Desalinated water The volume of water produced by an economic unit through the process of
desalination, within the territory of reference, per year. This includes desalinated sea
water and desalinated brackish waters from estuaries, rivers and aquifers.
Licensed abstraction of water

21. Licensed abstraction of water The maximum volume of water allowed, by licence or permit from government
units, to be removed or collected from the environment by economic units, per
year.
21.1. From inland water resources The maximum volume of water allowed, by licence or permit from government
units, to be removed or collected by economic units, from surface water,
groundwater and soil water, per year.
21.1.1. From surface water The maximum volume of water allowed, by licence or permit from government
units, to be removed or collected by economic units, from artificial reservoirs, lakes,
rivers, snow, ice and glaciers, per year.
21.1.1.1. From artificial reservoirs The maximum volume of water allowed, by licence or permit from government
units, to be removed or collected by economic units, from man-made surface water
bodies, used for storage, regulation and control of water, per year.
21.1.1.2. From lakes The maximum volume of water allowed, by licence or permit from government
units, to be removed or collected by economic units, from generally large bodies of
standing water occupying a depression in the Earth’s surface, per year.
21.1.1.3. From rivers The maximum volume of water allowed, by licence or permit from government
units, to be removed or collected by economic units, from bodies of water flowing
continuously or periodically in channels, per year.
21.1.1.4. From wetlands The maximum volume of water allowed, by licence or permit from government
units, to be removed or collected by economic units, from transitional areas where
soils are frequently saturated or flooded, including swamps, marshes, playas and
bogs, per year.
21.1.1.5. From snow, ice and glaciers The maximum volume of water allowed, by licence or permit from government units,
to be removed or collected by economic units, from water in the environment that is
naturally frozen, per year. This is measured in water equivalent.
21.1.2. From groundwater The maximum volume of water allowed, by licence or permit from government
units, to be removed or collected by economic units, from aquifers, per year.
21.2. From other sources The maximum volume of water allowed, by licence or permit from government units,
to be removed or collected from the environment, by economic units, per year.
21.2.1. From collection of precipitation The maximum volume of water allowed, by licence or permit from government
units, to be collected by economic units directly, from falling rain, snow and sleet, or
collected by contact with dew and mist, per year.
21.2.2. From the sea The maximum volume of water allowed, by licence or permit from government
units, to be removed or collected by economic units, from large salt water bodies,
such as the sea and ocean, per year.
 Annex II 161

Data item Definition

Bottled water
22. Use of bottled water (CPC 24410) The volume of water not sweetened or flavoured, in bottles or closed containers
not larger than 20 litres, received by economic units, per year. This includes mineral
waters and aerated waters but excludes ice and snow.
22.1. By domestic users The volume of water not sweetened or flavoured, in bottles or closed containers
not larger than 20 litres, received by resident economic units, per year. This includes
mineral waters and aerated waters but excludes ice and snow.
22.2. Exported to the rest of the world The volume of water not sweetened or flavoured, in bottles or closed containers
not larger than 20 litres, received by non-resident economic units, per year. This
includes mineral waters and aerated waters but excludes ice and snow.
23. Supply of bottled water (CPC 24410) The volume of water not sweetened or flavoured, provided by economic units, in
bottles or closed containers not larger than 20 litres, per year. This includes mineral
waters and aerated waters but excludes ice and snow.
23.1. From domestic production The volume of water not sweetened or flavoured, provided by resident economic
units, in bottles or closed containers not larger than 20 litres, per year. This includes
mineral waters and aerated waters but excludes ice and snow.
23.2. Imported from the rest of the world The volume of water not sweetened or flavoured, provided by non-resident
economic units, in bottles or closed containers not larger than 20 litres, per year.
This includes mineral waters and aerated waters but excludes ice and snow.
Licensed returns of water
24. Licensed discharge of water to the environment The maximum volume of water allowed by licence or permit from government
units, to be discharged into the environment by economic units, per year.
24.1. To inland water resources The maximum volume of water allowed by licence or permit from government
units, to be discharged by economic units, to surface water bodies, aquifers and
land, per year.
24.1.1. To surface water The maximum volume of water allowed by licence or permit from government
units, to be discharged by economic units, to artificial reservoirs, lakes, rivers,
wetlands, snow, ice and glaciers, per year.
24.1.1.1. To artificial reservoirs The maximum volume of water allowed by licence or permit from government
units, to be discharged by economic units, to man-made surface water bodies used
for storage, regulation and control of water, per year.
24.1.1.2. To lakes The maximum volume of water allowed by licence or permit from government
units, to be discharged by economic units, to generally large bodies of standing
water occupying a depression in the Earth’s surface, per year.
24.1.1.3. To rivers The maximum volume of water allowed by licence or permit from government
units, to be discharged by economic units, to bodies of water flowing continuously
or periodically in channels, per year.
24.1.1.4. To wetlands The maximum volume of water allowed by licence or permit from government units,
to be discharged by economic units, to transitional areas where soils are frequently
saturated or flooded, including swamps, marshes, playas and bogs, per year.
24.1.1.5. To snow, ice and glaciers The maximum volume of water allowed by licence or permit from government
units, to be discharged by economic units, to water in the environment that is
naturally frozen, per year.
24.1.2. To groundwater The maximum volume of water allowed by licence or permit from government
units, to be discharged by economic units to aquifers by infiltration or artificial
recharge, per year.
24.2. To the sea The maximum volume of water allowed by licence or permit from government
units, to be discharged by economic units to the sea and ocean, per year.
24.3. To land The maximum volume of water allowed by licence or permit from government
units, to be discharged by economic units, onto the ground (i.e., land), per year.
162 International Recommendations for Water

Table AII.2
Supplementary data items that support the calculation of recommended data items or
provide significant contextual information regarding water (continued)

Data item Definition

Land drainage
25. Land drained The area of land drained by artificial means, such as artificial drainage channels, to
control salinity, ponding and waterlogging, within the territory of reference, at the
end of the year.

25.1. That is cultivated The area of land which is farmed and drained by artificial means, such as artificial
drainage channels, to control salinity, ponding and waterlogging, within the
territory of reference, at the end of the year.

25.1.1. And irrigated The area of land where drainage is used as an instrument to control salinity,
ponding and waterlogging, which is also equipped for irrigation, within the territory
of reference, at the end of the year. Flood recession cropping areas are excluded.

25.1.2. And not irrigated The area of unirrigated cultivated land, where drainage is used to remove excess
water from the land surface and/or the upper soil layer to make humid/wet land
more productive, within the territory of reference, at the end of the year. In humid
countries, it refers mainly to the areas which are normally flooded and where flood
mitigation has taken place. In semi-arid countries, it refers to the area cultivated and
not irrigated where drainage is used to remove excess water from the land surface
and/or upper soil layer to make humid/wet land more productive.

25.2. That is not cultivated The area of land that is not farmed but is drained by artificial means, such as
artificial drainage channels, to control salinity, ponding and waterlogging.

Irrigation

26. Land area irrigated The area of land over which water is artificially applied to soil for the purpose
of growing plants, within the territory of reference, per year. This includes areas
irrigated using full control irrigation, lowland irrigation techniques, and floodwater
harvesting irrigation.

26.1. Using full control irrigation The area of land using surface irrigation, sprinkler irrigation and localized irrigation,
within the territory of reference, per year.

26.1.1. Using surface irrigation The area of land over which water is moved down a slope by simple gravity in order
to wet the land either partially or completely, within the territory of reference,
per year. This includes furrow, border strip and basin methods, the submersion
irrigation of rice and manual irrigation using buckets or watering cans.

26.1.2. Using sprinkler irrigation The area of land that uses a pipe network, through which water moves under
pressure and is delivered to the crop via sprinkler nozzles, within the territory of
reference, per year. These systems are also known as overhead irrigation systems
since water is applied by overhead spraying.

26.1.3. Using localized irrigation The area of land where water is distributed under low pressure through a piped
network, in a pre-determined pattern, and is applied as a small discharge to each
plant, within the territory of reference, per year. Localized irrigation includes micro-
irrigation, trickle irrigation, daily flow irrigation, drop irrigation, sip irrigation and
diurnal irrigation.

26.2. Using lowland irrigation techniques The area of land, including cultivated wetland and inland valley bottoms (IVB), using
water control structures for irrigation and drainage (e.g., intake, canals), areas along
rivers where cultivation makes use of water from receding floods using structures
built to retain the receding water, areas with developed mangroves and developed
deltas, within the territory of reference, per year.
 Annex II 163

Data item Definition

26.3. Using floodwater harvesting The area of land irrigated using the floodwaters of a normally dry water course
or riverbed (e.g., wadi), within the territory of reference, per year. There are two
types of floodwater harvesting or spate irrigation: (a) floodwater harvesting within
streambeds, where turbulent channel flow is collected and spread through the
wadi in which the crops are planted, and cross-wadi dams are constructed with
stones, earth, or both, and often reinforced with gabions; and (b) floodwater
diversion, where the floods or spates from seasonal rivers are diverted into adjacent
embanked fields for direct application. A stone or concrete structure raises the
water level within the wadi to be diverted to the nearby cropping areas. These
systems are in general characterized by a very large catchment upstream
(200 ha-50 km2) with a “catchment area: cultivated area” ratio of 100:1 to 10,000:1.
27. Land area using flood recession cropping The area of land along rivers cultivated and exposed to flood waters where no
structures or actions are used to retain the receding water, within the territory of
reference, per year. The special case of floating rice is included in this category.
Fees associated with the abstraction of water and the
discharge of water to the environment
28. Annual volumetric water abstraction fees The price charged by government units for each cubic metre of water removed or
collected from the environment.
29. Other water abstraction fees The other charges by government units for the right to remove or collect water from
the environment.
30. Annual volumetric fees for discharges of water to the The price charged by government units for each cubic metre of water discharged
environment into the environment.
31. Other water discharge fees The other charges by government units for the right to discharge water into the
environment.
Fees collected for the right to abstract water or discharge
water to the environment
32. Volumetric water abstraction fees collected The amount of money collected in a year by government units due to the volume of
water removed or collected from the environment under permit.
33. Other water abstraction fees collected The amount of money collected in a year by government units for permitting
the right to remove or collect water from the environment, excluding volumetric
charges. This includes application fees, inspection and monitoring fees.
34. Volumetric fees collected for water discharged to the The amount of money collected in a year by government units relating to volume of
environment water discharged into the environment under permit.
35. Other fees collected for water discharged to the The amount of money collected in a year by government units for permitting the
environment right to discharge water into the environment, excluding volumetric charges.
Prices for transferable water rights and leases

36. Price of transferable water rights The price paid to other businesses or households for water rights, measured as the
weighted average price per cubic metre for water over the year.
37. Price of water leases The price paid to other businesses or households for the right to abstract water in a
given year, measured as the weighted average price per cubic metre for water over
the year.
Population by connection to water supply

38. Population with water supplied by economic units The number of people using water supplied by economic units, from the resident
population.
38.1. Population supplied by the water supply industry The number of people using water supplied by economic units engaged in water
(ISIC 36) supply as a primary activity, from the resident population.
38.2. Population supplied by economic units engaged in The number of people using water supplied by economic units engaged in water
water supply as a secondary activity supply as a secondary activity, from the resident population.
164 International Recommendations for Water

Table AII.2
Supplementary data items that support the calculation of recommended data items or
provide significant contextual information regarding water (continued)

Data item Definition

Population connected to wastewater collection and

treatment
39. Population with wastewater collected by economic The number of people belonging to households or institutions with wastewater
units removed by sewer connection, truck or some other means, from the resident
population.
39.1. Population with wastewater collected by the The number of people belonging to households or institutions with wastewater
sewerage industry (ISIC 37) collected by economic units engaged in sewerage as a primary activity (i.e., by the
sewerage industry, ISIC 37), from the resident population.
39.2. Population with wastewater collected by economic The number of people belonging to households or institutions with wastewater
units engaged in sewerage as a secondary activity collected by economic units engaged in sewerage as a secondary activity, from the
resident population.
40. Population with independent wastewater treatment The number of people belonging to households which do not receive sewerage
services from other economic units and are not connected to sewerage systems but
treat their own wastewater, such as in septic tanks, from the resident population.
These facilities are often privately owned.
40.1. P opulation not connected to wastewater collection The number of people with wastewater that is neither collected by economic units
or treatment engaged in sewerage activities nor treated in independent treatment facilities, from
the resident population.

B. Sources for supplementary data item definitions

The definitions for alternative and more detailed breakdowns or recommended data items are
primarily drawn from SEEA-Water and Expert Group feedback. Definitions for data items
regarding inflows and outflows from territories and whether or not they are protected by trea-
ties are aligned with FAO definitions, in addition to SEEA-Water and Expert Group feedback.
Definitions regarding artificial reservoirs, in particular large reservoirs, are aligned with
definitions from the International Commission for Large Dams (ICOLD). Definitions for
supplementary data items related to water-supply activities are drawn from definitions from
IB-NET and ISIC. Definitions for supplementary data items related to sewerage activities
are drawn from definitions from the United Nations Statistics Division/UNEP water ques-
tionnaire, IB-NET and ISIC. Data items regarding the population connected to water sup-
ply and sewerage follow the United Nations Statistics Division/UNEP water questionnaire.
Supplementary data items regarding land areas drained and land areas irrigated are based on
FAO definitions. The remaining definitions follow SEEA-Water and feedback from the Expert
Group after its review of early drafts of IRWS.
 165

Annex III
Links between data items and inland
water resources

As discussed in chapter II, FAO inland water resources concepts are used as a basis for many
international water indicators regarding inland waters. Annex III presents formulas for these
concepts, including equations taken from chapter III of the Review of World Water Resources
by Country (FAO, 2003) and the same equations with FAO variables substituted for IRWS
data items.
Table AIII.1
Links between data items and inland water resources

Concept Formula using FAO variable Formula using data items

Internal
renewable
IRWR = R + I − (overlap a ) IRWR = B.1.a + D.6 − (overlap a )
water
R = surface run-off, the total volume of the long-term B.1.a = Precipitation to run-off
resources
average annual flow of surface water generated by
(IRWR) D.6 = Natural transfer from soil water to groundwater
direct run-off from endogenous precipitation
Note
I = groundwater recharge, generated from precipitation
within the country Overlap = (D.2-D.1)
Note D.2 = natural transfers of groundwater to surface water
Overlap = QOUT-QIN D.1 = natural transfers of surface water to groundwater
QOUT = groundwater drainage into rivers (typically, base
flow of rivers)
QIN = seepage from rivers into aquifers

a  In many cases, surface water run-off and groundwater recharge from precipitation are not measured separately from surface water
flows or groundwater recharge from all sources. When this is the case, IRWR can be measured by removing any overlap between
groundwater and surface water.
Note  In practice, FAO measures internal water resources using different methods, depending on whether the area is humid, semi-
arid or very arid.
In humid areas, IRWR data are assessed from available hydrographs (time-series data on measured surface water
discharge). For areas where no measurements are available, data are extrapolated over space from areas where data are
available. Where necessary, measured data are corrected to take into account water abstraction. In humid areas, the base
flow of rivers consists mainly of drainage of groundwater reservoirs. Thus, estimates of surface water resources include a
significant part of the groundwater resources. Therefore, the groundwater resources in humid areas have been assumed
to be equal to the base flow of the rivers, where data are available.
In semi-arid areas, IRWR data are generated mainly from flash-flood events. The groundwater resources are obtained
from rainfall infiltration estimates or from analyses of measured groundwater levels/heads in aquifers. The surface water
resources are estimated through flash-flood discharge measurements or estimates. Care should be taken to ensure the
correct assessment of the part of surface water flows that recharges the aquifers in order to avoid overestimation of the
total water resources.
In coastal or very arid areas, a large part of the groundwater aquifers is not drained by the rivers and overlap is therefore
relatively small.
166 International Recommendations for Water

Table AIII.1
Links between data items and inland water resources (continued)

Concept Formula using FAO variable Formula using data items

Internal flow Note: Internal flow is a concept not used by FAO. IF = B.1 − C.1
Internal flow is a concept found in the OECD/Eurostat
Joint Questionnaire on the State of the Environment, B.1 = precipitation
section entitled “Inland Waters”, and in the United C.1 = evapotranspiration
Nations Statistics Division/UNEP Water Questionnaire on
Environment Statistics, section entitled “Water”. If there are no inflows from neighbouring territories or imports
of water from neighbouring territories and no irrigation (which
increases evapotranspiration), then IF will equal IRWR. In arid
countries where there are large inflows of surface water, internal
flow may be negative due to the transpiration of these inflows.

Natural
external
ERWRNatural = SWIN + SWPR + SWPL + GWIN ERWRNatural = B.2
renewable
SWIN = surface water entering the country B.2 = inflow of water from neighbouring territories
water
resources SWPR = accounted flow of border rivers Note: By definition, B.2 is the surface water and groundwater that
SWPL = accounted part of shared lakes moves into a territory of reference from other territories, including
an appropriate share of border rivers and lakes.
GWIN = groundwater entering the country

Actual ERWRActual = SWIN1 + SWIN2 +

external
*
renewable SWPR + SWPL − SWOUT + GWIN
water B.2.1 = inflows of water from neighbouring territories secured
resources 1
through treaties, including surface water and groundwater
SW IN
= volume of surface water entering the country
B.2.2.b = inflows of water from neighbouring territories not
which is not submitted to treaties
secured through treaties and not submitted to treaties,
SWIN2 = volume of surface water entering the country including surface water and groundwater
which is secured through treaties
C.2.1.1.a.a = outflows of surface water secured through treaty by
SWPR = accounted flow of border rivers neighbouring territories
SWPL = accounted part of shared lakes Note: By definition, data items B.2.1 and B.2.2.b include an appro-
priate share of border rivers and lakes.
*
SW OUT
= volume of surface water leaving the country
which is reserved by treaties for downstream
countries
GWIN = groundwater entering the country

Total natural
renewable
TRWRNatural = IRWR + ERWRNatural TRWRNatural = B.1.a + D.6 + B.2 − (overlap a )
water IRWR = internal renewable water resources B.1.a = precipitation to run-off
resources
ERWRNatural = natural external renewable water resources D.6 = natural transfer from soil water to groundwater
B.2 = inflow of water from neighbouring territories
a For the definition of overlap, see concept entitled “Internal
renewable water resources”.
 Annex III 167

Concept Formula using FAO variable Formula using data items

Total actual
renewable
TRWRActual = IRWR + ERWRActual
water IRWR = internal renewable water resources
resources
ERWRActual = actual external renewable water resources B.1.a = precipitation to run-off
D.6 = natural transfer from soil water to groundwater
B.2.1 = inflow of water from neighbouring territories secured
through treaties
B.2.2.b = inflows of water from neighbouring territories not
secured through treaties and not submitted to treaties
C.2.1.1.a.a = outflows of water secured through treaties by
neighbouring territories
a For the definition of overlap, see concept entitled “Internal renew-
able water resources”.

Dependency RWRInc
ratio DR = ×100
IRWR + RWRInc
B.2.1 = inflows of water from neighbouring territories secured
RWRInc = incoming water resources from through treaties, including surface water and groundwater
neighbouring countries
B.2.2.b = inflows of water from neighbouring territories not
RWRInc = SWIN1 + SWIN2 + secured through treaties and not submitted to treaties,
SWPR + SWPL + GWIN including surface water and groundwater
B.1.a = precipitation to run-off
1
SW IN
= volume of surface water entering the country D.6 = natural transfer from soil water to groundwater
which is not submitted to treaties a For the definition of overlap, see concept entitled “Internal renew-
SWIN2 = volume of surface water entering the country able water resources”.
which is secured through treaties
SWPR = accounted flow of border rivers
SWPL = accounted part of shared lakes
SWPL = groundwater entering the country
 169

Annex IV
Links between data items and SEEA-Water

A. Introduction
The data items in IRWS can be used for many purposes, including the populating of SEEA-Water
standard tables. To that end, annex tables AIV.1 to AIV.9 show the links between the recom- a  United Nations Statistics Division,
2007, System of Integrated Environ-
mended data items and SEEA-Water standard tables. The data items can also be used to compile
mental and Economic Accounts for
indicators, such as SEEA-Water indicators or indicators used in the World Water Assessment Water 2008. Available from http://
Programme (WWAP). Details on the link between data items and WWAP indicators are pro- unstats.un.org/unsd/envaccounting/
vided in annex V. For more information on SEEA-Water, see chapter II; for more information SEEAWDraftManual.pdf (accessed
22 June 2009).
on the standard tables and the relationship between inland waters and SNA, see SEEA-Water.a

B. Tables
Table AIV.1
Physical use (SEEA-Water standard table III.1 A)

Physical units
Industries (by ISIC category)
Rest
2-33, 38, 39, House- of the
1 41-43 35 36 37 45-99 Total holds world Total
1. Total abstraction (=1.a+1.b= E E E E E E E E E
1.i+1.ii.
1.a. Abstraction for own use E.a E.a E.a E.a E.a E.a E.a E.a E.a
1.b. Abstraction for E.b E.b E.b E.b E.b E.b E.b E.b E.b
distribution
From the environment

1.i. From water resources: E.1 E.1 E.1 E.1 E.1 E.1 E.1 E.1 E.1
1.i.1. Surface water E.1.1 E.1.1 E.1.1 E.1.1 E.1.1 E.1.1 E.1.1 E.1.1 E.1.1
1.i.2. Groundwater E.1.2 E.1.2 E.1.2 E.1.2 E.1.2 E.1.2 E.1.2 E.1.2 E.1.2
1.i.3. Soil water E.1.3 E.1.3 E.1.3 E.1.3 E.1.3 E.1.3 E.1.3 E.1.3 E.1.3
1.ii. From other sources E.2 + E.3 E.2 + E.3 E.2 + E.3 E.2 + E.3 E.2 + E.3 E.2 + E.3 E.2 + E.3 E.2 + E.3 E.2 + E.3
1.ii.1. Collection of E.2 E.2 E.2 E.2 E.2 E.2 E.2 E.2 E.2
precipitation
1.ii.2. Abstraction from E.3 E.3 E.3 E.3 E.3 E.3 E.3 E.3 E.3
the sea
Within 2. Use of water received from G G G G G G G G F.2 + G + F.2
the other economic units F.4 + F.4
economy
3. Total use of water (= 1+2) E+G E+G E+G E+G E+G E+G E+G E+G F.2 + E+G+
F.4 F.2 + F.4
Note:  Darker grey cells indicate zero entries by definition.
170 International Recommendations for Water

Table AIV.2
Physical supply (SEEA-Water standard table III.1 B)

Physical units

Industries (by ISIC category)

Rest
2-33, 38, 39, House- of the
1 41-43 35 36 37 45-99 Total holds world Total
4. Supply of water to F F F F F F F F G.2+ F+G.2+
other economic units G.4 G.4
of which:
Within the economy

4.a. Reused water F.3.2+ F.3.2+ F.3.2+ F.3.2+ F.3.2+ F.3.2+ F.3.2+ F.3.2+ G.4.2 F.3.2 + F.3.1
F.4.2 F.4.2 F.4.2 F.4.2 F.4.2 F.4.2 F.4.2 F.4.2 +F.4.2
+G.4.2
4.b. Wastewater to F.3.1+ F.3.1+ F.3.1+ F.3.1+ F.3.1+ F.3.1+ F.3.1+ F.3.1+ G.4.1 F.3.1
sewerage F.4.1 F.4.1 F.4.1 F.4.1 F.4.1 F.4.1 F.4.1 F.4.1 +F.4.1
+G.4.1
5. Total returns H H H H H H H H H
(= 5.a+5.b)
To the environment

5.a. To water resources H.1 H.1 H.1 H.1 H.1 H.1 H.1 H.1 H.1
5.a.1. Surface water H.1.1 H.1.1 H.1.1 H.1.1 H.1.1 H.1.1 H.1.1 H.1.1 H.1.1
5.a.2. Groundwater H.1.2 H.1.2 H.1.2 H.1.2 H.1.2 H.1.2 H.1.2 H.1.2 H.1.2
5.a.3. Soil water E.1.3 E.1.3 E.1.3 E.1.3 E.1.3 E.1.3 E.1.3 E.1.3 E.1.3
5.b. To other sources H.2 H.2 H.2 H.2 H.2 H.2 H.2 H.2 H.2
(e.g. sea water)
6. Total supply of water (= 4+5) F+ H F+ H F+ H F+ H F+ H F+ H F+ H F+ H G.2+ F+ H+
G.4 G.2+G.4
7. Consumption (3-6) (E+G)- (E+G)- (E+G)- (E+G)- (E+G)- (E+G)- (E+G)- (E+G)- (E+G)-(F+H)
(F+H) (F+H) (F+H) (F+H) (F+H) (F+H) (F+H) (F+H)
Note:  Darker grey cells indicate zero entries by definition.

Table AIV.3
Gross and net emissions (SEEA-Water standard table IV.2 A)

Physical units

Industries (by ISIC category) Rest

of the
2-33, 38, 39, House- world
Pollutant 1 41-43 35 36 37 45-99 Total holds (ROW) Total
1. Gross emissions (= a + b) K + J.1 K + J.1 K + J.1 K + J.1 K + J.1 K + J.1 K + J.1 K + J.1 K + J.1 K + J.1
1.a. Direct emissions to water K K K K K K K K K K
( = 1.a.1 + 1.a.2 = 1.a.i + 1.a.ii)
1.a.1. Without treatment K.1.b + K.1.b + K.1.b + K.1.b + K.1.b. + K.1.b. + K.1.b + K.1.b + K.1.b + K.1.b.+
K.1.2.b + K.1.2.b + K.1.2.b + K.1.2.b + K.1.2.b + K.1.2.b + K.1.2.b + K.1.2.b + K.1.2.b + K.1.2.b +
K.2 K.2 K.2 K.2 K.2. K.2 K.2 K.2 K.2 K.2
1.a.2. After on-site treatment K.1.1.a + K.1.1.a + K.1.1.a + K.1.1.a + K.1.1.a + K.1.1.a + K.1.1.a + K.1.1.a + K.1.1.a + K.1.1.a +
K.1.2.a K.1.2.a K.1.2.a K.1.2.a K.1.2.a K.1.2.a K.1.2.a K.1.2.a K.1.2.a K.1.2.a
1.a.i. To water resources K.1.1 + K.1.1 + K.1.1 + K.1.1 + K.1.1 + K.1.1 + K.1.1 + K.1.1 + K.1.1 + K.1.1 +
K.2.1 K.2.1 K.2.1 K.2.1 K.2.1 K.2.1 K.2.1 K.2.1 K.2.1 K.2.1
1.a.ii. To the sea K.2.1 + K.2.1 + K.2.1 + K.2.1 + K.2.1 + K.2.1 + K.2.1 + K.2.1 + K.2.1 + K.2.1 +
K.2.2 K.2.2 K.2.2 K.2.2 K.2.2 K.2.2 K.2.2 K.2.2 K.2.2 K.2.2
1.b. To sewerage (ISIC 37) J.1 J.1 J.1 J.1 J.1 J.1 J.1 J.1 J.1 J.1
2. Reallocation of emission by ISIC 37 J.1 (by industry, household, ROW) / [ K.(ISIC 37) / J.1 (total) ] Total
3. Net emissions (= 1.a + 2) K (by industry, household, ROW) + J.1 (by industry, household, ROW) / [ K (ISIC 37) / J.1 (total) ] Total
 Annex IV 171

Table AIV.4
Emissions to water by ISIC 37 (SEEA-Water standard table IV.2 B)

Physical units

Pollutant ISIC 37
4. Emissions to water (=4.a + 4.b) K
4.a. After treatment K.1.1.a + K.1.2.a
To water resources K.1.1.a
To the sea K.1.2.a
4.b. Without treatment K.1.1.b + K.1.2.b
To water resources K.1.1.b
To the sea K.1.2.b
 172

Table AIV.5
Hybrid supply (SEEA-Water standard table V.1)

Physical and monetary units

Output of industries (by ISIC category)

35
Total
Of output, Subsidies Trade and Total supply
2-33, which: 38, 39, at basic Taxes on on transport at purchasers
1 41-43 Total Hydro 36 37 45-99 prices Imports products products margins price

1. 
Total output and supply
International Recommendations for Water

(monetary units)
of which:
1.a. Natural water (CPC 18000) L.1.1 L.1.1 L.1.1 L.1.1 L.1.1 L.1.1 L.1.1 L.1.1 M.1.1 N.1.1.1 +
N.1.2.1
1.b. Sewerage services (CPC 94100) L.1.2 L.1.2 L.1.2 L.1.2 L.1.2 L.1.2 L.1.2 L.1.2 M.1.2 N.1.1.2 +
N.1.2.2
2. T
 otal supply of water (physical F +H F+H F+H F+H F+H F+H F+H F+H G.2 + G.4 F + H + G.2 +
units) G.4
2.a. Supply of water to other F F F F F F F F G.2 + F + G.2 + G.4
economic units G.4
2.b. Total returns H H H H H H H H H
3. Total (gross) emissions (physical K + J.1 K + J.1 K + J.1 K + J.1 K + J.1 K + J.1 K + J.1 K + J.1 K + J.1 K + J.1
units):
By pollutants, 1, 2, … n
Note:  Dark grey cells indicate zero entries by definition.
Table AIV.6
Hybrid use (SEEA-Water standard table V.2)

Physical and monetary units

Intermediate consumption of industries (by ISIC category) Actual final consumption

35 Households

Social
price

transfers in
Of Final kind from
2-33, which: 38, 39, consumption Government
Total uses at purchaser’s

Capital formation
Exports

Total industry
Government

1 41-43 Total Hydro 36 37 45-99 expenditures and NPISHs Total

1. 
Total intermediate
consumption use (monetary
units)
of which:
Natural water (CPC 1800) L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1 N.1.1.1 + P.1.1
N.1.2.1
Sewerage services (CPC 941) L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2 N.1.1.2 + P.1.2
N.1.2.2
2. T
 otal value added (monetary
units)
3. Total use of water (physical units) E+G E+G E+G E+G E+G E+G E+G E+G E+G F.2 +
F.4
3.a. Total abstraction E E E E E E E E E E
 of which: 3.a.1. Abstraction for E.a E.a E.a E.a E.a E.a E.a E.a E.a E.a
own use.
3.b. Use of water received from G G G G G G G G G F.2 +
other economic units F.4
Note:  Dark grey cells indicate zero entries by definition.
Annex IV
173
Table AIV.7 174
Hybrid account for supply and use of water (SEEA-Water standard table V.3)

Physical and monetary units

Actual final
Industries (by ISIC category) consumption

35 Taxes less
Rest
Of 38, Total subsidies on
of the House-
2-33, which: 39, industry products, trade
world
Capital formation
1 41-43 Total Hydro 36 37 45-99 and transport holds Government Total
1. Total output supply (monetary
units)
of which:
1.a Natural water (CPC 18000) L.1.1 L.1.1 L.1.1 L.1.1 L.1.1 L.1.1 L.1.1 L.1.1 M.1.1.1 - L.1.1 + M.1.1.1 -
[N.1.1.1 + [N.1.1.1 + N.1.2.1]
N.1.2.1]
1.b Sewerage services L.1.2 L.1.2 L.1.2 L.1.2 L.1.2 L.1.2 L.1.2 L.1.2 M.1.1.2 - L.1.2 + M.1.1.2 -
(CPC 94100) [N.1.1.2  + [N.1.1.2 + N.1.2.2]
N.1.2.2]
2. T
 otal intermediate
consumption and use
(monetary units)
of which:
International Recommendations for Water

2.a Natural water (CPC 18000) L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1 N.1.1.1 + N.1.2.1 L.3.1 + N.1.1.1 +
N.1.2.1
2.b Sewerage services (CPC L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2 N.1.1.2 + N.1.2.2 L.3.2 + N.1.1.2 +
94100) N.1.2.2
3. T
 otal value added (gross)
(= 1-2) (monetary units)
of which:
3.a Natural water (CPC 18000) L.1.1 - L.1.1 - L.1.1 - L.1.1 - L.1.1 - L.1.1 - L.1.1 -
L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1
3.b. Sewerage services L.1.2 - L.1.2 - L.1.2 - L.1.2 - L.1.2 - L.1.2 - L.1.2 -
(CPC 94100) L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2
4. Gross fixed capital formation
(monetary units)
of which:
4.a. Water supply P.1.1 P.1.1 P.1.1 P.1 P.1.1 P.1.1 P.1.1 P.1.1 P.1.1
4.b. Sewerage P.1.2 P.1.2 P.1.2 P.1.2 P.1.2 P.1.2 P.1.2 P.1.2 P.1.2
5. Closing stocks of fixed assets O.1.1 O.1.1 O.1.1 O.1.1 O.1.1 O.1.1 O.1.1 O.1.1 O.1.1
for water supply (monetary units)
 Physical and monetary units

Actual final
Industries (by ISIC category) consumption

35 Taxes less
Rest
Of 38, Total subsidies on
of the House-
2-33, which: 39, industry products, trade
world

Capital formation
1 41-43 Total Hydro 36 37 45-99 and transport holds Government Total

6. Closing stocks of fixed assets O.1.2 O.1.2 O.1.2 O.1.2 O.1.2 O.1.2 O.1.2 O.1.2 O.1.2
for sanitation (monetary units)

7. Total use of water (physical E+G E+G E+G E+G E+G E+G E+G E+G F.2 + E+G E + G + F.2 + F.4
units) F.4

7.a. Total abstraction E E E E E E E E E E

of which: 7.a.1. Abstraction E.a E.a E.a E.a E.a E.a E.a E.a E.a E.a
for own use

7.b. Use of water received from G G G G G G G G F.2 + G G + F.2 + F.4

other ecnomic units F.4

8. Total supply of water (physical F+H F+H F+H F+H F+H F+H F+H F+H G.2 F+H F + H + G.2
units)

8.a. Supply of water to other F F F F F F F F G.2 + F F + G.2 + G.4

economic units G.4


of which: 9.a.1. Wastewater F.3 F.3 F.3 F.3 F.3 F.3 F.3 F.3 G.4.1 F.3 F.3 + G.4.1
to sewerage

8.b. Total returns H H H H H H H H H H

9. Total (gross) emissions

Annex IV

(physical units)

Pollutant 1 K+J K+J K+J K+J K+J K+J K+J K+J K+J K+J K+J

Pollutant 2 K+J K+J K+J K+J K+J K+J K+J K.+ J K+J K+J K+J

Pollutant…n K+J K+J K+J K+J K+J K+J K+J K+J K+J K+J K+J

Note:   Dark grey cells indicate zero entries by definition.

175
TTable AIV.8 176
Hybrid account for water supply and sewerage for own use (SEEA-Water standard table V.4)

Physical and monetary units

Industries (by ISIC category)

35
5-33, Of which: 38, 39,
1-3 41-43 Total Hydro 36 37 45-99 Total Households Total industry
1. 
Costs of production (=1.a + 1.b) (monetary units) L.3.1 + L.2.1 + Q.1.1 + M.1.1 - N.1.1.1 (by industry, household)
1.a. Total intermediate consumption L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1 L.3.1
1.b. Total value added (gross) L.2.1 + Q.1.1 + M.1.1 - N.1.1.1 (by industry, households)
1.b.1. Compensation of employees L.2.1 L.2.1 L.2.1 L.2.1 L.2.1 L.2.1 L.2.1 L.2.1 L.2.1 L.2.1
1.b.2. Other taxes less subsidies on production M.1.1 - N.1.1.1 N.1.1.1 M.1.1 - N.1.1.1 N.1.1.1 N.1.1.1 N.1.1.1 M.1.1 - N.1.1.1 M.1.1 - N.1.1.1
N.1.1.1 N.1.1.1
1.b.3 Consumption of fixed capital Q.1.1 Q.1.1 Q.1.1 Q.1.1 Q.1.1 Q.1.1 Q.1.1 Q.1.1 Q.1.1 Q.1.1
2. Gross fixed capital formation (monetary units) P.1.1 P.1.1 P.1.1 P.1.1 P.1.1 P.1.1 P.1.1 P.1.1 P.1.1 P.1.1

3. Stocks of fixed assets (monetary units) O.1.1 O.1.1 O.1.1 O.1.1 O.1.1 O.1.1 O.1.1 O.1.1 O.1.1 O.1.1

Water Supply for own use

4. Abstraction for own use (physical units) E.a E.a E.a E.a E.a E.a E.a E.a E.a E.a
International Recommendations for Water

1. Costs of production (=1.a + 1.b) (monetary units) L.3.2 + L.2.2 + Q.1.2 + M.1.2 - N.1.1.2 (by industry/houshold)

1.a. Total intermediate consumption (monetary units) L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2 L.3.2

1.b. Total value added (gross) L.2.2 + Q.1.2 + M.1.2 - N.1.1.2 (by industry/houshold)

1.b.1. Compensation of employees L.2.2 L.2.2 L.2.2 L.2.2 L.2.2 L.2.2 L.2.2 L.2.2 L.2.2 L.2.2

1.b.2. Other taxes less subsidies on production M.1.2 - N.1.1.2 N.1.1.2 M.1.2 - N.1.1.2 N.1.1.2 N.1.1.2 N.1.1.2 M.1.2- N.1.1.2 M.1.2 - N.1.1.2
N.1.1.2 N.1.1.2
1.b.3. Consumption of fixed capital Q.1.2 Q.1.2 Q.1.2 Q.1.2 Q.1.2 Q.1.2 Q.1.2 Q.1.2 Q.1.2 Q.1.2

Sewerage for own use

2. Gross fixed capital formation (monetary units) P.1.2 P.1.2 P.1.2 P.1.2 P.1.2 P.1.2 P.1.2 P.1.2 P.1.2 P.1.2

3. Stocks of fixed assets (monetary units) O.1.2 O.1.2 O.1.2 O.1.2 O.1.2 O.1.2 O.1.2 O.1.2 O.1.2 O.1.2

4. Return of treated water (physical units) H.a H.a H.a H.a H.a H.a H.a H.a H.a H.a

Note:  Dark grey cells indicate zero entries by definition.

Table AIV.9
Asset accounts (SEEA-Water standard table VI.1)

Physical units

EA. 131. Surface water

EA. 133
EA. 1314. Snow, ice EA. 1312 Soil
EA. 1311. Reservoirs EA. 1312. Lakes EA. 1313. Rivers and glaciers Groundwater water Total
Opening Stocks A.1.1 A.1.2 A.1.3 A.1.5 A.2 A
Increases in stocks
Returns from the economy H.1.1.1 H.1.1.2 H.1.1.3 H.1.1.4 H.1.2 H
Precipitation B.1 B.1 B.1 B.1 B.1 B.1 B.1
Inflows:
From upstream territories B.2.1 B.2.1 B.2.1 B.2.1 B.2.1 B.2.1
From other resources in the territory D.2.a + D.3.i D.2.b + D.3.ii + D.2.c + D.3.iii D.2.e.+D.3.v D.1 D
D.2.d + D.3.iv
Decreases in Stocks
Abstraction E.1.1.1 E.1.1.2 E.1.1.3 E.1.1.4 E.1.2 E.1.3 E
Of which: Sustainable use
Evaporation/Actual evapotranspiration C.1 C.1 C.1 C.1 C.1 C.1 C.1
Outflows:
To downstream territories C.2.1 C.2.1 C.2.1 C.2.1 C.2.1 C.2.1
To the sea C.2.2 C.2.2 C.2.2 C.2.2 C.2.2 C.2.2
To other resources in the territory D.1.a. + D.3.i D.2.b + D.3.ii + D.2.c + D.3.iii D.2.e + D.3.v D.2 D
D.2.d + D.3.iv
Other changes in volume
Closing stocks A.1.1 A.1.2 A.1.3 A.1.5 A.2 A
Annex IV

*  This data item needs to be broken down by type of surface water resource.
177
 179

Annex V
Water indicators and links between data
items and WWAP and other indicators

A. Introduction
Annex V creates a link between data items and some of the most frequently used water indica-
tors, showing how a wide range of indicators can be derived from them. The focus is on the
indicators for IWRM and those used by the World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP),
which every three years produces the World Water Development Report (WWDR) for UN-
Water. Other indicators covered include MDG indicators and SEEA-Water indicators, while
data from a large number of different sources are also used.

1. Use of indicators
Indicators are used to synthesize and present complex information. They are a means of
summarizing, simplifying and communicating information to decision makers, policy ana-
lysts, researchers, the business community and the general public. They are used for making
comparisons over time, within and between countries and industries, and for identifying
factors that lead to the better management of water resources. For example, water indicators
are used to:
• Monitor and evaluate how effectively water resources are managed and used
• Assess progress against targets set by Governments
• Identify areas or industries for improvements in water efficiency or pollution control
• Make more informed strategic decisions on investment in water supply and sewerage
infrastructure
• Identify and prioritize areas for research
• Assess water use in the economy and the impact of its use on water resources
Indicators can be individual data items, aggregates, ratios or some other form of derived
data. Some of the data items described in chapter IV are already used as indicators for par-
ticular purposes. However, it is more common that water indicators combine several of the
data items with economic, environmental or social-demographic statistics.
The demand for easy-to-interpret data covering a wide range of water issues has led to
the development of a large number of indicators. While many indicators are in use, many are
similar in their content or objective. It is not possible, however, to provide a definitive list of
water indicators that can be applied in all countries, in all circumstances, at all times and for
all purposes, given the diversity of user needs. The understanding of water (including better
knowledge of scientific, economic and social-demographic issues related to water) and data
availability will also change over time. Therefore, the approach taken in IRWS is to describe
the characteristics of indicators and then describe some of the indicators for supporting
IWRM. The indicator list described for IWRM is not exhaustive, but it includes all of the
major indicator types and can be updated over time.
180 International Recommendations for Water

B. Selection and characteristics of indicators

Indicators are selected to inform specific areas of concern to data users, often government
decision makers and policy developers. Data users have to work with data producers to select
indicators appropriate for their purposes. Once the specific areas of concern are identified,
indicators are selected using a range of technical and practical criteria.
Countries and international organizations have developed many sets of indicators and
some have explicitly developed criteria used to select indicators (see, for example, those devel-
oped by Australia,a New Zealand,b OECD,c the United Nations,d, e and the World Bank f ).
In the present context, the OECD criteria are used because they are broadly representative.
The three basic criteria for the selection of indicators are identified by OECD as (a)
policy relevance and utility for users, (b) analytical soundness, and (c) measurability. These
are further elaborated by OECD g and are shown in table AV.1.
Table AV.1
OECD criteria for selecting environmental indicators

Basic criteria Qualities environmental indicators should have

Policy relevance and Provide a representative picture of environmental conditions, pressures on the
utility for users environment or society’s responses
Be simple, easy to interpret and able to show trends over time
Be responsive to changes in the environment and related human activities
Provide a basis for international comparisons
Be either national in scope or applicable to regional environmental issues of
national significance
Have a threshold or reference value against which to compare, so that users can
assess the significance of the values associated with them
Analytical Be theoretically well founded in technical and scientific terms
soundness Be based on international standards and international consensus about their
validity
Lend themselves to being linked to economic models, forecasting and
information systems
Measurability Be readily available or made available at a reasonable cost/benefit ratio
Source:  OECD, 2003, Environmental
Be adequately documented and of known quality
Indicators: Development, measure-
ment and use. Be updated at regular intervals in accordance with reliable procedures

C. Links with indicators

The selected indicators given below are taken from the MDG indictors, SEEA-Water and the
WWDR. The indicators are presented in relation to the recommended data items from chap-

a Australian Bureau of Statistics, 2002, Measuring Australia’s Progress, appendix II, “Criteria for selecting indica-
tors”. Available from http://www.abs.gov.au/ausstats/[email protected]/94713ad445ff1425ca25682000192af2/AA1
6F6E99C3078BFCA256BDC001223F6?opendocument.
b Statistics New Zealand, indicator guidelines. Available from http://www.stats.govt.nz/products-and-services/
user-guides/indicator-guidelines/default.htm.

c OECD, 1993, Environmental Indicators for Environmental Performance Reviews.
d Indicators of sustainable development, available from http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/natlinfo/indicators/isd.
htm.

e Criteria for Millennium Development Goals, available from http://mdgs.un.org/unsd/mdg/Resources/Attach/
Indicators/HandbookEnglish.pdf.

f World Bank Global Environment Facility, “Measuring results the SMART way”. Available from http://gefweb.
org/MonitoringandEvaluation/MEPoliciesProcedures/MEPIndicators/mepindicators.html.

g OECD, 2003, Environmental Indicators: Development, Measurement and Use. Available from http://www.oecd.
org/dataoecd/7/47/24993546.pdf.
 Annex V 181

ter IV and supplementary data items taken from annex II. For the WWDR indicators, the
original formulas and variables are presented in addition to formulas using IRWS data items.

1. Links with MDG indicators related to water

As discussed above, the integral role of water in development is widely recognized and water
issues are very high in the national and international development agendas, including several
international agreements specifying targets on water supply and sanitation. At the global level,
the most notable agreements are the targets in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs),
Table AV.2
Links between data items and MDG indicators related to water

Indicator IRWS data items

Proportion of total water resources
used (percentage)

E.1 = abstraction of water from inland water resources. (This indicator excludes abstraction for
hydroelectricity generation or for mining and the abstraction of brackish or saline waters)
B.1.a = precipitation to run-off
D.6 = natural transfer from soil water to groundwater
B.2.1 = inflows of water from neighbouring territories secured through treaties
B.2.2.b = inflows of water from neighbouring territories not submitted to treaties
C.2.1.1.a.a = outflows of surface water guaranteed by treaties to neighbouring territories
Overlap = overlap between surface water and groundwater
Note For the definition of overlap, see annex table AIII.1, concept entitled “Internal renewable water
resources”.
Proportion of the population using
S .1
improved drinking water sources MDG7.8 =
(total) total population
S.1 = population using improved water sources
Proportion of the population using
S .1urban
improved drinking water sources MDG7.8 =
(urban) total urban population
S.1urban = urban population using improved water sources
Proportion of the population using
S .1rural
improved drinking water sources MDG7.8 =
(rural) total rural population
S.1rural = rural population using improved water sources
Proportion of the population using
T .1
improved sanitation facilities (total) MDG7.9 =
total population
T.1 = population using improved sanitation facilities
Proportion of the population using
T .1urban
improved sanitation facilities (urban) MDG7.9 =
total urban population
T.1urban = urban population using improved sanitation facilities
Proportion of the population using
T .1rural
improved sanitation facilities (rural) MDG7.9 =
total rural population
T.1rural = rural population using improved sanitation facilities
182 International Recommendations for Water

namely, target 7.C, to halve, by 2015, the proportion of people without sustainable access to
safe drinking water and basic sanitation, and the two related indicators: proportion of popula-
tion using an improved drinking water source and proportion of population using an improved
sanitation facility (indicators 7.8 and 7.9, respectively).h The vital role of water is reflected also
by the recent inclusion of a new indicator, the proportion of total water resources used (indica-
tor 7.5) under target 7.A, whose purpose is to integrate the principles of sustainable develop-
ment into country policies and programmes and reverse the loss of environmental resources.

2. Links with SEEA-Water indicators

SEEA-Water provides a set of indicators that can be compiled from data in the standard tables
of SEEA-Water and can also be compiled from data items in IRWS. To that end, the tables
below cover the selected set of indicators that can be drawn from SEEA-Water standard tables
on water intensity and productivity, indicators of opportunities to increase effective water
supply and indicators of the costs and prices of water and sewerage services.
Table AV.3
Links between data items and selected SEEA-Water indicators of water intensity and
water productivity

Indicator IRWS data items

Water use
intensity
(physical units)
E = abstraction of water
G = water received from other economic units
F = water supplied to other economic units
H = returns of water to the environment by economic units

Water use
intensity of the
economy
E = abstraction of water
G = water received from other economic units
F = water supplied to other economic units
H = returns of water to the environment by economic units
GDP = gross domestic product

Water use
intensity by
industry

E = abstraction of water
G = water received from other economic units
F = water supplied to other economic units
H = returns of water to the environment by economic units

h See United Nations Statistics Division website for the definition of MDG targets and indicators (http://mdgs.
org/unsd/mdg/Metadata.aspx).
 Annex V 183

Indicator IRWS data items

Water use
intensity by
product

E = abstraction of water
G = water received from other economic units
F = water supplied to other economic units
H = returns of water to the environment by economic units

Pollution
K
intensity PI PerCapita =
(physical units) Population
K = waterborne emissions to the environment

Pollution K
intensity for the PI economy =
economy GDP
K = waterborne emissions to the environment
GDP = gross domestic product

Pollution NEindustry
intensity by PI industry =
industry valueaddedindustry
NEindustry = net emissions by a particular industry

J.1industry
NEindustry = K industry + K (ISIC 37) ×
J.1total
K = waterborne emissions to the environment from a particular industry
K(ISIC 37) = waterborne emissions to the environment by the sewerage industry
J.1industry = waterborne emissions to the sewerage industry from a particular industry
J.1total = waterborne emissions to the sewerage industry (total from all industries)
Water
productivity

E = abstraction of water
G = water received from other economic units
F = water supplied to other economic units
H = returns of water to the environment by economic units
GDP = gross domestic product
Water
productivity

E = abstraction of water
G = water received from other economic units
F = water supplied to other economic units
H = returns of water to the environment by economic units
184 International Recommendations for Water

Table AV.3
Links between data items and selected SEEA-Water indicators of water intensity and
water productivity (continued)

Indicator IRWS data items

Water
productivity
ratios
E = abstraction of water
G = water received from other economic units
F = water supplied to other economic units
H = returns of water to the environment by economic units
GDP = gross domestic product
Water
“pollutivity”
ratios

NEindustry = net emissions by a particular industry

GDP = gross domestic product
K = waterborne emissions to the environment

 J.1industry 
NEindustry = K industry + K (ISIC 37)  
 J.1total 
Kindustry = waterborne emissions to the environment from a particular industry
K(ISIC 37) = waterborne emissions to the environment by the sewerage industry
Note  Water productivity and water J.1industry = waterborne emissions to the sewerage industry from a particular industry
intensity are the inverse of each other. J.1total = waterborne emissions to the sewerage industry (total from all industries)

Table AV.4
Links between data items and selected SEEA-Water indicators of opportunities to
increase effective water supply

Indicator IRWS data items

Discharges into the Returns = H (time series)
environment H = returns of water to the environment by economic units
Treated returns to
the environment as a
percentage of all returns
H.a = returns of water after treatment by economic units
H = returns of water to the environment by economic units
Losses in distribution

I.1 = losses of water in distribution

E.b = abstraction of water for distribution
 Annex V 185

Table AV.5
SEEA-Water indicators regarding costs and price of water and wastewater treatment
services

Indicator Definition and source

Implicit water price Supply cost divided by volume of water purchased

(SEEA-Water)
Average water price per m3 by industry Actual payments divided by volume of water
purchased by that industry (SEEA-Water)
Average water supply cost per m3 by industry Cost of supply divided by volume of water
purchased for that industry (SEEA-Water)
Subsidy per m3 by industry Average water supply cost minus average water
price (SEEA-Water)

Implicit wastewater treatment price Supply cost divided by volume of water treated
(SEEA-Water)

Average wastewater treatment cost per m³ by Treatment cost divided by volume of wastewater
industry for that industry (SEEA-Water)

Average wastewater treatment price per m³ by Actual payments for treatment divided by volume
industry of wastewater by that industry (SEEA-Water)

Subsidy per m³ by industry Average wastewater supply cost minus average

wastewater price (SEEA-Water)

3. Links with World Water Development Report indicators

WWDR is a periodic review providing a picture of the state of the world’s freshwater resources.
The development of WWDR, coordinated by the World Water Assessment Programme
(WWAP), is a joint effort of the 26 United Nations agencies and entities which make up
UN-Water, working in partnership with Governments, international organizations, NGOs
and other stakeholders. WWAP, founded in 2000, is the flagship programme of UN-Water.
Housed in UNESCO, WWAP monitors freshwater issues.
Included in WWDR are select indicatorsi regarding the level of stress on the resource;
governance; settlements; the state of the resource; ecosystems; health, food, agriculture and
rural livelihoods; industry and energy; risk assessment; valuing and charging for the resource;
and knowledge base and capacity. Tables AV.6 to AV.8 demonstrate the link between IRWS
data items and WWDR indicators regarding the stress on water resources, the state of water
resources and health. IRWS data items can also be used to compile a number of WWDR
indicators regarding food, agriculture and rural livelihoods; industry and energy; and valu-
ing and charging for the resource. WWDR indicators regarding governance, ecosystems, risk
assessment and knowledge base and capacity are beyond the scope of IRWS and cannot be
calculated using IRWS data items.

i Available from http://www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr/indicators/index.shtml (accessed 5 October 2009).
186 International Recommendations for Water

Table AV.6
Links between data items and WWDR indicators regarding
the level of stress on water resources

Level of stress on the resource

Indicator Formula (from WWDR) Formula (using IRWS data items)

Index of non- INSWU = Q − DIA

sustainable water
use or
or

INSWU = Q − A
Q=w
 ater supply (renewable water
resources) B.1.a = precipitation to run-off
DIA = the sum of domestic, industrial and D.6 = natural transfer from soil water to groundwater
agricultural water use B.2 = inflow of water from neighbouring territories
Note For the methodology sheet, see E.1 = abstraction of water from inland water resources
http://www.unesco.org/water/
wwap/wwdr/indicators/pdf/A1_­ Overlap = overlap between surface water and groundwater
Index_of_non_sustainable_water­_ Note  For the definition of overlap, see annex table AIII.1, concept entitled
use.pdf. “Internal renewable water resources”.

∑ DIA
Relative Water Stress
Index RWSI =
Q (by industry per grid cell)
E.1 = abstraction of water from inland water resources (excluding on-stream
Σ DIA= the sum of domestic,
industrial and agricultural
uses, such as hydroelectricity and operation of locks)
B.1.a = precipitation to run-off
water use
D.6 = natural transfer from soil water to groundwater
Q = water supply (renewable water
resources) B.2 = inflow of water from neighbouring territories
Note For the methodology sheet, see Overlap = overlap between surface water and groundwater
http://www.unesco.org/water/
Note For the definition of overlap, see annex table AIII.1, concept entitled
wwap/wwdr/indicators/pdf/A3_­
“Internal renewable water resources”.
Relative_water_stress_index.pdf.

Sources of See Green and others, Biogeochemistry SCNL = K (nitrogen per grid cell)
contemporary 2004
K (nitrogen per grid cell) = waterborne emissions of nitrogen to the
nitrogen loading
environment by area
Note For the methodology sheet, see
http://www.unesco.org/water/wwap/
wwdr/indicators/pdf/A1_Index_of_
non_sustainable_water_use.pdf.

Domestic and
industrial water use DIWU = SWUPC × Population
For manufacturing and mining (ISIC 2-33, 41-43), households and other
SWUPC = sectoral water use per capita industries (ISIC 38, 39, 45-99).
(domestic and industrial) E.1 = abstraction of water from inland water resources
G.1 = water received from other economic units
 Annex V 187

Level of stress on the resource

Indicator Formula (from WWDR) Formula (using IRWS data items)
Water Reuse Index
WRI =
∑ DIA Upstrean
=
∑ DIA Upstream E.1Upstream + E.2.1Upstream
QUpstream TRWRUpstream WRI =
( B.1.a + D.6 + B.2 − overlap )Upstream
Σ DIA Upstream
= sum of upstream
domestic, industrial
E.1Upstream = abstraction of water from upstream inland water resources
and agricultural water B.1.a = precipitation to run-off
use D.6 = natural transfer from soil water to groundwater
QUpstream = upstream water supply
B.2 = inflow of water from neighbouring territories
(renewable water resources)
Note For the methodology sheet, see Overlap = overlap between surface water and groundwater
http://www.unesco.org/water/ Note For the definition of overlap, see annex table AIII.1, concept entitled
wwap/wwdr/indicators/pdf/A8_­ “Internal renewable water resources”.
Water_reuse_index.pdf.
Rural and urban Outside the scope of the current edition of IRWS: see United Nations Statistics Division, Demographic and Social Statistics
population (http://unstats.un.org/unsd/demographic)
Impact of sediment Outside the scope of the current edition of IRWS
trapping by large
dams and reservoirs
Coefficient of Outside the scope of the current edition of IRWS
variation for the
Climate Moisture
Index
188 International Recommendations for Water

Table AV.7
Links between data items and WWDR indicators regarding the state of water resources

State of the resource

Indicator Formula (from WWDR) Formula (using IRWS data items)
Total actual TRWRActual = IRWR + ERWRActual
renewable water B.1.a = precipitation to run-off
resources IRWR = internal renewable water resources
D.6 = natural transfer from soil water to groundwater
ERWRActual = actual external renewable water
B.2.1 = inflows of water from neighbouring territories secured
resources
through treaties
Note For the methodology sheets, see http://www.
fao.org/docrep/005/Y4473E/y447e07.htm; and B.2.2.b = inflows of water from neighbouring territories not
http://www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr/ submitted to treaties
indicators/pdf/D1_Total_Actual_Renewable_­ C.2.1.1.a.a = outflows of surface water guaranteed by treaties to
Water_Resources.pdf. neighbouring territories
olp = overlap between surface water and groundwater
Note For the definition of overlap, see annex table AIII.1, concept
entitled “Internal renewable water resources”.
Precipitation B.1 = precipitation
Total actual IRWR + ERWRActual
TRWRActualPerCapita =
renewable water population
resources per B.1.a = precipitation to run-off
capita IRWR = internal renewable water resources
D.6 = natural transfer from soil water to groundwater
ERWRActual = actual external renewable water B.2.1 = inflows of water from neighbouring territories secured
resources through treaties
Population = the number of people resident within a B.2.2.b = inflows of water from neighbouring territories not
territory submitted to treaties
Note For the methodology sheets, see http://www. C.2.1.1.a.a = outflows of surface water guaranteed by treaties to
fao.org/docrep/005/Y4473E/y4473e07.htm; and neighbouring territories
http://www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr/­ olp = overlap between surface water and groundwater
indicators/pdf/D1_Total_Actual_Renewable_­
Note For the definition of overlap, see annex table AIII.1, concept
Water_Resources.pdf.
entitled “Internal renewable water resources”.
Surface water
as share of total
actual renewable
water resources SWAR = surface water run-off E.1.1 = abstraction of water from surface water resources
WithdrawalSW = withdrawals from surface water B.1 = precipitation
C.1 = evapotranspiration from inland water resources
Note For the methodology sheet, see http://www.
unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr/indicators/pdf/D2_­ D.6 = natural transfers from soil water to groundwater (i.e.,
Groundwater_development_as_share_of_TARWR. infiltration from soils to groundwater)
pdf.
Overlap as share
of total actual
renewable water B.1.a = precipitation to run-off
resources OL = overlap
D.6 = natural transfer from soil water to groundwater
TRWRActual = total actual renewable water resources
B.2.1 = inflows of water from neighbouring territories secured
through treaties
B.2.2.b = inflows of water from neighbouring territories not
submitted to treaties
C.2.1.1.a.a = outflows of surface water guaranteed by treaties to
neighbouring territories
olp = overlap between surface water and groundwater
Note For the definition of overlap, see annex table AIII.1, concept
entitled “Internal renewable water resources”.
 Annex V 189

State of the resource

Indicator Formula (from WWDR) Formula (using IRWS data items)
Dependency
ratio (previously:
inflow from other B.2 = inflow of water from neighbouring territories
RWRInc = incoming water resources from
countries as share
neighbouring countries B.1 = precipitation
of total actual
renewable water RWRInc = SWIN1 + SWIN2 + SWPR + SWPL + GWIN C.1 = evapotranspiration
resources) B.2.1 = inflows of water from neighbouring territories secured
SWIN1 = volume of surface water entering the through treaties
country which is not submitted to treaties B.2.2.b.a = inflows of surface water not submitted to treaties with
2
SW IN
= volume of surface water entering the neighbouring territories
country which is secured through treaties B.2.2.b.b = inflows of groundwater not submitted to treaties with
SWPR = accounted flow of border rivers neighbouring territories
SWPL = accounted part of shared lakes

GWIN = groundwater entering the country

Outflow to other
countries as share
of total actual C.2 = outflow of water to neighbouring territories and the sea
renewable water
B.1.a = precipitation to run-off
resources
D.6 = natural transfer from soil water to groundwater
B.2.1 = inflows of water from neighbouring territories secured
through treaties
B.2.2.b = inflows of water from neighbouring territories not
submitted to treaties
C.2.1.1.a.a = outflows of surface water guaranteed by treaties to
neighbouring territories
olp = overlap between surface water and groundwater
Note For the definition of overlap, see annex table AIII.1, concept
entitled “Internal renewable water resources”.
Millennium See table AV.2.
Development
Goal water
indicator Withdrawals = withdrawals of water from surface
(previously: total water and groundwater resources
use as share IRWR = internal renewable water resources
of total actual ERWRActual = actual external renewable water
renewable water resources
resources)
Note The terms water resources and water
withdrawal are understood as freshwater
resources and freshwater withdrawal.
Groundwater
development
as share of total
actual renewable WithdrawalGW = withdrawals from groundwater E.1.2 = abstraction of water from groundwater resources
water resources
GAR = groundwater recharge D.1 = natural transfers from surface water to groundwater
Note For the methodology sheet, see: http://www. D.6 = natural transfers from soil water to groundwater
unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr/indicators/pdf/
D2_Groundwater_development_as_share_of_
TARWR.pdf.
190 International Recommendations for Water

Table AV.8
Links between data items and WWDR indicators for health

Health

Indicator Formula (from WWDR) Formula (using IRWS data items)

Access to safe drinking MDG7.8 = The proportion of the population using an improved drinking water MDG7.8 = R.1
water source, total, urban and rural, is the percentage of the population who use any
of the following types of water supply for drinking: piped water into dwelling,
plot or yard; public tap/standpipe; borehole/tube well; protected dug well;
protected spring; rainwater collection or bottled water (if a secondary available
source is also improved). It does not include the following types of water supply:
unprotected well, unprotected spring, water provided by carts with small tanks/
drums, tanker truck-provided water or bottled water (if secondary source is not
an improved source) or surface water taken directly from rivers, ponds, streams,
lakes, dams or irrigation channels.
Access to basic MDG7.9 = The proportion of the population using an improved sanitation MDG7.9 = S.1
sanitation facility, total, urban and rural, is the percentage of the population with access
to facilities that hygienically separate human excreta from human contact.
Improved facilities include flush/pour flush toilets or latrines connected to a
sewer, sewer-septic tank, or sewer-pit, ventilated improved pit latrines, pit
latrines with a slab or platform of any material which covers the pit entirely,
except for the drop hole and composting toilets/latrines. Unimproved facilities
include public or shared facilities of an otherwise acceptable type, flush/pour-
flush toilets or latrines which discharge directly into an open sewer or ditch, pit
latrines without a slab, bucket latrines, hanging toilets or latrines which directly
discharge into water bodies or in the open, and the practice of open defecation
in the bush, field or bodies or water.
Disability-adjusted life Outside the scope of the current edition of IRWS
year
Prevalence of stunting Outside the scope of the current edition of IRWS
among children under
age five
Mortality rate of Outside the scope of the current edition of IRWS
children under age five
 191

Annex VI
Measurement units and conversion factors

The standard SI (International System of Units) unit for volume is cubic metres (m 3); see
International Bureau of Weights and Measures (http://www.bipm.org/en/home).
Table AVI.1
Measurement units and conversion factors related to water

Unit Symbol = Conversion factor Unit Symbol

Volume          
Litre 1 L or l = 0.001 cubic metres m3
Kilolitre kL = 1 cubic metres m3
Megalitre ML = 1 000 cubic metres m3
Gigalitre GL = 1 000 000 cubic metres m3
Cubic hectometre 1 hm3 = 1 000 000 cubic metres m3
Cubic kilometre 1 km3 = 1 000 000 000 cubic metres m3
Cubic feet cf = 0.0283 cubic metres m3
Cubic yard 0.764 cubic metres m3
Gallon (US liquid) 1 gal = 0.00379 cubic metres m3
Gallon (UK or imperial)
1 gal = 0.00455 cubic metres m3

Acre feet 1 AF = 1 234 cubic metres m3

Acre inch = 103 cubic metres m3
Hectare metre = 10 000 cubic metres m3
Pint (UK) = 0.000568 cubic metres m3
Pint (US liquid) = 0.000473 cubic metres m3
Quart (UK) = 0.00114 cubic metres m3
Quart (US liquid) = 0.000946 cubic metres m3

Table AVI.2
Prefixes used in association with measurement units

Factor Name Symbol Factor Name Symbol

101 deca da 10−1 deci d
2 −2
10 hecto h 10 centi c
3 −3
10 kilo k 10 milli m
106 mega M 10−6 micro µ Source:  International Bureau of
10 9
giga G 10 −9
nano n Weights and Measures (http://www.
12 −12
bipm.org/en/si/si_brochure/chapter3/
10 tera T 10 pico p prefixes.htm).
 193

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