B

Bioethanol Production from bioenergy, with generation of bioethanol and car-

Green Biomass Resources: bon dioxide received as by-products.
Emerging Technologies

Mani Jayakumar1, Introduction

Selvakumar Kuppusamy Vaithilingam2,
Natchimuthu Karmegam3 and Abdisa Jabesa1 Due to faster globalization, industrialization, and
1
Department of Chemical Engineering, Haramaya transportation sector, usage of traditional fossil
Institute of Technology, Haramaya University, fuel is expected to increase by 60% in the year
Haramaya, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia 2030 (Chozhavendhan et al. 2022). Bioethanol is
2
School of Chemical and Bio Engineering, Dire a bulk valuable chemical and a promising renew-
Dawa University Institute of Technology, Dire able fuel derived from the discarded lignocellu-
Dawa University, Dire Dawa, Ethiopia losic BM materials becoming very popular and
3
Department of Botany, Government Arts College gaining more attention among researchers in pre-
(Autonomous), Salem, Tamil Nadu, India sent days. Bioethanol has been shown to minimize
net greenhouse gas emissions when it replaces
traditional gasoline fuel, and it has greater poten-
Synonyms tial to become neutralize net carbon content or
even carbon negative due to carbon BM seques-
Aquatic waste sources; Bacillus subtilis; Bioma- tration; this will help to minimize global warming
terials; Clostridium species; Farming waste and climate change (Schuster and Chinn 2013).
sources; Industrialized waste sources; United From a waste minimization and management
bioprocessing; Urban solid waste sources aspect, generation of bioethanol from the
discarded wastes provides a better cleaner way
for disposing and degrading of these into value
Definition added products. Lignocellulose contains polysac-
charides of hemicellulose, cellulose, phenol, lig-
Ethanol production from fermentation practice, nin, and soluble polar compounds and nonpolar
also called alcoholic fermentation, is a biochemi- materials (Raja Sathendra et al. 2022). BM are
cal process with the help of microorganisms obtained from highly diverse waste sources such
which converts (lignocellulosic biomass) sugars as agricultural waste, industrial waste, municipal
such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose into waste, and marine waste from the available envi-
ronments, and hence their composition varies
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022
C. Baskar et al. (eds.), Encyclopedia of Green Materials,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-4921-9_110-1
2 Bioethanol Production from Green Biomass Resources: Emerging Technologies

from one place to another place and over a period source for fossil fuels and product around the
of time, so it is mandate to design and develop globe (Gundupalli et al. 2022). Virgin biomass,
very effective pretreatment practice, processes of energy crops, and waste biomass are the three
hydrolysis and fermentation, and in addition use major classes of LC biomass materials available
very active microbial strains capable of handling all over the globe. Waste biomass is a low-value
efficient transformation of various types of bio- by-product of virgin biomass such as agricultural
mass (Salehi Jouzani and Taherzadeh 2015). The processing wastes, industrial processing wastes,
technique to minimize the initial investment, and municipal processing wastes, and finally marine
the overall processing costs, simplify the practice processing waste. Some waste lignocellulosic bio-
methodology, and integrate as many unit opera- mass feedstocks are present in forms as summa-
tions as possible, is often termed consolidated rized in Fig. 1.
bioprocessing (CBP). Therefore, this chapter The major reasons for these biomasses for
aims to briefly address the current situation of being the most abundant sustainable raw materials
bioethanol, available raw materials from various all over the globe and very attractive feedstock for
industrial wastes, pretreatment methods, their pro- bioethanol generation are because their utilization
cessing techniques, and CBP innovations to as feedstocks for biofuel does not deplete as
change over waste lignocellulosic biomass to source of food and animal feed (Ishizaki and
bioethanol; this detailed investigation gives ana- Hasumi 2014). It is primarily made up of cellu-
lysts a stage for future improvement of effective lose, hemicellulose, and lignin in proportions of
and maintainable CBP approaches with native 40–50%, 25–30%, and 15–20%, respectively
microbes, engineered microbes, advantages, lim- (Gundupalli et al. 2022). The ultra-complex
itations, challenges, and future prospects for the nature of lignocellulose comprises of number of
sustainable generation of bioethanol. components which makes it woody and difficult
nature as in Fig. 2.
The composition of cellulose, hemicellulose,
Generation of Bioethanol and lignin for various forms of waste lignocellu-
losic biomass materials feedstocks is summarized
Bioethanol is made from starch and sugar-based in Table 1.
feedstocks, cellulose biomass, and algal biomass
and is categorized as first-generation, second-
generation, and third-generation bioethanol. Cur- Biomass Pretreatment
rently, starch and sugar-based feedstock account
for nearly all bioethanol production. The qualities Pretreatment aids in the breaking of cross-links
of the feedstock and the conversion procedure between lignocellulose components. As an end
used in the production process have a significant result, it makes it very easier to separate cellu-
impact on the quality and efficiency of bioethanol. lose, hemicellulose, and lignin components from
The use of organic waste from numerous pro- one another (Roy et al. 2020). Chemical, thermo-
cessing plants will allow for increased bioethanol chemical, mechanical, biological, and physical
production, as well as the optimization of produc- preparation are only a few of the options. Fur-
tion units (bioethanol production from various thermore, no unified pretreatment method for all
industrial wastes), the extension of landfill service types of lignocellulosic biomass exists at this
life, and the decrease of organic pollution. time, and the pretreatment procedure is largely
dependent on the type of lignocellulosic biomass
and the targeted outputs. However, combining
Lignocellulosic Biomass two or more pretreatment procedures can consid-
erably improve the process’ efficiency, and this is
Present-day researchers considered lignocellu- an emerging strategy in this field of research
losic biomass material as a better alternative (Rizal et al. 2018). The numerous categories of
Bioethanol Production from Green Biomass Resources: Emerging Technologies 3

Bioethanol Production from Green Biomass Resources: Emerging Technologies, Fig. 1 Various types of
lignocellulosic biomass sources

pretreatment process methods and their key func- referred to as consolidated bioprocessing (CBP)
tions as compared with merits and demerits are of lignocellulose to bioethanol. In the CBP pro-
outlined in Table 2. cess, enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation take
place in single reactor using a single species of
native microbes or a coculture of engineered
Consolidated Bioprocessing microbial strains. The CBP technique is an
Fermentation advanced unique simpler technique, and therefore
both operating and capital investment costs
The four major biological events required for this involved with enzyme generation are minimized
conversion process (production of saccharolytic (Ishizaki and Hasumi 2014). Consolidated
enzymes, hydrolysis of the polysaccharides pre- bioprocessing fermentation process stages are
sent in pretreated biomass, fermentation of hexose represented in Fig. 3.
sugars, and fermentation of pentose sugars) are
4 Bioethanol Production from Green Biomass Resources: Emerging Technologies

Bioethanol Production
from Green Biomass
Resources: Emerging
Technologies,
Fig. 2 Schematic
representation of
lignocellulosic materials

Naturally occurring microbial strains are inca- that can act on diverse biomass substrates
pable to produce higher amounts of saccharolytic (Parisutham et al. 2014). Mostly, for LCB produc-
enzymes to convert the released sugars into tion process, yeast, E. coli, B. subtilis, Clostridium
bioethanol simultaneously. Hence, genetically sp., Thermobifida fusca, and Trichoderma reesei
engineered microbes are very essential to be have been employed successfully.
developed in order to make this practice very
effective for large-scale industrial applications in
sustainable way. CBP offers great potential to Perspectives
minimize biofuel generation costs due to lesser
difficulty for feedstock preparation, less energy CBP fermentation technology has higher potential
inputs, and greater transformation efficiencies to provide lesser-cost cellulosic bioprocessing for
than separate hydrolysis fermentation (SHF) prac- bioethanol generation. Microbes that can con-
tices (Refaat 2012), and it is a financially appeal- sume cellulose at higher rates and create ethanol
ing near-term objective for “next-generation” at higher yields and more titters are required to
cellulosic biofuel generation. The advantages, fully fulfill CBP’s potential. The native and
limitations, and challenges are summarized in recombinant engineered techniques for the crea-
Table 3. tion of CBP bacteria have made significant pro-
gress in present days. Commercially viable
strains, on the other hand, are currently
Microbes for CBP unavailable. More progress will be made utilizing
both approaches as genetic engineering tools and
A number of native and engineered microbes are our understanding of the fundamentals of micro-
used for CBP fermentation. Utilization of CBP bial cellulose consumption improve.
microbes is the most potential technique for eco-
nomic biofuel generation. Despite that fact, the
lignocellulosic substrates are considerably diverse Conclusions
and heterogeneous as they are derived from vari-
able environments. For this reason, it is indispens- Gaining technical experience, newer technologi-
able to develop and combine tailor-designed cal advancement, and integrated waste minimiza-
pretreatment processes and competent microbes tion concepts can meet the required amount of
Bioethanol Production from Green Biomass Resources: Emerging Technologies 5

Bioethanol Production from Green Biomass Resources: Emerging Technologies, Table 1 Different kinds of
waste lignocellulosic biomass feedstock materials for ethyl alcohol production
Cellulose Hemicellulose Lignin
Biomass (%) (%) (%) References
Agricultural waste sources
Cassava stem 35.2 24.3 33.8 Han et al. (2011)
Coconut fiber mature 32.2 27.8 25.0 Gonçalves et al. (2016)
Corn stalk 38.7 33.6 18.9 Adekunle et al. (2020)
Cotton stalk 45.6 15.7 22.3 Malik et al. (2021)
Corn stover 37.7 20.6 30.5 Mensah et al. (2021)
Cotton plant waste 30.0 13.0 31.0 Binod et al. (2012)
Grape fruit peel 19.8 18.3 8.2 Boluda-Aguilar and López-Gómez
(2013)
Hemp 36.5 10.1 8.0 Zhao et al. (2020)
Lemon peel 22.8 22.4 8.3 Boluda-Aguilar and López-Gómez
(2013)
Mandarin peel 20.8 17.2 8.9 Boluda-Aguilar and López-Gómez
(2013)
Orange peel 22.0 19.9 8.4 Boluda-Aguilar and López-Gómez
(2013)
Rapeseed straw 44.6 20.0 20.0 Karagöz et al. (2012)
Rice straw 34.1 28.5 18.1 Sindhu et al. (2012)
Rice husk 42.2 18.5 19.4 Banerjee et al. (2009)
Sesame plant residue 22.8 37.8 7.4 Kumar et al. (2020)
Tobacco waste 44.6 6.8 11.9 Sarbishei et al. (2021)
Municipal waste sources
Waste newspaper 41.0 24.9 23.1 Subhedar and Gogate (2015)
Waste office paper 52.4 9.5 15.1 Annamalai et al. (2020)
Biogenic municipal solid 43.2 22.7 22.2 Althuri and Mohan (2019)
waste
Composite vegetable waste 33.4 20.8 NF Chatterjee and Mohan (2021)
Industrial waste sources
Brewer’s spent grain 23.1 30.0 7.1 Carrillo-Nieves et al. (2019)
Carrot pulp waste 16.8 4.0 6.9 Khoshkho et al. (2022)
Cassava peel waste 37.6 37.1 17.3 Amalia et al. (2021)
Cotton gin waste 40.3 15.0 19.8 Sahu and Pramanik (2018)
Pulp and paper mill sludge 41.2 27.6 18.5 Dey et al. (2021)
Sawmill mixed waste 44.3 25.6 26.0 Alio et al. (2020)
Sugarcane bagasse 34.0 27.0 18.0 Sindhu et al. (2010)
Sugar beet pulp waste 21.0 15.0 4.0 Madian et al. (2015)
Sweet sorghum bagasse 36.4 26.5 24.0 Banerji et al. (2017)
Marine waste sources
Algal pulp 43.3 16.1 16.2 Shukla et al. (2016)
Seaweed 19.4 14.4 15.3 Li et al. (2016)

bioethanol in a shorter period time and will amylases) ought to be solidified, and very active
strongly promote the economic viability of bio- microbes and engineered microbes are required
based refineries. To create cost-effective for the aging of glucose and maltose into
bioethanol from crude starch, the starch hydroly- bioethanol. As such, crude starch CBP innovation
sis steps (liquefaction and saccharification by might clear the way for novel applications of cell
6 Bioethanol Production from Green Biomass Resources: Emerging Technologies

Bioethanol Production from Green Biomass Resources: Emerging Technologies, Table 2 Distinctive sorts of
pretreatment strategies with advantages and limitations
Methods Role Advantages Limitations References
Physical pretreatment methods
Milling and Size reduction of Increased available More energy usage, Arora et al. (2019),
grinding biomass particles surface area and lump formation, Sasmal and
biomass digestibility, channeling Mohanty (2018)
reducing
polymerization of
cellulose
Extrusion Mixing and shearing Enhanced accessibility Bioreactor parameters Sarkar et al. (2012)
actions create of carbohydrates to be highly efficient
defibrillation,
fibrillation, and
shortening of the fibers
Microwave Disrupting the Favor for Catalyst requirement, Kumar et al.
assisted structure of autohydrolysis; conversion, inhibitor (2020), Mikulski
lignocelluloses by decrease the degree of formation, low et al. (2019), Sasaki
thermal method and polymerization and radiation in bulk et al. (2019),
hydrolysis of crystallinity of biomass, local heat Thangavelu et al.
hemicellulose and cellulose; shorter spot (2019)
partial reaction time
depolymerization of
lignin by nonthermal
method
Chemical pretreatment methods
Acids (weak Solubilization of Enhanced Inhibitor compounds, Arenas-Cárdenas
and strong) hemicelluloses and hemicellulose energy intensive, and et al. (2017)
lignin, making hydrolysis and more more cost for acid
cellulose availability amount of amorphous recovery
more to enzymes cellulose; enhanced
sugar yield; cheap acid
usage
Alkali Alteration in lignin Lignin removal from Costs in downstream Molaverdi et al.
structure, cellulose biomass, accessibility processing, huge (2019), Yuan et al.
swelling, partial of hemicelluloses for amount of water for (2018)
decrystallization, and degrading enzymes, washing salts
solubilization of reducing the
hemicelluloses polymerization degree
and crystallinity of
cellulose, low-cost
alkaline hydroxides
Ionic liquids Extracting lignin from Improves enzymatic More energy required Liu and Zhu
cellulose and delignification by for pure ionic liquid (2010), Rezania
depolymerization of maintaining cellulase recycling, expensive et al. (2020)
lignin activity and stability and high waste
generation, toxic to
enzymes and
fermentative microbes
Organosolv Organic solvent High-purity cellulose Usage of expensive Kumar et al.
mixtures with with minimum solvent and catalysts, (2016), Shuai and
inorganic acid catalysts degradation and risk of explosions and Luterbacher
used for the extraction efficient fractionation fire, solvents itself (2016), Zhang et al.
of lignin of hemicellulose, high- inhibitors for enzymes (2016)
purity lignin, improved
enzymatic digestibility
(continued)
Bioethanol Production from Green Biomass Resources: Emerging Technologies 7

Bioethanol Production from Green Biomass Resources: Emerging Technologies, Table 2 (continued)
Methods Role Advantages Limitations References
of lignin and
hemicelluloses
Ozone Degrades lignin and No toxic residues for Large amounts of Mohapatra et al.
does not affect subsequent hydrolysis ozone requirement, (2017)
hemicellulose as well and fermentation, mild suitable only for low
as cellulose operating conditions lignin content biomass
Oxidants Oxidants partially Enhanced digestibility, Lignin compounds Arenas-Cárdenas
oxidize the lignin and higher sugar yield, low inhibit the conversion et al. (2017),
hemicellulose and pressure and of hemicelluloses and Banerjee et al.
convert to low temperature conditions cellulose; nonselective (2012), Bensah and
molecular weight oxidation; oxidants are Mensah (2013),
carboxylic acids corrosive Lucas et al. (2012)
resulting in a solid
fraction
Wet oxidation Hemicelluloses are Suitable for high lignin Larger reaction vessel Arora et al. (2019),
cleaved to low content biomass, requirement, Badiei et al. (2014)
molecular weight cellulose susceptibility expensive oxygen and
water-soluble sugars; to enzymatic alkaline catalyst
lignin cleaved and hydrolysis, less requirement
undergoes oxidation; inhibitor formation and
cellulose will be partly efficient removal of
degraded lignin
Sulfite Sulfonates the lignin; Improved glucose Sugar degradation at Costa et al. (2016),
thereby, sulfonic and yields; pure and extreme process Zhang et al. (2013)
other weak acid group effective lignin conditions, large
formation enhances the recovery; less amount of water used
hydrophilicity of chemically in washing step, high
biomass transformed forms of costs of recovering
biomass components; pretreated chemicals
low inhibitor
concentration
Physicochemical pretreatment methods
Ammonia Liquid ammonia Enhances the Less effective for Rezania et al.
fiber disrupts the biomass digestibility of woody biomass and (2020), Sasmal and
expansion fibers and considerable biomass, no inhibitor more lignin feedstocks; Mohanty (2018)
amount of formation, more ammonia recovery is
decrystallization of suitable for herbaceous expensive; low sugar
cellulose and agricultural yield
residues, shorter
process time,
minimum enzyme
requirement in
hydrolysis
Steam Separating the acetyl Enhanced enzymatic Additional facility Rezania et al.
explosion groups of hydrolysis; low capital required for the (2020), Sarkar et al.
hemicelluloses and investment and addition of acid (2012)
individual fibers by environmental impact; catalyst to softwoods,
disrupting the cell wall energy efficient; less hemicelluloses, and
structure hazardous in nature; lignin partial
scope for larger chip degradation; inhibitory
size; acid catalysts can product formation
be avoided; feasibility
at large scale
(continued)
8 Bioethanol Production from Green Biomass Resources: Emerging Technologies

Bioethanol Production from Green Biomass Resources: Emerging Technologies, Table 2 (continued)
Methods Role Advantages Limitations References
Carbon Cellulose and Low-cost CO2 High pressure and Sarkar et al. (2012)
dioxide hemicellulose structure availability; non- cosolvent requirement
explosion disruption, easy flammable; recovery of for improved
accessibility of the CO2 is easy after delignification
substrate surface for extraction;
enzymes environmental
acceptance; less
formation of inhibitors
Hydrothermal Makes the cellulose Chemicals and More water and energy Cardona et al.
process more accessible by corrosion-resistant requirement; obtained (2018)
removing materials are not sugar concentrations
hemicelluloses from required; less are less; fermentation
lignocellulosic concentrated inhibitor formation
biomasses solubilized lignin and
hemicellulose
products; high xylose
recovery; less
inhibitory compound
formation
Popping Combining the More sugar recovery Modification in Kumar et al. (2019)
mechanical force and from lignocellulosic chemical composition
certain chemical biomass; no inhibitor of the biomass is less
reactions break the formation; more
lingo cellulosic surface area of
structure biomass; penetration
rate of hydrolytic
enzymes are high
Biological pretreatment methods
Fungi Lignin and Low capital cost and Rate of hydrolysis is Xie et al. (2017)
hemicellulose energy requirement; very low; bioethanol
degradation; cellulose chemicals are not yield is comparatively
attacked by brown rot required; mild less
fungi; cellulose and environmental
lignin both attacked by conditions; control of
white and soft rot fungi pH is easy in sugar
utilization stage
Biomimetic Speeds up the Economically viable, More in vivo and Kumar et al. (2019)
delignification process less cost and time, in vitro studies are
by specific biological more amount of lignin required in biological
reactions without using degradation reactions
microorganisms

manufacturing plants and make the bio-based Cross-References

economy more substantial and sustainable.
Hence, we trust to illustrate the cooperative ▶ Bioethanol
energy impacts on plant cell breakdown between ▶ Consolidated Bioprocessing Fermentation
the cellulosome and non-cellulosome microbial ▶ Lignocellulosic Biomass
enzymes with diverse waste LC biomass and to
create the full framework for CBP for the future
generation biorefineries.
Bioethanol Production from Green Biomass Resources: Emerging Technologies 9

Bioethanol Production from Green Biomass Resources: Emerging Technologies, Fig. 3 Consolidated
bioprocessing fermentation process

Bioethanol Production from Green Biomass Resources: Emerging Technologies, Table 3 Consolidated
bioprocessing process advantages, limitations, and challenges
Process Advantages Limitations Challenges
CBP Entire operation practice is simpler CBP practice till date; engineered In this CBP procedure,
microbes are well known to achieve solvent recovery is
successfully quite challenging
Vessels used for fermentation and Present-day utilization of recombinant Component recovery is
saccharification process are reduced strains is majorly restricted in some of a serious challenge
as this process complexity is very the nations; environmental threat and
less developing public health associated
with this
Addition of enzymes is completely To date, bacterial/fungal strains isolated Severity in
eliminated from wild type are used in CBP process pretreatment is very
that generates lesser bioethanol high
concentrations
Contamination risk is less by In general, the practice of CBP demands Recovery and
minimizing carbohydrates and longer fermentation time reusability of catalysts
generating ethanol is also a concern
Pentose and hexose are cofermented Higher rates of loading affect the mixing Investment cost is very
unit operation high compared to other
process
Initial capital investment cost is Development of advanced effective Higher energy utilized
mostly minimized to lesser microbial strain is capable of for pretreatment
simultaneous production of hydrolytic practice is also a big
enzymes, and fermentation practice is challenge
very difficult
The process demands minimum – –
energy
Source: Choudhary et al. (2016), Refaat (2012)
10 Bioethanol Production from Green Biomass Resources: Emerging Technologies

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