Chert Gravel and Neogene Drainage in East-central Kansas 29

Chert Gravel and Neogene Drainage in East-central Kansas

James S. Aber
Earth Science Department, Emporia State University, Emporia, KS 66801

Abstract
Eastern Kansas has an active geomorphic regime dominated by stream erosion, which is strongly
influenced by bedrock structure. Alluvial deposits of chert gravel of presumed Neogene age are
widespread and abundant on hill tops and high terraces throughout the region. Many of these gravels
contain quartzite and other exotic pebbles derived from western sources. Geographic information system
(GIS) techniques are used to document and analyze the spatial distribution of upland chert gravel
deposits. On this basis, Neogene drainage routes may be recognized for the ancestral Arkansas, ancestral
Verdigris, ancestral Neosho, and ancestral Marais des Cygnes.
These drainages bore little resemblance in position or direction to the modern rivers. Stream
captures, valley entrenchment, and wholesale inversion of topography led to the modern drainage
systems. During entrenchment, streams have shifted systematically southward and eastward, possibly as
a result of long-term and continuing crustal tilting (neotectonism) down toward the Gulf of Mexico.

Eastern Kansas south of the limit of glaciation is part of Wellinton-McPherson-Arkansas River Lowlands (fig. 3).
the Osage Plains of the central United States. This region This region includes parts of several local drainage basins:
is commonly portrayed as a tectonically stable terrain of Neosho, Cottonwood, Walnut, Verdigris, Fall, lower
low relief, in which near-peneplain conditions prevail. Arkansas, Smoky Hill, and Marais des Cygnes. The latter
Widespread seismic activity and recent fault movements two are within the greater Missouri basin; the others are
(Madole et al., 1991), however, suggest that the region part of the greater Arkansas basin (fig. 2).
may not be as stable as once thought. In eastern Kansas, The Flint Hills form an erosional massif that stands
considerable erosion of the landscape has taken place since above lower plains to the east and west. The Flint Hills are
Miocene time. Alluvial deposits of chert gravel of pre- underlain by lower Permian limestones, shales, and
sumed Miocene, Pliocene, and Pleistocene ages are evaporites. Thick, cherty limestone units weather to
widespread and abundant on drainage divides, isolated produce residual lag deposits composed of angular chert
hilltops, and high terraces throughout eastern Kansas (fig. fragments, which are highly resistant to chemical break-
1). High-terrace chert gravels mostly are associated with down (fig. 4). Such residual chert is responsible for
existing stream valleys. In contrast, hilltop chert gravels in maintaining high topographic relief and gives the Flint
many places bear no obvious relationships to any river Hills their name. The eastern margin of the Flint Hills is
systems of today. Many, but not all, of these gravels on marked by a major escarpment that is especially prominent
high terraces and hilltops contain quartzite and other in northwestern Greenwood and eastern Chase and Butler
exotic pebbles derived from the High Plains or Rocky counties. Divides between the Walnut and the Cotton-
Mountains to the west. wood, Verdigris, and Fall drainage basins follow the crest
of the Flint Hills escarpment. Maximum elevations exceed
Description of the Study Region 500 m (1,640 ft), relief is locally up to 100 m (330 ft), and
stream valleys are deeply entrenched. From their eastern
The study region is centered in east-central Kansas and crest, the Flint Hills slope gently westward, down the
includes Chase, Butler, Lyon, Greenwood, Osage, Coffey, regional bedrock dip, toward the eastern limit of the
Woodson, Wilson, Anderson, Allen, and Neosho counties, Wellington-McPherson-Arkansas River Lowlands.
as well as portions of surrounding counties (fig. 2). The The Arkansas drainage divide marks a major boundary
study area includes portions of six physiographic re- in the geomorphology of central Kansas. To the west, the
gions—Flint Hills, Osage Cuestas, Chautauqua Hills, Wellington-McPherson-Arkansas River Lowlands form a
Wellington-McPherson Lowlands, Arkansas River nearly flat plain that slopes imperceptibly toward the
Lowlands, and Smoky Hills. For purposes of this paper, south. It is underlain by unconsolidated Neogene and
the Wellington-McPherson Lowlands and Arkansas River Quaternary sediments of arkosic composition and variable
Lowlands will be combined as a single unit—the thicknesses. These sediments were derived from the west
30 Aber

FIGURE 1. Typical exposure of alluvial chert gravel, about 1 m (3 ft) thick, resting on weathered sandstone, on uplands north of Neosho
River valley, east of Emporia, Kansas.

and deposited on a wide alluvial plain. The upper surface gravel is preserved on the Missouri-Arkansas drainage
of the lowland is little modified by subsequent erosion. divide, up to 75 m (250 ft) above adjacent floodplains.
However, its eastern and northern margins are locally Frye (1955) concluded that these highest gravels mark an
truncated by headward erosion of tributaries within the early river system that crossed in an easterly direction
Walnut, Cottonwood, and Smoky Hill drainage systems. what is now a major drainage divide and joined with
The Osage Cuestas and Chautuaqua Hills are generally streams in the Ozark region of Missouri. In an earlier
lower in elevation and relief compared to the Flint Hills. paper, I used the name Old Osage River to refer to this
Elevations are mostly in the 250 m to 350 m (820–1,150 supposed through-drainage route to the east (Aber, 1985).
ft) range. Upper Pennsylvanian shale and poorly consoli- The ages of the chert gravel deposits can be estimated
dated sandstone underlie most of these regions. Thick only on the basis of topographic positions above modern
limestone units are more resistant to erosion and support floodplains and degree of soil development. The deposits
conspicuous escarpments, where local relief may reach 50 consist of insoluble siliceous minerals; all soluble compo-
m (160 ft). Elevations exceeding 360 m (1,180 ft) are nents have been removed by prolonged weathering. Thus,
found on the Missouri-Arkansas drainage divide in central appropriate fossils or materials suitable for dating are not
Anderson County. Chert is relatively scarce within upper preserved. Most geologists have agreed upon Neogene
Pennsylvanian bedrock throughout eastern Kansas. (Miocene or Pliocene) age for upland chert gravels, and
these gravels are classified as Tertiary on state and county
Previous Investigations geologic maps (Aber, 1993). Frye (1955) considered that
the oldest chert gravels date from the early Tertiary
Deposits of chert gravel in uplands of eastern Kansas (Paleogene). I previously designated upland chert gravels
were recognized in the late 1800’s and early 1900’s and within the Walnut drainage basin as the Leon Gravel, a
investigated in different locations. Early ideas for the lithostratigraphic unit of formation rank (Aber, 1992).
genesis of upland chert gravel included outwash drift of However, similar chert gravel deposits in other basins have
glacial origin and residual accumulations on a peneplain not received any formal stratigraphic recognition.
(Aber, 1985, 1988). Studies since the 1950’s have empha- Exotic pebbles of quartzite were noted in upland chert
sized the alluvial genesis of chert gravel that was trans- gravels by some early investigators (see Mudge, 1875;
ported from the Flint Hills and deposited in ancient stream Wooster, 1934), who thought the exotics had been washed
channels (O’Conner, 1953). Subsequent valley entrench- into the region by glacial meltwater. Some later geologists,
ment and drainage diversions have left the old alluvial however, overlooked the existence of exotic pebbles or
gravels situated on high terraces and hilltops. discounted their importance. Frye and Leonard (1952, p.
Eastward from the Flint Hills, chert gravel deposits 181–184), for example, stated that “. . . the late Tertiary
attain higher relative positions in the local topography. sediments in the eastern one-fourth of Kansas are entirely
This trend culminates in Anderson County, where chert attributable to the Permian and Pennsylvanian rocks
 Chert Gravel and Neogene Drainage in East-central Kansas 31

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Ancestral Neosho River Ancestral Verdigris River

Ancestral Arkansas River Ancestral Marais des Cygnes River
Local drainage divides Missouri–Arkansas Divide
0 20 40 60 mi

0 20 40 60 km

FIGURE 2. Study area showing rivers, drainage divides, and ancestral drainage routes.

eastward from and including the Herington Limestone.” throughout the study region (Aber, 1988). Gravel riffles
They concluded that “some time during the Tertiary the were examined in modern stream channels (Byerley,
Flint Hills became a major drainage divide separating two 1995). Conventional field observations were supplemented
strongly contrasting depositional provinces” (Frye and by laboratory analysis of chert gravel characteristics.
Leonard, 1952, p. 184). This interpretation was repeated in Several hundred pebbles of quartzite, quartzose sandstone,
other reconstructions of Kansas drainage development. and other exotics have been collected, and these were
Seevers and Jungmann (1963) suggested, in contrast, that classified according to rock type and color. Thin sections
Neogene drainage from central Kansas did cross the Flint of representative specimens were cut and examined with a
Hills and transported quartzose materials derived from petrographic microscope.
Cretaceous source strata into eastern Kansas. Soil series, as depicted in county soil survey reports,
proved to be excellent indicators for both residual and
Methods of Investigation alluvial chert gravel deposits (e.g., Penner et al., 1975;
Swanson and Googins, 1977; Neill, 1981). The Florence
series is developed in residual chert weathered from
Field and Laboratory limestones on Flint Hills uplands (fig. 5). Chert in these
Various techniques were used to document and analyze soils has not been transported by streams, although some
the distribution and composition of upland chert gravel mass movement may have taken place on slopes. The Olpe
deposits in the region of study. Detailed mapping of series is formed on alluvial chert gravel on hilltops and
surficial geology was carried out in Butler County (Aber, high terraces (fig. 6). Chert in these soils was transported
1991), and reconnaissance observations were made by streams and deposited in channels as various kinds of
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Wellington-McPherson-Arkansas River Lowlands study area

0 20 40 60 mi

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FIGURE 3. Study area showing rivers and principle physiographic regions. In this study, the Arkansas River Lowlands and the
Wellington-McPherson Lowlands are treated as one region.

bars, dunes, and riffles. Chert gravel may be interbedded carried out using IDRISI software.
with finer alluvial sediments. Two kinds of GIS databases were compiled. The first of
In nearly all cases, field observation verified that these was a general raster grid that covers most of the
alluvial chert gravel is present as depicted on soil survey study area, T. 16 S. to T. 30 S. and R. 3 E. to R. 21 E. (fig.
reports. Very few instances were found in which Olpe soil 2). This grid is based on the township-and-range system
proved to be residual chert, rather than alluvial deposits. In divided into quarter-section (1/2 mile by 1/2 mile) cells
a few cases, thin deposits of alluvial chert were discovered and covers about 26,000 km2 (10,000 mi2). The second
that are not identified as Olpe soil on the county reports. GIS database was a detailed vector database for Allen,
Other than these few exceptions, the Olpe soil is a region- Anderson, Coffey, Neosho, Wilson, and Woodson coun-
ally reliable indicator for alluvial chert gravel deposits in ties, referenced to the UTM coordinate system (fig. 2).
the uplands of eastern Kansas. The raster database for Olpe and Olpe-complex soils
was created with gravel elevation as the value for each
GIS and Remote Sensing cell. Although this grid system has many shortcomings for
accurate cartographic work, it is convenient to use, and for
Current investigations have emphasized applications of the purpose of this database, small locational anomalies
geographic information systems (GIS) and remote sensing are of little significance. The key attribute for this database
for depicting and analyzing the spatial distribution of chert is actual elevation of chert gravel, not accurate areal limits.
gravel in the landscape. GIS and image processing were County metric topographic maps (1:100,000) were used
 Chert Gravel and Neogene Drainage in East-central Kansas 33

FIGURE 4. Close-up view of angular chert blocks in gravel pit. Compass for scale.

FIGURE 5. Exposure of Florence Limestone in eastern Butler County. Light gray beds and nodules of chert weather out at the surface
and accumulate as a residual lag deposit on Flint Hills uplands. Scale pole marked in feet.

for determining the grid and transfering data from soil digitizing in vector format from 7.5-minute topographic
survey reports. Elevation data for Olpe cells were entered quadrangle maps. The vector database contains all main
into the database if the Olpe soil covered at least 10 acres rivers and their principal tributaries, reservoirs, county
(4 hectares) or 1/16th of the quarter section, as estimated boundaries, and selected cities, as well as geomorphic
from the soil maps. The elevation of the soil was given as distribution of alluvial soils and chert gravel. Other kinds
the highest elevation contour (nearest 5 m). of GIS databases were utilized, including various digital
The detailed vector database was created for a six- elevation models (DEM) and Landsat multispectral
county area in the middle and lower Neosho basin scanner (MSS) images from the 1988 growing season
(Byerley, 1995). Geographic data were entered by manual (Aber et al., 1997).
34 Aber

ite pebbles display typical metamorphic features: schistose

or gneissic fabrics, undulatory extinction of quartz grains,
corroded or sutured grain boundaries, and veins of biotite
or epidote. These pebbles fall into three general color
groups: about 60% are yellow, orange, and light brown
(5Y, 5YR, 10YR); about 30% are pink, red, and red-purple
(5R, 10R, 5RP); and 10% are purple, dark brown, and gray
(5P, 5Y, 5YR, N) (Aber, 1985).
The lithology of exotics closely matches that of the
arkosic alluvium of the Wellington-McPherson-Arkansas
River Lowlands and the basal Cretaceous conglomerate of
the Smoky Hills region (Aber, 1985). Exotic pebbles are
trace constituents of upland gravel deposits in most
portions of the study region. However, exotics have not
been discovered along the Marais des Cygnes valley in
southern Osage and northeastern Lyon counties. Nor have
exotics been found along the South Fork of the Cotton-
wood River valley in central Chase County. Exotic pebbles
are seemingly most abundant in gravels of the lower
Walnut basin and on the Missouri-Arkansas divide in
Anderson County. In many cases, exotic pebbles tend to be
locally more abundant in higher (that is, older) gravel
deposits.

Regional Distribution of Upland Chert

Gravel
Regional distribution of high-terrace and hilltop gravel
deposits is depicted according to actual elevation on the
raster database (fig. 8). This database overestimates the
FIGURE 6. Profile in Olpe soil in hilltop position on drainage actual area of upland gravels, as individual gravel cells
divide between the Little Walnut River and Walnut River may represent full coverage to as little as 10 acres (4
valleys, southern Butler County. Scale pole marked in feet. hectares) of Olpe soil. Nonetheless, the database provides
for a regional overview of gravel distribution and eleva-
tion. The highest gravel deposits are located in headwaters
of the Walnut, Verdigris, Fall, and Cottonwood drainage
Gravel Composition basins at elevations greater than 400 m (1,310 ft). These
gravels are preserved near the crest of the Flint Hills
High-terrace and hilltop gravel deposits are composed escarpment. The lowest gravels are found near the eastern
almost entirely of crudely bedded chert derived from lower and southeastern margins of the study region at elevations
Permian bedrock of the Flint Hills. Milky quartz and less than 300 m (980 ft).
siliceous fossils, also derived from the same bedrock
sources as chert, are another component of these gravels. Walnut Drainage Basin
These components typically make up 98% to more than
99% of the small-pebble (4–8 mm, 0.16–0.31 in) fraction Chert gravel deposits are abundant on high terraces and
of high-terrace and hilltop gravels in eastern Kansas. Other hilltops in southern Butler and northernmost Cowley
locally derived components include sandstone, shale, counties (fig. 2). Gravel deposits are associated with the
petrified wood, and iron concretions, which may make up Little Walnut River, Hickory Creek, and Rock Creek
2% of the gravel deposits, especially in vicinity of the valleys, as well as the lower Walnut River valley. These
Chautauqua Hills. streams have entrenched their headwaters into or below
Exotic pebbles are present in trace amounts (less than the Florence Limestone Member, which is the primary
1%) in most gravel deposits (fig. 7). The exotics include, source of residual chert. Streams in western and northern
in relative order of abundance, quartzite, quartzose Butler County either have not yet entrenched or are just
sandstone, dark flint, and a single piece of weathered beginning to erode into the Florence Limestone Member.
granite. Some petrified wood may also be exotic. Most This explains the general lack of older chert alluvium in
exotics are pebbles, but a very few are cobbles, up to 9 cm northern and western portions of the Walnut drainage
long. They are usually well rounded and polished. Quartz- basin.
 Chert Gravel and Neogene Drainage in East-central Kansas 35

FIGURE 7. Selection of exotic pebbles from upland chert gravel in the lower Walnut basin in southern Butler County. Pebbles are
quartzite and quartzose sandstone. Swiss knife for scale.

Upland chert gravel deposits are formally named the found farther upstream in Marion County for the same
Leon Gravel after the city of Leon (Aber, 1992). A reason that chert gravels are not present in western Butler
stratotype is designated in NE sec. 35, T. 27 S., R. 5 E. As County, i.e., lack of cherty limestone source outcrops.
defined, the Leon Gravel is equivalent to the Olpe or Olpe- Gravel elevations are highest in southern Chase County at
Norge soil map units within the Walnut drainage basin of 420 m (1,380 ft). In the headwater source region, chert
Butler and Cowley counties. The Leon Gravel is usually gravels are relatively low in the present landscape, but the
1–2 m (3.3–6.6 ft) thick and rests on Permian bedrock. It gravels rise relative to the local topography downstream.
can be informally separated in some places into upper and Chert gravel caps the drainage divide, near the junction of
lower members on the basis of topographic position in the Neosho and Cottonwood rivers in Lyon County at an
relation to adjacent modern valleys. The upper member elevation of 350 m (1,150 ft) (fig. 9).
occupies hilltop or drainage-divide positions, about 18–30 Chert gravel is nearly continuous along the northern
m (60–100 ft) above modern floodplains. The Olpe soil B2 side of the main Cottonwood River valley, and gravel is
unit color is typically moderate to dark reddish brown (10 also abundant along the western side of the north-trending
R 4/6 to 3/4). The lower member occupies high-terrace South Fork of the Cottonwood River valley. Similar
positions, roughly 6–12 m (20–40 ft) above modern patterns are seen for smaller tributary valleys; gravel is
floodplains. The Olpe soil B2 unit color is typically preserved north of west-east valleys and west of north-
moderate brown (5 YR 4/4). south valleys.
Upland chert gravels in the Walnut drainage basin are Exotic pebbles are relatively common in gravels
preserved almost exclusively on the northern sides of associated with the main Cottonwood River valley, but
eastern tributaries—Little Walnut, Hickory, and Rock exotics have not been found in gravels along the South
valleys—and on the eastern side of the lower Walnut Fork of the Cottonwood River valley. Exotics are scattered
valley. The same pattern holds true for lower (that is, in thin (non-cherty) soils on limestone hilltops in eastern
younger) terraces within these valleys, and rivers are Marion County. These exotic pebbles match in type and
cutting bedrock bluffs in many places on valley sides color those found in chert gravels to the east, but many of
opposite the terraces. Exotic pebbles are found within the Marion exotics bear glossy polish and facets typical of
chert gravel deposits in all portions of the Walnut basin ventifacts. They appear to represent a residue of formerly
and are especially abundant along the lower Walnut valley. extensive, non-cherty gravel deposits (Aber, 1988).

Cottonwood Drainage Basin Neosho Drainage Basin

Chert gravels are abundant along the main valley and Chert gravels occur in several portions and topographic
most tributary valleys of the Cottonwood system in Chase positions within the Neosho River basin (figs. 2, 8). These
and Lyon counties (figs. 2, 8). However, chert gravel is not are described beginning with upstream portions.
36 Aber

Kahola Creek valley. High-terrace gravels are pre- In northeastern Greenwood County, the Verdigris River
served along the northern side of a small east-flowing turns toward the south-southeast. Along most of this
tributary of the Neosho in the southeastern corner of stretch, chert gravels bearing exotics are found west of the
Morris County. These gravels contain no exotic pebbles, valley, and gravel occurs east of the valley in a few places.
and the creek is cutting bedrock bluffs on the southern Near the junction with the Fall River, chert gravel caps the
valley side. drainage divide between the two basins. Exotics are also
Middle Neosho River valley. Nearly continuous trend found as isolated pebbles resting on bedrock terrain across
of chert gravel is present on high terraces and hilltops north-central Greenwood County.
along the northeastern side of the valley in Lyon and
Coffey counties. Gravel elevations range from 10 m to 50 Fall Drainage Basin
m (33–160 ft) above the adjacent floodplain. These gravels
contain occasional sandstone and petrified wood along Chert gravel deposits are preserved along much of the
with relatively common exotic pebbles. Fall River system (figs. 2, 8). Gravel elevations are highest
Southwestern Coffey County. Broad upland distribution in the headwaters of the Flint Hills at 440 m (1,440 ft), and
of chert gravel is found on high terraces and local divides lowest elevations are 250 m (820 ft) near the junction with
west of the Neosho valley. Exotic pebbles are common. the Verdigris River. For the most part, chert gravel is
Anderson and northwestern Allen counties. Chert preserved on northern sides of the Fall River valley and its
gravel is preserved in the vicinity of the Missouri-Arkan- tributaries in Greenwood County. Downstream from Fall
sas drainage divide in central Anderson County at eleva- River Reservoir, gravel is found on both sides of the
tions of 350–360 m (1,150–1,180 ft) (fig. 10). These valley, and gravel is preserved south of the Fall River
gravels are remarkable for the high degree of chert-pebble valley in southern Wilson County.
roundness and for the abundance of exotic pebbles. The
chert gravels extend on hilltops as a broad belt from the Interpretation of Ancient Drainages
divide downward to the southwest. This gravel belt merges
with the high-terrace trend along the northeastern side of Reconstruction of Ancestral Drainages
the Neosho valley at an elevation of about 310–320 m The ancestral drainage routes are represented by gravels
(1,020–1,050 ft). that are highest in the local landscape and are unrelated to
Lower Neosho River valley. Chert gravels occur along modern river systems (figs. 2, 8). Distribution of exotic
the western side of the valley in Woodson, Allen, and pebbles is another important factor for reconstructing
Neosho counties. High terraces are adjacent to and 10–20 ancient west-to-east through-drainage routes. Four
m (33–66 ft) above the modern floodplain, whereas hilltop ancestral drainage routes may be recognized on these
gravels form a discontinuous belt 30–40 m (100–130 ft) bases, from south to north (Aber et al., 1995) (fig. 2).
above and 6–8 km (3.7–5 mi) west of the valley. Exotic The ancestral Arkansas River flowed from the Wichita
pebbles are found in both high-terrace and hilltop deposits. vicinity eastward across Butler and Greenwood counties
into what is now the Fall River drainage basin (fig. 2). The
Marais des Cygnes Drainage Basin exact position of the ancestral Arkansas is problematic.
Well-defined belts of high-terrace and hilltop gravels However, such a dispersal route is necessary to explain the
are found along the northern margins of Marais des presence of exotic pebbles in chert gravels in the headwa-
Cygnes River valley and tributaries in Osage and north- ters of the Walnut River basin near the crest of the Flint
eastern Lyon counties (figs. 2, 8). Gravel elevations range Hills (fig. 11).
from 10 m to 40 m (33–130 ft) above adjacent floodplains. The ancestral Verdigris River flowed eastward across
Exotic pebbles are not present in any gravels along the the central portion of the study region—Marion, Chase,
main Marais des Cygnes trend; however, a few exotics Lyon, and Coffey counties (fig. 2). This through drainage
have been found in chert gravels on the Wakarusa-Marais is demonstrated by the belts of exotic-bearing gravels on
des Cygnes divide in northwestern Osage County. the Verdigris-Cottonwood and Verdigris-Neosho drainage
divides and across southern Coffey County, as well as by
isolated exotic pebbles on hilltops of the Flint Hills.
Verdigris Drainage Basin The ancestral Neosho River came from the northeast, as
Upland chert gravel is abundant in upper portions of the evidenced by the broad belt of exotic-bearing gravel that
basin in southern Lyon and northeastern Greenwood slopes toward the southwest from the Missouri-Arkansas
counties (figs. 2, 8). Gravels are found north of the drainage divide in Anderson County (figs. 2, 12). Presum-
Verdigris valley and on the divide between the Verdigris ably, the ancestral Verdigris and Neosho rivers joined in
and the Neosho and Cottonwood basins. Drainage-divide the vicinity of southeastern Coffey or northwestern Allen
sites are as much as 80 m (260 ft) above and 6 km (3.7 mi) counties, from whence the ancestral Neosho followed a
away from the Verdigris floodplain in northeastern path similar to, but west of, the modern Neosho River.
Greenwood County. Exotic pebbles are common in these The ancestral Marais des Cygnes River originated in the
gravels. Flint Hills region and flowed eastward across northern
 Chert Gravel and Neogene Drainage in East-central Kansas 37

Lyon and southern Osage counties (fig. 2). This local landscape. The minimum magnitude of vertical erosion
drainage is suggested by hilltop gravels north of the can be estimated from the elevations of highest chert
Marais des Cygnes valley, which do not contain exotic gravels in relation to present stream-valley floodplains in
pebbles derived from west of the Flint Hills. A northern each drainage basin (table 1).
branch of the ancestral Marais des Cygnes is indicated by These figures indicate at least 40 m to 80 m (130–260
exotic-bearing chert gravels on the Wakarusa-Marais des ft) of vertical erosion has taken place across eastern
Cygnes divide in northern Osage County. These rivers may Kansas during the Quaternary. The figures are minimum
have connected with the ancestral Neosho somewhere to estimates only; they do not take into account deeper valley
the east. erosion and aggradation (below floodplain level). River
These ancestral drainages bear no relation to many of entrenchment has been greatest in the western Flint Hills
the modern rivers, in particular the Walnut, Cottonwood, (Walnut basin), immediately east of the Flint Hills (Verdi-
and upper Neosho. The prominent northwest-trending gris basin), and in the Marais des Cygnes basin, where 70–
valley orientation of modern rivers is also not evident in 80 m (230–260 ft) of downcutting is demonstrated. This
the ancestral drainage pattern. pattern of erosion suggests that the Flint Hills may have
emerged gradually as a bedrock massif, while terrains to
Geomorphic Implications of Ancestral the east and west were eroded down.
Drainages
Drainage Diversions
These ancestral drainage routes shed light on the
The ancestral drainage routes were altered through a
geomorphic evolution of eastern Kansas south of the
series of stream captures. The ancestral Arkansas was
glaciated region. The fact that through drainages crossed
diverted in two stages, first into the Walnut River, and later
the highest parts of the Flint Hills from west to east
to the modern Arkansas River south of Wichita (Aber,
implies that alluvium of the Wellington-McPherson-
1992). The ancestral Verdigris was likewise captured in at
Arkansas River Lowlands once extended eastward across
least two locations, and portions were diverted into the
what is now the Flint Hills (fig. 2).
modern Verdigris River in northeastern Greenwood
The eastern edge of the Wellington-McPherson-
County and the South Fork Cottonwood River in southern
Arkansas River Lowlands marks the divide between the
Chase County (fig. 13). The upper portion of the ancestral
Neosho-Cottonwood and Walnut basins to the east and the
Neosho and parts of the upper ancestral Marais des Cygnes
lower Arkansas drainage to the west (fig. 2). This edge has
were also involved with stream captures and drainage
retreated westward, due to steeper gradients and more
shifts. The ages of these (and other) captures are unknown.
aggressive erosion in the headwaters of the eastern
Thus, it remains impossible to reconstruct the exact
systems. At one time, the Arkansas alluvial plain must
sequence and timing of various drainage diversions in
have sloped gently eastward. Isolated exotic pebbles on
eastern Kansas.
hilltops demonstrate the former extent of the alluvial plain.
In like manner, the terrain east of the Flint Hills must have
been considerably higher than today. For example, highest
Neotectonic Implications
gravels of the ancestral Verdigris are preserved on the During valley entrenchment, west-east rivers have
drainage divide in northeastern Greenwood County, at an migrated southward, and north-south streams have shifted
elevation of 390 m (1,280 ft), 80 m (260 ft) above the eastward across nearly all parts of eastern Kansas. Valley
modern Verdigris floodplain. asymmetry is highly systematic across a broad geographic
In previous studies, gravels on the Missouri-Arkansas region. This pattern is manifested both in the distribution
divide in Anderson County were interpreted as an eastern of older upland gravel as well as by lower terraces and
extension of gravel trends along the Cottonwood and bedrock bluffs within modern valleys. These valley
Neosho valleys (Frye, 1955; Aber, 1985). However, the patterns are true for different hydrologic or geologic
regional slope of these gravels to the southwest argues factors for individual rivers. Valley asymmetry is consis-
strongly against this point of view. These gravels appar- tent regardless of direction or gradient of stream flow,
ently represent a river flowing from the northeast. Origin valley width or depth, volume of discharge, channel bed or
of the headwaters for this stream is uncertain, as are the bank characteristics, or bedrock in the drainage basin.
sources for exotics. The gravels are situated up to 70 m Only a few, local exceptions to the general pattern for
(230 ft) above regional floodplains. valley asymmetry are known, such as the lower Walnut
At the time of deposition, chert gravels occupied the River and parts of the lower Fall and Verdigris rivers in the
lowest topographic positions—stream channels—in the southernmost part of the study region.
surrounding landscape. Preservation of exotic-bearing This pattern of valley asymmetry has been noted before
gravels in drainage-divide positions demonstrates a and several explanations considered (Aber, 1985), includ-
wholesale inversion of topography in eastern Kansas. ing Coriolis force, unequal input of sediment from
Considerable erosion has taken place, such that former low tributary streams, and crustal tilting. Of these possibilities,
points now occupy the highest positions in the local it seems that slow, continuing crustal warping downward
38 Aber

FIGURE 8. Raster grid of upland chert gravel deposits (Olpe soil) in eastern Kansas, according to township-and-range grid. Each pixel
represents one quarter section in area (0.25 mile2, 0.65 km2); pixels are color coded according to elevation classes. Numbers
indicate man-made reservoirs: 2 = Pomona, 3 = Melvern, 5 = Marion, 6 = John Redmond, 7 = El Dorado, 8 = Toronto, and 9 =
Fall. See also fig. 2.

FIGURE 9. Exposure of hilltop chert gravel in Emporia, Kansas. The water tanks in background are situated on the drainage divide
between the Neosho River and Cottonwood River valleys.
 Chert Gravel and Neogene Drainage in East-central Kansas 39

FIGURE 10. Neosho chert gravel deposits. Digital elevation model for parts of Anderson, Coffey, Woodson, and Allen counties. Detailed
distribution of upland chert gravel (Olpe soil) outlined in black; elevation classes shown by color coding. Model has 90 m (300 ft)
resolution; derived and corrected from DEM-24K; UTM coordinate system. Digital elevation model obtained from the Kansas
Geological Survey—DASC. Image processing by R. Byerley and N. Wilkins.

FIGURE 11. High-terrace chert gravel resting on Kinney Limestone, in headwaters of the Little Walnut drainage, near crest of Flint Hills
[elevation, 450 m (1,475 ft) or more] in eastern Butler County. This terrace gravel contains exotic quartzite derived from the west.
The presence of exotics here implies a reversal in drainage since the Miocene. Scale pole marked in feet.
40 Aber

FIGURE 12. Exposure of exotic-bearing chert gravel near the Missouri-Arkansas drainage divide in central Anderson County. The
gravel is about 2 m (6 ft) thick in this section.

FIGURE 13. Landsat multispectral scanner (MSS) image of central Flint Hills region in southern Chase, northwestern Greenwood, and
northeastern Butler counties. Standard false-color composite, in which active vegetation appears pink and red. Vegetation is active
within valleys, and Flint Hills uplands appear in green-orange colors in this autumn image from a drought year. The abrupt change
in direction of the upper North Branch Verdigris River is one of the most prominent drainage anomalies in Kansas. This anomaly is
presumably a result of stream capture by the South Fork Cottonwood of the ancestral Verdigris. Note the alignment of headwaters
for the North Branch Verdigris River and East Branch Fall River valleys. These two valleys are part of the Verdigris lineament
trend at about 350° (Aber et al., 1997). Digital Landsat MSS data obtained from the EROS Data Center, U.S. Geological Survey.
 Chert Gravel and Neogene Drainage in East-central Kansas 41

TABLE 1. Minimum amount of vertical erosion in eastern Kansas This research was supported by grants from Kansas
drainage basins. Geological Survey, Kansas Department of Wildlife and
Parks, NASA, and Emporia State University.
Drainage Basin Erosion
Walnut 80 m (260 ft)
Verdigris 80 m (260 ft)
References
Marais des Cygnes 70 m (230 ft) Aber, J. S., 1985, Quartzite-bearing gravels and drainage
Neosho 50 m (160 ft) development in eastern Kansas: Nebraska Academy of
Fall 50 m (160 ft) Sciences, Institute for Tertiary-Quaternary Studies, TER-
Cottonwood 40 m (130 ft) QUA Symposium Series, v. 1, p. 105–110.
Aber, J. S., 1988, Upland chert gravels of east-central Kansas:
Kansas Geological Survey, Guidebook Series 6, p. 17–19.
Aber, J. S., 1990, Chert gravel, Neogene drainage development,
to the south and east toward the Gulf of Mexico is the only and neotectonism in the Neosho and Walnut drainage basins
viable explanation on a regional basis (Aber, 1990). Local of eastern Kansas: Geological Society of America, Abstracts
exceptions may result from differential movements in with Programs, v. 22, no. 7, p. A372–373.
basement structures. However, crustal tilting and local Aber, J. S., 1991, Surficial geology of Butler County, Kansas:
structural movements remain impossible to verify through Kansas Geological Survey, Open-file Report 91-48, 31 p.
independent evidence. If such crustal tilting has occurred, Aber, J. S., 1992, Chert gravel, drainage development, and
it would have the effect of increasing gradients for streams sinkholes in the Walnut basin, south-central Kansas: Kansas
that drain toward the south or southeast. Those streams, Academy of Science, Transactions, v. 95, p. 109–121.
Aber, J. S., 1993, Geological map of Butler County, Kansas:
thus, would have an erosive advantage during dissection of
Kansas Geological Survey, Map M-30, scale 1:50,000, 2
the landscape. This may explain the predominance of sheets.
drainage captures by streams flowing toward the south or Aber, J. S., Byerley, R. D., and Rand, L. L., 1995, Neogene
southeast. It could also explain why northwest-trending drainage evolution in southeastern Kansas. Kansas Academy
valleys are so prominent in the modern landscape. of Science, Abstracts, v. 14, p. 7.
Aber, J. S., Spellman, E. E., Webster, M. P., and Rand, L. L.,
1997, Applications of Landsat imagery in the Great Plains:
Conclusions Kansas Academy of Science, Transactions, v. 100, p. 47–60.
Based on this study of chert gravel, the following Byerley, R. D., 1995, Chert gravel sources, hydrology, transpor-
conclusions can be drawn: (1) The Flint Hills were much tation, and deposition within the lower Neosho River,
southeastern Kansas: M.S. thesis, Emporia State University,
less prominent and did not form a major drainage divide
79 p.
during the Neogene. (2) Considerable erosion has occurred Frye, J. C., 1955, The erosional history of the Flint Hills: Kansas
across all of eastern Kansas with up to 80 m (260 ft) of Academy of Science, Transactions, v. 58, p. 79–86.
dissection during the Quaternary. The Flint Hills emerged Frye, J. C., and Leonard, A. B., 1952, Pleistocene geology of
at the same time as terrains to the east and west were Kansas: Kansas Geological Survey, Bulletin 99, 230 p.
eroded down. (3) Exotic pebbles in chert gravels of eastern Madole, R. F., Ferring, C. R., Guccione, M. J., Hall, S. A.,
Kansas were derived from Tertiary and Cretaceous sources Johnson, W. C., and Sorenson, C. J., 1991, Quaternary
west of the Flint Hills. (4) Modern rivers within the study geology of the Osage Plains and Interior Highland: Geologi-
region bear little resemblance to the oldest recognizable cal Society America, Geology of North America K-2, p. 503–
546.
drainage routes. (5) Regional valley asymmetry may be the
Mudge, B. F., 1875, Geology of Kansas: Kansas State Board of
result of long-continuing crustal tilting downward to the Agriculture, 4th Annual Report, p. 107–127.
south and east. Neill, J. T., 1981, Soil survey of Lyon County, Kansas. U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Soil Survey Report, 96 p.
Acknowledgments O’Conner, H. G., 1953, Geology, mineral resources, and ground-
water resources of Lyon County, Kansas: Kansas Geological
I have benefitted from discussions with many col- Survey, v. 12, part 1, p. 5–24.
leagues, especially P. Berendsen, L. L. Brady, J. W. Penner, H. L., Ekart, S. C., Ewing, D. A., Schmidt, G., and
Harbaugh, P. L. Johnston, D. F. Merriam, and F. W. Smith, J., 1975, Soil survey of Butler County, Kansas: U.S.
Wilson. The presence of exotic pebbles in chert gravel was Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service, 60 p.
first shown to me by W. Dort, Jr. Many students have Seevers, W. J., and Jungmann, W. L., 1963, Terrace development
contributed to the GIS compilation of data for this report: along Marais des Cygnes and Neosho River valley, Kansas:
Kansas Academy of Science, Transactions, v. 66, p. 393–396.
R. D. Byerley, M. Husain, R. Krueger, T. Peterson, L. L.
Swanson, D. W., and Googins, R. L., 1977, Soil survey of
Rand, R. O. Sleezer, and N. H. Wilkins. M. J. Guccione, J. Woodson County, Kansas: U.S. Department of Agriculture,
Ratzlaff, and C. W. Martin reviewed an earlier version of Soil Survey Report, 67 p.
this article and offered many valuable suggestions for Wooster, L. C., 1934, The chert gravels of Lyon County, Kansas:
improvement. I offer my thanks to all these individuals. Kansas Academy of Science, Transactions, v. 37, p. 157–159.
42 Aber