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COURSE TITLE=
LECTURE NO. 1
CEREALS
1. WHEAT
B. NAME- Triticum aestivunm
FAMILY Poaceae-
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES
Wheat is widely cultivated cereal, spread from 57°N to 47°S latitude. Hence, wheat is
cultivated and harvested throughout the year in one country or other. China, India, Russian
federation, USA, France, Canada, Germany, Pakistan, Australia and Turkey are most
important wheat growing countries
Wild Relatives T. aethiopicum T. araraticum T. compactum
FLORAL BIOLOGY
1. Inflorescence of wheat is called Ear or Head. In botanical it is called as spike.
2. The unit is called spikelet.
3. Each floret consist of lemma, palea, androecium and gynoeciun
4. Flowers are bisexual and zygomorphic.
5. Each floret has three stamens with large anthers and a pistil bearing bifid feathery stigma.
6. Wheat stamens are small and produce about 1000-4000 pollen grains per anther.
MAJOR BREEDING OBJECTIVES
1. Breeding for high
grain yield.
2. Breeding for good quality with high spikletes.
3. Disease and insect resistance and tolerance to abiotic stresses.
4. Mineral, moisture and heat tolerance.
BREEDING PROCEDURES:
1.Introduction:
Semi dwarf wheat from Mexico, Sonara 63, Sonara 64, Mayo 64, Lerma Roja 64
2. Pure line selection:
Earlier varieties like Pa, Pg, P12 evolved at Pusa institute are result of pure line selection
from local population.
3. Hybridisation and selection
a) Inter varietal:
A number of successful derivatives were developed at IARI New Delhi and Punjab. NP
809 New pusa multiple eross derivative.
-
However all these varieties were lodging and poor yielder when compared to other
countries. Hence the wheat hybridization programme was changed by
b) Inter specific crosses
To get Hessian fly resistance. So also for rust resistance.
c) Back cross method of breeding
Rust resistance in Chinese spring from Thatcher.
4. Hybrid wheat
At Kansas Agri. Expt. Station USA male sterile lines were identified by crossing
T.timophevi x T. aestivum Bison variety By repeated back crossing a male sterile line
resembling
Bison was evolved. At present USA and Canada are doing work on this.
5. Mutation breeding
Dr. M. S. Swamina than did extensive work on this with gamma rays.
Sharbati Sonara with increased protein content was evolved.
6. Development of multilines
Borlaug developed multilines against rust. MLKS 15 was developed at IARI.
Multiline is a mixture of pure lines which are phenotypically similar but genotypically
dissimilar.
Each line is produced by separate back cross method of breeding. Each line having resistance
against a particular race of a disease.
BREEDING CENTERS:
-
International Maize and Wheat improvement Centre (CIMMYT) Mexico.
- Directorate of Wheat Research (DWR), Karnal.
- All India Coordinated Wheat Improvement Project (AICWIP) Karnal (earlier New.
-
Delhi)
PRACTICAL ACHIEVEMENT:
The semi dwarf varieties of wheat have been developed through the use of Japanese line
Norin 10 as a source of dwarfing gene which led to "green revolution" in wheat production.
The
productivity of Semi dwarf varieties is about two and half times more than old tall growing
varieties. More over these varieties are highly resistant to lodging and are highly responsive
to
fertilizer doses.
2. OAT
B. NAME Avena sativa
-
FAMILY Poaceae
-
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES -
Wheat is widely cultivated cereal, spread from 57°N to 47°S latitude. Hence, wheat is
cultivated and harvested throughout the year in one country or other. China, India, Russian
federation, USA, France, Canada, Germany, Pakistan, Australia and Turkey are most
important wheat growing countries
WILD RELATIVES T. aethiopicum T. araraticum T. compactum
-
FLORAL BIOLOGY
7. Inflorescence of wheat is called Ear or Head. In botanical it is called as spike.
8. The unit is called spikelet.
9. Each floret consist of lemma, palea, androecium and gynoecium.
10.Flowers are bisexual and zygomorphic.
11.Each floret has three stamens with large anthers and a pistil bearing bifid feathery stigma.
12.Wheat stamens are small and produce about 1000-4000 pollen grains per anther.
MAJOR BREEDING OBJECTIVES
3. BARLEY
B. NAME Hordeum vulgare
-
CHROMOSOME NO. - 2n = 14
Fertility of the lateral spikelets forms the basis of barley classification and the cultivated
barley may be classified into three main groups viz.,
i) Six rowed barley (H. vulgare L. emend, Lam)
ii) Two rowed barley (H. distichum, L. emend, Lam)
ii) Iregular barley (H. irregular, E. Aberg and Wiebe)
CLASSIFICATION
In traditional classifications of barley, these morphological differences have led to different
forms of barley being classified as different species. Under these classifications, two-row
barley with shattering spikes (wild barley) is classified as Hordeum spontaneum K. Koch.
Two-row barley with nonshattering spikes is classified as H. distichum L., six-row barley
with nonshattering spikes as H. vulgare L. (or H. hexastichum L.), and six-row with
shattering spikes as H. agriocrithon Aberg
Because these differences were driven by single-gene mutations, coupled
with cytological and molecular evidence, most recent classifications treat these forms as a
single species, H. vulgare L.
WILD RELATIVES
Wild Hordeum species are distributed through Europe, Asia, Africa and the Americas.
Secondary centers of diversity of cultivated barley are found in Ethiopia and Morocco and
parts of Asia. H. spontaneum
FLORAL BIOLOGY
1. Inflorescence of barley is called Ear or Head. In botanical it is called as spike.
2. The unit is called spikelet.
3. Each floret consist of lemma, palea, androecium and gynoecium.
4. Flowers are bisexual and zygomorphic.
5. Each floret has three stamens with large anthers and a pistil bearing bifd feathery stigma.
6. Barley stamens are small and produce about 1000-4000 pollen grains per anther.
BREEDING OBJECTIVES
i) Yield improvement.
ii) Increased adaptability.
ii) Resistance to yellow rust, aphid and nematode.
iv) Improvement in nutritional quality.
v) Improvement in attributes related to malt industry.
ACHIEVEMENTS OF BARLEY:
Sr. Name Parentage Release Specific area of
IMPROVEDVARIETIES/HYBRIDS
Sr. No. Varieties Features
Ratna, Jyoti, Kailas Hulled varieties
Karan-750, Amber, Himadri Huskless varieties
C-138, RS-6, RD-57, RD-137, Malting varieties
Clipper
4 Karan 16, Karan 18, 19, Jyoti Salt tolerant varieties
karan-3,4 Amber, Azad
Kailash, Himani, Dolma, NP-100, | Suitable for hilly areas
NP-13, 21, 103
Rajkiran Nematode resistant variety
Nilam and Karan 19 Better chappati making quality for barley
varieties
LECTURE NO. 2
PULSES
1. CHICKPEA
B. NAME Cicer arietnum
-
FAMILY Leguminoceae
-
ORIGIN-
The chickpea is most probably originated in an area of present day south-eastern Turkey and
adjoining Syria.
Two main categories of Chickpea are recognized which are distinguished mainly by their
seed characteristics. They are
1) Desi types, which are relatively smaller, angular seeds with rough yellow to brown
coloured testas.
2) Kabuli types, with large, more rounded and cream coloured seeds.
WILD SPECIES
The wild species of Cicer closely related to chickpea are
i) C. bijugum
ii) C. echinospermun
ii) C. ecticulatum
FLORAL BIOLOGY
1. The flowers are papilionaceous.
2. They are solitary in axillary racemes.
3. Double flowers are rare, but are very much sought after by the breeders as possible
sources of yield increase.
4. The calyx has five deep lancelolate teeth. Peduncle and calyx are hairy.
5. Generally, corolla is white.
6. The vexillum is obovate, 8-11 mm long and 7-10 mm wide.
7. Wings are obovate, 8-9 mm long. The keel is 6-8 mm long.
8. Number of pods/plant is highly variable, generally between 30 and 150 depending on the
year, location, sowing time and other factors.
BREEDING OBJECTIVES
(i) Increased seed yield.
(ii) Increased biomass, tall, erect and compact cultivars
ii) Resistance to diseases
(a) Ascochyta blight.
(b) Fusarium wilt.
(c) Root rot.
(d) Botrytis grey mould
(iv) Resistance to insect pests:
(a) Pod borer.
(v) Tolerance to stress environments:
(a) Cold
(b) Heat
(c) Drought
(d) Saline and alkaline soils.
(vi) Mechanical Harvesting
BREEDING PROCEDURES
1. Pedigree method: for resistance breeding (disease, insect, nematode, orobanche spp)
2. Modified bulk method: for stress situations (drought, cold, heat, iron deficiency)
3. Back cross method: for interspecific hybridization. Limited backcross (one or two) for
desi x kabuli introgression and also for resistance breeding. Resistance to fusarion wild can
be easily transferred from desi to kabuli type
4. Somaclonal variation: through plant tissue culture appears to be a potential tool for
generation and exploitation of useful variability.
IMPROVED VARIETIES /HYBRIDS:
Sr.
No. Varieties Features
BDN-9-3 Early, wilt resistant, drought tolerant
|
BDNG-797 Early, wilt resistant and high yielding
Phule Vikrant Yellowish brown, medium size seeds, wilt resistant
4 Phule Vikram Tall growth habit, suitable for mechanical harvesting,
medium size, yellowish brown seeds.
Himali Extra bold seeded kabuli variety, wilt resistant
Kripa Extra large seeded kabuli variety, milky white seed colour
Digvijay High yield potential, bold seeds, wilt resistant
8 |
Rajas Yellowish brown bold seeds, wilt resistant
9 Vihar Extra bold seeded kabuli variety, wilt resistant
10 Virat Extra bold seeded kabuli variety, wilt resistant
11 Vishal Attractive yellowish brown bold seeds, wilt resistant
12 Vijay High yield potential, wilt resistant, drought tolerant
|13 BDNG-198 Kabuli, medium bold
|
LECTURE NO. 3
OILSEED CROPS
1. SUNFLOWER
B. NAME Helianthus annus
-
FAMILY Composite
-
ORIGIN America
-
DISTRUBUTUION -
USSR, Romania, Canada, UAS, in India this crop is introdeced in 1969 From USSR.
In India it is cultivated in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharastra and Andhra pradesh, Punjab
and Hariyana.
WILD SPECIES
Helianthus hirsutus, Helianthus rigidus
The genus Helianthus comprises of 67 species. Two species H. annus and H. tuberosus are
cultivated as food plants genus has basic chromosome number of 17 and diploid, tetraploid
and hexaploid species are found.
FLORAL BIOLOGY
The inflorescence is a capitulum or head, characteristic of composite family.
The number of flowers in oilseed cultivars may vary from 700 to 3000.
I The flower of the outer whorl of the head are called as ray florets.
They have five elongated petals which are united to form straplike structures.
They have vestigeal styles and stigmas and no anthers.
U The other flowers arranged in concentric rings over the remainder of the head are called
as disc flowers.
Five anthers are united to form a tube with separate filament attached to the base of the
corolla tube.
Inside the anther tube, there is the style, terminating in a stigma which is divided.
U The receptive surfaces of stigma remain in close contact in bud stage.
U The achene or the fruit of the sunflower consists of a seed often called the kernel.
The adhering pericarp is usually called the hull.
The seed consists of seed coat, endosperm and embryo.
Major part of embryo is in the form of cotyledons.
BREEDING OBJECTIVES
1) High seed yield
ii) Early maturity
ii) Lodging resistant dwarf plant type
iv) Uniformity of plant type
v) High oil percentage
vi) Tolerance to stress conditions
vii) Resistance to bird damage
vii) Resistance to diseases
BREEDING METHODS
1. Introduction : Morden from Canada.
2. Mass selection:
Ec 68414 from Russia. Col mass selection from Morden. Useful for characters which are
highly heritable. E.g. Plant height, disease resistance.
3. Hybridization and selection
a) Intervarietal
b) Interspecific:
Wild species of North American origin and best Soviet varieties were crossed and number of
varieties were evolved.
They are resistant to Verticillium wilt also
4. Mutation
Co (Mutant from Co thro' gamma rays)
5. Head to row and remnant seed method
Developed by Pustovoit in Russia. By this method oil content is increased. In this method
the following are the steps:
a) From open pollinated type a large no (10,000 to 12,000) plants are selected based on Head
size.
b) The selected lines are analysed for oil content and high oil content lines are isolated (1000
plants).
c) Part of the seed reserved and the part is sown in progeny rows along with check to
estimate yield.
d) Second season testing is also done. The best lines are identified.
a. The remnant seed of elite plants which give high yield were raised in isolation and
multiplied for crossing interse next season.
b. The multiplied lines also tested for oil content and high yielding high oil content lines
were raised in isolation and crossed interse.
6. Population improvement
By mass selection, recurrent selection and use of male sterile lines population can be
improved and utilised for breeding.
7. Heterosis breeding
Development of inbred lines and crossing them to harness heterosis was first done as early as
1920 in Russia. During 1970 cytoplasmic geneic male sterility was identified in wild types
and obsolete cultivars. Now this system is being extensively used for production of hybrids.
First hybrid
BSH 1, APSH - 11
A number of CGMS lines were bred by Government as well as private seed growers and are
utilised now.
Male sterility can also be inducted by GA 100 ppm.
Steps
1. Development of inbreds.
2. Evaluation of inbreds for combining ability.
3. Conversion of inbreds into CGMS lines and R lines.
4. Production of hybrids.
BREEDING CENTRE
Directorate of oil seed Research (DOR) Hyderabad.
2. SAFFLOWER
B. NAME Carthamum tinctorius
-
FAMILY Compositae
-
ORIGIN
Safflower has been grown for many centuries from Egypt in north Africa eastward to
India. Safflower is believed to have two centers of origin, Ethiopia & Afghanistaan.
DISTRIBUTION
Afghanistan, India, Pakistan, USA, Egypt middle east in India, Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka together accounts for more than 90 per cent of countrys area
RELATED SPECIES
The wild species Carthamus oxycanthus is found in many parts of Punjab.
It is a dwarfbushy plant, very spiny, forming small achenes.
The oil content is 15 to 16 percent.
CULTIVATED SPECIES Carthamum tinctorius L (2n = 2X = 24)
WILD SPECIES
C. palaestinus, C. oxycantha, C. lanatus, C. flavenscens
FLORAL BIOLOGY
It is often cross-pollinated crop.
Marginal florets open first followed by florets in central (centripetal order).
It is completed within 1 to 5 days.
The opening of florets takes place in the morning hours between 9 to 10 a.m.
The style elongates and stigma emerges from corolla tube.
At the same time, corolla opens and anthesis takes place.
However, hairy portion of style is still within tube.
BREEDING OBJECTIVES
IMPROVEDVARIETIES/HYBRIDS:
LECTURE NO. 4
OILSEED CROPS
1. LINSEED (Flax)
B. NAME- Linum Usitatissimuum
-
FAMILY Linaceae
CHROMOSOME NO. 2n-30 -
U Linum usitatissimum is now grown widely in many parts of the world, including the
tropics.
Fibre flax is cultivated in cool and humid temperate climates, whereas linseed is grown in
warmer climates.
Socio-economics also affect the distribution; Eastern Europe and the Russian Federation
produce mainly fibre flax, Canada and the northern United States mainly linseed.
VARIETIES -
FLORAL BIOLOGY.
Inflorescence - Racemose or cymose, scorpioid (Flax), rarely solitary.
Flower - Showy, actinomorphic, hermaphrodite, pentamerous, hypogynous.
u Calyx Sepals 5, polysepalous, or more or less connate, usually persistent, very rarely
caduous, imbricate, quincunical, rarely valvate.
Corolla - Petals 5, variously coloured, often more or less clawed, polypetalous,
Fugucious, caducous, sometimes with ligule like appendages, usually with pocket like
slits above the bases, imbricate or twisted.
Androecium Stamens 10 usually, outer whorl being reduced to staminodes and inner
one united at the base to form a ring, on the inner side of which is a disc or nector
secreting glands, staminodes lie opposite to the petals; anthers elliptic, introrse, bithecal,
connective often apically acute.
U Disc absent or interstaminal, free of adnate to staminal tube or extrastaminal forming a
ring being united with the staminal tube.
Gynoecium - Carpels 2-5, syncarpous, ovary superior, 2-5, syncarpous, ovary superior, 2-
5 locular each locule further divided by false septum, so ovary cells or locules increased in
number.
Styles as many as ovary chambers or fewer or more free, axile placentation, ovules are 2
in each chamber; stigma terminal.
Pollination - Entomophilous, insects are attracted by coloured and honey glands.
BREEDING OBJECTIVES
1. High yielding varieties with high oil content for rainfed conditions.
2. RAPESEED
B. NAME Brsassica
-
napus
FAMILY Brassicacea
-
FLORAL BIOLOGY
1. ConsistsTap rootsystem with succulent, straightand cylindrical stem.
2. The inflorescence is racemose And the flowering is inderterminate with beginning at the
lowest bud of the main raceme.
3. The syncarpous ovary develops into pod with two carpels separated by a false septum.
BREEDING OBJECTIVES-
1. High yield.
2. Early maturity.
3. High oil content.
4. Resistance to diseases.
5. Resistance to pests.
6. Low erucic acid and glucosinolates.
3. MUSTARD
B. Name -
Brassica spp
Family- Brassicaceae
Chromosome No. -2n-36
Origim- India
Distribution:
China, Canada, India, Europe, Pakistan, collectively contribute 90 per cent of the global
production. In India Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab, Assam, Bihar and West Bengal.
Floral Biology -
6. The syncarpous ovary develops into a pod (silique) with two carpels separated by a false
septum.
Breeding objectives
1. High yield
2. Early maturity
3. High oil
4. Low erucic acid and glucosinolates
5. Resistance to diseases
6. Resistance to insects pest
Breeding methods
1. Introduction - Regina from Sweeden
2. Simple selection
3. Hybridization and selection
Intervarietal
a) Bulk method
b) Pedigree method
c) single seed descent
Inter specifie
4. Back cross method
5. Population improvement
Recurrent Selection, mass selection
6. Heterosis breeding CMS lines
7. Mutation breeding
8. Tissue culture technique for production of homozygous diploids
Saline resistance screening. Induction of mutation in haploids.
9. Embryo rescue technique for inter specifie erosses.
BREEDING CENTRES:
National Research Centre for Mustard (NRCM)- Bharatpur (Rajasthan)
Coordinated project at Bharathpur.
PRACTICAL ACHIEVEMENTS
Varieties Kranti, RLM 198, Krishna, Varun, Pusa Kalyani etc.
LECTURE NO. 5
FODDER CROPS
1. NAPIER
B. NAME - Pennisetum purpureum
FAMILY Poaceae
-
BREEDING OBJECTIVE
1. High yeild
2. High protein contain
3. Disease resistance
4. Pest resistance
5. Drawfness
6. High vigrous
7. Abiotic and biotic stress resistance
8. Early maturity
CONVENTIONAL BREEDING
U Napier grass is a cross-pollinating allotetraploid species with a chromosome number of
2n = 4x = 28 (genome A'A'BB).
U Although there is no clear information on the genetic origin of allotetraploidy in Napier
grass, the A'A' genome has been reported to be homologous to the AA genome of pearl
millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.)) and the A' chromosomes are larger than the B
chromosomes, which contribute genes controlling the perennial growth habit
.
To date, Napier grass improvement' has mainly been based on the evaluation and
selection of existing accessions for traits of interest.
U For example, accessions were screened for resistance to diseases, and Napier grass head
smut- and stunt-resistant lines were identified from the existing collections.
Plant breeding and selection in Napier grass has primarily been aimed at improving
different agronomic traits such as disease resistance, yield, nutritional quality, growth
habit (dwarfing), palatability and abiotic stress tolerance.
Napier grass is cross-compatible with the closely related species pearl millet (Pennisetum
glaucum) (2n 2x = 14, genome AA) the resultant hybrids are triploid and sterile and can
only be propagated by vegetati ve means which, although labour intensive, ensure a true-
to-type variety.
A number of agronomically important traits, nutritional quality and palatability for
example, have been introgressed into the genome of Napier grass from pearl millet
through conventional plant breeding and hybrids have become a crucial part of the forage
crop value chain in Africa, Asia and South America.
2. BAJRA
B. NAME - Pennisetum glaucum
FAMILY - Poaceae/Graminea
CHROMOSOME NUMBER 2n-14 -
NEW VARIETIES
NBH-149, VBH-4 developed for Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Gujrat, Maharashtra are
capable of producing 14% higher yield.
ICM4-155 gave higher yield than the standard check and adopted for all growing tracts of
India. Also MH-306, NH-338 and hybrid like MP-204, MP205 have been identified.
DISTRIBUTION:
Bajra is widely grown in Africa and Asia since pre historic times.
The important pearl millet growing countries are India, China, Nigeria, Pakistan, Sudan,
Egypt and Arabia India is the largest producer of pearl millet in the world.
Principal pearl millet growing states are Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Western Uttar
Pradesh, Haryana and Karnataka which accounts for 90 % of the total area and 86% of
production
In Karnataka, bajra is extensively cultivated as a rainfed crop in red, black and sandy soils
during kharif season.
FLORAL BIOLOGY
1. Inflorescence is a spike, terminal, drooping.
2. The spikelets are oval or eliptical in shape with two to three bristles.
3. The spikelets contain two flowers partially protected by two membranous glumes.
4. Lower floret with LI and PI, sterile; upper floret with L2, P2, stamens three, styles two,
fruit a caryopsis.
BREEDING OBJECTIVES:
1. Breeding for high grain yield To get high yields the following plant characters are
necessary
a) more number of tillers
b) well filled, compact, long panicle.
c) heavy grains.
d) Uniformity of ripening. 41 Under irrigated conditions photo insensitivity and early
maturity are essential for multiple and relay cropping.
2. Breeding for improved grain quality. .
BREEDING PROCEDURES
1. Introduction: Hybrid bajra from Punjab.
Tift 23 A from USA
2. Selection: Pure line selection: Co 2, Co 3,
3. Hybridisation and selection
Interspecific hybridisation.
Pennisetum glaucum x P.purpureum
Cumbu napier hybrids.
4. Heterosis breeding: Hybrid bajra
In earlier days before the identification of male sterile lines utilising the protogynous nature
hybrids were released. The hybrids were produced by sowing both parents in the ratio of 1:1.
After the discovery of cytoplasmic genic male sterile line Tift 23A by Burton in Tifton,
Georgia led to development of hybrids. Earlier hybrids of India viz., HB1, HB2 to HB5 were
produced utilising Tift 23 A. But due to susceptibility to downy mildew they went out of
cultivation. Even before the discovery of CGMS lines by Burton it was discovered by
Madhava Menon and his coworkers at Coimbatore. Unfortunately due to failure of
publishing it was not recognised.
To over come the problem of downy mildew male sterile lines L 111A and 732 A were
isolated and at present used in breeding programme.
There are number of CMS lines developed by private agencies like Nath seeds, Mahyc0,
Mahendra.
5. Population improvement:
ICRISAT entry WCC 75 is an example for population improvement. This was developed
from world composite by recurrent selection method. It was developed from derivatives of
numerous crosses between diverse sources of germplasm and Nigerian early maturing land
races known as 'Gero' millets. Another example is ICMV 155 of ICRISAT.
6. Synthetic varietiesS
Synthetics are produced by crossing in isolation a number of lines tested for their GCA. E.g.
ICMS 7703.
It is a result of crossing between 7 inbred lines of India x African crosses.
7. Mutation breeding
At IARI Tift 23 A was gamma irradiated and 5071 A resistant to downy mildew was
evolved. With this the hybrid NHB 3 was evolved (5071 Ax J 104)
BREEDING CENTERS:
1. International Crops Research Institute for Semi Arid Tropics (1CRISAT,) Hyderabad
2. All Indian Pearl Millet improvement project (AIPIP) Jodhpur (Rajasthan)
PRACTICAL ACHIEVEMENTS
Varieties: PS B 8, PSB 15, mukta
-
Hybrids: HHB 45, HHB 50 from Hissan GHB 30, GHB -27 from Gujarat
3. SORGHUM
B. NAME- Sorghum bicolor L.
FAMILY Poaceae/Gramneae
-
FLORAL BIOLOGY
Sorghum is an often cross-pollinated erop.
The extent of out crossing is 6-45% and depends on nature of earhead.
In loose panicles the cross-pollination is more and less in compact panicle.
Spikelets occur in pairs on the lateral branches of the panicle.
One is sessile while the other spikelet is pedicelled.
Sessile is bisexual and pedicelled spikelet is male or sterile.
Sessile spikelet is comparatively larger than staminate spikelet and each spikelet has two
florets.
Flower opening starts after 2 to 4 days of emergence of panicle from the boot leaf.
Flowering starts from the tip of the panicle and proceeds downwards (basipetal).
Flowering completes in 7 days.
The pollen is viable for 10 to 20 minutes under field conditions.
Fertile pollen will be lemon yellow in colour.
Older pollen grains will normally turn to orange.
U Receptivity of stigma starts two days before opening and remains for several days ( 5
days).
Flower opening and anthesis will be from 2.00 am to 8.00 am.
BREEDING OBJECTIVES
1. Breeding for high grain yield To get high yields the following plant characters are
necessary
a) more number of tillers
b) well filled, compact, long panicle.
c) heavy grains.
BREEDING PROCEDURE
Sorghum is often cross pollinated crop. So to maintain varietal purity isolation distance of
400 meters is necessary. Compared to other often pollinated crop like red gram, maintenance
of inbreds is easy in sorghum. By putting brown paper and selfing the genetic purity can be
maintained.
1. Introduction: Varieties of milo and kafir sorghum introduced from USA are used in
conversion programme to convert the local long duration photo sensitive varieties to short
duration, non-photo sensitive lines.
2. Selection: Old varieties like Col, Co2, Co4 are all selection made from local land races.
3.Hybridization and selection
a) Inter varietal
(IS 4283 x Co 21) x CS 3541, Three way cross derivative Co 25 (MS 8271 x IS 3691) -
Hybrids are developed by using cytoplasmic genetic smale sterility combined kafir 60
Varieties: CSVI CSV-2, CSV-4, M35-1, CSV-13
Hybrids: CSH-1, CSH-2, 3 etc for kharif and CSH 7, 12, 13 for Rabi
4. MAIZE
B. NAME zea mays-
FAMILY- Poaceae
CHROMOSOME NUMBER: 2n=20
CENTRE OF ORIGIN: Central America.mexico
DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES: USA,india,china,france.
WILD RELATIVES
It has two close relatives,
Gama grass tripsacum ;(2n=36;72)
Teosinte (2n-20)
U Teosinte is the closest relatives of maize and crosses readily with it
FLORAL BIOLOGY
Maize is tall determinate annual plant producing large ,narrow ,opposite leaves borne
alternately along the length of a solid stem.
Maize is a monoceous plant.
Maize is protoandrous plant.
Male flower is called as tassel.
Female flower is called cob.
MAIZE VARIETIES
1. African tall
2. APFM-8
3. J-1006
4. Pratap makka chari 6
BREEDING OBJECTIVES-
1. Reduce internodal Length.
2. Branching habit.
3. Increasing nutrient content in leaves.
4. Resiatance to disease and pest.
5. Fertilize response activity.
6. Non logging.
BREEDING METHODS:
1.Introduction:
Initially the varieties were all introduced one.
Sikkim primitive 1
Sikkim primitive 2.
Mexican line were first introduced during 16th century by Portugeese
2. Mass Selection: Prior to 1945 mass selection was the only method used for maize
improvement.
KT 1
U. P.
-
RAS 1- Rajasthan.
By adopting mass selection technique it is possible to get yield increase by 19% per cycle.
7. Population Improvement:
Recurrent selection technique was initiated by Dhawan in 1963. The initial synthesis of
composites were done from high yielding inter varietal crosses which exhibited minimum
inbreeding depression.
Kisan, Jawahar, Vikram, Sona, Vijay, Amber.
5. BERSEEM
BOTANICAL NAME Trifolium alexandrium
-
FAMILY Leguminosae
-
CHROMOSOMENO. 2n 16 -
FLORAL BIOLOGY -
ACHIEVEMENTS
Variety Features
Mescavi Varieties under this group develop short side branches at the base of the
stem in advanced stage of its growth.
Varieties: Wardan, JB-1, JB-2, JB-3, UPB-103.
Fahl Develop small side branches in the upper portion of the stem very freely.
They give only one cut.
Saidi They develop shoots for a short time. Develops branches at upper portion
VARIETIES
Diploid varieties like Meskavi, Fahali, Sauidi, Zaidi, BL-1, BL-2, BL-10, BL-22, BL-30, BL-
92, JB-3, JB-4, IGFRI-S-99-1, UPB-101, UPB-103, UPB-104, UPB-1905, and Khadrabi
are very popular but newly evolved high yielding tetraploid varieties like Pusa Giant, T-526,
T-724, T-780, T-529, T-560, T-561, T-674, T-678, T-730 etc. are very promising and give
about 50 per cent higher fodder yield.
LECTURE NO. 6
CASH CROP - SUGARCANE
ORIGIN India
-
DISTRIBUTION : India, Brazil, Cuba, China, USA, Mexico, France, Germany and
Australia. In India, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, Haryana, Andhra Pradesh, Tamilnadu,
Karnataka, Bihar and Punjab. India stands first in sugar and sugarcane production in world.
CULTIVATED SPECIES:
There are three cultivated and two wild species of sugarcane. Their brief description is a
follows (Rao et. al. 1983; Purseglove, 1988).
1. Saccharum officinarum (2n = &x = 80)
2. Saccharum barberi (2 n =90,92)
3. Saccharum sinense (2n = 116, 118).
WILD SPECIES:
1. Saccharum spontaneum (2n = 40 to 128).
2. Saccharum robustum (2n = 60 to 194).
FLORAL BIOLOGY:
U The inflorescence of sugarcane is an open, branched panicle and is called as an arrow due
to its shape which is like an arrow.
Flowering is seasonal and takes place when the day length decreases.
In the northern hemisphere the flowering coincides with the onset of winter (Oct.-Nov.)
and in the southern-hemisphere in May-June.
IThe spikelets open about sunrise, beginning at the top of the panicle and proceeding
downwards and from the tips of the branches inwards, over a period of 5 15 days.
-
This is easily achieved by bringing together the two parents in an isolated area or under
lanterns
ii) Area crosses: In this system several male sterile female clones are pollinated by one male
parent in an isolated area.
ii) Melting pot erosses: Melting pot erosses or polycrosses are made by bringing together
arrows of large number of superior/ potential parental cultivars in an isolated area.
Natural cross pollination is allowed. This procedure allows the evaluation of breeding
behaviour of a large number of clones at a minimum expense.
2. Breeding for resistance to diseases:-
1. Red rot:- It is a major problem in sub-tropical countries. The major sugarcane varieties
which are found to be resistant to this disease are Co 1148, 1336, 6304, Co 5659, CoS 698
etc.
Smut: Serious disease in many sugarcane growing countries resistant commercial varieties
in India are Co 449, 527, 853, 1148, 1336.
3. Mutation Breeding:
According to Heinz x-ray Irradiation to induce mutations in sugarcane were carried out in
-
LECTURE NO. 7
VEGETABLE CROP
POTATO
Breeding Objective
1. High tuber yield
2. Earliness
3. Photoperiod insensitivity
4. Responsiveness to fertilizer
5. Better keeping quality (resistance/tolerance against shrinkage, rottage etc)
6. Better quality tubers
7. Resistance to
i. Late blight
ii. Early blight
ii. Charcoal rot
iv. Common scab
v. Bacterial wilt
In India, potato breeding programme was initiated in 1935 at the Potato Breeding Station,
Shimla.
Regular breeding programme was started in 1949 with the establishment ofthe Central
Potato Research Institute (CPRI) at Patna, Bihar.
Headquarter of the CPRI was later on shifted to Shimla (1956) in order to facilitate
hybridization and maintenance of seed health.
All varieties released by the CPRI cary the prefíx °KUFRI as a memento to the place
of hybridization.
BREEDING METHODS
1. Introduction
The introduced European varieties were long-day adapted
The multiplication of these varieties in Indian conditions was aceompanied by progressive
accumulation of degenerative viral diseases
Earlier varieties
Criags defence
Magnum bonum
Up-to-date
Secondary introductions -
Hybrid DN-45- Katahdin x President
Kufri kisan is a multiple cross involving Ekishrozn from Japan
Clonal Selection
Kufri red from Darjeeling red round
DKufri safed is selction from phulwa
2. Hybridization technique
Potato naturally flowers under cool climate and long-day condition of more than 15hrs
light.
U Such conditions are available during long-summer days when potatoes are grown in hills.
Hills are therefore, ideal for hybridization work.
Potato flowers are hermaphrodite (bisexual) and therefore emasculation is done in
selected female parents mostly in the evening.
Flowers from selected fertile male parents are collected a day in advance, shade dried and
pollens extracted next day in the morning in petri- dish or container
Pollination: In the morning
Bagging : 2-3 days
Berry setting: 5-7 days
Seed extraction: From ripened berries by macerating in water and separating the seeds
from pulp by repeated washing
3. Hybridization and selection
In hybridization, crosses are made between selected parents.
Hybridization can be between varieties(intervarietal) or between species(interspecific).
Since yield and most of the desirable characters are polygenic in nature, the parents for
hybridization are generally selected on the basis of their combining ability.
U Being vegetatively propagated, breeders take advantage of selecting and multiplying
genetically identical individuals in the succeeding generations.
LECTURE NO. 8
VEGETABLE CROP
FIELD PEA
-
Chromosome No. 2n= 14
Origin Mediterranean region, western and central Asia and Ethiopia
-
Distribution-
The first cultivation of peas appears to have been in western Asia, from where it spread to
Europe, China and India.
In classical times, Greek and Roman authors mentioned its cultivation as a pulse and fodder
crop.
FLORAL BIOLOGY
U Flowering usually begins 40 to 50 days after planting.
U Flowering is normally two to four weeks, depending on the flowering habit and weather
during flowering.
U The flowers are arranged in the form of an axillary raceme.
The flowers may be reddish, purple or white.
They are self-pollinated and develop into 5 cm to 9 cm long, inflated or cylindrical pods
containing five to 11 seeds inside them.
Calyx: Calyx is the lowermost green tubular part of the flower.
t
consists of five slightly unequal lobes called sepals.
It protects the other whorls in the bud stage from possible external injuries.
Corolla: It consist of five petals of different shapes and sizes.
The outermost petal is the largest and spreading and is known as standard or vexillum
which covers the other petals in the bud stage.
The next two lateral petals look like wings. Hence they are called wings or alae.
The two innermost ones unit loosely along their ventral margins to form aboat-like
structure and are known as keel or carina.
The attractive color and sweet scent of the corolla attract insects for pollination.
BREEDING OBJECTIVE
1. Early maturity
2. Pod characteristics
3. Seed size
4. Shelling percentage
5. Pod yields
6. Suitability for processing
7. Resistance to disease
8. Resistance to insect
9. Resistance to abiotic stress
BREEDING METHODS
1. Breeding for abiotic stress
Breeding peas for cold resistance or cold hardiness by recurrent selection and resistance to
waterlogging has been undertaken abroad.
2. Breeding for high protein and sugar content
The wrinkled seeded content 26 -33 per cent protein content and in smooth seed it is 23-31
per cent.
The inheritance of protein content is polygenically controlled and mainly by recessive factor
for high protein content.
The varieties GS 195 and the local cultivar, kinnauri have high soluble protein content due to
the presence of a very high number of dominant alleles.
3. Integration of Biotechnology in Conventional Pea Breeding:
Transtormation and regeneration protocols are now available in peas
The most common method involves Agrobacterium tumefacience mediated
transformation.
The major difficulty lies in the fact that this transformation is genolype specific and only
a small portion of cultivars have responded to this technique.
Somaclonal variation arising from the regeneration of plants from callus, led to the use of
cotyledonary meristem fronm freshly imbibed seed as a source of tissue for successful
transformation.
The use ofthis technology in the pea breeding is limited to proof of concept.
U Partial resistance to alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV) has been reported as a consequence of
transformation with chimeric virus coat protein gene, a-amylase inhibitor (a-A 1) and the
promoter phytohemagglutin, both found in French-bean when transferred to pea, have
shown constitutive expression and resistance to pea weevil.
The expression of inhibitor (a-amylase) served to block the development of the larvae at
an early stage and this resulted in less seed damage and better seed quality.
This transgenic pea product could not reach to large scale field testing due to legal issues.
Transfer of herbicide resistance both as a reportable marker and a trait have also been
reported, but not carried through to commercial release.
While GM crops are on increase in many parts of world with global acreage of 134
million hectares in 2009, the adverse reaction to GM crops in Europe and low rates of
transfer have all contributed to the pea breeding industry not engaging in the development
and release of GM peas till date.
LECTURE NO. 9
HORTICULTURAL CROPS
1. MANGo
B. NAME - Mangifera indica L.
FAMILY Anacardaceae
-
BREEDING METHODS
1. Introduction:
Name of the variety Country from where introduced
Sweet Thailand
Sensation USA
Tomy Atkins Brazil
Early Gold USA
2. Selection:
a. Chance seedlings:
Mango was previously propagated through seeds and hence the old orchards in India were
mostly of seedling origin. Some seedling progenies gave rise to varieties such as
Chinnaswarnarekha' and 'Mundappa'. The popular, salt tolerant rootstock (13-1) was
identified in Israel by this technique.
b. Clonal selection:
Extensive survey of Dashehari orchards around Maliabad in Uttar Pradesh has resulted in the
isolation of best clone viz Dashehari -5l with higher yield and regular bearer.
3. Hybridization:
Since a large number of male and perfect flowers are borne on a mango panicle, it
requires a special crossing technique.
The panicle should be bagged with a muslin bag (60 cm x 30cm) fully stretched and field
with two rings and a rod made of spliced bamboo.
A piece of thick
in wire can also be made into a good frame for stretching the muslin bag
Staminate flowers of the selected panicle to be used as female parent should be removed
daily before dehiscence.
Panicles of the variety selected as male parent should also be bagged before their flowers
begin to open.
Freshly dehisced male flowers should be carried in a small petridish lined trth a filter
paper and covered with another petridish to protect the flower to avoid contamination
with foreign pollen carried by insects.
The conventional method of pollination is time consuming, cost intensive and inefficient
because of tallness and difficult to handle trees poor fruit set.
'Caging technique' for crossing, developed at IARI following the discovery of self
incompatibility in Dashehari, Langra, Chausa and Bombay Green, involves planting of
grafted plants of the self incompatible varieties along with those of male parents enclosed
in an insect proof cage and allowing pollination by freshly reared house flies and thus ting
away with the tedious hand pollination.
In hybridization on mango, work taken up in post independence period laid emphasis on
regular and precocious bearing, dwarfness, high percentage of pulp, fibreless flesh, large
fruits with red blush, good keeping quality and freedom from spongy tissue.
Few of these such as Mallika and Ratna have received commercial recognition.
The cultivar 'Sindhu' evolved through intensive back crossing between Ratna and
Alphonso develops fruits parthenocarpically under natural temperature conditions.
The average size Sindhu fruits has been reported to be 215 g.
UIt may be observed that the parents used in hybridization programme were of the best
commercial varieties, superior in most of the traits but lacking in few qualities, which
may be available in the other parents.
Though in some cases (e.g. the hybrids at Sangareddy), the parents were the same the
hybrids were differently named, due to the heterozygous nature of parents resulting in
heterogeneous hybrid population.
The constraints encountered in mango hybridization are:
1. High fruit drop: In early stages, many young fruits drop after pollination and fertilization.
2. Only one seedling can be obtained from one fruit (since the varieties are monoembryonic).
3. The heterozygous nature and cross fertilization makes it difficult to predict the qualities of
the hybrids.
4. Complex nature of panicle and flower and excessive fruit drop.
5. Large area of land is required for hybrid seedlings.
6. Polyenmbryony Difficulty in accurately identifying the zygotic seedling: polyembryonic
varieties in Israel show that weight of zygotic seedling is higher than the nucellar seedling.
Use of polymorphic enzyme systems (isozyme) has been used to identify zygotic seedling
since the nucellar seedlings have the same isozyme alleles as in the maternal parent.
4. Mutation Breeding:
No variety has been developed so far by mutation breeding. Some attempts at IAR!, New
Delhi using physical mutagens showed that the LD so for Neelum, Dashehari and Amrapali
was between 2 and 4 Kr of gamma rays. LD so values has been found to be around 2 to 3 Kr
for Neelum and Alphonso at Coimbatore.
2. AONLLA
B. NAME Phyllanthus emblica
-
FAMILY Euphorbiaceae
-
VARIETIES
The most popular cultivable varieties of amla are Banarasi, NA 7, Krishna, Kanchan,
Chakaiya, BSR 1.
It is also called 'Indian Gooseberry', Amla', 'Nalli', 'Amali, 'Ambala'.
DISTRIBUTION
Grown in various agroedaphic situation.
Indigenous to tropical South -Eastern Asia particularly Central and Southern India.
Wild and cultivated species available in the region extending from the base of Himalayan
to sri lanka and from Malasia to South China.
In India, it is widely grown in UP, Gujarat, Rajasthan, MP and TN.
FLORAL BIOLOGGY
U Flowers, unisexual, pale green, 4 to 5 mm in length, borne in leaf-axils in clusters of 6 to
10.
Staminate flowers, tubular at the base, having a very small stalk, gamosepalous, having 6
lobes at the top; stamens 1 to 3, polyandrous, filaments 2 mm long.
Pistillate flowers, fewer, having a gamopetalous corolla and two-branched style.
Female flowers take about 72 hours to open fully. Pedicel is very short.
Disc is a lanceolate cup with 3 carpels.
Style is short, connate, twice bifid and distally dilated.
IThe new shoot emerge out during first week of April.
The flowering period varied in different varieties from 17-26 days.
Flowering period twice in a year February- March and June-July.
BREEDING OBJECTIVES
To breed var. having wider geographic adaptability.
To develop var. suitable for export.
To evolve colored var. based on market demand.
To breed var. resistant to frost.
To breed var. resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses.
Exploitation of available hybrid vigour (heterosis) for yield and quality.
To breed var. having high yield with good quality fruits.
Varieties with less fibre content.
Good pollinating var.
U Var. with hight sex ratio with more number of female flowers.
BREEDING METHODS
1. Introduction
U It is one of the oldest method for improvement of fruit crops. It is bringing or exchange of
germplasm/ genetic material from one place where it is not known previously.
U Presently, germplasm exchange is being done in different erop through NBPGR, new
delhi.
This method may be an important tool to bring exotic materials from foreign country for
further evaluation and incorporation of specific gene lacking in indigenous aonla.
2. Selection
While selecting new ideotypes, plant height, vigour, growth habit, precocity, fruiting
intensity, fruit size etc are kept in mind.
There are sufficient variation in fruit size and number of fruit / determinate shoots, which
directly affect the fruit yield and provide ample scope for selecting superior type.
Major work done at NDUAT, Faridabad (NA-4, 5, 6 ,7 10) GAU (Anand-1, 2 and 3)
RBS, college, Agra (Balwant)
Recently some coloured and cluster bearing genotypes have been identified through
exploitation in Rajasthan, which will be further evaluated at national repository of aonla
at CIAH, Bikaner.
3. Polypoidy
Exact ploidy level is not known in aonlabut it is realized by the scientists that aonla is
characterized by polyploidy behavior in composition of chromosome.
The structural and numerical changes in chromosome can be made through application of
colchicines, which is found to be useful for getting small seeded fruit or seedlessness.
U Keeping in view the usefulness of polypoidy breeding, these principles may be applied in
aonla to obtain desirable economie attributes.
4. Mutation
Mutation is sudden heritable change in a character of plant.
In India, research work related to application of mutation in aonla is almost negligible but
there is greater prospects to develop coloured varieties through induced mutation and
selection from bud sport.
5. Biotechnological Tools
Incorporation of desirable gene in aonla is possible only with the application
biotechnological approach.
In fact, there is absolute dearth of information on biotechnological approaches.
Tissue culture, cell culture and genetic manipulation through molecular technique may
be useful to get early result in varietal inmprovement programme.
This technique can also be helpful to modify particular traits and in turn provide new
avenue for improving both the colour and quality of the fruit available for industrial and
domestic uses.
6. Hybridization
Hybridization is crossing of two parents which are genetically dissimilar.
U Not a single variety has been bred so far through this method.
Occurance of xenia effect between Chakaiya x Krishna, Banarasi x NA-9, Francis x NA-
7, kanchan x NA-6 and NA-6 x NA-9 for fruit size and weight were reported from
crosses.
BREEDING PROBLEMS
Since, aonla is highly heterozygous plant, therefore, large size of population is required
for selection.
It has long generation cycle i.e. 2-8 years, depending upon sp. and var.
Lack of recombination.
Long juvenile phase prohibiting early assessment of strain.
3. GUAVA
-
B. NAME Psidium guajaVa
FAMILY Myrtaceae
-
BREEDING METHODS
1. Clonal Selection
U Improvement work in guava was started for the first time in the country in 1907 at
Ganesh khand fruit Research Station, Pune primarily with the collection of seeds of
varieties, grown in different places to isolate superior strains.
At Horticultural Research Station, Saharanpur, evaluation of seedling types resulted in a
superior selection, S-1, having good fruit shape, few seeds, sweet taste and high yield.
At IlHR, Bangalore, from 200 open pollinated seedlings of variety Allahabad Safeda
collected from Uttar Pradesh, one seedling selection, selection-8, was found to be
promising
2. Hybridization
At IIHR, Bangalore, as a result of hybridization among Allahabad Safeda, Red Flesh
Chittidar, Apple color, Lucknow-49 and Bananas, 600 F1 hybrids were raised.
3. Polyploidy Breeding
Producing triploids will be futile since the fruit shape in triploid is highly irregular and
misshapen because of differential seed size.
However, in order to evolve varieties with less seeds and increased productivity, crosses
were made at IARI, New Delhi, between seedless triploid and seeded diploid variety
Allahabad Safeda.
of the 73 F1 hybrids raised 26 were diploids, 9 trisomics 5 double trisomics and 13
tetrasomics.
Distinct variation in tree growth habit and leaf and fruit characters was observed.
U Three trisomic plants had dwarf growth habit and normal shape and size of fruits with
few seeds.
U The imbalance in chromosome numbers in aneuploids imparted sterility resulting in seed
reduction in fruits.
VARIETIES -
KINDS OF GERMPLASM
The germplasm consists of various plant materials of a crop such as
land races , advanced (homozygous), breeding materials, obsolete cultivars, wild forms of
cultivated species , modern cultivars, wild relatives, mutants
These are briefly discussed below:
1. Land races
These are nothing but primitive cultivars which were selected and eultivated by the farmers
for many generations without systematic plant breeding efforts. Land races were not
deliberately
bred like modern cultivars. They evolved under subsistence agriculture. Land races have
high level of genetic diversity which provides them high degree of resistance to biotic and
abiotic stresses. Land races have broad genetic base which again provides them wider
adoptability. The main drawbacks of land races are that they are les uniform and loww
yielders. Land races were first collected and studied by N.I. Vavilor in rice.
2. Obsolete Cultivars
These are the varieties developed by systematic breeding effort which were popular earlier
and now have been replaced by new varieties. Improved varieties of recent past are known as
obsolete cultivars. Obsolete varieties have several desirable characters they constitute an
important part of gene pool. Example : Wheat varieties K65, K68, pb 591 were most popular
traditional tall varieties before introduction of high yielding dwarf Mexican wheat varieties.
Now these varieties are no more cultivated. They are good genetic resources and have been
widely used in wheat breeding programmes for improvement of grain quality. Now such old
varieties are found in the genepool only.
3. Modern cultivars
The currently cultivated high yielding varieties are referred to as modern cultivars. They are
also known as improved cultivars or advanced cultivars. These varieties have high yield
potential and uniformity as compared to obsolete varieties land races.They constitute a major
part of working collections and are extensively used as parents in the breeding programmes.
As these are good sources of genes for yield and quality, can be introduced in a new area and
directly released. However, these have narrow genetic base and low adoptability as
compared to land races
4. Advanced breeding lines
These are pre -released plants which have been developed by plant breeders in modern
scientific breeding programmes. These are known as advanced lines, cultures and stocks.This
group includes, nearly homozygous lines, lines derived from biotechnology programmes i.e.
transgenic plants and mutant lines etc. These lines which are not yet ready for release to
farmers. They often contain valuable gene combinations.
5. Wild forms of cultivated species
Wild forms of cultivated species are available in many crop plants. Such plants have
generally high degree of resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses and are utilized in breeding
programmes. They can easily cross with cultivated species. Wild forms of many crop species
are extinct.
6. Wild Relatives
Those naturally occurring plant species which have common ancestry with crops and can
cross with crop species are referred to as wild relatives or wild species. Wild relatives
include all other
species, which are related to the crop species by descent during their evolution. Both these
groups are sources of valuable genes for biotic and abiotic stress and for quality traits and
yield.
7. Mutants
Mutation breeding is used when the desired character is not found in the genetic stocks of
cultivated species and their wild relatives. Mutations do occur in nature as well as can be
induced through the use of physical and chemical mutagens. The extra variability which is
created through induced mutations constitutes important components of genepool. Mutant
for various characters sometimes may not be released as a variety, but they are added in the
genepool. The germplasm includes those carrying gene mutations, chromosomal aberrations
and markers genes etc. are considered special genetic stocks. They are useful in breeding
programmes.
2. Active Collection
3. Working collection
Base collections: It is also known as principal collection. These consist of all the accessions
present in the germplasm of a crop. They are stored at about -18C or -20C with 5 + 1%
moisture content; they are disturbed only for regeneration. When the germination of an
accession falls below, usually, 95% of its germination at the start of storage, the accession is
regenerated. For reasons of safety, duplicates of base collections should be conserved in
other germplasm banks as well. High quality orthodox seeds can maintain good viability
upto 100 years.
Active collections The accessions in an active collection are stored at temperatures below
15C (often near 0C), and the seed moisture is kept at 5%. The storage is for medium
duration, i.e., 10-15 years. These collections are actively utilized in breeding programme.
These collections are used for evaluation, multiplication and distribution of the accessions.
They are usually maintained by multiplying the seeds of their own accessions. But from time
to time, base collection material should be used for regeneration of these collections.
Germination test is carried out after every 5-10 years to assess the reduction in seed viability.
Working collections: The accessions being actively used in crop improvement programmes
constitute working collection. Their seeds are stored for 3-5 years at less than 15C and they
usually contain about 10% moisture. These collections are maintained by the breeders using
them.
Core collection
The concept of core collection was proposed by Franked it refers to a subset of base
collection which represents the large collection. Or a limited set of accessions derived from
an existing germplasm collections.
Germplasm activities
There are six important activities related to plant genetic resources
1. Exploration and collection
2. Conservation
3. Evaluation
4. Documentation
5. Multiplication and Distribution
6. Utilization
Demerits:
1. Collection of germplasm especially from other countries, sometimes leads to entry of new
diseases, new insects and new weeds.
2. Collection is a tedious job.
3. Collector, sometimes has encounter with wild animals like elephants, tigers etc.
4. Transportation of huge collections also poses difficulties in the exploration and collection.
2. Germplasm Conservation
Conservation refers to protection of genetic diversity of crop plants from genetic erosion.
There are two important methods of germplasm conservation or preservation. or
Germplasm conservation refers to maintain the collected germplasm in such a state that there
is minimum risk for its loss and that either it can be planted directly in the field or it can be
prepare for planting with relative ease when ever necessary. There are twwo important
methods of germplasm conservation or preservation viz.,1. In situ conservation 2. Ex situ
Conservation
i. In situ conservation
Conservation of germplasm under natural habitat is referred to as in situ conservation. This is
achieved by protecting this area from human interference such an area is often called as
natural park, biosphere reserve or gene sanctuary. A gene sanctuary is best located within the
centre of origin of crop species concerned, preferably covering the microcenter with in the
centre of origin. NBPGR, New Delhi is making attempts to establish gene sanctuaries in
Meghalaya for Citrus and in the North-Eastern region for Musa, Citrus, Oryza, Saccharum
and Megijera.
This method of preservation has following main disadvantages
Each protected area will cover only ve ry small portion of total diversity of a crop species,
hence several areas will have to be conserved for a single species.
The management of such areas also poses several problemns.
This is a costly method of germplasm conservation
Merits : Gene sanctuaries offer the following two advantages.
A gene sanctuary not only conserves the existing genetic diversity present in the population,
it also allows evolution to continue. As a result, new alleles and new gene combinations
would appear with time.
The riskS as sociated with ex situ conservation are not operative.
ii. Ex situ conservation
Conservation of germplasm away from its natural habitat is called ex situ germplasmn
conservation. This method has following three advantages.
It is possible to preserve entire genetic diversity of a crop species at one place.
Handling of germplasm is also easy
This is a cheap method of germplasm conservation
Preservation in the form of seed is the most common and easy method, relatively safe,
requires minimum space and easy to maintain. Glass, tin or plastic containers are used for
preservation and storage of seeds. The seed can be conserved under long term, medium term
and short term storage conditions.
Roberts in 1973 classified seeds on the basis of their storability, into two major groups.viz,
1. Orthodox seeds 2. Recalcitrant seeds
1. Orthodox Seeds:
Seeds of this type can be dried to low moisture content of 5% and stored at a low
temperature without losing their viability are known as orthodox seeds. Most crop seeds
belong to this category. Such seeds can be easily stored for long periods; their longevity
increases in response to lower humidity and storage temperature. Eg. Wheat, Rice, Corn,
Chickpea, Cotton, Sunflower
2. Recalcitrant Seeds:
The viability of this group of seeds drops drastically if their moisture content is reduced
below 12-30%. Seeds of many forest and fruit trees, and of several tropically crops like
Citrus, cocoa, coffee, rubber, oil palm, mango, jackfruit, etc. belong to this group. Such
seeds present considerable difficulties in storage. They require in situ conservation.
3. Evaluation
Evaluation refers to screening of germplasm in respect of morphological, genetical,
economic, biochemical, physiological, pathological and entomological attributes. Evaluation
requires a team of specialists from the disciplines of plant breeding, physiology,
biochemistry, pathology and entomology. First of all a list of descriptors (characters) for
which evaluation has to be done is prepared. This task is completed by a team of experts
from IPGRI, Rome, Italy. The descriptors are ready for various crops. The evaluation of
germplasm is down in three different places, viz., (1) in the field, (2) in green house, and (3)
in the laboratory.
4. Documentation
It refers to compilation, analysis, classification storage and dissemination of information. In
plant genetic resources, documentation means dissemination of information about various
activities such as collection, evaluation, conservation, storage and retrieval of data. Now the
term documentation is more appropriately known as information system. Documentation is
one of the important activities of genetic resources. Large number of accessions are available
in maize, rice, wheat, sorghum, potato and other major crops. About 7.3 million germplasm
accessions are available in 200 crops species. Handling of such huge germplasm information
is only possible through electronic computers.
5. Distribution
The specific germplasm lines are supplied to the users on demand for utilization in the crop
improvement programmes.
Distribution of germplasm is the responsibility of the gene bank centres
The germplasm is usually supplied to the workers who are engaged in research work of a
particular crop species.
Supplied free of cost to avoid cumbersome work of book keeping.
The quantity of seed samples depends on the availability of seed material and demands
6. Utilization
It refers to use of germplasm in crop imprOvement programmes. The germplasm can be
utilized in various ways. The uses of cultivated and wild species of germplasm are briefly
discussed below:
a) Cultivated Germplasm
It can be used in three main ways: (1) as a variety, (2) as a parent in the hybridization, and
(3) as a variant in the gene pool.
Wild Germplasm: it is used to transfer resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, wider
adaptability and sometimes quality such as fibre strength in cotton.
Organizations associated with germplasm
IPGRI International Plant Genetic Resources Institute
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LECTURE NO. 12
ADAPTABILITY AND STABILITY
Adaptability & Stability -
The success of crop improvement activities largely depend on the identification of superior
varieties for mass propagation. A variety can be considered superior if it has potential for
high yield under favourable environment and the same time great deal of phenotypic
stability. Stability of a genotype refers to its performance with respect to changing
environment factor over time within a given location.
Adaptation and Adaptability:
Adaptation:-
It refers to those changes in structure or function of an individual/population which lead to
better survival in a given environment is known as adaptation.
Adaptability:
Ability to genotype to exhibit relatively stable performance in different environment or
capacity of a genotype or population for genetic change in adaptation.
Types of Adaptability
Adaptation
environment.
2. General genotypic adaptation It is refers to the capacity of a genotype to produce a
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4. Mode of Pollination The cross pollination species have better buffering capacity
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I. Environment linear
II. G.E linear
III. Pooled deviations
Sum of squares due to pooled deviations are further divided into sum of squares due to
individual genotype.
MAIN FEATURES OF THIS MODEL
This model consists of three parameters
a) mean yield over locations
b)regression coefficient =bi
C)Deviation from regression =s°di
Analysis of stability parameters is simple asa compared to other models of stability
analysis.
The degree of freedom for environment is 1.
It requires less area hence less expensive when compared to other models.
It does not provide independent estimation for mean performance and environmental
index
ANOVA TABLE
Source of variation Degrees of freedom
Genotypes g-1
E+G*E interaction g(e-1)
environment (linear)
G.E linear g-
pooled deviations ge-2)
genotype-I e-2
genotype-2 e-2
Pooled error ge(r-1)
Merits:
It measures three parameters of stability
A=mean yield over environments
B-regression coefficient
C=deviation from regression line
It provides more reliable information on stability than Finlay and Wilkinson model.
Analysis is simple.
Demerits:
Estimation of mean performance and environment index is not independent.
There is a combined estimation of sum of squares of environment and interactions which
is not proper.
a
Eberhart and Russell (1956) defined stable variety as one with regression coefficient of
unity(b=I) and a minimum deviation from the regression lines(s*d=0).
3) genotypes x environment
G-E variance is sub divided into
a) heterogeneity due to regression
b) sum of square due to remainder
This model is less expensive than Freeman and Perkins.
It requires less area for experimentation. is
The degree of freedom for environment e-2
Analysis is more difficult than Eberhart and Russell model.
It does not provide independent estimation of mean} performance and environmental
index.
ANOVA TABLE
Source of variation Degrees of freedomn
Genotypes g-1
Environment e-1
|
Genotype x environment g-1(e-1)
Heterogeneity among regressions g-1
Remainder (g-1)e-2)
Error ge(r-1)
ANOVA TABLE
Source of variation Degrees of freedom
Genotypes g-1
Environment e-1
Combined regressioon 1
residual () e-2
Interaction(GxE) (g-1D(e-2)
Heterogeneity of regressions g-1
residual (2) (g-1)(e-2)
error ge(r-1)
1. Stability analysis is helps in understand the adaptability of crop varieties over wide range
of environment conditions and in the identification of adaptable genotype.
2. The use of adaptable genotype for general cultivation over wide range of environmental
conditions helps in achieving stabilization in crop production over locations and year.
3. Use the stable genotypes in the hybridization programme will lead to development of
phenotypically stable high potential cultivars of erop species
4. Stability analysis is an important tool for plant breeders in predicting response of various
genotypes over changing environments.
ROGUING
Plants are rogued based on plant height, head size and colour of seeds during pre-flowering
stage upto harvest.
Field standards
Foundation seeds Certified seeds
Off typesS 0.1% 0.2%
Harvesting
The change of head colour from green to lemon yellow is the indication of physiological
maturity.
The heads are harvested separately first in male and then in female.
Drying, processing and others as in varieties
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Seed standards
The graded seed should possess the following characters for certification and sale as
certified/ truthfully labelled seeds
Parameter FS CS
Physical purity (min) % 98 98
Inert matter (max) % 2 2
Germination (min)% 60 50
(National Check)
Hybrids DSH 129, NH 1 (Firdt non-spiny hybrid in the world), NARI 15, NARI
- - - -
U Plants are thorny and harvesting is taken up at the early hours of the day and to be
completed before 10.00 am when the spines will be soft.
As the day advanced, spine becomes stiff causing inconvenience to harvesting.
The harvested plants are heaped for a day or two in the field and threshed by beating with
stick, cleaned, dried and stored at 8% moisture content.
Combined harvesters used in wheat could also be used for harvesting and threshing.
The heads are harvested separately first in male and then in female.
Drying, processing and others as in varieties
-
Seed standards
The graded seed should possess the following characters for certification and sale as
certified/ truthfully labelled seeds
Summer and kharif provide ideal male promoting environment for undertaking seed
production of the variety, male and female parents of hybrids.
Kharif and summer encourages good expression of less productive plant which could be
easily elinminated through timely roguing.
Female parents when raised in male promoting environment produce environmentally
sensitive staminate flowers, which are very essential for self production of the female
parents.
Seed and sowing
Seed rate : 10 kg/ ha (varieties)
2 kg/ ha male and 5 kg/ ha female for hybrids.
Spacing
Varieties : 90 x 20 to 90 x 60 cm
Hybrids 90 x 40 to 90 x 60 cm
:
Stages of inspection
10 days prior to flowering -Stem colour, inter-node length.
During flowering No. of nodes upto primary raceme
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Before 1st picking (Spike and capsule character, reversion to monoecious in second order
raceme)
After Ist picking - Reversion to monoecious or flower initiation in third order racemne.
Irrigation
Critical stages are primordial initiation and flowering stage in differential segmental order
branches.
Moisture stress in sensitive crop growth stages may lead to production of more male
flowers in monoecious varieties.
Harvesting
Castor produces 4 or 5 sequential order spikes, which can be harvested in 3- 4 pickings
starting from 90-120 days at 25-30 days interval.
Premature harvesting leads to reduced seed weight, oil content and germination.
If shattering is not a problem in a variety, harvesting can be delayed until all capsules are
fully dried.
Grading
The seeds are size graded using round perforated metal sieve of 8/64".
Field standards
Foundation seeds Certified seeds
off types (Varieties) 0.1 0.2%
Off types (Hybrids) 0.5 1.0%
Seed storage
Seed treatment with Thiram@2 -g/kg
Storability in Pervious container 1
year
Storability in Moisture vapour proof container 2-
Seed standards
The graded seed should possess the following characters for certification and sale as
certified/ truthfully labelled seeds
Parameter Foundation seed Certified seed
Physical purity (min) % 98 98
Inert matter (max) % 2 2
Other crop seed &Weed Seed (max)
Other distinguishable variety seeds 5/kg 10/kg
Germination (min)% 70 70
Moisture content (max) %
(a) Open storage 8 8
(b) Moisture vapour proof storage 5 5
Foundation seed production : A andB line are raised in 4:2 ratio with 4 rows of B line as
border row and allowed for cross pollination. The seeds from A line will be collected as A
line seeds (multiplied).
Certified seed production: Hybrid seed production
Commercial in Hybrid seed production techniques
Isolation distance
FS CS
Normal 200 100
On presence of Johnson Grass 400 400
On Presence of forage Sorghum 400 200
Hybrids 300 200
SEEDS AND SOWING
Seed rate: A line: 8 kg ha-1 R line : 4 kg ha-1
FIELD STANDARDS
Isolation Distance
FS CS
Offtypes (max) Varieties 0.05 0.10
Hybrids 0.05 0.10
Pollen shedders (max) 0.05 0.10
Designated diseased plants (max) 0.05 0.10
(Ergot and smut)
Designated disease
1. Kernel smut
2. Head smut
3. Sugary disease of sorghum
It is specific to hybrid
SEED STANDARDS
Foundation seed Certified seed
Physical purity (%) 98 98
Inertmatter (%) 2
Other crop seed 5 kg 10 kg"
Weed seed 10 kg-1 20 kg-1
Other distinguishable variety 10 kg-1 20 kg-1
Ergot disease by number 0.020% 0.040%
Moisture content
Moisture pervious container 12 12
Moisture vapour proof container 8
LECTURE 15 & 16
Ideotype concept and climate resilient crop varieties for future- Wheat, Rice, Maize,
Sorghum and Cotton
IDEOTYPE CONCEPT
Crop Ideotype:-
Crop ideotype refers to model plants or ideal plant type for a specifie environment.
"In broad sense an ideotype is a biological model which is expected to perform or
behave in a predictable manner within a defined environment".
More specifically, crop ideotype is a plant model which is expected to yield greater
quantity of grains, fibre, oil or other useful product when developed as a cultivar.
The term ideotype was first proposed by Donald in 1968 working on wheat.
Ideotype Breeding:
Ideotype breeding can be defined as a method of crop improvement which is use to
enhance genetic yield potential through genetic manipulation of individual plant
character.
Main features of ideotype breeding are:
1. Emphasis on individual trait
2. Includes yield enhancing traits
3. Exploits physiological variation
4. Slow progress
5. Selection
6. Designing of mode
7. Interdisciplinary approach
8. A continuous process
WHEAT
The term ideotype was coined by Donald in 1968 working on wheat. He proposed ideotype
of wheat with following main features:
A short strong stem. It imparts lodging resistance and reduces the losses due to lodging.
Erect leaves. Such leaves provide better arrangement for proper light distribution
resulting in high photosynthesis or CO2 fixation.
Few small leaves. Leaves are the important sites of photosynthesis, respiration and
transpiration. Few and small leaves reduce water loss due to transpiration.
Larger ear. It will produce more grains per ear.
An erect ear. It will get light from all sides resulting in proper grain development.
Presence of awns. Awns contribute towards photosynthesis.
A single culm.
RICE
The concept of plant type was introduced in rice breeding by Jennings in 1964, through the
term ideotype was coined by Donald in 1968. He suggested that in rice an ideal or model
plant type consists of
Semi dwarf stature
High tillering capacity and
Short, erect, thick and highly angled leaves
More panicles /m2,
High (55% ore more) harvest index.
U Now emphasis is also given on physiological traits in the development of rice ideotype.
MAIZE
IN 1975, Mock and Pearce proposed ideal plant type of maize.
Stiff-vertically-oriented leaves above the ear.
Maximum photosynthetic efficiency.
Efficient translocation of photysynthate into grain.
Short interval between pollen shed and silk emergence.
Small tassel size.
Photoperiod insensitivity
Cold tolerance
Long Grain -filling period
SORGHUM
IN Dr. Swaminathan 1972 proposed ideal plant type of Sorghum.
High grain yield.
U Harvest index grealer than 30.
High ear head exertion.
Panical DM of total Dm: >50%
Higher relative water content.
COTTON
Ideotype for irrigated cultivation
Short stature (90-120 cm).
U Compact and sympodial plant habit making pyramidal shape.
Determinate in fruiting habit with unimodal distribution of bolling.
Short duration (150-165 days).
U Responsive to high fertilizer dose.
High degree of inter plant competitive ability.
High degree of resistance to insect pests and diseases, and
High physiological efficiency.
TABLE
|PULSEs
Chickpea Cicer arietnum Leguminoceae 2n-16 South-eastern
Turkey and
adjoining Syria.
OILSEED
Sunflower Helianthus annus Composite 2n-34 America
FODDER
Napir Pennisetum purpureum Poaceaee 2n 27,28,56 Africa (Tropical
Africa)
Bajra Pennisetum glaucum Poaceae/Grami 2n=14 W. Africa
nea
Sorghum Sorghum bicolor L. Poaceae/Gram 2n-20 Northeastern
neae Africa or at the
Egyptian
Maize Zea mays Poaceae Central 2n-20
America, mexico
Barseem Trifolium alexandrium |Leguminosae |2n 16 Asia minor and
from there it
was introduced
toEgypt
CASH CROP
Sugarcane Saccharum officinarum Gramineae 2n-80 India
VEGETABLE CROPS
Potato Solanun tuberosum L. Solanaceae 2n-48 Tropical South
America