Basic Mud Logging

Basic Mud Logging

Water & Petroleum sciences
Faculty of sciences
Zagazig university
Dr. Geologist/ Zein Abdelatti
2021

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 Basic Mud Logging

Introduction

The mud logging, also known as surface logging, is the creation of a detailed
record of a borehole by examining the bits of rock or sediment brought to the
surface by the circulating drilling medium (most commonly mud). Mud logging
is usually performed by a third-party mud logging company. This provides well
owners and producers with information about the lithology and fluid content of
the borehole while drilling. Historically it is the earliest type of well log.

The drilling rig is a complex system consisting of people and equipment who
must work safely under extreme conditions. The rigs can range from a truck
mounted work-over rig to a large ocean going drill ship. Rigs are primarily
divided into two major categories; land and marine. It is important to be
cognizant of each rig type so that you as a logging engineer will be able to
competently participate in the safe and hopefully productive completion of the
well. The drilling rig and personnel perform very special functions at different
times.

The mud logging engineer needs to become familiar with the basic
equipments, techniques and terms used in drilling operations. Although he has
no direct responsibility for the drilling or the rig, the mud logging engineer has
to be conversant with the equipment and procedures so that he can advise on
certain aspects and so that he can understand the effects of drilling methods
affecting the parameters he uses for his interpretation. It is also important for
the mud logging engineer to develop good working relationship with the
drilling personnel to keep a two-way flow of information and gain the greatest
benefits for the operation.

This guide is rather meant as a briefing instruction to those mud logging

engineers who are newly involved in rig drilling operations, facing new
concepts, routines and formats. It is also tried to introduce and illustrate modern
or future development that may be new to some “old hands” with no recent
exposure to the actual work. However, owing to the fast development of
techniques and methods, even this booklet will be out dated partly in very short
time.

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 Basic Mud Logging

Aims of this work

Geology, petroleum and water students should recognize the following subjects:

Rig types
Rig components
Rig personnel
Drilling fluids properties
Wells drilling processes
- Vertical drilling
- Directional drilling
- Coring
- Tripping
- Casing
- Cementing
- Leak off test
- Fishing
- Wireline logging
- Well completion
- Perforating production casing
- Drill stem test
- Well stimulation
Mud logging principles and definitions
Mud logging crew duties and responsibilities
Samples collection and description
Mud logging equipments & sensors

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RIGS TYPES
Drilling rigs are classified according to field operations into two major types
(land rigs and off shore rigs) which by turn reclassified into other types
depending on each rig capability and working environment. Accordingly, rig
type can be one of the followings:

Land rigs:

Land rigs are generally either wheels mounted portables or a component

system that must be moved by trucks and cranes. The drilling floor generally
sits on top of a steel substructure that could be 30 feet high or more. A drilling
mast (derrick) is attached to and raised above the floor. In general, the deeper
wells need a larger, taller rig. The mast must be capable of supporting the
vertical load and weight of the stacked drill pipe. It must also withstand wind
loads of 100 to 130 miles per hour. Shallow wells and wells being completed or
repaired will probably use a portable rig. This rig can be driven to the well site,
raised up hydraulically and guy wired in place. When the well is completed, the
mast is hydraulically lowered and the rig is driven off.

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Offshore rigs:

- The environment also determines which type of marine rig will be used.
- Each rig has advantages and disadvantages when used in different water depths
and weather conditions.
- The offshore rigs include:
1- The jackup rig.
2- Semi- submersible rig.
3- The submersible rig.
4- The drill ship.
5- The platform rig.
6- The inland barge rig.
7- The tension leg platform.
1. Jackup rigs:

- The jackup rig consists of a watertight hull and three or more mobile legs.
- The legs are raised up to allow the vessel to be towed to a location.
- The legs are carefully jacked down until each rests on the seabed.
- The hull is jacked up on the legs until it is above the height of the storm waves.
- To move rig between close locations the platform is lowered down the legs
until it floats then the legs are jacked up to the maximum height.
- The whole rig can then be towed by means of two boats.

The advantages of Jackup rigs:

- Replaced the submersible rig as a fixed drilling platform.
- Less costly to build.
- Ideal for soft ocean sediments found in river deltas.

The disadvantages of Jackup rigs:

- Its difficulty in towing, especially in rough seas
- The legs must be removed during long moves.

Jackup5 offshore rig

 Basic Mud Logging

2. Semi-submersible rigs:
- Semi-submersible rigs are floating rigs supported on pontoons.
- A common design consists of four, five or six legs.
- Semi-submersibles are kept on location by anchors, chains or thrusters.
- The pontoons can be re-floated to change locations.

The advantages of semi-submersible rigs are that:

- Can be towed easily or even self-propelled to the new location
- Provide a relatively stable drilling platform.
- Operate under more serve weather and sea conditions.
- Can work in water depths from 600 to 4,000 feet.

The disadvantages of semi-submersible rigs are that:

- Require marine risers and a subsea stack.
- Having limited cargo capacity.
- Require support vessels.

Semi-submersible offshore rig

3. Submersible:

Submersible rigs, early design for deeper water > 30 feet replaced by
jackups rigs, characterized by inland swamp barge, bottle type and arctic
submersible.
.

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4. Drill ship:

- Drill ships are self-propelled and can carry larger loads of drilling supplies.
- More mobile and self-supporting in remote ocean areas.
- It also offers advantages of faster travel times, are self-propelled.

The advantages of drill ships include:

- Drill ships are ships specially built and modified to drill in deep water.
- Drill ships are characterized by their easy mobility.
- Drill ships are able to propel themselves from location to location.
- The drill ship is capable of drilling in waters up to 9,000 feet.

The disadvantages of drill ships include:

- High salaries for the ship’s crew who are not directly in the operations.
- The drill ship is greatly affected by wave motion (heave) and drifting.
- Requires a motion compensation system, a marine riser system.
- Require mooring and anchoring system or thrusters for dynamic positioning.

Drill ship

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5. Platform rigs:

- If the exploration drilling program is successful in finding a commercial

reservoir, a development program must be planned. All facilities needed to drill,
produce, store and transport the hydrocarbons must be designed, fabricated and
installed on the site.
- All fixed platforms must be able to withstand the environmental forces of its
region. This could include wind, waves, currents, ice, earthquakes and soil
conditions.
- The platform generally consists of four to eight piles or legs resting or driven
into the seabed.
- Drilling slots on the platform are arranged in a grid system.
- The actual drilling rig will be skidded from slot to slot for each well.
- The individual wells will be drilled at an angle to allow for efficient production
of the reservoir.
- The BOP stack is connected to the fixed drive pipe for each well slot as it is
drilled.
- Because of its location, the stack is easier to install, repair or change sizes.

Offshore platform

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6. Inland barge rigs:

- A drilling structure consisting of a barge upon which the drilling equipment is
constructed. When moved from one location to another, the barge floats.
- When stationed on the drill site, the barge can be anchored in the floating mode
or submerged to rest on the bottom.
- Typically, inland barge rigs are used to drill wells in marshes, shallow inland
bays, and areas where the water covering the drill site in not too deep. Also
called swamp barge.
- After drilling the well, the rig is re-floated and moved to a new location. The
inland barge rig is limited to working in relatively shallow water, less than 50
feet normally. They are also hard to move to new locations.

Inland barge
7.Tension leg platforms: rig
- The Tension Leg Platform is one of the newest types of rig available.
- It is a combination of a semi-submersible rig and a platform rig.
- It is used strictly for production drilling.
- TLP is positioned over the pre-drilled wells and the production lines run to the
existing wellheads.
- The current technology allows the TLPs to work in up to 5,000 feet of water.

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Tension leg platform rig
 Basic Mud Logging

LAND RIG COMPONENTS

Simple diagram of a land drilling rig and its components is illustrated in the
next figure. The typical rig shown in the next figure shows the layout of most
component parts. Use this layout as you read about each system on the rig. Not
all rigs are arranged the same. Newer rigs use modular designs and space saving
techniques.

The main rig components

1- Crown Block
2- Cat-line Boom and Hoist Line
3- Drilling Line
4- Monkey board
5- Traveling Block
6- Top Drive
7- Mast
8- Drill Pipe
9- Doghouse
10- Blowout Preventer
11- Water Tank
12- Electric Cable Tray
13- Engine Generator Sets
14- Fuel Tanks
15- Electric Control House
16- Mud Pump
17- Bulk Mud Components Storage
18- Mud Pits
19- Reserve Pits
20- Mud Gas Separator
21- Shale Shaker
22- Choke Manifold
23- Pipe Ramp
24- Pipe Racks
25- Accumulator

Land rig components

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However, all rigs must have five basic systems or operations performed. These
include:

1. Hoisting system: used to raise and lower drill pipe, casing, and tubing.
2. Circulating system: used to remove cutting and maintain pressure in the well.
3. Rotating system: used to turn the drill stem to make hole.
4. Power production system: used to produce mechanical and electrical power.
5. Blowout prevention system: used to seal off the well bore to control formation
fluids.

1. Derrick or mast:
A standard derrick is a structure with four supporting legs resting on a square
base. It can be assembled piece by piece each time a well is drilled. In contrast,
the mast is assembled once when it is manufactured. After manufacture, it
remains a single unit each time a well is drilled. When a mast is raised and
lowered, it looks something like the blade of a huge jackknife being opened and
closed. As a result, masts are sometimes referred to as jackknife masts. For
most offshore drilling rigs, the derrick is the standard.

The mast or derrick is erected on a

substructure that serves two main purposes:

1. To support the rig floor, providing space

for equipment and workers.

2. To provide space under the rig floor for

special, large valves called blowout
preventers.

The substructure supports not only the

rotary table, but also the full load of the
drill string when the string is suspended in
the hole by the slips. It also supports a
string of casing when the casing is being
run in the hole by an arrangement of slips
resting on the rotary. The rig floor also
holds the draw works, the driller’s control
panel, the doghouse, and other related
equipment.

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Drill pipe is pulled and racked in stands. A stand usually consists of three
joints of pipe, each about 30 feet long. Such a stand, having a total length of
some 90 feet, can be accommodated in a derrick that is 136 feet high or higher.

Rigging-up time is the time spent to assemble a mast into the vertical
position on-site. It also includes the time to install the power unit, all cables and
piping. Masts are used for lighter work.

2. Hoisting system:

The draw works, sometimes called the hoist, is a big heavy piece of
machinery that consists of a revolving drum around which the wire rope, called
the drill line, is spooled or wrapped. It also has a cat-shaft, a kind of axle that
crosses through the draw works that has a revolving drum (called a cat-head
spool) on both end and two special cat-heads. Several other shafts, clutches, and
a chain-and-gear drive facilitate speed and direction changes.
The origin of the term draw works is not actually known, but probably is
related to the fact that part of the function of the draw works is to draw pipe out
of the hole. The two main purposes of the draw works are:
1. To lift pipe out of the hole.
2. To lower the pipe back into the hole.

Draw work transmission Draw work system

system
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Wire rope is reeled, or spooled, on a drum in the hoist. When the draw works
is engaged, the drum turns and, depending on the direction it either turns, reels
in the drill line to raise the traveling block or lets out the line to lower it. Since
the drill string is attached to the block by the elevators, the string is thus raised
or lowered.
One of the outstanding features of the hoist is the brake system, which
enables the driller to easily control a load of thousands of pounds of drill pipe or
casing. On most rigs, there are at least two brake systems. One brake is
mechanical and can bring the entire load to a full stop. The other brake is
hydraulic or electric and can control the speed of the descent of a loaded
traveling block, although it is not capable of bringing it to a complete halt.

Another feature of the draw works is the cat-shaft with its two special cat-
heads. The makeup (spinning) cat-head on the driller’s side of the draw works is
used to spin up and tighten the drill pipe joints. The other, located opposite the
driller’s position on the draw works, is the breakout cat-head. It is used to loosen
the drill pipe when the pipe is withdrawn from the hole.

Draw works cat-head

3. Blocks and drilling lines:

The traveling block, crown block, and drilling line are the three components
whose function is to support the load of drill pipe in the derrick as it is lowered
into or pulled from the hole. During drilling operations, this load consists of the
hook, swivel, kelly, drill pipe, drill collars, and a bit attached to the bottom of
the drill collars. During cementing operations, a string of special pipe called
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casing, often a heavier load than the drill pipe and drill collars, has to be
lowered into the hole and cemented.

Drill line is usually made of wire rope that

generally ranges from 1.5 inches to 1.75 inches in
diameter. Wire rope is similar to common fiber
rope, but wire rope, as the name implies, is made
of steel wires and is a complex device.
The drill line is threaded over a crown block
sheave and lowered down to the rig floor. On
the rig floor rests (temporarily) another very
large set of pulleys or sheaves called the
traveling block. The end of the line is threaded
through one of the traveling block sheaves and
is raised again up to the crown block. There the
line is threaded over a sheave in the crown
block, lowered back down, and threaded
through the traveling block. This is done a
number of times until the correct number of
lines has been strung up.

The number of lines, of course, is only one; but, since the drill line is
threaded through the crown block and traveling block several times, it gives the
effect of many lines. The number of lines strung depends on the weight to be
supported. The more weight to be supported, the more lines that are needed and
vice versa.

4. Elevators:
Two elevators are hung from the hook on the elevator bails and are used for
latching around the drill pipe in order to lift it.

Elevators are of many slightly differing designs and sizes for use with
different pipe sizes, drill collar and casing sizes. They are not used during the
drilling operation but are necessary for lifting the pipe during tripping
operation.

5. Slips:
On slips: It’s done when the floor men make a
new connection.
Out of slips: It’s done while running the string.

These devices are used to hold the weight of

the drill string when it is not supported by the hook
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(during connections or tripping time). Slips are

made of hinged sections with a single opening.
They are placed around the pipe, their tapered
outer sections fitting against either the inside
surface (bowl) or the master bushing or against the
inserts. As the pipe is lowered, the slips tapered
section causes them to close tightly around the
pipe.

Be careful not to catch the tool joint box in the

slips when the driller slacks off. This often
happens when coming out of the hole and the
driller does not pick up high enough for the slips
to fall around the pipe properly. This can ruin the
slips, damage the tool joint box and damage the
body of the pipe.

2. Rotating equipments:

The rotating equipment from top to bottom

consists of the swivel, the kelly, the rotary
table, the drill string and the bit. The drill
string is the assembly of equipment between
the swivel and the bit, including the kelly, drill
pipe and drill collars. The term drill string
simply refers to the drill pipe and drill collars;
however, in the oil field, drill string, is often
used to mean the whole works.

Swivel:

The swivel is a remarkable mechanical

device; it is attached to the traveling block by a
large bail. The swivel has three main
functions:
1. It supports the weight of the drill string.
2. It allows the drill string to rotate.
3. It provides a passageway for the drilling
mud to be pumped down the inside of the
drill string.
Swivel Drill string

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Kelly and rotary table:

The kelly is a three, four, or six-sided length of pipe, about 50 feet long, that
is the upper part of the drill string. It serves as a passageway for the drilling
fluid on its way into the hole and transmits the rotary movement to the drill pipe
and bit.

The kelly fits into a corresponding square or hexagonal opening in a device

called a kelly, or drive bushing. The kelly bushing fits into a part of the rotary
table called the master or rotary bushing. As the rotary bushing rotates, the kelly
rotates; and as the kelly rotates the drill string and bit. Rotary drilling derives its
name from the rotary table. The rotary table is powered by the compound or by its
own electric motor.

Rotary table

Top drive system:

The top drive system is replacing the kelly and rotary table on many rigs.
The basic model is an equipment with one pinion powered by a hydraulic motor
located on top of the gearbox.

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 Basic Mud Logging

The advantages of the top drive system:

The top drive make-ups and breaks-out many

connections, thereby reducing the hazards of
rotary tongs and spinning chain.
Reduce drilling time.
Rotates drill string efficiently.
Handles pipe efficiently.
Variable rotating power.
Allows rotating at any time.
Rapid response to well kicks.
Reduce number of connection required.
No need to lay down pipe between wells.
Reaming and back reaming.
"Reaming is performed to open an under-gauge hole
to its original full-gauge size".

The disadvantages of the top drive system

More expensive to maintain.

Very large.
Drilling lines wears faster.
Difficult to move on land rigs, must be disassembled.

Drill string:

- The drill string is made up of the drill pipe (DP), heavy weight drill pipe
(HWDP) and drill collars (DC).
- Each length of drill pipe is about 30 feet long and is called a joint of pipe.
- Each end of each joint is threaded. The end of the joint with the interior
threads is known as the box.
- The end of the joint with the exterior threads is called the pin.
- When pipe is made up, the pin is stabbed into the box and the connection
tightened.
- The threaded ends of the pipe are called tool joints and are actually separate
parts that are welded onto the ends of the drill pipe by the manufacturer who
cuts the threads to industry specifications.
- Drill collars are heavier than drill pipe and are used on the bottom part of the
drill string to put weight on the bit.
- Unlike the drill pipe that has tool joints welded on, they have the boxes and
pins cut into them.

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 Basic Mud Logging

Heavy weight drill pipes Drill collars

Stabilizers:
- These are run between the drill collars.
- They do exactly as their name implies,
they provide stability to the bit and collars.
This is important as it improves bit life, in
addition to keeping the direction of the
hole under control.

Reamers:

- Reamers usually have the same diameter as

the bit and run a little distance above it.
- The reamer function is to cut the hole out to
full size behind the bit.
- There are many types of reamers depend on
the formation that they will pass through.
For example, roller reamers are classified
into three roller cutter types:

 Soft formation cutters deliver maximum

reaming action in soft formations like soft
limestone and shale.
 Medium to hard formation cutters are
most suitable for cherty formations to hard
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formations such as dolomite, hard

limestone and chert.
 Very hard formation cutters deliver
reliable reaming performance in hard,
abrasive and semi-abrasive formations
such as granite and sand.

Bumper Sub:

Bumper subs are currently used in offshore operations to permit a constant

weight to be carried on the bit while drilling, regardless of the vertical motion
imparted to the drill pipe by drilling vessel heave.

Rotary & crossover sub:

- They can be used to crossover from one connection size to another.

- Rotary subs are available with box x pin, box x box or pin x pin connections.
The rotary subs include the following types:

Straight OD sub is used to connect drill string

members that have a similar outside diameter.

Reduced section sub is used to connect drill stem

members that have different diameters that warrant the
cross-sectional change necessary to accommodate
different connections.

Top drive sub: Top Drive Subs serve as the sacrificial

element between the drill string and the top drive, reducing
repair and maintenance costs.
Bent sub: This is a non-straight sub designated with
different bending angles, it is fitted in the deviating bottom
hole assembly above the mud motor to drill deviated holes.
Lift sub: A Lift Sub enables the safe, efficient handling
of straight OD tubulars such as drill collars, shock tools,
jars, directional equipment and other tools by using the drill
pipe elevators.
Lift plugs: Lift plugs are of heat treated steel alloy.
Crown sections are bored out to reduce weight. They are
available in all sizes with or without lifting bail.

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Bits:

There are many types of bits that have been developed through the years for
more efficient drilling. Among these types are:

Rock bits (Roller cone):

- Rock bits have cone-shaped steel that are free to turn as the bit rotates.
- Bit manufacturers either cut teeth out of the cones or insert very hard tungsten
carbide buttons into the cones.
- The longer the teeth of the bit, the softer the formation need to be and vice
versa.
- The teeth can be made of the same material as the cones (milled teeth) or made
of hard (e.g. tungsten carbide).
- All bits have passages drilled through them to permit drilling fluid to exit.
- Most bits have nozzles that direct a high-velocity stream or jet of drilling fluid
to the sides and bottom of each cone.

PDC bits:
- Polycrystalline Diamond Compact (PDC) bits do not have cones, but they have
tungsten carbide teeth.
- Diamond bits are especially suited for drilling hard formations but can also be
used very effectively on soft formations.
- Such bits can stay on bottom for a long time and drill long distances.
- The negative side, PDC bits are extremely sensitive to pyrite in the formation
and metal junk as debris that may come from iron casing shoe.
- The penetration rate in shale is relatively poor.
- Their cost much higher than the cost of ordinary tricone bits.

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7. Power system:

On a diesel engine rig, diesel

engines, which on land rigs are
usually located at ground level some
distance away from the rig floor,
drive large electric generators. The
generators, in turn, produce
electricity that is sent through cables
to electric switches and control gears.
From here, electricity goes through
additional cables to electric motors
that are attached directly to the
equipment involved in drilling - draw
works, mud pumps, and the rotary.

3. Mud circulating systems:

Circulation is the process of pumping drilling fluid out of the mud pits,
down the drill string, up the annulus and back to the mud pits, and is a continual
process while drilling.
The drilling fluid (mud) is of great importance to the drilling operation.
Whilst drilling, the mud is constantly circulated from the active pits, down
through the drill string through the bit, returning up the annulus and back over
the shale shaker before returning to the mud pits. The main purposes of
circulation are:

1. Transport bit cuttings to the surface.

2. Clean the bottom of the hole.
3. Cool and lubricate the bit and drill string.
4. Support the walls of the wellbore.
5. Prevent entry of formation fluids into the well.
6. Detect gas, oil, or water that enters the drilling fluid from a formation.
7. Transmit hydraulic power to the bit.
8. Provide power to the motor so, the bit turns without engaging the rotary table.

Mud pumps:

- The mud pump is the primary component of any fluid circulating system.
- Pumps are either powered by electric motors attached directly to them, or
driven by the compound.

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- The pumps for rotary drilling rigs have high ratings and are capable of
moving large volumes of fluid at very high pressures.
- Mud pumps are generally classified into two main types:

Triplex pumps:
- Triplex pumps are found now almost universally on new rigs because of their
better performance.
- The triplex pump has three pump cylinders operating on one crank shaft with
120 degree phase difference.
- Every cylinder pumps with the forward moving action of the piston and
recharges with the retracting action of the piston.
- The cylinder liner and the piston of the mud pump can be changed to provide
different balances between volume and pressure.
- It is not uncommon to operate the pumps with 7” liner during the upper
portion of a hole, where large mud volumes are required and then change to 6”
liner for the deeper portion of the hole, where volume is less important than
pressure.

Triplex mud pump

Duplex pumps:

- Duplex pump has two cylinders operating on one crank shaft with 180 degrees.
- Each cylinder has two suction and two discharge valves.
- As the piston moves through the cylinder it is discharging mud in front at the
same time as mud is filling the cylinder behind.
- Similar to triplex pump the cylinder liner and the piston of the mud pump can
be changed to provide different balances between volume and pressure.
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 Basic Mud Logging

- It is not uncommon to operate the pumps with 7” liner during the upper portion
of a hole, where large mud volumes are required and then change to 6” liner for
the deeper portion of the hole, where volume is less important than pressure.

Duplex mud pump

Shale shaker:

- Shale shaker is a vibrating screen used to separate the drilled solids from the
drilling fluid.
- Screens of different mesh size are available. Mesh sizes being measured by the
number of openings per square inch. The screens are sometimes mounted as a
pair, using screens of different sizes.
- mud returning from the well comes down the flow line and into a surge tank
known as the possum belly or shaker header box; this allows a smooth flow of
mud onto the screens
- The shakers are usually situated over a sand trap, which is a narrow pit with
sloping sides used to trap fine sand that may pass through the shaker screens,
and this pit must be dumped out periodically.

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Desanders and desilters:

- These devices remove particles from mud, which were not removed by the
shakers or the sand trap.
- This separation is accomplished by utilizing centrifugal force. The equipment
is essentially a series of cones mounted on a manifold; mud is pumped into the
manifold and enters the cone.
- The difference between desanders and desilters is mainly in the size of the
cones. The smaller the cones the smaller the particles that it separates.

Mud degasser:

- Mud degasser units have long been employed in the drilling of wells in areas
containing high pressure gas formations that act to remove a great deal of the
entrained gas from drilling mud, these gases reducing the density of the drilling
mud and consequently reducing the hydrostatic pressure of the mud in the well
bore is more likely to flow into the well bore.

- A typical degasser operates on a vacuum principle. The mud is delivered to a

vacuum chamber and spread out in relatively thin sheets over a plurality of
downwardly inclined plates or leaves. The idea is that when the mud is spread
out, and the vacuum is applied to the chamber, the entrained gas comes out of
the mud, is picked up by the vacuum pump and discharged from the vacuum
chamber.

- The ideal location to degas drilling mud is before it reaches the mud tank
because all of the mud in the system can thereby be degassed and there is no
dilution of degassed mud with gas saturated mud.

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7. Blowout prevention system:

Blowout preventers (BOPs) are used to control blowout. The crew usually
installs several blowout preventers (BOP stack) on top of the well, with an
annular blowout preventer at the top and at least one pipe ram and one blind
ram blowout preventer below. Also, some well control techniques require both
the annular and the ram blowout preventers.

An annular blowout preventer has a rubber sealing element that, when

activated, seals the annulus between the kelly, the drill pipe, or the drill collar.
If no part of the drill stem is in the hole, the annular blowout preventer closes
on the open hole.

Ram blowout preventers are large steel rams that have sealing elements.
One type of ram blowout preventer is called a pipe ram because it closes on
the drill pipe; it cannot seal on open hole. Blind ram blowout preventers are
straight-edged rams used to close an open hole.

Blowout preventer stack

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RIG PERSONNEL
Whatever job you perform for oil field, you will need to know how the drilling
process is managed, supervised and completed. Who is in charge? Who can
authorize the stopping of drilling? Who can authorize you to visit the rig floor?

Company representative: is employed by the operating company, and is

responsible for all phases of drilling the well and for all needed equipments and
services such as casing, drilling mud, logging and cementing. Upon arrival at a
rig site, contact the company representative first.

Tool pusher: is in charge of the drilling rig and crews needed in the drilling
operations. He is generally an expert in drilling operations and equipments, and
is the main liaison between the drilling contractor and the operating company.

Driller: The next highest level of authority on the rig is the driller, who is
the working supervisor for the shift. The driller operates the controls on the drill
floor. He raises and lowers the drill string, sets the speed and penetration rates,
operates the mud pumps and operates the BOP stack as needed. The driller
reports to the tool pusher.

Assistant driller: covering and working as a driller in case of absent of the

driller, perform equipment safety checks on all drilling systems, and monitor all
drilling equipment to ensure proper function. Assistant drillers assure constant
well pressure and adjust machinery. For more serious maintenance issues with
the drilling.

Derrick man. The next man in line under the driller is the derrick man. He
is experienced enough to assist or relieve the driller. During a trip out of the
hole, he will work in the derrick racking the stands of drill pipe. At other times,
he may be servicing the mud and mud equipment.

Roughnecks. The roughnecks are the workers who make up and break out
the joints of pipe. They work on the floor and keep a steady supply of drill pipe
to connect to the drill string. The roughnecks also help maintain other
equipment on the rig floor. The roughnecks report to the driller. While drilling,
one Roughneck is present in the mud process room at all times. He takes mud
weights and ensures shakers and other machines are working properly.

Crane operator. The crane operator is in charge of the loading and

unloading of boats. The pipe rack area is also in crane operator’s charge, as are
the roustabout crews. The crane operator reports directly to the tool pusher.

Roustabouts. The roustabouts are the workers who help load and unload
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 Basic Mud Logging

equipment for the crane operator. They also clean, repair and maintain the rig
and its systems. They report to the crane operator.

Subsea engineer. The subsea engineer is responsible for maintaining the

subsea blowout prevention system. This includes the wellhead connection, the
BOP stack, control system, marine riser system and the motion compensation
equipment.

Barge engineer. A floating platform and drillship will have a barge engineer
assigned, who is responsible for the stability and ballast of the vessel. The barge
engineer must be notified before any heavy equipment is moved or loaded on
the rig. He must keep the rotary table in the correct position to drill the hole.

Specialty crewmen. Some skills are needed on the rig full time. These
specialty skills include the motorman, rig mechanic, rig welder, and rig
electrician.

Service specialists. The operator will contract with special service

companies for certain needs. These service crews include well loggers, mud
suppliers, analysis and treatment, cementing, casing, wireline operations and
others.

Motorman. The motorman is responsible for maintenance of the engines.

While all members of the rig crew help with major repairs, the motorman does
routine preventive maintenance and minor repairs

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DRILLING FLUIDS PROPERTIES

Drilling fluid is a circulating fluid used in rotary drilling to perform any or
all of the various functions required in the drilling operation”.

The following functions are the most important functions of drilling fluids
during drilling operations.

Cooling the bit and lubricating the drill string:

- During drilling, considerable heat and friction is built up due to bit contact with
the formation. The drilling fluid also lubricates the bit by reducing the friction
factor of the formation on the bit and drill string.
- Most drilling fluids contain additives (i.e. bentonite, polymers) which help
reduce the downhole friction.
- Fluid circulated around the parts of the bit removes the heat. Oily substances in
the drilling fluid can reduce friction in the bit bearings and act as a lubricant
between the drill string and the walls of the hole.
- Oil-emulsion mud and oil base mud are especially helpful in this way.

Transmitting hydraulic horsepower to the bit:

- The drilling fluid is the medium through which hydraulic horsepower is

transmitted to the bit.
- Fluid flowing from the bit nozzles exerts a jetting action that keeps the face of
the hole and the teeth edge of the bit clear of the cuttings.
- The horsepower required to move the mud through the remaining system should
be minimized in order to maximize horsepower at the bit.
- The heavier a fluid becomes, the greater the horsepower that is required to
move it through the system. This results in less horsepower at the bit and slower
penetration rates.
- Hydraulic energy can be used to maximize the rate of penetration by improving
cuttings removal at the bit.
- It also provides power for mud motors to rotate the bit.

Cleaning the bottom of the hole:

- The usual method for cleaning the hole is by circulation of fluids through jet
nozzles in the bit. High-velocity streams of fluid blast the bottom of the hole,
creating a turbulence that moves the chips from the face of the formation as fast as
they are formed.

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 Basic Mud Logging

Removing cuttings:

- Removal of cutting by the drilling fluid depends on the annular velocity

profile, in turn will depend on both the average fluid velocity and the viscosity
(mainly yield value) of the mud.
- The yield value can be controlled by drilling fluid additives and should be
maintained at the minimum value required for optimum solids removal from
the hole.
- The gel strengths of the mud are important to suspend the cuttings when
circulation is stopped.

Supporting the walls of the well:

- The hydrostatic pressure created by the weight of the fluid column in the hole
pushes against the plastered wall to support unconsolidated or loose formations
that might fall or slough into the hole.
- Hard rock formations have little tendency to slough and can therefore be drilled
with air, gas or water instead of mud.
- Filter cake, the plaster-like coating formed from mud solids on the walls of a
well, has the ability to seal the wellbore and prevent the loss of whole fluid.

Controlling formation pressures:

- When formation pressure exceeds hydrostatic pressure results the influx of
formation fluids or gases into the wellbore may cause well flowing.

- When hydrostatic pressure exceeds formation pressure may cause lost

circulation and differential sticking.

- The drilling fluid density should be balanced to contain any formation pressures
encountered to prevent the influx of formation fluids or gases into the wellbore
and provide a safety margin while tripping pipe.

- Dilution or addition of weighting material to mud being circulated in a well can

make a mud dense enough to hold back almost any formation pressure.

Transporting Cuttings to the Surface:

- Drilling fluids in circulation moves rock chips, sand, or shale particles out of a
well as it moves up the annulus. The drilling fluid velocity in the annulus is
usually from 100 to 300 feet per minute (ft/min) in order to keep the hole clean.
- Yield value and gel strengths, which affect the suspension and removal of the
drilling solids from the wellbore, also affect the efficiency of the solids removal
techniques at the surface. These properties are controlled by the colloid fraction

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of the drilling fluid and must be sufficient to suspend and remove cuttings from
the wellbore, yet low enough to release the cuttings at the surface.
Drilling fluid types:
Many types of drilling fluids are used on a day to day basis. Some wells
require that different types be used at different parts in the hole, or that some
types be used in combination with others. The various types of fluid generally
fall into a few broad categories:

Water: Water by itself is pumped to do very specific things in very specific

formations.

Water-based mud (WBM)

Use water as the continuous phase. Additives are used to change density and
viscosity and to control filtrate losses. Also, chemical compatibility with the
rock is important.

Advantages:

- Water-based drilling fluids are cheap.

- Good for curing mud losses, by pumping coarse bridging materials (called lost
circulation material).
- Water-wet formations, filtrate losses occur, leaving dense particles in the mud
in the fracture.

Disadvantages:

- Water-based drilling fluids are that they are reactive to clays and lead to time-
dependent borehole problems.
- The hole size often increases with time in shales.

Oil-based mud (OBM):

- Oil-based mud can be a mud where the base fluid is a petroleum product such
as diesel fuel.
- Oil-based muds are used for many reasons, some being increased lubricity,
enhanced shale inhibition, and greater cleaning abilities with less viscosity. Oil-
based muds also withstand greater heat without breaking down. The use of oil-
based muds has special considerations. These include cost and environmental
considerations.

Advantages:

1- Inhibition to reduce problems caused by swelling or sloughing shales.

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2- Provides good lubricity and reduces torque and drag and risk of sticking.
3- Stable at high temperatures.
4- Preserves natural permeability, not damaging hydrocarbon zones.

Disadvantages:

1- Environmental concerns
2- Flammability
3- Solids removal due to high PV (need good equipment as with polymer muds.
4- Problems for interpretation of log information
5- Cost

Synthetic-based fluid (SBM):

Synthetic-based fluid is a mud where the base fluid is a synthetic oil. This is
most often used on offshore rigs because it has the properties of an oil-based
mud, but the toxicity of the fluid fumes are much less than an oil-based fluid.
This is important when men work with the fluid in an enclosed space such as an
offshore drilling rig.

Mixing drilling mud:

Attention should be given to the equipment used to mix drilling mud’s and
to the sequence of addition of the mud and any additives.

If the make-up water requires treatment, always treat it prior to addition of the
bentonite clay.
Use a jet hopper mixer to disperse the bentonite clay.
The mud pit should be of such design that the drilling mud, during flow,
changes direction and slows, allowing for cuttings to drop out.
The addition of viscosifying polymers should be made after the bentonite clay
mud is thoroughly mixed in fresh water.
Viscosity and density tests should be run on the drilling mud following
mixing. Periodic tests should be made during drilling and changes noted. Sand
content tests should be run on the mud once drilling starts.

Spot & Sweep & Slug Mud

Spot: it is a high mud left on bottom, in order to POOH with dry pipes as possible.
Sweep: it is high viscosity mud to clean hole from cuttings in order to clean only.
Slug: it is high mud weight used to clean the string from cutting during the
tripping.

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Mud properties terminology:

Various properties of the mud are measured as an indication of the
performance of the mud in the hole. Tests commonly made are:

1. Mud weight (density):

- Mud weight is a density measurement expressed in terms of the weight of a

unit volume of the drilling fluid.
- Mud weight as low as the weight of water is desired for achieving optimum
penetration rates and for minimizing the chances of loss of circulation.
- Increasing mud weight necessary to prevent or control a “well kick”.
- Barite is the standard solid used to increase mud density.
- Water can be added to reduce mud density.
- Mud weight can be expressed in lb/gal, lb/ft3., pound per gallon (ppg) or
specific gravity (S.G.).
- Equivalent circulated density (ECD): This is mud weight in the dynamic state.

Marsh Funnel
2. Mud viscosity:

- Viscosity is “the internal resistance of a fluid to flow”; the drilling fluid

viscosity can be expressed as either relative or absolute measurements. The
relative measurements are the funnel viscosity and the qualitative viscosity. The
absolute measurements are the quantitative values of the non-Newtonian
characteristics, namely, the plastic viscosity, the yield point and gel strengths.

Funnel Viscosity: Is a routine field measurement of the viscosity of drilling fluid

make with a marsh funnel. The funnel is filled with one quart of drilling fluid, and
the elapsed time to empty the funnel is recorded in second (seconds per quart).

Plastic viscosity: Is that part of flow resistance in a mud caused primarily by the
friction between the suspended particles and by the viscosity of the continuous
liquid phase. For practical purposes plastic viscosity depends on the concentration
of solids present and the size and shape of these solid particles.

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Rotational viscometers
3.Yield point:
- Yield point is a measurement under flowing conditions of the forces in the mud
which cause gel structure to develop when the mud is at rest.
- These forces exist between the solid particles, and are the result of positive and
negative electrical charges located on or near the surface of each particle.
- When the mud is at rest, the solid particles tend to arrange themselves in such a
manner that these attractive and repulsive forces are best satisfies.
- The yield value is the dominant factor that affects the circulating friction losses,
the equivalent circulating density, the transition point into turbulent flow, and the
carrying capacity of a drilling fluid.
- Yield point is defined as the 300-RPM shear stress reading minus the plastic
viscosity. Yp = Ø300 - Pv

4. Gel strengths:
- Gel Strength is a measure of the attractive forces of suspended particles in a
liquid when that liquid is in a static state.
- Allow the cuttings to be removed at the surface
- Permit entrained gas to be removed at the surface
- Minimize swabbing when the pipe is pulled from the borehole
- Permit starting of circulation without high pump pressures
- If the viscosity or gel strength (or both) is too high, effect that the gas may be
recycled several times. Swabbing of the borehole may also introduce and Fine
cuttings may be held in suspension and recycling.

5. Filtration:

- Filtration test is a relative measure of liquid filtered into a permeable

formation and of the cake left on the formation.
- There are two standard filtration tests. One is at ambient temperature and 100
psi and the other at 300°F and 500 psi. The high temperature – high pressure
test should preferably be run under actual bottom hole temperatures and
differential pressures existing in the well bore.
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- When the mud of sufficient colloidal content is used, drilling difficulties are
minimized.
- A thick filter cake restricts the passage of tools and allows an excessive
amount of filtrate to pass into the formation, thus providing a potential cause
of caving.

6. Fluid loss:

- The fluid loss properties of a drilling fluid have related on the penetration
rate, hole problems in areas of sloughing shales, formation damage in
sensitive reservoirs, and differential sticking problems in permeable zones.
- The fluid loss into formation occurs under both dynamic and static
conditions.
- Static fluid loss is by definition the steady state fluid loss into a permeable
formation through a filter medium (mud cake).
- The dynamic fluid loss will differ according to the flow regime (laminar or
turbulent).

Types of losses

1- Surface losses: it's the losses of mud due to surface equipments like (desander,
desilter, mud cleaner and centrifuge.).
2- Hole fills: its mud needed to fill the hole.
3- Down hole losses: its mud lost in the formation due to fracturing or higher mud
weight.

A flow check

- A method of determining whether a kick has occurred.

- The mud pumps are stopped for a short period to see whether mud continues to
flow out of the hole. If it does, a kick may be occurring.
- The flow check may be performed by visually inspecting the annulus through the
rotary table, or by directing the mud returns to the trip tank and observing the
mud level.
7. Sand content:

- The nature of the drilled solids which can be suspension by a drilling fluid vary
from reactive bentonitic particles to inert sand grains.
- Sand content is the volume percentage of particles larger than 74 microns.
- Excessive sand may result in the deposition of a thick filter cake on the wall of
the borehole, in turn it may settle in the hole around the tools when circulation
is stopped and may cause interference with the successful operation of drilling
or when the casing is set.
- High sand content also causes excessive abrasion of pump parts and pipe
connections.
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- The sand content of a drilling fluid is measured by means of FANN sand

content kit.

Sand content kit

8. Drilling fluid pH:

- The degree of acidity or alkalinity of drilling mud is indicated by the hydrogen-

ion concentration, a perfectly neutral solution has a pH of 7.0, and Alkalinity
solutions have pH from 7 to 14, while acid solutions range from 1 to 7.
- The pH measurement is used as an aid in determining the need for chemical
control of mud as well as indicating the presence of contaminates such as
cement or gypsum.
- The pHydroin dispenser, which provides a series of paper indicator strips that
determine pH from 1 to 14.

pHydroin dispenser Digital pH meter

9. Alkalinity:

- A dictionary description of alkalinity is water soluble chemicals that can

neutralize acids.
- There are three tests for alkalinity, which are Pm, Pf, and Mf. Pf and Mf is the
alkalinity of the filtrate. Pf is the amount in milliliters of N50 sulfuric acid
required to reduce the pH of one ml of filtrate to 8.3 Mf is equal to the Pf and
ml of N50 sulfuric acid required to reduce the pH from 8.3 to 4.3. With the use
of these tests, one can determine the type contaminate present in the mud.

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10. Chloride content:

- It is desirable to know the salt content of muds to account for certain aspects of
their performance. Filtration, suspension, viscosity and gel properties are
adversely affected by salt unless the mud is specifically designed to withstand
salt contamination.
- Salt content determination made at regular intervals may be useful in
identifying salt sections or filtration of salt water into the mud system. The salt
content in the sample is expressed in parts per million chlorides (ppm Cl).

11. Total hardness (calcium content):

- The total hardness of a solution is the sum total of the calcium and magnesium
ions in that solution.
- The difference between the total hardness and Ca ++ content will be the
concentration of the Mg++ ion.
- Calcium ions may be added to the system by drilling cement, anhydrite or
gypsum, or by the addition of hard make-up water and treating chemicals
containing calcium.

DRILLING PROCESS
Drilling for oil and gas seems, on the surface, to be a relatively simple
process of drilling a subsurface hole (wellbore) until it penetrates an oil or gas-
bearing formation. However, in reality, drilling for oil or gas is a highly
sophisticated process requiring an effective organization; a vast knowledge
base, large amounts of capital, expensive equipment and machines, and
dedicated, highly trained and committed personnel. In order to begin to
understand the process, it is important to become familiar with a number of
generalizations that can be made about drilling an oil or gas well.
The drilling process includes different operation that takes place on the rig
site such as drilling, tripping, casing run, cementing, wireline logging and
perforating in addition to some drilling problems that might arises such as stuck
pipe and loss of circulation.

1. Drilling:

The well is created by drilling a hole 5 to 36 inches (127.0 mm to 914.4 mm)

diameter into the earth with a drilling rig which rotates a drill string with a bit
attached. After the hole is drilled, sections of steel pipe (casing), slightly smaller
in diameter than the borehole, are placed in the hole. Cement may be placed
between the outside of the casing and the borehole. The casing provides
structural integrity to the newly drilled wellbore in addition to isolating
potentially dangerous high pressure zones from each other and from the surface.

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Vertical drilling:

First about 20 to 100 feet has to be drilled and lined with conductor pipe.
The diameter of the conductor pipe varies according to hole size. Conductor or
surface pipe can be hammered driven or a borehole made to lower the conductor
into and cement the pipe in place. A casing head is fixed to the top of the
conductor at the surface.

A bit with smaller size than the internal diameter of the conductor pipe is to
be chosen. The selected bit is then made up on the end of the first drill collar
and both bit and drill collars are lowered into the conductor hole. Enough
collars and drill pipe are made up and lowered in until the bit is almost to
bottom.

The kelly is then picked up out of the rat hole where it

has been stored and is made up on the topmost joint of
drill pipe sticking up out of the rotary table. This joint of
pipe is suspended in the rotary table by the slips. With
the kelly made up, the pump started to begin circulating
drilling mud and the kelly bushing in the rotary table and
rotation begins.

Next, the driller gradually releases the draw works brake and the rotating bit
touches bottom and begins “making hole”. Using an instrument called the
weight indicator, the driller monitors the amount on weight put on the bit, since
the kelly is about 40 feet long, after 40 feet of hole is made the driller stops the
rotary, stops the pumps and raises the kelly exposing the top of the previously
connected joint.

The drilling crew prepares to make the first connection. They set the slips
around the joint of pipe and latch a big set of wrenches - called tongs - around
the base of the kelly. Tongs pull line - a length of a strong wire rope - runs from
the end of the tongs over to the
breakout cat-head on the draw works. The driller engages the cat-head and it
starts pulling on the line with tremendous force.

The pulling force on the tongs breaks out or loosens the threaded joint
between the kelly and drill pipe. Once the joint is loosened the crew removes
the tongs - and the driller engages the kelly spinner (an air-actuated device
mounted permanently near the top of the kelly).The kelly spinner turns or spins
the kelly so that it unscrews rapidly from the drill pipe.
The crew moves the kelly over to the mouse-hole, which is just a hole in the
rig floor lined with pipe into that hole a joint of drill pipe is placed prior to its
begin made up in the string. The crew stabs the kelly into the box of the drill
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pipe and the driller spins the kelly. The crew grabs the tongs, latches them onto
the kelly and pipe and bucks up (tightens) the joint to final tightness. (Each pipe
size and grade has its own tightening torque range that must never be exceeded
by the driller).

The driller uses the draw works to raise the kelly and attached joint out of
the mouse- hole. The crew stabs the end of the new joint hanging in the rotary
and the two are connected together, the joint is spun up and tongs are used to
make them up to final tightness. Finally, the driller lifts up the kelly and
attached strings a little, the crew removes the slips and the newly added joint
and kelly are lowered until the kelly bushing engages the rotary. What has just
been described is called “making connection” and can actually be carried out
almost in less time than it takes to tell about it.

The pump is started, the bit is set back on bottom and another thirty or so
feet are drilled, a connection is made each time the kelly is drilled down i.e.
each time thirty feet of hole is made. The kelly is normally fifteen feet longer
than a joint giving room for maneuver. The previous operation is repeated times
and times until a desired depth is reached or bit change process is needed.

Directional drilling:
Usually but not always, the crew tries to drill the
hole as straight as possible, but at times it is desirable
to deflect the hole from vertical. The most dramatic
example of this is the offshore platform. Many wells
may be drilled from a single platform without having
to move the rig. The technique used is called
“directional drilling”. Only the first hole drilled into
the reservoir tray be vertical; each subsequent well
may be drilled vertically to a certain depth then
kicked-off (deflected) directionally so that the bottoms
of the hole ends up away from its starting point on the
surface.
By using directional drilling, as many as twenty or
more wells may be drilled into the reservoir from one
platform. Thus, directional drilling has become a
routine development operation throughout the world.
The intentional deviation of a wellbore from the path it would naturally take.
This is accomplished through the use of whipstocks, bottomhole assembly
(BHA) configurations, instruments to measure the path of the wellbore in three-
dimensional space, data links to communicate measurements taken downhole to
the surface, mud motors and special BHA components and drill bits.

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While many techniques can accomplish directional drilling, the general

concept is simple: point the bit in the direction that one wants to drill. The most
common way is using a bend near the bit in a downhole steerable mud motor.
The bend points the bit in a direction different from the axis of the wellbore
when the entire drill string is not rotating. By pumping mud through the mud
motor, the bit turns while the drill string does not rotate, allowing the bit to drill
in the direction it points. When a particular wellbore direction is achieved, that
direction may be maintained by rotating the entire drill string (including the
bent section) so that the bit does not drill in a single direction off the wellbore
axis, but instead sweeps around and its net direction coincides with the existing
wellbore. Rotary steerable tools allow steering while rotating, usually with
higher rates of penetration and ultimately smoother boreholes.

Directional wells are drilled for several purposes:

Increasing the exposed section length through the reservoir by drilling

through the reservoir at an angle.
Drilling into the reservoir where vertical access is difficult or not possible.
For instance an oilfield under a town, under a lake, or underneath.
Allowing more wellheads to be grouped together on one surface location can
allow fewer rig moves, less surface area disturbance, and make it easier and
cheaper to complete and produce the wells. For instance, on an oil platform or
jacket offshore, up to about 40 wells can be grouped together. The wells will
fan out from the platform into the reservoir below. This concept is being applied
to land wells, allowing multiple subsurface locations to be reached from one
pad, reducing environmental impact.
Drilling "relief wells" to relieve the pressure of a well producing without
restraint (a "blow out"). In this scenario, another well could be drilled starting at
a safe distance away from the blow out, but intersecting the troubled wellbore.
Then, heavy fluid (kill fluid) is pumped into the relief wellbore to suppress the
high pressure in the original wellbore causing the blowout.

Some definitions about drilling

- Blind drilling: Drilling of hole without any return of cutting or fluid so they
drill with seawater in order to reduce the costs.

- Kick off point: this is point at which the wellbore is first taken away from the
vertical. It can be achieved through various techniques such as the use of
jetting, whipstocks, motors and bent subs.

- A drilling break (fast break) is a sudden increase in the drill bit's rate of
penetration. This may result simply from a formation change, but sometimes
indicates that the bit has penetrated a high-pressure zone and thus warns of
the possibility of a kick.

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Rotary drilling Sliding drilling

run with BHA rotary assemblies run with BHA motor assemblies
with surface and equal bit RPM with only bit RPM, no surface RPM
with TRQ reading without TRQ reading
with normal SPP values with higher value of SPP

2. Coring:
- Coring is an operation performed to cut and retrieve a cylindrical rock sample.
- A core sample is a cylindrical section of a naturally occurring medium
consistent enough to hold a layered structure.
- A special core bit, a solid cylinder of rock, approximately 4” – 5” in diameter
and in 30 ft increments, is extracted from a well.
- Conventional core sampling is generally available over short reservoir sections
and is helpful when needing analysis on a detailed scale.

Diamond core bit Core samples

Conventional coring:
- Core barrel is made up on the drill string with a special type of bits called “Core
Head” and run to the bottom of the hole.
- As the core barrel is rotated, it cuts a cylindrical core a few inches in diameter
that is received in a tube above the core cutting bit.
- A complete round trip is required for each core taken.
- After each core was cut, the inner core barrel was laid on the catwalk and the the
core was extruded from the barrel and cut into three foot sections.
- Each section was measured and marked for depth at one-foot intervals. Where
applicable, depths were assigned such that any core not recovered was attributed
to the bottom of the cored interval.

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Sidewall coring:
- A core taken from the side of the borehole, usually by a wireline tool.
- Sidewall cores may be taken using percussion or mechanical drilling.
- Percussion cores are taken by firing hollow bullets into the formation. The
bullets are attached to the tool by fasteners, and are retrieved, along with the
core inside, by pulling up the tool and the fasteners.
- Percussion coring tools typically hold 20 to 30 bullets, but two or three tools
can be combined on one run in the hole.
- Mechanical tools use hollow rotary drills to cut and then pull out core plugs.

Sidewall core Sidewall coring

sample
3. Tripping:

- After the hole is conditioned for any reason (such as casing, changing the bit,
changing the mud motor, changing any part of BHA, or running wire line), all
of BHA and drill pipes have to be removed from the hole and stacked against
the derrick or mast.
- Fill the hole with mud as the pipes are being removed from the drill stem.
- Monitor any increase or decrease in the mud volume removed from the hole or
added to the hole.
- If there is any extra drag (friction to the wall) which is not normal, start
circulation and the hole in that section will be cleaned.
- Over pull (pick up) & Drag when tripping out, additional resistance must be
overcome in order to lift the pipe. This additional hook load is termed over pull.
When tripping in, a portion of the string weight will be supported by the tight spot,
so that the measured hook load will decrease.
- If there is any discrepancy in the depth, measure and record all of the stands to
verify the correct depth.

Tripping operation takes place through the following steps:

The drill pipe is suspended in the hole and the kelly is disconnected. (Using
slips and tongs).
The kelly is swung across the rig floor and lowered into the rat hole, and then
the swivel is unlatched from the travelling block hook. The rat hole is a tube
rather like the mouse- hole. It provides a storage receptacle for the kelly, kelly
bushings and swivel when they are not in use during the round trip.
One of the rig crew - the derrick man, climbs to the monkey board high in the
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derrick. He secures himself at this working platform using a safety harness. It is

his job to handle the top of the stand during the round trip.
Elevators are latched around the drill pipe just below the tool joint. The
elevators are a set of hinged clamps, which are part of the hook and travelling
block assembly. They are connected to links which themselves are attached to
the eyes of the hook.
The driller can now start to pull the drill string out of the hole. As he starts to
raise the string, the slips are removed by the roughnecks on the rig floor. The
string is then lifted until the third tool joint is clear of the rotary table and the
slips are re-set. Now we have a stand of drill pipe up in the derrick being held
by the elevators, while the rest of the string is in the hole suspended from the
slips.
The next job for the roughnecks is to disconnect the stand from the drill string.
This is done using the tongs and pipe spinner. The lower end of the stand is then
swung to one side of the rig floor and stood down.
The derrick man job now is to unlatch the elevators having first secured the
top of the stand with a rope. With the stand now clear, he can pull the top of the
stand into the fingers of the monkey board. The stand is now racked (stored) in
the derrick.
The driller now lowers the travelling assembly, allowing the roughnecks to
latch the elevators round the next tool joint ready to pull another stand.
The procedure, which was just described, is repeated until all the pipes are out
of the hole. Depending on the depth of the hole, this could take an entire day to
complete.

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 Basic Mud Logging

Swabbing & Surge

Very important for logging engineers to take attention from swabbing and surge
while tripping.

1-Swabbing

- Bottom hole pressure temporary reduction results from the upward movement
of pipe in the hole.
- If the drill pipe is pulled too fast during tripping (Swabbing), formation fluid
will be pulled into the well bore.
- Swabbing is caused by the piston action of the bit when it is pulled upward –
Swabbing pressure make BHP decrease.

2-Surge

- Bottom hole pressure temporary increase results from the downward movement of
pipe in the hole.
- The opposite of swabbing, Surge pressure makes BHP increase.
- If it is high enough, surge will result in formation split fracture and loss of
circulation.

4. Casing:

As the drilling of an oil or gas well progresses, it becomes necessary to line

the walls of the hole with heavy steel pipe called casing. The casing, together
with cement around it performs the following functions:

• Prevent caving of the hole.

• Prevent contamination of freshwater in the upper sand zones.
• Exclude water from the oil or gas producing formations.
• Confine production to the wellbore.
• Provide a means for controlling pressure.
• Facilitate installation of the subsurface equipment. required if artificial lift

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 Basic Mud Logging

method becomes necessary in producing the well.

• Facilitate the use of acidizing, zone fracturing, etc.
• Allows segregation of formations behind the pipe and thereby prevents
inter-formational flow, and permits production from a specific zone.

One or more of the following strings of casing is required in every well:

Casing Types

1- Conductor Pipe:

- The hole for the conductor pipe may be drilled or pile driven with a pile driver.
- Conductor pipe is usually 16 inches to 48 inches in diameter.
- It could be 300 feet deep or more.

Conductor Casing or Pipe: Uses

- As a channel to raise the mud high enough to return to the mud pits.
- To prevent erosion around the base of the rig.
- To provide for attaching the BOP stack where shallow gas is expected.
- To protect the subsequent casing strings from corrosion.
- To support some of the wellhead load on locations where the ground is soft.

2-Surface Casing:
- The diameter of the surface casing must be less than the conductor casing.
- Usually set from 300 to 4000 feet deep.

Surface Casing: Uses

- Primarily for protection in case of a blowout, so this string is usually designed to
withstand a burst pressure equivalent to 1 psi/ft of depth.
- Set deep enough to protect the well from cave-in and washout of loose formations
that are encountered near the surface.
- Starting point for the casing head and other fittings that will be left on the
completed well.

3- Intermediate Casing:

- The number of intermediate casing strings set depends on the depth of the well
and the problems encountered in drilling - Size ranges from 5 to 13 3/8 inches in
diameter.

Intermediate Casing: Uses

- Generally used to seal off weak zones that might break with the use of heavy mud
and withstand pressure at the wellhead when kicks are being handled.

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 Basic Mud Logging

- Sometimes used to seal off salt and anhydrite zones that may contaminate the
drilling mud or cause pipe sticking and key seats.
- Also used to seal off older production zones in order to drill deeper.

4- Liner String:
- An abbreviated string of casing used to case the open hole below existing casing.
- It extends from the setting depth up into another casing string, usually overlapping
around 100 feet above the lower end of either the intermediate or production
casing.
- Suspended from the upper casing by a liner hanger.
- Production liners are sometimes not cemented.
(Scab liner: it's reverse liner run above the liner to support, and it must be of high
grade).

5- Production Casing (Tubing):

This serves to isolate the hydrocarbons during production from undesirable fluids
in the producing formation and from other zones penetrated by the well bore.

Liner: Advantages

- Cheaper because only a short string of pipe is needed instead of a complete string
back to the surface (principal advantage) - Cheaper means of testing a lower zone.
- Less danger of the casing being stuck because a liner can be run in a shorter
amount of time.
- If drilling has weakened the casing string, additional pipe may be tied back to the
surface from the top of the liner.

Liner: Problems Encountered

- Liner seals sometimes leak.

- Difficulty in disengaging the liner string from the running tool.

Casing Accessories

1- Guide Shoes: is attached to the first length of casing to be lowered into the
hole. It is aluminum with a hole in the center and rounded, to guide the casing into
the borehole, around obstructions.
2- Float Collars: One way valve to move fluid downward only
3- Float shoe: To prevent mud entering CSG and keep it empty
4- Centralizers: to reduce the differential sticking and let CSG be centered.
5- Scratches: To remove any mud cake present on the hole.
6- Cementing Head:
Wiper plugs: Wiper plugs are made of molded rubber and cast aluminum or

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 Basic Mud Logging

plastic. They are designed for the following reasons:

• Wipe the casing free of mud.
• Separate mud from cement inside the casing.

The top, or follow, plug follows cement slurry, or other fluids, down the CT
string and serves as a wiper and means to separate the cement and the
displacement fluid pumped behind the slurry. The top plug will seat on the top
of the bottom plug when completely displaced.

The bottom, or lead, plug is a device to lead the cement slurry, or other fluids,
down the CT string. It also separates the fluid inside the coiled tubing and the
cement slurry. Upon seating, the pins in the plug will shear at the selected
pressure and allow the cement slurry to pass through the plug. The lead plug
provides the seal area for the follow plug.

Cementing head: This provides the union for connecting the cementing lines
from the cementing pump to the casing. This type of head makes it possible to
circulate the mud in a normal manner, release the bottom plug, mix and pump
the cement and pump it down, release the top plug, and displaces the cement
without making or breaking any connections.

5.
6. Cementing:

Oil well cementing is the process of mixing and displacing cement slurry
down the casing and up the annular space behind the casing where it is allowed
to set, thus bonding the pipe to the formation. Cementing procedures are
classified as primary or secondary. Primary cementing is performed
immediately after the casing is run into the borehole. Its objective is to obtain an
effective zonal separation and help protect the casing. Cementing also helps in
the following ways:
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 Basic Mud Logging

6. Cementing

Cementing helps in the following ways:

1- Bonds the casing to the formation.
2- Protects the producing formations.
3- Helps in the control of blowouts from high-pressure zones.
4- Seals off troublesome zones (i.e. lost circulation zones).
5- Provides support for the casing.
6- Prevents casing corrosion.
7- Forms a seal in the event of a kick during drilling.

Primary Cementing:

1. Single-Stage (normal displacement technique)

Once casing is set and circulation has been assured, is to pump a 10 to 15 barrel
“spacer” ahead of the bottom (red) plug, which is immediately followed by the
cement. The spacer serves as a flushing agent and provides a spacer between the
mud and cement. It also assists in the removal of wall cake and flushes the mud
ahead of the cement, thereby lessening contamination.
Cement plugs consist of an aluminum body encased in molded rubber. Two plugs
are usually contained in the cementing head to facilitate the operations. When the
bottom plug reaches the float collar, the diaphragm in the plug ruptures to permit
the cement to proceed down the casing and up the annulus.
The top (black) plug, which is solidly constructed, is released when all the cement
has been pumped. It is dropped on top of the cement, followed by drilling mud, to
displace the cement from the casing. This plug causes a complete shut-off when it
reaches the float collar.
Pumping is stopped as soon as there is a positive indication (pressure increase)
that the top plug has reached the float collar.

2- Multi-Stage
Usually for a long column that might cause formation breakdown if the cement
were displaced from the bottom of the string. The essential tool consists of a
ported coupling placed at the proper point in the string.
Cementation of the lower section of casing is done first, in the usual manner,
using plugs that will pass through the stage collar without opening the ports. The
multi-stage tool is then opened hydraulically by special plugs, and fluid circulated
through the tool to the surface. Placement of cement for the upper section occurs
through the ports which are subsequently closed by the final plug pumped behind
the cement.

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 Basic Mud Logging

Cementing operation

Single stage cementing

Multi stage cementing

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 Basic Mud Logging

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 Basic Mud Logging

Secondary cementing:
Secondary cement work is done after primary cementing, and includes:

• Plugging to another producing zone.

• Plugging a dry hole.
• Formation “squeeze” cementing.

The most important use of squeeze cementing is to segregate hydrocarbon

producing zones from those formations producing other fluids. Squeeze
cementing is also used to:

• Supplement or repair a faulty primary cement job.

• Repair defective casing or improperly placed perforations.
• Minimize the danger of lost circulation zones.
• Abandon permanently a non-producing or depleted zone.
• Isolate a zone prior to perforating or fracturing.

Injection of the slurry is done under pressure through perforations. The

pumping rate is slow enough to allow for dehydration and initial setting, or
both. Pumping is continued until the desired “squeeze” pressure is reached.

Squeeze:- the process of injection the cement, it's done by running (cement
returned tool) and its work through pumping cement then at bottom then it well
plug the cement.
Tag on cement: the process of RIH with string to touch the top of cement to be
identified

7. Leak off test:

If drilling must continue after a casing is set, it must be determined how

much is the maximum pressure that can fracture the formation at the casing
shoe since it is the shallowest, unprotected formation than the lowest fracture
pressure. By this measurement, drilling can continue until the mud weight
(equivalent mud weight and fracture pressure equivalent mud weight) can be
calculated.

As the depth of drilling increases, mud weight must be increased. The

maximum mud weight that can be used but not fracture the formation at the
shoe is measured as follows:

1. After cement in the casing is drilled out, casing shoe is drilled out.
2. About 10 feet of new formation below the casing shoe is drilled.
3. Hole will be circulated until all of the cuttings from the new formation is
out of the hole and the hole and inside casing is very clean and free from
shale, sand, and cuttings.
4. Special wellhead plugs, packers at the rig floor are set.
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 Basic Mud Logging
A special mud with known and pre-determined weight is pumped down the
5.
hole through the drill pipe.
6. The amount of pressure that is applied is monitored very carefully and
accurately.
7. Pressure is increased slowly and steadily until the formation at the shoe or
below the shoe is fractured or propped open and fluid can flow into the
formation.
8. At the moment of formation fracture, the pressure is measured accurately.
9. Leak-off test pressure is calculated using this pressure. Fracture pressure or
fracture pressure equivalent mud weight is the combination of pressure
equivalent mud weight applied and the mud weight equivalent of the
hydrostatic head.

8. Fishing:
The wash out in pipes
A-Vertical: when WOB increasing, the crack increases and the pressure will
continue drops.
B-Horizontal: that on decreasing the WOB, the pressures will increase.
Twist off Cut of the drill string from any weak point predicted by sharp drop
in SPP and sharp drop in HKLD.
When great stress is placed on downhole equipment, the probability exists
that sooner or later, there will be a mechanical failure and some part of the
equipment will be left in the borehole. Another common source of trouble is the
drill string and associated equipment becoming “stuck” in the borehole. The
technique of removing pieces/section of equipment is called “fishing”.

A “fish” is a piece of equipment, a tool, a part of the drill string that is lost or
stuck in the hole. Small pieces, such as a bit cone, or any other relatively small
non-drillable items, are called junk or “fish” in the hole. These must be removed
or fished out so that drilling operations can continue.

Fishing tools:
Many of the tools used to recover equipment are specially designed for the
particular job. However, due to the similarity of equipment used in most drilling
operations, certain standard fishing tools have been developed. A broad
classification of fishing tools is:

• Tools used to recover miscellaneous equipment (junk).

• Tools used to recover pipe (fish).

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 Basic Mud Logging

Fishing for junk:

When a relatively small piece of equipment is lost in the borehole, it may be

retrieved using one of the following tools:

• “Junk” or “boot” sub: This is run immediately above the bit to catch small
junk thrown up by turbulence. It is normally run before running a diamond bit
so that no fragments can damage the bit.

• “Finger-type” or “Poor boy” junk basket: This cuts a small core, after
which weight is applied to bend the beveled fingers inward to trap the junk
inside. This can be made “on- the-spot” from casing.

• Core-type junk basket: This is essentially a mill shoe basket, which cuts a
small core to trap the junk, and has catchers (fingers) which grip the junk on the
trip out.

• Fishing magnet: This is used for picking up steel fragments.

• Jet bottom hole cutter: This is used when the junk is so large or oddly
shaped that it cannot be readily retrieved with regular junk baskets. It breaks the
junk up into smaller pieces by use of an explosive charge.

• Grapple or rope spear: This is used to retrieve wireline cable in the hole.

The next figure illustrates the different tools used in fishing for junk operations.

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 Basic Mud Logging

Fishing for pipe:

When the drill string has actually parted or is stuck in the borehole, the
operation for correcting the situation is called “fishing”. If the fish cannot be
recovered, then it is cemented off and the borehole is sidetracked around it.
Some of the tools used for fishing are described below.

• Mill: Milling is sometimes necessary in order to dress the top of a fish so that
the selected fishing tool is able to make a firm positive catch. Mills usually are
bladed or blunt, tungsten carbide coated, and are attached to the end of the drill
string to be lowered into the borehole.

• Overshot: This is probably the first tool to be used when it is established that
the top of the fish is relatively smooth. It will slide over the fish, center it, then
use a rotary tap or slips to engage the fish.

• Wall-hook guide: This is used if the top of the fish is located in a washed out
section. It takes the place of the regular guide on the bottom of an overshot. It
will engage the fish and guide it into the overshot.

• Jar: This is used when the drill string is stuck or when a fish is caught in an
overshot and cannot be pulled from the borehole. In normal drilling, the jar is
placed in the heavy weight pipe section, while in fishing it is located directly
above the fishing tool. Jarring provides a method of giving an upward jerk to
free the pipe. It works similar to a trip-hammer.

Free-point indicator and string shot: The point at which they can make cut for
the sticky string; firstly they try to make jarring to free this point.

When jarring has not been successful, this is used to determine at what
point in the borehole the fish is stuck. It is an electronic instrument that can
sense torque or pipe movement. It is lowered on a wireline as far as possible
and raised slowly while the drill string is stressed. Below the stuck point, no
torque will be sensed. When the instrument gives a positive indication, the “free
point” is reached.

The free point indicator is raised until string shot is positioned opposite the
nearest tool joint (or one or two tool joints above the stuck point). Left-hand
torque is applied to the drill string by the rotary table, and the primacord string
shot is exploded. Loss of torque in the drill pipe is a definite indication that the
tool joint has been loosened. The “back off” is completed by further left-hand
rotation and by picking the pipe up a few feet.

• Washover: This is a large diameter pipe with a rotary cutting shoe on the
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 Basic Mud Logging

bottom. It is used to “drill over” stuck pipe to free it before fishing.

• Spotting: This is used when jarring alone will not free the fish. Oil or special
chemicals are spotted around the fish in an attempt to penetrate the wall cake,
causing it to deteriorate and make the pipe slick. Spotting with water/oil when
differentially stuck, and acid spotting when stuck in limestone are often used in
an attempt to free the pipe.

• Safety joint: This is a coarse-threaded joint, which may be easily released. It

is run above a fishing tool in case the fish cannot be freed and the fishing tool
cannot be released.

If spotting and jarring do not free the fish, the “free point” is used to locate the
stuck point and the upper portion of the drill pipe is “backed off”. Fishing
operations can then be carried out.

The next figure illustrates the different tools used in fishing for pipe operations.

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 Basic Mud Logging

9. Wireline logging:
Downhole logs represent continuous measurements of the drilled
formations as a function of depth. The advantage of downhole logging is the
ability to record, concurrently, petrophysical as well as structural information
of several properties. Operating on an intermediate scale between core
measurements and borehole geophysics, downhole logs are characterized by
fast data acquisition over large depth ranges under in situ conditions.
Most of the wells are logged by wireline systems. There usually two kinds
of wireline logs: open hole logs and cased hole logs.
An electric logging company is called to the well while the crew trips out
all the drill string. Using a laboratory, truck-mounted for land rigs and
permanently mounted on offshore rigs the loggers lower devices called
logging tools (or sonde's) into the well on wireline. The tools are lowered all
the way to bottom and then reeled slowly back upwards. As the tools are
coming up the hole, they are able to measure the properties of the formations
they pass.

Open hole logs

Open hole logging is done immediately after BHA is removed from the
hole. There may be one, two, or more runs of the wire line logging. In normal
and most common operations, a resistivity tool, gamma, and one or more
porosity tools are used (such as neutron, density, or sonic tools). In
exploratory wells, more sophisticated wire line tools are used.

Repeat formation testing (RFT)

Wire line formation testing, is a quick and inexpensive way to sample
formation fluids and measure hydrostatic and flow pressure at specific
depths.
Repeat formation testing provides the information required to predict
formation productivity and to plan more sophisticated formation tests, such
as drill stem tests. Repeat formation tests can be run in open holes or cased
holes (through perforated production liners), and multiple tests can be
performed during one trip in the hole.

Cased hole logs

Cased hole logging are run after casing is set and tools are used can work
in the casing their signals can penetrate through the casing and into the
formation. Examples of cased hole logs are cement bond logs, gamma logs
for correlation, casing integrity test logs, etc.

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 Basic Mud Logging

10. Well completion:

The drilling of a well is only the first stage in the total life of that well.
Following the drilling, the well must be “completed” in order to produce
hydrocarbons at a commercial rate. When we take a close look at the drilling
processes, we can understand why completions are so important.
As discussed before, when a well is drilled, the formation is first crushed by
the drill bit, and then invaded by the drilling fluid. After drilling, the formation
is surrounded by steel casing and weighted cement is pumped into the
casing/formation annulus to bond the casing to the formation. After all of this,
the target formation will need a little help if it is expected to produce
hydrocarbons.

A typical completion consists of three components:

A wellhead assembly – the specialized surface equipment that seals and

controls the wellbore.
A casing and tubing arrangement – provides improved control over the
wellbore from the surface to the producing zone.
The bottom-hole or producing zone completion – improves control over the
producing zone.

Wellhead:
A production wellhead is the assembly of specialized equipment that is
located at the surface of a drilled wellbore, which seals the casing and tubing
previously run into the well, permitting a controlled flow of produced fluids.
This assembly of valves is commonly referred to as a “Christmas Tree”. The
wellhead is installed during drilling operations and then modified as required if
the well is to be produced. The wellhead consists of three basic components:

1.The casing head:

The casing head is a steel fitting (called a wellhead casing flange) that is
connected to the top of the surface casing string at the wellhead. It supports the
casing string until cemented into place.

2.The tubing head:

The tubing head is similar to the casing head but is smaller, and sits atop the
casing head where it supports the tubing string.

3. The “christmas tree”:

The christmas tree is an assembly of fittings, valves, and chokes which
control the rate of oil and gas flow from the well. It usually contains a pumping
tee and gauge(s) and may contain a BOP preventer.
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 Basic Mud Logging

As indicated, a well completion will vary depending on the well and

reservoir characteristics, as well as its economic potential. A variety of
completion methods and procedures has been developed. Basically, completions
can be divided into two categories: Single zone or multiple zones.

However, regardless of the type, the production casing or “oil string” must
be set, the tubing arrangement determined, the packers must be properly placed
and a decision must be made about the type of bottom-hole completion that will
be used on the well.

Christmas tree
Packer placement: tree

A packer is a device that seals or closes off the annulus between the tubing
string and the casing string. This confines production to the tubing string. There
are two basic packer arrangements: a single packer and a double or straddle-
packer arrangement.

Single packer arrangement

In single zone producing wells, a single packer is placed above the
producing zone in order to seal off the producing zone from the casing annulus
above. This type arrangement isolates the producing zone and increases
production efficiency.

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 Basic Mud Logging

Straddle packer arrangement

In multi-zone completions, a straddle-packer arrangement is used in each
producing zone above the one at the bottom of the well. The two packers
located above and below the producing zones isolate the zone and allow
production from additional zones within the wellbore. A straddle-packer
arrangement may also be used in a single zone completion if the producing zone
is to be raised to a higher level within the formation.

Bottom hole completions:

The bottom of the wellbore may be completed in a number of different ways,

depending on the producing formation. There are three basic bottom-hole
completions methods:

1. Open hole completion:

An open hole completion is one in which
casing is set just above the target formation,
leaving the bottom of the wellbore open. This
type of completion is limited in use. Today, it
is generally restricted to limestone reservoirs.
Its major advantage is that the well completion
costs are minimal, allowing recovery from
marginal reservoirs.

2. Open hole with liner completion:

An open hole with liner completion is one
in which a liner or screen-like cylinder is
placed at the bottom of the wellbore. This type
of completion is usually used in loose or
unconsolidated formations where sloughing
may occur in the bottom of the wellbore. The
liner is used in a number of variations such as Completion
gravel-packed or cemented liner completion. diagram

3. Perforated completion:
The most common method is the perforated casing completion and least
used method is the open hole completion

The perforated casing completion is one in which the producing zone is

sealed off by the use of a “packer” that is placed around the tubing just above
the producing zone in a single zone completion, and just above and below the

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 Basic Mud Logging

producing zone in a multi- zone completion. This type of completion is the

most common in use as it is economical, versatile and can
be relatively easily worked over when needed.

11. Perforating production casing:

Since the pay zone is sealed off by the production string and cement,
perforation must be made in order for the oil or gas to flow into the wellbore.
Perforations are simply holes that are made through the casing, cement, and
extend some distance into the formation. The best common method of perforation
incorporates shaped charge explosives (similar to those used in armor-piercing
shells).
Shaped charges accomplish penetration by creating a jet of high pressure, high
velocity gas. The charges are arranged in a tool called a gun that is lowered into
the well opposite the producing zone. Usually the gun is lowered in on wireline.
When the gun is in position, the charges are fired by electronic means from the
surface. After the perforations are made, the tool is retrieved. Perforating is
usually performed by a service company that specializes in this technique.

Casing perforation DST assembly

12. Drill stem test (DST):

Drill stem testing is conducted to record formation pressures and flow rates over
large intervals of interest, and to gather formation fluid samples in order to
determine the potential productivity of a reservoir formation.

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 Basic Mud Logging

A drill stem test is made by lowering a valve, a packer, and a length of

perforated tailpipe on the end of the drill pipe to the level of the formation. The
packer set against the wall of the borehole so that it seals off the test interval
from the mud column above. The valve is then opened.

This procedure effectively reduces the pressure opposite the formation to

atmospheric pressure, and the formation fluids can flow into the hole and be
produced through the drill pipe. It amounts to a temporary completion of the
well, and the produced fluids are therefore representative of the fluid production
that may be expected if the well is eventually completed.

A recorder in the tool makes a graph of the formation pressures. Then the
packer is released and the tool retrieved back to the surface. By looking at a
record of the downhole pressures and surface flows, a good measure of the
characteristics and contents of the reservoir can be obtained.

The full opening design allows unrestricted fluid flow and tool movement
through the tubing bore. A pressure balanced bypass valve that is held open
when running and retrieving prevents swabbing effect. The valve also allows
debris to be washed from the top of the packer when releasing. The bypass
valve is held closed by pressure from below and in turn, helps prevent upward
movement of tubing.

Flexibility in the DST string design gives you reservoir information from
multiple zones on the same test, saving rig time and allowing you to update
your reservoir model sooner.

13. Well stimulation:

Well stimulation treatments were originally developed to rejuvenate old oil

and gas wells by improving the porosity and permeability of the producing
formations. As techniques have improved, however, they have been used more
and more to initiate acceptable producing rates from new wells.
The first stimulation method, nitro-shooting, started about a hundred years
ago to liven up wells that had almost ceased to produce. Sometimes the
improvement after shooting was spectacular. Other techniques (acidizing for
carbonate formations and hydraulic fracturing for sandstones) have almost
completely taken the place of shooting, although it is still employed on a limited
scale.

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 Basic Mud Logging

Acidization:

In the early 1930s, acid stimulation for limestone and dolomite formations
became commercially available within the oil service industry. The first
treatments were with hydrochloric acid; though by 1940 mud acid (hydrofluoric
and hydrochloric acids) mixtures were being used. Acidizing jobs are usually
broken down into three categories:

• HCl pumped into carbonates to create new openings or channels (worm holes).
• HCl pumped into carbonates with borehole damage to create openings which
by- pass the damaged portion.
• Mud acid pumped into non-carbonates to dissolve and remove damaged
portions or soluble clays.

One of the most common methods of

pumping acid into the well has been by
bullheading. The major drawback of this
method is that all the solids and fluids that
have flowed into the well/tubing are forced
back into the formation, which can cause
more damage. A more effective method of
pumping acid and introducing acid into
formations is using coiled tubing (CT).

Acid treatments can be used to clean the

wellbore (acid washes), where the acid is
pumped to the formation/perforations, then
the pumping is stopped allowing the acid to
enter the formation under hydrostatic
pressure. These are usually short duration
and when the well returns to production, the
acid and by-products are removed at the
surface. Another acid treatment is known as
matrix acidizing, where the acid is used to
dissolve away the formation to create new
openings. The acid is pumped under
pressure (below fracture pressure) into the
formation, allowing the acid to dissolve near
wellbore damage and create “worm holes”
anywhere from several inches to several feet
into the formation. Acid injection into formation

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 Basic Mud Logging

Acid systems
The most common acid systems in use are:

• Hydrochloric acid: This is the most widely used acid in treatments, with
concentrations ranging between 7.5% and 28%, the most common is 15%. It
will dissolve calcium carbonate (CaCO 3), dolomite (CaMgCO3), siderite
(FeCO3), and iron oxide (Fe2O3).
• Mud acid: This is a mixture of HCl and HF (hydrofluoric acid) and is
generally 12% HCl and 3% HF. It will dissolve clay materials in the formation,
along with feldspars and quartz. The HF will react with Na, K, Ca and Si in the
clays to form insoluble precipitates, so it is advisable to preflush with HCl.
• Organic acids: These are acetic and formic acids. They are slower acting than
HCl, and are generally used in high temperature wells and wells with high alloy
tubing to reduce corrosion rates.
• EDTA: This is ethylene diamine tetra-acetic acid. It dissolves carbonates and
sulphates by chelating them. It is more expensive than the other acids and the
reaction is slower.
Acid damage
Acidization can be very useful in increasing the productive life of a well, if
done correctly. This means proper planning with site-designed operations. If
operations are carried out incorrectly, several damaging effects include:

• Corrosion: Acids will dissolve tubing and casing. This is generally minimized
by adding corrosion inhibitors. However, since these inhibitors are not soluble
in acids, they can potentially damage the formation.
• Iron precipitates: Iron from the tubing/casing will dissolve when the acid is
pumped. Once the pH of the spent acid rises, the iron will precipitate out in the
formation. The best practice to reduce this problem is to “pickle” the tubing
(pump HCl down the tubing, then reverse circulate the acid out).
• Fluid incompatibilities: If the formation contains oil or an oil-based mud
was used, the acid and oil can form an emulsion (which is accelerated by the
dissolved iron). Surfactants can be used with the acid, but they also can react
with formation fluids.
• Fines mobilization: Acids will affect the clays in the formation. Mud acids
will react with clays leaching out the aluminum ions, causing silica to fall out.
In addition, the pH shock of acidizing can disperse clays throughout the
formation, causing them to block pore throats.
• Cement bond destruction: HCL and HF will dissolve cement and break it
down, especially if channels in the cement exist.

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Hydraulic fracturing
In 1949, hydraulic fracturing was developed as a commercial oil field
stimulation process. The procedure is to pump a viscous fluid down the well at
rates and pressures to break down (fracture) the formation. The pressure is
slowly increased while pumping a mixture of polymer gel and sand into the
induced fractures to hold open the fissures after the hydraulic pressure had been
released.

The fractures created in this way are generally planar, with openings between
0.25 to 0.5 inch (though the length may several hundred feet). As with any
fracturing, the openings will propagate along the lines of least resistance, so the
subsurface stresses (overburden, folding, faulting, and inclined bedding) will
determine whether the fracture is vertical, inclined or horizontal. Hydraulic
fracturing can be used in any competent formation (sandstones, limestones,
dolomites, etc.) and should be avoided in soft and plastic formations.

MUD LOGGING PRINCIPLES AND DEFINITIONS

Surface data logging in principle does not supersede human intuition, does
not interfere with the drilling processes, and the results of surface data logging
are available immediately. The use of this exploratory tool is widespread
throughout the world. Very briefly, this tool consists of mud and cutting
analysis and engineering techniques and is the technique of continuous
collecting and analyzing data. Analysis reveals physical characteristics of the
subsurface strata immediately as it becomes available at the surface and based
on interpretation of this information, exercise of control of certain phases of the
drilling operation is obtained. In addition, when plotted in graph form, this data
produces a graphical representation of the physical properties of the penetrated
strata.

The surface data logging unit (mud logging unit) is the surface data logging
engineer’s laboratory in which he continuously analyzes information relative to
the strata being drilled. The instruments and equipment of the surface data
logging Unit are the tools with which he compiles this information on which to
base his evaluation of the characteristics of the penetrated strata and
recommendations pertaining to this information.

Mud logging is a service that qualitatively and quantitatively obtains data

from, and makes observations of, drilled rocks, drilling fluids and drilling
parameters in order to formulate and display concepts of the optional, in situ
characteristics of formations rocks with the primary goal of delineating
hydrocarbon “shows” worthy of testing.

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Mud logging unit interior is designed with close attention to detail and
several advanced features to ensure an optimal working environment. Standing
inside the unit gives the impression that the unit is much larger than its true
physical dimensions. Counter and storage space is plentiful and supplies are
always easily accessible.
The sample preparation area is large enough to perform all sample related
procedures from washing and drying the sample to autocalcimetry analysis.
Geochemical cans, trays, glassware and other sample related items are stored in
this area. The geologist work area is to the right of the sample preparation area
and includes a computer station for up to minute data monitoring with the
possibility of time or depth data playback for any period or any depth interval.

Importance of mud logging service:

The mud unit is located very close to the rig floor. A number of cables
extend from the logging unit to a number of sensors installed at different
locations on the drilling rig. These sensors are used to measure important
variables or parameters used to determine different rig operations. Mud logging
service is very important for oil and gas drilling operation for the following
reasons:

Collection of the rock cuttings, which is geologically described, examined for

any oil shows and then packed according to the exploration company
requirements.
Hydrocarbon gas monitoring while drilling. These gases are detected as a total
value then are analyzed to their components.
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Detection of the Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) gas while drilling which is very
dangerous if it is not detected in the very early stage.
Monitoring of the drill fluid volume second by second and to immediately
inform the personnel in charge about any change in that volume (Loss/Gain).
Generation of mud logs and graphs during the drilling of the well, acquisition
of the data and producing a final well report.
Monitoring of the drilling parameters such as weight on bit, rotary speed, and
rotary torque ...etc. In addition, to inform the personnel in charge about any
anomalies or figures that could be out of the set ranges.
Monitoring the trips and updating a trip sheet at a five stand basis. This trip
monitoring sheet includes the calculated/observed hole fill up or string
displacement along with remarks on string overpull, tight spots and running
speed.
Detection and evaluation of the formation pressure, the hydraulics
optimization and the well control.
Monitoring the drilling fluid properties and report about any critical changes in
these properties that might take place at any time.
Report on time any up normal drilling conditions and give advice to drilling
team whenever needed.
Core catching and detailed core samples description and preparation of core
log preparation.

The fully computerized mud logging units provides real time applications
that are able to deduce the situation on the rig and identify the current
operations automatically. This allows a specific combination of parameters to
be tracked and displayed on real time screens as the situation warrants. Features
such as this reduce the engineers’ manual tasks and allow them to focus more
on analysis and interpretation.

Real time alarms are set on data at safe, mid and high levels to provide
instant warning on the drill floor, where drilling parameters can be adjusted to
mitigate the damaging vibrations that can induce poor penetration rate, shorter
bit life, damage to the drill sting and the top drive system that might lead to
drilling problems.

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MUD LOGGING CREW DUTIES AND

RESPONSIBILITIES
Mud logging companies experienced crews are specialists in operated mud
logging services. Mud logging companies has developed its experienced
workforce primarily through internal training and promotion. Mud logging
companies typically hires junior personnel as sample catchers and trains them in
accordance with our document training program. Sample catchers are promoted
to mud loggers, data engineers and pressure engineers as they meet specific
training and experience criteria required for advancement.

Mud logging companies requirements for advancement include internal and

external training classes with centrally controlled examinations. In addition, the
candidate must have minimum number of wells logged with excellent safety
records and job performance.

 Sample catcher (Trainee Mud Logger):

Typically an entry level training position for mud loggers. Retrieves samples
from the rig mud system for analysis and assists mud loggers, data engineers
and pressure engineers. Sample catchers ensure the correct evaluation of data by
providing the basic item for evaluation - accurately caught geologic samples.
The primary objective of sample catching is to assist in the efficient completion
of oil and gas wells by providing correctly lagged and reliably labeled samples.
The following illustrates the general responsibilities of a sample catcher with
respect to rig site duties.

1. Ensure that representative geologic samples are caught throughout the

drilling or reaming phases of the well program.
2. Perform the collection of cuttings samples, from the proper lagged depths and
at the proper intervals as required for evaluation.
3. Wash and screen samples, divide them into correct portions, and pack them
by sets for the client, partners and trade.
4. Assist in core recovery and packaging as required.
5. Keep in mind the basic concept of service; ensure that all tasks performed for
the client meet or exceed the customer's standards.
6. Assist logging crew and data engineers to perform normal routine
maintenance of sensors and other equipment.
7. Assist logging crew and data engineers to perform regular and frequent
calibration checks of instruments.
8. Be aware of safety regulations and procedures as specified by the client.
9. Be aware of and implement all requirements of the client's systems within the
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scope of operations. The major objective is to provide the best services in

order to meet and/or maintain client satisfaction. Ensure that the quality
directives are understood and implemented.
10. A basic working knowledge of conversational English and be fluent in the
native tongue of the country in which the work is performed.

Mud logger:

The Mud logging Engineer is the representative of mud logging systems at

the well site. He is responsible for the maintenance and correct operation of the
equipment supplied to provide the service. He is responsible for the collation
and presentation of the information monitored in accordance with company
standard procedures and customer requirements to ensure a high quality service.
Usually the mud logger has 6 to 12 months experience as a sample catcher,
worked as a trainee and has passed the basic mud logging and basic logging
instrumentation training courses.
1. Monitoring and analyzing all drilling and mud data measured by mud logging
equipments.
2. Collection, washing and bagging of cuttings, samples as directed by
company’s personnel.
3. Preparation of geochemical samples as directed by company’s personnel.
4. All samples will be marked and labeled as instructed by the unit supervisor
and as per the customer requirements. Storage and transportation will be as
directed by the unit supervisor.
5. Lithologic analysis of cuttings, samples and core chips under microscope
including visual determination of approximate porosity.
6. Fluoroscopic examination of cuttings and core chips with appropriate
solvents for detection of hydrocarbons.
7. Geological Evaluation of all data collected and correlation of data to
reference material provided by clients.
8. Make sure that all equipment and sensors are maintained, serviced and
calibrated according to the standard company operating procedures.
9. The Mud logger is familiar with the function, operation and routine
maintenance of all logging systems equipment at the location. He will
implement any rig-up, rig-down and routine maintenance and calibration
programs as instructed by the operations or unit supervisor.
10. The Mud logger is familiar with the hardware configuration of the computer
system and is capable of operating the software.
11. All hole and pipe displacements are accurately monitored on all trips- in and
out- of the hole. Discrepancies are to be noted and the relevant people to be
informed.
12. The mud logging will at all times maintain a professional and responsible
attitude and appearance in relations with the customer and rig personnel.
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13. Total hydrocarbons and Chromatographic analysis of hydrocarbons

evaluation and reservoir type estimation through calculations and evaluation
of different gas ratios.
14. Formation evaluation of mud logging service & fully online computerized
data monitoring system.
15. Preparation of different types of reports (daily geological reports, weekly
reports, final well report…etc).
16. Preparation of different types of logs and statistical cross plots (mud log, ..etc)
17. All customer logs and reports are drawn and written in a neat, concise and
uniform manner to logging systems and customer requirements and are
delivered to the schedule and locations required by the customer.
18. Assist in the training of the new employees in the fundamentals of logging
techniques and job requirements.
19. A basic working knowledge of conversational English and be fluent in the
native tongue of the country in which the work is performed.
20. The data engineer will, at all times, maintain a professional and responsible
attitude and appearance in relations with the customer and rig personnel.
21. Conducting full logging unit inventory on monthly basis.

 Data engineer:

Analyzes drilling and logging data to make recommendations on drilling

parameters. Also documents probable hydrocarbon rich pay zones. Usually
has at least two years experience as a mud logger. This position requires a
completed advanced mud logging, hydrocarbon evaluation, hole hydraulics
and well controls training classes. The person must have proven competence
in the analysis of drilling operations. The duties and responsibilities of the
data engineer are as follow:
1. Monitoring and analyzing all drilling and mud data measured by mud logging
equipments.
2. The data engineer is responsible for, and ensures that all equipment and
sensors are maintained, serviced and calibrated according to standard
company operating procedures.
3. The data engineer is responsible for, and will ensure that the unit diary, spare
parts inventory, equipment status reports, calibration reports and other
specified equipment monitoring reports are kept up to date.
4. The data engineer is familiar with the function, operation and routine
maintenance of all logging system equipment at the location. He will
implement any rig up, rig down and routine maintenance and calibration
programs as instructed by the operations or unit supervisor.
5. Fluoroscopic examination of cuttings and core chips with appropriate
solvents for detection of hydrocarbons.
6. All hole and pipe displacements are accurately monitored on all trips in and
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out of the hole. Discrepancies are to be noted and the relevant people
informed.
7. Geological evaluation of all data collected and correlation of data to
reference material provided by clients.
8. Total hydrocarbons and chromatographic analysis of hydrocarbons
evaluation and reservoir type estimation through calculations and evaluation
of different gas ratios.
9. Formation evaluation of mud logging service & fully online computerized
data monitoring system.
10. Preparation of different types of reports (daily geological reports, weekly
reports, final well report…etc).
11. Preparation of different types of logs and statistical cross plots (mud log, gas
evaluation log, .etc)
12. All customer logs and reports are drawn and written in a neat, concise and
uniform manner to mud logging systems and customer requirements and are
delivered to the schedule and locations required by the customer.
13. Customer requirements will be actively determined, customer satisfaction
will be monitored. Information on the full range of products and services will
be provided. Pre- spud meetings, job follow up and office calls on the
customer will be performed as necessary and as required.
14. The data engineer will ensure that all safety equipment in the mud logging
unit is kept in good condition.
15. Perform duties and responsibilities in a correct efficient and mature manner
in cooperation with other assigned logging engineers and as directed by the
unit supervisor.
16. A basic working knowledge of conversational English and be fluent in the
native tongue of the country in which the work is performed.
17. The data engineer will, at all times, maintain a professional and responsible
attitude and appearance in relations with the customer and rig personnel.
18. Conducting full logging unit inventory on monthly basis.
Pressure engineer:

Predicts and interprets pore pressure, which is used for drilling safely and
casing seat selection. Usually has at least two years experience as a data
engineer. The individual also must have completed the abnormal formation
pressure training class and has shown competence in formation pressure
evaluation.

The pore pressure engineer will be required to determine and advise the
drilling and exploration teams on a real time basis of estimated formation
pore pressures and recommended mud weights for the safe drilling of
exploration /appraisal wells using acceptable industry tool. The duties and
responsibilities of the pressure engineer are as follow:
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1- Overpressure zones prediction reference to recorded drilling and mud data

based on calculated drilling exponent or sigma log.
2. Preparation of daily pore pressure evaluation report that contains well
hydraulic calculations and mud properties recommendations.
3. Check for proper operation of the well, detection of abnormal situations and
optimization of the proper rheology for drilling.
4. Lithologic analysis of cuttings, samples and core chips under microscope
including visual determination of approximate porosity.
5. Producing deviation and survey record on a print table of the true vertical
depth, bottom hole position in relation to the well head, the calculations of N-
S and E-W displacement and doglegs.
6. Depth horizontal distance plot of the horizontal map or vertical cross section
in a given azimuth.
7. Preparation of pressure evaluation log that contains drilling rate, d-exponent,
Lithology, depth, mud weight, pore pressure, shale density, gas in air, bit data
and drilling data.
8. Preparation and update temperature data log utilizing mud temperature
parameters.
9. Produce a weekly report detailing the drilling operation and any condition of
interest relating to abnormal formation pressure evaluation.
10. Preparation of different types of logs and statistical cross plots (pressure
evaluation log, temperature log, .etc).
11. Preparation of final well report including all drilling events and formation
pressure calculations.
12. A basic working knowledge of conversational English and be fluent in the
native tongue of the country in which the work is performed.
13. The pressure engineer will, at all times, maintain a professional and
responsible attitude and appearance in relations with the customer and rig
personnel.

MUD LOGGING THEORY & LAG CALCULATIONS

While drilling, mud is continuously being pumped down through the drill
pipe to the bottom of the hole, out through the bit, up through the annulus
(around the drill pipe) to the surface, out the flow line, over the shale shaker
into the mud pit, through the mud pump, up the standpipe, through the kelly
hose and swivel, down the kelly and back into the drill pipe.
During the circulation, the drill bit continuously cuts off small particles of
formation, called cuttings, which are carried up, out of the hole by the mud and
are caught, and strained, out of the mud at the shale shaker. It is at the shale
shakers that access to the drilled formation information is gained. In short,
surface data logging is made practical by the use of the returning mud stream as
a medium for communication with the bottom of the hole. The theory is that the
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drilled formation is carried to the surface partly in pieces of formation and

deposited on the shale shaker in the chronological order that it was drilled, and
partly in gases released into the mud. Surface data logging is a matter of
extracting the information that is delivered by the returning mud for restoration
of the in place characteristics of the formation upon which a model is
formulated and the well control decisions derived from this.

Before being broken up by the bit and carried to the surface by the mud, the
formation lays in situ under formation pressure, however great or small that
may be. Historically, the drilling mud exerts a pressure (on the formation being
drilled) considerably greater than that which the formation exerts on the mud.
Thus, there was thought to be considerable flushing (replacement of
hydrocarbon liquids and gases by the drilling mud) of the formation ahead of
the bit by the mud filtrate.

The factors which affect the amount of oil and gas remaining in the
formation after being flushed to some extent and which in turn affect the
amount of oil and gas entrained in the drilling mud are:

• Depth
• Rate of penetration
• Hole size
• Volume of drilling fluid being circulated
• Physical properties of the formation
• Properties of the drilling mud

How near to “balance” the well is drilled. Balanced drilling is a name given
to the use of mud weights, which will result in the drilling mud column exerting
almost the same, or a very little amount more, hydrostatic pressure on the
formation fluids and gases than the formation fluids exert back on the mud
column.
Overbalanced drilling is the case of too much mud weight resulting in more
pressure exerted by the mud column than the formation exerts back. Balancing
of pressures results in greatly improved drilling rates and formation evaluation.
Underbalanced mud weights can result in a potential “blowout” situation.

As the cuttings travel to the surface up the annulus, they undergo a pressure
reduction, resulting in a release of formation fluids from the cuttings. In
addition, the “jetting” action of mud going through the bit causes a reduction in
the hydrocarbon content of the cuttings.

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Therefore, by analyzing the cuttings, drilling mud and drilling parameters for
hydrocarbon associated phenomenon, we can develop a great deal of
information and understanding concerning physical properties of a well from
surface to final depth.
Lag application:
It is obvious that at the instant a drilled sample is delivered to the shale
shaker that the bit has penetrated some distance deeper into the hole from the
time when that sample was cut loose from the formation, so that sample at the
surface will be from a depth shallower than that at which the bit is currently
drilling. For example, if it takes an hour for a sample to reach the surface from
the bottom of a 6,000 foot hole, and the bit is drilling at a rate of 100 feet per
hour, the well depth will 6,100 feet when the samples from the depth of 6,000
feet are just reaching the surface.

This critical interval of time is called “lag” and is measured in terms of the
mud pump cycles or in time. This lag applies to all downhole information
except penetration rates. This lag always exists and, theoretically, changes
continuously as the hole deepen. Likewise, the length of the lag time is
dependent on anything that changes the hole volume, such as hole washout or
channeling of the mud flow in the annulus.

It is necessary to always know the lag and apply it continuously to returning

samples in locating accurately the depth from which they came. Because of the
factors present which cause the lag to change, the lag must be checked and
rechecked frequently and regularly. A lag determination should be run at least
once each 24 hours or once every 500 feet, whichever occurs first. When
drilling an average size hole less than 10 inches in diameter, every 500 feet may
be enough. If the hole is larger than 10 inches in diameter, the lag determination
should be run at least every 250 feet.

Running the lag:

The lag can be determined by injecting a tracer in the mud in the drill pipe at
the surface when the kelly is broken off and counting the number of strokes that
the mud pumps have to make in the interval between injection and recovery at
the shale shakers. From this total pump cycle the number of cycles required to
pump the tracer down the pipe to the bit must be subtracted. This arithmetic
result is called the “lag” for the particular tracer material that was used.

There are two main types of materials that are used today for determination
of the lag. These are Lost Circulation Material (LCM) and calcium carbide.
This last material when placed in the drill pipe reacts with the water in the mud
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to form acetylene gas and is picked up by the gas detector and gas
chromatograph. It is important to remember that calcium carbide only reacts
with water, so it cannot be used with an oil based mud. The calcium carbide
method is the most convenient for determining the lag. The lag obtained in this
manner is called a “gas lag.” For logging operations, the gas lag is normally
used. When a lag tracer is placed in the drill pipe, a stroke counter must be set
to monitor the number of strokes required for the tracer to travel down the drill
string and back up the annulus. When the lag tracer appears at the shale shaker
or the carbide gas reading appears on the gas detector on its return to the surface
the total number of strokes is recorded. It is then necessary to subtract the
calculated number of strokes down the drill string (down pipe factor); the result
is the lag. Calculate the number of barrels from the number of strokes and enter
this adjustment in the computer.

The lag determination in terms of pump strokes have advantages over a lag
determined based on time. The reason is that when the pumps are stopped, the
clocks continue to run, and a factor may be introduced which must be taken into
account. Another factor is that the lag determined in terms of time is correct
only for one pump speed or that particular speed at which the lag was run,
whereas, the lag in pump cycles is accurate for any pump rate.
Another item to be aware of at this point is the reaction of calcium carbide
with drilling mud forming acetylene, which will be read on the gas detector as a
gas peak. You will be able to distinguish this from a formation gas as it will
show up on the gas chromatograph accompanied to hydrocarbon components.

Hints and precautions concerning the use of lag materials:

1. Put the lag material in the drill string, not in a mouse hole single.
2. Note that the amount of lag material used may have to be increased as the
depth increases.
3. Observe samples during drilling breaks as check on lag calculation accuracy
when the opportunity arises.
4. Observe connection gases when possible; do not use trip or short trip gases as a
check.
5. Make sure the shale shaker has not been bypassed.
6. Be sure to record all pertinent data for future referral, as this can be critical in
future discussions on the matter.

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Calculating down pipe volume:

The down pipe factor is expressed in terms of volume (barrels of mud) or

strokes (pump cycles); that is, for a known drill pipe length and inside diameter
(ID), the capacity of the drill string in barrels can be calculated.

Calculate the downtime given the following data:

Length of 19.5 lb/ft, 5“ x 4.276 drill pipe = 6350 ft.

Length of 9" x 3.5" drill collars = 1400 ft.

Pump output (bbls/stroke) = 0.1012

Pumping rate = 120 spm

Solution:
Pipe volume = (ID)2 X L (length) X 0.000971
Drill Pipe volume = (4.276)2 x 6350 x 0.000971 = 112.73 bbl

Drill Collar volume = (3.5)2 x 1400 x 0.000971 = 16.65 bbl

Surface-to-Bit Strokes = (112.73 + 16.65 ) / 0.1012 = 1278 strokes

Calculating bottoms up lag:

To calculate the lag the hole dimensions must be known as well as the drill
string dimension. Most holes have at least two sections of different diameters
and towards the end of the well may will have more (riser, casing liner, and
open hole). Added to this is the fact that the drill string will usually have
sections of different diameters (drill pipe, heavyweight drill pipe and drill
collars, etc).

Two techniques may be applied to calculating the annular volume, which are:

In The first method, the lengths and the dimensions of each section of the
annulus are determined; the volumes are calculated and totalized. Then the lag
equations are applied to determine the equivalent times and strokes.

The second method involves calculating the volume of the hole and the
volume of the drill string (metal and internal capacity) and then subtracting the
values from each other to determine the lag time and strokes for the whole well.
The first method is the one preferred because it informs the logger of the exact
nature of the various annular sections and their individual volumes.
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An alternate to the tracer method of calculating the lag is available. This is

by calculating the annular volume by using either one of the two approaches:

1. Principles of volume
2. Capacity/displacement tables

A land rig is drilling in Kuwait. The present TD is 9975 ft. The 9-5/8” casing
(ID: 8.681”) was set at 8000, Open hole 8.5”

Calculate the lag time with the given data:

BHA:

6.25” DC (ID: 3”): 575 ft

5” DC (ID: 3”): 1500 ft

Pump output: 418 gpm at 100 spm.

Solution:
Annulus volume: (ID)2Cased hole – (OD)2String X L X 0.000971
Section 1: (8.681)2 – (5)2 X 8000 X 0.000971
Annular volume = 391.19 bbls
Section 2: (8.5)2 – (5)2 x 0.000971 x 1400
Annular volume = 64.23 bbls
Section 3: (8.5)2 – (6.25)2 x 0.000971 x 575
Annular volume = 18.53 bbls.
Pump output (bbls/min) = 418 gpm/42 = 9.95 bbls/min
Pumps are pumping at 100 spm -> Pump output (bbls/stroke)= 9.95/100 =
0.0995 bbls/stroke
Total Lag Time (strokes) = (391.19 + 64.23 + 18.53) / .0995 = 4763 strokes.
Lag time (min) = 4763/100= 47.63 mins.

Note:
When logging, it will be observed that the calculated lag will invariably be
less than that obtained by using the tracer method. Reasons for this are:

• Lag tracer materials or cutting will tend to slip behind the velocity of the mud
with respect to their relative densities and the particular mud's carrying
capabilities.
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• Enlargement of the hole, due to erosion by the mud, is not accounted for when
making the lag calculation.

• Mud flows are sometimes turbulent which results in a tendency for the
cuttings and tracer materials to rotate up the annulus rather than rising
uniformly.

Due to the characteristics of drilling mud in laminar flow, the center annulus
flow rate tends to be faster than that near the walls; thus, cuttings in the center
annulus region tend to be moved over into the slower flow areas and
subsequently are again moved back into the faster region. This is a similar
effect to the previous paragraph although the rotational effects are much less
harsh.
Cumulatively, these effects tend to delay the arrival at the surface of cutting
samples. Conversely, gas samples will tend to rise at the same or possibly at a
slightly higher rate than the mud, particularly if the mud is relatively thin. As
gas rises in the annulus, a reduction of hydrostatic pressure will be exerted on
the samples resulting in an expansion of the gas in proportion to its volume and
original pressure. Hole enlargement will, however, have a similar effect on gas
samples as with heavier materials.

The net result is that gas samples will tend to arrive at the surface sooner
than cuttings. In any event, a lag calculation is a good approximation but should
be corrected or checked for accuracy and corrected as necessary by noting the
arrival of cuttings from a drill break or connection gas.

As a well deepens, the pump liners are sometimes replaced by liners of a

smaller diameter make a periodical check as to the liner size. This normally
takes place when a new casing string is run.

Most drilling rigs are equipped with two mud pumps, whereas, most of the
deep water semisubmersible rigs will have three mud pumps. One of these
pumps is normally used to boost the riser during drilling operations. Ensure that
the software is properly configured to pumps, which are on the hole.

When the rig pumps are stopped the mud column stops. Also, if drilling is
suspended and the well circulated out, the flow of information that is collected
at the shale shakers and new information is no longer being supplied at the
bottom of the hole. After the expiration of the lag, the bottom of the mud
column will have reached the surface. Without the lag as an indexing tool, all
the mud and cuttings analysis would apply to formation only at unknown depths
and, as common sense would indicate, this information is almost useless
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without knowing at what depth the analysis pertains to. Therefore, with the lag
calculation it is known exactly to what depths these analysis apply.

In conclusion, the annulus represents a continuous column of surface data

logging information moving up and out of the hole, which is transferred to the
computer by the logging engineer as part of the daily routine.

Points to note are:

• Drill pipe, drill collars and casing sizes are often referred to by weight of the
item under consideration. It is therefore necessary to refer to charts and tables
for actual dimensions:

87.9 lb/ft drill collars = 6-inch OD × 1.75-inch ID

19.5 lb/ft drill pipe = 5-inch OD × 4.276-inch ID
36.0 lb/ft casing = 9.625-inch OD × 8.921-inch ID

• Unless the hole is totally cased the actual lag will always be greater than the
calculated. Therefore, use sample data or run a tracer lag to accurately set the
lag value.

SAMPLES COLLECTION AND DESCRIPTION

An accurate sample description is the basic function of geologic work – the
foundation on which the entire structure of subsurface analysis rests. This
manual has been assembled in an effort to furnish a convenient reference on
standard stratigraphic procedures. Techniques of collecting, preparing,
examining, and describing well cuttings and core samples are set forth.

A description can become so detailed as to obscure important characteristics

of the samples; the surface data logger should learn to be selective and report
only the important details. Sample analysis should be made carefully and
attentively. The accuracy of a study is dependent upon the quality of the
samples and the proficiency of the surface data logger. Careful initial
examination and description of the samples will save time and prevent the
necessity for re-examination. There will be times when it is impossible due to
well conditions for the surface data logger to accomplish this the first time. It is
more important that the samples be caught first.

Experience and good training are essential for making a good interpretive
log. Generally, the surface data logger examining the samples is best qualified
to recognize lithologic and formational contacts. Although formation contacts
should be picked based on sample data rather than on mechanical logs, the
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latter, as well as the drill rate, can also be useful in defining boundaries of
specific lithologic units, and zones of interest.

1. Collecting cuttings samples:

First and most important step in evaluating any formation drilled is the
collection of the drilled cuttings. If this step is not done properly, then, even if
all the following steps are perfect, the information obtained is worthless to the
geologist and mud logging engineer. Drilled cuttings are physical, tangible
pieces of rock. It took the forces of nature millions of years to lay them down,
and it cost the oil companies much time and millions of dollars to recover them.

Aside from their immediate value, the cuttings can be saved and re-evaluated
in the future using techniques and knowledge that have yet to be discovered.
However, if the cuttings simply fall overboard, then their information is gone.
The knowledge they carry is also lost when they become mixed with other
cuttings and we no longer know the depth of origin. Good cuttings and mud
sample collection requires an accurate lag (indication of origin of depth), a
means of collecting representative samples, and efficient use of available time.

Shale shaker samples:

Almost every rig has a shaker screen for separating the cuttings from the
mud when they reach the surface. Most shaker screens are of the vibrating type,
but the cylindrical rotating type may be used in hard rock areas. When a shaker
screen is used, the mesh size should be small enough to separate small cuttings
from the mud. There must be a board or box placed at the foot of the shaker
screen with the most cuttings coming over to collect the cuttings. The samples
taken here will result in a composite sample that is representative of the
complete sample interval (i.e., 10 feet, 30 feet).

Cuttings caught directly from the shaker screens only represent a spot check
of a couple of inches, and therefore, miss most of the cuttings from the sample
interval. The board or box should be cleaned after each sample is caught so
there will not be mixing of the cuttings from different depth intervals. It is
important that if all the lagged intervals have been circulated from the hole, that
the board or box be cleaned just before any new formation is due at the surface.

Settling box samples:

Although the shaker screen cuttings sample retrieval method is the one most
often used, another means of collecting samples is the settling box. A settling
box should be rigged up in such a way that part of the mud from the flow line is
diverted into the box (through a two inch line for example). The mud flows
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through the settling box, over a removable slide gate in the opposite end of the
box, and into the mud pit. The flow through the settling box reduces the
velocity of the mud, which permits the cuttings to settle to the bottom of the box
where they can be scooped out with a sample spoon. After collecting a sample,
the slide gate is lifted and the remaining cuttings are scraped and flushed away
to prepare the box to collect the sample from the next sample interval.

Using a settling box ensures that a composite sample is collected for each
sample interval. A settling box employs the sluice box effect, and it provides
the surest means of collecting small cuttings and fine grained sand. The settling
box is practically the only means of catching samples in lost circulation zones
when the shakers are being bypassed. Setting up a settling box before hand
assures that no samples will be missed in the event circulation is lost, and that
there will be uniform sample catching throughout the hole.

Samples should be caught at intervals that are more frequent in a potentially

productive zone. In addition, once a zone is found to contain a hydrocarbon
show, samples should be caught even more frequently. The relative data
analysis can be determined quickly since the surface data logging engineer
knows what to look for.

Hints and Precautions:

1. If a sample is missed for any reason, mark the sample bag and the data sheet
that it was missed. A missed sample is better than a “faked” sample.
2. During a potentially productive zone, or a known productive zone; catch the
samples as often as possible. This can be accomplished by placing the samples
in suitable containers, marked with the correct lag depth, and set aside until
there is time to examine them carefully. It is better to be late with information
than to be on time with very little information concerning the interval.

Wet sample Spot sample

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Collecting “wet” samples:

A “wet” sample is an unwashed cuttings sample taken for paleontological

and petrological examination in the oil company’s laboratories. It can be a
tinned sample, or just a sample put straight into a fine mesh cloth bag, labeled,
and left out in the sun to dry before tying it up into bundles and bagging it up
into labeled sacks.

Note: To avoid losing a sample takes care in pen selection. Do not use washable
ink. A bag of samples with the label missing is useless.

Care should be taken to adequately fill the sample sacks. The operating
company usually requests that the wet samples be placed into plastic bags
before they are put into cloth bags. If this is done, be sure that the top of the
plastic bag and the top cloth bag are both tied in such a manner that the samples
will not be pressed from the bag during shipment to the customer’s laboratory.

Wet sample bags examples

It is a good procedure to collect a sample of all mud additives and their data
sheets and ship them with the first set of samples that are shipped to the
customer’s laboratory. Many of these mud additives can affect the rocks and the
information that they contain.

2. Washing the cuttings:

Washing cuttings from water based mud:

Washing and preparing the cuttings sample for examination is as important

as the examination itself. The technique must be adapted to the area and the
type of material being examined. In hard rock areas, the cuttings are usually
easy to clean. Most of the time washing is just a matter of hosing the sample in
a mud cup with a jet of water to remove the film of drilling mud from the
surface of the cuttings.

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Washing the cuttings from areas of recent geological age (cuttings that are
less compacted and consolidated) is, however, more difficult, and requires
taking several precautions. The primary concern is that the clays and silts that
are present are often soft and dispersible in water. Indeed, they are often of a
consistency that will disperse and “make mud.” When cuttings of this type are
washed, there is a tendency for the wash water to dissolve the clay and wash it
away. This should be taken into account. The surface data logger should always
keep in mind that the clay that is washed away is not foreign material, but it is a
part of the sample. It should be logged accordingly. The sample should be
washed no harder than is necessary to remove the drilling mud.
Cuttings from zones of lost circulation are intermixed with lost circulation
material. This material can usually be floated out of the sample container by
flooding it with water, leaving only the cuttings. This method, however, is
sometimes very time consuming. A settling box for catching the sample is an
excellent solution to this problem since it flushes most of the lost circulation
material away from the cuttings. It is important for the surface data logger to
recognize the difference between any lost circulation material and true
formation cuttings.

After the cuttings have been washed to

remove the drilling mud, they should be
washed through a 5-mm sieve to remove
sloughed shale and then into a 20-mesh, an
80-mesh sieve, and then into the sieve
receiver assembly. It is generally accepted
that the drilled cuttings will pass through
the 5-mm sieve and the material that does
not pass through is cavings. The 5-mm
catch should be monitored closely even
though these fragments are generally not
generated by the bit.

First of all, the amount of fragments in the sieve can indicate changing
downhole conditions. An increase in the volume of these fragments can mean
the hole is becoming near balanced pressure wise and formation is popping into
the wellbore; these pieces are generally curved or splintery. It can also indicate
that a water sensitive formation has been encountered and it is swelling due to
the mud filtrate and sloughing into the hole.
A sudden decrease in the volume of the 5-mm sieve chips can indicate an
easily dissolvable formation has been cut and the chips are being reduced to
very fine particles.

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After the sieving, a small portion of the washed sample should be put onto
one of the trays provided for microscopic inspection and then drained. A larger
sample should be placed on another tray, then drained and dried before it is
placed into a labeled envelope and boxed for the oil company laboratory
analysis. The tray for immediate examination should contain only a single layer
of cuttings. This is important when considering the relative percentages of the
different materials contained in the sample.

Washing cuttings from oil based mud:

In the case of oil based mud, the cuttings are quite representative of the
formation because this type of mud decreases sloughing so there is little
dispersion of the shale. At the same time, however, cuttings contained in oil
based mud pose a problem with washing and handling. They cannot be washed
in water alone. It is necessary to use a detergent on the cuttings to clean off the
drilling mud that interferes with seeing the cuttings fragments for description.

Set up two containers, such as two 5-gallon buckets. One should contain a
non- fluorescent solvent (preferably Varsol or naphtha). This should be used for
the first washing to remove the outer coating of drilling mud from the cuttings.
In the other container, mix a solution consisting of a commercially available
detergent into 5 gallons of water. Wash the cuttings in the detergent solution to
remove the solvent. After this, they can be washed in water as usual. To make a
good inspection for lithology and staining, the cuttings must then be broken or
crushed.
3. Sample description:
The quality of a mud log is a direct measure of the quality of the samples
that were collected and prepared. Clean, good quality samples are exceptions
rather than the rule. The surface data logger describing the samples must learn
to make his interpretations from samples of widely varying quality. Cavings and
other contaminants must be recognized and disregarded.

Several methods of examining samples are in use throughout the industry.

Some surface data logger examines one sample at a time; others lay out the
samples in compartmented trays so that a sequence of from five to ten samples
may be examined at one time.

The following procedure is recommended:

 The samples are laid out in a stack of five-cell trays with the depths marked on
the trays.
 The cuttings should just cover the bottoms of the trays.
 It is desirable to separate the obvious cavings by sieving the samples.
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 Attention should generally be focused on the smaller cuttings with angular

shapes and fresh appearance.

The technique of scanning samples before logging them in detail has many
advantages. In addition to helping the surface data logger pick tops and
lithologic changes it may also aid him in determining the extent of porous and
hydrocarbon bearing intervals. However, the principle advantage of this
technique is that it provides the surface data logger the opportunity to observe
and interpret depositional sequences. When sample intervals are laid out in
sequence subtle changes in texture, mineralogy, color and facies often become
apparent even before microscopic examination. Thus, the surface data logger is
alerted to look for these changes when making the detailed sample examination.
This method of examining samples encourages surface data logger to observe
and log lithologic rather than sample interval units. It is still important that the
surface data logger do a complete and thorough description of each sample.

Textures in carbonate rocks can be clearly observed with the aid of wetting
agents such as mineral oil, glycerin, clove oil, etc. A further improvement of
this technique is the use of transmitted light as described below.

Use of transmitted light:

Textural and structural details often become evident when light is
transmitted through thin slivers of carbonate rock. This technique is particularly
useful for the routine examination of drilled cuttings.

Cuttings selected for their thin, platy shape are etched lightly in dilute HCl,
placed in a clear pyrex spot plate, and then completely covered with a wetting
agent. Light is then transmitted through the chips by the use of a substage
mirror, or a small reflecting mirror placed directly on the stage and underneath
the plate. A mixture of water and glycerin is recommended as the wetting agent
because:

1. It evaporates slowly.
2. Chips may be washed clean with water after examination.

Order of written description:

Written descriptions are required in a standardized order of description
because of the following: (1) it reduces the chance of not recording all
important properties, (2) increases the uniformity of description among surface
data logger, and (3) saves time in obtaining information from descriptions.

The following order is used:

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1. Rock type - followed by classification

2. Color
3. Texture - including grain size, roundness, and sorting
4. Cement and/or matrix materials
5. Fossils and accessories
6. Sedimentary structures
7. Porosity and permeability
8. Hydrocarbon shows
9. Procedures for rock and mineral identification

I. Rock Types

The recording of rock type consists of two fundamental parts: the basic rock
name (e.g., dolomite, limestone, sandstone), and the proper compositional or
textural classification term (e.g., lithic, oolitic grainstone).

II. Color

Color of rocks may be a mass effect of the colors of the component grains,
or result from the color of the cement or matrix, or staining of these. Colors may
occur in combinations and patterns, e.g., mottled, banded, spotted, variegated. It
is recommended that colors be described on wet samples under ten-power
magnification. If is important to use the same source of light all the time and to
use constant magnification for all routine logging. General terms, such as dark
grey and medium brown, generally suffice.

Ferruginous, carbonaceous, siliceous, and calcareous matter are the most

important staining or coloring agents. From limonite or hematite come yellow,
red, or brown shades. Gray to black color can result from the presence of
carbonaceous or phosphatic material, iron sulfide, or manganese. Glauconite,
ferrous iron, serpentine, chlorite, and apatite impart green coloring. Red or
orange mottling is derived from surface weathering or subsurface oxidation by
the action of circulating waters.

The colors of cuttings may be

alerted, after the samples are caught, by
oxidation caused by storage in a damp
place, insufficient drying after washing,
or by overheating. Bit or pipe
fragments in samples can rust and stain
the samples. Drilling mud additives
may also cause staining.
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Place a wet sample next to color swatches, to determine which color most
closely matches the dominant color of the sample.

III. Texture

Texture is a function of the size, shape, and arrangement of the constituent

elements of a rock.

 Grain or crystal sizes

Size, grades and sorting of sediments are important characteristics. They
have a bearing on the porosity and the permeability of the rocks and may be a
reflection of the environment in which sediment was deposited. Size
classifications are to be based on a Wentworth scale. The surface data logger
should not try to record size grades without reference to a standard comparator
of mounted sieved sand grains. Other comparators are photomicrographs of thin
sections showing both grain size and sorting. Both simple and useful is a
photographic grid of half-millimeter squares, which may be placed near the
microscope.

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Rock sample examples:

Quartz pebbles: Generally,
white, clear or milky, but iron
staining can give an orange hue.
Often seen in Putnam and Clay
counties, but may be seen
elsewhere.

Sand: Can be most any color.

Grains generally composed of
quartz or calcite. If grains are
cemented together, it may be
sandstone. Often found with
clay, limestone, or phosphate.

Sand with clay: Sand sized

grains held together with clay.
Sample easily crumbles or can
be shaped if sufficient clay
sized material. Grains are
limestone, phosphate, shell
pieces, and quartz in this
sample.

Clay: Can be most any color

green, olive, gray, bluish green,
and grayish green are most
common in. Clay can be
squeezed into a ribbon or rolled
into shapes. Often mixed with
sand, shell, or phosphate.

Coquina: Coquina is composed

primarily of shell hash that has
been tightly cemented together.
Shell beds look similar in drill
cuttings, but may have more
clay and sand.
Salt: White, dirty white, and
off white. Generally, sand with
quartz and phosphate (black or
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brown grains in photo) or heavy

minerals (titanium-based), may
exist with salt.

Chert: Can be most any color.

Rock is very hard and breaks with
sharp edges or conchoidal
fracture. Occurs as nodules,
lenses, beds, or within fractures
or voids. Often called flint.
Limestone: Component grains
form a framework held together
by calcite cement, which appears
as clear to milky white between
the grains. This sample is mostly
limestone grains, but brown
dolostone can also be seen.

Limestone with fossils:

Similar to the above in that
grains comprise the majority of
the rock and the inter-granular
space is filled with hardened
lime mud. Enlargement shows
that a portion is fossil coral
with mud infilling.

Dolostone: It is recrystallized
dolostone. In this sample,
rhombohedral shaped dolomite
crystals can be seen in the
enlargement. Acid reaction may
be barely perceptible when
applied. A hammer was needed
to break the sample.

Dolostone: Similar to above,

except grains are supporting the
rock. This sample has
limestone, dolostone, and chert
grains with some fossil pieces.
The limestone grains will fizz
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more vigorously than the

dolostone or chert.

Gypsum: Generally white but

may have bluish tint or brown
staining. Soft can scratch with
fingernails. Occurs as nodules,
beds, or infilling in voids or
fractures. Flat faces of crystals
may be seen.

 Shape

Shape of grains has long been used to decode the history of a deposit of
which the grains are a part. Shape involves both sphericity and roundness.

Sphericity refers to a comparison of the surface area of a sphere of the same

volume as the grain, with the surface area of the grain itself. For practical
purposes, distinction is usually made in large particles based on axial ratios and
in grains by visual comparison with charts.

Roundness that refers to the sharpness of the edges and corners of a fragment is
an important characteristic that deserves careful attention in detailed logging.
Five degrees of rounding are described as follows:

Angular edges and corners sharp, little or no evidence of wear.

Subangular faces untouched but edges and corners rounded.
Subrounded edges and corners rounded to smooth curves; areas of original
faces reduced. Rounded Original faces destroyed, but some comparatively flat
faces may be present; all original edges and corners smoothed off to rather
broad curves.
Well rounded no original faces, edges, or corners remain; entire surface
consists of broad curves, flat areas are absent.

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Sorting
Sorting is a measure of the size frequency distribution of grains in a
sediment or rock. It involves shape, roundness, specific gravity, and mineral
composition as well as size. A classification given by Payne (1942) that can be
applied to these factors is:

Good: 90% in one or two size

classes Fair: 90% in three or our
size classes Poor: 90% in five or
more size classes
Values that are more precise
may be determined by direct
comparison with sorting
comparators.

IV. Cement and matrix

Cement is a chemical precipitate deposited around the grains and in the pore
spaces of sediment as aggregates of crystals or as growths on grains of the same
composition. Matrix consists of small individual grains that fill the pore spaces
between the larger grains. Cement is deposited chemically and matrix
mechanically.

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The order of precipitation of cement depends on the type of solution, number

of ions in solution and the general geochemical environment. Several different
cements, or generations of cement, may occur in a given rock, separately or
overgrown on or replacing one another. Chemical cement is uncommon in
sandstone which has a clay matrix. The most common cementing materials are
silica and calcite.

Silica cement is common in nearly all quartz sandstones. This cement

generally occurs as secondary crystal overgrowths deposited in optical
continuity with detrital quartz grains. Opal, chalcedony, and chert are other
forms of siliceous cement. Dolomite and calcite are deposited as crystals in the
pore spaces and as aggregates in the voids. Dolomite and calcite may be
indigenous to the sandstone, the sands having been a mixture of quartz and
dolomite or calcite grains, or the carbonate may have been precipitated as a
coating around the sand grains before they were lithified. Calcite in the form of
clear spar may be present as vug, or other void filling in carbonate rocks.
Anhydrite and gypsum cements, are more commonly associated with dolomite
and silica than with calcite. Additional cementing materials, usually of minor
importance, include pyrite, generally as small crystals, siderite, hematite,
limonite, zeolites, and phosphatic material.

Silt acts as a matrix, hastening cementation by filling the pore spaces, thus
decreasing the size of interstitial spaces. Clay is a common matrix material,
which may cause loss of porosity either by compaction or by swelling when
water is introduced into the formation. Argillaceous material can be evenly
distributed in siliciclastic or carbonate rocks, or have laminated, lenticular
detrital or nodular form.

Compaction and the presence of varying amounts of secondary quartz,

secondary carbonate, and interstitial clay are the main factors affecting pore
space in siliciclastic rocks. While there is a general reduction of porosity with
depth due to secondary cementation and compaction, ranges of porosity vary
considerably due primarily to extreme variations in amounts of secondary
cement. For instance, coarse-grained sandstones have greater permeability than
finer ones when the same amount of cementing material is available to both.
However, the same thickness of cement will form around the grains regardless
of their size, therefore the smaller pore spaces, which occur in finer grained
sandstones, will be cemented earliest.
I. Fossils and accessories

Microfossils and some small macrofossils, or even fragments of fossils, are

used for correlation and may also be environment indicators. For aiding in
correlation, anyone making mud logs should familiarize himself with at least a
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few diagnostic fossils. The worldwide Cretaceous foraminiferal marker,

Globotruncana, for example, should be in every surface data logger’s geologic
“vocabulary.”

Any surface data logger who examines samples should be able to distinguish
such forms as foraminifera, ostracods, chara, bryozoa, corals, algae, crinoids,
brachiopods, pelecypods, and gastropods so as to record their presence and
relative abundance in the samples being examined. More detailed identification
will probably have to be made by a paleontologist. Fossils may aid the surface
data logger in judging what part of the cuttings is in place and what part is
caved.

For example, in the Gulf Coast region,

fresh, shiny foraminifera, especially with
buff or white color, are usually confined
to the Tertiary beds; their occurrence in
samples from any depth below the top of
the Cretaceous is an indication of the
presence of caved material. It would be
helpful to each surface data logger to have
available one or more slides or
photographs illustrating the principal
microfossils which might be expected to
occur in each formation he will be
Foraminifera
logging.
Even if the surface data logger cannot recognize the various fossils, it is
important that he note them on the logs, noting also if there is an increase or
decrease in the amount present in the samples.
Accessory constituents, although constituting only a minor percentage of a
rock, may be significant indicators of environment of deposition, as well as
clues to correlation. The most common accessories are glauconite, pyrite,
feldspar, mica, siderite, carbonized plant remains, heavy minerals, chert, and
sand-sized rock fragments.

II. Sedimentary structures

Most sedimentary structures are not discernible in cuttings. On the other

hand, one or more of them can always be found in any core, and they should be
reported in the description thereof. Structures involve the relationship of masses
or aggregates of rock components. They are conditioned by time and space
changes; e.g., stratification may result from discrete vertical (time) change in
composition, as well as changes in grain sizes or of fabric. In time of origin,
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they are formed either contemporaneously with deposition (syngenetic), or after

deposition and burial (epigenetic). Syngenetic structures are often very
important indicators of the environments of deposition of sediments.

V. Porosity and permeability

The detection and evaluation of porosity and the inferred presence or

absence of permeability in the course of rock examination is one of the most
important responsibilities of the surface data logger. Porosity is a measure of
the volume of the void space in the rock; permeability is a measure of the
capacity of a rock for transmitting a fluid. Permeability is dependent on the
effective porosity and the mean size of the individual pores; it has a direct
bearing on the amount of fluid recoverable, whereas porosity determines the
amount that is present. Generally the smaller the grain or crystal size, the lower
the permeability.

When one discusses porosity and permeability in the oil fields, the primary
concerns are the concepts of absolute and effective porosity. A reservoir will
have a given amount of void space. If these voids are not connected, production
will be limited. This “effective” porosity, in conjunction with permeability,
dictates the ultimate quality of the reservoir.

Porosity consists of primary and secondary forms. Primary porosity is

formed when the sediment is originally deposited. Secondary porosity results
from diagenesis by solution and replacement. Some clastic porosity forms from
tectonic activity.

The primary porosity in sandstones is principally interparticle (between the

grains). Though not true theoretically, as a rule, the larger the grain size, the
higher the porosity. This porosity will decrease during the formation of clays
and alteration products after deposition. Compaction and cementation after
deposition will also reduce the absolute porosity. Generally, porosity decreases
as depth increases. However, cementation is the principal process leading to
porosity loss in sandstones.

There are three types of pore communication within clastics:

1. Catenary porosity - pores that have communication with others via two or
more pore throats.
2. Cul-de-sac porosity - those that have communication via only one throat.
3. Closed pore communication.

Types 1 and 2 make up “effective porosity”. Darcy's law for permeability is

only valid when one fluid phase is present. When more than one fluid is present
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(the norm in any reservoir) the term effective permeability is sometimes used,
meaning one rock may have three permeability values; effective permeability
for oil, water and gas.

Permeability can vary greatly depending on orientation (e.g. vertical

permeability may be far lower than horizontal permeability) for the same rock,
especially if micas are abundant. Permeability may also be strongly influenced
by cross bedding and other sedimentary structures.

VI. Hydrocarbon shows

Although petrophysical analysis may give conclusive determination of the

presence of commercial quantities of oil, it is the surface data logger’s
responsibility to report and log all shows, and to see that good shows are
evaluated. Positive indications of hydrocarbons in cuttings can be a decisive
factor in the petrophysicist’s evaluation of a well.

Unfortunately, no specific criteria can be established as positive indications

of whether or not a show represents a potentially productive interval. The color
and intensity of stain, fluorescence, cut, cut fluorescence and residual cut
fluorescence will vary with the specific chemical, physical, and biologic
properties of each hydrocarbon accumulation.

The aging of the shows (highly volatile fractions dissipate quickly), and
flushing by drilling fluids or in the course of sample washing, also tend to mask
or eliminate evidence of hydrocarbons. The presence or absence of obvious
shows cannot always be taken as conclusive. In many cases, the only suggestion
of the presence of hydrocarbons may be positive cut fluorescence. In other
cases, only one or two of the other tests may be positive.
Hence, when the presence of hydrocarbons is suspected, it is very important
that all aspects be considered: the porosity and thickness of the interval, the
petrophysical evaluation, and the quality of the hydrocarbon tests. Listed below
are some of the most common methods of testing for hydrocarbons in samples
and cores that should be used by the surface data logger during routine sample
examination.
Routine hydrocarbon detection methods:

1. Odor

Odor may range from heavy, characteristic of low gravity oil, to light and
penetrating, as for condensate. Some dry gases have no odor. Strength of odor
depends on several factors, including the size of the sample. Describe as oil
odor or condensate odor. Depending on the strength of odor detected, report as
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good, fair, or faint, in the remarks column. Faint odors may be detected more
easily on a freshly broken surface or after confining the sample in a bottle for 15
to 20 minutes.

2. Staining and Bleeding

The amount by which cuttings and cores will be flushed on their way to the
surface is largely a function of their permeability. In very permeable rock, only
very small amounts of oil are retained in the cuttings. Often bleeding oil and gas
may be observed in cores, and sometimes in drill cuttings, from relatively tight
formations.

The amount of oil staining on ditch cuttings and cores is primarily a function
of the distribution of the porosity and the oil distribution within the pores. The
color of the stain is related to oil gravity; heavy oil stains tend to be dark brown,
while light oil stains tend to be colorless. The color of the stain and bleeding oil
should be reported. Ferruginous or other mineral stain may be recognized by
lack of odor, fluorescence, or cut.

3. Reaction in Acid of Oil-Bearing Rock Fragments

Dilute HCl may be used to detect oil shows in cuttings, even in samples that
have been stored for many years. This is effected by immersing a small
fragment of the rock to be tested (approximately 1/2 to 2 mm in diameter) in
dilute HCl. If oil is present in the rock, surface tension will cause large bubbles
to form, either from air in the pore spaces or from CO2 generated by the
reaction of the acid with carbonate cement or matrix. In the case of calcareous
rock, the reaction forms lasting iridescent bubbles large enough to raise the rock
fragment off the bottom of the container in which the acid is held, and
sometimes even large enough to carry the fragment to the surface of the acid
before the bubbles break and the fragment sinks, only to be buoyed up again by
new bubbles. The resulting bobbing effect is quite diagnostic. The bubbles
which form on the surface of a cutting fragment of similar size which contains
no oil do not become large enough to float the fragment before they break away,
and the fragment, therefore, remains on the bottom. In the case of oil-bearing
non- calcareous sandstone, large lasting bubbles form on the surface but may
not float the fragment. The large bubbles result from the surface tension caused
by the oil in the sample, which tends to form a tougher and more elastic bubble
wall.

It should be pointed out that this test is very sensitive to the slightest amount
of hydrocarbons, even such as found in carbonaceous shale; therefore, it is well
to discount the importance of a positive test unless the bobbing effect is clearly
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evident or lasting iridescent bubbles are observed. The test is very useful,
however, as a simple and rapid preliminary check for the presence of
hydrocarbons. A positive oil-acid reaction alerts the observer to intervals
worthy of more exhaustive testing.

4. Fluorescence
Examination of mud, drill cuttings and cores for hydrocarbon fluorescence
under ultraviolet light often indicates oil in small amounts, or oil of light color,
which might not be detected by other means. All samples should be so
examined. Color of fluorescence of crudes range from brown through green,
gold, blue, yellow to white; in most instances, the heavier oils have darker
fluorescence. Distribution may be even, spotted, or mottled, as for stain. The
intensity range is bright dull, pale, and faint. Pinpoint fluorescence is associated
with individual sand grains and may indicate condensate or gas. Mineral
fluorescence, especially from shell fragments, may be mistaken for oil
fluorescence, and is distinguished by adding a few drops of a solvent.
Hydrocarbon fluorescence will appear to flow and diffuse in the solvent as the
oil dissolves, whereas mineral fluorescence will remain undisturbed.

When using the Sperry-Sun API gravity chart to determine the API gravity
from the fluorescence, it must be taken from the unwashed cuttings mixed with
water. By washing the drilled cuttings, some of the oil is washed from the
cuttings, resulting in brighter and lighter color fluorescence than the actual
formation. With sidewall cores and conventional cores, this problem is not as
pronounced.

5. Reagent cut tests

Oil stained samples that are old may not fluoresce; this failure to fluoresce
should not be taken as decisive evidence of lack of hydrocarbons. All samples
suspected of containing hydrocarbons should be treated with a reagent. The
most common reagents used by the surface data logger are chlorothene,
petroleum ether, and acetone. These reagents are available at most drug stores
and give satisfactory results. The use of ether gives a more delicate test for
soluble hydrocarbons than chlorothene or acetone, however, the ether being
used should be tested constantly, for the least presence of any hydrocarbon
product will contaminate the solvent and render it useless. Chlorothene is
recommended for general use although it too may become contaminated after a
long period of time. Acetone is a good solvent for heavy hydrocarbons but is
not recommended for routine oil detection.

Caution: Carbon tetrachloride is a cumulative poison and should not be used for
any type of hydrocarbon detection.

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To test cuttings or cores, place a few chips in a white porcelain evaporating

dish or spot plate and cover with reagent. The sample should be dried
thoroughly at low temperature; otherwise water within the sample may prevent
penetration by the reagents, thus obstructing decisive results. The hydrocarbon
extracted by the reagent is called a “cut.” It is observed under normal light and
should be described based on the shade of the coloration, which will range from
dark brown to no visible tint. A faint “residual cut” is sometimes discernable
only as an amber-colored ring left on the dish after complete evaporation of the
reagent. A very faint cut will leave a very faint ring, and a negative cut will
leave no visible color. The shade of the cut depends upon the gravity of the
crude, the lightest crudes giving the palest cut, therefore, the relative darkness
should not be taken as an indication of the amount of hydrocarbon present. A
complete range of cut colors varies from colorless, pale straw, straw, dark
straw, light amber, amber, very dark brown to dark brown opaque.

Hot water test

Place 500 cc of fresh, unwashed cuttings in a tin or beaker, which has a
capacity of 1,000 cc. Pour in hot water with a temperature of at least 170oF
(77oC) until it covers the sample to a depth of 1 cm. Observe the oil film thus
formed under ultraviolet light and record the amount of oil released.

Pyrolysis test

When well samples of kerogen-rich rock are pyrolyzed in a thick walled test
tube placed over a propane torch, oily material may be generated and condensed
as a brown residue around the walls of the tube. This simple technique may be
used to identify source rocks capable of generating liquid oil. However, the
pyrolysis technique cannot distinguish between oil source rocks and those
sediments rich in humic matter (carbonaceous shales and coals) which are
considered to be dominantly sources for gas. This test is also not responsive to
post mature source rocks. The artificial test-tube generating process is believed
to be similar to that associated with natural time-temperature dependent
processes accompanying rock burial in depositional basins.

Hydrocarbons in organic rich sediments may be determined semi-

quantitatively with a Turner fluorometer. One hundred milligrams of rock is
pyrolyzed as above and the resulting condensation is diluted with 3 milliliters of
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chlorothene. The fluorescence of the solution thus produced is recorded in

fluorometer units.

Solid hydrocarbons and dead oil

There has been much confusion, inconsistency and misunderstanding about

the usage and meanings of these two terms. They are not synonymous.

Solid hydrocarbons refer to hydrocarbons that are in a solid state at surface

conditions, usually brittle, and often shiny and glossy in appearance. There are a
wide variety of substances called solid hydrocarbons with variable chemical and
physical properties. The most significant of these variations is that of maturity.
Some solid hydrocarbons, like Gilsonite, are immature or barely mature oils,
while others like anthraxolite represent the carbonaceous residue left after
hydrocarbons have been overheated and thermally cracked. Anthraxolite is
considered thermally dead oil. Gilsonite, on the other hand, is certainly not dead
oil. It is a substance from which high-quality gasoline, industrial fuel oils and an
endless list of other products are produced.

The term “dead oil” has been used indiscriminately in the industry to
describe oils that are either (1) solid, (2) nonproducible or (3) immobile. All of
these definitions are deceptive and misleading. Some solid hydrocarbons are not
dead oil. Many so called “non-producible oils” are now productive because of
improved recovery technology, and there are numerous examples of “immobile
oil” at surface conditions that are fluid and mobile at depth. Other factors that
have been used to distinguish them are extremely variable and have lacked
general agreement by industry. For example, whether or not positive indications
of fluorescence, residual cut, and/or cut fluorescence are considered
requirements, or whether the physical state of the oil is solid or tarry.

In view of the above it is recommended that usage of the term “dead oil” be
applied only to thermally dead solid hydrocarbons that will not fluorescence, or
give a cut or cut fluorescence. Whenever the term is used, qualifying data
should be listed.
VII. Procedures for rock and mineral identification

Tests with dilute HCl (10%)

There are at least four types of observations to be made on the results of

treatment with acid:

1. Degree of effervescence: limestone (calcite) reacts immediately and rapidly,

dolomite slowly, unless in finely divided form (e.g., along a newly made
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scratch). While the effervescence test cannot yield the precision of chemical
analysis or X-ray, it is generally adequate for routine examination. Unless the
sample is clean, however, carbonate dust may give an immediate reaction that
will stop quickly if the particle is dolomite. Impurities slow the reaction, but
these can be detected in residues. Oil-stained limestones are often mistaken for
dolomites because the oil coating the rock surface prevents acid from reacting
immediately with CaCO3, and a delayed reaction occurs. The shape, porosity,
and permeability will affect the degree of reaction because the greater the
exposed surface, the more quickly will the reaction be completed.

2. Nature of residue: carbonate rocks may contain significant percentages of

chert, anhydrite, sand, silt, or argillaceous materials that are not readily detected
in the untreated rock fragments. Not all argillaceous material is dark colored,
and unless an insoluble residue is obtained, light colored argillaceous material is
generally missed. During the course of normal sample examination in carbonate
sequences, determine the composition of the noncalcareous fraction by
digesting one or more rock fragments in acid and estimate the percentage of
insoluble residue. These residues may reveal the presence of significant
accessory minerals that might otherwise be masked.

3. Oil reaction: if oil is present in cutting, large bubbles will form on a

fragment when it is immersed in dilute acid.

4. Etching: etching a carbonate rock surface with acid yields valuable

information concerning the texture, grain size, distribution and nature of
noncarbonate minerals, and other lithologic features of the rock.
The most reliable test for hydrocarbons is the “cut fluorescence” or “wet
cut” test. In this test, the effect of the reagent on the sample is observed under
ultraviolet light, along with a sample of the pure solvent as control. The sample
should be thoroughly dried before applying the reagent. If hydrocarbons are
present, fluorescent “streamers” will be emitted from the sample and the test is
evaluated by the intensity and color of these streamers. Some shows will not
give a noticeable streaming effect but will leave a fluorescent ring or residue in
the dish after the reagent has evaporated. This is termed a “residual cut.”
It is recommended that the “cut fluorescence” test be made on all intervals in
which there is even the slightest suspicion of the presence of hydrocarbons.
Samples that may not give a positive cut or will not fluoresce may give a
positive “cut fluorescence.” This is commonly true of the high gravity
hydrocarbons that give a bright yellow “cut fluorescence.” Distillates show little
or no fluorescence or cut but commonly give positive “cut fluorescence,”
although numerous extractions may be required before it is apparent.

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Generally, low gravity oils will not fluoresce but will cut a very dark brown
and their “cut fluorescence” may range from milky white to dark orange. An
alternate method involves picking out a number of fragments and dropping
them into a clear one or two ounce bottle. Petroleum ether, chlorothene, or
acetone is poured in until the bottle is about half full. It is then stoppered and
shaken. Any oil present in the sample is thus extracted and will color the
solvent. When the color of the cut is very light, it may be necessary to hold the
bottle against a white background to detect it. If there is only a slight cut, it may
come to rest as a colored cap or meniscus on the top surface of the solvent.

Caution: Proper ventilation is important when using petroleum ether as it may

have a toxic effect in a confined space. In addition, petroleum ether and acetone
are very inflammable and must be kept away from open flames.

5. Wettability

Failure of samples to wet, or their tendency to float on water when

immersed, is often an indication of the presence of oil. Under the microscope, a
light-colored stain which cannot be definitely identified as an oil stain may be
tested by letting one or two drops of water fall on the surface of the stained rock
fragment. In the presence of oil, the water will not soak into the cutting or flow
off its surface, but will stand on it or roll off it as spherical beads. Dry spots
may appear on the sample when the water is poured off. This, however, is not
useful in powdered (air drilled) samples, which, because of the particle size and
surface tension effects, will not wet.
Other hydrocarbon detection methods
Acetone water test

If the presence of oil or condensate is suspected, and provided no

carbonaceous or lignitic matter is present in the rock sample, the acetone-water
test may be tried. The rock is powdered and placed in a test tube and acetone is
added. After shaking it vigorously it is filtered into another test tube and an
excess of water is added. When hydrocarbons are present, they form a milky
white dispersion, inasmuch as they are insoluble in water, whereas acetone and
water are completely miscible.

Limestone specimens etched in HCl usually develop and “acid polish.”

Insoluble materials such as clay, silt, sand, chert, or anhydrite will stand out in
relief against the soluble matrix. Dolomite crystals usually stand out also,
inasmuch as they are attacked by the acid more slowly than is calcite. The
internal structures of fossils, oolites, and detrital fragments are commonly
revealed on an etched surface. If the appearance of the etched surface is so
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diagnostic that permanent record is desired, an acetate peel can be made, or the
surface can be photographed.

Hardness

Scratching the rock fragment surface is often an adequate way of

distinguishing different lithic types. Silicates and silicified materials, for
example, cannot be scratched, but instead will take a streak of metal from the
point of a probe. Limestone and dolomite can be scratched readily, gypsum and
anhydrite will be grooved, as will shale or bentonite. Weathered chert is often
soft enough to be readily scratched, and its lack of reaction with acid will
distinguish it from carbonates. Caution must be used with this test in
determining whether the scratched material is actually the framework
constituent or the cementing or matrix constituent. For example, silts will often
scratch or groove, but examination under high magnification will usually show
that the quartz grains have been pushed aside and are unscratched, and the
groove was made in the softer matrix material.

Parting

Shaly parting, although not a test, is an important rock character. The surface
data logger should always distinguish between shale, which exhibits parting or
fissility and mudstone, which yields fragments, which do not have parallel
plane faces.

Slaking and swelling

Marked slaking and swelling in water is characteristic of montmorillonites (a

major constituent of bentonites) and distinguishes them from kaolins and illites.

Thin sections

Certain features of rocks may not be distinguishable even under the most
favorable conditions without the aid of thin sections. Thin sections adequate for
routine examination can be prepared without the use of the refined techniques
necessary to produce slides suitable for petrographic study.

Some of the questions of interpretation which might be clarified by the use

of thin sections include the following: mineral identification, grain-distribution,
grain sizes, and source rock quality. Although wetting the surface of a carbonate
rock with water, or mineral oil, permits “in depth” observation of the rock,
some particles, or particle-matrix relationships still remain obscure until the
rock is examined by transmitted light, plane and/or polarized.
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Once these features have been recognized in thin sections, they are
frequently detectable in whole fragments, and only a few thin sections may be
needed in the course of logging a particular interval. It is important to have
polarizing equipment available for use in thin section examination - many
features of the rock texture, and some minerals, are most readily recognized by
the use of polarized light.

Staining technique for carbonate rocks

The distinction between calcite and dolomite is often quite important in

studies of carbonate rocks. For many years, several organic and inorganic stains
have been used for this purpose, but with varying degrees of success.

One stain that is applicable to routine sample examination and is both simple
and rapid is Alizarin Red S. This stain can be used on any type of rock
specimen, and it has proved especially useful in the examination of cuttings.
The reactions to acid of chips of dolomitic limestone or calcareous dolomite are
often misleading, and the rapid examination of etched chips does not always
clearly show the calcite and dolomite relationships. Alizarin Red S shows
clearly the mineral distribution. Calcite takes on a deep red color; other minerals
are uncolored.

Insoluble residues

Carbonate rocks may contain significant percentages of chert, anhydrite,

sand, silt, or argillaceous materials that are not readily detected in the untreated
rock fragments. The study of cherts and associated residues has been a common
practice for many years in certain areas. For routine logging of micro-insoluble
residues, symbols for accessory minerals, should be used.

Versenate analysis

Versenate analysis is a relatively fast and inexpensive method for

determining quantitatively the calcite/dolomite ratios of given carbonate rocks.
The method has shown merit in the mapping of intimately associated limestone
and dolomite. It is based on the color reactions of a reagent on crushed and
sieved carbonate samples.

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Heavy mineral studies

Heavy mineral studies are used today primarily when a geologist is seeking
information concerning the source areas and distribution patterns of siliciclastic
sediments. Their use as a correlation tool is limited.

Test for specific rocks and minerals

Many of the more perplexing problems of rock and mineral identification

can be solved by use the thin sections. However, certain simple and rapid tests
are discussed as follows.

Clay: Shales and clay occur in a broad spectrum of colors, mineral

composition, and textures. Generally, their identification is done with ease;
however, light colored clay is commonly mistaken for finely divided anhydrite.
The two may be distinguished by a simple test.

Anhydrite: will dissolve in hot dilute hydrochloric acid and, when cooled, will
recrystallize out of solution as acicular needles. Clay remains insoluble in the
hot dilute acid.

Chert: Recognition of the more common varieties of chert and siliceous

carbonates generally is not a problem. Weathered chert, however, is often found
to be soft enough to be readily scratched and mistaken for clay or carbonate.
Lack of reaction with acid generally distinguishes this type of chert from
carbonates.
Clay and tripolitic chert may require petrographic techniques for
differentiation. In thin sections under polarized light, chert commonly has a
characteristic honey-brown color.

Evaporites: Anhydrite and gypsum are usually readily detected in cuttings.

Anhydrite is more commonly associated with dolomites than with limestones,
and is much more abundant in the subsurface than gypsum. At present, there
appears to be little reason to distinguish anhydrite from gypsum in samples.
Anhydrite is generally harder and has a pseudo-cubic cleavage; the cleavage
flakes of gypsum have “swallow-tail” twins. Anhydrite can be readily
recognized in thin sections by its pseudo-cubic cleavage, and under polarized
light, by its bright interference colors.

The dilute hydrochloric acid test is a valid and simple test for anhydrite or
gypsum in cuttings. Place the cuttings in a watch glass and cover with acid.
Heat on a hot plate to

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±250oF (±120oC) and wait for the sample to start dissolving. If anhydrite or
gypsum is present, acicular gypsum crystals will form around the edge of the
acid solution as it evaporates. If the sample contains much carbonate, a calcium
chloride paste may form and obscure the acicular gypsum crystals. Dilute the
residue with water, extract and discard the solution and report the test.

Salts are rarely found at the surface and generally do not occur in well
samples. Unless a salt-saturated or oil-base mud is used, salt fragments or
crystals dissolve before reaching the surface. The best criteria for detecting a
salt section are:

(a) The occurrence of “salt hoppers”

(b) Marked increase in salinity of the drilling mud
(c) A sudden influx of abundant caved material in the samples
(d) A sharp increase in the drilling penetration rate
(e) Mechanical log character, particularly the sonic, density, and caliper log.

Cores are the most direct method of determining whether salt is present, but
they are not usually cut in salt sections. Salts are commonly associated with
cyclical carbonate sections and massive red bed sequences. In the former, they
are usually thin bedded and often occur above anhydrite beds. Potassium-rich
salts, the last phase of an evaporation cycle, are characterized by their high
response on gamma ray log curves.

Phosphate: Place on the suspected mineral (either on the hand specimen or on

an uncovered thin section) a small crystal of pure white ammonium molybdate.
Allow one or two drops of dilute nitric acid to fall on the crystal. If the rock
contains phosphate, the crystal rapidly takes on a bright yellow color.

Siderite: Siderite is usually readily distinguished by its characteristic brown

color and slow rate of effervescence with dilute HCl. The mineral often occurs
as buckshot-sized pellets. The presence of siderite or iron dolomite in the same
rock with calcite may be difficult to recognize and the following stain procedure
is recommended for use when such cases are suspected.

The polished face of the chip is immersed for 5 to 10 minutes in a hot,

concentrated solution of caustic potash to which a little hydrogen peroxide is
added at intervals during treatment. The surface is finally washed and dried in
the air. Siderite is stained brown while ferrous dolomite (ankerite) takes a
weaker stain and ordinary dolomite remains colorless; calcite is roughened but
is not destroyed and chamosite retains it green color unless carbonate of iron is
present. This method is equally applicable to powders.

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Feldspar: The presence, quantity and type of feldspar constituents can be

important in the study of reservoir parameters in some sandstones, particularly
the coarse arkosic sands or “granite washes.” Staining techniques, operationally
applicable to rather large etched core (or surface) sample surfaces, allows a
better estimation of the amount and distribution of feldspar grains. The use of
sections to make these estimates is expensive, and often difficult because of the
small surfaces provided.

Bituminous rocks: Dark shales and carbonates may contain organic matter in
the form of kerogen or bitumen. Carbonates and shales in which the presence of
bituminous matter is suspected should be examined by thin section and
pyrolysis-fluorometer methods for possible source rock qualities. Dark,
bituminous shales have a characteristic chocolate brown streak, which is very
distinctive.
Problems in interpreting drill cuttings

Cavings

Cavings may often be recognized as material identical to what has already

been seen from much higher in the hole. This spalling of previously penetrated
rocks into the ascending mud stream is particularly pronounced after trips of the
drill stem for bit changes, drill stem tests, coring operations or other rig
activities. It is suppressed by good mud control, but most samples will contain
caved material. (Soft shales, thinly bedded brittle shales, and bentonites cave
readily and may be found in samples representing depths hundreds of feet
below the normal stratigraphic position of those rocks.)

Owing to differences in the hardness of rocks, the type and condition of the
bit, and the practice of the driller, one cannot set any hard and fast rule for the
size of true cuttings. Caved fragments tend to be larger than fragments of rock
from the bottom of the hole, and they are typically rounded by abrasion. Flaky
shape, freshness of appearance, sharp edges and signs of grinding by the bit
may be used as criteria for the recognition of fresh cuttings.

Recirculation

Recirculation chiefly refers to sand grains and microfossils from previously

drilled rocks which re-enter the hole with the mud stream and contaminate the
rising sample.

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Lost circulation material

A large variety of substances may be introduced into the hole to combat lost
circulation difficulties. These include such obviously foreign materials as
feathers, leather, burlap sacking, or cotton seed hulls, as well as cellophane
(which might be mistaken for selenite or muscovite), perlite, and coarse mica
flakes which might be erroneously interpreted as formation cuttings. Most of
these extraneous materials will float to the top of the sample tray when it is
immersed in water, and so can be separated and discarded at once. Other
substance may need more careful observation. Generally the sudden appearance
of a flood of fresh-looking material which occupies the greater part of a sample
is enough to put the sample logger on his guard. As a check, he can consult the
well record for lost circulation troubles, and the kinds of materials introduced
into the hole.
Cement

Cement fragments in cuttings are easily mistaken for sandy, silty, or chalky
carbonate. However, most cements are of an unusual texture or color, frequently
have a glazed surface, tend to turn yellow or brown when immersed in dilute
HCl, and are usually full of fine black specks. The latter are sometimes
magnetic, in which case the fragments of cement can be removed from the
cuttings with the aid of a small magnet.

Drilling mud

In examining unwashed or poorly washed cuttings, it is often important to be

able to recognize the drilling muds which were used. An inexperienced surface
data logger may confuse drilling mud with soft clay, bentonite, or sometimes
gypsum or a carbonate.
Thorough washing and rinsing in a pan of water will generally remove most
mud contamination. If necessary, lithic fragments can be broken open to see if
the interior (fresh) differs from the surface (coated).

Oil-base and oil-emulsion muds coat the cuttings with oil, and care must be
taken to distinguish such occurrences from formation oil. They are generally
recognized because they coat all cuttings regardless of lithology, rather than
being confined to one rock type. Such contamination can sometimes be
removed by washing the samples with a detergent or with dilute HCl. Ligno-
sulfate muds may present problems in samples used in palynological studies.

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Oil contamination, pipe dope, etc.

Foreign substances, such as pipe dope or grease, from the rig operations
sometimes enter the mud stream. Most pipe dope and grease will normally
appear in the cuttings after a trip out of and into the hole has been made.
Usually these contaminations will disappear after one or two complete
circulations are made.

Pipe scale, bit shavings, and casing shavings

Scale shavings of metal may also contaminate the samples, but they can be
readily removed with a small magnet. They are usually rusty and rarely present
a logging problem. Bit shavings are shiny as opposed to pipe scale. Casing
shaving will also be very shiny and the shape will usually be curved or spiral.
The drilling foreman on location should be notified immediately when bit or
casing shavings are found in a sample.

Miscellaneous contaminants

Other lithic materials which may be present in cuttings samples and obscure
their real nature, or might be logged as being in place, include rock fragments
used as aggregate in casing shoes.
Miscellaneous interpretation problems
 Rock dust

If samples are not washed sufficiently, a fine dust composed of powdered

rock or dried drilling mud may cover the chips with a tightly adhering coat. In
such cases, care should be taken that a fresh surface of the rock is described.
Wetting the samples will tend to remove this coating, but if the chips are
saturated with oil, the powder may still adhere to the surface even after
immersion in water, unless a wetting agent or ordinary household detergent is
used. These comments are particularly applicable to limestone and dolomite
where the powdered rock film tends to be in the form of crystals, which may
mask the true texture of the rock. In this case, the best procedure is to break a
few chips and obtain fresh surfaces for description.

 Powdering (bit spin and percussion chalkification)

Powdering is the pulverization of the cuttings by regrinding (failure of the

mud to remove cuttings from below the bit), or by crushing between the drill
pipe and the wall of the borehole. It can result in the disappearance of cuttings

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from some intervals, and the erroneous logging of chalky limestone where none
exists.

 Fusing

Shales drilled by a diamond bit may be burned and fused, resulting in the
formation of dark gray or black hard fragments that resemble igneous rock.

 Air gas drilling samples

Cuttings from wells drilled with air or gas instead of mud are usually made
up of small chips and powder, which makes sample examination difficult. Often
a sample screening of the cuttings to eliminate the powder will facilitate the
sample study. When the cuttings are entirely of powder, little can be done
beyond describing basic rock types and colors. When the cuttings are
carbonates, the basic rock type will be difficult to determine because dolomite
powder effervesces as readily as limestone powder.

Where well-indurated shale sections are air drilled, the samples can be
cleaned conveniently by washing them with care on a 60- to 100-mesh screen.
This cleaning procedure should be required, where feasible, as the dust coating
on the particles will mask the true color, texture and even the basic lithology of
the drilled section. When “mist” drilling is done, particles can become plastered
with fine mud which is removable only by a washing process; simple screening
does not suffice.

 Spread

Spread is the separation of large from small cuttings by relative slippage

(also called elutriation or differential settling) in the mud stream, so that the
cuttings of a rock drilled up into fine chips may overtake the cuttings of a rock
drilled up into coarse chips during their journey up the borehole. This results in
the wrong sequence of rock types or very mixed sample being recovered.

Geological notes

Unconformities

Notation on a sample log of any data, which suggest the presence of an

unconformity, is important, even though the evidence is inconclusive.
Supporting evidence may be found in nearby wells. In cuttings, the following
criteria may indicate the presence of an unconformity:

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1. Concentrations of minerals, e.g., phosphate, pyrite, glauconite, calcite,

manganese nodules.
2. Abrupt changes in mineral assemblages, fauna, lithologic character, or
cementing material.
3. Iron oxide stains or manganese coatings.
4. Corrosion surfaces, as developed on conglomerates (e.g., blackened
limestone pebbles).
5. Desert varnish, as polished surfaces on pebbles.
6. Basal conglomerate - generally more heterogeneous and weathered than
other conglomerates.
7. Bone and tooth conglomerate - accumulated as a “lag zone” overlying an
unconformity.
8. Siliceous shells with beekite rings - small, bluish grey to white doughnut-
like rings occurring on siliceous shells below some unconformities.
9. Weathered chert - a definite indication of an unconformity, providing the
chert is residual and not reworked.
10. Asphaltic residues can be present at unconformities at which oil seeped out
to the surface. In the case of cherts, the oil or asphaltic residue may be in the
residual chert and not in the overlying reworked material.
11. Porous zones in limestone, caused by solution by ground water, may be
evidence of unconformities, but porous zones can develop for considerable
distances below the surface. The porosity may not be in contact with the
unconformity, but the erosional interval is the cause of it. Limestones that
underlie unconformities should be more deeply leached than similar
limestones, which do not underlie conformities. Other porous zones may
occur at unconformities in various types of lithology because of the
occurrence there of coarser material and the effects of weathering. An
unconformity so established may be traced from well to well by recognition
of the porous zones.
12. Caliche and vadose pisolites, may form in carbonate rocks exposed to
surface weathering.

The presence of two or more associated criteria greatly increases the chances
that an unconformity is present.
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most accurate, timely and useful mud logging data available, and to work
diligently to attain a high level of client satisfaction on every well. The logging
unit is an information hub at the well site, which brings information on the
drilling process in real time to the decision makers (on site, or at any remote
location). The equipments and sensors that supports the job are as follow:

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DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEM

Mud logging companies has many systems for data acquisition that guaranty
accurate and reliable real time data acquisitions, among these systems are the
followings:

1. Data acquisition (DAQ):

Data acquisition is the process of sampling signals that measure real world
physical conditions and converting the resulting samples into digital numeric
values that can be manipulated by a computer. Data acquisition systems,
abbreviated by DAQ, typically convert analog waveforms into digital values for
processing. The components of data acquisition systems include:
- Sensors, to convert physical parameters to electrical signals.
- Signal conditioning circuitry, to convert sensor signals into a form that can be
converted to digital values.
- Analog-to-digital converters, to convert conditioned sensor signals to digital
values.

There are also open-source software packages providing all the necessary tools to
acquire data from different hardware equipment. These tools come from the
scientific community where complex experiment requires fast, flexible and
adaptable software. Those packages are usually custom fit but more general DAQ
packages like the Maximum Integrated Data Acquisition System can be easily
tailored and is used in several physics experiments worldwide.

GAS SYSTEM
As the drill bit breaks loose the formation, cuttings and gas in the formation
are transferred to and entrained in the drilling mud and transported to the
surface. With this in mind, the surface data logger hypothesizes the existence of
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a direct relationship between the kind and amount of gas and/or oil in the
drilling mud arriving at the surface, and the gas and/or oil that was in place in
the formation being drilled at the time that particular mud was passing by the bit
at the bottom of the hole. The gas system is one of the most important systems
in oil and gas drilling operations as accurate and fast gas readings can be used
as a good tool for reservoir evaluations. The main components of the gas system
are:

 The gas trap, which is the device for removing gases from the drilling mud.
 Flow control panel that controls the flow of the gases come into the mud
logging unit and those pumped out of the mud logging unit.
 The gas detectors proper (Total gas detector and gas chromatograph).
These detectors are the flame ionization detectors (FID).
 H2S and CO2 detectors.

Before we discuss the different parts of the gas system it is good to know the
different types of gasses that might exists during the different drilling
operations, which are classified as follow:

TYPES OF RECORDED GASES

1-Cuttings gas (formation gas)

It is the gas liberated from the drilled cuttings enters the well bore mud.
2- Background gas
This is the gas recorded while drilling through a consistent lithology. Often it will
remain constant; however, in over pressured formations this value may show
considerable variation.
3-Trip gas
It is quite common for an increase in the mud gas reading to occur at the first
bottom’s up circulation after a trip has been made.
The amount of this gas depends on the following:-
1-Differential Pressure (Mud Weight / Formation Pressure)
2-Pipe Movement Speed
3-Mud Properties; viscosity
4-Annular Size
4- Connection gas
A connection gas may appear at the first bottom’s up circulation after a connection
has been made. The reason of this is the reduction of the hydrostatic head when
pumps are shut-off loosing the effect of the E.C.D, along with the upward pipe
movement that causes another negative swabbing pressure.
5- Circulation gas
Is the gas being liberated into the borehole when actual “hole making” is stopped
and the mud is circulated with the bit on bottom. The purpose of this practice is to
get an idea of the degree of under balanced at that particular depth internal.
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6-Miscellaneous gases
A- Kelly gas
Results from air trapped in the drill string during a connection. It can be easily
identified by the time of its appearance relative to the time of connection and the
pump rate to get this gas down the drill pipe up the annulus.
B- Carbide gas
Is caused by the mud logger putting a specified amount of carbide in a dissolvable
package into the drill pipe at the time a connection is made. This carbide reacts
with the mud and creates acetylene that is a check for the time required to pump
cuttings off bottom to the surface; lag check.
Origins of Gas
Mercer’s classification (1974)
1- Liberated Gas 2- Produced Gas 3- Recycled Gas 4- Contamination Gas
1- Liberated Gas
The gas that is mechanically liberated, by the action of the bit, into the drilling
fluid as the bit penetrates the formation
2- Produced Gas
The gas that is produced into the drilling fluid, from a specific zone or formation,
as a result of the formation pressure exceeding the opposing hydrostatic pressure
due to the drilling fluid.
3- Recycled Gas
- Any gas, that has not been liberated and removed from the drilling fluid while at
surface that is pumped back down into the well bore
- Appears one complete circulation after the original peak (surface time +
downtime + lag time)
4- Contamination Gas
- Any gas that has been artificially introduced into the drilling fluid from any
source other than the drilled formations
Contamination Causes
- Oil based mud systems
- Addition of petroleum products
- Conditioning and re-use of mud systems
- Contaminated transporters or mud tanks
- Thermal degradation or reaction of mud additives
- Hydrogen from drilling casing plugs/shoes
- Resulting from lag checks

1. Gas trap:

The gas readings from the drilling mud as related to fluids and gases in-
place in the formation must be interpreted with the following consideration in
mind:

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The extraction of this gas from the drilling mud must be done in a manner that
is independent of variables such as density, viscosity and gel strength of the mud;
in a manner independent of the flow rate of the mud through the whole mud
system; in a manner so that all the gases as completely possible may be extracted
even from a high gel strength mud, and in a manner which would be considered
reliable around drilling rig conditions which tend to be destructive of sensitive
equipment.

There are two types of gas traps. These are air

powered and electrically powered. In operation, the
bottom of the trap lies submerged about two inches
under the surface of the returning mud stream. The
mud, tending to seek its own level, flows in the
inlet in the bottom of the trap canister. Rotation of
the motor-driven impeller blade causes this mud to
whirled around rapidly.

The centrifugal force of this whirling action causes the level of the mud to be
raised around its periphery inside the canister until it flows out the discharge on
the side of the trap. The depth to which the trap is lowered into the mud should be
adjusted to give a continuous sample of 3 gallons per minute of mud flowing
through the trap.

General factors affecting the size of a gas show:

1- Amount of hydrocarbons present in the formation.
2- Type of hydrocarbons present.
3- Porosity and permeability of the formation.
4- Mud weight overbalance (or under balance) and amount of flushing.
5- Mud flow rate.
6- Mud properties, specifically viscosity.
7- Mud temperature.
8- Mud type in use.
9- Hole size.
10- Rate of penetration.
11- Type of bit; affecting size of cuttings and amount of cuttings gas.
12- Efficiency of gas trap, sample line and gas detectors.

Factors that control the size of this formation gas shows.

- Rate of penetration (ROP) controls the concentration of gas in the mud for a
given flow rate and is therefore the primary factor causing a variation of gas.
- The Differential pressure (P) and Flow rate control the degree of flushing.
- The hoe size is an important factor affects the size of the gas show, the larger the
hole size, the more the cuttings, the more the gases liberated from these cuttings.
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- The Porosity affects the gas concentration but as the flow rate is usually constant
for a bit run this is not as important factor as a change in ROP.
- As the Depth increases the gas shows should increase due to the increase of
expansion that occurs.

2. Hydrocarbon gas system:

Total gas measurement:
– Catalytic Combustion or “Hotwire”
– Thermal Conductivity
– Flame Ionization

Catalytic Combustion or “Hotwire”

A filament combusts a fraction of the gas sample; it’s temperature increases
resulting in a change of electrical resistance and potential difference which is
calibrated in terms of gas concentration.
• Detector response increases with molecular weight; An increase can therefore
be caused by a change in quantity or in composition
• Non-linear measurement of EMA (Equivalent Methane in Air)

Platinum
filament
catalyst
Alumina
bead
Advantages of Catalytic Combustion
• Industry standard for 30 years
• Simple, reliable, cheap
• Good sensitivity
• Response is proportional to heat energy of gas
Disadvantages of of Catalytic Combustion
• Gas mixture has to be below LEL
• Sensor can be poisoned
• Sensor deteriorates over time
• Non-linear measurement of EMA

Thermal Conductivity Detector

• Measures the cooling effect that the gas/air mixture has on a filament; a
larger response is given by molecularly lighter gases
• Methane/Air has a linear response from 0 to 100%
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• All other hydrocarbons give a lower response

• Other gases also register; e.g., CO2, H2S, and N have a lower cooling effect;
H2 and He are very light and yield a large positive response.

Sample

Reference Active
Advantages of Thermal Conductivity
• Cheap, reliable
• Long Life
• Range to 100% C1, linear measurement

Disadvantages of Thermal Conductivity

• Poor sensitivity < 0.1%
• C2+ lowers reading
• Poor zero stability
• Non-linear measurement of EMA
• interference from other gases

Flame Ionization Detector

• Complete combustion of gas sample in a hydrogen flame
• Detects the ionization process when combustion breaks down the carbon-
hydrogen bonds, releasing electrons that change the electrical current
• Gives a linear measurement of Equivalent Methane in Air

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Advantages of Flame Ionization

• Excellent sensitivity and range
• Stable
• Response equal to number of carbon atoms, linear measurement of EMA.

Disadvantages of Flame Ionization

• Expensive
• Complicated
• Use of hydrogen

The Value of Total Gas Measurement

• Continuous gas monitoring, instantaneous response

• Effective when zone is well known or only one fluid type or gas will be
encountered
• Assists the well-site geologist in core point selection and formation tops
• Backup to chromatographic analysis
• Safety, Reliability
• Stand-alone monitoring systems

Chromatographic Analysis

• Absolute measurement of individual gases and hydrocarbon compounds

Separation of hydrocarbon components occurs as sample is passed through
columns containing separating (eluting) medium
- Different elution velocities for gases of varying chemical and physical
properties (molecular size and electrostatic potential)
- Individual components passed to detector where they are analyzed and
measured
• Chromatographs can work on the principles of any of the previous Total
Gas detectors. Basically it is effectively a separating device with either an
FID or TCD on the end.
• The types of gases that can be analyzed are dependent on,
– separating medium
– carrier gas
– column temperature and pressure
– separation time allowed between components
• Samples have to be separated and analyzed before the following sample can
be taken (one cycle)
• Chromatographs are limited by sample cycle-time
• For rapid Rates Of Penetration (ROP), data is lost between samples
• Shorter sample cycle-time allows,
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– effective analysis with fast ROP’s

– detection of fractures and thin beds
– better identification of formation tops
– better identification of fluid contacts

C1

C3
IC4 NC4
CO2 C2
IC5 NC5

Advantages/Benefits of Chromatography

•
Quantitative measurement of all selected hydrocarbon components.
•
Non-hydrocarbon analysis with Thermal Conductivity Detectors.
•
Determination of reservoir fluid type.
•
Determination of fluid contacts.
•
Aids in applications such as geo-steering.
4. H2S gas system:

H2S gas sensor is a fixed gas detection system for toxic and combustible
gases. One safe controller for all gases; any combination of a sensor head plus a
controller is a complete gas detection system. H2S gas sensor also gives you the
opportunity to alter or expand existing systems with minimum expenditure.

Compur manufactures electrochemical sensors for the

detection of oxygen deficiency and toxic gases. These
sensors generate an electrical current proportional to the
actual gas concentration. The remote sensor heads are
designed as intrinsically safe certified 4 - 20 mA
transmitters and have an integrated concentration display.

Combustible gases are detected with a variety of

catalytic beads (pellistors). These sensor heads are certified
and can be connected directly to the controller even if they
are to be used in classified areas. The controller can supply
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and operate different designs of catalytic sensors. With so

many possibilities, the system can easily be tailored to suit
your individual application needs.

RIG SENSORS
1. Draw work sensor:
An optical shaft encoder is attached to the draw
works drum shaft. The encoder provides better than
0.25 degrees resolution of the rotation of the draw-
works, which in the worst case gives a 1cm
resolution of the block position. The depth
processing unit determines the absolute position of
the hook taking into account the number of wrap
turns on the drum and the cable position. The sensor
is used to detect the kelly position and the direction
of the Kelly (up or down).
The draw work gear has a specific numbers of teeth and the inductive
proximity switches detect the gear movement in which direction and how many
teeth moved from the previous position. Draw work sensor is a four wires
sensor; every two wires are supplied by 8VDC and send the detection as pulses
to the depth processing unit to process the signal of the two proximity switches.

2. Hook load sensor:

Hook load (HKL) this is the load on the hook

(summation of the strings: BHA and bit).

Weight on bit (WOB) it’s calculated from the

hook load and its decrease on it (if HKL is 200
tones then become 150 tones due to formation
resistance so WOB is 50 tones).

The hook load sensor is a line tension

transducer provides a 4-20 mA loop powered
electrical signal output proportional to a wire
rope's single line load up to 100,000 lbs. (45360
kg) max.

Principle of operation
The transducer is clamped to the anchored wire rope (deadline). Because of
the transducer's geometry, the wire line is bent or deflected by 1/4 inch (6.35
mm) at the center of the transducer body when properly installed.

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When additional load is applied to the wire rope, the wire rope tends to
straighten at the deflection point; it therefore exerts an outward force on the
yoke. This force is transmitted through the clamping mechanism, with reaction
forces at the deflection blocks to the transducer body.

These combined forces create a strain on the transducer body, which the
strain gauge detects, the strain gauge bridge and the signal conditioner combine
to produce a 4-20 mA output signal proportional to the tension in the wire rope.
Pick up point & Slack of point & Rotary weight
Pick up point = weight of drill string
Slack of point = weight of drill string – resistance of mud (no RPM)
Rotary weight = weight of drill string (with RPM).

3. Pressure sensor:

- Stand pipe pressure (SPP) is the pressure of the pumped fluid inside the pipes.
- There are two possible ranges of sensor available, 0 - 5000 psi and 0 - 10,000 psi.
- The standpipe pressure sensor is installed in the standpipe or in any convenient
fitting near the drill floor in the mud pump line.
- Casing pressure (annular pressure) is the pressure of the pumped cement into
casing.
- There are two possible ranges of sensor available, 0 – 10000 and 0 - 15,000 psi.
- The Casing pressure sensor is installed in the choke and/or kill flow lines.

Hammer union pressure

Hammer union pressure transmitter has been designed for use in extremely
harsh environments in both on-shore and offshore oil drilling operations where
high shock and vibration is likely to be encountered.

VEGA pressure sensor

Another type of pressure sensor, which is a pressure transmitter for
measurement of gauge pressure and absolute pressure. Measured products are
gases, vapours and liquids. The front flush versions are also suitable for use in
viscous or contaminated products.

Advantages
Small, compact dimensions
Stainless steel housing with cable
outlet Zero and span adjustable
Deviation < 0.5 %
Wetted parts of stainless steel

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Function
The process pressure causes a resistance change in the sensor element via the
stainless steel diaphragm. This change is converted into an appropriate output
signal and outputted as measured value. With measuring ranges up to 16 bars, a
piezoresistive sensor element with internal transmission liquid is used. From 25
bars, a strain gauge sensor element is used on the rear of the stainless steel
diaphragm. This dry system operates without additional isolating liquid.

There are several different types of pressure test:

FIT – Formation Integrity Test This is a pressure test to a predetermined pressure,
which is designed to be below the probable fracture pressure.
LOT – Leak Off Test This test done after each casing and the beginning of new
open hole, this occurs by drilling of 5ft nearly to know what is the allowable
pressure on the formation through pumping high pressure mud to reach before
break the formation. (Cement pump)
Formation Breakdown This is a test that fractures the formation and injects fluid.
The measured standpipe pressure is dependant on a number of parameters: -

1- Density of the mud: - The higher the density, the higher the pressure
2- Mud viscosity: - The higher the viscosity, the higher the pressure
3- Flow rate: - The faster the flow rate and annular velocity of the mud, the higher
the pressure.
4- Depth: - Pressure will increase with depth since annular and drill string sections
are increasing, therefore increasing frictional pressure losses
5- Pipe and hole diameters: - The smaller the diameters, the larger the pressure
6- Bit nozzles or TFA: - The smaller the nozzles or flow area of the bit, the larger
the pressure
7- Efficiency of pumps and surface equipment - any leaks will cause a drop in
standpipe pressure

Changes in standpipe pressure may be caused by the following conditions: -

1- Loss of circulation: - If mud is being lost to a permeable or fractured formation,

there will be a reduction in pressure.
2- Gas cut mud: - If a large quantity of gas is held in the mud and not removed at
surface, there will be a reduction in pressure as a function of the reduced mud
density.
3- Influx of formation fluid: - In the event of a kick, an initial increase in pump
pressure may be seen. This will be followed by a gradual decrease as the influx
feeds in and rises in the annulus. This is a function of the influx (in particular, a
gas influx) reducing the mud weight and hydrostatic pressure in the annulus.
4- Plugged or washed out nozzles: - Causing an immediate, dramatic increase or
decrease.
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5- Washout in the drill string: - A hole or crack that results in a gradual decrease.
The pressure decreases more rapidly as the size of the washout increases.
6- Bit or pipe twist off: - This will cause an immediate, dramatic drop due to the
large larger flow area in comparison to the nozzles.
7- Hole packing off: - If the walls of the well bore are closing in on the drill string,
restricting circulation, a pressure increase will result.
8- Mud Condition: - If mud density and/or viscosity is not consistent throughout
the system, erratic pump pressure may be seen. This ‘patchiness’ may be as a
result of poor surface treatment; variable solids content; remnants of viscous or
hi/low density mud pills. Similarly, muds may be prone to aeration or foaming,
causing drops in pump pressure.
9- Down hole tools: Failing or malfunctioning tools such as motors or MWD tools
will result in pressure spikes or erratic pressure. High torque will also cause
pressure spikes from such down hole tools.
10- Increased ROP: - A significant increase in ROP will load the annulus with
more cuttings leading to a pressure increase.
11- Increased WOB: - This is a function of the bit being ‘buried’ more into the
bottom of the hole, restricting the flow of mud from the bit nozzles.

4. Rotary speed (RPM) sensor:

Rotary speed is the speed of rotation of the string.

Rotary speed proximity sensors are entirely solid state electronic controls
that contain no moving parts to wear out as do mechanical switches. They
require no physical contact for actuation, no cams or linkages, have no
contacts to bounce or arc and are completely encapsulated, making them
impervious to most liquids, chemicals and corrosive agents. In addition,
RPM sensors can be used in hazardous explosive environments without any
special enclosures.
RPM sensor is used to count the number of rotations of the drill pipes per
minute. It gives very important information accompanied with rotary torque
about the drilled formations and drill string condition.

Rotary speed (RPM) sensor Frequency converter

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5. Rotary torque sensor:

Rotary torque is the resistance of the formation to the drilling and rotation of
string.
The clamp meter rotary torque sensor provides a solution to measure the
rotary torque on electric rigs in an accurate, simple, and reliable way proving
itself over the years in hundreds of installations worldwide. The system displays
torque in foot-pounds, amps or metric equivalents with simple Installation
procedure.

The split core transducer is clamped around the power cable that leads to
your rig’s electric motor. This will enable the transducer to sense the current that
the motor draws, which is proportional to that required by the rotary table, and
transmits the signal to the dual output signal conditioner. The conditioner will
then convert this signal to an accurate reading on the electric meter. This dual
output signal conditioner will also drive the multipoint data recorder or data
acquisition system.

Features:
 Simple, no moving parts to wear out.
 Split core transducer measuring electrical current to the motor clamps around
power cable; no shunts or direct electrical connections required.
 Signal conditioner unit provides outputs to meters, recorders, and other data
acquisition devices.
 Multi-scaled meter provides readings for different gear selections.

6. Pump stroke sensor:

Pump speed: The speeds of pumping of mud inside the pipes (related to
SPM or efficiency of pump).
The pump stroke sensors are used for counting the number of strokes of
the mud pumps that sucks the mud from active tanks and pumps it into the
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drilling pipes; the number of strokes is very important to calculate the mud
flow and numbers of bbl that are pumped into the well.

The mechanical switches (limit switches) are fixed on the pump latch
beside the pump movement part. The pump stroke sensor is fixed by L-shape
holder its length can be changed easily and the holder is fixed to the pump
body by J-clamp.
The software provides number of strokes per minute for each pump, total
Strokes for each pump and total strokes for all pumps and they are all can be
monitored in digital and graphical formats.

7. Pit level sensor:

Ultrasonic probe sensors are used for pit level

measurement. The Probe is an ultrasonic level monitor
combining sensor and electronics in a single package. It
is designed to measure liquid levels in closed vessels.
The mud pit level measuring device monitors single pit
level and the total pit volume through a non-contact
measuring principal for continuous level measurement
with ultrasonic pulses. Ultrasonic probe
The probe emits a series of ultrasonic pulses from the transducer. Each pulse
is reflected as an echo from the material and sensed by the transducer. The echo
is processed by The Probe using Milltronic's proven `Sonic Intelligence'
techniques. Filtering is applied to help discriminate between the true echo from
the material and false echoes from acoustical and electrical noises and agitator
blades in motion. The time for the pulse to travel to the material and back is
temperature compensated and then converted into distance for display, mA
output and relay actuation.

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8. Mud flow sensors:

Paddle mud flow sensor:

Mud flow sensor is a paddle type sensor that monitors mud flow through the
return line. The sensor is mounted on the return line with the paddle extending
into the mud flow. Deflected by the force of the mud flow, the paddle uses a
Hall Effect sensor with a variable target to produce a 4 to 20 MA analog output
that is proportional in amplitude to the position of the paddle. This current
output can be used to monitor, display and record mud flow information. The
Mud Flow Sensor has sealed oil impregnated bushings for reliable operation, an
adjustable paddle arm for fitting to various sizes of flow lines.
Non-linear and logarithmic calibrations through the computer allow accurate
calibrations to be made for most installations over a wide range of flows.
Depending on the instrumentation setup, the actual readings (in gal/min, lit/min)
can be installed and calibrated through online system software. This sensor is
very simple in construction and electrical principle:

Mechanical idea: a paddle is put against the flow of the mud and connected
through gears to heavy weight to resist the flow.

Electromagnetic mud flow sensor:

Magnetic flow meters, or magmeters, are intended to measure the flow of

electrically conductive liquids in full pipes. The pressure drop through the
meter is minimal, (equal in magnitude to a piece of pipe of the same diameter
and length) making it an excellent choice for low pressure systems. There are
no moving parts or obstructions in the fluid stream so the meter is virtually
maintenance free and suitable for fluids containing abrasives. Modern pulsed
DC excitation eliminates problems with zero shift often found in other designs.
The detection of flow is accomplished using the principle of
electromagnetic induction. As a conductor passes through a magnetic field, a
voltage is generated that is proportional to the velocity of the conductor
moving through the field. In the case of the magnetic flow meter, the conductor
is a conducting liquid. The higher the flow rate the greater the generated
voltage.

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9. Mud weight sensor:

A change in mud density, in particular a decrease of mud density indicates that

the mud is diluted. This may be at surface when the drilling people reduce the
mud weight for one or the other reason. A more severe situation is given when
the mud is diluted with formation waters. This means also that the formation
pressure exceeds the hydrostatic pressure of the mud column, - in other words -
the well is not in balance. This is an alarm situation that must be reported
immediately to the company man.
Compare the reading of the mud density sensors (in and
out) with a mud sample taken at the sensor point. Use the mud
engineer's mud balance to verify. Accuracy should be better
than 0.1 ppg.

Of course, the mud density readings must agree with the

mud weight reported by the mud engineer. Follow up if there
are any discrepancies.

There are two different types of mud density sensors. One

is a simple device based on the principles of buoyancy, the
second, a nuclear density sensor. The latter works usually fine
but the buoyancy sensor is sensitive to dirt and sometimes
quite unreliable.

10. Mud temperature sensor:

The temperature of the mud flow into, and out of the hole is monitored.
The temperature increases with time of drilling or circulating as increasingly
warmer mud of the active system is recycled into the wellbore. If water is
added to the mud system, for example to dilute the mud, the differential
temperature will behave erratically tending towards lower temperatures.
Nor the temperature of the outflowing mud neither the differential
temperature do have any direct quantitative relationship with the actual,
stabilized bottom hole temperature. The temperature differential can give some
indications, in some cases if an abnormally pressured formation is approached.
When circulation is stopped prior to logging you should note the mud
temperature (out) in your notebook. This gives the first, although very coarse,
indications as to how high bottom hole temperatures might be.
Note also that on offshore operations, the long riser leading through cool
sea water cools down the mud considerably. Onshore and offshore flowline
temperatures are therefore not comparable.

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11. Mud conductivity sensor:

The resistivity of the drilling mud can be measured in the mud pits or - better-
at the shaker feeder tank (possum belly). It can be displayed as resistivity (units
ohm.m) or its inverse, conductivity (unit mmho/cm).

A change in mud resistivity indicates that the mud is mixed with other matter.
It may also be that a different type of shale is drilled and incorporated into the
mud system or the conductivity of the mud has changed due to mud additives
such as KCl. It may also indicate that water is entering the bore hole and mixing
with the mud.
Mud resistivity can be measured with dip electrodes or with sensors that
measure the conductivity with the induction method. Dip electrodes become dirty
in the rig environment (dry mud, etc.) and are therefore less reliable than induction
sensors. In fact, dip electrode sensors should only be used in addition to
induction sensors.
Induction sensor principle: Two torroidal coils are encapsulated in the sensor
coil. An AC signal is applied to one of the primary coils. This induces a signal in
the secondary coil that is directly proportional to the conductivity of the mud. A
thermistor bead, also encapsulated in the sensor measures the temperature of the
solution. The transmitter electronic of the sensor produces an output signal
directly proportional to the conductivity of the mud corrected to 25°C.
Check with a sample of seawater and freshwater. Cross-check the water
resistivity with the wireline engineer's resistivity meter. Temperature corrections
applicable are the same as for mud filtrate (Rmf determination). Use the
chartbook of the wireline logging contractor.
Mud resistivity (or conductivity) should be normalized for ambient temperature
or displayed in Chloride (Cl-) equivalent. Check the method used for
conversion; is it a conversion factor in the computer system or "hard-wired"?

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GEOLOGICAL EQUIPMENTS
1. Binocular microscope:

The optical microscope, often referred to as the "light microscope", is a type

of microscope, which uses visible light and a system of lenses to magnify
images of small samples. Optical microscopes are the oldest and simplest of the
microscopes. Digital microscopes are now available which use a digital camera
to examine a sample, and the image is shown directly on a computer screen
without the need for optics such as eyepieces. All optical microscopes share the
same basic components:

 The eyepiece - A cylinder containing two or more lenses to bring the image
to focus for the eye. The eyepiece is inserted into the top end of the body tube.
Eyepieces are interchangeable and many different eyepieces can be inserted
with different degrees of magnification. Typical magnification values for
eyepieces include 5x, 10x and 20x.
 The objective lens - a cylinder containing one or more lenses typically made
of glass, to collect light from the sample. At the lower end of the microscope
tube, one or more objective lenses are screwed into a circular nose piece, which
may be rotated to select the required objective lens. Typical magnification
values of objective lenses are 4x, 5x, 10x, 20x, 40x, 50x and 100x. Some high
performance objective lenses may require matched eyepieces to deliver the best
optical performance.
 The stage - a platform below the objective which supports the specimen
being viewed The stage usually has arms to hold slides (rectangular glass plates
with typical dimensions of 25 mm by 75 mm, on which the specimen is
mounted).
 The illumination source - below the stage, light is provided and controlled
in a variety of ways. At its simplest, daylight is directed via a mirror. Most
microscopes, however, have their own controllable light source that is focused
through an optical device called a condenser, with diaphragms and filters
available to manage the quality and intensity of the light.

The whole of the optical assembly is attached to a rigid arm, which in turn is
attached to a robust U shaped foot to provide the necessary rigidity. The arm is
usually able to pivot on its joint with the foot to allow the viewing angle to be
adjusted. Mounted on the arm are controls for focusing, typically a large
knurled wheel to adjust coarse focus, together with a smaller knurled wheel to
control fine focus.

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Stereo microscope:
The stereo or dissecting microscope is designed differently from the
diagrams above, and serves a different purpose. It uses two separate optical
paths with two objectives and two eyepieces to provide slightly different
viewing angles to the left and right eyes. In this way, it produces a three-
dimensional visualization of the sample being examined.

Digital microscope:
Low power microscopy is also possible with digital microscopes, with a
camera attached directly to the USB port of a computer, so that the images are
shown directly on the monitor. Often called "USB" microscopes, they offer high
magnifications (up to about 200×) without the need to use eyepieces, and at
very low cost. The precise magnification is determined by the working distance
between the camera and the object, and good supports are needed to control the
image. The images can be recorded and stored in the normal way on the
computer. The camera is usually fitted with a light source, although extra
sources (such as a fiber-optic light) can be used to highlight features of interest
in the object.

Digital microscope Stereo microscope optical

design
2. UV-box:

UV-box is a tool used by well site geologists to examine different cutting

samples under ultraviolet light for the existence of oil in these samples.
Fluorescence is the emission of electromagnetic radiation light by a substance
that has absorbed radiation of a different wavelength. In most cases, absorption
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of light of a certain wavelength induces the emission of light with a larger

wavelength (and lower energy). The most striking examples of this
phenomenon occur when the absorbed photon is in the ultraviolet region of the
spectrum, and is thus invisible, and the emitted light is in the visible region.
Practical applications of this effect are found in the UV-box.

A simple chemical test may be carried out to

determine whether fluorescence in drill cuttings is a result
of oil or some fluorescing mineral. This is easily and
quickly established by immersing some of the drill
cuttings in a petroleum solvent (chlorothene,
trichlorothene, ether, or acetone). If the fluorescence is
derived from mineral sources, the minerals will not
dissolve in the solvent and the solvent will remain
colorless under ultraviolet light. However, if
hydrocarbons are present in the rock, they will UV cabinet
disseminate into the solvent, giving the entire solvent a
distinctive color under ultraviolet light. This sheen under
UV light is called cut and the color of the cut indicates
the quality of the oil. Pale blue-white is high gravity
(light) oil, yellow is medium gravity, and orange brown
for low gravity (heavy) oil.

3. Shale density balance:

Shale sensitive balance is used to precisely determine the weight of small

samples not more than “200 gm”. It is used in mud logging unit in weighing
crushed cutting samples that are going to be tested for calcimetry and in shale
density measurements.

These electronic scales are a precision

instrument. Electromagnetic fields can cause
major display discrepancies. The scales must then
be repositioned away from electromagnetic fields.
All sources of environmental interference, such as
drafts and vibrations, should be avoided. Sudden
changes of temperature should be avoided. The
scales must be reset to match changes in
temperature.

The scales are not hermetically sealed; therefore avoid high humidity, steam
and dust. Do not bring liquids into direct contact with the scales, as these can
penetrate into the measuring mechanism. Cleaning material should only be dry

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or barely damp. Do not use solvents as these can damage paintwork or other
plastic parts. Remove damaged items immediately from the scales.

The measuring mechanism will be stabilized by allowing the scales to warm

up for a few minutes after switching them on. Place items to be weighed
carefully on the scales. Do not place objects on the weighing platform for any
period, apart from normal use. Sudden shocks or overloading the scales beyond
the maximum permitted weight should absolutely be avoided, balance could be
damaged.

4. Calcigraph:

Calcigraph is used to determine the amount of Calcium Carbonate and

Magnesium Carbonate in a sample of alkaline earth carbonates such as oil
well cores or drilled cuttings. Calcite builds up in drilling fluids and in water,
treatment processes causes scaling problems. Data from the Calcigraph can
help determine the proper chemical treatment.

In calcigraph, calcium carbonate and magnesium carbonate are reacted

with 10 percent hydrochloric acid in a sealed reaction cell to form CO2. As
the CO2 is released, the pressure build up is measured using either a pressure
gauge or a pressure recorder. During the calibration process, a calibration
curve is created by reacting HCl with pure, reagent grade CaCO3. By using a
known weight of CaCO3 reagent, you can determine the relationship between
the amount of pressure released and the weight of CaCO3 in the sample.
Since all reaction cells are slightly different, this relationship will be different
for each cell. Therefore, a calibration curve is required to obtain accurate
results.

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