UNIVERSITI TEKNOLOGI MARA

CPE 420: INTRODUCTION TO

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

ASSIGNMENT 1: DURATION 5 WEEKS

No Student name ID No
MUHAMMAD IDZAM HARITH BIN MOHD 2022645828
1
YASIR AFKAM
MUHAMMAD AFIFIZUDDIN BIN ROSLI 2022835512
2
AIRIL 2022
3
MIRUL 2022
4
MUHAMMAD DANIEL ASYRAAFI BIN MOHD 2022621808
5
SHAHRIL
TABLE OF CONTENTS

NO. CONTENT PAGE NUMBER

1. INTRODUCTION

2.

3.

4. A) PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

B) PROCESS BLOCK DIAGRAM

C) DETAILED PROCESS EXPLAINATION

5. MAIN PROCESS EQUIPMENT IN PRODUCTION LINE

6. SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

7. NATURAL RUBBER VS SYNTHETIC RUBBER

8. REFERENCES
 Neoprene rubber is a synthetic material composed of polymerized chloroprene, and is
sometimes referred to as polychloroprene. Polychloroprene is primarily composed of carbon,
hydrogen, and chlorine polymers, which are cross-linked to give neoprene certain desirable
properties, such as chemical inertness, and thermal, oil, water, and solvent resistance.
Neoprene also called polychloroprene or chloroprene rubber, synthetic rubber produced by
the polymerization (or linking together of single molecules into giant, multiple-unit
molecules) of chloroprene. A good general-purpose rubber, neoprene is valued for its
high tensile strength, resilience, oil and flame resistance, and resistance
to degradation by oxygen and ozone; however, its high cost limits its use to special-properties
applications.

Neoprene was the first ever successful synthetic rubber created, dating back to 1930.
Natural rubber was in such high demand during the 1920’s that the prices kept rising. The
demand leads to a search for a comparable synthetic rubber. It was during 1930, that a
chemist from DuPont who is Wallace Carothers and Arnold Miller Collins, produced a
rubber-like substance that became Neoprene.

Wallace Carothers was an active and a successful researcher in DuPont’s

Wilmington experimental station, Delaware USA from the time he was hired there in 1928

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till his untimely death in 1937. He has been credited with the inventions of Nylon and
Neoprene. A careful analysis of the patenting trends by the inventor Wallace Carothers
reveals that his first few patents were in the field of polyesters. This was followed by high
experimental, and consequent patent activity in vinyl polymers, which was directed towards
the Duprene polymer that later evolved into Neoprene product for DuPont. The vinyl polymer
was an extension of the work conducted by Father Julius Nieuwland at Purdue University.
The work and patents on polyamides exclusively did not start until 1934, but the results from
these experiments yielded almost immediate commercial results for DuPont.

Arnold Miller Collins was a chemist at DuPont who, working under Wallace

Carothers, first isolated polychloroprene and 2-chloro-1, 3-butadiene in 1930. At Dupont,
Collins worked under Wallace Carothers. Carothers assigned Collins to produce a sample of
divinylacetylene. In March 1930, while distilling the products of the acetylene reaction,
Collins obtained a small quantity of an unknown liquid, which he put aside in stoppered test
tubes. He later found that the liquid had congealed into a clear homogeneous mass. When
Collins removed the mass from the test tube, it bounced. Further analysis showed that the
mass was a polymer of chloroprene, formed with chlorine from the cuprous chloride catalyst.
Collins had stumbled upon a new synthetic rubber. Following this breakthrough, DuPont
began to manufacture its first artificial rubber, DuPrene, in September 1931. In 1936, it was
renamed neoprene a term to be used generically

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 One of the first successful synthetic rubbers, polychloroprene was first prepared in
1930 by Arnold Collins, an American chemist in Wallace Hume Carothers’s research group
at E.I. du Pont de Nemours & Company (now DuPont Company), while investigating by-
products of divinylacetylene. DuPont marketed the material as Neoprene, a trademarked
name that has since become generic. Chloroprene (also known as 2-chlorobutadiene) is a
colourless, toxic, flammable liquid with the following chemical formula :

Neoprene comes in different forms, depending on the purpose for which it is needed.
Neoprene sheets are commonly found placed between pieces of other fabrics, such as
polyester or spandex. Neoprene fabric is flexible, but mixing elastic fabrics (such as spandex)
with the neoprene increases the flexibility. The additional flexibility has made neoprene
fabric popular with designers. Neoprene fabrics are also scratch-resistant and weather-
resistant, which makes it ideal for outerwear. Neoprene can be found across a range of
industries because of its various useful traits. Its applications include:

Industrial uses. Chemical inertness makes the material especially valuable for

industrial applications, including corrosion-resistant coatings and as a base for various
adhesives. Neoprene is also used in sealing gaskets, especially in relation to electricity, due to
its heat and static resistance.

Electrical and electronic uses. Neoprene’s fire and static resistance explain why it is
commonly used in power transformers, light bulbs, wires, and other electrical applications as
an insulator. It is also used as a protector for electronics such as laptops for the same reason,
as well as its cushioning abilities.

Safety equipment uses. The material’s ability to continue to function in a wide range

of temperatures while providing thermal resistance and remaining flexible makes neoprene
fabric an ideal fit for gloves and other protective wear. Neoprene’s oil, chemical, and water
resistance provide additional protection.

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 Marine uses. As a result of neoprene’s water and thermal resistance properties, it is
also used in wet-suits and diving-suits—nitrogen is added to increase insulation which
increases overall buoyancy, so the suits must be weighted to prevent them from floating or
pulling the diver back toward the surface. However, because neoprene contains air-pockets
and is subject to compression as pressure increases, the efficiency of a neoprene wet-suit
decreases as water depth and distance from the surface increases.

Automotive uses. Neoprene can be used to make automotive parts, as it is abrasion,

tear, solvent, oil, and weather-resistant, as well as heat and fireproof. It can be found in
window and door seals, hose covers, belts, vibration mounts, and shock absorber seals.

Medical uses. Thanks to neoprene’s flexibility, wearability, and ability to keep its

shape over time, it is used to make supports and braces, including wrist, knee, and elbow
supports.

Packaging uses. Because neoprene is a soft rubber by nature, it is also a useful source

of padding and reinforcement for certain fragile applications.

Construction uses. Thanks to its weather, temperature, and compression resistance,

neoprene is used in washers, bridge bearing pads, elevator astragals, and other construction
materials.

Neoprene is extremely versatile and is used in many different products. Neoprene

does not degrade as quickly as natural rubber, so it is used for gaskets or hoses. Neoprene
also resists burning, so the material is used in weather stripping for fire doors or in gloves and
face masks. Neoprene is most commonly used in scuba gear or wetsuits since it insulates so
well and is waterproof. It can also be found in laptop sleeves, tablet holders, remote controls,
mouse pads, lunch bags, can coolers or koozies, tires, clothing, car seats, car seat covers, and
even Halloween masks. 

Due to its composition, neoprene has great resistance to water, oil and heat. Can
neoprene float on the water? The amount of air inside neoprene will decide how much water
can penetrate into it. The more air neoprene contains, then the less water can soak into it.
When limestone neoprene is produced it is manufactured by added nitrogen. The added
nitrogen increases the insulation and also increases the overall buoyancy because the cells do

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not absorb water. The traditional oil-based neoprene has lower cell penetration and liquid
base, which means it has less air and allows more water to soak into it.

Example of neoprene product :

Neoprene was originally intended to serve as an oil-resistant substitute for natural

rubber, but since its invention neoprene’s other properties have enabled its use a rubber
alternative in a wide range of applications. Some of the properties are :

It’s a very heat resistant rubber. When compared with natural rubber, neoprene
resists gas permeation more and can function in temperatures up to 275 degrees Fahrenheit
(F). Even at such high temperatures, neoprene will not physically degrade, making it better
suited to long-term use in high-temperature applications than natural rubber. When heat

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degradation does occur it does not manifest itself in the form of melting or stretching, as with
many applications, but instead exhibits hardening. It’s also fire-resistant.

Neoprene is also cold resistant. Even though it can function in high heat, neoprene
also holds up down to -50 degrees Fahrenheit. When operating at temperatures below 0
degrees Fahrenheit, neoprene will however become increasingly stiff, becoming non-
functional for most applications by the time it hits -50 degrees F.

It works with other materials. Neoprene can be manipulated to bond mechanically

with cotton and several types of metal, including stainless steel, aluminium, brass, and
copper. A basic bonding agent aids in the process. In neoprene with specific additives,
adhesion can be induced between neoprene and materials such as glass and acrylic.

It’s resistant to outdoor conditions. Neoprene has a low oxidation rate, as well as

high sun and ozone resistance. This allows it to last for long periods of time outdoors.

It’s chemical resistant. Neoprene is chemically inert and valued for its ability to
withstand petroleum-based mixtures, such as solvents, oils, and greases. Additionally, it can
withstand methyl and ethyl alcohols as well as alkalines, mineral acids, and some salt
solutions.

II. THREE PROCESS AVAILABLE

1 polymerization process

Chloroprene (also known as 2-chlorobutadiene) is a colourless, toxic, flammable

liquid with the following chemical formula :

It was formerly prepared by treating acetylene with cuprous chloride to form mono-

vinyl acetylene, which was treated in turn with hydrochloric acid to yield chloroprene. In

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modern production it is obtained by the chlorination of butadiene or isoprene. In order to
process chloroprene into rubber, it is emulsified in water and then polymerized through the
action of free-radical initiators. In the resultant polymer chain, the chloroprene repeating unit
can adopt a number of structures; the most common is trans-polychloroprene, which can be
represented as follows:

This polymer tends to crystallize and harden slowly at temperatures below about 10
°C (50 °F). It also crystallizes on stretching, so cured components are strong even without the
addition of fillers such as carbon black. Because the double bond between the carbon atoms is
shielded by the pendant atoms and CH2 groups, the molecular interlinking necessary
for vulcanizing the polymer to a cured rubber is usually effected through the chlorine atom.
The presence of chlorine in the molecular structure causes this elastomer to resist swelling
by hydrocarbon oils, to have greater resistance to oxidation and ozone attack, and to possess a
measure of flame resistance. Principal applications are in products such as wire and cable
insulation, hoses, belts, springs, flexible mounts, gaskets, and adhesives, where resistance to
oil, heat, flame, and abrasion are required.

2 laminating process

The manufacturing process of Neoprene begins carefully selecting the correct raw
materials to be mixed. The main powder is called chloroprene. This is the base to further add
other ingredients that provide elasticity, foaming agents, cell configuration, color, adhesion,
and bulk, among other properties.

This mixture of Neoprene's raw material powders explained is later mixed several
times through a chemical reaction using chloroprene and butadiene together that binds all the
molecules of the reaction, furnishing the polychloroprene chips. The mix is fed into an oven

7
and heated at a temperature around one-tenth of what it's normally used for refining
petroleum.

The Neoprene mixture (that now looks like dough), is melted and mixed together with
foaming agents and some pigments. Right after it is baked in an oven to expand it. It is
precisely during this process when the micro-cell structure neoprene is created. After
cooking, the formed sponge is cooled, leaving a big neoprene sponge block whose thickness
varies (up to 20mm). The next process is to slice the neoprene up into thinner sheets to the
desired thickness.

The final process here explained is the laminating of soft neoprene sheets to add
strength and alter its appearance. Normally very stretchable textiles (mostly nylon and
polyester jersey knits) are used to laminated neoprene. Either to one side or both sides of the
neoprene sheet, to make its texture smooth.

3 vulcanization process

Vulcanization involves chemical procedure wherein rubber is blended with activators,

accelerator, and Sulphur at the temperature of 140–160 °C (Fig. 4.6). Cross-linking occurs
among long molecules of rubber, to add up the tensile strength, tenderness, and resilience
toward weather

Process of introducing crosslinking between polymeric chains.

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 Cross-linking aims to make bonding in polymers. The methods of cross-linking the
synthetic materials are categorized into cross-linking with polymerization and post-cross-
linking.

Vulcanization agent Rubber–Sulphur.

Vulcanizing the rubber with mostly used vulcanizing agent Sulphur initiates the cross-
linking of rubber that is not saturated [26]. However, Sulphur, as a vulcanizing agent, does
not proceed swiftly. When rubber and Hydrocarbons make chemical reactions, this process
generally involves double bonds or C C, along with it every cross-linking needs 40–55
atoms of Sulphur without accelerator. Therefore, vulcanization is not corrosion resilience and
could not add a significant level of mechanical characteristics for rubber usability. The
strategy to counter this shortcoming is the usage of the accelerator, which has now part of
rubber compounding.

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MAIN PROCESS EQUIPMENT

POLYMERIZATION REACTOR

The behavior of continuous polymerization reactors can be altered significantly by

forced oscillation of the reaction parameters such as feed concentration of the reactants, flow
rate and temperature.

According to its structure, a polymerization reactor can be classified into four types:
tank, column, tubular, and other special type reactors. However, due to the high viscosity and
high exothermicity of a typical polymerization system, special attention has to be paid to heat
transfer and fluid flow when designing a polymerization reactor. For instance, most of the
polymerization reactors are equipped with agitators. Commonly used tank reactors obviously
have stirring capability, and even a tower reactor is usually equipped with multiple blades
when it is used for polymerization. The main functions of agitators in a polymerization
reactor including this process which is Mixing effect,Agitating effect,Suspension effect and
Dispertion effect

Mixing effect is when the feed contains more than two phases, adequate agitation will
ensure uniform concentration, temperature, density, and viscosity in reactor.
Agitating effect also play important role to shearing the mixture with the usage of blades of
the agitator exert pressure on the fluid and force the fluid to flow more vigorously. Fluid flow
pattern can also be changed by changing blade shapes to enhance heat and mass transfer.
Suspension effect is shown after agitation keep solid particles or oil-drops suspended
uniformly in a reaction medium. This is especially the case for suspension polymerization
processes where water is usually used as the solvent. Maintaining uniform suspension of
monomer drops or polymer particles in the water by agitation is very critical for the
polymerization process.
Dispersion effect contain gas, liquid, and solidwhich can be dispersed in the liquid medium
by agitation, which increases interface area and hence enhances heat and mass transfer

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STRIPPING COLLUMN

Stripping column is a chemical equipment used for physical separation where one or
more components are removed from liquid stream by a vapor stream.When inter-phase,mass
transfer using the air to strip the contaminants out of the water using Ex-situ technique to
remove volatile organic compound from pumped groundwater.This technology is a physical
process which transfer the contaminant in liquid phase into the gas phase for the purification
ground water and wasted water
A stripping column packed with irregular shape and inconsistent size packing material
in order to provide high surface.As for the operation aspect contaminated water is pumped at
the top of the water into a liquid distribution system then the water is distributed as much as
possible to flow across the packing surface since what we want is a lot air water contact.After
that the water flow through the packing surface by the gravity
Finally the clean water is collected at the bottom of the water as the water goes down, at the
same time air flow is introduce through the same path but in opposite direction which is from
bottom to top by airblower.Air flow is pumped through the tower mass transfer from water to
air air take place

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COOLING TOWER

A cooling tower is heat dismissal equipment that concentrates on the removal of

warmth to the climate through the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. The
approach of cooling towers started in the nineteenth century when condensers were created to
be utilized for steam motors. Cooling towers may either utilize the principle of evaporation to
eliminate water, measure warmth and cool the functioning liquid to approach the wet-bulb air
temperature or, on account of shut circuit dry cooling towers, depend entirely on air to cool
the functioning liquid to approach the dry-bulb air temperature
Warm water from the heat source is pumped to the water distribution system at the top of the
tower. The water is distributed over the wet-deck fill by means of nozzles. Simultaneously,
air is drawn through air-inlet louvers and through the wet-deck surface causing a small
portion of the water to evaporate. The evaporative process removes heat from the water. The
warm, moist air is drawn out of the top of the tower. The resulting cold water is then
recirculated back through the heat source in a continuous cycle.
The internal components of the cooling tower represent the core of the heat transfer
efficiency. Different models use various components to achieve the best results. However,
over time the components can wear out, become fouled, or perhaps the site conditions or
process has changed and the original components no longer fit the need. Tower Components
offers a wide variety of cooling tower products that can be custom-selected for new and

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existing cooling towers. Just as a cooling tower has a principle of operation, each component
has a principle of operation specifically suited to operating conditions.
In cross flow towers, air flow is directed across the water flow. Air flow enters the vertical
faces of the tower to meet the fill. Hot water is distributed to the fill, perpendicular to the air
flow, by gravity through perforated basins. The air passes through the fill, past the water flow
into an open area while gravity distributes the water through nozzles across the fill. The
turbulent air will flow through the fill structure to maximize the contact with the water thus
drawing heat out of the water. A cold water basin contains the water after its interaction with
the air flow.
In counter flow towers, air flows opposite to the water flow. Air enters the tower
beneath the fill and is drawn up vertically into the tower. Above the fill, hot water is
introduced through low pressure spray nozzles to divide the hot water over the surface of the
fill in fine droplets. The cooling air draws heat from the water as it progresses to the bottom
of the tower. The drift eliminator above the spray nozzle captures water droplets and returns
the water to the circulating system. A cold water basin contains the water after its interaction
with the air flow.

Steam boiler

A steam boiler is an enclosed vessel that provides a means for combustion heat to be
transferred to water until it becomes heated water or steam. The hot water or steam under
pressure is then usable for transferring the heat to a process. Water is a useful and
inexpensive medium for transferring heat to a process. When water at atmospheric pressure is
boiled into steam its volume increases about 1,600 times, producing a force that is almost as
explosive as gun powder. This causes the boiler to be an equipment that must be treated with
utmost care.

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 The basic working principle of steam boiler is very simple and easy to understand.
The steam boiler is essentially a closed vessel inside which water is stored. Fuel (generally
coal, oil, gas, biomass) is burnt in a furnace and hot gasses are produced. These hot gasses
come in contact with water vessel where the heat of these hot gases transfer to the water and
consequently steam is produced in the boiler. Then this steam is piped to the turbine of
thermal power plant. There are many different types of boiler utilized for different purposes
like running a production unit, sanitizing some area, sterilizing equipment, to warm up the
surroundings etc.
The percentage of total heat exported by outlet steam in the total heat supplied by the
fuel(coal) is called steam boiler efficiency.

It includes with thermal efficiency, combustion efficiency & fuel to steam efficiency. Steam
boiler efficiency depends upon the size of boiler used. A typical efficiency of steam boiler is
80% to 88%. Actually there are some losses occur like incomplete combustion, radiating loss
occurs from steam boiler surrounding wall, defective combustion gas etc. Hence, efficiency
of steam boiler gives this result.

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SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT
1.Economic

The rubber industry is an important resource-based sector globally. It has

witnessed steady and strong growth over the years. The future and present of the rubber
industry are tied to the global economy because rubber is used so often in tyres and non-tire
applications.

Rubber is used in a wide variety of products including medical equipment, surgical

gloves, airplane and car tyres, clothing, toys, footwear, crap tubes, adhesives, hoses, gaskets,
and roll coverings, and so on. One of the most important trends in the rubber market is the
increasing demand from the automotive industry. 

The size of the global industrial rubber market was USD 31.40 billion in 2021 and is
expected to reach USD 46.66 billion by 2030. It is growing at a compound annual growth rate
(CAGR) of 4.51% from 2022 to 2030. However, the overall contribution of the sector to the
global economy is very promising. Some studies highlighted that this sector generates over
USD 300 billion a year and supports 40 million people including their families through direct
and indirect employment.  

The expansion of rubber plantations, however, has some negative social and
environmental impacts such as deforestation or conversion of natural forests, pollution, the
displacement of local communities, unsustainable pricing, the use of child labour, and gender
inequality.

2.Environment

Natural rubber (NR) is well known as renewable biobased polymer that has been
widely used in a wide variety of applications ranging from ordinary household to aerospace
products. To meet the complete concept of green growth and sustainable development, the
uses of nontoxic chemicals and green fillers alternating to conventional fillers are necessary
to be concerned. In this article, we provide up-to-date information on the sustainable
development of NR including NR latex production with low ammonia/nonammonia system
and the usage of effective curing activator and biobased processing oil. Moreover, the issue
of the environmentally friendly green NR composites is described here with using renewable
biomass organic fillers derived from plants and animals such as cellulose and chitin.

3.Society

Support smallholders and farmer groups Smallholders have specific constraints that
need to be overcome for them to benefit from rubber production. They need support for
access to high quality genetic material and associated technologies. This can be provided by
government agencies, as in China, India, Malaysia and Thailand, or by private companies as
is often the case in emerging producing countries. Smallholders also need financial support to
invest in new production or to replace their old trees and to sustain them between the
replacement of old trees and the maturity of new trees that can produce latex. They

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experience challenges in accessing markets, to make their production of sufficient quality
after first transformation and relate to buyers. Collective organization can be a way to
overcome power unbalances between small producers and bigger buyers. It can be supported
by transparent information on prices and rules to make sure contracts are fair and company
responsibilities are upheld. Finally, smallholders also need support for diversifying their
systems to spread risks and stabilize livelihoods.

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NATURAL RUBBER VS SYNTHETIC RUBBER

Rubber Hardness Analysis

120

100

80 f(x) = − 6.77142857142857 x + 89.8666666666667

Hardness,%

60 Natural
rubber
(Hardness,
40 %)

20
f(x) = 0.685714285714286 x + 12.2666666666667
0
1 2 3 4 5 6
Sample No

Figure: Rubber Hardness analysis graph

Based on the figure above, we can clearly see how different was the hardness between
natural rubber and synthetic rubber. All of the natural rubber sample had higher hardness
percentage compare to synthetic rubber sample. Sample no 2 for natural rubber had the
highest hardness percentage which was 97% compare to the other samples. On the other
hand, the highest hardness percentage for synthetic rubber was sample no 6 which was only
16%. The lowest hardness percentage for natural rubber was actually higher than other
synthetic rubber sample which was 45% for sample no 6 while for synthetic rubber it was
10% which was sample no 3. Graph for natural rubber started at 74% and rises up to the
highest point which was 97%. Then it went down a lot to 56%. The graph did not change
much after that staying between 56% to 45%. For synthetic rubber, it had a stable trend where
the range of the hardness percentages was between 10% to 20%.

Natural rubber is an elastomer, meaning it is an elastic substance and can recover back
to its original shape when stretched. The uniqueness of natural rubber lies in its remarkable
extensibility and toughness, as evidenced by its ability to be stretched repeatedly to seven or
eight times its original length.  Tensile strength is the maximum limit that any material can
withstand being stretched out. Natural rubber has a high tensile strength and is resistant to

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fatigue from wear, such as chipping, cutting or tearing. natural rubber is also known for its
properties as a strong, flexible and heat-resistant material used to create latex
products. natural rubber is durable because it doesn’t break or weaken easily. It’s also flexible
and doesn’t lose this ability over time. The most common commercial use of natural rubber is
in tyres, spanning various industries, including automotive and aerospace.

Synthetic rubber can be produced artificially via the polymerisation of monomers into
polymers. Due to the polymers being artificially produced, synthetic rubber can have
different properties and have many applications. The application of synthetic rubber can be
seen all around us. some examples include wetsuits, balloons, PPE, the soles of shoes and
rubber bands.

The main difference between natural rubber and synthetic rubber is that natural rubber

is a natural biosynthesis polymer obtained from a plant called Hevea Brasiliensis, whereas
synthetic rubbers are man-made polymers under controlled conditions. Generally, synthetic
rubber is better than natural rubber in terms of temperature resistance, ageing resistance and
resistance to abrasion. Synthetic rubber also tends to be cheaper to produce. On the other
hand, an advantage natural rubber has over synthetic rubber is that natural rubber has higher
tensile strength, higher tear resistance, and low odour compared to synthetic rubber. Special
properties can also be found in other synthetic rubbers. These can include chemical
resistances, fluid resistances, ozone resistances, electrical resistances, and more. In addition,
synthetic rubbers can have excellent heat resistance, lower temperature resistance, and heat
aging improvements. Another consideration for choosing between natural rubber vs synthetic
rubber is that natural rubber contains natural proteins which may cause allergic reactions
when in placed in contact with human skin for prolonged periods. Despite these differences
between natural rubber and synthetic rubber, both natural rubber and synthetic rubber are in
high demand by manufacturers due to their low costs and satisfactory performance for most
applications. Ultimately, which type of rubber is ‘better’ depends on its application.

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REFERENCES

https://www.towertechindia.com/blog/what-is-the-working-principle-of-the-cooling-tower/)

https://www.filsonfilters.com/stripping-towers

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/materials-science/polymerization-reactor

http://www.steamboilerlist.com/productknowledge/Steam-Boiler-Working-Principle.html

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S245222362100002X

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