SCHEME OF WORK FOR ECONOMICS S.S.S.

TWO FIRST
TERM

WEEKS TOPICS
1 Basic tools for Economics Analysis; measures of central tendency (mean, median,
mode, using grouped data)
2 Measures of dispersion; range, variance, mean deviation, standard deviation
3 Theory of consumer behavior; concept of utility (Tu, Au, & Mu(, law of diminishing
marginal utility
4 Demand and supply; change in quantity demanded, Demand and supply; change in
quantity supplied, change in supply, effects of changes in demand and supply on
equilibrium price and quantity.
5 Elasticity of supply; meaning, types and measurement of elasticity of supply.
(Graphical illustration), importance of elasticity of supply to consumers, producers
and government.
6 Elasticity of Demand; meaning, types and measurement of elasticity of demand.
(Graphical illustration), importance of elasticity of demand to consumers, producers
and government.
7 Income elasticity of demand; definition, types (positive and negative), measurement
of Income elasticity of demand
8 Cross elasticity of demand, definition, measurement of cross elasticity of demand
9 Price control / legislation; meaning, types (minimum and maximum)
10 Rationing and hoarding; meaning of Rationing and hoarding, effects of Rationing and
hoarding, black markets and its effects.
WEEK: ONE

TOPICS: MEASURES OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

Arithmetic mean

The arithmetic mean, also popularly referred to as the “mean” is the average of a series of figures
or values. The arithmetic mean can also be prepared for grouped data. In this case, the class mark
(mid-point) of the individual class interical is used for the X – column

Formula used is

Arithmetic Mean

Example

Calculate the mean of the following marks scored by students in an economics examination.

8 , 31 , 45 ,38 , 22 , 28 ,16 , 51 ,65 , 48 ,6 ,24 ,18 , 12 ,16 , 48 ,38 , 50 , 44 , 6 , 18 ,16 ,24 ,32 , 36 , 26 ,14 ,
20, 12, 18.

Use a class interval of 0-9, 10-19, 20-29, e.t.c.

Solution

Frequency table for marks scored by students in Economics Examination

Scores (grouping) Class marks (X) Tally Frequency (F) FX

0-9 4.5 III 3 13.5
10-19 14.5 IIII IIII 9 130.5
20-29 24.5 IIII 6 147
30-39 34.5 IIII 5 172.5
40-49 44.5 IIII 4 178
50-59 54.5 II 2 109
60-69 64.5 I 1 64.5
 The Median

The median is defined as an average, which is the middle value when figures are arranged in
order of magnitude.

When the items are large, it may be necessary to use other methods other than arranging in order
of magnitude to calculate the median. This will require that a frequency table be prepared.

Hence, from a frequency distribution, the median is calculated thus;

 THE MEDIAN
The median is defined as an average, which is the middle value when figures are
arranged in order of magnitude.
When the items are large, it may be necessary to use other methods other than
arranging in order of magnitude to calculate the median.
This will require that a frequency table be prepared.
Hence, from a frequency distribution the median is calculated this;

( N2+1 ) th Member for odd number of items i.e N is odd

Median = ( N2+1) th + ( N2+1 ) th

2
Member for even number of items i.e N is even. Where N is the summation of all
the frequency and this is the terminal cumulative frequency.

Example 1
Use the information in the table: Calculate the median age of ssII students
Age Distribution of SSII Students
Age (yrs) 6 8 10 11 12 13 14
Frequency 5 10 3 8 7 10 8

Solutions
Cumulative frequency for age Distribution of SSII Students
Age Distribution of SSII Students
Age (yrs) 6 8 10 11 12 13 14
No of students 5 10 3 8 7 10 8
 (Frequency)

Median age = (51+1

2 )
th
52
= 2 = 26th number in CF.

Example 2
The data in table represents the marks scored by Economics students in NECO
examination. Calculate the median score.
Marks scored by Economics students in
Marks % 12 18 24 30 36 40 48
Frequenc 6 1 10 8 12 3 4
y

Solution
Cumulative frequency of table for Marks scored by Economics students in NECO
Examination
Marks % 12 18 24 30 36 40 48
Frequency 6 1 10 18 12 3 4
Cumulative 6 7 17 25 37 40 44
Frequency

From the table, there are 44 members as indicated by the terminal (last)
cumulative frequency. Since this 44 is even, the median score will be;
N
( ) N
( )
= 2 th + 2+1 th
 2

Median score = ( 442) th + (2+1

44
) th
2
22nd +23 rd
2
The 22nd member is 30 marks
The 23rd member is 30 marks
30+30 60
Median score 2
= 2
= 30 marks

Median score = 30

Mode for Grouped Data

∆i
For a grouped data the formula is; x = Li + ∆ i+ ∆ 2 x c

∆ i = Frequency of the modal class minus frequency of the class immediately

before the modal class

∆ 2 = Frequency of the modal class minus frequency of the class immediately after

the modal class

Li = Lower class boundary of modal class
C= size of modal class interval.
Example
The table below shows the distribution of the weight of students in a certain
school.
Weight (kg) 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69
Frequency 4 11 15 9 3 8
Obtain the modal of the weight.
 Class Boundary Frequency
39.5 – 44.5 4
44.5 – 49.5 11
49.5 - 54.5 15
54.5 – 59.5 9
59.5 – 64.5 3
64.5 – 69.5 8
From the table, the modal class has frequency of 15. The class boundaries are
49.5 -54.5. Therefore, the lower boundary of the modal class is 15, while the
frequency is before and after it are 11 and 9 respectively.
Li = 49.5
∆ i = 15 – 11 = 4

∆ 2 = 15 – 9 = 6

C = 44.5 – 39.5 = 5
∆i
Mode = Li + ∆ i+ ∆ 2 x c

4
= 49.5 + 4+ 6 x 5

= 49. 5 + (0.4) 5
= 49.5 + 2
= 51.5kg
Questions
Marks 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75-79 80-84 85-89 90-94 95–99 100-104
(kg)
Frequenc 2 6 9 23 25 13 10 6 5 1
y

a) State the modal class

b) Estimate the mode of the distribution, correct to one decimal place
2. The frequency table below represents the number of oranges picked by 20
students.
Calculate the median of the table.
X 0 1 2 3 4 5
F 2 5 6 4 2 1

Week 2
MEASURES OF DISPERSION
The measures of dispersion is also called measure of variation.
The Range
The range is the simplest and most straight forward measure of dispersion. It is
the difference between the maximum values in the date.
Example
Find the range in the table below
Marks 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-25 26-30
Frequenc 3 5 2 6 4
y

Solution
The maximum (highest) score = 30
The minimum (lowest) score = 6
= 24.

Mean Deviation
Examples:

Calculate the mean deviation for the set of data in table below

Age of SS2 students that won scholarship

8 10 14 18
4 3 5 8

Solution

Age of SS2 students that won scholarship

Age (x) Frequency FX X- X F(X- X )

8 4 32 5.8 23.2
10 3 30 3.8 11.4
14 5 70 0.2 1.0
18 8 144 4.2 33.4
20 276 ε f = (X- X ) = 69.2
εf x 276
Mean = ε f = 20 = 13.8

ε f ( X− X)
M.D =
εf

69.2
= 20

= 3.49
VARIANCE AND STANDARD DEVIATION

Example: The marks scored by Economics Students in their NECO Examination are
presented in the table below. Calculate the variance and standard deviation.

Marks 10 20 30 40 50 60
No of students (frequency) 8 6 12 18 6 4

Solution

Mark (x) Frequency FX (X- X ) (X- X )2 f(X- X )2

10 8 80 23.7 561.69 4493.52
20 6 120 13.7 187.69 1126.14
30 12 360 3.7 13.69 164.28
40 18 720 6.3 39.69 714.42
50 6 300 16.3 265.69 1594.14
60 4 240 26.3 691.69 2766.76
54 1820 10859.26
εf x 1820
X= εf = 54 = 33.7

ε f ( X− X) 2 10859.26
a) Variance = = = 54
= 201.1
εf

b) Standard Deviation = √ ε f ( X−X )2 = √ 201.1

εf
= 14.18
= 14.2

Questions

Marks scored by some students in an economics test are;

6 9 5 7 6 7 5 8 9 5

8 9 5 7 5 8 7 8 6 5

6 5 7 6 9 9 7 8 8 7
8 9 8 5 8 9 5 6 9 7

8 5 6 9 8 6 7 6 9 5

2. Find the range of the grouped frequency table below.

X 1-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 51-60 61-70 71-80

F 4 6 9 12 9 5 4 1
WEEK 3

The Theory of Consumer Behavior

The theory of consumer behavior is primarily concerned with how the consumer
or household tries to satisfy his or her wants by dividing his or her limited amount
of income between the various commodities that gives him or her the amount of
satisfaction.

The Concepts of Utility

The term utility refers to the amount of satisfaction derived from the
consumption of a commodity at a particular time.

Types of Utility

1. Form Utility: This is the transformation of commodity from the

consumption of a commodity at a particular time.
2. Place Utility: Place utility involves the changing of location of a commodity
from one geographical area where it has little utility to another area where
its utility is higher.
3. Time Utility: This is the ability of a commodity or service to satisfy a
consumer’s wants at a particular time.
Concepts of total utility, marginal utility and average utility

1. Total Utility: this refers to the total amount of satisfaction derived from all
the units of a commodity consumed at a particular time.

Tu

0
units of commodity consumed

Total Utility Curve

2. Marginal Utility: This refers to the additional satisfaction derived by
consuming an extra unit of a commodity.
change∈Tu ∆ Tu Tu1−Tu 0
MU = change∈Quantity = ∆ Q = Q1−Q 0
Where ∆ Q = Change in total utility
∆ Q = Change in quantity
Tu 1 = New level of total utility
Tu 0 = Old Level of total utility
Q1 = New level of quantity
Q 1 = Old level of quantity
 0 Mu Units of commodity consumed

3. Average Utility: this is the amount of satisfaction derived by a consumer

per unit of a commodity consumed.
Total ∈Utility
= change∈Quantity

Utility AU

0 Units of Commodity consumed

Relationship between total utility and marginal utility schedule of Total, marginal
and average utility.

Quantity of Goods Total Utility Marginal Utility Average Utility

consumed
0 0 - 0
1 15 15 15
2 25 10 12.5
3 32 7 10.7
4 38 6 9.5
5 41 3 8.2
6 43 2 7.2
7 43 0 6.1
8 42 -1 5.3

Both marginal utility and total utility are related

When a consumer increases consumption of a commodity total utility rises to a

maximum and then decline. On the other hand, the marginal utility of any
commodity decreases as more is consumed. When total utility increases to a
maximum point then marginal utility is zero.
As total utility continued to decrease, marginal utility becomes negative. The
table shows the relationship between both concepts.

At quantity seven, total utility is zero. When total utility decrease at 8 th unit, MU
is negative.

The fact that total utility increases at a decreasing rate is shown by the decreasing
steps of marginal utility curve.

45
40
35 TU
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
5 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Units of Total Marginal Utility
Schedule of Total and Marginal Utility

The Law of Diminishing Marginal Utility

The law of diminishing marginal utility states that the amount of satisfaction (or
utility) an individual derives as his consumption of that commodity increases as a
result of continuous consumption of the same commodity.
Utility Maximization
Utility Maximization for one product
For one product, a consumer maximizes utility when the marginal utility of that
commodity equals the price of the commodity. This is represented
mathematically thus, MUx = Px

Utility maximization of many products

In case of many products the consumer will be at equilibrium where there is
equality of the ratio of the marginal utility of the individual commodity to their
twice.
The utility maximization concept requires that the ration of marginal utilities of
the last units of the commodities should be equal to the ration of prices.
MUx MUy MUz
Px
= Py
= Pz

Derivation of demand curve from utility theory

Derivation of demand is based on the law of diminishing marginal utility.
Marginal utility is key concept underlying demand.
It slopes downward from left to right like the demand curve.
A consumer’s demand for any product is a function of marginal utility. Marginal
utility slopes that is more of a commodity is consumed, the satisfaction derived
declines.

Derivation of Demand curve from marginal utility curve.

1
55
50
45
 40 Marginal Utility Curves
35
30
25
20
15
10
5 MUx
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Quantity Consumed
50
45
40 Demand Curve
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 x
Quantity Demand

WEEK 4
CHANGE IN QUANTITY DEMANDED
A change in quantity demanded is a movement along a/single demand curve.
The main determinant of a change in the quantity of a commodity demanded is
the price of the commodity under consideration. The quantity of a commodity
demanded changes with price.
More is purchased at a lower price than at a higher price.
A change in the quantity demanded is of two types.

1. Increase in the quantity demanded: There is an increase in the quantity

demanded if the quantity purchased increases as a result of a decrease in
the price of the commodity.
D
N50

N20

0 30 45 Quantity demanded

Increase in the quantity demanded

2. Decrease in the quantity demanded: There is a decrease in the quantity

demanded if the quantity of the commodity purchase decreases as a result of an
increase in price.

D
N30
 Decrease in the quantity demanded

N10

0 20 50 Quantity demanded

Changes in Demand or Shifts in Demand curve

This is a complete shift of demand curve to the right or left.

There is a change in demand of the demand curve shifts to an entirely new

position.

This is a completely new demand Schedule and demand curve, showing that at
the old price, more or less of the commodity would be purchased.

A shift or change in demand is determined by other factors affecting demand

except the price of the commodity e.g. change in taste and fashion, changes in
population size, etc.

A change in demand is of two types:

(a) Increase in Demand: If there is an increase in demand, the demand curve

will shift to the right indicating that at the old price more of the commodity will
be purchased.

D0 D1

N80

0 D0 D1
 35 75 Quantity demanded

Rightward shift (Increase in Demand)

(b) Decrease in Demand: if there is a decrease in demand, the demand curve

will shift to the left, showing that at the old price less of the commodity is being
purchased.

D1 D0

N60 Leftward shift (decrease) in demand

0 D1 D0

40 65 Quantity demanded

Change in Quantity supplied.

A change in the quantity supplied of a commodity means a movement along a

particular supply curve.

If is determined by the price of the commodity.

A change in quantity supplied is of two types;

1. Decrease in the quantity supplied: The quantity supplied decreases as a

result of a decrease in the price of the commodity.

40
20

50 100 Quantity supplied

Decrease in the quantity supplied

2. Increase in Quantity supplied: With an increase in the quantity supplied,

the quantity offered for sale increase as a result of an increase in the price
of the commodity.

60

30

0 40 80 Quantity supplied

Increase in the quantity supplied.

SHIFT OR CHANGE IN SUPPLY

A Change in supply brings about a shift in the supply curve either to the right or to
the left.

With change in supply, the supply curve shifts to an entirely new position
indicating that at each of the old prices more or less of the commodity will be
supplied. It is determined by the factors affecting supply other than the price of
the commodity.

A change in supply is also of two types;

1. Decrease in supply: With a decrease in supply, the supply curve will shift to
the left, showing that at each of the old prices, less of the commodity will
be supplied.

S1 S2

70

S1 S2

0 90 120 Quantity supplied

Leftward shift (decrease) in supply

2. Increase in Supply: With an increase in supply the supply curve shifts to the
right indicating that at each of the former prices, more of the commodity
will be supplied.

S S

50

30 80 Quantity supplied

Rightward Shift (Increase) in supply

 Questions

1. Discuss the factors that should innovate a producer to supply more of a

commodity.

2. Differentiate with the aid of diagram between change in supply and change
in quantity supplied.

WEEK 5
Elasticity of Demand
Elasticity of demand can be defined as the degree of responsiveness of quantity
demanded to little changes in the price of a commodity, or to change in the
income or taste of the consumer, or to change in the prices of other commodities.

Price Elasticity of Demand

Price elasticity of demand refers to the degree of responsiveness of demand to

little changes in prices of goods and services.

Types of Price Elasticity

1. Elastic demand: Demand is elastic if a little change in price brings about a

greater change in the quantity of a commodity demanded.

P1

P2

D
 E>1

0 Q2 Q1

Elastic or fairly Elastic Demand curve.

2. Inelastic Demand: Demand is inelastic if a larger change in price of

commodities leads to little or no change in the quantity demanded.

E>1

0 Q1 Q2 Quantity demanded

Inelastic demand

3. Unity or Unitary Elasticity of Demand: Demand is unitary if a change in price

leads to an equal change in the quantity of goods demanded

P1 E=1

P2

Q1 Q2 Quantity demanded

Unity or Unitary Elastic Demand.

4. Perfectly Elastic Demand: In this curve any slight increase in price will make
consumers stop buying the commodity at all, while a slight decrease in
price will make the consumers purchase all the quantity of that commodity
available.

P E = Infinity D

0 Quantity
demanded

Perfectly Elastic demand

5. Perfectly Inelastic Demand: Demand is said to be perfectly inelastic of a

change in price has no effect on the quantity of goods demanded.

0 Q Quantity demanded.
 Perfectly Inelastic Demand

Measurement of elasticity of Demand

Elasticity of demand can be measured or determined by calculating the elasticity

of demand co-efficient. The formula used in calculating the elasticity of demand
is;
percentage change∈Quantity Demanded
Co-efficient of price elasticity of demand = Percentage change ∈ price

Note:

If the co-efficient is more than 1, demand is elastic

If the co-efficient is less than 1, demand is inelastic

If the co-efficient is 1, elasticity of demand is unitary.

Example:

Given the figure below;

Price of commodity A in January = N5.00

Price of commodity A in February = N7. 00

Quantity of A bought in January = 20kg

Quantity of A bought in February = 16kg

a. Calculate
I. Percentage change in quantity bought (%)
II. Co-efficient of price elasticity of demand
b. From your answer, is the demand elastic or inelastic.
c. How do you know this?

Commodity A
Month Price Quantity demanded
January 5.00 20kg
February 7.0016kg

Q1−Q2 100 20−16 100

(a) Percentage change in quantity demanded = Q1
x 1
= 20
x 1
4
= 20 20%

P 2−P1 100 7−5 100 2 100

ii. Percentage change in price P1
x 1
= 5
x 1
= 5
x 1 =40%

Percenta≥change ∈Quantity Demand 20 %

iii. Co-efficient of price elasticity E.D = Percentage change∈ price
= 40 %
1
= 2 or 0.5 E.D = 0.5

b.i. Demand is inelastic

ii. 0.5 is less than one. Hence, the co-efficient of price elasticity of demand is
inelastic.

Question

Given the following information; price of bread in November = N10

Price of bread in December = N14

Quantity bought in November N40

Quantity bought in December = N36

1. Calculate percentage change in price

2. Calculate percentage on quantity bought
3. Calculate the co-efficient of price elasticity of demand.
4. What type of demand elasticity is this?
5. How did you know this?
 WEEK 6 Elasticity of supply

Elasticity of supply measures the degree of responsiveness of the quantity of a

commodity offered for sale to a little change in the price of that commodity or to
a change in the cost of production.

Types of Elasticity of Supply

1. Elastic Supply: Supply is elastic if a little change in the price of a commodity

or cost of production brings about a more than proportional change in the
quantity supplied.

P1
P2

0 Q2 Q1 Quantity supplied

Fairly Elastic supply curve

2. Inelastic Supply: Supply is inelastic if a little change in the price or the cost
of production brings about a less than the proportional change in the
quantity of the commodity supplied.

P1

E<1

Fairly inelastic supply curve

3. Unitary Elastic Supply: Elasticity of supply is unitary (or unity) if a change in

price or cost of production brings about a proportional change in the
quantity of the commodity sold.

P1

P2

Unitary Elastic Supply curve

4. Perfectly Elastic supply or Infinitely Elastic Supply: a little increase in the

price of the commodity would result in the supply of all the stock of that
commodity available and vice versa.

P s E=∞

0 Quantity supplied
Perfectly Elastic supply curve

5. Perfectly Inelastic Supply: This indicates that changes in price do not bring
any change in the quantity supplied.

E=0

0 Q Quantity supplied

Perfectly Inelastic supply curve.

Measurement of Elasticity of Supply

The elasticity of supply can be determined or measured by calculating the co-

efficient of the elasticity of supply.
% chage∈Quantity Supplied
Co-efficient of price elasticity of supply = % change∈ price Negative signs
are ignored.

Example

Price (N) Quantity supplied

4 10
6 12

i. Calculate co-efficient of elasticity of supply

ii. What type of supply is this
iii. How do you know
Solution

Change in quantity supplied

Q2−Q1 100 12−10 100
Q1
x 1 = 10 x 1

2 100
= 10 x 1 = 20%

Change in price.
P 2−P1 100 6−4 2 100
P1
x 1 = 4 =¿ 4 x 1 = 50%

% Change∈Quantity supplied 20 % 2
i. Co-efficient of elasticity of supply % change∈ price = 50 % = 5 =
0.40
ii. Inelastic supply
iii. Supply is inelastic because the co-efficient of elasticity of supply is less than
1

MEASUREMENT OF ELASTICITY OF DEMAND

Elasticity of demand can be measured or determined by calculating the elasticity of demand co-efficient.
The co-efficient of elasticity of demand can be calculated using the following formulae.

1. Co – efficient of price elasticity demand = %change in quantity demand /% change in price.

2. C o-efficient of income elasticity of demand = %change in quantity demand /% change in
income.
3. Co-efficient of cross elasticity of demand = %change in quantity of commodity X demanded /%
change in price of commodity.
\

WEEK 7 INCOME ELASTICITY OF DEMAND

Income elasticity of demand refers to the degree of responsiveness of demand to changes in

income of consumers. It measures how changes in income of consumers will affect the quantity
of commodities demanded by such consumers. Income elasticity of demand is negative for
inferior goods sine an increase in income will leads to a decreased demand for them. Income
elasticity of demand is measured thus, co-efficient of income elasticity of demand = %change in
quantity demand /% change in income.

TYPES OF INCOME ELASTICITY OF DEMAND

1. Positive income Elasticity of demand. Income elasticity is said to be positive if an increase in

income of consumers leads to increase in the quantity demand. This applies to normal
commodities.
2. Negative income Elasticity of Demand: if an increase in income of consumers leads to decrease
in quantity of goods and services demand, income elasticity is said to be negative. In such a
situation, demand falls as income of consumers rises. This applicable to inferior goods

Example: a weekly income of a clerk was increased from #100 to #125 as a result of his promotion in
the office. He is able to purchase 300 loaves of bread instead of 200 per week. (1) Calculate the co-
efficient of his income elasticity of demand. (2) is the demand elastic? (3) what kind of food is bread
to the consumers?

Solution

Income Quantity demand

Old New Old (leaves) New (leaves)

100 125 200 300

a. Percentage change in quantity demand = New Qd – Old /old Qd X 100

 =300 – 200 X 100
200
= 50%
b. Percentage changes in income = new income – old income X 100

Old income

= 125 – 100 X 100

100

= 2500/100

= 25%

Income elasticity = % Qd/% income

= 50%/25%

=2.0

The co-efficient of income elasticity = 2

3. The co-efficient of elasticity of demand is elastic. It is greater than 1

4. The kind of food bread is to the consumers in normal good, because as the income increase, his
demand for bread also increases thus, Indicating a positive type of income elasticity of demand.

WEEK 8 CROSS ELASTICITY OF DEMAND

Cross elasticity of demand refers to the degree of responsiveness of demand for a commodity to
change in the price of another commodity. In other words, cross elasticity of demands refers to the
proportionate change in the quantity of goods (X) demand over the proportionate change in the
price of another goods(Y) demanded, that as it measures how changes in the price of a commodity
will affect the demand of another commodity. Cross elasticity of demand applies mainly if this is an
increase in goods that have close substitutes as well as complementary goods. For example, demand
for Elephant/ detergent will increase if there is an increase in the price of OMO.

MEASUREMENT OF CROSS ELASTICITY OF DEMAND

Cross elasticity of demand can be measured or calculated by using the co-efficient of cross elasticity
of demand. Thus, co-efficient of cross elasticity of demand=

Percentage change in quantity demand of commodity X /percentage change in price of commodity

Y
 Income elasticity = % QX/% PY

Example: the table below shows the response of quantity demanded of changes in prices of two

pairs of commodities.

Commodity changes in price(#) commodity changes in quantity(kg)

Original price new price original quaty. New quanty.

Maltina 50 80 maltonic 200 300

Close up 50 60 maclean 120 150

1. Calculate the cross elasticity demand (i) maltaina and ,maltonic (ii) close up and maclean
2. Are their elasticity elastic or inelastic and state your reasons

Solution:

(i) Cross elasticity of demand for maltina and maltonic

Let X = maltonic, y = maltina

Percentage change in quantity demand of maltonic (X) = New Qd – OriginalQd 100/original Qd

300 – 200 X 100
200
= 100 100/200
= 50%
(ii) Percentage change in price of maltina = New price – Original price X 100 /original price
= 80 – 50 X 100 / 50
= 3000/50
=60%

(iii) Cross elasticity of maltonic and matltina = 50%/60%

= 0.83
c. Crosselasticity of demand for maclean and close up
 Let X = maclean Y = close up

1. % change in quantity demand for maclean X = New Qd – OriginalQd 100/original Qd

150 – 120 X 100/120
= 3000/120
= 25%
(iv)
(v)
ii. Percentage change in price of maltina = New price – Original price X 100 /original price

60 – 50 X 100/50

= 1000/50

= 20%

Cross elasticity of demand for maclean and close up = 25%/20%

= 1.25.

REASONS

a. The cross elasticity for maltina and maltonic is inelastic because the elasticity, which is 0.83, is
less than 1

b. The cross elasticity for malcean and close up is elastic because the elasticity which is 1.25, is
greater than 1

WEEK 9
PRICE LEGISLATION

Price legislation, also known as price control policy, refers to how the government or its agency fixes the
price of essential commodities.

Price control was carried out in Nigeria by the price control board.

Types of Price Control Policy

A. Minimum Price Control Policy

B. Maximum Price Control Policy
 WEEK 10

HOARDING
In economics, hoarding is the practice of obtaining and holding scarce resources, possibly so
that they can be sold to customers for profit.

Definition
Under capitalist theory, if this is done so that the resource can be transferred to the customer or
improved upon, then it is a standard business practice (e.g. buying up a bunch of wood to turn
into a house); however, if the sole intent is to hold an otherwise unavailable resource it is
considered hoarding.

Causes
Hoarding behavior may be a common response to fear, whether fear of imminent society-wide
danger or simple fear of a shortage of some good. Civil unrest or natural disaster may lead
people to collect foodstuffs, water, gasoline, and other essentials which they believe, rightly or
wrongly, will soon be in short supply.

Economically speaking, hoarding occurs due to individuals obtaining and holding assets thought
to be undervalued and build up reserves of it in hopes to profit or save money later. Examples
include times when price controls were in effect as in the case of Germany after World War II,
communist countries, or after natural disasters when goods are in such short supply that
consumers stockpile (this is sometimes compounded by anti-price gouging laws which prevent
the supply and demand curves from functioning). In these cases the hoarding disappears after the
price controls are removed.

Example
A feature of hoarding is that it leads to an inefficient distribution of scarce resources, making the
scarcity even more of a problem. An example occurs in cities where parking is inadequate. In
such a case, businesses may post signs indicating that their lot is for their employees and
customers only, and all other vehicles will be towed. This prevents businesses from allowing
their parking to overflow into neighboring lots when their capacity is exceeded. Thus, when the
capacity is reached at one business, there may be no legal place to park, while there would have
been, if hoarding had not occurred. If a single business posted those signs, it would, indeed,
improve the parking situation at that business, as they could continue to park at adjacent
businesses, while the others could not park in their lot.

Definition of 'Rationing'
Rationing refers to an artificial control on the distribution of scarce resources, food items,
industrial production, etc.

Definition: Rationing refers to an artificial control on the distribution of scarce resources, food
items, industrial production, etc. In banking, credit rationing is a situation when banks limit the
supply of loans to consumers. In economics, rationing refers to an artificial control of the supply
and demand of commodities.

Description: Rationing is done to ensure the proper distribution of resources without any
unwanted waste. Banks use credit rationing to control lending beyond the monetary base of the
bank. Controlling the prices and demand and supply leads to availability of goods and services
for every section of the society.