‫بسم هللا الرحمن الرحیم‬

Kabul Polytechnic University

Vice-Chancellor in Academic Affairs
KPU International Journal of Engineering & Technology
(KPU-iJET)
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Sincerely,
Associate Prof. A. J. Niazi, Ph.D.
Editor in Chief, KPU-iJET

I
 Message from the Chancellor of KPU

Kabul Polytechnic University is proud of conducting and playing a significant role and
brining positive impacts in all its three targeted areas of Teaching, Research and Social
Development within Afghan Society despite of various turbulence, conflicts and
problems in different period in this country.

I am Pleased to hear about the publishing of the second issue of second volume of Kabul
Polytechnic University International Journal of Engineering & Technology (KPU-iJET).
This achievement is indeed pride and honored which brings together academicians,
scientists, and researchers from different walks of life on a single platform to present
their innovative ideas and research findings concerning different spheres of engineering
& technology.

With the dedicated efforts of the Editor-in-chief and other staff of KPU-iJET, I am certain
that KPU-iJET will have great successes in their future initiative steps.

Regards,
Professor Abdul Rashid Iqbal
Chancellor of KPU

III
III
 Message from the
Vice-Chancellor in Academic Affairs

Academic interaction is one of the most efficient way within universities and
educational institutions in order to accomplish their expectations of high standards.
Universities in all over the globe are mandated to undertake the three main tasks
Teaching, Research, and social services & development. Research and studies are
brought about, and outcomes of the findings are presented with the world as a means
of contributing to the bulk of knowledge.

Kabul Polytechnic University is also not an exclusion in the act of the above three
mentioned goals where the International Journal of Engineering & Technology is one of
its major initiatives which sees as an address for better interaction, collaboration and
cooperation among researchers, professors, and professionals both locally and
internationally, meanwhile it paved the way to present the result of researches finding
with the world through this high-principled platform.

I would like to take this opportunity to applaud this achievement to the leadership of
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Editorial team for their efforts reaching this level.

Regards,
Engineer Rohullah Rohani
KPU Vice-Chancellor in Academic Affairs

IV
 Members of Editorial Board and Reviewer’s Panel

Editor in Chief
Ahmad Jawad NIAZI, Ph.D.
Associate Professor, Kabul Polytechnic University (KPU)

Managing Director
Amanullah Faqiri, Ph.D.
Professor, Kabul Polytechnic University (KPU)

No Name Affiliation
1 Hafizullah Wardak, Ph.D. Former Professor at KU, Washington, USA
2 Sifatullah Bahij, Ph.D. Assistant Professor, Kabul Polytechnic University
(KPU)
3 Zakeria Shnizai, Ph.D. Professor, Kabul Polytechnic University (KPU)
4 Zahra Nazari, Ph.D. Professor, Kabul Polytechnic University (KPU)
5 Fatima Rezaye, Ph.D. Professor, Kabul Polytechnic University (KPU)
6 Khojesta Kawish, Ph.D. Professor, Herat University, Afghanistan.
7 Khadija Rahmani, Ph.D. Professor, Herat University, Afghanistan.
8 Mohammad Assem Mayar, Ph.D. Assistant Professor, Kabul Polytechnic University
(KPU)
9 Aminullah Mahmood, Ph.D. Former Professor at Kabul University (KU).
10 Ahmad Naqi, Ph.D. Professor, Toyohahsi University of Technology (TUoT)
11 Mohammad Wali Salari, Ph.D. Professor, Kabul University (KU)
12 Abdul Wasay Najimi, Ph.D. Former Professor, Kabul University (KU)
13 Ghulam Hazrat Aimal Rasa, Ph.D. Professor, Kabul Educational University (KEU)
14 Mohammad Hassan Mudaber, Ph.D. Professor, Kabul Educational University (KEU)
15 Mujtaba Amin, Ph.D. Professor, Kabul Polytechnic University (KPU)
16 Sekandar Zadran, Ph.D. Professor, Kabul Polytechnic University (KPU)
17 Tawfiqullah Ayoubi, Ph.D. Professor, Kabul Educational University (KEU)
18 Abdul Wasim Noori, Ph.D. Assistant Professor, Kabul Polytechnic University
(KPU)
19 Mohammad Nazir Nejabi, Ph.D. Professor, Kabul Polytechnic University (KPU)
20 Abdulellah Rasooli, M.Sc. Professor, Kabul Polytechnic University (KPU)
21 Saleh Mohammad Yari, M.Sc. Professor, Kabul Polytechnic University (KPU)
22 Jan Aqa Satar, M.Sc. Professor, Kabul Polytechnic University (KPU)
23 Mohammadullah Ebrahimi, M.Sc. Professor, Kabul Polytechnic University (KPU)

VI
24 Noor Ahmad Khalidi, Ph.D. Researcher, Educator, Queensland, Australia
25 Muhammad Zeeshan Khan, M.Sc. Islamiyah College University, Pakistan.
26 Qareeb Ullah Anwari, M.Sc. Assist. Prof. Kardan University, NUST, Islamabad,
Pakistan
27 Zekrullah kochai, Ph.D. Researcher, Parul University (PU), Gujarat, India
28 Ahmad Javeed Faizi, M.Sc. Researcher, Parul University (PU), Gujarat, India
29 Jami Osmanyar, M.Sc. Assistant Professor, Kabul Polytechnic University
(KPU)
30 Izatmand Halimzai, M.Sc. Assistant Professor, Kabul Polytechnic University
(KPU)

VII
 Disclaimer
The views expressed in the manuscript/text by the author(s) are their own and KPU-
iJET, KPU or Editor or Publishers do not take any responsibility for the same.

In this issue, texts are copied from the soft copies provided by the author(s). hence
printing errors/omissions if any are regretted.

Editorial Committee
KPU-iJET, 2023

VIII
 Contents
No Title Page
No
1 Improved Prediction Method of Lateral Girder Response of Footbridges 1
Induced By Pedestrians
AHMAD SHOAIB KOHESTANI, SHUNICHI NAKAMURA

2 Groundwater Prospective Zones and Precise Location Using Integrated 11

Geological, Geomorphological and Geophysical Methods in Sholgara
District, Balkh
ZAKERIA SHNIZAI, ABDUL RASHID IQBAL, MOHAMMAD WALID
OMID

3 Urban Development Through Participatory Approach: Contemporary 35

methods of Urban Planning in Kabul
MOHAMMAD RAMIN AMIRYAR, AHMAD JAWAD NIAZI,
SHAHPERAI PERZAD SEDIQ

4 Seismic Performance of Tall Buildings with and Without Outrigger and 47

Belt Truss Systems
EZATULLAH YAQUBI, AHMAD JAWID RAHIMI, NASIBA FAKOR,
PARWANA YAQUBI

5 Combined Tapered Optical Fiber and FBG Sensor for Temperature and 61
Strain Measurement
HAMEEDULLAH ZAHIN, FAZALULLAH MARUFI

6 Forecasting Monthly Electricity Consumption Using Machine Learning 75

and Statistical-Based Models: A Case Study
ABDUL JALIL NIAZAI, MOHAMMAD AKBAR SHAHPOOR,
ABDULLAH ZAHIRZADA, ABDUL RAHMAN SAFI, NOOR AHMAD
NOORI

7 A Case Study of Climate Change Impacts Assessment on Ghowr 93

Pozalich Small Hydro Power, Afghanistan
MUJEEBULLAH MUJEEB

8 A Review on Physical Properties of Nano-Concrete 109

NOORULLAH ZAHID

9 Use of Worn Tires as Aggregates Replacement and its Effect on Certain 129
Properties of Concrete
AHMAD MASOUD AHMADYAR, SIFATULLAH BAHIJ,
SEBGHATULLAH KARIMI

X
10 The Evolution of Mosque Architecture: A Case Study of Mosques in 145
Kabul, Afghanistan
NOORULLAH HASHEMI, ABDUL HALIM HAKIMI, HASIBULLAH
SAKHA, MOHAMMAD AYOUB AWWAB

11 Mapping and Evaluating Land Suitability Using a GIS-Based Model: A 169

Case Study in the Abyek Area, Qazvin, Iran
MARHABA SAHBANI, FEREYDOONS ARMADIAN, MOHAMMAD
DAUD HAIDARI

12 Determination of a Suitable Operating Method for Gas Wells from 183

Jurassic Reservoir Rocks in the Khwaja Gogerdak Gas Field, Northern
Afghanistan
SADAF JALAL, MOHAMMAD WALID OMID, ABDUL SHUKOOR
DAWAR
13 Landslide and Rockfall Susceptibility Mapping in Kabul-Jalalabad 203
Road by Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) & Weighted Overly
Mapping (WOM) Method in GIS
KHAIRUDDIN RASIKH, ZAFAR KHAN SAEEDI

XI
 KPU International Journal of Engineering & Technology
Volume 2, Issue2, Dec. 2022
Date Received: 2022-06-21
e-ISSN:2790-0819, p-ISSN:2790-0800
Date Accepted: 2022-12-21
Date Published: 2022-12-30

Improved Prediction Method of Lateral Girder Response of

Footbridges Induced by Pedestrians

AHMAD SHOAIB KOHESTANI1*, SHUNICHI NAKAMURA2

1*Assistant Professor, Dept. of Building Construction Management, Kabul Polytechnic University, KPU Campus, 5th
District, Kabul, Afghanistan. E-mail: [email protected]
2Professor Emeritus, Tokai University, Kitakaname 1117, Hiratsuka, Japan 259-1292. E-mail: [email protected]
tokai.ac.jp

Abstract
Besides having structural rationality and elegant feature, cable-supported bridges are flexible and often
suffer from dynamic problems. On the T-bridge, a pedestrian cable-supported footbridge, the girder
vibrated laterally with a frequency of 0.93 Hz, the natural frequency of first lateral mode, when a large
number of pedestrians crossed the bridge. The zigzag movement of pedestrians caused the bridge girder to
vibrate laterally. When the frequency of this dynamic force is close to the bridge's natural frequency, it
makes a resonance which results in a big response. The same vibration occurred on the London Millennium
Bridge. The response of the London Millennium Bridge was much larger than that of the T-bridge and the
bridge was closed for 20 months until the vibration was suppressed by viscous and tuned mass dampers.
Nakamura proposed a simplified model to predict girder responses by introducing non-linear pedestrian
behaviors. When the vibration amplitude becomes large, some of the pedestrians feel unsafe and stop
walking or change their walking pace. Therefore, the pedestrian-induced forces do not increase
proportionally with deck vibration at the large girder amplitude. Nakamura’s method includes this non-
linear behavior but it assumes that this lateral vibration only occurs when the bridge's natural frequency
is around 0.9-1.0Hz. In this paper, the improved method is proposed for the bridge's natural frequencies.
However, the authors have found that lateral vibration could occur on the bridge with a frequency far less
than 0.9Hz. The authors have proposed the new
The prediction method covers the resonant frequencies outside 0.9-1.0Hz and the new method is verified
by comparing with the field-measured data.

Keywords: Lateral vibration, Cable-stayed bridge, Dynamic model, Resonance, Pedestrians

*
Corresponding Author

1
 1. Introduction

Although cable-supported bridges have structural rationality and elegant feature, they
are flexible and often suffer from dynamic problems. The T-bridge (Figure.1), a
pedestrian cable-stayed bridge located in Japan, suffered strong lateral vibration induced
by pedestrians. The bridge connects the motor boat race stadium and the bus terminal.
The girder vibrated laterally with a frequency of 0.93Hz, the natural frequency of the first
lateral mode when a large number of people crossed the bridge after the final race was
over (Figure.2). This type of lateral vibration had not been reported before and research
was conducted to clarify the mechanism [1-7].

Figure 1: T-Bridge Figure 1: Pedestrians after the final race

The mechanism of this vibration was studied by Fujino et al. [1] and Nakamura et al.
[2,3,6] and clarified. The gravity center of the human body moves laterally while they
walk to their left and right foot in turn, which makes the girder vibrate laterally with a
frequency of about 1.0Hz, this is called lateral dynamic force which is induced by
pedestrians. When the frequency of this dynamic force is close to the bridge's natural
frequency, it makes a resonance which results in a further response. Even though many
people walk at the same frequency, their phases would be different and the induced forces
could cancel out. This phase problem was solved by assuming that people synchronize
their walking pace to the vibrating deck. However, the girder response reached about 10
mm and some pedestrians felt uncomfortable and unsafe. But, this was not considered to
be too large and the bridge was not closed.
The same vibration problem occurred on the London Millennium Bridge in 2000. The
lateral response of the London Millennium Bridge was much larger than that of the T-
bridge, and the bridge was closed for 20 months until the vibration was suppressed by
viscous and tuned mass dampers [4]. To clarify the mechanism of the vibration, field tests
on the bridge and experiments at Imperial College were carried out. Then, a dynamic
model based on the single degree of the dynamic equation was proposed by Dallard et al.
[4,5], assuming that the external force induced by pedestrians is proportional to the girder
lateral velocity.
Nakamura proposed a simplified model to predict girder responses by introducing
non-linear pedestrian behaviors [7]. When the vibration amplitude becomes large, some

2
of the pedestrians feel unsafe and stop walking or change their walking pace. Therefore,
the pedestrian-induced forces do not increase proportionally with deck vibration at the
large girder amplitude. Nakamura’s method includes this non-linear behavior but it
assumes that this lateral vibration only occurs when the bridge's natural frequency is
around 0.9-1.0Hz. In this paper, the improved method is proposed for the bridge's natural
frequencies. However, the authors have found that lateral vibration could occur on the
bridge with a frequency far less than 0.9Hz. The authors have proposed a new prediction
method to cover the resonant frequencies outside 0.9-1.0Hz and the new method is
verified by comparing it with the field-measured data.

2. Dynamic Model for The Lateral Vibration

2.1.The layout of the T-Bridge

The layout of the T-bridge is shown in Fig.3. The T-bridge is a cable-stayed footbridge
with a main span length of 134 m, a side span length of 45m, two cable planes, and 11
stays per plane (Fig.3) Semi-parallel type cables with epoxy resin surface layer are used.
The girder is a steel box girder with an orthotropic deck. The web height is 1.8m and the
walkway width is 5.26m (Fig.4).

Fig.3 Layout of the bridge (m) Fig.4 Girder cross-section (m)

MB X”(t) + CB X’(t) + K B X(t) = Fp … . . … … … . … … (1)

Fp = k1 k 2 H(X’B )G(fB )Mpg … … … … … … … … … … (2)
X’B (t)
H(X’B ) = … … … … … … … … … … … . . (3)
k 3 + |X’B (t)|
G0 = 1 … … … … … … … … … … … … … . . … (4)
G(fB ) = { G1 = 1 − 20(fB − 0.9)4 … … … … … … … (5)
G2 = 1 − 5(fB − 0.9)2 … … … … … … . . … (6)

The T-bridge connects the motor boat race stadium and the bus terminal. On a race
day too many spectators entered the stadium through the bridge at a random time. When
the final race was over, the spectators left the stadium and walked through the bridge to
get to the bus terminal on the opposite side of the stadium. As the entrance areas to the

3
bridge were fairly large, the pedestrians could proceed on the bridge and were not forced
to stop in this congested situation. At that time the bridge deck was overcrowded with
pedestrians. In several minutes of this overcrowded situation, the girder and the cables
started to vibrate. [2,3,6]
The field measurements were carried out on the T-bridge to find the mechanism of
this vibration by Fujino et al. [1] and Nakamura et al. [2,3,6]. Accelerometers were
attached to the girder and cables in vertical and lateral directions. By analyzing the
obtained data, it was found that the girder vibrated laterally. It was also found that the
zigzag movement of pedestrians was the exiting force and the synchronization of the
pedestrian to the girder vibration was the phase problem.
Nakamura proposed the following method to predict the girder response induced by
pedestrians [7]. The dynamic model for the lateral vibration can be modeled by a single-
degree-of-freedom system. Eq. (1) shows the dynamic equation of motion; XB is the
modal displacement of the girder, X’B the modal velocity of the girder, X” B the modal
acceleration of the girder, MB is the modal mass, CB is the modal damping coefficient and
KB the modal stiffness of the bridge.
The external force induced by pedestrians is key in this dynamic equation. Dallard et
al. proposed that the dynamic force induced by a pedestrian is proportional to the girder
velocity [4,5]. Based on the field test conducted on the Millennium Bridge, the coefficient
is proposed to be 300 N.s/m. According to the Dallard method, if the lateral force FP is
larger than the damping force CBX’, there is no upper limit for the girder response and it
increases linearly. This does not seem correct because some pedestrians feel unsafe and
hold handrails or stop walking when the vibration amplitude becomes large. Therefore,
the exciting force must saturate at a certain level. The right side of Eq. (1) is the external
force induced by pedestrians. Nakamura assumed that the pedestrian force is proportional
to the modal self-weight of pedestrians, Mpg, multiplied by two coefficients, k1 and k2,
and two functions, H (X’B) and G (fB), as shown in Eq.(2). The coefficient k1 is the ratio
of the lateral force to the pedestrian`s weight and is assumed to be 0.0987 in this study.
The coefficient k2 is the percentage of pedestrians who synchronized to the girder
vibration and is assumed to be 0.2.
H (X’B) is a function to describe the pedestrian’ synchronization nature. It is assumed
that the pedestrians synchronize proportionally with the girder velocity X’B at low
velocities. When the girder velocity becomes large, the pedestrians feel uncomfortable or
unsafe and they decrease their walking paces. Therefore, the girder response does not
increase infinitely but is limited at a certain level. The denominator of Eq.(3) expresses
this saturation phenomenon. The saturation rate depends on coefficient k3[8]. The
pedestrian forces proposed by Dallard and Nakamura are shown in Fig.5. The one by the
Dallard method is linear and no upper limit exists. Whereas, the one by the Nakamura
method is linear only in the small girder velocity range and saturates at a certain level.
This seems more appropriate to explain the pedestrian’s walking attitude on the vibrating
deck.
G (fB) is the function to describe how pedestrians synchronized with the girder
response. It was originally thought that the lateral vibration only occurred at the bridge
frequency of 0.8-1.0 Hz and, therefore, the value of G (fB) was assumed to be 1.0, as

4
 Fig.5 Lateral force induced by pedestrians Fig.6 G-function

shown in Eq.(4). This is shown as G0 in Fig.6. However, the authors have recently found
on another bridge that the lateral vibration could occur with the bridge natural frequency
outside this range.
The authors have proposed the two improved G (fB) functions, as shown as G1 and
G2 in Eq. (5) and Eq. (6). Both functions have peaks at 0.9 Hz and Eq. (6) have a sharper
shape. These three G-functions are shown in Fig.5. In this study the effect of these new
G-functions is compared and studied.
Field measurements were conducted in 1989 and two data were used in this study:
Data T1 with a pedestrian density of 0.8 person/m2 and data T2 with a pedestrian density
of 0.6 person/m2. Fig.7 and Fig.8 show the girder lateral displacements of these two cases.
Both show clear sinusoidal waves with a natural frequency of 0.93 Hz. This indicates that
resonance occurred between the pedestrians and the girder in both cases. The maximum
amplitude of T1 is 13.1mm and that of T2 is 8.4mm. These differences are caused by the
number of pedestrians, in other words, the pedestrian density. In the T1 data, the bridge
was more overcrowded than in the T2.

Fig.7 Measured girder displacement (T1) Fig.8 Measured girder displacement (T2)

The eigenvalue analysis was conducted by FEM. The natural frequency of the first
lateral mode of the T-bridge fB is 0.93Hz, which is the same as the measured natural

5
frequency of T1 and T2. It is therefore clear that resonance occurred in the first lateral
mode. The mode shape is shown in Fig.9. The modal mass MB is 185.2 tons.

Fig.9 First lateral mode

3. Parametric Studies

The dynamic responses of the girder were obtained for T1 and T2 data by the proposed
dynamic model. Eqs. (1)-(6) were solved numerically by Runga-Kutta method [2,3,6,7].
Parametric studies were conducted to clarify the effects of pedestrian density, girder mass,
and bridge natural frequencies on the girder responses.
Fig.10 shows the girder response with different pedestrian densities. In this calculation
girder, modal mass is kept at 185.2 tons, and the girder's natural frequency of 0.93Hz.
The girder response increases with pedestrian density. This tendency is easily understood:
the vibration amplitude of the girder becomes larger as more people walk on the bridge.
The measured data, T1 and T2, are also shown in this figure and agree with the calculated
values, which validate the proposed method.
Fig.11 shows the girder response with different girder masses. In this calculation,
pedestrian density is kept at 0.8 person/m2 and the girder natural frequency of 0.93Hz.
The girder response decreases with girder mass, showing that the lighter girder has more
likely to have a vibration problem. The measured data T1 is also shown in this figure.11,
corresponding to the calculated value.

6
 25 30

20 Calculated 25 Calculated
XB (mm)

XB (mm)
20
15 Measured Measured
15
T1
10 T1
10
T2
5 5
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 100 150 200 250 300 350
Dp ( person / m2) Girder mass (ton)

Fig.10 Effect of density of pedestrian Fig.11 Effect of girder mass

Fig.12 Response ratio due to G1 and G2

Fig.12 shows the girder response ratio; the response is calculated by G1-function over
that by G0-function. The response ratio calculated by G2-function over that by G0-function
is also shown in this figure. Both response ratios have a peak at 0.9Hz and they decrease
as the bridge's natural frequency becomes further away from 0.9Hz. This decreasing ratio
with G2-function is sharper than that with G2-function.
The improved method with G1-function and G2-function is useful to Fig.11 shows the
girder response ratio; the response calculated by G1-function over that by G0-function.
The response ratio calculated by G2-function over that by G0-function is also shown in
this figure. Both response ratios have a peak at 0.9Hz and they decrease as the bridge's
natural frequency becomes further away from 0.9Hz. This decreasing ratio with the G2
function is sharper than that with predicted responses when the bridge's natural frequency
is away from the usual resonant frequency of about 0.9Hz. However, further study is
necessary to decide which is more suitable for practical bridges.

4. Conclusions
The lateral vibration problem induced by the pedestrian was first observed on the T-bridge
and it has then been widely known in the world. This is mainly because many footbridges
suffer from this type of vibration. After all, footbridges have become lighter and more
flexible. The mechanism of this vibration has almost been clarified but the prediction
method and the design criteria have not been established yet.
Nakamura proposed a simple method to predict the response induced by pedestrians
which seems useful for practical bridge designers and engineers. One of his assumptions
is that this problem only occurs for bridges with a natural frequency of about 0.9Hz (0.8-
1.0Hz). However, this vibration has been observed with a natural frequency outside of
this range.
This paper has proposed an improved method to cover a wide range of bridge natural
frequencies by introducing the distribution function, G1-function, and G2 function. The

7
predicted girder responses generally agree with the measured values obtained on the T-
bridge. Parametric studies were conducted with the proposed method. The girder response
increases with pedestrian density. The girder response decreases with girder mass,
showing that the lighter girder has more likely to have a vibration problem.
The girder response ratio has a peak at 0.9Hz, and it decreases as the bridge's natural
frequency becomes further away from this peak frequency. This decreasing ratio with G2-
function is sharper than that with G1-function. The improved method with G1 and G2
functions is useful to predict responses when the bridge's natural frequency is away from
the usual resonant frequency of about 0.9Hz. However, further study is necessary to
decide which is more suitable for actual bridges.

5. Acknowledgements
The first author would like to thank JICA for providing him the opportunity to study
at Tokai University through the PECE program.

6. Abbreviations
XB: modal displacement
X’B: modal velocity
X” B: modal acceleration:
MB : modal mass
CB: modal damping coefficient
KB: modal stiffness
Mpg: modal self-weight of pedestrians
FP: the lateral force of pedestrians
Fb: natural frequency of the first lateral mode of the bridge
K1: ratio of the lateral force to the pedestrian`s weight
K2: percentage of synchronized pedestrians
K3: Saturation rate

8
7. References

[1] Fujino Y, Pacheco B, Nakamura S, Warnitcahi P. Synchronization of human

walking observed during lateral vibration of a congested pedestrian bridge.
Earthquake Engineering and Structural Dynamics 1993;22:741–58.
[2] Nakamura S, Fujino Y. Lateral vibration on a pedestrian cable-stayed bridge.
Structural Engineering International, IABSE 2002;12(4):295–300.
[3] Nakamura S, Kawasaki T. Lateral vibration of footbridges by synchronous
walking. Journal of Constructional Steel Research, Elsevier 2006;62(11): 1148–
60.
[4] Dallard P, Fitzpatrick A, Flint A, Le Bourva S, Low A, Smith R. The London
Millennium Footbridge. The Structural Engineer 2001;79(22):17–35.
[5] Dallard P, Fitzpatrick A, Flint A, Low A, Smith R, Willford M. London
Millennium Footbridge, pedestrian induced lateral vibration. Journal of Bridge
Engineering, ASCE 2001;6(6):17–35.
[6] Nakamura S. Field measurements of lateral vibration on a pedestrian suspension
bridge. The Structural Engineering 2003;81(22):22–6.
[7] Nakamura S. Dynamic model for lateral vibration. Journal of Structural
Engineering, ASCE 2004;130(1):32–7.
[8] Nakamura S, Kawasaki T. Lateral vibration of footbridges by synchronous
walking.Journal of Construction Steel Research, Elsevier 2006;62(11):1148-60.

Authors Profile:
Ahmad Shoaib Kohestani received his B.Sc. degree in Civil and
Industrial Construction from Kabul Polytechnic University in 2009 and
M.Sc. degree in Civil Engineering from Tokai University, Japan in
2015.Started work with Care International Organization in 2009 for two
years, then worked in City and Implementation Directorate of Kabul
Municipality till late 2015. Presently he is working as assistant professor
in the Department of Building Construction Management, Faculty of
Construction of Kabul Polytechnic University, Kabul Afghanistan. His
research interest is seismic evaluation of RC structures.

Shunichi Nakamura received his B.Eng. and M.Eng. From Kyoto

University, and PhD. from Imperial College London. He worked for
Nippon Steel Corporation as a bridge engineer for 21 years, and was
involved in design and construction of many bridges including the Tokyo
Aqua-line Bridge and the Akashi Kaikyo Bridge Cable Work. He then
moved to Tokai University, where he taught and studied Bridge and
Structural Engineering for 25 years. He supervised seven Afghan students
in the master course. He is now the vice president of IABSE (International
Association of Bridge and Structural Engineering). He was conferred the
best paper awards from JSCE, IABSE and Institution of Structural
Engineers.

9
10
 KPU International Journal of Engineering & Technology
Volume 2, Issue2, Dec. 2022
Date Received: 2022-07-12
e-ISSN:2790-0819, p-ISSN:2790-0800
Date Accepted: 2022-12-25
Date Published: 2022-12-30

Groundwater Prospective Zones and Precise Location Using

Integrated Geological, Geomorphological, and Geophysical Methods in
Sholgara District, Balkh Province
ZAKERIA SHNIZAI1, ABDUL RASHID IQBAL2*, MOHAMMAD WALID OMID3

1Associate Professor, Department of Oil and Gas Mines Engineering, Kabul Polytechnic University, KPU campus, 5th
district, Kabul Afghanistan. Email: [email protected]

2*Professor,
Department of Oil and Gas Mines Engineering, Kabul Polytechnic University, KPU campus, 5th district,
Kabul Afghanistan. Email: [email protected]

3Assistant Professor, Department of Oil and Gas Mines Engineering, Kabul Polytechnic University, KPU campus, 5th
district, Kabul Afghanistan. Email: [email protected]

Abstract
All over the world, studies of groundwater reserves are highly important. One of the best ways to identify
groundwater reservoirs without negative impacts on the environment is to study geology and
geomorphology based on remote sensing data and geophysical methods. The main purpose of this paper is
to delineate the groundwater prospective zones and to determine the relative depth and thickness of layers
that accumulate groundwater. The groundwater reservoir depends on several factors such as geology,
geomorphology, land use, slope, and physical properties. Thus, the mapping and groundwater potential
zones were identified in Sholgara District, and then geophysical methods were used in Qazel Kand village
to find the water table depth and location. Exploration geophysical methods, especially electric, are one of
the most important ways to study and solve the problems of drinking water in the study area Based on the
VES investigations, at least five layers were identified with different lithology. The top three layers consist
of clay, sand, and gravel, which are mostly dry. These rocks do not have many water resources but could
recharge the aquifer, particularly in the wet season. The field data also show that water table depth ranges
between 80 to 100 m with limestone and marl formations that mostly belong to Neogene. These are
carbonate rocks having secondary porosity in the form of fractures and wreathing. The formations formed
a karst aquifer to a maximum of 130 depths. The water in this aquifer seems fresh and suitable for drinking.

Keywords: Groundwater Prospective Zones, Remote Sensing and Geophysical Methods, Balkh
Province.

*
Corresponding Author

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 1. Introduction
In nature, water resources are divided into two parts: surface and underground.
From a groundwater point of view, the earth's crust is divided into water-saturated and
unsaturated zones. The water which has taken place in the porous media and voids of the
upper layers of the crust is called underground water. All around the world, groundwater
studies play a vital role in human beings. Therefore, groundwater investigations and
management are getting increased day by day all around the world. One of the very
important investigation methods is the integrated geological, geomorphological, and
geophysical methods which do not affect badly on the environment. Using Remote
Sensing together with geological, geomorphological, and geophysical methods is an easy
and effective way to delineate groundwater zones and solve the drinking water problem
in the study area. Using geophysical methods, we can measure the physical properties of
underground rocks. Then we acquire important information using geophysical methods
that we cannot sample or measure directly. Geological, geomorphological, and
geophysical investigations are amongst the best tools for understanding the landform and
physical context of the earth’s surface.
The under-research area is located in the Sholgara district southern part of Balkh
Province – Afghanistan. Currently, in Sholgara including the study area, there is a
depletion of the river and groundwater storage and an increase in concern of overdraft of
groundwater due to over-abstraction, drought, low recharge, and high evaporation. The
groundwater quality has progressively deteriorated with water hardness, salinity, nitrate
and boron concentrations, etc., which become a real threat to the health of inhabitants and
agricultural activities [1] .
The research method of this work is based on valid theoretical bases and practical
experiences. Primary data for this research paper includes the geologic map, initial field
data, and satellite imagery. A geological map was used to study the geology of the area
in detail. Remote sensing and geographic information systems (GIS) are used to prepare
geomorphological information and thematic maps from various satellite imageries. For
the geomorphological study, different satellite images were used. The initial geophysical
field data was collected during fieldwork by Danish Committee for Aid to Afghan
Refugees (DACAAR) in 2013, includes of Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES). These
methods are used to study, map and assess groundwater in Qazel Kand village, Sholgara
District [2]

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Figure 1: Location of the Sholgara District situated in the southern part of Balkh Province in Afghanistan.
Hallow square with a black dash-line shows the location of the study area. Green-filled square with GS
indicates the location of the geophysical survey shown in figure 8.

The main concern of this study is: How to extract and evaluate geomorphological
features such as slope, elevation, and drainage from remotely sensed data? What is the
geology of the study area? Which geologic formations are located there? How to delineate
groundwater potential zones? Can the location of drinking water be determined in the
area to some extent? Is it possible to determine the position and thickness of aquifers
using electrical methods? Hence, the overall goal of this paper is to interpret thematic
maps and the graphs of the electrical method (VES) to determine the potential zones of
groundwater, to study the geology and geomorphology of the area, and to find the
boundary and depth of an aquifer as well as the water table in Sholgara District and
specifically in the Qazel Kand Village.

2. Regional Setting of the Study Area

2.1. Geology of the study area and northern part of Afghanistan
Based on geophysics and borehole records in northern Afghanistan, shows clear
boundaries between the associated layers. The pre-Palaeozoic, Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, and
Cainozoic rocks form the geological structure of the platform. Northern Afghanistan has
a Pre-Jurassic basement unconformably overlain by Jurassic and Paleogene sediments,
which in turn overlain by Neogene and post-orogenic continental clasts [3] Relatively
undeformed mostly clastic Jurassic to recent sediments overlay deformed Triassic and
older age rocks. Also, the geophysical researches show a gradual passage into the
Murghab and Tajik Basin, which is filled with dominantly clastic Mesozoic-Quaternary
sediments [4]. In general, the platform formed a single Mesozoic to Paleogene

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sedimentary basin, which existed until Neogene time [5,6]. According to [6,7] the Amu
Darya and Afghan-Tajik Basins’ Pre-Neogene history and stratigraphy consist of (1)
Paleozoic to Triassic basement complex, (2) Jurassic to Paleogene sedimentary cover,
and (3) Neogene to Holocene orogenic clastic. Neogene to Holocene orogenic clastic
were deposited in Oligocene time as a result of tectonic deformation due to the Indian and
Eurasian tectonic plates [5,6,7]
However, the geology of northern Afghanistan is studied particularly in the west and very
limited research works have been done due to the unstable political situation in the
country. Mostly Russian researchers worked and prepared maps of the study area. They
mapped northern Afghanistan at a 1:500,000 scale [3,8,9,10,11,12] summarized the
geology and tectonics of the area.

Figure 2: Geological map (Cainozoic) of northern Afghanistan. The map is modified from [13]
The lithology of the northern part of Afghanistan has similar sediments the same
as the neighboring regions of Central Asian Countries (the southwestern area of the mount
Hesar and Bukhara oil and gas fields). The lithology of the northern Afghan platform
usually consists of bitumen graphite, tuff-andesite, sandstone, sand, conglomerates,
calcite, dolomite, dense limestone, salt, anhydrite, gypsum, argillite with the remnants of
coal, mud, and others . The formation of the underground geology of the study area is as
follows: Quaternary sediments: sand, gravel, mud, and loess that have been deformed by
climate. Medium quaternary sediments: sand, gravel, mud, loess, silt, and travertine or
limestone. Miocene sediments: red muds, sandstones, siltstones, conglomerates, and
calcites. Paleocene sediments: lime-stones, calcites, dolomites, conglomerates,
sandstones, and siltstones [13,14,15] (Fig. 2).
The Northern Afghan platform is separated from the Turan platform of southern
Eurasia by the Amu Darya and Afghan Tajik basins [3]. The ongoing collision of the

14
Indian plate with the Eurasian plate is accommodated by faults that have historically
caused devastating earthquakes in the region. On the east and south, the North Afghan
Platform is bordered by the Herat right-lateral and Darwaz left-lateral strike-slip and
related faults (Shnizai, 2020b). The study area is located close to the Alburz-Marmul fault
lies between the Northern Afghan High to the south and Afghan-Tajik Basin to the north
(Figs. 3a, b). The Alburz-Mormul fault also separates the Tajikistan depression from the
Parapamiz Bande-Turkistan uplift. The Dosi Mirzavalang fault has continuous and sub-
linear scarps on middle and late Pleistocene alluvial deposits and bedrock [16,17] (Figs.
3a, b).

2.2. Geomorphic Setting

Generally, landscapes in Afghanistan are tectonically active due to vertical and
horizontal crustal blocks motion as well as erosion and deposition process (Fig. 3a).
Afghanistan is dominated by rugged mountainous terrains like the massive Hindu Kush
Mountains, which form a barrier between the Northern Afghan Platform and the rest of
the country. The Hindu Kush plays a watershed role between the northern Amu Darya
and Afghan Tajik Basins to the north and Indus Basin to the south (Figs. 3a, 4). Northern
Afghanistan is located in desert and semi-desert areas. Two big basins are located inside
the platform, which encompasses approximately 87,000 square kilometers in those
portions that lie within Afghanistan [6]. The Afghan-Tajik Basin is located to the east of
the Afghan platform while the Amu Darya Basin is to the west. These two basins are
separated from one another by a Gissar mega anticline called Gissar [6] (Fig. 4). In
general, the northern Afghan occupies a narrow zone between Alburz-Marmul Fault
North Afghan High and Bande Turkistan Rang to the south, and Amu

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 Figure 3. a) Tectonic setting of Afghanistan and the surrounding regions. Yellow-filled arrows
show relative plate motion directions between the Arabian and Indian plates concerning the Eurasian plate
(plate velocities from [18] and active faults are from [16] and [17]. The plate boundaries are marked with
numbers: I) Makran subduction zone, II) fold-and-thrust belt east of the Chaman fault, and III) Himalaya
collision zone. ATB, Afghan-Tajik Basin; ADB, Amu Darya Basin; IB, Indus Basin; KB, Kabul Basin. b)
Active faults map of northern Afghanistan. Faults names in both figures: AMF, Alburz Marmul; AF,
Andarab; BTF, Band-e Turkestan; CF, Chaman; CBF, Central Badakhshan; DF, Darvaz; DMF, Dosi
Mirzavalang; GF, Gardez; HeF, Herat; HF, Henjvan; KF, Konar; MF, Mokur; PaF, Paghman; PF, Panjshir;
SGF, Spinghar. The active fault maps is modified from Shnizai (2020)

3. Site description and research background

The district is located in the southern part of Balkh Province, just south of Mazari
Sharif about 450 km north of the Capital Kabul. The main occupation of the residents
here is agriculture and livestock. This district is the sole producer of industrial products
in Balkh Province. The people generally use drinking water from wells, most of which
are without hand pumps. In summer, the water of the pits and drilled wells dry out, and
people cannot dig deeper wells due to the presence of hard rocks. Therefore, people use
water from streams or ditches located a few hundred meters from their homes. These
waters are muddy, polluted, and contain bacteria. Since the main problem of this village
is the lack of healthy and safe water in terms of quantity and quality, it is necessary to
provide safe drinking water by drilling deep wells and constructing a water supply system
[2]

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 Figure 4. Geomorphology of northern Afghanistan.

4. Methods
The people's demand for water supply is met by surface and groundwater. The
current drought and population growth have caused serious problems, particularly in
groundwater pollution over abstraction. In shallow wells and streams within the research
area, the water level drops and even completely dried particularly in the summer season.
Thus, the residents of the area are faced with rapid decline and shortage in water for their
livestock and even drinking. To identify groundwater conditions through surface and
subsurface features, we have integrated geological, geomorphological, and geophysical
methods. We have conducted geological and geomorphological research to map
geomorphic features such as slope, landform, geology, watershed, and groundwater
potential zones in the study area with the help of thematic maps prepared using a remote
sensing geographical information system. We, therefore, analyzed the geology and
geomorphology of the Qazel Kand Village and the surrounding region in the Sholgara
District using several satellite images. Remote sensing and GIS together with Adobe
Illustrator have proved to be important tools to prepare thematic maps from various
satellite imageries. Application of GIS and Remote Sensing in geology and
geomorphology for groundwater evaluation has been proven to be efficient [19,20].They
are also used as a multi-criteria decision tool for analysis and rapid assessment of surface
geologic formation, surface water drainage, groundwater, and other natural resources.
However, after the delineation of groundwater zones, we focus on a small research area
located in Qazel Kand village to estimate the water table. Therefore, DACAAR Institution
conducted a geophysical survey for groundwater exploration in Qazel Kand village on
the 23rd of November 2013 that was used as primary geophysical data in the research area.
Large-scale images were constructed from SPOT (Satellite Pour l' Observation de
la Terre) earth observation satellite that is freely available from ESRI (Environmental
Systems Research Institute) as a base map [17]. All the images were imported to ArcMap
for geo-referencing into a global framework and manipulated to highlight the scenes to

17
map the critical geomorphic elements of the study area. Fieldwork was also conducted in
the broader area, particularly along the riverside, to examine the details underground
structure. So, DACAAR funded team did a Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) survey
using Schlumberger Electrodes Array to explore and prepare drinking water for the
people in the Qazel Kand village [2]. Field measurements were done by the Syscal Pro
Resistivity Meter and interpreted by IPI2 win software. Then the data were analyzed and
interpreted to determine the location, depth, and boundary of the water table in the Qazel
Kand Village.

5. Result and Discussion

Based on the availability of data and resources, this research is limited to the use
of geology, geomorphology, and geophysics that focus on lithology, rock properties,
slope, land use, and electrical properties of underground layers. The lithology and rock
properties affect the early stage of erosion as well as water infiltration into the ground.
The slope and land use are variables and have significantly influenced the
geomorphological control of groundwater occurrence. The electrical properties of rocks
and groundwater are measured by Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) to obtain
information about the aquifer.
5.1. Geology
The study area represents a clay steppe or semi-desert. The surface geological
formation includes recent Quaternary (gravel, sand, clay, and loess), middle Quaternary
(gravel, sand, clay loess, loam, and travertine), early Miocene (red clay, sandstone,
siltstone, conglomerate, and limestone), and Palaeocene (sandstone, siltstone,
conglomerate, marl, limestone, and dolomite) (Fig. 5).
In this region, the geological map [13] serves as a basis for the study of
groundwater conditions (Fig. 5). The geological units play an important role in affecting
the movement, accumulation, and quality of groundwater. The basement of the study area
is constituted of granite and metamorphic rocks. They have very less porosity and are
classified into low groundwater potential zones. The basement is cropped out in the south,
east and west parts of the area. The stratigraphic sequence occurring in the area is listed
in table 1. The Holocene, Late Pleistocene, and Middle and Early Miocene deposits have
high porosity and seem to be good sources of groundwater. Among these deposits, the
Holocene and Late Pleistocene have a high possibility of the occurrence of groundwater.
These sediments have a high amount of porosity, so it has good groundwater potential.
The stratigraphic sequence of Paleocene and Late Cretaceous in the study area are hard
rock and located in a higher elevated area of this region. These rocks do not have much
water resources but could be a good rechargeable region, particularly in the wet season
(winter and spring) for the low elevated areas (Holocene and Late Pleistocene deposits)
(Fig. 5).

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 Figure 5. Geologic map of the study area simplified from [13]

Table 1: stratigraphic sequence of the study area (after [13]).

Unit
No Lithology
Symbol
Conglomerate and sandstone (narrative: red clay, siltstone >
1 Q4a
sandstone, conglomerate, limestone)
2 Q2loe Loess (narrative: Loess more abundant than sand, clay)
Clay and siltstone (narrative: red clay, siltstone > sandstone,
3 N1Lcsl
conglomerate, limestone)
Clay and siltstone (narrative: brown clay, siltstone >
4 N1mosl
sandstone, conglomerate, limestone)
Limestone and dolomite (narrative: limestone, marl,
5 Kpg1ld dolomite > sandstone, clay, siltstone, gypsum,
conglomerate)
Sandstone and siltstone (narrative: sandstone, siltstone >
6 K2ssl clay, limestone, marl, conglomerate, gypsum (North
Afghanistan); limestone)

5.2. Geomorphology
5.2.1. Land Use
The dependence on groundwater is determined by the land used in an area. The
land use in the study area (Sholgara Drainage Basin) contains agricultural land
(plantation, cropland, and fallow farmland), water bodies (steam and pound), and build-
up area (Fig. 6). Based on the satellite imageries, irrigation in few areas is reliant on
groundwater, while irrigation mainly is dependent on surface water. The Band-e Amir
river nearly disappears in Balkh Province in the sands at the meeting place of desert and
semi-desert without reaching the Amu Darya River (Figure 4).

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5.2.2. Geomorphic features
The geomorphic features of different landforms are created by tectonic and
geologic processes (temperature change, freezing, chemical reactions, water, and wind).
Some active faults affect the landform such as the Alburz-Marmul fault and the Samangan
fault. Foothill, linear ridges, peneplain, pediments, and valley fill are present in the area
and can be identified from DEM and ESRI base-map (Figs. 6a, b). Weathering and
erosion process create denudational hills, which reduce to infiltration of surface water
[19,22]. Valley fill is developed due to the deposition of transported and weather
materials, which mostly belongs to the Holocene and Late Pleistocene age (Figs. 5 and
6). The valleys are considered as having a very high groundwater potential as they are
porous rock (conglomerates, sandstone, and siltstone) and have high infiltration. Linear
ridges and residual hills are considered very low groundwater sources and have low
infiltration due to high slopes and elevated areas particularly in the south (Figs. 6b, 7a).
Drainage area depends on the surface characteristics, topography, and slope (Fig.
7a). The Bande-e Amir River flows from the Sholgara District. This river is mostly
seasonal and flows from south to north. Many pounds, springs, and small reservoirs are
present in the depressed parts of the low topography. In some areas, a few wide-lined
Kariz (canal networks) are dug for irrigation purposes.
5.2.3. Slope
From a hydrogeological point of view, the study area is located in the developed zone of
seamed basins containing waters related to the northern slope of the western Hindu Kush.
The slope of the study area has outstanding effects on the infiltration of surface water
from the surface to the underground (Fig. 7). If the area has a low slope, the amount of
infiltration of surface water will be in great amounts. Also, the precipitation has more
time to remain on the earth's surface and penetrate the underground. If the ground has
more slope, then the run-off is more rapid and greatly reduces the recharging potential of
the groundwater. As the slope of an area greatly depends on the elevation, therefore it is
good to know the topography of the area.

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Figure 6. Geomorphology and land use of the study area. a) 2D view of the area. b) 3D view of the area.
The satellite image is modified from the ESRI base map.

The highest elevation of the study is approximately 1800 m and the lowest is 575
meters above sea level. The ground surface slopes toward the river (Figs. 6b, 7a). For
determining the slope, we used SRTM 1-arcsecond DEM. The slope of the area varies
from 1o to 73,6 degrees. Most of the region has a slope from 5.1o - 20o (Fig. 7b). The east
and west areas have slopes ranging from 6 – 15 degrees. For the assessment of
underground water, the area is classified into three zones based on the slope. A higher
slope of 20o - 73.6o is giving a low rank of infiltration rate as well as accumulation [19,23].
The area with a slope of 0-5 has a higher rank as it increases the infiltration rate (Fig. 7b).
5.3. Geophysical survey
The geophysical survey helps us in determining the location and condition of groundwater
in the study area. To achieve this goal, the electrical resistivity method was used. The
method to obtain geophysical information is Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) survey
in the Qezel Kand village, Sholgara District (Figs. 1, 8). In this method, artificially-
generated electric currents are transmitted into the ground and the resulting potential
differences are measured at the surface. The resistivity of rocks is defined as the resistance
in ohms between the opposite faces of a unit cube of the material [24]. Resistivity is one
of the most variables of the physical properties of materials and rocks. Certain types of
rocks and minerals conduct electricity through the passage of electrons, while most types

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of minerals are insulators. On the other hand, the electrical current is carried through
rocks/rock mainly by the passage of ions in pore waters. Thus, most rocks conduct
electricity by electrolytic rather than electronic processes.

Figure 7. Geomorphic features. a) Topography of the study area. b) Slope characteristics

Many configurations of electrodes have been designed and are occasionally

employed in specialized surveys. Here, the Schlumberger configuration method was used.
In the Schlumberger configuration, potential electrodes have spaces which is a small
proportion of that of the outer current electrodes. In Vertical Electrical Sounding surveys,
the potential electrodes remain fixed and the current electrodes are expanded
symmetrically about the center of the spread [24]. With a very large area, it is necessary
to increase also the distance between current electrodes to maintain a measurable
potential.

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Figure 8: Location of electrical vertical sounding profiles on top of the google earth image in Qazel Kand
village, Sholgara District (location of the geophysical survey is shown in figure 1).

The Schlumberger method was also used by introducing an electrical current into
the ground from DC (direct current) or low-frequency sources by two electrodes (P1 and
P2). The potential difference between a second pair of electrodes (C1 and C2) was
measured (Fig. 9). This Schlumberger configuration is characterized by following up the
vertical variations in the subsurface layers in each VES, together with horizontal
variations through compiling and correlating the measured VES's along geoelectrical
profiling [25].
During the process, first, we measure IP1P2 and ∆uC1C2 for short distances P1P2/2,
and later for long distances P1P2/2. Then the potential difference is calculated as follows:
∆𝑢 = 𝐼ρ𝐶1𝐶2/𝛱𝑃1𝐶1𝑃1𝐶2

Figure 9: Schlumberger configuration for Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) measurements. The figure
is modified from [25]

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From the above formula, calculate the specific electrical resistance as follow:
Here: ρ - apparent is electrical resistance, K- is the geophysical factor or coefficient of
the device, ∆u- is the potential difference between P1 and P2 electrodes, and the current
intensity. Potential difference measure in millivolts (mV), current intensity in
milliamperes (mA), and apparent electrical resistance in ohmmeters [25,26]. The values
of apparent electrical resistance of water and some rocks are as follows: (Fig. 10):

Figure 10: The electrical conductivity and resistivity values of water and different rock types. Ranges of
values are shown as bars. Blue color shows high conductivity and low resistivity and red color shows
high resistivity and low conductivity. The figure is modified from [27].
The value geophysical survey of vertical electric sounding (VES) conducted in
Qazel Kand village such as absolute height, position, and length of vertical electrical
sounding (VES) are listed in the tables 2 .

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Table 2: Position and length of vertical electrical sounding
Vertical
VES Elev
Electric
No Location Lat. Lon. Length .
Sounding
(m) (asl)
No.
Qazel Kand 66.892 36.23161
1 1 600 -
village 46 3
66.891
2 -//- 2 36.23494 600 648
53
66.893 36.23444
3 -//- 3 600 643
17 3
Field data are measured by a Syscal Pro resistivity meter and their values are listed
below (tables 3-5).

Table 3: Vertical Electrical Sounding values along the geophysical profile Number-1.
Distance
Apparent Intensity
between Potential Device
Distance between electrical of
Receiving difference coefficien
Current electrodes resistance electric
electrodes s t
C1C2/2 (m) ρk current
P1P2/2 Vp (mV) K (m)
(Ohm.m) in (mA)
(m)
1 1 83.4769 1389.589 39.119 2.35
2 1 55.4316 158.276 33.693 11.8
3 1 55.007 93.498 46.743 27.5
4 1 57.1318 54.666 47.358 49.5
5 1 59.6179 18.678 24.343 77.7
6 1 61.82028 19.294 34.955 112
8 1 67.1214 9.396 27.997 200
10 1 72.4564 9.411 40.654 313
15 1 94.715 2.858 21.265 705
15 10 86.0596 29.134 21.262 1250
20 10 115.25 41.223 42.203 1960
20 1 123.47 4.168 42.194 62.8
25 1 142.95 2.679 36.732 118
25 10 135.77 26.434 36.601 188
30 10 157.35 14.274 24.946 275
35 10 176.55 16.021 34.209 377
40 10 196.117 25.353 63.991 495
50 10 230.73 9.64 32.588 780
60 10 259.1 2.886 12.475 1120
70 10 293.74 2.564 13.355 1530
80 10 332.68 2.464 14.813 2000
80 60 263.099 13.493 14.77 3130

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 100 60 296.102 16.866 27.056 4900
100 10 363.42 3.187 27.448 288
125 10 419.083 1.137 13.294 475
125 60 350.66 5.994 13.164 770
150 60 390.996 2.865 8.28 1130
175 60 415.21 3.186 11.97 1560
200 60 426.74 3.903 18.658 2040
250 60 446.231 1.573 11.386 3230
300 60 430.07 1.033 11.193 4660

Distance The
Distance
between Apparent intensity
between Potential Device
Receiving electrical of
Current difference coefficient
electrodes resistance electric
electrodes Vp (mV) K(m)
P1P2/2 ρk (ohm.m) current
C1C2/2 (m)
(m) in (mA)
1 1 304.455 623.939 4.816 2.35
2 1 222.443 156.257 8.289 11.8
3 1 146.611 17.604 3.302 27.5
4 1 108.6682 11.251 5.125 49.5
5 1 84.34576 6.365 5.242 77.7
6 1 87.148.3 7.806 10.032 112
8 1 85.37498 9.13 21.388 200
10 1 95.22 3.65 11.998 313
15 1 112.101 6.234 39.204 705
15 10 109.48 68.346 39.203 1250
20 10 135.907 16.644 14.451 1960
20 1 135.011 4.813 44.561 62.8
25 1 156.27 2.825 35.431 118
25 10 158.024 29.886 35.555 188
30 10 179.0258 5.486 8.427 275
35 10 195.318 9.081 17.528 377
40 10 206.8685 3.317 7.937 495
50 10 231.576 6.746 22.722 780
60 10 245.929 1.893 8.621 1120
70 10 263.235 3.303 19.198 1530
80 10 264.8 3.789 28.617 2000
80 60 247.83 24.966 29.012 3130
100 60 230.07 42.276 87.282 4900
100 10 241.05 6.696 86.945 288
125 10 236.531 3.23 66.913 475
125 60 227.71 20.024 20.024 770

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 150 60 225.67 6.89 34.5 1130
175 60 254.529 4.412 27.041 1560
200 60 273.91 3.796 28.271 2040
250 60 236.55 3.882 53.006 3230
300 60 250.95 15.283 283.792 4660
Table 4: Vertical Electrical Sounding data along the geophysical profile Number-2.
Table 5: Vertical Electrical Sounding value along the geophysical profile Number-3.
Distance The
Distance Apparent
between intensity
between electrical Potential Device
Current of
Receiving resistance difference coefficient
electrodes electric
electrodes ρk Vp (mV) K (m)
C1C2/2 current
P1P2/2 (m) (ohm/m))
(m) in (mA)
1 1 201.45 4843.389 56.498 2.35
2 1 240.34 1114.223 54.704 11.8
3 1 233.17 438.505 51.715 27.5
4 1 156.89 121.357 38.288 49.5
5 1 112.45 58.204 40.215 77.7
6 1 86.159 39.555 51.418 112
8 1 64.011 13.973 43.658 200
10 1 59.379 5.694 30.014 313
15 1 83.918 0.985 8.275 705
15 10 83.915 8.465 6.335 1250
20 10 118.369 7.685 7.661 1960
20 1 112.898 0.695 7.695 62.8
25 1 138.68 1.054 14.896 118
25 10 145.97 11.466 14.767 188
30 10 168.64 10.822 17.647 275
35 10 191.32 10.019 19.742 377
40 10 216.91 5.78 13.19 495
50 10 256.01 6.861 20.903 780
60 10 300.714 3.524 13.125 1120
70 10 327.898 0.394 1.843 1530
80 10 368.968 1.296 7.025 2000
80 60 351.969 8.831 7.226 3130
100 60 416.069 15.914 18.168 4900
100 10 424.06 2.457 18.135 288
125 10 443.1153 2.981 30.874 475
125 60 472.8989 9.754 15.882 770
150 60 488.59 21.731 50.258 1130
175 60 504.696 26.757 82.705 1560
200 60 484.6 4.331 18.232 2040

27
 250 60 441.739 4 29.248 3230
300 60 357.05 6.052 78.987 4660

5.3.1. Geophysical Data Interpretation

The graphic interpretation of Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) is shown in
figures 11-13. Field data of the Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES-1, 2, 3) is interpreted
with the win IPI2 software. Boundaries, thickness, and depth of rock layers are measured
and calculated according to the apparent strength of the rocks. Thus the lithology of
underground layers was determined. Apparent electrical resistance is determined on VES-
1, VES-2, and VES-3 as shown in (tables 3, 4, and 5). The specific electrical resistivity
evaluates the special image of the underground structure in the study area. With the
increase in porosity and water content in the underground layer, there is a change in the
specific resistance figures that leads us to detect and identify waterlogged strata. During
this research work, the specific resistivity is always measured by giving current through
the electrodes (C1C2) and measuring the potential difference between the potential
electrodes (P1P2) (Fig. 9).
The VES-1 shows five different layers (table 3; Fig. 11). Apparent resistivity of
the first layer is 133 ohmmeters. This layer is located at the shallow surface from the
ground (0.5 m) with a thickness of 0.5 m. The expected lithology of this layer mostly
contains clay with sand and gravel. The second layer has dry sand and gravel, which have
apparent resistivity of 16.3 ohmmeters. At the depth of 0.676 m, the thickness of this layer
is 0.18 m. Layer three has 58 ohmmeters of apparent resistivity. The boundary of this
layer is from 0.17 to 7.403 m. The computed apparent resistivity of layer four is 529
ohmmeters. Layer five is unknown due to no data afterward. Based on the electrical
resistivity of the various earth materials (Fig. 9), the lithology of this layer seems to be
carbonate stones. As the computed apparent resistivity graph goes up, therefore we cannot
identify the thickness, depth for layers 4 and 5, and expected lithology of layer 5 (Fig.
11).

Figure 11: Graphic Interpretation of Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES-1) of table 3.

28
 The VES-2 data shows about five layers having different resistivity, thickness,
and depth. The expected lithology of each of these layers is different from the others.
From surface to depth, the apparent electrical resistivity of the first layer is 327
ohmmeters. The depth of this layer is 1.27 m with the expected lithology of gravel, sand,
and clay. The apparent resistivity of the second layer is 28.9 ohmmeters. With decreasing
the apparent electrical resistivity, the electrical conductivity is getting increased, which
seems to have wet clay with sand and gravel. The depth of this layer is 2.09 m with 0.86
m thickness. The third layer is located at the depth of 12.2 m with a thickness of ~10 m.
The resistivity of this layer is 90 ohmmeters. This layer seems to have the potential of
groundwater. In this regard, we can say that the water table is located at the depth of
approximately 90 m. While the two the depth the apparent electrical resistivity is getting
increased. For example, the fourth layer has apparent resistivity of 531 ohmmeters, while
the rest of the layers are unknown due to raising the measured and computed apparent
resistivity graphs with no data (Fig. 12).
VIS-3 graphical interpretation shows five distinct layers. The apparent resistance
of the first layer is 200 ohmmeters with a depth of 1 m. The expected lithology of this
layer is dried clay with some sand, silt, and gravel. The second layer has a depth of 1.8 m
with a thickness of 0.8 m. The apparent resistivity of this layer is 412 ohmmeters, which
seems to have carbonate rocks such as limestone and marl. These rocks have no primary
porosity but can form fractures inside the rocks as secondary porosity, where water
occurrence can be taken place. The third layer has a depth of 4 m, with a thickness of 2.8
m. This layer has very low resistivity and seems to have some water.

Figure 12: Graphic Interpretation of Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES-2) (table 4).

The expected lithology of this layer is clay with sand and silt. Again for the rest of the
layer resistivity is getting increased, while we do not have VES-3 data to imagine the
boundary and depth of the layers (Fig. 13; table 5).

29
 Figure 13: Graphic Interpretation of Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES-3)
Generally, after joining the three VES (VES-1, VES-2, and VES-3) data, the
graphical interpretation of the Qazel Kand village, Sholgara District shows that the water
accumulation is in carbonate rocks. These rocks have secondary fractures and can
accumulate a large amount of groundwater and make a big reservoir. The secondary
porosity in carbonate rocks (limestone and dolomite) can be formed by freshwater
dissolution or dissolution by chemically aggressive subsurface fluid in the deep-burial
environment. Also, the figures show that the water table depth ranges from 80 to 100 m
in the study area. The water could be very clean and feasible for drinking.
This research is not enough in the study area. To better understand the area's
geology, geomorphology, and physical properties, detailed fieldwork is needed to be done
in the area. It is highly suggested to use high-resolution satellite images and increase the
number of VESs in different parts of the study area, which can allow us to get more
information about the thickness, depth, and lithology of the undersurface layer. To
confirm the results of the geologic, geomorphic, and electric methods, it is necessary to
drill several exploratory wells at least 120 m depth. It is also strongly recommended to
take groundwater samples and analyze them quantitatively and qualitatively in a
laboratory to know about groundwater contaminations.
6. Conclusion
Geological, geomorphological, and geophysical investigations provide a full
description of the surface and underground. Satellite imagery examines landforms and
hydrogeology in a remote area. As this method is reliable and cheap, and it gives the best
result in detecting geomorphic features in Sholgara District. Geological maps and satellite
images were used to prepare geomorphological and thematic maps. Geologically, Pre-
Paleozoic, Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Cainozoic rock form the structure of the north
Afghan platform. Geophysical researches show that the central and northern side of the
north Afghan platform (the Amu Darya and Afghan-Tajik Basins) consists of sedimentary
rocks which gradually decrease their thickness toward the south and east. The Amu Darya
and Afghan-Tajik Basins separate the northern Afghan platform from the Turan platform

30
of southern Eurasia. The landscape is tectonically active due to vertical and horizontal
crustal blocks motion, and deposition and erosion process.
From the surface geological formation, the Holocene and late Pleistocene deposits
have high porosity and seem to be a good source of groundwater. The Paleocene and late
Cretaceous are hard rocks and mostly located in high elevation. The dependence on
groundwater is determined by the land used in an area. The areas located close to the
riverside or at a low elevation above sea level, have crops that spend more water. Thus,
the cropping pattern depends on the availability of water resources and climatic
conditions. On the other hand, the drainage of water depends on the characteristics,
topography, and slope. The area with a slope of 5 degrees has a higher rate of infiltration.
The valley developed due to the deposition of transported and weather rocks throughout
the Holocene and Late Pleistocene times, which have high groundwater potential as
having high porosity.
The geophysical survey helped us to determine the location and condition of
groundwater in the Qazel Kand Village, Sholgara District. Boundaries, thickness, and
depth of underlying layers were measured depending on the rock's apparent resistivity.
Then the lithology was determined. Generally, based on the Vertical Electrical Sounding
data five different layers are identified. From the surface to 15 m depth, the first 3 layers
are located. The graphical interpretation shows that the water table ranges from 50 to 100
m in depth. The water mostly takes place in the karst aquifer with lithology of limestone
and marl.

Acknowledgment.
We would like to thank DACAAR for providing the groundwater data.

31
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Authors Profile:
Zakeria Shnizai born in Sayed Abad of Wardak province. He received his
BSc in Oil and Gas Mines Engineering Department from Kabul Polytechnic
University in 2007. He completed an MSc in environmental geology in 2012
and then a Ph.D. with a major in active tectonics in 2020. He is working as an
associate professor at Kabul Polytechnic University-Kabul Afghanistan. His
research area includes active tectonics, remote sensing and GIS, geophysics,
and petroleum geology.

Abdul Rashidi Iqbal received an MSc degree in geophysical methods of

exploration of mines in 1986 from the Azerbaijan State University of Oil and
Industries. Started work at the Ministry of Mines and Industries of Afghanistan
in 1986. Then worked with the Ministry of Water and Energy (WAPECA) and
since 1989 tell now an assistant professor, associate professor, and professor
at Kabul Polytechnic University-Kabul Afghanistan. His research area is
prospecting and exploration of mines, water, and the use of full materials.

Mohammad Walid Omid received a B.Sc. degree in Oil and Gas Mines
Engineering from Kabul Polytechnic University in 2014, and MTech (Master
of Technology) degrees in Earth Sciences with a specialization in Petroleum
Geoscience from the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay (IIT Bombay),
Mumbai, India in 2020. He is working as an Assist. Prof. at the Department of
Oil and Gas Mines Engineering, Geology and Mines Faculty, Kabul
Polytechnic University, Kabul Afghanistan. His field of research includes
Active Tectonics, Geology, Geophysics, Remote Sensing, and GIS.

34
 KPU International Journal of Engineering & Technology
Volume 2, Issue2, Dec. 2022
Date Received: 2022-07-13
e-ISSN:2790-0819, p-ISSN:2790-0800
Date Accepted: 2022-12-20
Date Published: 2022-12-30

Urban Development Through Participatory Approach:

Contemporary methods of Urban Planning in Kabul
City
MOHAMMAD RAMIN AMIRYAR1*, AHMAD JAWAD NIAZI2, SHAHPERAI PERZAD
SEDIQ3

1*Ph.D. Scholar, Toyohashi University, Japan. Email: [email protected]

2AssociateProfessor, Department of Architecture, Kabul Polytechnic University, KPU campus, 5th District, Kabul,
Afghanistan. Email: [email protected]
3AssistantProfessor, Department of Technical Drawing, Kabul Polytechnic University, KPU campus, 5th District,
Kabul, Afghanistan. Email: [email protected]

Abstract
Since 2001, the urbanization trend is unprecedented, and both the government and the people have been
making efforts to reconstruct Kabul city. More than 66 percent of Kabul's population lives in informal
settlements. The urban planning projects (Detail Plans) are being prepared behind closed doors and are
expected to be implemented on the site without the consent and agreement of the residents. The capacity to
steer the planning and implementation process is very weak and most of these planners are not up to date.
The existing situation of informal settlement and the trend of urban expansion implies that the public was
not the main focus and residents were not involved in decision-making. The approach is one way, and the
planning process (referred to as a top-down process) is of particular interest. On the other hand,
participation is a process where public inclusion is a must for deciding on planning aspects that may benefit
or affect a community. Kabul Municipality has introduced some novel methods that focus primarily on
people, and decisions will be based on the opinions of affected residents. These methods are supposed to
be used as alternatives to detailed planning and land acquisition methods. As it is clear, development is a
process that increases choices. It means exploring options, diversifying, thinking about issues, and
anticipating change. By involving multiple stakeholders, conflict can be resolved through consensus
building and the plan's effectiveness is increased. The Holy Quran also mentions “and hold fast, all
together, by the rope which Allah (stretches out for you and be not divided among yourselves”. In this
research study, the planning process stream, participatory structures, and the importance of participatory
approaches to urban development will be examined. The main purpose of this paper is to encourage
methods of planning through citizen participation.

Keywords: Participatory, informal settlement, Detail Plan, decision making, land acquisition

*
Corresponding Author

35
1. Introduction
A significant amount of urbanization took place in Kabul after the 2000s, which is
unprecedented for a capital city. Urbanization is not uniform, as a primate city contains
approximately half of the country’s urban population (1). More than 66 percent of Kabul's
population lives in informal settlements (2). Urban central areas are increasingly
characterized by rising poverty, vulnerability, environmental hazard, and health risk
(3). In various parts of the city, residents experience insecurity and a lack of safety.
However, urbanization offers opportunities for social development and economic growth
too. There has been a concerted effort to rebuild Kabul city by the government and the
people (4).
Excluding urban citizens from the planning and decision-making process casts doubt
on the ability of the Kabul municipality and government. Governmental Agencies have
prepared many urban projects without interference from residents. In the meantime,
informal settlements have been expanded throughout Kabul city without compliance with
these plans. The urban projects could be implemented based on master plans drafted with
the participation and coordination of residents. As it is clear, participation is a process
where public inclusion is a must for deciding on planning aspects that may benefit or
affect a community (5). Kabul Municipality has introduced some novel methods that
focus primarily on people, and decisions will be based on the opinions of affected
residents. These methods are supposed to be used as alternatives to detailed planning and
land acquisition methods. As it is clear, development is a process that increases choices.
It means exploring options, diversifying, thinking about issues, and anticipating change
(6). Additionally, Holy Quran mentions, "Hold fast, all of you, by the rope that Allah
(stretches out for you) and don't split among yourselves"(7). It is therefore imperative that
a close relationship between the government and the residents be fostered in order not
only to collaborate but also to make decisions together. Because it is the right of residents
to be informed in detail about the decisions that affect their lives (8).

1980 2018
Fig1: A portion of Detail plan

Figure 1 depicts a section of the Wazir-Abad detail plan as a sports complex in the
1980s. During the plan's development, the residents were not informed and were not

36
involved in decision-making. The dilapidated state of the informal settlement areas that
have grown without regard for the Master Plan and detailed plan is clear.
.

Fig2: Paradigm of Kabul Urban Planning Approach

In Kabul, a detailed planning method is a top-down approach to urban planning. The

public was not involved, and the emphasis was on the special interest. In this method, not
only is participation at stake but so is the speed with which detailed plans can be
developed, which cannot keep up with the current rate of urbanization. This type of
planning approach is appropriate for cities with low rates of growth and economic
stability, not for Kabul, which has high population growth and economic instability.
Depending on the Detail planning system, informal settlement expansion issues may
worsen. In the current situation, not only is the government burdened with detailed
planning, but residents also do not want to leave communities where they have lived for
several years.
On the other hand, many countries have practiced participatory planning, which has
led to greater success. In most countries, controversies over planning have been resolved
through a participatory approach that directly involves residents in the planning process.
To reach this milestone (engage and mobilize the citizens, gain their support and
contribution through community organization, settlement regularization, and service
delivery), proposed the Kabul Solidarity Program (9). Through KSP, a Neighborhood
Development Council has been established by the election of representatives (one male
and one female) of families that will be a forum for discussion and prioritization of needs
and problems. It can be referred to as a traditional community governance structure such
as the Gozer Assembly and Wakil Gozer. The management of KM recently embraced the
participatory approach as well in their planning processes. Land Readjustment and Urban
Redevelopment (LRUR) are now the two options as alternatives for land acquisition and
Detail Planning, all of which require participatory planning.
Participatory approaches allow the public and authorities to reach a consensus,
improve decision-making processes, and help a city move forward and improve its social
structure. The primary goal of this paper is to promote planning methods that involve
citizen participation.

37
 To sum up, the Participatory approach has the ability that can build social capital, helps
citizens and authorities reach a consensus regarding a certain matter, improve decision-
making processes and finally help a city to move forward and improve social structure.
The main purpose of this paper is to encourage the methods of planning through citizen
participation.

1.1 Statement of Problems

Because of the influx of internal displacement persons (IDPs) and returning refugees
in recent decades, central urban areas have been the primary focus of urban planning.
Planning urban development accounts for a relatively small volume in comparison to
urbanization. Many urban experts continue to employ the same urban planning methods
and standards that they did in the 1970s and earlier. The planning process took one
approach, and the implementation process was met with opposition. Even though some
participatory methods are used in Kabul Municipality. However, no legally binding
document to support the participatory approach has been prepared. The following are the
major issues:

 Population growth
 outdated planning methods and standards
 Insufficient development capacity
 One-way approach
 No regulations or procedures for enacting and enforcing the policy

2. Method of Research
The methodology of this study includes a review of literature, records, and secondary
data analysis regarding participatory approaches. A validated set of data was gathered
from Kabul Urban Design Framework and JICA (Japan International Corporation
Agency), as well as the literature and documents on the participation of civil society.
3. Research content

3.1 Reorientation of paradigms

It is necessary to mention the fact that during the last few years, the planning
approaches have changed in Kabul city. The non-governmental organizations working in
urban sectors mostly played key roles in the involvement of ordinary residents in their
planning process and implementation stages. UN-Habitat and the World Bank are
engaged in the betterment of informal settlement situations, maximally focusing on
boosting social aspects. On the other hand, for a couple of years, Japan International
Corporation Agency practicing contemporary Land Readjustment and Urban
Redevelopment participatory is essential for the implementation of the projects. Over
time, the notion of citizen participation and its designation in development projects is
clear., the paradigm of participatory planning is changing from top-down to bottom-up
approaches.

38
 Fig 3: Two paradigm in public participation

Figure 3 shows that the top-down approach implies that public participation is not
concentrated and that planners do all the things related to planning and decisions
themselves. The outcome will be shared with the community and the implications of the
decision will be contested by residents. On the other hand, the bottom-up approach
emphasizes community involvement. Community members are involved in the process
to get a more comprehensive understanding of the current state of affairs. The
participation arrow distinguishes the level of participation in top-down and bottom-up
approaches. In figure 4, the participation arrow demonstrates the engagement of the
community from open-ended information exchange to exchanging information.

One-Way Information Information Exchange

Flow
Fig 4: level of Engagement

Under the Empowerment Point, citizens and planners are equally involved in decision-
making. Today, the process in Kabul is changing, but it is still struggling to move in the
right direction. Planners and authorities are adamant about getting an early estimate of
residents' willingness through workshops and meetings. Residents of the project met to
discuss and debate the challenges they face and how they intend to address them. During
this meeting, the residents frequently inquired about decisions that affect their quality of
life and destinations. Following the meeting, the majority of residents provided positive
feedback about the planning process, stating that their opinions would be considered and
valued. The residents then requested a formal petition from Kabul Municipality, which
they signed individually, for the projects to be implemented.

39
 Fig 5: Willingness Evaluation Meeting in district 10

Fig 6: Group Petition from KM Fig 7: Individual Request Form

40
3.2 Common Participatory Forms in Kabul
Depending on the circumstances at the local level, participation forms may differ.
Planning participation can take one of the following forms:
3.2.1 Direct-mass participation:
The resident is actively involved in a program, project, or decision-making process.
Participation is open to all. Everyone in the community, regardless of age, gender, or
socioeconomic status, is welcome to participate in the program (elders, youths, men,
women, disabled, etc.).
3.2.2 Opinion leaders:
An opinion leader in this sense is a person or group of people who have more influence,
ideas, and behaviors that can serve as models for others. Chiefs, religious preachers,
businessmen, and district heads are examples of these leaders. Wakil Gozer, who
coordinates all administrative and community affairs with the government and residents,
is a popular model for the Afghan community's opinion leaders.
3.2.3 Representational:
Some residents divide their community based on various functions into different groups.
Members are selected from related groups of matters to participate in the community and
make decisions.
3.2.4 Self-Appointed Representatives:
This type of participation is more common in Kabul's local communities. A person or
group of people imposes their point of view on the rest of the community. These are more
radicals who want to be seen as intelligent. As is customary, they appear to be more
knowledgeable and have a greater influence on the members of the community. For
example, commanders or powerful individuals who act as the community's gods.

3.3 Advantages of a Participatory Approach

The participatory approach has the potential to provide significant support and
contribution to reaching a new level of development, and social, and economic
performance than the development approach used 50 to 60 years ago (8). This method
can achieve goals that would be difficult to achieve in any other way. The fundamental
feature of this approach is the inclusion of ordinary people in the process of change. More
emphasis is placed on the process because many real benefits emerge when people
collaborate, develop skills and confidence, and have individual and group capacity to
address emerging issues and opportunities. The major benefits of involving ordinary
people in the process are described below.
 Creation of Shared Visions: short and long-term strategies for a community's future
must be developed.

41
  Complex issues and problems shall be resolved through discussion.
 Increasing Consensus Building: Building consensus among different interest groups
leads to better and longer-term partnerships.
 Raising Public Awareness: An open forum discussion will raise residents' information
and awareness.
 Enhancement of Urban Design Quality: Through participation, people will consider
and reconsider their quality of life.
 Act as a catalyst: debates and exchanges of ideas will speed up the activation process.
Furthermore, civil participation will increase resources, social capital and cooperation,
mutual aid and services, group learning, and volunteer work. Meanwhile, it will improve
community-authority dialogue, the coherence and effectiveness of public policies, and
the capacity of authorities, professionals, and experts to engage in communities. Finally,
it breaks the community's isolation and brings them together.

3.4 Participatory Paradigm Shift from Real to Virtual-World

Community development is a requirement for long-term development. Since the
planning approach is changing in Kabul, the number of meetings, workshops, and mutual
discussions with citizens is increasing to reach a consensus. Authorities and planners
make every effort to explain everything in weekly or monthly sessions. However, there
are some questions and debates that need to be discussed and resolved after the session.
Because meeting time is limited and residents are preoccupied with their businesses. As
a result, a gap is still reasonable to reach mutual consent, or it takes more time to resolve
a minor dispute or minor civil claim. Developed countries that have gained experience
with the participatory approach through community development now engage in
extensive online or digital participation. There are no time or location restrictions for the
online sessions. Residents can log in at any time and from any location to discuss and
debate a specific issue that was not addressed during the weekly or monthly session. Japan
is one of the countries that is well-known for its participatory planning. The Internet-
based discussion has received a lot of attention and will be one of the best methods of
outreach for reaching consensus in Japan (10). COLLAGE is a system derived from the
collective or collaborative agreement that is used in Nagoya. Residents actively
participate in online workshops and discussions about issues affecting their communities.
Figure 8 depicts the COLLAGREE consensus-building support system.

42
 Fig 8: Image of consensus building support system on COLLAGREE,
Source, COLLAGREE

Another online participation experiment is taking place in Victoria, Canada, with

online dispute resolution (ODR). "Through online dispute resolution, parties can have
their issues resolved by enrolled members." Participants in the forum can share videos
and documents from their own devices whenever they want, without regard to location"
(11).
Kabul, as the capital city, must coordinate sessions in both real-time and online
participation systems. Kabul Municipality has already seen widespread participation. It
is now time to put online discussion methods into practice alongside in-person
participation. The discussion tool can be used on social media platforms such as
Facebook, Twitter, WhatsApp, or any academic forum. KM and Nagoya Institute of
Technology recently signed a joint research agreement to put the online participatory
approach into practice. The goal of this research agreement is to discuss a specific topic
and obtain agreement from various parties in an online setting.
Finally, I propose comprehensive urban planning methods based on participatory
approaches. Civil participation expands development options, and residents will be
pleased that they are involved in decisions that affect their lives. As a result of the mutual
agreement between planners and community members, sustainable development will be
enhanced.
4. Conclusion:
Kabul is one of the world's fastest-growing cities. In recent decades, the city has
experienced rapid urbanization. The approach to the planning process was capitalistic,
and the public was excluded from the process. In closed-door offices, authorities and
urban planners were attempting to prepare urban projects (Detail Plans). Residents
protested the projects' implementation because they were excluded from the planning and
decision-making processes.

43
 On the other hand, the participatory approach has recently been recognized as an
effective method of incorporating it into planning processes. In Kabul Municipality, some
new methods are being used to ensure that citizen participation is essential from the start
to the end of the project. These methods are intended to be alternatives to Detail Planning
and land acquisition methods. Building consensus is a topic that requires discussion and
agreement status. The paradigms of the participatory approach vary and can be located
and time-dependent or limitless. Meetings or workshops can be held in a specific location
with mass participation, or they can be held in online forums with discussions based on
each individual's available time.

Acknowledgment
This paper is the result of an academic investigation into the literature on participatory
approaches and Kabul urban data documents. I'd like to thank everyone who assisted me
with my research. My co-authors did an excellent job by participating in all aspects of the
article.

44
References

[1] MUDL, 2015, Afghanistan country Report for Habitat 3: the Islamic Republic
of Afghanistan, managing rapid urbanization.
[2] Sasaki, Kabul Urban Design Framework, Executive Summary, A vision for
sustainable and vibrant Kabul, Sasaki Company, USA.
[3] Joe Beall and Daniel Esser, 2005, shaping urban futures: challenges to
governing and managing afghan cities, Afghanistan Research and Evaluation
Unit, Afghanistan.
[4] Yachiyo Engineering Co. Ltd., 2011, Draft Kabul City Master Plan, RECS
International Inc., Afghanistan.
[5] Jan-Hendrik LE ROUX, Elizelle Juaneé CILLIERS, 2013, the Participatory
Planning Paradigm Shift: Comparing Disciplines and Methods, 49th ISOCARP
Congress, North West University, South Africa, page 1.
[6] Jim Cavaye, 2015, Understanding Community Development. Cavaye
Community Development.
[7] ) Quran, Sura Al I-Imran, Ayah 103.
[8] Nick Wates, 2008, the community Planning Event Manual, UK (how to use
Collaborative Planning and Urban Design Events).
[9] Kabul Municipality,2009, Kabul Solidary Program Document, KM, Kabul-
Afghanistan.
[10] Takayuki Ito, 2018, COLLAGREE: Facilitator-mediated Large-scale
Consensus Support System-Takayuki Ito, The Ninth International Automated
Negotiating Agent Competition, Nagoya, Japan.
[11] VIVI TAN, 2019, Online Dispute Resolution for Small Civil Claims in
Victoria: A New Paradigm in Civil Justice, Victoria, Canada.

45
Authors Profile:
Mohammad Ramin Amiryar received a B.Sc. degree in Architecture from
Kabul Polytechnic University. He has got his master ‘degree in urban
Environmental Planning and Policy Making from the Toyohashi University of
Technology. He is currently a Ph.D. Candidate at the Toyohashi University of
Technology majoring in Urban Environmental and Policy Making. He has
worked as head of the Urban Planning Department in Kabul Municipality for
many years. Besides, he is currently working as a consultant at Okumura
Design Company

Ahmad Jawad Niazi received a B.S. degree in Architecture Engineering from

Kabul Polytechnic University in 2010 an M.S. degree in Civil and Industrial
Structures from KPU in 2013, M. Plan in Urban and Regional Planning from
UoP. Presently, Ph.D. in Architecture & Ekistics from OPJS. He is working as
an Associate Professor in Department of Architecture & Urban Planning, Kabul
Polytechnic University, Kabul, Afghanistan. His areas of research include
Ekistics, Urban Governance, Planning, Sustainable, and Islamic Architecture.

Shahpiri Pirzad Sediq is a resident of the Andar district of Ghazni province,

she is working as an Assistant Professor at the Department of Technical
Drawing of Construction Faculty of Kabul Polytechnic University.
She received her master’s degree in Industrial and Civil Engineering in 1367
from Kabul Polytechnic University.

46
 KPU International Journal of Engineering & Technology
Volume 2, Issue2, Dec. 2022
Date Received: 2022-08-07
e-ISSN:2790-0819, p-ISSN:2790-0800
Date Accepted: 2022-12-23
Date Published: 2022-12-30

Seismic Performance of Tall Buildings with and Without Outrigger

and Belt Truss Systems
EZATULLAH YAQUBI1*, AHMAD JAWID RAHIMI2, NASIBA FAKOR3, PARWANA
YAQUBI4

1*Assist.
Professor, Department of Civil and Industrial Construction, Jawzjan University, Sheberghan, Afghanistan.
Email: [email protected]
2Assist.
Professor, Department of Civil and Industrial Construction, Jawzjan University, Sheberghan, Afghanistan.
Email: [email protected]
3Assist.
Professor, Department of Civil and Industrial Construction, Jawzjan University, Sheberghan, Afghanistan.
Email: [email protected]
4Lecturer,
Department of Construction Engineering, Jawzjan Technical Institute, Sheberghan, Afghanistan.
Email: [email protected]

Abstract
The construction of tall buildings today is increasing all over the world to meet the needs and challenges
of the construction industry. The intention to build tall buildings is due to population growth and
insufficient horizontal space. The increase in height of tall buildings requires special attention to the
lateral stiffness of the structure, where the introduction of outrigger sections and belt trusses plays an
essential role. In this paper, an investigation has been performed to study the behavior of outrigger and
belt trusses in different locations of the building using response spectrum analysis. For this analysis, a
three-dimensional building model is developed for G + 16, G + 20, and G + 24 RC buildings with and
without outrigger and belt truss systems to find out the performance of outrigger and belt trusses
subjected to earthquake loading conditions. The analysis is done by dynamic analysis (Response
spectrum method) in the zone (IV) as per IS code, using ETABS software, and the analysis results were
compared among lateral displacements, story drift, and story stiffness to find out the optimal position of
outriggers and an efficient reduction of story displacement and story drift in a tall building. It was
observed that the introduction of outrigger and belt trusses at the middle stories reduces considerable
story displacement and drift and enhances the stiffness of the structure. By providing outriggers and belt
truss systems in middle stories, story displacement is reduced up to 60%, story drift is reduced by up to
50%, and story stiffness is increased by up to 10%.

Keywords: Outrigger and belt trusses, Response spectrum, Story displacement, Story drift,
Story stiffness

* Corresponding Author

47
1. Introduction

Recent technological developments in several aspects related to building

materials, construction methods and equipment, analysis, and structural design have
allowed tall buildings to spread all over the world, especially in emerging economies.
Tall buildings play a major role as important structures in urban and developed cities.
High-rise buildings represent a potential solution from an economic, ecological, and
social point of view [1], [6]. In addition, the lack of land in some cities has led to
increasing demand for tall buildings in that cities [3], [9]. The race to the sky to build
the tallest building is primarily associated with the development of innovative and
innovative lateral load resistance systems. Over the past five decades, engineers have
been able to develop several new framing options as structural systems (e.g. diagonal
system, outrigger system, attached duct system) in many tall buildings to meet the
criteria of aesthetics, ease of maintenance, and safety in addition to minimizing
materials consumption [7],[13]. The outrigger and belt truss systems are one of the most
effective structural systems for resisting lateral loads. The outrigger and belt truss
systems consist of the central core of the brace or shear wall and the horizontal supports
or deep beams connecting the central core to the perimeter columns. The loads are
transferred from the core to the outer columns by two technical methods or in the other
sense, there are two types of stable systems depending on the transmission, namely the
conventional system and the virtual system [5],[15]. The conventional type of system
means that the earthquake moment is transmitted directly from the inner core walls to
the outer columns of the building through rigid supports. But this type of virtual system
relies on inflexible dual-floor diaphragms to transmit seismic moments from the core to
the building's outer columns. [11].

Figure 1. Conventional and virtual outrigger and belt truss system [11],[7].
As per (IS 16700-2017), A building of height greater than 50m, but less than
or equal to 250m is called a tall building. In 1965, Fazlur Khan classified structural
systems according to their ability to withstand lateral loads. This classification
divides structural systems into four categories as shown in Figure 2.

48
 Figure 2. A structural system of tall buildings [5].

2. Literature Review

Amoussou et al. (2021) did an investigation on simplified modeling and analysis

methods for skyscrapers with outrigger systems. The results of the simplified approach
were verified with the analysis results of the detailed ETABS model, where static,
modal, and dynamic analyses were performed. The applicability of the proposed method
to different configurations of high-rise buildings with outrigger systems was also
verified by a parametric study. A comparative study with several previous studies was
performed to demonstrate the effectiveness of the proposed method. It was found that
the applied simple modeling method has good accuracy in predicting the horizontal
displacement and interstate deviation in linear and nonlinear analysis. As a result, the
simplified modeling approach gives a deep understanding of the outrigger system
behavior and its parameters. Wael Al Haddad et al. (2020) did a comprehensive
research on the introduction of outrigger and belt truss systems in skyscrapers. The
actual definition of outrigger and belt truss systems, different configurations and
structural materials of the outrigger and belt truss system, the operation of the outrigger
and belt truss system, and the advantages and disadvantages of the outrigger and belt
systems were discussed. Ho, G. W. (2016) has evaluated the performance of the
outrigger system in tall buildings. The concept of the outrigger system, optimum
topology, design, and construction consideration was studied and presented. Lee, S., &
Tovar, A. (2014) have done an investigation of the location of outriggers in high-rise
buildings using topology optimization. The results showed that the outrigger placement
problem was solved using topology optimization. The further method was used for the
material penalty parameter to obtain the plane ''0–1''. The versatility of the proposed
design method has been demonstrated using a realistic FEM model of a three-
dimensional 201 m tall building. Kiran et al. (2012) have studied the static and dynamic
behavior of outrigger systems for tall buildings. various alternative 3D models have
been made using ETABS software for reinforced concrete structures with a central core
with an outrigger and without an outrigger by varying the relative flexural stiffness from
0.25 to 2.0 with step 0.25. In addition, the position of the outriggers was modified along
the height of the building by considering the relative height parameter of the outriggers

49
from 0.975 to 0.4. The results show that the performance of the outrigger is most
effective for the relative height of the outrigger equal to 0.5.
This research focused on performing a comparison between RC framed irregular
buildings with and without concrete outrigger and belt trusses structural systems as
diagonal elements in different locations along the height of the buildings to find the
suitable location which reduces the story displacement, story drift and increases the
stiffness of the building under actual strong earthquakes by using ETABS software.
3. Objective of Study
In the present paper, the seismic performance of tall buildings with and without
outrigger and belt truss systems are carried out in zone IV using Response spectrum
analysis. Outrigger and belt trusses in two different locations are studied. Different
characteristics like story displacements, the story drifts, and story stiffness of tall
buildings with and without outrigger and belt trusses along X&Y directions are studied.

4. Methodology
In this research work modeling and analysis of the G+16, G+20, and G+24
buildings have been done in ETABS. The height of buildings (G+16=51m, G+20=63m,
and G+24=75m) are greater than 15 m and are located in zone IV, a static analysis
method is not applicable. Hence analysis of structures is carried out by linear dynamic
analysis (Response spectrum method).

5. Modeling and Analysis

In this research, three buildings with different heights (G+16, G+20, and
G+24), with and without outrigger and belt truss systems are considered. Outrigger and
belt truss systems are introduced as RC diagonal members in ETABS. The exact
dimension of the outrigger and belt trusses found after the design check-in ETABS.
The necessary data for analyzing the buildings are given in Tables [1], [2], and [3] as
follows:
Table 1: Geotechnical and Geological Data
S.No Variable Type Reference
1 Type of soil Medium soil IS 1893(part 1):2016 [18]
2 Type of foundation Raft footing IS 2950(part1):1981 [19]
3 seismic zone IV IS 1893(part 1):2016 [18]
4 seismic zone factor 0.24 IS 1893(part 1):2016 [18]

Table 2: General data collection and condition assessment of the building

S.No Description Information Remarks
1 Type of building usage Residential
2 Plan Size 30m×40m
G+16=51m
3 Building height G+20=63m
G+24=75m
Special moment frame with structural IS 1893(part 1):2016
4 Building structure
wall [18]
5 Open ground story yes

50
 6 Horizontal floor system Beams and slabs IS 456: (2000) [22]
IS 10262: 2009
7 Grade of concrete
M30, M40 [20],[22]
IS 431(part 1): 1982
8 Grade of steel
Fe 500 [21]
9 Used software ETABS 19.1.0

Table 3: Dimension of the structural members

G+16
S.No Member Dimension (mm)
1 Column 400×700
2 Beam 300×500
3 Central core shear wall 300
4 Exterior and Interior masonry walls 250&150
5 Slab thickness 150
G+20
6 Column 400×900
7 Beam 300×500
8 Central core shear wall 300
9 Exterior and Interior masonry walls 250&150
10 Slab thickness 150
G+24
11 Column 500×1000
12 Beam 300×500
13 Central core shear wall 400
14 Exterior and Interior masonry walls 250&150
15 Slab thickness 150
All the structural members which are shown In Table 3 are defined according to the
design check of ETABS software, in which the column size, beams, and so on are taken
differently by the change of the number of stories.
In this research paper, all frames are modeled as a special moment-resisting
frame having central core shear walls. Columns and beams are modeled as frame
elements and shear walls are modeled as shell elements. The test models are including
two different types of models:
1. Conventional building.
2. Building with two different numbers and locations of outrigger and belt trusses
systems.

51
 Figure 3. Plan of the building.

The designation of the test models is as follows:

1. MOB1-G+16 without outrigger and belt truss systems as presented in Figure 4a.
2. MOB2-G+16 with outrigger and belt truss systems in the 9th and 16th stories as
presented in Figure 4b.
3. MOB3-G+16 with outrigger and belt truss systems in the 6th and 13th stories as
presented in Figure 4c.
4. MOB4-G+20 without outrigger and belt truss systems as presented in Figure 4d.
5. MOB5-G+20 with outrigger and belt truss systems in the 10th and 20th stories as
presented in Figure 4e.
6. MOB6-G+20 with outrigger and belt truss systems in 7th and 15th as presented in
Figure 4f.
7. MOB7-G+24 without outrigger and belt truss systems as presented in Figure 4g.
8. MOB8-G+24 with outrigger and belt truss systems in the 14th and 24th stories as
presented in Figure 4h.
9. MOB9-G+24 with outrigger and belt truss systems in 9th and 18th as presented
in Figure 4i.

52
 (a) (b) (c)

(d) (e) (f)

(g) (h) (i)

Figure 4. Buildings with and without outrigger and belt truss systems.

6. Results and Discussions

The results obtained from the analysis of models are compared and discussed as follows.

53
 The variation of story displacements in tall buildings with and without outrigger and belt truss
systems under seismic loads as indicated in Figure 5, is observed that in G+16 buildings the
story displacement was reduced by 16.29% along the X-direction and 12.7% along the Y-
direction by providing outriggers and built truss systems on 9th&last floors and reduced by
16.7% along X-direction and 13.8% along Y-direction by providing outriggers in 6th&13th
floors. In G+20 buildings, the story displacement was reduced by 10.45% along the X-direction,
and 12.4% along the Y-direction by providing outriggers and built truss systems on the
10th&last floors and reduced by 9.7% along the X-direction and 13.4% along Y-direction by
providing outriggers and built truss systems on 7th&15th floors. In G+24 buildings, the story
displacement was reduced by 10.14% along the X-direction, and 58.6% along the Y-direction
by providing outriggers and built truss systems on the 14th& 24th floors and reduced by 11.4%
along the X-direction and 58.5% along Y-direction by providing outriggers and built truss
systems on 9th&18th floors.
Story displacement along X-direction Story dispacement along Y-direction
25 25
20 20
Story level
Story level

15 15
MOB4 MOB4
10 10
MOB5 MOB5
5 MOB6
5 MOB6

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Displacement(mm) Displacement(mm)
(a) (b)
Story displacement along X-direction Story displacement along Y-direction
25 25
20 20
Story level

15
Story level

MOB7
15
MOB7
10 MOB8 10 MOB8
5 MOB9 5 MOB9

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Displacement(mm) Displacement(mm)
(c) (d)
Story displacement along X-direction Story displacement along Y-direction
25 25
20 20
Story level

MOB1 MOB1
Story level

15 MOB2
15 MOB2

10 MOB3 10 MOB3

5 5
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Displacement(mm) Displacement(mm)

(e) (f)

54
 Figure 5. Story displacement (a) Story displacement along X-direction in G+16, (b)
Story displacement along Y-direction in G+16, (c) Story displacement along X-
direction in G+20, (d) Story displacement along Y-direction in G+20, (e) Story
displacement along X-direction in G+24 and (f) Story displacement along Y-direction in
G+24.
The variation of story drifts in tall buildings with and without outrigger and belt
truss systems under seismic loads as indicated in Figure 6, clearly indicates the
reduction of story drift in buildings with outrigger and belt truss systems. In G+16
buildings the story drift was reduced by 7.6% along the X-direction and 2.6% along the Y-
direction by providing outriggers and built truss systems on the 9th&last floors and reduced by
8.5% along the X-direction and 6.6% along Y-direction by providing outriggers in 6th&13th
floors. In G+20 buildings, the story drifts were reduced by 12.3% along the X-direction, and
11.9% along the Y-direction by providing outriggers and built truss systems on the 10th&last
floors and reduced by 11.7% along the X-direction and 12.3% along Y-direction by providing
outriggers and built truss systems on 7th&15th floors. In G+24 buildings, the story drifts were
reduced by 16.5% along the X-direction, and 57.6% along the Y-direction by providing
outriggers and built truss systems on the 14th& 24th floors and reduced by 12.9% along the X-
direction and 55.8% along Y-direction by providing outriggers and built truss systems on
9th&18th floors.
Story drift along X-direction Story drift along Y-direction
25 25
20 20
Story level

Story level

15 MOB7 15 MOB7

MOB8
10 MOB8 10
MOB9
5 MOB9
5
0 0
0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015
Drift(unitless) Drift(unitless)
(a) (b)

Story drift along X-direction Story drift along Y-direction

25 25

20 20
Story level

Story level

15 MOB1 15 MOB1

MOB2
10 MOB2 10
MOB3 MOB3
5 5
0 0
0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015
Drift(unitless) Drift(unitless)

(c) (d)

55
 Story drift along X-direction Story drift along Y-direction
25 25
20 20
Story level

Story level
15 MOB4 15 MOB4

10 MOB5 10 MOB5
MOB6 5
5 MOB6

0
0
0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015 0 0.0005 0.001 0.0015
Drift(unitless) Drift(unitless)

(e) (f)

Figure 6. The story drifts (a) Story drift along the X-direction in G+16, (b) Story drift
along the Y-direction in G+16, (c) Story drift along the X-direction in G+20, (d) Story
drift along the Y-direction in G+20, (e) Story drift along X-direction in G+24 and (f)
Story drift along Y-direction in G+24.
The variation of story stiffness in tall buildings with and without outrigger and belt
truss systems under seismic loads as indicated in Figure 7, clearly indicates the increase
of story stiffness in buildings with outrigger and belt truss systems. In G+16 buildings
the story stiffness increases by 3.1% along the X-direction and 2.7% along the Y-direction by
providing outriggers and built truss systems on the 9th&last floors and increases by 5.6% along
the X-direction and 5.8% along Y-direction by providing outriggers in 6th&13th floors. In G+20
buildings, the story stiffness increased by 27.9% along the X-direction, and 30.2% along the Y-
direction by providing outriggers and built truss systems on the 10th&last floors and increase by
22.8% along the X-direction and 26.4% along Y-direction by providing outriggers and built
truss systems on 7th&15th floors. In G+24 buildings, the story stiffness increases by 31.4% along
the X-direction, and 16.9% along the Y-direction by providing outriggers and built truss
systems on the 14th&24th floors and increases by 27.9% along the X-direction and 14.8% along
Y-direction by providing outriggers and built truss systems on 9th&18th floors.

Story stiffness along X- direction Story stiffness along Y- direction

18 18
16 16
14 14
Story level

12
Story level

MOB1 12 MOB1
10 10
MOB2 MOB2
8 8
6 MOB3 6 MOB3
4 4
2 2
0 0
0 10000000 20000000 30000000 0 10000000 20000000 30000000
Stiffness(KN/m) Stiffness(KN/m)

(a) (b)

56
 Story stiffness along X-direction Story stiffness along Y-direction
25 25
20 20
MOB4

Story level
Story level

15 MOB5
15 MOB4

MOB5
10 MOB6 10
MOB6
5 5
0 0
0 10000000 20000000 30000000 0 10000000 20000000 30000000
stiffness (KN/m) Stiffness (KN/m)

(c) (d)
Story stiffness along X-direction Story stiffness along Y-direction
25 25
20 20
Story level
Story level

15 MOB7
15
MOB7
MOB8
10 MOB8 10
MOB9 MOB9
5 5

0 0
0 10000000 20000000 30000000 0 10000000 20000000 30000000
Stiffness (KN/m) Stiffness (KN/m)

(e) (f)

Figure 7. Story stiffness (a) Story stiffness along X-direction in G+16, (b) Story
stiffness along Y-direction in G+16, (c) Story stiffness along X-direction in G+20, (d)
Story stiffness along Y-direction in G+20, (e) Story stiffness along X-direction in G+24
and (f) Story stiffness along Y-direction in G+24.
7. Conclusion

The utilization of outriggers and belt trusses in tall buildings increases stiffness and
reduces story displacement and story drift under lateral loads. Based on the results
obtained from the analysis, the following conclusion was made:
 Outrigger and belt truss systems increase the performance of the building while
subjected to earthquake loads by increasing the story stiffness and reducing the
story displacement and story drift.
 The outrigger and belt truss systems at the top of the building are less efficient, the
outrigger and belt truss systems are better to provide at mid-height, the benefits of
placing at the middle stories resulting up to 50% reduction in story drift, and up to
60% reduction in story displacement.
 Providing the outrigger and belt truss systems increases the stiffness of the building
under earthquake loads by up to 10%.

57
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9. Kayvani, K. (2014), “Design of high-rise buildings: past, present and future,” in ST Smith (ed.),
23rd Australasian Conference on the Mechanics of Structures and Materials (ACMSM23), vol. I,
Byron Bay, NSW, 9-12 December, Southern Cross University, Lismore, NSW, pp. 15-20. ISBN:
9780994152008.
10. Kamath, K., Divya, N., and Rao, A. U. (2012), “A study on the static and dynamic behavior of
outrigger structural system for tall buildings,” Bonfring international journal of industrial
Engineering and Management Science, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 15-20.
11. Khandelwal, R., and Singh, S. (2020), “Optimum Shape and Position of Outrigger System for
High Rise Building under Earthquake Loading,” Regular Issue, vol. 9, no. 3, pp.3268–3275.
12. Khanorkar, A., Sukhdeve, S., Denge, S. V., and Raut, S. P. (2016), “Outrigger and belt truss
system for a tall building to control deflection: A review,” GRD Journals-Global Research and
Development Journal for Engineering, vol. 1, no. 6, pp. 6-15.
13. Kowal, Z. (2011), “The formation of space bar structures supported by the system reliability
theory,” Archives of civil and mechanical engineering, vol. 11, no. 1, pp. 115-133.
14. Lee, S., and Tovar, A. (2014), “Outrigger placement in tall buildings using topology
optimization,” Engineering Structures, vol. 74, pp. 122-129.
15. Rathore, A., and Maru, S. (2017), “Dynamic Analysis of outrigger structural system in a tall
building,” International Journal of Modern Trends in Engineering & Research, vol. 4, no. 12,
pp. 199–208.
16. Smith, B. S., Coull, A., and Stafford-Smith, B. S. (1991), “Tall building structures: analysis and
design,” Vol. 5. New York: Wiley.
17. Taranath, B.S. (2016), “Structural analysis and design of a tall building,” New York: The
William Byrd Press.
18. IS 1893 part 1 (2016): Criteria for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures.
19. IS 2950 part 1(1981): Code of Practice for Design and Construction of Raft Foundation.
20. IS 10262 (2019): Concrete Mix Proportioning – Guidelines.
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58
24. IS 875 part 2 (1987): Code of Practice for Design Loads (Other than Earthquake) for Buildings
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Authors Profile:

Ezatullah Yaqubi received a B. Eng. degree in Civil and Industrial

Engineering from Kabul Polytechnic University, Kabul Afghanistan
in 2014 and M. Tech in Structural engineering from Osmania
University, Hyderabad, Telangana, India in 2022. Currently, he is
working as a lecturer in the Department of Civil and industrial
engineering of the Construction Faculty of Jawzjan University. His
area of research includes Structural Analysis, Structural Dynamics,
Concrete structures, and Earthquake Engineering.

Ahmad Jawid Rahimi received a B. Eng. degree in Civil and

industrial engineering from Jawzjan University, Jawzjan Afghanistan
in 2014 and M. Tech in Structural Engineering from Amity
University, Noida, Delhi NCR, and India in 2019. Currently, he is
working as a lecturer in the Department of Civil and industrial
engineering of the Construction Faculty of Jawzjan University. His
area of research includes Structural Analysis, Concrete and steel
structures, Construction management, and Earthquake Engineering.

Nasiba Fakor received a B. Eng. degree in Civil and industrial

engineering from Jawzjan University, Jawzjan Afghanistan in 2014
and M. Tech in Civil and Industrial Engineering from KPU, Kabul
Afghanistan in 2020. Currently, she is working as a lecturer in the
Department of Civil and industrial engineering of the Construction
Faculty of Jawzjan University. Her area of research includes
Construction Technology, Construction Management, and Earthquake
Engineering.

Parwana Yaqubi received a B. Eng. degree in Civil and industrial

engineering from Jawzjan University, Jawzjan Afghanistan in 2015.
Currently, she is working as a lecturer in the Department of
Construction Engineering of Jawzjan Technical Institute. Her area of
research includes Structural Analysis, Construction Technology,
Construction Management, and Earthquake Engineering.

59
60
 KPU International Journal of Engineering & Technology
Volume 2, Issue2, Dec. 2022
Date Received: 2022-08-13
e-ISSN:2790-0819, p-ISSN:2790-0800
Date Accepted: 2022-12-24
Date Published: 2022-12-30

Combined Tapered Optical Fiber and FBG Sensor for Temperature

and Strain Measurement
HAMEEDULLAH ZAHIN1*, FAZALULLAH MARUFI2
1Teaching Assistant, Department of physics, Education Faculty, Urozgan University, Khayro kariz, Tarinkot,
Afghanistan. Email: [email protected]
2Teaching Assistant, Department of Physics, Education Faculty, Urozgan University, Khayro kariz, Tarinkot,
Afghanistan. Email: [email protected]

Abstract
Fiber Bragg Grating (FBG) sensors have found more usages in the industry to diagnose the safety
of mechanical structures due to their high sensitivity, non-exposure to the electromagnetic field, linearity,
and lightness. A limitation of the application of FBG sensors is the inability to distinguish the effects of
temperature and strain in the simultaneous measurement. For this purpose, we must somehow discriminate
the effect of temperature on the strain. In this Article, by designing a tapered fiber-FBG composite sensor
we have provided a solution for this problem. Studies performed on the designed composite sensor show
that no sensitivity interference will occur in the sensor. In the composite sensor, a tapered fiber optic sensor
𝑝𝑚
with a temperature sensitivity of −932.8 and an FBG sensor with a temperature and strain sensitivity
℃
𝑝𝑚 𝑝𝑚
of 9.89 and0.92 , respectively, are used.
℃ 𝜇𝜀

Keywords: Tapered fiber, Temperature sensor, FBG sensor, Strain, Structural health monitoring.

*
Corresponding Author

61
1. Introduction
There are different types of optical fiber sensors, of which the thinned optical fiber
sensor is one of the most important. In a standard optical fiber, the intensity of the wave
field on the outer surface is almost zero. To make the optical fiber sensitive to the external
environment, it is thinned. By tapering the optical fiber due to the reduction of the
diameter of the optical fiber and the increase of the numerical aperture, the amount of
penetration depth and the intensity of the attenuation wave field can be significantly
increased [1,2].
This causes the output to show significant sensitivity to changes in the refractive
index of the surrounding environment. Different parts of tapered optical fiber are shown
in figure (1).

Figure (1). Schematic of tapered optical fiber and its different regions [3].

The performance of a tapered fiber optic-based temperature sensor relies on a

sensitive laminated coating (absorber layer) on the surface of the optical fiber. In this
situation, when the temperature of the surrounding environment changes, the physical and
chemical properties of the tapered fiber change, and these changes change the properties
of the light inside the fiber. Changes in the properties of the light beam inside the optical
fiber include changes in the intensity, wavelength, or phase of the transmitted light;
Therefore, by measuring the parameters of the transmitted light, the temperature value
can be calculated (Figure (2)).

(Figure 2). Schematic diagram of temperature sensor based on thinned optical fiber [4].

62
Another type of fiber optic sensor is the Fiber Bragg Grating sensor. With the discovery
of optical sensitivity in optical fibers, it became possible to make optical fiber Bragg
Gratings. These gratings simply consist of periodic modulation of the refractive index
inside the fiber optic core. Grid-like structures are very important in waveguide optics.
Surface-enhanced lattice structures are used in flat waveguide optics for light refinement
and coupling [5]. Optical fiber Bragg gratings have been considered a good sensor for
measuring dynamic and static fields such as temperature and strain. One of the most
important advantages of sensors made using optical fiber Bragg gratings is their
wavelength-coding nature. This feature makes the Bragg grating sensors act as a self-
reference, independent of the fluctuations of the light level and insensitive to changes in
the light intensity of the source and losses caused by the connectors. Due to the low
substitution loss and narrow bandwidth reflection wavelength, they can be easily
wavelength multiplexed along a single-mode optical fiber [5]. Interferences of the
refractive index lead to the reflection of light (propagated along the optical fiber) in a very
small range of wavelengths, which is called the reflection wavelength of the Bragg grating
or 𝜆𝐵 (Figure (3)). In addition to the periodicity of the Bragg grating, the reflected Bragg
wavelength is dependent on temperature, strain, and other environmental factors, and by
applying the smallest change in the said factors, we will have a shift in the reflected
wavelength [6]. The intensified wavelength is reflected toward the source and the rest of
the wavelengths pass through the part without change or attenuation. The reflection
wavelength of an optical fiber Bragg grating is given as follows:
𝜆𝐵 = 2𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 Ʌ

Where𝜆𝐵 , 𝑛𝑒𝑓𝑓 and Ʌ is the Bragg wavelength (reflection wavelength), effective

refractive index, and grating period, respectively.

63
 Figure (3). The general structure of optical fiber Bragg grating [7]

2. Research Methods
In this research, to Discrimination, the interference of temperature and strain in
FBG sensors, a combined sensor design of tapered optical fiber (sensitive to temperature)
and fiber optic Bragg grating sensor (sensitive to temperature and strain) was used to
measure temperature and strain simultaneously and to separate We act on the effect of
temperature and strain. By using the relationships between wavelength changes with
strain and temperature, as well as measuring the amount of wavelength changed by each
of the tapered optical fiber and the optical fiber Bragg grating, it is possible to determine
the temperature and strain at the target point. To illustrate the proposed central idea, we
use the experimental results of two types of sensors made by other groups. In reference
[4], a temperature sensor based on tapered fiber has been tested. Temperature changes
from 24°C to 38°C are considered with a step of 2°C. The wavelength range is from 1520
nm to 1620 nm, the waist diameter of the tapered area is about 8 micrometers and its
length is about 20 mm. Also, the refractive index of 1.36 is considered. The value of the
wavelength decreases almost linearly with increasing temperature, and the temperature
sensitivity of -932.8 pm⁄℃ has been obtained [4]. The diagram of the temperature
relationship with wavelength changes for the temperature sensor based on non-adiabatic
tapered optical fiber is given in figure (4).

64
 Figure (4). (a) Schematic diagram of tapered optical fiber-based temperature sensor arrangement which
was designed by the author and (b) Wavelength change in the thinned optical fiber-based sensor due to
temperature changes [4].

For the Bragg grating sensor, we use the laboratory results of reference [11]. The Bragg
wavelength is 1530 nm, the effective refractive index is 1.444, and the temperature and
∆𝜆 𝑝𝑚 ∆𝜆𝐵 𝑝𝑚
strain sensitivity is 𝐵 = 9.89 ⁄ ℃ and = 0.92 ⁄𝜇𝜀 respectively, The
∆𝑇 ∆𝜀
temperature around the optical fiber Bragg grating was changed from 20°C to 80°C with
a step of 20°C and the position of the reflection peak was measured. Wavelength changes
in terms of temperature changes for the fiber Bragg grating are plotted in Figure (5).

65
 Figure (5). (a) Schematic diagram of Bragg grating sensor arrangement to measure temperature change
which was designed by the author and (b) Change in wavelength at the peak of the reflection spectrum of
FBG due to temperature changes [11].

To measure the strain, the amount of strain has been changed from zero to 1500(𝜇𝜀)
microstrain with a step of 100(𝜇𝜀) microstrain [11]. Wavelength changes in terms of
strain changes for optical fiber Bragg grating are plotted in Figure (6)

66
 Figure (6). (a) Schematic diagram of Bragg grating sensor arrangement for strain change which was
designed by the author and (b) Wavelength change in FBG due to strain change [11].

Now, we investigate the optical fiber Bragg grating sensor under the simultaneous
influence of temperature and strain. This issue is shown schematically in Figure (7).

67
 Figure (7). Schematic diagram of Bragg grating sensor arrangement due to a simultaneous change of
temperature and strain designed by the author.

As it is clear in Figure (7), using the FBG sensor to measure temperature and strain
simultaneously will cause sensitivity interference; and we cannot measure strain and
temperature at the same time using this sensor. To eliminate the interference of
temperature and strain, we investigate the design of a combined sensor of tapered optical
fiber and FBG to measure temperature and strain simultaneously. The proposed sensor
and the expected shift in the spectrum are schematically drawn in Figure (8).

68
 Figure (8). Schematic diagram of tapered optical fiber and FBG composite sensor arrangement due to
temperature and strain changes designed by the author.

3. Results and Discussion

The temperature sensitivity of optical fiber Bragg gratings is calculated by the following
equation [5]:
∆𝜆𝐵
= (𝛼 + 𝜉) ∙ ∆𝑇 (1)
𝜆𝐵

Also, the axial strain sensitivity of an optical fiber Bragg grating is obtained by the
following equation [12]:
∆𝜆𝐵
= (1 − 𝑃𝑒 )𝜀𝑧 (2)
𝜆𝐵

By combining equations (1) and (2), the overall sensitivity to temperature and strain is
obtained.
∆𝜆𝐵
= (1 − 𝑃𝑒 ) ∙ 𝜀𝑧 + (𝛼 + 𝜉) ∙ ∆𝑇 (3)
𝜆𝐵

69
Equation (3) shows that the displacement of the Bragg grating is caused by two factors,
strain, and temperature. To detect which factor the displacement is related to, a combined
tapered optical fiber and FBG sensor can be used. The temperature-specific thinned fiber
optic sensor and the FBG sensor examine both factors, which are obtained by comparing
the temperature response of the thinned fiber sensors and the Bragg grating sensor and
finally subtracting the result of both sensors from each other, the number of strain
changes.
We rewrite equation (3) as follows:
∆𝜆𝐵 = 𝐾𝜀𝐵 × ∆𝜀 + 𝐾𝑇𝐵 × ∆𝑇 (4)

Also, for the thinned fiber optic sensor which is sensitive to temperature, we have:
∆𝜆𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 𝐾𝑇 𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟 × ∆𝑇 (5)

The values of ∆𝜆𝐵 and ∆𝜆𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟 can be seen in Figure (8), which can be determined in the
laboratory. Now we perform an example of calculations for the proposed sensor. For
example, let's suppose that in the laboratory we have measured the wavelength changes
for the thinned optical fiber ∆ and the Bragg wavelength changes separately and we want
to determine the temperature and strain values. For example, let's suppose that in the
laboratory we have measured the wavelength changes for the thinned optical fiber
∆𝜆́𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟 and the Bragg wavelength changes ∆𝜆́𝐵 separately and we want to determine the
temperature and strain value. Assume that the values obtained for the wavelength change
in the laboratory method for the thinned optical fiber sensor and FBG are ∆𝜆́𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟 =
−0.823 𝑛𝑚 and∆𝜆́𝐵 = 0.751 𝑛𝑚, respectively. Now we want to obtain the temperature
and strain (∆𝑇́ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∆𝜀́) using these values.
∆𝜆́𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟 −0.823 𝑛𝑚
∆𝑇́ = ⟹ ∆𝑇́ = = 0.883 ℃ (6)
𝐾𝑇 𝑡𝑎𝑝𝑒𝑟 −0.9328𝑛𝑚⁄℃
∆𝜆́𝐵 −𝐾𝑇𝐵 ×∆𝑇́
∆𝜀́ = ⟹
𝐾𝜀𝐵
0.751 𝑛𝑚−0.00989𝑛𝑚⁄℃×0.858 ℃
∆𝜀́ = = 807 𝜇𝜀
0.00092𝑛𝑚⁄𝜇𝜀

This shows that by using the adiabatic thinned optical fiber sensor and FBG in a combined
form, the sensitivity interference will not be created in the said sensor, and strain and
temperature can be measured simultaneously at any desired point. By using the
relationship between wavelength changes with strain and temperature, as well as
measuring the value of the changed wavelength by thinned optical fiber and optical fiber
Bragg grating, it is possible to use the value of temperature and strain at any desired point.
According to the measurements made in the references used in this article [4, 11], the

70
sensitivity for the said combined sensor for temperature and strain was obtained at
𝑝𝑚 𝑝𝑚
0.882 ⁄℃ and 807 ⁄𝜇𝜀 respectively.

4. Conclusion
The limitation of using optical fiber Bragg grating sensors is that the response of
the sensor to measure temperature and strain simultaneously can cause errors in strain
measurement in different structures. For this purpose, we have to somehow separate the
temperature effect from the strain effect, and various methods have been proposed for
this task. In this paper, the design of thinned optical fiber hybrid sensor (sensitive to
temperature) and an optical fiber Bragg grating sensor (sensitive to temperature and
strain) was done to separate the effect of temperature and strain. Investigations conducted
on the designed combined sensor showed that sensitivity interference will not occur in
the said combined sensor. According to the sensors used as examples in this paper, the
𝑝𝑚
sensitivity for the combined sensor was obtained for temperature, 0.882 ⁄℃ and for
𝑝𝑚
strain807 ⁄𝜇𝜀.

5. Acknowledgment:
The authors would like to thank Iran University of science and technology physics for
providing research facilities.

6. Conflicts of Interest

All authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest to disclose.

71
7. References
[1] A. M. Valadez, C. A. Lana, S. I. Tu, M. T. Morgan, and A. K. Bhunia, “Evanescent
wave fiber optic biosensor for Salmonella detection in food,” Sensors, vol. 9, no. 7,
pp. 5810–5824, 2009.
[2] J. D. Love and W. M. Henry, “Quantifying loss minimization in single-mode fiber
tapers,” Electronics Letters, vol. 22, no. 17, pp. 912–914, 1986.
[3] Zibaii, M. I., et al. "Non-adiabatic tapered optical fiber sensor for measuring the
interaction between α-amino acids in aqueous carbohydrate solution." Measurement
Science and Technology 21/1 (2010): pp. 105-801.
[4] Zhou, Tianjin, et al. "Low cost non-adiabatic tapered fiber for high-sensitive
temperature sensing." Optical Fiber Technology 45 (2018): pp53-57.
[5] A. Othonos and K. Kyriako’s, "Fiber Bragg Grating: fundamentals and applications
in telecommunications and sensing,” Artech House, Boston, 1999.
[6] F. T. S. Yu, SH. Yin,” In-Fiber Grating Optic Sensors”, Fiber Optic Sensors, New
York, M. Dekker, paper, 2002: pp. 123-171.
[7] Ling, Hang-yin, et al. "Embedded fiber Bragg grating sensors for non-uniform strain
sensing in composite structures." Measurement science and technology 16.12 (2005):
2415.
[8] Liu, Qiang, et al. "High-sensitivity plasmatic temperature sensor based on photonic
crystal fiber coated with Nanoscale gold film." Applied Physics Express 8/4 (2015):
46701.
[9] Drusová, Sandra, et al. "Possibilities for Groundwater Flow Sensing with Fiber Bragg
Grating Sensors." Sensors 19/7 (2019): pp. 1730.
[10] Ye XW, Su YH, Han JP Structural health monitoring of civil infrastructure using
optical fiber sensing technology: a comprehensive review. Scientific World Journal.
2014; 11. Article ID 652329.
[11] Oliveira, Ricardo, et al. "Simultaneous measurement of strain, temperature and
refractive index based on multimode interference, fiber tapering, and fiber Bragg
gratings." Measurement Science and Technology 27/7 (2016): 75107.
[12] Hill, Kenneth O., and Gerald Meltz. "Fiber Bragg grating technology fundamentals
and overview." Journal of lightwave technology 15/8 (1997): pp. 1263-1276.

72
Authors Profile:

Hameedullah zahin received the BSc. degree in general physics from

Nangarhar University in 2009 and 2013, he completed his MSc. degree in
physics – Optics & Laser from the University of Science and Technology of
Iran in Iran. Currently, He is working as a teaching assistant in the Department
of physics, at Urozgan University, Tarincot, Afghanistan. His areas of research
include optics physics.

Fazalullah Marufi received the BSc. degree in general physics from Nangarhar
University in 2009 and 2013, he completed his MSc. degree in condensed
matter physics from the University of Science and Technology of Iran in Iran.
Currently, He is working as a teaching assistant in the Department of physics,
at Urozgan University, Tarincot, Afghanistan. His areas of research include
nanophysics.

73
74
 KPU International Journal of Engineering & Technology
Volume 2, Issue2, Dec. 2022
Date Received: 2022-08-21
e-ISSN:2790-0819, p-ISSN:2790-0800
Date Accepted: 2022-12-25
Date Published: 2022-12-30

Forecasting Monthly Electricity Consumption Using Machine

Learning and Statistical-Based Models: A Case Study
ABDUL JALIL NIAZAI 1*, MOHAMMAD AKBAR SHAHPOOR 2, ABDULLAH
ZAHIRZADA 3, ABDUL RAHMAN SAFI 4, NOOR AHMAD NOORI 5
1Assistant
professor, Department of Software Engineering, Computer science Faculty, Kunduz Universit,1the District,
Kunduz, Afghanistan. Email: [email protected]
2
Assistant professor, Department of Software Engineering, Computer science Faculty, Kunduz University, 1the District,
Kunduz, Afghanistan. Email: [email protected]
3Assistant
professor, Department of Information Systems, Computer science Faculty, Kunduz University, 1the District,
Kunduz, Afghanistan. Email: [email protected]
4Assistantprofessor, Department of Information Systems, Computer science Faculty, Kabul University, 3the District,
Kabul, Afghanistan. Email: [email protected]
5Assistant professor, Department of Information Technology, Computer science faculty, Kandahar University, 9the
District, Kandahar, Afghanistan. Email: [email protected]

Abstract
Forecasting electricity consumption demand plays a vital role in short-term load balancing and long-term
planning for having secure power systems, new energy generation, and transmission infrastructures.
Knowing the consumption demand is also essential in preparing the power system according to the
anticipated load status. In this research paper, we conducted a time series forecasting analysis on the
monthly electricity consumption data of Kunduz province gathered from April 2011 to July 2022 to predict
the consumption demand in this province. For this purpose, we employed two well-known forecasting
methods: Multilayer perceptron (MLP) from machine learning and ARIMA from statistics. The MAPE and
MAE metrics were used to measure and compare the predictive performance of developed MLP and ARIMA
models. The comparison result found that MLP outperforms ARIMA in model forecasting accuracy. We
believe that the outcomes of this research work significantly help Kunduz’s regional electricity authorities
in better energy management and allow them to make effective decisions regarding electrical energy cost
and efficiency.*

Keywords: Forecasting, Electricity consumption demand, MLP, ARIMA, Kunduz province.

*
Corresponding Author

75
 1. Introduction
The rapid increase in human population, insistence on large-scale
industrialization, technology adoption, rise in energy cost, and the need to keep the
country’s economic growth positive have caused to drive the global demand for electricity
consumption [1]. Indeed, electrical energy nowadays is considered one of the critical
factors that can highly affect a country’s economic growth and human living standards.
The global demand for this energy increased by 4.5%, with over 1000 TWH in 2021. This
upsurge was almost five times greater than the downfall in demand for electrical energy
in 2020. Nearly 80 percent of the increase in demand was in emerging markets and
developing economies [2]. Fulfilling the demand for electrical energy can be achieved
from different sources, including wind, solar, hydro, coal, gas, and others. In 2021, the
world’s electrical energy production sources comprised 36% coal, 22% gas, and 38%
clean electricity, including solar, wind, hydro, nuclear, and bioenergy [3].
Electricity consumption demand is steadily growing, and we are required to have
statistical knowledge about this growth, which involves a predictive mathematical model
of electricity consumption to foresee future demands. Forecasting electricity consumption
demand plays a vital role in short-term load balancing and long-term planning for having
secure power systems, new energy generation, and transmission infrastructures. Knowing
the energy demand is also essential in preparing the power system according to the
anticipated load status. Moreover, an accurate forecasting result enables authorities to
better energy management and allows them to make effective decisions in terms of energy
cost and efficiency. Hence, this paper proposes a mathematical model that predicts the
electricity consumption demand in Kunduz. Kunduz province, located in northeast
Afghanistan, shares a long international border with Tajikistan. With around 1,136,677
population, including 34% living in rural areas and 66% in urban areas, it is considered
one of Afghanistan’s largest provinces. Approximately 70% of the Kunduz population,
including 95% of households in the city and 60% in a rural areas, have access to
electricity. The total acquired electricity of Kunduz is supplied by imported power, and
the consumption demand increased from 121,261,205 kWh equivalent in 2010 to
184,772,152 kWh in 2021, as per Kunduz regional electricity organization report.
Although the accessibility of households to the electricity grid has significantly
improved, load shedding is common in most areas of Kunduz province. The reasons are
weak transmission infrastructure, lack of generation capacity, unreliable power systems,
and no precise knowledge about electricity demand growth in the upcoming years. Hence,
we believe the outcome of this research significantly helps Kunduz’s regional electricity
organization make an effective energy strategy for solving the prevenient electricity
supply shortage in the next three years. The rest of this research paper is organized as
follows. Section 2 discusses the related literature review. Section 3 presents the data and
research methodology used. The model development and discussions on results are given
in section 4. Finally, section 5 concludes this research paper.

76
 2. Related Work
Increases in electricity costs caused energy modeling and forecasting to become
a hot topic for academic and research scholars [4]. Researchers employed different
techniques to predict the electrical energy consumption demand. For instance, S. L. Lai
et al.[5] adopted artificial neural network (ANN) and Auto-regressive moving average
(ARIMA) models to predict the electricity consumption demand in Hong Kon. As a
comparison result, ANN has been found acceptable regarding forecasting accuracy when
considering a single predictor. J. Miao used the ARIMA model to forecast China’s energy
consumption demand for formulating economic policies [6]. C. Hamzacebi and H. A. Es
[7] employed an optimized Gray model to predict Turkey’s electric energy demand from
2013 to 2025. A. Bagnasco et al.[8] implemented ANN-based multilayer perceptron
algorithm to forecast the electrical consumption of the Cellini medical hospital in Turin.
The model was proved with satisfactory forecasting accuracy. S. Mishra and V. K. Singh
[9] applied the ANN-based Windowed Momentum algorithm to three years of monthly
consecutive consumed energy data and weather information to predict monthly energy
consumption. S. G. Yoo and H.-Á. Myriam [10] used neural networks and information
from other variables such as the overall population and the elderly population to forecast
the electricity consumption demand of residential areas in Seoul city. A. Camara et al.[11]
deployed seasonal ARIMA and Multilayer perceptron approaches to predict U.S. energy
consumption. As an empirical evaluation result, they found that the MLP (ANN) model
slightly outperforms the seasonal ARIMA model in forecasting accuracy.
3. Methodology
Researchers unanimously agree with the forecasting literature that any single
model may not always capture the distinctive patterns in the data equally well since data-
analytic problems are frequently dynamic and complicated. Hence, based on the literature
conducted above, two well-known forecasting approaches, Multilayer Perceptron (ANN)
and ARIMA, are employed to predict the electricity consumption demand in Kunduz
province for the next three years.
3.1 Data Collection
The monthly electricity consumption data of Kunduz province used in this
research was obtained from Kunduz regional electricity organization over the period from
April 2011 to July 2022. The dataset consists of 124 observations with two features (i.e.,
consumed electricity and corresponding month). Each observation in the collected data
represents the monthly kWh consumed electricity in Kunduz province. In the data
preprocessing stage, a total of 6 observations founded as missing values and handled
through the Python Skylearn preprocessing library. The data distribution and description
of our dataset are given in Table 1. Also, fig. 1 shows the time series plot of Kunduz’s
consumed electricity amount.

77
 Table 1. The statistical description of the dataset.

Observation Mean Std Min 25% 50% 75% Max

s
124 1289433 412710 58239 1045260 1321275 1559391 2140054
0 1 4 0 0 0 0

25000000

20000000

15000000

10000000

5000000

0
10/1/2015
4/1/2015
4/1/2012
10/1/2012
4/1/2013
10/1/2013
4/1/2014
10/1/2014

4/1/2016
10/1/2016
4/1/2017
10/1/2017
4/1/2018
10/1/2018
4/1/2019
10/1/2019
4/1/2020
10/1/2020
4/1/2021
10/1/2021
4/1/2022
Fig. 1 Time series plot of electricity consumption in Kunduz.

As shown in Table 1, the minimum amount of electricity consumption is 582394 kWh,

and the maximum consumption is 21400540 kWh. The average consumption is 12894330
kWh, whereas 50% of this province's monthly consumption is above 13212750 kWh.
Also, in the above plot graph, the x-axis represents the date, and the y-axis
indicates the consumed electricity per month. As seen in Fig.1, consumption shows a
steadily linear growth. In March and April, the plot marked a decrease in consumption,
probably due to the cool weather in these months. However, the plot shows a sharp
increase in consumption between July and August, probably due to summer air and
intensive agricultural and industrial activities, as presented in Fig.1.
3.2 Proposed Models
Time series forecasting models’ primary objective is to make future value predictions
using data collected over a specific period. This research study employed two famous and
most common time series forecasting models, Multilayer Perceptron (MLP) and
Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA), to estimate and predict Kunduz’s
electricity consumption demand. The following phases summarize the development of
the proposed models:

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 1. Developing an ARIMA model that includes the phases of model identification,
model parameters estimation, and model diagnosis.
2. Constructing a Multilayer Perceptron model with optimum neural network
architecture.
3. Evaluating proposed developed models utilizing various accuracy criteria.

3.3 ARIMA Model

Autoregressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA), also known as Box &
Jenkins method, is one of the most popular models to forecast future values [12]. It
predicts the future value of time series data as a linear combination of its previous values
and forecast errors [13]. Unlike ordinary predictive models that involve explanatory
variables, the ARIMA model is an utterly univariate method that uses its previous
information in the series to forecast future value. Hence, the model is beneficial when
little information, such as predictors, can be retrieved from the underlying data generation
process and the variable to be forecasted is unknown. Three key components make up the
ARIMA model: the autoregressive (AR) term, the Integrated (I) part, and the Moving
Average (MA) part. For simplicity, each of these components is symbolized as parameters
p,d, and q in the ARIMA model. Here, p represents the order of autoregressive term, d
indicates the order of differencing to make the series stationary, and parameter q
represents the size of the moving average process [14]. When parameter d=0, the series
is stationary, and the ARIMA model is transformed into the ARMA model.
Mathematically it can be written as follow:

𝑝 𝑞

𝑦𝑡 = 𝑐 + 𝜀𝑡 + ∑ 𝛼𝑖 𝑦𝑡−𝑖 + ∑ 𝛽𝑗 𝜀𝑡−𝑗 (1)

𝑖=1 𝑗=1

Where 𝑦𝑡 is the actual value of series 𝑦 at period 𝑡, 𝑐 is the constant value in the
series, and 𝑝 and 𝑞 denote the order of autoregressive and moving average terms,
respectively. Building the ARIMA model with time series data is detailed: (1)
Determining the stationarity of the original sequence. Apply differencing transformation
on the original series to stabilize the mean and variance before applying the ARIMA
model to the data. (2) Estimate order for parameters p and q using statistical functions,
i.e., calculating auto-correlation and partial auto-correlation of the data series. (3) perform
a diagnostic check for the developed model to confirm that the model is well-fitted to the
data and that the residuals are random errors. The three phases are repeated until an
ARIMA model with the fewest generated errors is developed.
3.4 MLP model
Artificial Neural Network (ANN) is a category of learning algorithms that mimic
the human brain system to discover patterns in the data. Multilayer Perceptron (MLP),
also known as a feed-forward neural network, is one of the ANN algorithms used most

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frequently in time series forecasting [15]. The MLP typically comprises three layers an
input layer, a hidden layer or core processing layer of the network, and an output layer,
as illustrated in Fig. 2.

Input layer Hidden Layer Output Layer

Fig. 2 Multilayer perceptron (MLP) neural network

The neural network of MLP iteratively learns by adjusting the weights of the
neurons’ connections based on the discrepancy between the actual and expected output.
Initially, weights are assigned to neurons’ connections with a random value between 0
and 1. The error estimated at the output layer is propagated back to the hidden layer, and
weights are updated for subsequent iterations. This process continues until a minimum
amount of errors is produced [9]. The equation below describes how MLP is trained for
time series prediction.

𝑛 𝑚

𝑦𝑡 = 𝑤0 + ∑ 𝑤𝑖 𝑓 (𝛽0𝑖 + ∑ 𝛽𝑗𝑖 𝑦𝑡−𝑗 ) (2)

𝑖=1 𝑗=1

In the equation, w0 ( i = 0, 1, 2,3,…,n) and Bji ( j =0,1,2,3,…,n) are coefficients

also referred to as the network’s connection weights. Where n and m represent the
number of input and hidden nodes, respectively.
4. Proposed predictive model development
This study employed Multilayer Perceptron (ANN) and ARIMA, two well-known
time series forecasting techniques, to model and predict electricity consumption demand
in Kunduz province. All model development has been carried out by splitting the original
electricity consumption data into two sets of training and testing, each containing 90%
(112 data points) and 10% (12 data points) of the data, respectively. Python's data analysis
library, called Pandas, was employed to split the dataset. The training set was used for

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model building, and the test set was employed to assess the predictive accuracy and
effectiveness of the developed models. Python’s existing predictive modules are utilized
for all modeling and forecasting tasks.
4.1 Developing ARIMA Model
Data series stationarity is a precondition for building an ARIMA model. In the
ARIMA model development, as a first step, we are required to determine the stationarity
of our data series. The Augmented Dick-Fuller (ADF) method was employed for this
purpose. Table 2 contains the ADF test result for our data series before differencing.
Table 2. ADF test result before differencing

ADF value P-value Critical Values Result

-2.3572 0.1541 -3.491245 @ 1% Non-stationary
-2.3572 0.1541 -2.888195 @ 5% Non-stationary
-2.3572 0.1541 -2.580987 @ 10% Non-stationary
As we can see, the calculated p-value is lower than the significant level ( i.e., p-
value << 0.05), and the ADF value is higher than any critical value at the level of 10%,
5%, and 1%, respectively. Our series, therefore, is non-stationary. To make our series
stationary, we must differentiate it at various time lags and then draw the autocorrelation
function (ACF) to ascertain the proper differencing order for our ARIMA model.

Fig. 3 The ACF plots various order of differencing.

The autocorrelation function plot steadily reached zero in the first order of
difference. Also, some of the dotted horizontal lines occurred outside the significant (blue
region) area, showing the series might not have been appropriately differenced see Fig.
3. However, in the second order of difference, the ACF plot quickly converged to zero,
and the dotted horizontal lines did not cross the significant zone, showing that our series

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perfectly transformed to stationary in the second order of difference. To verify this, let us
apply the ADF test on our second-order differenced series again.
Table 3. ADF test result after second-order of difference.

ADF Statistics P-value Critical Values Result

-6.952662 0.000000 -3.492401 @ 1% Stationary
-6.952662 0.000000 -2.888696 @ 5% Stationary
-6.952662 0.000000 -2.581255 @ 10% Stationary

The result displayed in Table 3 shows that the p-value is highly significant
[<<0.05], and the ADF Statistics value is lower than all the critical values. Hence, we can
set the differencing order as 2, depicting parameter d’s value in the ARIMA (p,d,q) model.
Next, we determine the value of autoregressive (AR) and moving average (MA)
terms, alternatively referred to as parameters p and q in the ARIMA model. The machine
learning approach is used for this purpose. Grid search, a popular machine-learning
technique for hyperparameter optimization, is used for this purpose. The method tries
each combination of p and q from the subsets we provided. Additionally, to determine the
ideal combination for parameters p and q, the method requires an objective function that
evaluates how perfectly the model fits the data. The Akaike information criterion (AIC)
function is commonly used for this purpose. AIC is a statistical measure used to evaluate
and compare the ARIMA models in terms of how well they fit the data [14]. The lower
the AIC value, the better the model is at forecasting error. Mathematically it can be
described as:

𝐴𝐼𝐶 = −2𝑙 + 2𝐾 (3)

Where l is the log-likelihood of the model’s prediction of the observed y-values

and k is the number of parameters in the model. Hence, we consider AIC values for
optimal ARIMA model selection. So let us use the stats model module in Python to
applying the ARIMA model to our consumed electricity data. Initially, we fixed
ARIMA’s AR and MA terms, each with a value of four. As a result, numerous ARIMA
models were developed with different p and q parameter combinations. Table 4 holds the
summary of developed ARIMA models having the least AIC value on our data.
Table 4. Development summary of candidate ARIMA models.
Model Terms Coefficient P > |z| AIC values
ARIMA(0,2,3) ma.L1.D2.kWh -1.6362 0.000 3672
ma.L2.D2.kWh 0.2818 0.124
ma.L3.D2.kWh 0.3545 0.000

ARIMA(0,2,4) ma.L1.D2.kWh -1.5796 0.000 3576

ma.L2.D2.kWh 0.2972 0.146
ma.L3.D2.kWh 0.1784 0.396
ma.L4.D2.kWh 0.1170 0.250

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 ARIMA(4,2,2) ar.L1.D2.kWh 0.4172 0.000 3678
ar.L2.D2.kWh -0.0344 0.738
ar.L3.D2.kWh -0.0073 0.943
ar.L4.D2.kWh -0.0783 0.414
ma.L1.D2.kWh -1.9917 0.000
ma.L2.D2.kWh 1.0000 0.000

ARIMA(4,2,2) ar.L1.D2.kWh -0.4085 0.000 3682

ar.L2.D2.kWh -0.3566 0.003
ar.L3.D2.kWh -0.2664 0.006
ar.L4.D2.kWh -0.3124 0.001
ma.L1.D2.kWh -1.0000 0.000

ARIMA(0,2,2) ma.L1.D2.kWh -1.8857 0.000 3683

ma.L2.D2.kWh -0.8858 0.009

According to the model development summary in Table 4, the ARIMA(0,2,3)

model has the lowest AIC values compared to all other developed ARIMA models. The
model’s parameters p,d, and q have been determined to have values 0,2, and 3,
respectively. Also, all MA terms’ coefficient sum is less than one. Hence, we can
conclude that the ARIMA(0,2,3) model has a high degree of fit compared to all other
models constructed on our consumed electricity data (see Table 5).
Table 5. Development summary of the selected ARIMA model
Dep. Variable: D2.kWh No. Observations: 110
Model: ARIMA(0, 2, 3) Log Likelihood -1831.408
Method: CSS-mle SD of innovation 3853493.588
Date: Mon, 08 Aug 2022 AIC 3672.815
Time: 10:22:57 BIC 3686.318
Sample: 2 HQIC 3678.292

coef std err z P>|z| [0.025 0.975]

const -872.4962 1025.473 -0.851 0.395 -2882 1137

ar.L1.D2.Value -1.6362 0.140 -11.706 0.000 -1.910 -1.36

ar.L2.D2.Value 0.2818 0.183 1.538 0.124 -0.077 0.64

ar.L3.D2.Value 0.3545 0.099 3.571 0.000 0.160 0.54

Next, the ARIMA (3,1,0) model is put through diagnostic testing to ensure it has
provided the best fit for the data and that no more pertinent information in our data series
is left for extraction. This can be achieved by performing the residual analysis of our best-
fitted model. Fig 4. depicts the outcome of the residual analysis of the selected
ARIMA(0,2,3) model.

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 Fig. 4 Illustrates the residual errors, density plot, Q-Q plot of the residual, and ACF plot of the residual.

The model’s residual errors, shown in Fig. 4, lack any discernible trend and retain
a constant variance along the zero means. Similarly, the density plot illustrated in Fig. 4
implies that the residual errors have a normal distribution with near-zero means. This is
verified by the Q-Q plot shown in Fig. 4, which suggests a linear trend for the residual
errors of our proposed model. Likewise, the dotted vertical lines in Fig. 4 do not cross the
significant threshold, showing no autocorrelation between our model’s residual errors and
its lagged version. So, from the statistics illustrated in the above figures, we can infer that
our proposed ARIMA (0,2,3) model has successfully extracted all the essential
knowledge from our consumed electricity data series and residual errors are white noise.
4.2 Developing MLP model
The fundamental structure of the MLP neural network must be defined before we
apply the multilayer perceptron algorithm to our consumed electricity data series. We
chose a single node in the input layer, eight neurons in a single hidden layer, and a node
in the output layer as a preliminary network structure. The Stochastic Gradient Decent
(SGD) optimization method is used to get optimal network architecture. Rectified Linear
Unit (Relu) activation function is considered a transformation function, and Root Mean
Square Error (RMSE) is used as a cost function. For model implementation and model
evaluation, Python’s open-source ‘Keras’ deep learning package is employed. The neural

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network is trained for 400 epochs, for which we obtain the minimum amount of training
and test errors.
After performing an empirical experiment, we found the MLP model with a single
input node, two hidden layers each with 12 and 4 neurons, and a node in the output layer
to be the best fit for our data series. This indicates that the model predicts electricity
consumption demand for time t4 using the consumed electricity amount of time t0, t1, and
t3. Hence, the 1-8-12-1 is the best neural network structure to train the MLP model on our
data series. The forecasting accuracy of this proposed MLP model is assessed in the model
evaluation and comparison section.
4.3 Model Evaluation and comparison
This research work has considered Mean Absolute Error (MAE) and Mean
Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE) to measure and compare the predictive accuracy of
developed models (i.e., ARIMA (0,2,3) and MLP). Researchers recommend these metrics
when assessing the forecasting accuracy of a model on a single data series [16]. MAE
metric measures a model’s predictive performance by taking the absolute difference
between the forecasted and actual values. Mathematically it can be formulated as:

∑𝑛𝑖=1|𝑌𝑖 − 𝑌̂𝑖 |
𝑀𝐴𝐸 = (4)
𝑛

In the formula, 𝑌̂𝑖 is the forecasted value, 𝑌𝑖 is the actual value, and 𝑛 is the overall
number of observations in the test set. A model in terms of performance is deemed
superior to other models if it has the lowest MAE value. Likewise, the MAPE metric
determines the accuracy of a model by taking the mean absolute difference between a
forecasted value and an actual value divided by the actual value. The final result is
expressed in percentages. A model is considered superior to others if it has a low MAPE.
Mathematically it can be described as:
1 𝑋𝑖 − 𝑋̂𝑖
MAPE = | × 100| (5)
𝑛 𝑋

Where 𝑋̂𝑖 indicates the predicted value, 𝑋𝑖 denotes the actual value, and the letter
𝑛 indicates the total number of observations in the test set. We can show a model’s MAPE
value in percentage of accuracy with the equation below:
Acc% = 100 − MAPE × 100 (6)

Table 6 shows the predictive performance of MLP and ARIMA models in terms
of mean absolute percentage error and mean absolute error on the test set. Likewise, Fig.
5 and Fig. 6 illustrate the ratio of the forecasted and actual value in predicting ARIMA
and MLP models.

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 Table 6. Predictive performance of MLP and ARIMA models.
Model MAPE MAE Accuracy (MAPE)

Multilayer perceptron (MLP) 18.00 11126380000000.0 82.0%

ARIMA 21.50 11724960107369.0 78.5%

Fig. 5 Actual electricity consumption vs forecasted consumption by ARIMA model.

Fig. 6 Actual electricity consumption vs forecasted consumption by MLP model.

In Fig. 5 and Fig. 6, it can be observed that the electricity consumption values
predicted by the MLP model are closer to actual consumption values than the prediction
made by the ARIMA model. Also, from Table 6, it can be noticed that the MLP model
has a lower rate of errors in terms of MSE and MAPE compared to ARIMA Model. In
the case of forecasting accuracy, the MLP model has obtained 82%, with the ARIMA
being modeled with lower accuracy of 78.5%. In general, from Table 6, Fig. 5, and Fig.

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6, we can conclude that the MLP algorithm best fits our data and can be used to predict
the electricity consumption demand of Kunduz province for the next three years.
5. Result and Discussion
As discussed previously, the main goal of this research study is to build a model
that precisely forecasts the electricity consumption demand in Kunduz province for the
next three years. For this purpose, we conducted a time series forecasting analysis on the
monthly electricity consumption data of Kunduz province gathered from April 2011 to
July 2022. ANN-based multilayer perceptron technique from machine learning and
ARIMA model from statistics were employed. First, we implemented the ARIMA model
on stationary series, and by considering the AIC criterion for model specification, we
found the ARIMA (0,2,3) model best fitted our data. Subsequently, we applied multilayer
perceptron on data series. As a result of an empirical analysis, we found a neural network
structure with a single input node, two hidden layers each with 12 and 4 neurons, and a
node in the output layer as the best MLP model. Next, considering the MAPE and MAE
performance metrics, evaluation and comparison were performed between MLP and
ARIMA-developed models. As a result, we found that the MLP model outperforms the
ARIMA (0,2,3) model in forecasting electricity consumption demand. According to
results shown in Table 6 and Figs. 4-5, we can claim that our MLP 1-8-12-1 model has
best fitted our consumed electricity data and can be used to forecast the monthly
electricity consumption demand of Kunduz province for the next three years. Table 7 and
Fig. 7 depict the electricity consumption demand predicted by the MLP model from

Fig. 7 Forecasted electricity consumption demand in Kunduz Province.

August 2022 to July 2025 in Kunduz province.

In the above plot graph, the x-axis represents the month, and the y-axis indicates
the consumed electricity per month. The green curve in Fig. 8 represents the electricity
consumption demand for the next three years. The blue curve depicts the previously
consumed electricity amounts gathered from April 2011 to July 2022.

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 Table 7. Predicted monthly consumption demand from 2022 to 2025.
Date Consumption demand Date Consumption demand
(kWh) (kWh)
8/31/2022 19314937 2/28/2024 16439771
9/30/2022 17414938 3/31/2024 5005506
10/31/2022 10155868 4/30/2024 11450871
11/30/2022 9097788 5/31/2024 8899191
12/31/2022 14416275 6/30/2024 11523678
1/31/2023 14855235 7/31/2024 16109855
2/28/2023 16713509 8/31/2024 19746326
3/31/2023 13257330 9/30/2024 18268200
4/30/2023 12232078 10/31/2024 13009195
5/31/2023 10640783 11/30/2024 10048901
6/30/2023 9671043 12/31/2024 16318495
7/31/2023 15834149 1/31/2025 15806349
8/31/2023 18693112 2/28/2025 17664622
9/30/2023 15837168 3/30/2023 15160499
10/31/2023 14323535 4/30/2025 13183281
11/30/2023 11458181 5/31/2025 13504001
12/31/2023 8496194 6/30/2025 14425635
1/31/2024 7197085 7/31/2025 16239756

The prediction result reported by our MLP model shows that the electricity
consumption demand will tend to have a slightly increasing trend over the proposed
period in Kunduz province, as illustrated in Fig. 7 and Table 7. According to the
forecasting result, the peak demand for electricity consumption will be in July and
August. However, the model marked a decrease in consumption in March and April,
probably due to the cool weather we had in these months. Overall, we can conclude that
the demand for electricity consumption will somehow have an upward trend in Kunduz
province for the upcoming three years. In this contest, we suggest to Kunduz regional
electricity organization:
₋ Adopt more practical policies for electricity energy saving and efficiency.
₋ Make an effective energy generation strategy for solving the possible electricity
supply shortage in the next three years.
₋ Facilitate investments by establishing a competitive market for generating
electricity from other resources.

6. Conclusion
In this research paper, we conducted a time series forecasting analysis on the
monthly electricity consumption data of Kunduz province to predict the consumption
demand for the next three years. Two well-known forecasting methods, MLP from
machine learning and ARIMA from statistics, were employed. Various MLP and ARIMA
models were developed on our data series. By considering the AIC criterion for ARIMA
and RMSE metrics as a cost function for MLP, we found the ARIMA (0,2,3) and MLP

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with 1-8-12-1 neural network structure as the best-fitted models. Next, we assessed and
compared the predictive performance of our established MLP and ARIMA models using
the MAE and MAPE accuracy criteria. As for the evaluation result, we noted the MLP
model with satisfactory forecasting results and can be used effectively to predict the
consumption demand for the next three years. The prediction result from our MLP model
showed that the electricity consumption demand would tend to have a slightly upward
trend in Kunduz province for the next three years. The consumption might increase in
July and August and decrease in March and April.
To the best of our literature knowledge, this is the first research work to apply
time series forecasting approaches to predict the electricity consumption demand in
Kunduz province. We believe that the outcomes of this research work significantly help
Kunduz’s regional electricity authorities in better energy management and allow them to
make effective decisions regarding energy cost and efficiency. Also, the ministry of
energy and water of Afghanistan and Kunduz’s regional electricity organization can
utilize the result of this research work in making effective decisions for short-term load
balancing and strategic plans for new energy generation, transmission infrastructure, and
preparation of secure power systems. For future research, we recommend that the
forecasting models consider info from other predictors such as GDP, population, and
indexations of industrial activity in Kunduz province. Also, in this research study, we
implemented the conventional time series forecasting techniques. Future research can
adopt other practical forecasting approaches, including the Gray model, Long Short-Time
Memory (LSTM), and Support Vector Regression (SVR), which might improve the
accuracy of consumption demand prediction.

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Authors Profile:
Abdul Jalil Niazai is an assistant professor at Kunduz University’s
software engineering department. He got a master’s degree in information
management from the Asian Institute of Technology (AIT), Thailand, in
2019, and BSc in computer science from Peshawar University in 2015.
His research interest lies in data science, machine learning, and computer
vision. Abdul Jalil Niazai has been acting as leader of the research
committee of the software engineering department since 2020 at Kunduz
University.

Mohammad Akbar Shahpoor received a BCS degree in computer

science from Nangarhar university in 2012 and an MSC degree in
computer science from the Indian Academy Degree College of
Bangalore, India, in 2018. Presently, he is working as an assistant
professor in the department of software engineering at Kunduz university.
His research areas include software engineering, data science, and
machine learning.

Abdullah Zahirzada received a B.Sc. degree in computer science from

Kunduz University, Afghanistan, in 2016 and an M.Sc. in Information
Technology at the School of Information Technology (SIT) from King
Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand, in 2022.
Presently, he is working as an assistant professor in the department of
Information Systems at Kunduz university. His research interests are Data
Science, Data Mining, Image Processing, Machine Learning, and
Cognitive Computing.

91
Noor Ahmad Noori is currently a Ph.D. scholar at the National
University of Science & Technology, Pakistan. He received an MS in
Information Management from the Asian Institute of Technology,
Thailand, in 2018 and a BSc degree in Computer Science from Peshawar
University, Pakistan, in 2014. His research interests include Data Science,
Big Data Analysis, Machine Learning, and Computer Networking. Noor
Ahmad has eight years of administrative, teaching, and research
experience.

Abdul Rahman Safi received a BCS degree in Information Systems from

Kabul University in 2013 and an MS degree in Information Management
from the Asian Institute of Technology, Thailand, in 2019. His research
areas include software engineering, data science, and artificial
intelligence. Presently, he is working as an assistant professor in the
department of Information Systems at Kabul university.

92
 KPU International Journal of Engineering & Technology
Volume 2, Issue2, Dec. 2022
Date Received: 2022-09-22
e-ISSN:2790-0819, p-ISSN:2790-0800
Date Accepted: 2022-12-18
Date Published: 2022-12-30

A Case Study of Climate Change Impacts Assessment on Ghowr

Pozalich Small Hydro Power, Afghanistan
MUJEEBULLAH MUJEEB*
*Assistant
Professor, Department of Natural Resources Management, Faculty of Environment, Kabul University,
Kabul, Afghanistan. Email: [email protected]

Abstract
In this study, climate change impacts on Ghowr Pozalich's small hydropower are conducted and this paper
downsizes the investigation and centers on water resources for power generation. Small Hydropower (SHP)
has developed as an energy source that is acknowledged as renewable, effortlessly created, reasonable,
and safe for the environment. As of now, hydropower accounts for nearly 16% of the world’s total control
supply and is the world’s most prevalent (86%) source of renewable electrical vitality. Hence, direct
impacts on the sector of hydroelectricity are implied. Although run-of-river SHPs are also going to be
impacted by the climatic variations, the research suggests that run-of-river SHPs can generate energy even
in cases of declined river discharges and concludes on the slight impacts on power generation under
specific water level variations. These highlights have expanded small hydropower improvement in esteem
giving rise to a modern slant in the renewable vitality era. The protest of the inquiry is to examine climate
alter impacts on energy generation delivered by run-of-river small hydropower plants with the utilization
of future stream flow. The deferring impacts depend on such variables as neighborhood hydrological
conditions and geographic highlights. There are numerous areas where runoff and hydropower era will
increment due to expanding precipitation, but too numerous locales where there will be a decrease.

Keywords: climate change, Ghowr Pozalich, Hydrology, hydropower generation

*
Corresponding Author

93
1. Introduction

Climate change alters is one of the awesome challenges of the 21st century [1]. A
community's socioeconomic improvement and living benchmarks are all subordinate to
power and the higher the standard of living, the higher the request for power. Power is
the primary level of requirement for any financial movement in arrange to carry out
generation [2]. The request for electrical vitality is expanding day by day, so the fast
increment within the request for hydropower vitality and the perilous issues of worldwide
warming and the going increment within the cost of fossil fuel is renewable energy.
Renewable energy assets have expanded in cost, so that vitality can be gotten from a
source in such a way that, despite being renewable, it has less negative impacts on the
environment [3]. Small hydropower plants are one of the renewable energy sources that
have maintained their importance because the energy is easily generated from water, it is
easy to operate, and it is cheap. And it is an environmentally friendly resource. With these
benefits, the demand and implementation of small water power plants are increasing
throughout the world [4]. Because the big dams of electricity generation are not
completed in the planned time due to the lack of national budget and environmental
problems, filling this gap has also played a major role in the increased use and
implementation of small hydropower plants, which in developing countries, less
investment, less construction period, and harmony with the living environment are
considered good. Because of the above advantages, micro-obese power plants have
attracted the attention of both groups (developed and developing) of countries [4]. North
America and Europe have already taken advantage of the hydroelectric potential. On the
other hand, African, Asian, and South American countries have failed to use the existing
water energy potential which is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Installed Capacity of Small Hydropower Projects in the world [1]

Name of the Continent Capacity in MW Percentage (%)

Asia 32641 68

Europe 10723 22.3

North America 2929 6.1

South America 1280 2.7

Africa 228 0.5

Australia 198 0.4

Total 97997 100

94
 Small-scale power plants are a good way to meet the shortage of electricity in developing
countries, with China being a good example. China gets its two hundred and sixty-five
gigawatts (265GW) of energy from three hundred forty-three thousand (43,000) small
hydropower plants, which is a huge amount of energy production [5]. The Ghowr Pozlich
Power Generation Project, which has a power generation capacity of 4.05 MW, is located
on the river Harirod in Ghowr province and Chaghacharan district. Taking advantage of
this economic potential will not only meet the electricity demand but also increase the
economy and living standards of the country and especially the region. All in all, the
number of small hydropower plants with a production capacity of more than one
megawatt is small, and some of them are in serious need of rehabilitation. The Ministry
of Water and Electricity should take concrete steps in this regard [6]. The implementation
of renewable energy production projects in Afghanistan has many economic and social
benefits; working land, access to electricity, social development, and reducing the
negative effects of the climate at the international level. The Islamic Republic of
Afghanistan is asking for cooperation from the international community so that our
country can develop in this area and the next twenty (20) years, ninety-five percent (95%)
of the country's energy production will come from renewable energy sources [7]. The
Ministry of Water and Electricity has prepared the Law on the Regulation of Electric
Energy Services and the Renewable Energy Policy to achieve the strategic goals of
Afghanistan, which foresees the main contribution of renewable energy in development
programs [8]. This arrangement will be executed in two stages. The primary stage will be
actualized between the years 2015 and 2020 and amid this period will make a solid
environment for renewable vitality advancement, private sector participation, and
investment. In the second phase, which will be implemented between the years 2021 and
2032, renewable energy will be launched in a commercial form based on the experience
gained in the first phase. Competitive elements are introduced. Afghanistan needs reliable
energy sources for stability and development and fortunately has dedicated sources of
renewable energy (hydro, solar, wind, biomass, and geothermal) [9]. Using the country's
electric energy is the right of everyone based on the law on the regulation of electric
energy services, so the production of electric energy should increase because the goal of
renewable energy development is the development of Afghanistan's energy sector.
Accordingly, the Ministry of Water and Electricity is the key ministry for the leadership
and development of Afghanistan's energy sector to attract the confidence of investors in
this sector. It was mentioned in the section on hydropower projects that the three decades
of war in Afghanistan have stopped all the infrastructure projects, so the projects of small
hydropower plants have also faced a long obstacle. Fortunately, it was said that around
the year (2001), work started again in this area and various organizations implemented
projects on a small production level in the villages, but still more efforts are needed to

95
make full use of the available economic potential. Utilizing this financial potential will
not as it were meet the request for power, but will moreover increment the economy and
living benchmarks of the nation, particularly within the locale [10]. All in all, the number
of Small hydropower plants with a generation capacity of more than one megawatt is
small, and some of them are in serious need of rehabilitation. The Ministry of Water and
Electricity should take concrete steps in this regard. Afghanistan's renewable energy
sources with productive capacities are shown in Table 2.

Table 2. Afghanistan's renewable energy sources with a productive capacity [1]

Energy production source Total generating capacity in MW

Hydropower energy 23,000

Wind power energy 67,000
Solar energy 222,000
Geothermal energy (3,000 – 3,500)
Biomass energy 4,000

The Ghowr Pozalich power plant project has a power generation capacity of 4.05 MW
with an annual energy production of 16.15 GWh.

2. Study Area

2.1. Provincial Profile of Ghowr Pozalich Small Hydropower

The study area is located near Badghab village and sixteen kilometers (16 Km) east of
Chaghacharan city [11]. The project consists of a thirty-meter (30 m) high dam located
in a narrow valley with a tunnel on the left side, which diverts excess water downstream.
The power generation structure is located in the lower part on the right side. The Harirod
River flows from west to east and divides the Chaghacharan district into two parts. The
Harirud River is located in the Harirud-Marghab river basin, which is one of the five
largest river basins in Afghanistan. The tributary area of the project is sixteen kilometers
(16 Km) west of Chaghacharan, near Badgah village on the Harirud river [12]. The
catchment area is located in a place where there are steep mountains on both sides. While
it was mentioned in the project section that three decades of war in Afghanistan have
halted all infrastructure projects, ninety small projects have also faced obstacles which
are shown in figure1 [12].

96
 Figure1. Afghanistan Administrative Map and Ghowr SHP Location

3. Methodology

The SHP under investigation is the Ghowr Pozalich run-of-river small hydropower plant.
To achieve the objectives, of this study, the literature mostly focused on climate change
impacts in a general context and within Afghanistan for over the last 20 years was
reviewed. Considering the review policy, authorized database search engines were used
to filter the related scientific articles, conference proceedings, books, and reports from
peer-reviewed and highly indexed journals. Based on the data from two measuring
stations located at the end of the Ghor Pozlich Power Coat Project acquired from the
Ministry of Energy and Water (MEW), the hydrological regime of the river can be
assessed in different periods. This data is the Annual Mean Water Discharge (m3/sec) of
Chaghacharan Station between 1962-1980.

97
4. Climate change impact on small hydropower (SHP)

A few inquiries about discoveries distributed around the world include the climate change
impacts on hydropower assets [12]. Nearly all of the hydropower ponders displayed in
this paper have focused on expensive or medium spatial scales [13]. There are no
specialized or financial reasons compelling the advance advancement of huge or medium-
scale hydropower, but usually, they are built with a reservoir that would submerge plants
and forests, reducing their carbon sequestering ability and then leading to methane
emissions [14]. As a result, SHP stations, the larger part of which are runoff sorts without
dams and supplies, play a vital role in rustic zap in numerous nations and are generally
supported following a prosperous period of large or medium-scale hydropower
improvement. See the noteworthy part of the SHP in the vitality framework of the long
term, it is vital to pick up a better understanding of the impacts of climate change [15].
Since the centrality of hydropower time and its potential affectability to climate alter has
as of now been set up in later time, a few quantitative gages of the specialized potential
for hydropower have been established [16]. However, relatively few studies have
addressed the specific factors of climate change's impact on hydropower. Based on
previous studies, this paper focuses on the causal examination of these impacts and
categorizes them as either coordinated or circuitous impacts [17].

4.1. Direct factor of climate change impact on hydropower

Global warming is one of the foremost climate change factors compared with other factors
such as humidity, cloudiness, and precipitation. It has an important influence on
hydropower generation and water resource supplies. Global warming increases global
temperature patterns which then, in turn, alters the precipitation patterns [18]. One
consequence of these alterations tends to be earlier spring snowmelt which has direct
effects on hydropower generation [18]. It is well-documented that temperatures have been
rising across the world and impacting the hydropower resource. Temperature is more
likely to affect the operations of high-elevation hydropower reservoirs with low storage
capacity [19]. High temperatures lead to more snowmelt and, often, more intense periods
of seasonal precipitation. However, precipitation is not independent of rising
temperatures which also leads to changes in power generation [19].

4.2. Power/Energy Generation Analysis

The Ghor Pozlich Power Plant Project, which has a 30-meter high dam and is used to
generate electricity from stored water, during non-rainy seasons, maximum production is
carried out only during peak hours. In the case of case operation, the height fluctuation
will be from 15m to 25m. When the sediments fill up to 20 meters (20m) of sediment, the

98
water pipes will be raised to a height of 20 meters (20m). The designed flow of the project
is 20m3/sec, so during the times when the river flow is less than the designed flow, it only
performs maximum production during peak hours and less production during non-peak
hours [19]. Three Kaplan turbines with a production capacity of 1.35 MW each and a
design flow of 6.67m3/sec will be used in this project. For the examination of power
generation carried out here, the general generation productivity (83%) is expected. Here,
for three-seat Kaplan turbines, the upkeep plan ought to be adaptable, so a 2% blackout
rate is calculated for the energy generation [19]. It is known that the yearly energy
generation is rising to 16,150 MW. When it is raining, the current is added to the outlined
current, so the electric coil can create the most extreme introduced control. Monthly
energy production varies from 543 MWh in January to 2950 MWh in May. This is clearly
shown in Table 3.

Table 3. Average monthly energy production for the SHP under consideration [1]

Mounts Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Energy in MWH 543 576 2065 2855 2950 2855 1251 661 617 602 605 566

Power factor 0.18 0.22 0.7 1.00 1.00 1.00 0.42 0.22 0.22 0.2 0.21 0.19

Figure2. Monthly energy production for the Ghowr SHP

99
5. Results

The Harirud River originates from the central mountains of Afghanistan, which are up to
four thousand meters high. Because of the internal wars, there was no hydrological data
on the process after 1980, but before that, there were nine hydrological measuring stations
in the Harirud-Murghab river basin, seven of which were located in Harirud. Two
measuring stations were located at the end of the Ghor Pozlich Power Coat Project. Both
of these stations were the stations of Chaghacharan, and the second one was the state
government station [1]. The hydrological data from these two stations were available for
the years (1962-1980) which are shown in Table 4.

Table 4. Annual average flow (m3/s) [1]

Year Annual Discharge (m3/sec)

1962 22.2
1963 19.5
1964 31.8
1965 37.9
1966 14.9
1967 30.6
1968 30.2
1969 62.4
1970 16.6
1971 13.9
1972 30.6
1973 32.7
1974 20.4
1975 46.8
1976 43.8
1977 22.2
1978 27.8
1979 27.5
1980 38.2

Average 30.0

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 Figure3. Variations in flow discharge throughout the year

The amount of design current depends on the current field current. For projects that
operate on the natural flow of a river and are connected to a large power grid, the optimal
design flow is taken to be cited to a large power grid, the optimal design flow is taken to
be 30% or more of the time flow [19].

5.1. Precipitation and Temperature

There are four meteorological stations in the vicinity of the catchment area, which are
shown in Table 5.
Table 5. Metrological stations [1]

Station Name Latitude (N) Longitude (E) Height (m)

Chaghacharan 34° 32̛ 65° 15̛ 2183

Ghalmin 34° 53̛ 65° 18̛ 2070

Lal 34° 30̛ 66° 18̛ 2800

Shahrak 34° 06̛ 64° 17̛ 2325

101
 Figure4. The digital elevation module of Ghowr pozalich SHP

The average annual precipitation in four stations is 244 mm, and most of the precipitation
is recorded as snow. Table 6 shows that the temperature reaches its lowest point in
January and its highest point in July-August.
Table 6. The long-term average precipitation in (mm) [1]

Stations Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Chaghacharan 36 28 33 41 14 0 0 0 0 6 13 18

Ghalmin 37 35 43 45 20 0 1 0 0 5 11 23

Lal 39 45 51 65 31 2 0 0 1 9 22 24

Shahrak 58 48 53 38 17 2 0 0 0 6 19 35

Average 43 39 45 47 21 1 0 0 0 7 16 25

Station Name Chaghacharan Ghalmin Lal Shahrak

Annual Precipitation 189 220 289 276

Average 244

102
Precipitation and temperature are very heterogeneous in the Harirod River due to its large
range in elevation. The temperature is lowest in January and highest in July-August.

Table 7. The long-term average temperature in (C°) [1]

Stations Jan Feb Mar Apr May June Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

Chaghacharan -10.2 -8.1 1.9 8.9 12.9 17.9 19.2 17.8 12.3 6.4 1.2 -4.4

Ghalmin -7.8 -5.0 3.7 9.4 13.6 17.9 19.8 18.6 13.6 8.5 2.6 -2.8

Lal -13.2 -10.9 -2.7 4.5 9.2 13.9 13.9 17.8 15.4 4.5 -1.4 -8.54

Shahrak -12.1 -10.6 0.8 7.9 11.9 11 17.7 16.4 11.9 6.2 6.8 --6.8

Average -10.8 -8.65 1.9 7.7 11.9 15 18.2 17.1 12.0 6.4 2.3 2.3

Figure5. The annual average variation in precipitation and temperature

7. Discussion
Both large and small-scale hydropower stations offer significant potential for near and
long-term GHG emissions reduction. It is necessary to understand how to sustain and
facilitate hydropower production under the adverse effects of climate change impacts.
Despite many achievements that have been published on improving the understanding of

103
and how to cope with the climate change effects on water resources and hydropower,
there are still large uncertainties with the dynamic hydrological processes.
Climate change and hydropower development interact with each other in the natural
process, so any variation that occurs with one of them will lead to a change in the other.
Several problems must still be further investigated. First of all, it is critical to improving
the forecast and prediction of changes in the hydrological regime caused by global
warming-related climate extreme events. With more spatial and temporal accuracy, these
forecasts and predictions will help to make better and more accurate assessments of the
hydropower development potential while coping with climate change. Secondly, all of
the research presented in this paper was large-scale studies. Most of these studies lacked
the unique local hydrographic conditions for project-specific research. Because of the
diversity and distinctiveness of each hydropower station, it is extremely difficult to
establish universal measures to mitigate climate change impacts. These results may
provide more useful idiographic measures for local hydropower generation. In addition
to technological efforts, government intervention in hydropower management and
regulation should not be ignored. National, regional, and local governments can establish
effective measures to promote the implementation of hydropower and other renewable
energy projects, regulate and govern hydropower electricity utilization, assist managers
with flood-control operations during high flow episodes, and improve water usage
procedures during drought periods, and, to ensure the safety of environmental, eco-
system, and socio-economic sectors.
With appropriate and feasible mitigation and adaptation strategies, hydropower can
promote and enhance the development of local society and communities, and improve the
quality of the environment and the socio-economic well-being of society.

8. Conclusion
Both large-scale and small-scale hydropower stations offer significant potential for near
and long-term GHG emissions reduction. It is necessary to understand how to sustain and
facilitate hydropower production under the adverse effects of climate change impacts.
First of all, it is critical to improving the forecast and prediction of changes in the
hydrological regime caused by global warming-related climate extreme events. With
more spatial and temporal accuracy, these forecasts and predictions will help to make
better and more accurate assessments of the hydropower development potential while
coping with climate change. With appropriate and feasible mitigation and adaptation
strategies, hydropower can promote and enhance the development of local society and
communities, and improve the quality of the environment and the socio-economic well-
being of society. Hydropower production depends on the available water volume. Climate
change projections demonstrate increased stress on surface water resources in terms of

104
availability, duration of low and high water levels, and timing of seasonal peaks,
especially at the end of the 21st century. Hence, direct impacts on the sector of
hydroelectricity are implied. Although run-of-river SHPs are also going to be impacted
by the climatic variations, the research suggests that run-of-river SHPs can generate
energy even in cases of declined river discharges and concludes on the slight impacts on
power generation under specific water level variations. It is known that the yearly vitality
generation has risen to 16,150 MW. When it is down-pouring, the current is included in
the outlined current, so the electric coil can create the most extreme introduced control.
Month to month, vitality generation shifts from 543 MWh in January to 2950 MWh in
May. Since the net head is twenty-five meters (25m) and the designed flow is 20 m3/sec,
the electromechanical devices for the project include three-digit Kaplan turbines, which
are connected to special generators. Has been a typical layout of hydromechanical
equipment is shown on the map. In addition to technological efforts, government
intervention in hydropower management and regulation should not be ignored.

9. Recommendations

1. National, regional, and local governments can establish effective measures to

promote the implementation of hydropower and other renewable energy projects,
regulate and govern hydropower electricity utilization, assist managers with
flood-control operations during high flow episodes, and improve water usage
procedures during drought periods, and, to ensure the safety of environmental,
eco-system, and socio-economic sectors.
2. As time passes, climate change impacts hydropower development and
hydropower sustainability will increase and place greater stress on the entire
energy continuum around the world. With appropriate and feasible mitigation and
adaptation strategies, hydropower can promote and enhance the development of
local society and communities, and improve the quality of the environment and
the socio-economic well-being of society.

10. Acknowledgements
We are grateful to the Department of Hydrology and Meteorology, Ministry of Energy
and Water, Afghanistan for providing us with the data on hydrology, meteorology, and
electricity generation required for our analysis.

105
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Author Profile:

Mujeebullah Mujeeb received a B.S. degree in Civil Engineering from

Nangarhar University in 2015 and an M.S. degree in Water Resources and
Environmental Engineering from the Polytechnic University of Kabul in
2019. Presently, He is working as an Assistant Professor in the Department
of Natural Resources Management, Faculty of Environment, Kabul
University, Kabul Afghanistan. His areas of research include Natural
Resources Management, Applied Hydrology, and Energy Resources.

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108
 KPU International Journal of Engineering & Technology
Volume 2, Issue2, Dec. 2022
Date Received: 2022-10-10
e-ISSN:2790-0819, p-ISSN:2790-0800
Date Accepted: 2022-12-22
Date Published: 2022-12-30

A Review on Physical Properties of Nano-Concrete

NOORULLAH ZAHID*

*AssistantProfessor, Department of Civil, Engineering Faculty, Shaikh Zayed University, Khost Town, Afghanistan.
Email:[email protected]

Abstract
All the properties of concrete are associated with the processes that occur at the nano-scale. In this study,
the physical properties of nano-concrete are reviewed. Nano-concrete has nanoparticles (such as Nano
SiO2, Nano Al2O3, NanoTiO2, Nano Fe2O3, Nano Fe3O4, Nano Clay, NanoZrO2 carbon nanotubes,
nano-fibers, and carbon nano-fibers) as admixtures in small quantities as a percentage of the burden of the
cement. Due to its excellent physical properties, nano-concrete is becoming more and more popular in
practical engineering. To get a deep understanding of the physical properties of nano-concrete, researchers
have done a lot of research in this area. In this review paper, the most common is used. The nanoparticles
have effectiveness on concrete’s physical performance such as strength, modulus of elasticity, durability,
density, abrasion resistance, resistance to permeability, and water absorption and frost resistance.
Nanoparticles improve the share of strength and modulus of elasticity with the relevancy of the control
mixes. The microstructure of various varieties of concrete is significantly enhanced upon the addition of
nanoparticles and as a result durability of concrete increases. The microstructure of concrete with
nanoparticles is denser and more uniform than that of conventional concrete. The nanoparticles reduce
porosity, increase the density of cement concrete, and thus show an improvement in resistance to
permeability and water absorption than conventional concrete, and therefore the frost resistance of concrete
is improved. The addition of nanoparticles to concrete mixes showed more abrasion resistance for concrete
and mortar. The decrease in workability of concrete with nanoparticles may be compensated by using of
superplasticizer in concrete mixes.

Keywords: Nano-concrete; Nanoparticles; Nanotechnology; Physical property.

*
Corresponding Author

109
1. Introduction
Nanotechnology of concrete includes nanometer-scale renovation techniques to form a
brand new adequate generation of cementitious composites with ideal physical behavior,
with the assistance of which made the concrete with unique properties. The final
word goal of concrete nanotechnology is that the studying of concrete at the nano-
scale and also the studying of nanoparticles accustomed give better properties to
concrete.
Among the changes that nano-cement and nano-cementing materials have brought in
concrete technology is the increase in crack resistance, decrease within the curing time,
increase in ductility, and also increase in its strength. These positive changes have led
to the employment of nano cement in most industries. The nanoparticles like TiO2,
Al2O3, ZnO2, SiO2, carbon nanotubes, nanofibers, and carbon nanofibers can affect the
mechanical and physical properties of cement concrete. When the cement particles mix,
the combination is composed of holes from some micrometers to some millimeters, which
is one of the explanations for the low strength of cement concrete. the employment of
nanotechnology has solved this problem. So well that nano-crystals penetrate within
the pores of cement mix and well cover the space between cement particles. This
decreases the porosity and permeability which highly affect the standard of the concrete
mix and increases its strength and durability [28].
Nanocrystals that fill nanopores will affect and increase their viscosity furthermore.
On the opposite hand, nano cement granules and nano-particles are suspended in liquids
and water and don't precipitate. This function allows for the preparation of a dense and
suitable cement paste with nano-particles and cement. The very dense cement paste will
positively affect the physical properties of cement concrete [44].
Nanomaterials such as nano silica, nano-TiO2, Al2O3, ZnO2, carbon nanotubes,
nanofibers, etc. have the capability of improving the properties of concrete. It is clear that
nanomaterials are still in their developing stages, and they have many challenges and
unsolved complications for their huge commercial and application prospects. The main
objective of this article is to study the incorporation of nanostructured materials in
concrete mixes, which could improve the concrete’s physical properties such as strength,
modulus of elasticity, durability, density, abrasion resistance, resistance to permeability
and water absorption, and frost resistance. The microstructures of concrete are
significantly improved by the inclusion of nanomaterials, as the nanomaterials enhance
the hydration process by generating more hydrated products.

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2. Nano-concrete
Concrete is a construction material from an acceptable mixture of cement, water, sand,
and gravel. Concrete is formed of cement paste (obtained from the chemical action of
cement and water) and aggregates (sand and gravel) where the paste acts as a glue and
binds the sand and gravel thus receiving concrete. In some cases it's necessary to feature
some admixtures that are added to concrete in small quantities as a percentage of the
burden of the cement, some part of them are nanoparticles, these nanoparticles are
employed in concrete to urge some good properties like increasing strength, density, and
durability of concrete. When nanoparticles are added to a concrete mixture as cement
replacement in various percentages, this type of concrete is called nano-concrete [17].

Fig.1 The particle size and specific surface area scale related to concrete materials [39].

2.1. Differing types of nanoparticles used in concrete:

Nanoparticle refers to the ultrafine material with particle size at the nanometer level (1-
100nm), which is larger than the atomic cluster (the cluster of atoms but 1nm in length)
and smaller than the usual powder, within the transition zone of the cluster to the
macroscopic object, a typical mesoscopic system. Because of its small size, large area,
and other factors, have subsequent four special effects: size effect, quantum effect, surface
effect, and interface effect. These four effects mainly reflect the structural, chemical, and
physical characteristics of nanoparticles, which are called "the most promising materials
of the 21st century".Nano-mineral powder mainly includes nano-silica, nano-calcium
carbonate, and nano-silica powder. In ordinary hydraulic cement within the distribution

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of 10-100nmgel pores, the incorporation of nano-powder just fills these gaps and plays a
job in improving the permeability of concrete and toughness [44].
There are different types of nanoparticles utilized in concrete. There'll introduce the
foremost important and widespread nanoparticles which are employed in cement
concrete. These nanoparticles are usually made up of the cement itself, like nano iron,
nano corundom, nano silica, etc. these nanoparticles have many advantages and
downsides, and therefore the main problem of using these nanoparticles with cement
concrete within the world belongs to them is that the economic discussion and their
impact on the environment. For this reason, it's important to seek out the optimum and
effective amount of those nanoparticles within the concrete and to search
out nanoparticles that haven't any harmful effect on the environment [40]. Below are
some current research results presented and reviewed. Sun et al, researched to change the
impact of nano-silica on the concrete's initial compressive strength in large quantities
of ash [40].
The results show that the nanoparticles are incorporated into the concrete, which
might effectively improve the mechanical properties like compressive and flexural
properties of concrete. The incorporation of nano-silica improves the mechanical
properties of concrete much beyond that of nano-calcium carbonate. The explanation is
that the volcanic ash activity of silica is far above that of silica fume, and also the
incorporation of silica makes the slurry fluidity decrease and therefore the aggregation
time is significantly shortened. At the identical time, the incorporation of nano-silica also
can significantly improve the concrete early strength. Nano-silica puts into the cement,
thanks to its structure, physical and chemical characteristics, and cement during a sizable
amount of Ca(OH)2 combined, thereby promoting cement hydration, improving
the reaction of the exothermic efficiency so the cement slurry micro-structure to
boost the cement more uniform and dense. Nano-calcium carbonate incorporation plays
physical and chemical effects, reducing the inner area of cement stone to hurry up the
first hydration of clinker speed, reducing porosity, increasing the density of cement
concrete, and thus improving the compressive strength of concrete [44].
The study shows that the control cement sample lacking ash and nano-silica had the best
compressive resistance. This control sample's strength was 58% cement and a couple of
steel,40% ash, and nano-silica. Adding huge quantities of ash, particularly greater than
70%, concrete's compressive strength is drastically decreased. Jalal et al, have
also checked out high performance [8].
In the study where samples containing nano-silica showed higher strength than
samples containing nano-silica ash [33], [13]. The effect of ash on nano silicone on the
compressive strength of high-performance compacted concrete [8].

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 The results show that the addition of ash decreased the strength and also the addition
of nano-silica increased the strength. However, the compressive strength of 15% of ash in
concrete at 90 days is slightly increased compared to the control. Rahim et al studied the
effect on the compressive strength of cementitious concrete containing wood ash by
adding nano-silica [27]. Contains a sample containing 2% nano-silica within the presence
of wood ash, the effect of nano-silica is little when young, but resistance increases with
age. This increase is because of improved pozzolanic reaction. However, during
this study, the optimal amount of nano-silica is 1.5%. Windham and Vapilay also
investigated the results of nano silica [43], per their research, increasing nano silica
increases compressive strength and so decreases it. Therefore, 1.5% gives the very
best compressive strength. The rationale for this increase is that the hydration process of
tricalcium silicate (C3S) is quicker within the presence of nano-silica. The use
of carbonate nanoparticles has been explored, leading to improved mechanical strength,
impact resistance, and flexural strength [25].
Another study by Ehsani et al, combined carbonate particles with a carbon coating and
investigated the effect on the compressive strength of concrete [25]. This carbon coating
is the result of the soot-burning material being combined with lime milk in solution by
the reactor. Supported observations, we discover that his 3-day strength of calcium
carbonate-bearing concrete with nanocarbon coating shows a decrease in strength
compared to the quality sample, as an example, the tenth amount of cement by weight
reduces strength by approximately 15.6%. Studies have shown that as concrete ages, the
7-day strength of concrete increases in compressive strength compared to regular concrete
specimens. This increase occurs up to three of the burden of the cement, but as this nano
fraction increases, the sample undergoes a process of decreasing compressive strength at
7 days old. In addition to the self-cleaning properties of concrete.
Research has shown that the utilization of titanic oxide nanoparticles improves the
hydration rate and shortens concrete curing time [10]. Also, the employment of those
nanoparticles increases the flexural strength and compressive strength of concrete
showing the effect of adding titanium dioxide nanoparticles to the concrete itself [14],
[15]. The addition improves the microstructure of concrete and reduces internal voids in
concrete, which improves the mechanical properties and durability of concrete [9].
The addition of alumina nanoparticles to the concrete mixture significantly increases the
modulus of elasticity of concrete. Experience has shown that adding 10% aluminum
nanoparticles increases the modulus of elasticity of concrete by 153%, but has no
significant effect on concrete strength [16]. The theoretical and mathematical effects of
the addition of aluminum oxide nanoparticles on the hydration of concrete were
investigated, and it had been found that the addition of those particles reduced heat
release and accelerated the height release time of that heat [28].

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 The addition of three by weight of corundum nanoparticles to concrete reduces heat
to release the foremost [28]. Theoretically and mathematically, the results of the
workability of modified concrete containing 0.5, 1.5, 0.5, and a pair of alumina
nanoparticles by weight of cement are studied, and also the results show that increasing
the number of alumina oxide nanoparticles decreases the workability of concrete. The
samples of concrete-containing nano-silica give better results than samples of concrete-
containing nano ferrite with an approximate rate of about 10%. The samples of concrete
containing granite give better results than similar-containing dolomite and also
the approximate rate of about 10%. The utilization of a superplasticizer was necessary for
the concrete mixes to boost workability [18].
Table 1. Effect of some important nano-particles on properties of concrete [39].
S/ Nanoparti
Improved property of concrete
No. cles used
o Contributes to reduced emissions of CO2, as the addition of 1
kg micro silica reduced almost 4 kg cement, and this can be higher if
nano silica is used
Nano-
1 o Offers increased durability to concrete
silica
o Improves compressive strength
o Increases the flexural strength,
o Improves the tensile strength
o Decreases the concrete’s final setting time,
o Restricts crack development and propagation at early ages,
o Produces dense concrete,
o Increased quality of bond interaction between aggregates and
Carbon cement paste
2
nanotubes o Increases the compressive strength
o Improves the tensile strength, Young’s modulus, flexural
strength, and fracture toughness
o Decreases the required size of concrete structural members
o Decreases the early and long-term shrinkage of concrete
o Increases the abrasion resistance of concrete
o Improves compressive strength
o Increases the durability of concrete structures
Nano- o Increases the flexural strength
4
TiO2 o Speeds up the early-age hydration of ordinary
o Portland cement
o Offers self-sensing and self-cleaning properties to concrete
structures

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 o Improves compressive strength
o Increases the flexural strength
Nano- o Improves split tensile strength
5
Fe2O3 o Reduces the setting time of fresh concrete
o Decreases the total porosity of concrete
o Improves concrete’s abrasion resistance
o Increased serviceability
Nano- o Increases the modulus of elasticity of concrete.
6
Al2O3 o Reduced heat release
o Accelerated the height release time of the heat
Copper o Improves formability
7 nanopartic o Increases corrosion resistance
les
3. Effect of nanoparticles on physical properties of concrete
Compressive strength: Based on research, it can be said that nano silica (NanoSiO2) is
the most commonly used nanoparticle in a cement matrix, but there are other
nanoparticles such as NanoAl2O3, NanoTiO2, NanoFe2O3, NanoFe3O4, NanoClay,
NanoZrO2, etc. used. Adding 1, 3, and 5% NanoSiO2 and NanoTiO2 to regular concrete
showed a 12% increase in compressive strength for the sample containing 1% nano-silica
and an 18% increase for the sample containing 1% nano titanium dioxide. [13], [8].
Another study reported that Zr, Fe, Ti, and Al nano-oxides were used at 1.5 wt% of the
cementitious material in super-reinforced concrete, with the best improvement in
compressive strength of 55% for samples containing nano-alumina [27]. Adding 0.5 to
2% of nano-silica and nano-alumina and curing in both water and lime water showed that
in both cases nano-silica performed better than alumina, with similar results for the treated
samples [43]. In another study, nano-silica and micro silica were used in proportions of
1, 3, 5, and 7 in aerated concrete, and nano-silica had a much better effect. A sample
containing 7% nano-silica showed a 48% increase in compressive strength [38]. The use
of nano Fe2O3 at a percentage of 1 to 5 provides the greatest improvement in compressive
strength (72% increase with 4% by weight) [30]. Nanosilica dioxide and aluminum are
used in ordinary concrete. The optimum percentage of these nanoparticles ware 3% by
weight of nano-aluminum oxide and 5% by weight of nano-silicon cement to improve the
maximum compressive strength of concrete, 8%, and 30%, respectively [5]. Another
study used polypropylene (PP) fibers in addition to nano-silica and nano-aluminum, and
the highest improvement was associated with 5% nano-silica, using 2% PP fibers by
volume of concrete. The amount of improvement was 31%, slightly greater than the
improvement of 5% silica without fibers [11]. The addition of nano-silicon dioxide in
amounts of 0.3 and 0.9% by weight of cementitious materials increased the compressive

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strength of concrete by 9% and 12%, respectively [4]. Another study used 10% by weight
nano-silicon cement and showed an approximately 30% improvement in compressive
strength [41]. The use of 1% and 2% nano-silica also increased the peak compressive
strength of concrete containing 2% nano-silica with a water-to-cement ratio of 0.39 by
11% [3] in a review article [37].
The use of nano-silica in HPC (high-performance concrete) with body ash of 0%, 1%,
3%, 5%, 7%, and 9% and increasing the number of nano-silica up to five improved the
compressive strength of the samples up to 22% in 3 days old samples. And for above 5%
of nano-silica like with 7% and 9% of nano-silica, this improvement decreases [6]. In an
exceeding study on macro and micro characteristics of concrete through the
employment of carbon nanotubes of 0.3%, 0.5%, and 0.75% of the cement weight. The
results showed that carbon nanotubes could improve compressive strength by 12% [42].
The development of compressive strength of concrete at the age of three,7, and 28 days
showed a major increase. At the age of three days, the compressive strength of concrete
that contained nano silica increased between 3.82% - 11.84%; whereas, at the age of
seven and 28 days, the compressive strength of concrete with nano silica increased
respectively by 3.87% - 17.24% and 4.93% - 24.59%. The resulting
splitting enduringness ranges between 13.298 MPa – 19.918 MPa. there's a
powerful correlation between concrete’s splitting lastingness and compressive strength.
The splitting enduringness tends to extend together with the rise of concrete’s
compressive strength [36].
Modulus of elasticity: The development of compressive strength of concrete at the age
of three,7, and 28 days showed a big increase. At the age of three days, the compressive
strength of concrete that contained nano silica increased between 3.82% - 11.84%;
whereas, at the age of seven and 28 days, the compressive strength of concrete with nano
silica increased respectively by 3.87% - 17.24% and 4.93% - 24.59% [36]. With the
addition of nano-silica and nano ferrite, the improving percentage of flexural strength and
modulus of elasticity of concrete reaches an approximate rate of about 23% and 25%,
respectively, with relevance to the control mixes. Increasing the number of NS and NF by
quite 3% and a pair of by weight degrades the compressive strength, splitting tensile,
flexural strength, and modulus of elasticity of concrete [18].
Durability: Nanosilica is capable of improving the durability of concrete. The rise of
10% nano-silica replacement within the resistance to sulfate attack is healthier than that
of 0% nano-silica [35]. In a study reviewed the employment of nanoparticle materials in
several styles of concrete was discussed, and conclusions are provided that nanoparticles
reduce the permeability of cementitious mixtures against chloride ions; thus, lower values
of chloride ion penetration are seen with the incorporation of nanoparticles. The inclusion
of nano-scaled particles improves the resistance against freezing and thawing. Using 5%

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of nano-silica and three nano-alumina reduced the loss of compressive strength by
16.28% and 18.19%, respectively. Various kinds of nanoparticles impose different effects
on the shrinkage property of the mixture. The carbonation depth of concrete can obtain
different values with differing types of nanoparticles. The microstructure of various
varieties of concrete is significantly enhanced by the addition of nanoparticles since
nanoparticles improve the hydration process by producing more hydrated products [29].
A study base on experimental results obtained that coal ash concrete containing NS
significantly improved the mechanical properties of concrete specimens relative to a
bearing concrete (without NS), which was because of the reaction of NS particles with
Ca(OH)2 at the ITZ to provide more C-S-H gel and therefore the densification of the
microstructure. However, the optimum amount for every mechanical property was
different; the splitting durability reached a maximum when the NS replacement level was
2%, and when the NS replacement level was 3%, the compressive and flexural strengths
reached their maximums. Adding NS particles can dramatically improve the impact
resistance at the primary cracking of the concrete; however, the speed from initial
cracking to failure was faster, and therefore the brittleness of the concrete didn't change.
After being impacted, the concrete specimens containing NS were divided into two halves
along the impact direction, and also the concrete specimens still exhibited brittle failures,
as in ordinary concrete. Compared with the control concrete, the low dosage of NS can
greatly ameliorate the concrete's chloride penetration resistance and freezing-thawing
resistance. At the two replacement levels, uniform dispersion of NS particles was easily
achieved. The development of the pore structures within the concrete and also the filling
effect of the NS were liable for the reduction within the chloride diffusion coefficient and
ameliorated the freezing-thawing resistance of the concrete [26]. The application of nano-
based concrete materials is beneficial concerning enhanced engineering properties of
cement materials, particularly for the production of sustainable as well as self-healing
concretes.
Density: Based on the results of the research conducted on concrete with the addition of
nano-silica as cement partial substitute material, the result is summarized that nano-
silica is in a position to extend the density and sturdiness of concrete. In an experimental
study adding nanoparticles of the dimensions of but 100 nm into the concrete mix. This
study evaluated the utilization of varied nanoparticles in concrete and so compared
them to standard concrete. Concrete containing nano silica and nano clay was compared
to concrete containing silica fume, fly ash, and slag. The results showed that the
microstructure of the nano-silica concrete was denser and more uniform than that of the
traditional concrete [24]. In an experimental study on mortar by adding TiO2
nanoparticles of 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, and 2.0% of the cement weight were. the common
size of TiO2 nanoparticles was 15 nm. The research results at the age of seven days

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showed that the nano-TiO2 paste was denser and more compact than that without nano-
TiO2 [21].
Abrasion resistance: The use of nano SiO2, nanoTiO2, and polypropylene (PP) fibers
shows that the lower usage levels of these nanoparticles have better effects on abrasion
resistance, and the addition of 1% titanium dioxide was better than 3% and 5%.
Improvements of 181%, 148%, and 90% were found, respectively, and the application of
1% nano-silica had a better effect on abrasion resistance than 3% nano-silica, respectively
[8]. Another study on Nano SiO2 and Nano Al2O3 used 0.5–2 wt% in water and lime
water, and the abrasion resistance of nano silica was better than that of nano alumina. The
optimal amount of these materials is 2% by weight of the cementitious material [43].
Different percentages (4%, 8%, and 12%) of nano SiO2 were added to the colloidal
solution, and different amounts (25%-50% at different times and numbers) were also used
as sprays 1 to 3 times. Treat with the colloidal solution for 28 days, then test or treat with
water and spray onto a clean surface. In each case it contained a higher amount of nano
silica of 50% and sprayed 3 times or 12% colloids (showed greater improvement in
abrasion tests) Treatment and spraying with colloids containing nanoparticles gave
abrasion resistance improvements of 42% and 32%, respectively [33]. The addition of
nanoSiO2 and nano SiC in percentages of 1, 2, and 3 separately and in combination shows
that the optimal amount to improve the abrasion resistance in concrete is 2 and 3% by
weight of cementitious materials for nano SiO2 and nano SiC, respectively (49 and 68%
improvement, respectively) and the combined mode is the answer better (75%
improvement) compared to the separate state [22].Comparison using 40% fine
nanoporous material or 5% nano-silica or a combination of 5% nano-silica and 25% fly
ash as alternatives to cement. It showed 20%, 16%, and 13% more abrasion resistance for
concrete and 82%, 73%, and 68% more abrasion resistance for mortar, respectively [31].
Resistance to permeability and water absorption: The use of silica and titanium
nanoparticles and PP (polypropylene) fibers in concrete improved the chloride
penetration resistance by 31% and 18% for samples containing 1% nano-titanium dioxide
and 1% nano-silica, while PP fibers negatively affected chloride penetration resistance.
Also in this study, samples with low levels of nanoparticles showed 1% better
improvement than samples with high levels of 3% and 5% against chloride penetration
[13]. NZrO2, NFe3O4, NTiO2, and HPC concrete with 1.5% nanoparticles of NAl2O3,
80% improvement in water uptake from samples containing NFe3O4 and NTiO2 and 70%
improvement in chlorinated NZrO2 penetration by NAl2O3 (70%) [27]. In a study on
aerated concrete, nano silica by 1%, 3%, 5%, and 7%, and micro silica by 3%, 5%, and
8% were used separately. Micro-silica had a better effect than nano-silica on permeability.
The addition of 8% micro-silica showed an improvement of about 25% and the addition
of 7% nano-silica also showed a permeability improvement of about 20% [38].

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Nanohematite is equivalent to 4%, showing an improvement in water absorption of about
74% [30]. Nanoacids Al2O3, Fe2O3, Fe3O4, and nano clay showed positive effects on the
water absorption of cement mortar, and the authors reported different optimal amounts
from 0.5% to 4%, depending on the type of treatment and other materials used in the
concrete mix [19]. Nano-silica, nano-alumina, and nano-hematite were put into two types
of mortar containing fly ash and silica foam separately, and the compound to be used and
its permeability and water absorption were investigated. The addition of 1.25% of nano-
aluminum oxide in a mortar containing silica foam has improved 29% of the permeability
[23]. Using 1.25% of the three mentioned nanoparticles as combinations described in a
fly ash-containing mortar increases the water absorption of the mortar by 14% [32]. Using
0.3% and 0.9% Nano SiO2 also improves water permeability, so adding 0.3% nano-silica
increases the permeability of concrete by 56% [4]. In one study, two types of nano silica
were used, one with a fine particle size of 15 nm and the other with a large particle size
of 80 nm (each with a 4% difference) (0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2) are used. Water permeability
was tested and in the long run, larger nanoparticles showed a superior effect in improving
permeability (approximately 23% using 2% of the weight of coarse-grained nano-silica
cement) but in the short term, the effect of finer nanoparticles has been better [20]. Nano-
silica colloids were used in two different ways (spraying or treatment with nano-silica
colloids) to improve permeability, which is the best result for the case where samples
were applied in colloids containing 12% nano-silica and 31% improvement in water
permeability is shown. Also, the spray of a solution containing nano-silica at a
concentration of 50% increased the permeability by 12% [33]. In one study, the effects of
Nano SiO2 on the mechanical properties and durability of concrete were examined in
various investigations [7]. Colloidal and powdery modes were used, and the addition of
3.8 wt% nano-silica improved the water permeability by 88% [12].
Frost Resistance: Frost resistance is one of the keys to the durability of concrete, and
one of the factors that affect the durability of concrete is the cycle of freezing and thawing.
Because the strength of concrete is directly associated with the security and performance
of the building structure, its mechanical properties are of concern. To make sure the
sturdiness of the building structure within the use of the method, frost resistance in the
real world is critical. Consistent with the freezing and thawing of M7.5 specimens, the
inner structure of the concrete after adding nanometer material was greatly improved, and
also the internal structure of the concrete was improved greatly. The pore size of 150mm
disappears from the concrete, greatly increases the interior density of concrete, and avoids
structural damage caused by hydrostatic theory and force per unit area theory. Xiaolin
Ren and Shunkai Li studied the identical similar comparison test. it was found that under
the condition of -10C0, 25 times freeze-thawing was allotted, the incorporation of
nanometer material was 0.75% concrete strength loss was 3.2%, and also the reference

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concrete loss rate was 8.6%, the nanometer material within the concrete, the frost
resistance of concrete is improved [36].
4. Discussion
In recent times, advanced nanotechnology has been employed in various sectors for the
comfort and welfare of humanity. A majority of the nanostructure-based products applied
to date in the concrete sector have numerous advantages. There are several explanations
for accepting the fact that nanomaterial usage is rising. Innovative concrete structures
need structural components with superior properties, as well as higher durability. The best
solution is the incorporation of nanostructured materials in concrete mixes, which could
improve the concrete’s properties. It should also be noted that nanomaterials are still in
their developing stages, and they have many challenges and unsolved complications for
their huge commercial prospects.
Nanomaterials such as nano-silica, nano-TiO2, Al2O3, ZnO2, carbon nanotubes,
nanofibers, etc. have the capability for increasing the durability of concrete by improving
mechanical and thermal properties. The microstructures of various kinds of concrete are
remarkably improved by the inclusion of nanomaterials, as the nanomaterials enhance the
hydration process by generating more hydrated products. Incorporating various
nanomaterials into the concrete mixes decreased the setting time as well as workability,
which was due to the stronger reactivity of nanomaterials having a larger surface-to-
volume ratio. The decrease in workability of concrete with nanoparticles may
be compensated by using of superplasticizer in concrete mixes.
Improvement in compressive strength could be observed with an improvement in the
replacement ratio of nanomaterials. This was due to the improved hydration of a more
compacted microstructure with the incorporation of finely dispersed nanomaterials. With
the incorporation of a nanomaterial such as carbon nanotube (CNT), the concrete
compressive strength could be improved to 21%, and also it can result in a decrease in
the early as well as long-term shrinking of concrete of 54.0% and 15.0%, respectively.
Moreover, the CNT addition to concrete showed 17.0% to 18.0% reduced long-term creep
as compared to the concrete with no CNTs. Overall, it was noted that optimum
concentrations of nanomaterial incorporation in the concrete could enhance its flexural,
tensile, and compressive strength, along with workability and water absorption. With the
addition of nano-silica and nano ferrite, the improving percentage of flexural strength and
modulus of elasticity of concrete reaches an approximate rate of about 23% and 25%,
respectively, with relevance to the control mixes.
Nanomaterials could positively impact the increase in the sustainability and durability of
concrete. Nanosilica is capable of improving the durability of concrete. The rise of 10%
nano-silica replacement within the resistance to sulfate attack is healthier than that of 0%
nano-silica. Different nano-materials could improve the self-healing property of concrete

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and will restore the weakened constructions in an advanced manner at a lesser expense,
relative to that accomplished by epoxy-containing healing products, therefore attaining
ecological sustainability. The reaction of Nano-silica particles with Ca(OH)2 at the
ITZ provided more C-S-H gel and therefore the densification of the microstructure could
be obtained. The application of specific nanostructured materials could improve the
performance of concrete, as well as its life cycle.
Results have been showing that the nano-TiO2 paste was denser and more compact than
that without nano-TiO2. The nanomaterial-incorporated concrete could permit the
development of ultra-high strength concrete frameworks having higher durability, thereby
decreasing the maintenance needs.
It is extremely important to develop an advanced procedure to make sure the appropriate
nanomaterial dispersion in commercial-scale field applications. Effective dispersion of
nanoparticles is key to achieving the full benefits of adding nanoparticles in a
cementitious system.
A rise in the concentration of nanomaterial in the advanced smart nano-based concrete
structures greater than the optimum amount was demonstrated to show an adverse impact
on the strong performance and durability, which was mostly because of the less
compaction, nonuniform dispersion, and development of weaker sections in the concrete.
The optimum quantity of incorporated nanomaterials is very important. The optimum
addition of appropriate nanomaterial to the concrete can improve mechanical properties
such as tensile strength, compressive strength, flexural strength, and durability, etc. of the
concrete. For example, the use of nano SiO2, nanoTiO2, and polypropylene (PP) fibers
shows that the lower usage levels of these nanoparticles have better effects on abrasion
resistance. The optimal amount of these materials is 2% by weight of the cementitious
material. Freeze–thaw resistance and abrasion resistance of the concrete can also be
improved with the addition of nano-silica to the concrete mix. The use of silica and
titanium nanoparticles and PP (polypropylene) fibers in concrete improved the chloride
penetration resistance by 31% and 18% for samples containing 1% nano-titanium dioxide
and 1% nano-silica, while PP fibers negatively affected chloride penetration resistance.
Colloidal and powdery modes were used, and the addition of 3.8 wt% nano-silica
improved the water permeability by 88%. In a study, it was found that under the condition
of -10C0, 25 times freeze-thawing was allotted, the incorporation of nanometer material
0.75% concrete strength loss was 3.2%, and also, the frost resistance of concrete is
improved.
Nano-materials can offer concrete structures with self-sensing and self-cleaning abilities.
However, the concentration of the nanomaterial present in the concrete should be in a
very limited quantity.

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5. Findings
The main finding of this paper indicates that the properties of concrete can be significantly
improved with the incorporation of various types of nanoparticles.
The application of nano-based concrete materials is beneficial concerning enhanced
engineering properties of cement materials, particularly for the production of sustainable
as well as self-healing concretes.
It was noted that the nanostructured materials have a higher capability in smart
infrastructure applications with superior strength concrete frameworks.
The nanomaterials improve the properties of concrete by the addition of an optimum
quantity of incorporated appropriate nanomaterial to the concrete.
6. Future Recommendations
The dispersion of the incorporated nanoparticles is one of the main challenges regarding
the use of nanoparticles in the concrete matrix. Thus future studies should focus on
finding innovative methods to provide a uniform dispersion of nanoparticles and avoid
the formation of agglomerates.
The workability of nanoparticle-induced concrete is recommended. So, research can be
performed to obtain the optimum amount of required superplasticizer.
Using nanoparticles in fewer amounts accompanied by waste materials such as plastic
aggregates or plastic fibers can be an attractive research study. Further research can be
made on the properties of cement-based materials containing both nanoparticles and
waste plastic materials to examine long-term properties and improve sustainability. This
topic is essential regarding environmental issues due to the accumulation of waste plastic
materials.
It is advised to substitute the conventional ordinary Portland cement-based concretes with
functional/smart nano-concrete structures for sustainable development.
It was noted that nanomaterials can play an important role in the development of
construction materials, and thus proper understanding of these nanomaterials is extremely
important. Along with the substantial advancement of nanomaterials in different
applications, it should also be noted that nanomaterials are still in their developing stages,
and they have many challenges and unsolved complications for their huge commercial
prospects. Thus, an investigation can be made to further understand the properties of
nano-concretes.
The lack of information on nanomaterial toxicology topics and a tendency to disconnect
from prevailing research and development is a significant blockade for its development,
to suppress these types of restrictions, organized construction sector-strategic policies
should be followed to benefit from the nanomaterials to attain reasonable benefit in
particular application extents and the product categories.

122
7. Conclusion
In this study, the effectiveness of nanoparticles on concrete’s performance is discussed,
and the following conclusions were drawn:
1) Based on the research, it can be said that nano silica (nanoSiO2) is the most commonly
used nanoparticle in a cement matrix, but there are other nanoparticles such as nano
Al2O3, nanoTiO2, nanoFe2O3, nanoFe3O4, nano clay, nanoZrO2 carbon nanotubes,
nanofibers, and carbon nanofibers.
2) Nano-silica had a much better effect than micro-silica.
3) The nanoparticles improve the strength of concrete. There is a strong correlation
between concrete’s splitting tensile strength and compressive strength. The splitting
tensile strength tends to increase along with the increase of concrete’s compressive
strength.
4) The addition of nanoparticles to concrete improves the flexural strength and modulus
of elasticity of concrete, as with the addition of nano-silica and nano ferrite the
improving percentage of flexural strength and modulus of elasticity of concrete reaches
the approximate rate of about 23% and 25%, respectively.
5) Nanoparticles are capable of improving the durability of concrete. They increase the
resistance to sulfate attack, reducing the permeability of concrete mixtures against
chloride ions; improve the resistance against freezing and thawing; reduce the loss of
compressive strength; the various types of nanoparticles impose different effects on the
shrinkage property and carbonation depth of concrete mixture; the microstructure of
different types of concrete is significantly enhanced upon the addition of nanoparticles.
6) Concrete with the addition of nanoparticles as cement partial substitute material
showed that the microstructure of the nanoparticles' concrete was denser and more
uniform than that of the conventional concrete.
7) Nanoparticles were added to the concrete mixture, they improved its abrasion
resistance. The use of nano SiO2, nanoTiO2, and polypropylene (PP) fibers shows that
the lower usage levels of these nanoparticles have better effects on abrasion resistance.
8) Nanoparticles added to concrete mixtures greatly increase the internal density and
resistance to permeability and reduce the porosity of concrete thus the frost resistance
and resistance to freezing and thawing are improved. In order ensures the durability of
concrete.

123
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Author Profile:

NOORULLAH ZAHID received the B. Tech. degree in the department of

civil engineering from Nangarhar University in 2004, Nangarhar,
Afghanistan, and completed the M. Tech. degree in the division of structural
engineering of the civil department from the National Institute of Technology
Warangal (NITW) in 2012, Warangal, Telangana, India. Currently, He is
working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering at
Shaikh Zayed University, Khost, Afghanistan. His areas of research include
Civil Engineering.

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128
 KPU International Journal of Engineering & Technology
Volume 2, Issue2, Dec. 2022
Date Received: 2022-10-11
e-ISSN:2790-0819, p-ISSN:2790-0800
Date Accepted: 2022-12-23
Date Published: 2022-12-30

Use of Worn Tires as Aggregates Replacement and its Effect on

Certain Properties of Concrete
AHMAD MASOUD AHMADYAR1, SIFATULLAH BAHIJ2*, SEBGHATULLAH KARIMI3
1Graduate Student, Department of Civil & Industrial Construction, Kabul Polytechnic University, 5th District, Kabul,
Afghanistan. Email: [email protected]
2*Assistant Professor, Department of Civil & Industrial Construction, Kabul Polytechnic University, 5th District, Kabul,

Afghanistan, and Ph.D. Candidate, Civil Engineering Department, National Institute of Applied Sciences-Strasbourg,
Strasbourg, France. Email: [email protected]

3AssociateProfessor, Department of Civil & Industrial Construction, Kabul Polytechnic University, 5th District, Kabul,
Afghanistan. Email: [email protected]

Abstract
This article aims to investigate the replacement of natural aggregates with worn tires and its effect
on certain properties of concrete. Therefore, worn tire aggregates were used as fillers in the concrete
mixtures at 5%, 10%, and 15%. The prepared samples were examined for physical properties such as dry
density, porosity, and water absorption, ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) after 28 days of curing as well as
mechanical parameters such as compressive, split tensile, and flexural strengths after 7 and 28 days of
curing. The results show that the physical properties of concrete have improved with the incorporation of
rubber, and this improvement was more significant for higher percentages of worn tires. In contrast, the
mechanical properties have decreased with the increase of rubber content in concrete mixtures, yet rubber
concrete exhibited ductile characteristics as opposed to the brittle behaviors of conventional ones. Finally,
it was found that the concrete containing rubber has lower sound transmission properties compared to the
reference ones.

Keywords: Rubber concrete, ® Worn tires, Mechanical properties, Physical properties, and
Ultrasonic pulse velocity

* Corresponding Author

129
1. Introduction
Recently, people are using their potential to consume more. The result of such
consumption is nothing unless a reduction in initial resources and increasing landfill
space. Therefore, humans usually try to find broader sources with low prices and ways to
get rid of waste. Rubber is one of the significant waste materials in the modern world and
causes many environmental problems. Rubber has been used as the most important
material in various parts of people’s lives, but the most prevalent application is in
automobile tires.
Globally, more than three billion tires are produced annually, and roughly 1.5
billion tires reach the end of their service lives each year [1,2]. On the other hand,
landfilling, energy recovery, material recovery, retreading, and reuse/export are the most
common waste tire management methods [3]. Furthermore, it was reported that around
64% of worn tires were disposed of in landfills, illegally dumped, or hoarded, while just
13% were recycled globally in 2014 [4].
Besides, the Deputy Ministry of Revenues and Customs has reported that a total
of 246,713 tons of tires were imported into Afghanistan in 2019 and 2020. The same
amount will be wasted once they are used. On the other hand, there is no proper treatment
for their waste, and the only solution for waste is landfilling or part of them being used in
brick kilns and bathrooms.
Moreover, the researchers have found that the gaseous (CO, NO2, and SO2)
emissions of waste tires after burning were higher than the permitted limit. For example,
the SO2 emissions were higher than the USEPA's permitted limit (156.74 µg/m3). The
USEPA-allowable limit for CO due to automobile and truck tires was surpassed
(10,285.71 µg/m3), while the USEPA-allowable level for NO2 concentration (56.33
µg/m3) was only met by bicycle tires. It shows that open burning of scrap tires (OBST)
releases dangerous pollutants that constitute a major threat to both the environment and
human health. Therefore, partial replacement of aggregates with worn tire waste will
provide the best solution for tire waste consumption, solve problems of lack of aggregates
on construction sites, and decrease environmental problems [5].
Several studies were conducted to explore the effect of the incorporation of waste
tires as fine or coarse aggregates on different properties of cementitious materials. For
instance, experimental work was conducted to study the effect of the incorporation of
waste tires into concrete compositions. It was found that the physical properties of rubber-
based concrete were improved compared to the normal ones [5–8], while the mechanical
properties of rubber concrete had decreased [9]. Furthermore, using scrap tire rubber
aggregates in place of conventional aggregates enhanced concrete's permeability,
ductility, energy dissipation, damping, and reduced thermal conductivity [9,10]. In
addition, waste tires as coarse aggregates were incorporated into concrete mixtures to
study various properties of concrete, such as compressive strength, tensile strength,
ductility, etc. It was discovered that rubber concrete is lighter and absorbs less water
compared to the control ones [11]. Moreover, the density, flexural strength, and
compressive strength of double-layer concrete paving blocks were affected, while tire
rubber was partially replaced by natural aggregates. The outcomes highlight that it may
be possible to create double-layer concrete paving blocks by substituting waste tire rubber

130
with natural aggregates. Here, the mechanical properties (compressive and flexural
strengths) could be balanced with other factors. However, if the percentage of replaced
aggregates exceeds 20%, the mechanical strengths will suffer significantly [12].
Contrarily, the incorporation of a higher content of waste rubber in concrete mixtures
resulted in the reduction of mechanical strength as well as Young's modulus of elasticity
[9,10]. However, the incorporation of mineral admixtures (silica fume) in rubber concrete
resulted in the improvement of compressive strength [11]. Additionally, several studies
in this area have shown that the incorporation of worn tires resulted in the reduction of
concrete's compressive, split tensile, and flexural strengths [13–19].
In conclusion, the literature review presents that several investigations have been
carried out in this area, although the majority of them concentered on the mechanical
characteristics of rubber concrete. However, this article focuses on the use of worn tires
as a partial replacement with coarse aggregates to investigate their effect on the physical,
mechanical, and acoustic characteristics of rubber concrete in comparison with the normal
ones. The specific tests could be slump value, compressive strength, tensile strength,
flexural strength, water absorption, dry density, porosity, and ultrasonic pulse velocity.
In addition, this article's focus on Afghanistan's geography and conditions set it apart from
earlier ones in another important way.
2. Experimental Work
2.1. Materials
The worn tire used in this experimental study was MILSTAR-HEAVY DUTY,
made by Apollo Company, with the specifications as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Worn tires made by Apollo Company

The Ghori Portland Cement used in this study was produced by the Pol-e Khumri
factory of Afghanistan following ASTM C150 requirements [20], and it had a specific
gravity of 3.034 and a surface area of 2900 cm2/gr. Additionally, crushed coarse
aggregates with a size of 10–25 mm and natural river sand with a maximum particle size
of 4.75 mm have also been employed as coarse and fine aggregates. The crumb rubber
was ground into various sizes after removing the steel and textile fibers. The difference
in the specific gravity of river sand and crumb rubber was taken into consideration while
replacing. The size distributions for sand, gravel, and rubber are shown in Figure 2.

131
 120

100

80
Passed (%)

60

40

20

0
25 19 12.5 9.5 4.75 2.36 1.18 0.6 0.3 0.15 PAN
Sieve Size (mm)
Course Aggregate Worn Tires Fine Aggregate

Figure 2. Grading of rubber, coarse and fine aggregates

From particle size analysis, it was observed that crumb rubber contains slightly coarser
particles, and has lesser water absorption than fine and coarse aggregates. The low water
absorption values add to the quality of concrete. In addition, some physical properties of
fine and coarse aggregates and worn tires are presented in Table 1.
Table 1. Physical properties of filler materials

Type of aggregates Specific gravity Bulk density (kg/m3)

Fine aggregates 2.704 1742.895

Coarse aggregates 2.693 1535.164
Worn tires 1.129 556.870

Moreover, the superplasticizer type G named BEVETOL-SPL, a product of

Izomat Company, following EN 934-2 standard considerations [21], was added to the
concrete mixture to improve the workability of rubber concrete.
2.2. Methods
Before casting the samples, the molds were oiled for easy demolding. The
concrete mixtures were prepared using a tilting drum mixer. Then the concrete was placed
in the molds to prepare samples of various shapes and sizes, as shown in Table 2. After
that, the samples were kept in the molds for 24 hours before being cured for 7 and 28 days
under a temperature of (20 ± 2) C°.

132
 Table 2. Specification of concrete samples

No Type of samples Description Conducted tests

Reference
Cube 5% of worn tires Compressive strength, UPV, water
1
100 mm 10% of worn tires absorption, dry density, and porosity
15% of worn tires
Reference
Cylinder 5% of worn tires
2 Split tensile strength
(100×200) mm 10% of worn tires
15% of worn tires
Reference
Beam 5% of worn tires
3 Flexural strength
(100×100×500) mm 10% of worn tires
15% of worn tires

The material proportions were calculated following ACI 291.1 [22], which has a
constant w/c ratio of 0.45 and a total binder content of 433 kg/m3. The mixed proportion
of concrete mixtures containing various percentages of worn tires is shown in Table 3. In
addition, the dry density, porosity, and water absorption were calculated using ASTM
C642-06 [23]. A compression test was performed using the ADR touch SOLO 1500
machine. The pacing rate for the cubic sample compression test was set at 3.0 KN/s to get
the compressive strength following ASTM C39 [24]. The split tensile strength test was
performed on the same machine according to ASTM C496 [25] with a pacing rate of 0.94
KN/s. The beams were used for flexural testing following ASTM C78 [26]. Finally, the
ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test has been conducted on 100 mm cubes utilizing the
direct approach and the ELE Pundit Pulse Device according to the ASTM C597 standard
[27].
Table 3. A mix ratio of materials for 1m3 of concrete
Weight of materials for 1m3 of concrete
Materials Percentages of worn tires
0% 5% 10% 15%
Water (kg) 195 195 195 195
BEVETOL-SPL (gr) 2.5 3.4 4.2 4.9
Cement (kg) 433 433 433 433
Fine aggregate (kg) 652 652 652 652
Coarse aggregate (kg) 1060 1037.8 1015.6 993.4
Worn tires (kg) 0 22.2 44.4 66.6

133
3. Result and Discussions
3.1. Workability
The workability of concrete mixtures containing various percentages of worn tires
is shown in Figure 3. It was observed that the workability of concrete mixtures had
decreased for the samples containing worn tires, and this reduction was more significant
for higher percentages. For example, concrete with 0% of worn tires had a slump value
of 80 mm, while for concrete mixtures containing 15% of worn tires, only a 5 mm slump
was obtained. Therefore, BEVETOL-SPL superplasticizer was added to the concrete
mixture according to its technical specifications to improve the workability of the
concrete. This reduction could be related to the flaky and flat-surfaced shapes of rubber
aggregates, which have a higher surface area compared to natural aggregates. Therefore,
such a higher surface of rubber aggregates results in the enhancement of friction, the
reduction of inter-particle movement, and finally a reduction in workability.

90 87 85
80 80 83
80
70
Slump value (mm)

60
50
50
40
30 20
20
5
10
0
Ref 5% worn tire 10% worn tire 15% worn tire
Percentage of worn tires
Slump (mm) Final Slump (mm)
Figure 3. Workability of concrete mixtures containing various percentages of worn tires

3.2. Physical Properties

3.2.1. Dry Density
The dry density of concrete is determined by its mass-to-volume ratio. The dry
density was determined after exposing the 28-day hardened cubic specimens to a 110 °C
oven for 24 hours. The outcomes of dry density for reference specimens and the ones
containing different contents of worn tires are shown in Figure 4. It could be observed
that the dry density has decreased with the increase in the percentage of worn tires in
concrete mixtures. For instance, the dry density was reduced by up to 8.4% when 15% of
the mixture's worn tires were replaced. This could be attributed to the lower specific
gravity of rubber aggregates compared to the natural coarse and fine aggregates [28]. In
addition, the increase in rubber percentages increases the air content, which results in a
further reduction of the dry density.

134
 2350
2300
Dry density (kg/m3)

2250
2200
2150
2100
2050
2000
Ref 5% worn tire 10% worn tire 15% worn tire
Ref 5% worn tire 10% worn tire 15% worn tire
Dry Density of 28 days' Smaple
2324 2272 2205 2128
(Kg/m3)
Percentage of worn tires
Figure 4. The dry density of concrete mixtures containing various percentages of worn tires

3.2.2. Porosity
The porosity of concrete mixtures containing 0%, 5%, 10%, and 15% of worn
tires was measured and their results are shown in Figure 5. The outcomes indicate that
the rubber concrete has higher porosity compared to the normal one, and this
enhancement was more significant for the mixtures containing a higher content of worn
tires. For example, concrete samples with 15% of worn tires had 11.1% higher porosity
than the reference. This could be because of weak adhesion between rubber and cement
paste, which results in micro-cracks and cavities. In addition, the crumb rubber functioned
as an air-entraining agent, which might improve the concrete's porosity [28].
14

13.5
Porosity (%)

13

12.5

12

11.5
Ref 5% worn tire 10% worn tire 15% worn tire
10% worn 15% worn
Ref 5% worn tire
tire tire
Porosity of 28 days' sample (%) 12.45 12.8 13.3 14
Percentage of worn tires
Figure 5. The porosity of concrete mixtures containing various percentages of worn tires

3.2.3. Water absorption

The outputs of water absorption are shown in Figure 6, and it highlights that with
the increase of rubber content in concrete mixtures, the water absorption has enhanced as
well. The water absorption has increased by 9.7%, 15.3%, and 21.5% for the samples

135
containing 5%, 10%, and 15% of worn tires compared to the reference concrete,
respectively. This is because of the rubber's hydrophobic properties and the porous
microstructure of rubber concrete [15].

6.5
Water absorption (%)

5.5

4.5

4
Ref 5% worn tire 10% worn tire 15% worn tire
Ref 5% worn tire 10% worn tire 15% worn tire
Water absorption of 28 day's
5.1 5.65 6.02 6.5
samples (%)
Percentage of worn tires
Figure 6. Water absorption of concrete mixtures containing various percentages of worn tires

3.3. Mechanical Properties

3.3.1. Compressive strength
A material or structure's compressive strength refers to its capacity to sustain
compressive stresses without breaking or deforming. The compressive strength of
concrete specimens observed after 7 and 28 days of curing is shown in Figure 7, and the
outcomes show that the incorporation of worn tires resulted in the reduction of
compressive strength. Specifically, 28 days’ compressive strength decreased by 15.0%,
30.9%, and 42.6% with the incorporation of 5%, 10%, and 15% of worn tires compared
to the control specimens, respectively. This is because of the rubber's hydrophobic
properties and a weak interfacial connection between cement paste and rubber, which
reduces the mechanical strength. In addition, rubber particles cause weak spots inside the
concrete, where there is a higher concentration of stresses and, as a result, a reduction in
the mechanical strengths due to the rubber's lower modulus of elasticity [15].

136
 30
Compressive strenght (MPa)

25
20
15
10
5
0
Ref 5% worn tire 10% worn tire 15% worn tire
Ref 5% worn tire 10% worn tire 15% worn tire
7 days strength (Mpa) 17.06 14.5 11.92 9.9
28 days strength (Mpa) 29.48 25.058 20.37 16.92

Percentage of worn tires

7 days strength (Mpa) 28 days strength (Mpa)
Figure 7. Compressive strength of concrete mixtures containing various percentages of worn tires

In addition, the reference samples had broken into several pieces when a
compressive force was applied. While the specimens containing rubber pieces were not
separated into many portions because of the flexible properties of rubber aggregates as
shown in Figure 8.

a b

c d
Figure 8. Cracking pattern after compression test: a) Reference, b) 5%, c) 10%, and d) 15%

3.2.2. Split tensile strength

The split tensile strength is an indirect way of determining the tensile strength of
concrete using cylindrical specimens that split across the vertical diameter. Figure 9
shows the findings of split tensile strength obtained for the specimens containing various
percentages of worn tires after 7 and 28 days of curing. It demonstrates that replacing
natural aggregates with rubber ones did not have a considerable effect on the 7-day split

137
 tensile strength. However, the split tensile strength after 28 days of curing noticeably
decreased with the incorporation of rubber waste, and this reduction was more remarkable
for higher amounts of worn tires. For example, the 28-day split tensile strength of
specimens containing 15% worn tires has been reduced by 40.1% compared to the
reference concrete. This is attributed to the weak bond and adhesive properties between
cement paste and rubber aggregates. In addition, the weak interface zone between rubber
and cement may act as a micro-crack due to weak bonding between the two materials,
which accelerates concrete breakdown [13].

3
Split tensile strength (MPa)

2.5

1.5

0.5

0
Ref 5% worn tire 10% worn tire 15% worn tire
Ref 5% worn tire 10% worn tire 15% worn tire
7days Split tensile (Mpa) 1.474 1.52 1.356 1.415
28 days Split tensile (Mpa) 2.6 2.132 1.568 1.557
Percentage of worn tires
7days Split tensile (Mpa) 28 days Split tensile (Mpa)
Figure 9. Split tensile strength of concrete mixtures containing various percentages of worn tires

In addition, the samples with 5%, 10%, and 15% worn tires are cracked but not split,
but the reference sample under tensile tension is completely divided into two different
fragments as shown in Figure 10.

a b

c d
Figure 10. Cracking pattern after the split tensile test: a) Reference, b) 5%, c) 10%, and d) 15%

138
 3.2.3. Flexural Strength
The outcomes of the flexural strength are displayed in Figure 11. The results
demonstrate that the replacement of worn tires with coarse aggregates had a tiny impact
on the flexural strength of samples after 7 days of curing. This could be because of the
lower adhesion between cement paste and other concrete ingredients and the lower
achieved resistance of cement. However, the 28-day samples show a considerable
reduction in the flexural strength of the specimens having rubber wastes, and this
reduction was more noticeable for a higher volume fraction of worn tires. As a result, a
lack of strong bonding between rubber particles and cement paste is a major factor in
reducing flexural strengths. It was found that chipped rubber could be easily removed
from concrete after the concrete samples were broken for the flexural strength test [13].

3.5
Flexural strength (MPa)

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Ref 5% worn tire 10% worn tire 15% worn tire
Ref 5% worn tire 10% worn tire 15% worn tire
7 days Flexural Strength (Mpa) 1.751 1.862 1.695 1.641
28 days Flexural Strength (Mpa) 3.026 3.153 2.451 2.36

Percentage of worn tires

7 days Flexural Strength (Mpa) 28 days Flexural Strength (Mpa)

Figure 11. Flexural strength of concrete mixtures containing various percentages of worn tires

Additionally, it was noted that the rubberized samples were more flexible while
the control specimens showed brittle failure and broke into two pieces when loaded, as
shown in Figure 12.

a b

139
 c d
Figure 12. Beam cracking pattern: a) Reference, b) 5%, c) 10%, and d) 15%

3.3. Acoustic properties

An ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test was conducted on 28-day cubic samples
to explore the transit time of ultrasonic pulses from concrete specimens. The UPV value
was measured for concrete mixtures without a rubber and with 5%, 10%, and 15% of
worn tires. Figure 13 shows the UPV results and indicates that with the incorporation of
worn tires, the UPV value has decreased. As a comparison, the samples containing 15%
of worn tires transmit sound at a pace that is 1.3 km/s slower than the reference samples.
This reduction in the UPV is due to air content and crumb rubber, which entraps air on
its surface [29].
5

4
UPV (km/s)

0
Ref 5% worn tire 10% worn tire 15% worn tire
Ref 5% worn tire 10% worn tire 15% worn tire
UPV of 28 days' samples (Km/s) 4.7 3.75 3.5 3.4
Percentage of worn tires
Figure 13. UPV of concrete mixtures containing various percentages of worn tires

4. Conclusions
Overall, the presence of worn tires in the composition of concrete could improve
the physical, sound, and flexibility properties of concrete. On the other hand, it can
negatively affect its mechanical strength. The key and specific outcomes are highlighted
as follows:
 The incorporation of worn tires into concrete mixtures resulted in a decrease in
workability, and this reduction was more remarkable for higher percentages of rubber.
 The addition of rubber into concrete mixtures could greatly improve the physical
properties, such as water absorption and dry density, of concrete, and this
enhancement was more significant for a higher volume fraction of rubber.

140
 The incorporation of worn tires into concrete has reduced the compressive, tensile,
and flexural strengths. It means that higher percentages of worn tires have the lowest
mechanical strengths. Meanwhile, it was found that the rubber concrete has more
flexibility compared to the control ones.
 The highest UPV value was achieved for the reference samples, while the UPV value
significantly decreased with the incorporation of worn tires, and such a reduction was
more significant for higher percentages.
 Finally, the partial incorporation of worn tires in cementitious materials results in
greener, cheaper, and lighter building materials. In addition, this could be a possible
solution for the reduction of rubber waste materials and environmental protection.
Moreover, the substitution of fine and coarse aggregates by worn tires reduces or
prevents the decrease of natural resources for aggregates.

5. Acknowledgement
The University of Kabul Polytechnic, as well as everyone who assisted the
authors, are appreciated.

141
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Authors Profile:

AHMAD MASOUD AHMADYAR received his bachelor’s degree in civil

engineering from Kabul Polytechnic University in 2012, and he obtained his
master’s degree in structural engineering from the same university in 2022.
From 2013 to 2021, he worked on NATO and governmental projects. He is
currently engaged in research and plans to pursue his studies at the Ph.D.
level. His area of research interest includes concrete and construction
materials.

SIFATULLAH BAHIJ received his B.Sc. degree in Civil Engineering

from Kabul Polytechnic University in 2012, M.Sc. degree in Civil
Engineering from King Fahd University of Petroleum & Minerals, Saudi
Arabia, and he is currently a Ph.D. candidate in the Civil Engineering
department of National Institute of Applied Sciences, Strasbourg, France.
He is a faculty member of the Civil and Industrial Construction Department
of Kabul Polytechnic University, Kabul, Afghanistan. His research
interests include concrete and construction materials, ultra-high
performance fiber reinforced concrete (UHFRPC), green concrete and
newly generated concretes, cementitious materials with plastic and rubber
wastes, finite element modeling (FEM), destructive, non-destructive, SEM, interferometry, and
microscopic analysis, and retrofitting of concrete elements with various cementitious and FRP
materials.

SEBGHATULLAH KARIMI received his B.Sc. degree in Civil

Engineering from Kabul Polytechnic University in 2007, and his M.Sc.
degree in Construction Management from the University of Brighton, UK
in 2012. He was a faculty member of the Civil and Industrial Construction
Department of Kabul Polytechnic University, Kabul, Afghanistan from
2008 to 2021. His research interests include concrete and construction
materials and construction project management.

144
 KPU International Journal of Engineering & Technology
Volume 2, Issue2, Dec. 2022
Date Received: 2022-08-15
e-ISSN:2790-0819, p-ISSN:2790-0800 Date Accepted: 2022-12-20
Date Published: 2022-12-30

The Evolution of Mosque Architecture: A Case Study of Mosques in

Kabul, Afghanistan
NOORULLAH HASHEMI1* ABDUL HALIM HAKIMI2, MOHAMMAD AYOUB
AWWAB3, HASIBULLAH SAKHA4

1*Graduate Student, Department of Architecture, Construction Faculty, Kabul Polytechnic University, Kabul,
Afghanistan. Email: [email protected]
2Associate Professor, Department of Islamic Studies, Construction Faculty, Kabul Polytechnic University, Kabul,
Afghanistan. Email: [email protected]
3Associate Professor, Department of Islamic Studies, Construction Faculty, Kabul Polytechnic University, Kabul,
Afghanistan. Email: [email protected]
4Graduate Student, Department of Architecture, Construction Faculty, Kabul Polytechnic University, Kabul,
Afghanistan. Email: [email protected]

Abstract
Mosque is a place for worshiping Allah and prostration. It serves numerous other purposes for Muslims in
addition to its religious ones. Islam has a very old history with mosques. It is impossible to imagine an
Islamic society without mosques. The Quba Mosque, Al-Aqsa Mosque, and Nabawi Mosque were the first
mosques built in Islam, and have undergone several renovations and transformations since then. Muslims
ruled the world and conquered a vast area in the first Hegira century, they conquered Afghanistan and
built the country's first mosque, known as Noh Gonbad situated in the Balkh province. After occupying
Kabul, Afghanistan’s capital. They built the first mosque there by the name of Shah Do Shamshira.
Following this, numerous mosques were constructed in Kabul and other parts of Afghanistan, which also
underwent a great deal of change during this time. In this study, we employed a historical-descriptive
methodology. We have employed the library, case studies, and field research. studied the three well-known
and historic mosques Shah Do Shamshira, Pol Kheshti, and Pakhta Froshi to learn more about how
mosques were altered throughout this time. We get to know that; these mosques’ architecture has been
affected during this period. at first, it was just a place to worship but periodically, it has been used for other
purposes too such as education, colonies, counseling centers, Social center, the court of justice, and so on.
Shah do Shamshira mosque's interior and exterior show the decorations of Indian- Mughals which were
affected by abroad architecture but then mosques architecture used the modern way. Mosques have been
divided into two sections winter and summer because of the heating system. But the latest mosques which
have been built in Afghanistan were modern and in one General hall.

Keywords: Mosque Architecture, Kabul City, Islamic Architecture

*

*
Corresponding Author

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1. Introduction
Muslims congregate and pray in mosques, which are also known as places of prostration.
A mosque has a social, political, educational, and judicial purpose for Muslims in addition
to its religious use. The majority of these tasks still exist today. The Quba mosque is the
first-ever mosque in the world of Islam. Al-Aqsa mosque, Al- Nabawi constructed after
this. These mosques had undergone many changes in different periods. The first attack of
Muslims on northern Afghanistan was in the first century of Hijri during the caliphate of
Prophet Usman, under the leadership of Ahnaf son of Qais, after the conquest of northern
Afghanistan, which is today's Balkh, Arab Muslims held prayers and based the foundation
stone of the first mosque called Nine Domes (Noh Gonbad). Under the leadership of Lis
son of Qais, who fought with two swords and was martyred in this fight, Arab Muslims
assaulted Kabul, the capital of Afghanistan. Later, a mosque was built in this location and
was given his name (Lis son of Qais). Following that, Kabul saw the construction of
numerous mosques that heavily incorporated Islamic architectural ornamentation. There
is no background research on this topic. Mosque has a very special place in afghan
society. Afghanistan is a country that does not follow an exact style of architecture. In
early mosques, foreign architecture and culture had an impact on the architecture of these
constructions. And it had been built very traditionally. In this article, an effort has been
made to explore the architectural evolution of renowned mosques in Kabul from the time
of their creation to the present.
2. Background Research
An Islamic city is inconceivable without a mosque. Mosque has a unique place among
religious structures in cities. Mosque is the most notable architectural component of Islam
and has existed in society since the beginning of this religion's civil manifestation. it is a
hub for religion, culture, and society that is inextricably linked to the fabric of society and
the urban environment. Since their founding, mosques throughout the Islamic world have
undergone numerous changes and transformations. These changes and transformations
are the results of a variety of factors, but the fundamental components and characteristics
of these structures have remained constant, and they are followed by all mosques
worldwide.
2.1. Quba Mosque
The Quba Mosque, which is located in a village with the same name outside of Medina,
is the earliest in the Islamic world. During his quick visit to this region in the first year of
the hegira, the Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) constructed this mosque. The Holy Prophet
(PBUH), whom himself engaged in this mosque, contributed to the construction of this
building. This mosque features a relatively straightforward layout, an unpaved courtyard,
and walls built of unfired clay with a grid of arches. Palmwood was utilized to build the
foundation as well as to cover the prayer area. There are three entrances to this mosque,

146
located in the east, west, and south. The Muslim qibla at that time pointed toward
Jerusalem on its north side. Its southern gate was moved to the north as the qibla moved
to Mecca. During the Caliphate of Usman son of Affan, the Quba Mosque was extended
and repaired. The Quba Mosque's second restoration dates back to the time of Omar, the
son of Abdul Aziz, who constructed the mosque's original minaret. Abu Yali al-Husseini
restored it after him and added the altar. Jamal al-Din Isfahani Zangian minister in Mosul,
gave the order to construct it in 555 A.H. Some areas underwent extensive restoration and
renovation in the eighth and ninth century A.H. It was enlarged and its territory grew
during the Ottoman rule and notably during the Saudi era. Currently, there are multiple
naves in this mosque, and each one has a unique dome. [1]

Figure 1 (Simple moquette of Quba Mosque) [2] Figure 2 (Current building of Quba Mosque) [3]

2.2. Al-Aqsa Mosque

Al-Aqsa Mosque, which is referred to as the first Qibla of Muslims, is the second mosque
in the Islamic world. It was constructed in Jerusalem, Palestine, on a peak known as
Moriah. Muslims see this mosque as a sacred site. This mosque measures 281 square
meters in size from the south, 310 square meters in the north, 462 square meters in the
east, and 491 square meters in the west. Unlike the Haram Mosque and the Prophet's
Mosque in Makkah and Medina, which have both undergone historical development,
these specifications have not changed since this location was built as a mosque for prayer.
Architecture from the Roman, Byzantine, and Greek periods is combined and displayed
in one form in the Al-Aqsa Mosque. When someone enters the mosque from the north
side, they are greeted by a sizable portico that was constructed under the tenure of King
Essa, the ruler of Damascus (634 AH), and later refurbished. Al-Aqsa Mosque is situated
in the southern portion of the courtyard of Haram. The women's mosque entrance is
situated on the southwest side of the mosque, which has two porticoes. 53 meters from
the west side, these two porticoes link to the Magharba Mosque. On the northwest side,
there is also a sizable, magnificent porch known as Zakaria's Altar. Nine domes were built
in various eras all around the Al-Aqsa Mosque. [4]

147
 Figure 3 (Site plan Model of Al-Aqsa Mosque) [5]

2.3. Al-Nabawi Mosque

The Prophet Mohammad Mosque, which is in Medina, Saudi Arabia, where the holy
Prophet's shrine is also located, is the third mosque in the world. The structure of this
mosque has undergone numerous modifications, and it now has a rectangular layout with
two levels. Al-Nabawi Mosque has twenty-four rotating domes and a paved roof. These
domes have been drilled with holes to provide for the proper lighting of the mosque's
interior. This mosque's roof can be used for prayer during peak hours. One of the twenty-
four domes of this mosque is larger and taller than the others, and it is also known as the
Prophet Mohammad's (PBUH) dome. The Prophet's companions Abu Bakr, Omar, and
Usman are the owners of other domes. This mosque has seen numerous additions and
modifications over the years.
Up until the time of Fahd, the son of Abdul Aziz, this mosque has undergone a great deal
of renovation. Its area and space have increased by 50% after the most recent restoration.
This mosque features ten minarets and 41 doorways. The Nabawi Mosque's existing
structure included a square layout with two floors and a prayer hall that was bent to the
south. The first floor is found in the main prayer hall. The modern mosque is 100 times
larger than the original structure that the prophet Mohammad erected (PBUH). This
mosque can accommodate 500,000 people at once. [6]

Figure 4 (Al-Nabawi Mosque Model) [7]

148
2.4. Al-Haram Mosque
Al-Haram Mosque, also known as the Muslims Kaaba is one of the oldest and holiest
mosques in the entire Muslim world. Rectangular is the fundamental shape of this
mosque's planning in terms of architecture. The shape of a rectangle represents steadiness,
solidification, and perseverance. This leads to a final dome shape, a circle, and a
representation of the sky. The Al-Haram Mosque is unique in that has the holy Kaaba and
does not adopt any other mosques' architectural styles. However, it does contain the
typical indications, traits, and components of a mosque. In addition to using the inner
space well, architects tried to utilize the outside area of this revered mosque to the fullest
extent possible. [8]. The most significant and numerous events, modifications,
renovations, and developments that have occurred during the history of this Collective
Mosque are listed below:
2.4.1. Pre-Islamic period
The Kaaba's surroundings were known as Masjid al-Haram before Islam, and it had
roughly defined limits.
Except for the Kaaba, the mosque had no walls, fences, or other structures until the advent
of Islam. It is only indicated in narrative sources that the current location of Masjid al-
Haram for the construction of the Kaaba was chosen before the creation of man and that
it was built by angels, but there is no historical documentation regarding when that region
was chosen as a mosque.
Ibrahim (A) is credited with constructing this mosque in a narration from the Holy
Prophet (PBUH). The oldest mosque in the world, according to this account is Masjid al-
Haram.
2.4.2. Caliphs’ period
During the rule of the second Caliph, the mosque's location underwent its first alteration.
He purchased some nearby homes and combined them with the mosque. He also built a
small wall around the mosque and had lights installed on the wall to illuminate the area
around the mosque at night.
The third caliph created a portico and a covered area for the mosque because there were
so many pilgrims visiting the Collective Mosque that he had to demolish the nearby
homes and incorporate them into the mosque.
2.4.3. Umayyad period
Walid, the son of Abdul Malik Umayyad (rule: 86–96 A.H.), restored the mosque and
expanded the Collective Mosque's floor space by 1725 square meters. He constructed
porches around the mosque and opulent pillars to support them. These columns were
exquisitely ornamented. Walid also constructed the gold-encased gutter of the Kaaba
which is also recognized by that name now.

149
2.4.4. Abbasid period
The mosque's size was doubled by Mansour, the second caliph of the Abbasids who also
built porticoes around it and added almost 5000 square meters to the north and west of
the mosque. Along with adding more ornamentation to the walls and columns, Mansour
constructed a few minarets on the mosque's western side.
In 161 AH, Mehdi Abbasi son of Mansour (reign: 158-169 AH) took the nearby homes
and incorporated them into the mosque's plot of land. In this way, the mosque gained
8380 square meters, and several doors were opened all around it. The mosque, however,
remained unchanged for centuries. In 164 AD, Mahdi Abbasi gave the order to build a
square area in the southern part of the mosque where the Kaaba would be placed.
Consequently, the mosque's area was enlarged to 6560 square meters, porticoes were
constructed and columns were created. These columns are still standing, and they still
bear the Mahdi Abbasid period's inscription.
2.4.5. Saudi Period
The mosque's area reached 160861 square meters when King Abdul Aziz Al Saud ordered
its development in 1368 AH/1328 SH. Construction on the project began in 1375
AH/1335 SH. Over 300,000 people were expected to attend prayers, so this space was
taken into consideration. In addition, there are 64 mosque doors now.
King Fahd started an enormous expansion of this collective mosque in the year 1409 A.H.
Since 1403 AH, this concept has been studied and some nearby properties have been
purchased. This Collective Mosque has never seen a rise quite like this one. The mosque's
west side received an addition of 76,000 square meters. In that area, two large minarets
of 89-meter heights were constructed. The middle of the added level, which was
supported by four columns, had three substantial domes erected into it.
The Collective Mosque currently houses about one million worshipers in a very big
complex that spans more than 88,000 square meters. The third floor of Masjid al-Haram,
which comprises three floors, is a very huge space. [9]
2.4.6. Holy Kaaba
In Mecca, there is a famous cube-shaped building called the Kaaba that is situated
between two mosques. For Muslims, the Kaaba is the Qibla and the most significant
location of worship. Any Muslim who has completed the Hajj rite and the ritual of
worship is required to visit it once in their lifetime, if certain requirements are met, such
as having the financial means to do so. [10]

150
 Figure 5 (Al-haram Mosque) [10]

3. Mosques in Afghanistan
3.1. Noh Gonbad Mosque
One of the nations in the globe where the majority of people are Muslims in Afghanistan.
In this nation, the place of worship and prayer is extremely significant and priceless. The
Noh Gonbad mosque, which lies three kilometers from Balkh city, was the first mosque
to be erected in Afghanistan. The first Muslim attack on Afghanistan occurred in the year
652 A.H. During the Sasanian era in the second half of the eighth century, this mosque
was constructed. This mosque originally had nine domes and six substantial columns with
concave Islamic ornamentation and motifs that were inspired by various creative schools
and styles. Currently, only four of the mosque's foundations are still in place, and others
have collapsed. The Islamic school of art is represented by these four pillars and their
breathtakingly magnificent arches. [11]

Figure 6 (Noh Gonbad Mosque) [11] Figure 7 (Noh Gonbad Mosque) [11]

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3.2. Shah Do Shamshira Mosque
Lis son of Qais was one of the Arab Muslims' leaders when they prepared the initial
assault on Kabul during the period of Prophet Usman. Lis fought valiantly and was
martyred during this conquest. According to this, Muslims performed their first prayer in
Kabul after the city was conquered, and they laid the foundation stone for a mosque there
and gave it the name "King of Two Swords" in honor of the warrior who used both hands
in battle. The current structure of this mosque, which adds to its beauty and majesty, was
rebuilt in 1306 by the mother of Shah Amanullah Khan Ghazi. This mosque has
undergone development and reconstruction throughout history. [12]

Figure 8 (Shah Do Shamshira Mosque View) [12]

3.3. Pol Kheshti Mosque

The center of ancient Kabul is where you'll find this mosque. The minaret and dome of
this mosque, which has a very long history, are visible from several locations in Kabul.
According to stories, this mosque was built on the foundation of a temple that had
been demolished. Its structure was finished as a one-story structure with three hallways,
seven porticoes, and twenty-one domes. They hung a large clay-burning light, which was
moved up and down by chain anchors, in the center of each dome. At that time, these
lights exuded a unique splendor. Around the exterior wall of the mosque, the verses of
the Holy Qur'an are inscribed in Kufi and Sols script for a distance of 88 meters. The
mosque's courtyard has been carpeted with common stone slabs that have been polished
to resemble marble stones and the carpet within the mosque has been painted. The current
mosque has a 62-meter-tall minaret and an 18-meter-tall green dome. Three thousand
devotees can congregate here at once. The Pol Kheshti Mosque's new structure is
composed completely of translucent marble. [13]

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 Figure 9 (Pol Kheshti Mosque View)

4. Problem Statement
Afghanistan is an Islamic nation with 99% Muslims in its population. Each region and
city in Afghanistan have a large number of these constructions. However, lack of
information about the design and architecture of early Muslim mosques and their evident
similarities, mosques in Afghanistan do not adhere to any specific architectural
guidelines. In early mosques, architects made an effort to take all of the rules and
principles of architecture into consideration when building and designing the mosque, but
the mosques were built later based on arbitrary plans. It has eroded the basis and
guidelines for them. In this article, we discuss the methods and specifics related to
elements of the early mosques and their evolution in the current mosques of Kabul which
have no historical background research.
5. Methodology
This research utilized a descriptive-historical method. This article draws on field research,
case studies, and library studies. To comprehend the evolution of mosques in our country,
we first read historical writings that covered the origins, development, and history of
mosques throughout various historical eras. After that, every aspect of the building's
architecture including its size, style, and beauty as well as its reconstruction and
modifications have been thoroughly examined in library and digital research. After
conducting fieldwork, we visited both old and new mosques in Kabul, photographed each
of their components and historical features, and recorded every last detail, including
plans, site plans, images, and information. Different historical eras and architectural styles
have different aspects and traits, which have been discovered and explained. The oral
history told by the village elders has also been employed in this research due to a lack of
historical documentation. It is helpful to know the history of each mosque, its
components, its evolution, and other vital factors. In this field study, the questionnaires
have been explained to the surrounding people and the results have been included in this

153
research. Then we will get to know the evolution of the early and new mosques in Kabul
city.
6. The evolution of mosque Architecture in Afghanistan
6.1. Shah Do Shamshira Mosque
There is a building that stands out in the middle of Kabul's town, surrounded by both new
and old structures, in an area crowded with people and vehicles. This is the earliest
mosque in Kabul city. The large dome with the two golden minarets adjacent to it offers
a good view of the surrounding city. The Shah Do Shamshira Mosque is a historically
significant location that highlights Kabul's magnificence and was unharmed by recent
wars and internal strife in Afghanistan. This mosque was formerly a pilgrimage site but
was later transformed into a mosque. Kabul residents utilize it today as a place of prayer
and devotion. A signboard with verses from the Qur'an is placed on the right side of the
mosque entrance. A wheat cluster with two plaster-carved swords that cross one other is
located in the southern section and at the top of the mosque entrance. Shah Do Shamshira
Mosque has undergone many changes during its history. This is the location of the first
Muslim martyrs during the takeover of Kabul. In 36 A.H. Muslims struck Bast Bastan for
the first time before advancing on Kabul. Lis son of Qais, one of the army's commanders,
entered Kabul after the city's defenses were breached by catapults and were slain
following a protracted battle in the current location of the Shah Do Shamshira Mosque,
which bears his name. Throughout its history, this mosque has undergone numerous ups
and downs and has been demolished multiple times. But it was built for the last time by
Shah Amanullah Khan's mother and according to another narration by " Shah
Amanullah's wife Queen Surya" in 1306 AH. This mosque is significant culturally and
exhibits the elegance of the 20th-century architecture. This mosque is a symbol of the
refinement of recent construction and has cultural significance. The architects from the
Chardehi region completed the mosque's dome and other finishing touches. This mosque,
which was designed by Turkish architects based on a mosque in Turkey, features the
largest wooden dome in Kabul, measuring 12 meters in diameter.

Figure 10 (Shah Do Shamshira Mosque View) [Source: Authors]

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The Shah Do Shamshira mosque is two stories tall, with four clay pillars supporting the
first floor's dome. These columns have very lovely carvings on the ends and are miniature
versions of actual green columns. The altar on this floor is likewise miniature and has a
highly intricate carving in addition to the heads of the columns, which are painted in green
and gold hues. Beautiful miniatures that once adorned the walls of the mosque's columns
have been lost as a result of the locals' understanding and the mosque's periodic painting.
However, during the most recent restoration of this mosque, which was completed by the
Ministry of Urban Development and Lands in collaboration with the Presidency's
National Development Administration, some of these delightful paintings and miniatures
that were once inside the mosque have been brought back to life.

Figure 11 (Site plan of Shah Do Shamshira Mosque) [Source: Authors]

A staircase that continues rotating to the mosque's end of minarets is located on the first
floor of the mosque's entrance side. This stairway inside the minarets continues up to the
roof of the mosque and above that to the end of the minarets, which ends at a terrace that
had been used to call for prayer previously. The mosque's second level has a wooden
carpet on it and is made up of a dome above a floor without columns. A lamp hangs in
the center of this 12-meter-diameter wooden dome, which also has a 12-meter diameter.

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An iron curtain surrounds the mosque's roof from the outside, preventing rain from
entering the structure. Pigeons abound around the mosque, adding to its picturesque
surroundings. The National Development Administration of the Presidency worked with
the Ministry of Urban Development and Lands to rebuild this mosque lately.
Additionally, this mosque will be renovated and a modern underground ablution hall with
muezzin and mullah chambers will be constructed for it. [Source: Authors]

Figure 12 (Ground Floor plan) [Source: Authors] Figure 13 (Second Floor plan) [Source: Authors]

Figure 14 (Shah Do Shamshira Mosque- Interior) [Source: Authors] Figure 15 (Minaret) [Source: Authors]

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 6.2. Pol Kheshti Collective Mosque
One of the biggest and most historic mosques in the nation and splendor of all time is Pol
Kheshti Mosque, formerly known as Lab Darya Mosque. This mosque boasts a towering
minaret and a huge dome that is visible from a great distance. The three-thousand-year-
old Pol Kheshti Mosque is thought to have served as Prophet Suleiman's (AS) place of
worship. The Pol Kheshti Mosque is thought to have originally been a temple that was
transformed into a mosque after Muslims invaded the area. The initial Foundation's stone
was kept in both the new mosque's Foundation and the altar of the previous mosque. It
was also preserved in the new altar's Foundation. The main construction of this mosque
started in 1187, under the reign of Timor Shah Durrani. Due to disagreements among the
ministers, it was never finished. In 1213 AH, Timor Shah's son Shah Zaman finished the
building of the Pol Kheshti Mosque. A bridge made of baked clay and plaster was
constructed over the Kabul Sea during the reign of Timor Shah Durrani close to the
Collective Mosque, also known as Pol Kheshti Mosque by the local populace. Following
that, another structure with three corridors, seven porticoes, and twenty-one domes was
constructed in the middle of the previously mentioned mosque under the reign of Abdul
Rahman Khan in 1271 AH. Amid each dome, there was a big lamp in which the kerosene
was burning. Sandalwood was used for the mosque's inside carpet, while plain stone slabs
were used outside. These slabs were polished out to match the marble stones. The
mosque's plastering was regarded as one of the era's greatest architectural achievements.
This mosque had three gates, including a massive gate that faced the market and was
topped by an octagonal dome that was long and broad and featured ornamented porticoes.
The mosque's azan site was positioned above the gate and used to say the azan there.

Figure 14 (Pol Kheshti Mosque View) [Source: Authors]

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Amanullah Khan gave the order to construct a new school for children in this mosque,
perform necessary maintenance on the mosque, and establish a comfortable residence and
ablution hall there in 1303 A.H.
The previous mosque was destroyed and a new mosque was constructed in 1334 AH,
during the reign of Muhammad Zaher Shah. This mosque boasts a 62-meter-tall minaret
and a dome that rises 18 meters above the floor and can hold 3000 people at once. The
dome is ornamented with blue-green tiles, while the first and second levels' walls,
corridors, and porticos are all made of translucent marble. A massive lamp, weighing
1,600 kilograms, is situated in the center of the main dome.
Its rehabilitation and reconstruction, which was the responsibility of the Ministry of
Urban Development and Housing, have now been finished and put into use.
The second level of the Pol Kheshti Mosque is entirely composed of domes and arches,
which allows for a smooth flow between the rooms. A pond is positioned inside the
ablution area, which enhances its beauty and fosters a pleasant ablution experience.
[Source: Authors]

Figure 15 (Site plan of Pol kheshti Mosque) [Source: Authors]

158
Figure 16 (First-floor plan of Pol Kheshti Mosque) [Source: Authors]

Figure 17 (Second Floor plan of Pol Kheshti Mosque) [Source: Authors]

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 Figure 18 (Pol Kheshti Mosque Interior) [Source: Authors]

Figure 19 (Pol Kheshti Mosque Ablution area) [Source: Authors] Figure 20(Mosque Interior) [Source: Authors]

6.3. Pakhta Froshi Collective Mosque

During the reign of Shah Durrani, the initial construction of the Chub froshi mosque,
Noor al-Islam Collective Mosque, or Pakhta froshi Mosque in the historic city of Kabul
took place. About 25,000 rupees were spent on the building's development and repair,
most of which went into re-creating the domes, arches, and porticoes. People claim that
during the reign of this king, the winter mosque was constructed in the courtyard of the
Collective mosque. To maintain this magnificent mosque, Abdul Rahman Khan
constructed a religious school inside of it. Mullah Abu Bakr Akhundzada from Kandahar,
Qazi Pashdi from Laghman, Maulvi Palch from Ghazni, and Maulvi Ghulam Jan from
Logar are some of the religious experts who instruct pupils there.

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Figure 21 (Pakhta froshi Mosque View) [Source: Authors] Figure 22 (Roof of P.F.M) [Source: Authors]

During the reign of Abdul Rahman Khan, Ghulam Nabi Khan worked to restore and
renovate the Noor al-Islam Mosque, which had been constructed using 200 tons of iron,
clay, plaster, stone, wood, and lime.
The explosion of the gunpowder storage of the stores next to the mosque, which took
place in 1341 AH, might be listed among the other historical occurrences that occurred
above the stated mosque, according to the longtime residents of this neighborhood. Due
to the recklessness of one merchant, the gunpowder shops close to this mosque were set
on fire, resulting in a tremendous explosion that caused significant financial damage to
the locals.
Due to its proximity to the wood shops, the mosque in question was formerly known as
the Chub Froshi Mosque. Shah Zaman renamed it the Shahi Mosque during the
renovation, and people continued to refer to it by this name under the reign of Abdul
Rahman Khan.
Because of its white exterior and interior decorations, it was formerly known as the White
Mosque and could be found in the Wood Store Pass, next to the till Shop Pass and the
Book Store Pass. The Agha Khan Foundation renovated the Pakhta froshi Mosque in 2004
after it was devastated during the civil wars. The Department of Mosques of the Ministry
of Urban Development and the Afghan Construction Authority have recently begun
restoration work as of 2018 A.H. The Pakhta froshi Collective mosque measures 80
meters in length and 23 meters in width. It is situated in the center of the mosque's
courtyard. This mosque contains 31 domes, including a sizable dome in the middle. All
of the mosque's domes are constructed of clay, each measuring 20 cm in length and width,
together with lime for the adhesive and other materials. Iron is used to cover the main
mosque's roof as a defense against environmental elements.
The mosque's main entrance is a gate with two minarets around it that is located at the
entrance to the courtyard. The mosque's main minaret, which includes a decorative

161
element, is situated next to the enclosure wall. The water from a pond created in the
mosque's courtyard is utilized for ablution. The Winter Mosque, as well as the muezzin
and mullah's apartments, is located in the northern section of the Mosque courtyard. Some
sources claim that these two were constructed during the reign of Shah Abdul Rahman
Khan. The eastern portion of the winter mosque contains a firehouse that is used to heat
the mosque throughout the winter.
The winter mosque, which is located in the northern section of the mosque, is 17 meters
long and 15 meters broad. It has a lovely altar that is entirely covered with flowers, and
the hall of the mosque has 12 columns supporting the ceiling, each 50 cm long and wide.
Clay is the main component of these columns.
The pan of the house below the mosque, which has a carpet-clay floor, heats the space.
On chilly winter days, people pray in this mosque.
The school is situated in the rear of the Collective Mosque; a portico from the southern
corner mosque separates it from the mosque's main structure. The courtyard's central
school structure is surrounded by other buildings and rooms. All of its chambers have
dome-shaped, baked clay roofs. Each room features an oven-shaped fireplace that serves
as the room's heat source throughout the winter. The Holy Quran and other religious texts
have been studied and memorized at different times in this school.
The Pakhta Froshi mosque's entrance is marked by a two-story tower that was constructed
to ring out the call to prayer. A 180-degree spiral staircase in this building ends on the
roof of the next-door businesses. Pigeons are currently residing in a hole with a covered
head in the gloom. An iron curtain that covers the dome's roof prevents the Abdul Rahman
Collective Mosque roof from leakage. [Source: Authors]

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 Figure 23 (Site plan of Pakhta froshi mosque) [Source: Authors]

Figure 24 (Pakhta froshi Mosque Ground Floor Plan) [Source: Authors]

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 Figure 25 (Pakhta froshi Mosque Second Floor Plan) [Source: Authors]

Figure 26 (Pakhta Froshi Mosque View) [Source: Authors] Figure 27 (Courtyard of P.F.M) [Source: Authors]

5.4. Abdul Rahman Khan Mosque

Enormous, stunning mosques have existed in Afghanistan for a very long time.
The "Abdul Rahman Khan" mosque in Kabul is among the largest and most recent of
them. This mosque, which was constructed in Kabul's business district and close to
"Zarnegar" park, can accommodate 10,000 worshipers.
This mosque was constructed at the beginning of 2001 by Haji Abdul Rahman Khan, one
of Kabul's well-known businessmen. This mosque bears his name, Abdul Rahman Khan,
and was constructed by him with the best amenities. An Afghan architect named "Mir
Hafiz Ullah Hashemi" was responsible for the creation of the Abdul Rahman Khan
Mosque. Although the Abdul Rahman Khan Mosque's construction was finished in 2009,
it wasn't inaugurated until 2012. The opening ceremony of the Abdul Rahman Khan
Mosque was attended by Hamid Karzai, the former leader of Afghanistan, and several
other dignitaries.

164
The Abdul Rahman Khan Mosque has two minarets and 14 domes. Some individuals
estimate that there are 20 domes. The minarets are approximately 62 meters high, and
each one has a water supply for the ablution of worshipers.
The Abdul Rahman Khan Mosque's walls, minarets, and domes are adorned with Quranic
verses and Islamic symbols. The mosque has a unique beauty because of these lines and
patterns, which are characteristic of Afghan art. Everybody's soul is polished by the Holy
Qur'anic verses that are displayed around the mosque.
The basement portion of the Abdul Rahman Khan Mosque has 1,600 square meters of
ablution space. The simultaneous capacity of this restroom is 500 people.
The Abdul Rahman Khan Mosque's men's section is 900 square meters in size, while the
second level, which is for women only, is 500 square meters.
In addition to a library, Abdul Rahman Khan Mosque has a school. Its library comprises
two male and female reading rooms and 150 000 boo allows worshipers and readers the
opportunity to study and learn alongside their devotion, this library is tremendously
beneficial to both groups. the dome being invaded by natural elements. As previously
reported, the gunpowder storehouses caught fire, destroying this minaret, which was later
rebuilt. This is evident from the materials utilized in the minaret's construction. [13]

Figure 28 (Abdul Rahman khan Mosque [Source: Authors]

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7. Result
After studying those 4 well-known mosques in Afghanistan, we find out that these
mosques have undergone many adjustments and alterations. Shah do Shamshira mosque
has a lot of decoration and designs which has been inspired by Moghul architecture and
decorations. This mosque just has a small prayer hall with two stories tall with different
miniature. A lot of local construction materials such as wood. Its dome and carpets have
been built of wood which shows the impact of local architecture.
As we mentioned that mosque is an inseparable element of afghan society, and most
afghans are sending their children to the mosque for education and Islamic studies. So,
the culture of the society affected the architecture of this mosque. Pol-kheshti mosque
besides its religious use has a school for kids and a separate ablution area.
The heating of the mosque is a little difficult during the winter. lots people had a place in
their house by the name of Taba Khana which has a basement with the necessary
equipment for heating the home. This element has been used in the Pakhta froshi mosque
too. So, the mosque has two summers and a winter prayer hall. This shows how custom
and tradition affect the architecture of the mosque. Wood, clay, and iron are the local
construction materials that had been used in this mosque.
Abdulrahman mosque is one of the earliest mosques which has been built in Kabul. They
have used modern architecture in composition with Islamic architecture. The miniature
and decoration in the exterior parts of this construction show the beauty of Islamic
architecture. This mosque has a broad ablution area and restrooms with a facility for
education that provides a library for people.
8. Conclusion
We find out that the culture and tradition of people in the society have affected
Afghanistan's architecture especially mosque architecture. Early mosques have been
affected by foreign architecture, Moghul Miniatures, and Patterns. Mosques have been
evaluated from time to time. Society, People's morals, and Construction materials had the
most impact on this evaluation. Society customs ,traditions, and demands have been
utilized in these mosques such as Taba Khana, Religious schools, and so on. According
to our study, most of the present mosques do not have the basic elements of the standard
mosque. Most of them have been built arbitrarily. Mosque is a historic and ancient base
of Islam and as Allah (SWT) said the Religion is completed 1400 years ago and there is
no change possible on that, similarly society doesn’t want change and alterations in the
base and basic elements of mosques, lots of afghans want those ancient architectural
elements in today’s mosques. Such as winter and summer prayer halls, and the religious
use of mosques in society.

166
Reference

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prophets-mosque/.

[3] D. A. Khalil, Atlas of the Qurʼān: Places, Nations, Landmarks.

[4] H. F. Al.Ratrout, "The Second Mosque in the Earth that Islamic Jerusalem Forgot
revealing the ancient Al-Aqsa Mosque," Journal of Islamic Jerusalem Studies, pp.
23-52, 2013.

[5] H. Fayyad, "Middle East Eye," [Online]. Available: www.middleeasteye.net.

[6] H. M.Al-Ahmadi, S. Wael and R. H. Malkawi, "Statistical analysis of the crowd

of dynamic in Masjid al-nabawi in the city of Medina, Saudia Arabia,"
International Journal of Crowd Science, pp. 52-62, 2018.

[7] S. Faruqui, "Muslim Hands," muslimhands.org.uk.

[8] S. a.-h. Riyaz, "Spatial analysis of Masjed al-haram," Journal of interdisciplinary

studies in humanities, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 61-87, 2012.

[9] A. H. Noqrakar, "Holy Kaaba Fundamental design of desirable places of

worship," Islamic architectural research, vol. 1, no. 1, pp. 25-41, 1392.

[10] H. Alhawasli and M. R. Bemanian, "THE IMPACT OF HOLY KAABA CUBIC

SHAPE ON THE INCORPOREAL," JOURNAL OF ISLAMIC ARCHITECTURE,
pp. 103-110, 2018.

[11] C. Gimondi, The Ancient Noh Gonbad Mosque, THe study and Consideration Of
an Early Islamic Monument at Balkh, BOLIS EDIZIONI, 2016.

[12] A. W. Ayoobi and H. G. Demirkol, "An evaluation of architectural monuments

in," JOURNAL OF DESIGN FOR RESILIENCE, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 64-85, 2021.

[13] E. Knobloch, The archaeology and architecture of Afghanistan, 2002.

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https://www.orientalarchitecture.com/.

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Authors Profile:

Noorullah Hashemi born in Kabul, Afghanistan. He graduated from school

in 2016 and received his Bachelor's Degree in Architectural Engineering
from Kabul Polytechnic University in 2022. His area of interest are including
Islamic Architecture, Sustainability, and Modern Architecture.

Abdul Halim Hakimi has a Master's Degree in Islamic Studies his Field of
Research includes Islamic Studies. He is currently working as head of the
Islamic Studies Department of Kabul Polytechnic University.

Mohammad Ayuob Awwab was born in 1351. He graduated from Imam

Bukhari Secondary School in 1371. He received his bachelor's degree in
Islamic studies from Kabul University in 1375. He joined Kabul Polytechnic
University Islamic Studies Department in 1377. He is interested in Islam and
science, Quran, and contemporary sciences.

Hasibullah Sakha born in Kabul, Afghanistan. He graduated from school in

2016 and received his Bachelor's Degree in Architectural Engineering from
Kabul Polytechnic University in 2022. His area of interest are including
Islamic Architecture.

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 KPU International Journal of Engineering & Technology
Volume 2, Issue2, Dec. 2022
Date Received: 2022-10-03
e-ISSN:2790-0819, p-ISSN:2790-0800
Date Accepted: 2022-12-22
Date Published: 2022-12-30

Mapping and Evaluating Land Suitability Using a GIS-Based Model:

A Case Study in the Abyek Area, Qazvin, Iran
MARHABA SAHBANI1, FEREYDOONS ARMADIAN2*, MOHAMMAD DAUD HAIDARI3
1Department of Soil Science and Irrigation, Kabul University, Kabul, Afghanistan, Email: [email protected]
2*Department of Soil Science, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, College of Agriculture and Natural
Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran, E-mail: [email protected]
3Department of Soil Science and Irrigation, Kabul University, Kabul, Afghanistan, Email: [email protected]

Abstract
Land suitability is an important strategy for optimal and sustainable use of land and stabilization of its
performance. The area covers 5,215 hectares and consists mostly of cultivated land. The objective of this
study was to evaluate the available land resources and produce a land suitability map for irrigated wheat.
For an assessment of the study area, a total of 32 representative soil profiles were used for collecting soil
samples. They were also used as input to the model. The conditioned Latin Hypercube Sampling (cLHS)
method was used for determining sampling points. Covariates for running the model were elaborated from
remote sensing data. The suitability classification for irrigated wheat crops was determined using a
parametric method. The random forest model of SAGA GIS software was used to predict suitability classes.
For preparing the final map of land suitability, firstly the raster map related to the parameters affecting
land suitability was prepared in the ArcGIS environment, and secondly, this raster file was stacked in the
random forest model with auxiliary variable layers and the final map was obtained. The results showed
that about 52.68% (2747.5 ha) of the studied area was found to be highly suitable (S1), 44.1% (2295.4 ha)
was moderately suitable (S2), and 2.96% (154.8 ha) was marginally suitable (S3). In addition, 0.33% (17.4
ha) of the total area was classified as currently unsuitable. The main limiting factors for land suitability
were texture, depth, alkalinity, and the presence of coarse fragments in the soil. It was also found that with
the help of environmental variables and GIS, making the framework for the optimum use of land become
very easy and provided significant advantages in terms of time and economic aspects.

Keywords: Land suitability, Wheat, Variables, Parametric method, Random forest model

*
Corresponding Author

169
1. Introduction
Land evaluation is the process of relating the specific type of land use to the features of
land resources, using scientific standards and techniques. Users and planners can use the
findings as a reference to find alternatives to other land uses [1]. Land can be utilized for
a variety of purposes, such as entertainment, agriculture, industry, housing, fishing, and
the preservation of nature. An adequate framework for land management and appropriate
land use is provided by the evaluation of a specific area. Any choice about land use in the
initial step requires land evaluation of resources and technology available. The efficient
utilization of available land resources for sustainable agricultural crop production
necessitates land evaluation. Farmers and policymakers will be able to identify the most
suitable places for different plant production and management options and establish
sustainable agriculture using the results produced from the creation of a geographical soil
map and land assessment [2]. Land suitability analysis is a method of land evaluation that
identifies the main limiting factors of a particular plant. In addition, it assists in the
creation of a suitable crop management system to increase land productivity through
options. Land suitability evaluation is a method that can be used for growing plants
resistant to unfavorable environmental conditions [3-4].
GIS is a very useful tool for preparing thematic maps. The integration of geological and
topographical maps with digital elevation models is done much more accurately and
quickly by GIS. It also greatly reduces the time required for data entry and output [5].
Different machine learning models are used to discover patterns in data and to make
predictions and have a great potential to improve land suitability evaluation [6]. The
random forest model, which use to predict soil classes, was introduced by Breiman in
2001 as an extension of the CART model to improve the efficiency of the model
estimation [7] and it has been mainly used in remote sensing studies; random forest model
can consider several environmental variables simultaneously [8].
According to several recent studies, the availability of remotely sensed data and
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) allows the combining knowledge from various
sources to improve land suitability evaluation [3-4-6-9-10-11-12-13] and the current
study was conceptualized using these research findings.
Cereals are an important part of dietaries; they are a significant source of energy, protein,
vitamins (vitamins A and C), and minerals (potassium and calcium) [14]. Wheat (Triticum
aestivum L) is the most widely grown cereal crop in the world - an estimated, wheat
covering about 237 million hectares annually [15]. The main objective of this research
was to perform the land suitability evaluation and carry out suitability mapping for the
wheat crops by integrating different information using GIS tools for areas in the eastern

170
part of the Qazvin province of Iran. In addition, the main factors limiting the proper
growth of wheat in the study area will also be identified.

2. Methods and Materials

2.1. Study area
The study area is approximately 5215 ha and is located between latitudes 36° 2′-36° 8′ N
and longitudes 50° 20′-50° 20′ E in Abyik County of Qazvin province of Iran (fig. 1). Its
altitude extends between 1163 -1379 m.a.s.l and its temperature and moisture regimes are
thermic and xeric. According to the Bagh-e-Kowsar Meteorological Station, The amount
of annual rainfall is 278.43 mm and the annual average temperature is 13.88 °C. The
month with the most rain was March, with 52.2 mm of rainfall, and the month with the
least rain was September, with 0.18 mm of rainfall. Temperatures averaged 21.47 °C for
the highest and 6.07 °C for the lowest. In terms of topography, the area is mainly flat, and
the majority area has fertile farmland for cultivation.

Figure 1. Study area

2.2. Soil sampling and analysis

The soil sampling scheme was performed by applying the conditioned Latin Hypercube
Sampling algorithm (cLHS) [16]. The distribution of 32 locations acquired by cLHS is
illustrated in Figure 2. The method presented is a stratified randomized design that with
the help of multivariate distribution causes effective sampling of the study area.
Regarding environmental variables and the geological map of the study area, R Software
was used to perform the conditioned Latin Hypercube Sampling (cLHS) approach. The

171
geological map of the study area has been obtained from the geological Survey and
mineral exploration of Iran. Digital elevation model ASTER GDEM with the 30-meter
spatial resolution was obtained from Aster Global Digital Elevation Map
(http://gdex.cr.usgs.gov/gdex/) and a satellite image of the study area belonging to
Sentinel-2 was downloaded from Copernicus Open Access Hub. Variables such as Slope,
Slope length, Wetness Index (WI), Multi-resolution Valley Bottom Flatness Index
(MrVBF), and Multi-resolution Ridge Top Flatness Index (MrRTF), were extracted from
DEM using SAGA GIS and ArcMap software. Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
(NDVI) was extracted from satellite images using ERDAS IMAGINE and SNAP
software. The selected variables were entered into the conditioned Latin Hypercube
Sampling technique, and the algorithm divided the data into n values with the same
probability, after applying the Latin square condition (one sample in each dimension a
and b) the layers are combined and the algorithm starts it repeats the process until the
objective evolution function reaches stability. 50 thousand iterations were used to run the
model and obtain the objective function (Figure 3).

Figure 2. Soil sample point

172
 Figure 3. Evolution of the objective function

The Global Positioning System (GPS) was used to determine the geographical locations
of all sampling points (profiles) and then profiles were excavated. Profiles were defined
using the Field book for describing and sampling soils [17], and samples were collected
from all of their genetic horizons and sent to the laboratory for regular physicochemical
analyses. Soil samples were air dried and then crushed with mortar and pestle and passed
through a 2-mm sieve for separating the coarse fragments (<2mm). The fine particles
were stored in separate containers and used for physicochemical analysis. The calcium
carbonate contents of the soil were determined using back-titration methods [18]. The
organic carbon content was determined by the modified Walkley and Black method
described by Jackson [19]. The amount of gypsum was measured using the Acetone
method [20]. The soil pH and Electrical conductivity (EC) were measured in extracted
saturated soil. The soil texture was determined using the hydrometer method [21].

2.3. Land Suitability evaluation

A parametric approach (Square Root method) [22] was utilized for 32 profiles to assess
land suitability for irrigated wheat. The most important factors in land evaluation are
topography, soil, and climate. These factors, particularly topography (including relief/
slope and elevation) and soil, have a considerable impact on the land unit determination.
Relief and elevation are closely related to plant requirements as relief effect land
management and erosion risk, while elevation affects heat and sunlight.
In this study, firstly, important information about the research area's land features was
collected. Some of the data were obtained from the results of soil studies (laboratory

173
analyses and field observation) and climatic data (minimum and maximum temperatures,
number of sunshine hours, amount of rainfall, relative humidity, and wind speed) used in
land evaluation for various purposes (specifying plant growth period, cultivation date,
and so on) were obtained from the Bagh-e-Kowsar meteorological station.
Eight parameters have been used in this work to study land suitability for irrigated wheat.
These parameters are soil calcium carbonate, depth, EC, pH, organic carbon, texture,
coarse fragments, and gypsum. The average weight of these parameters, including climate
(criteria used to determine land suitability), for each profile up to the root depth, was
calculated. As our targeted plant is irrigated wheat, an annual crop, of up to 100 cm was
calculated. Then, the land limitation (in terms of soil and topography) of each map unit
was determined by matching the characteristics of each soil profile with the criteria of the
plant demands table [23-24].
The parametric approach (Square root method) uses the following formula to calculate
the final land index:

A B C
I = Rmin × √ × × × …
100 100 100

Where I is the index, Rmin is the minimum rating, and A, B, C, … are other ratings
besides the minimum rating [25].
Rainfall was eliminated using data from the Bagh-e-Kowsar meteorological station to
determine climatic appropriateness, considering the assumption that irrigated wheat water
requirements are met by irrigation. Other environmental parameters for the growth cycle
[23] were determined using 22-year meteorological data from the Bagh-e-Kowsar
synoptic station.
After identifying the climatic parameters needed to assess the climate of the study area,
the values were compared with the table of wheat climatic requirements, and the final
climatic class for wheat was obtained by using the parametric approach (Square Root
method).
The land index was then calculated using the parametric method based on the degree of
suitability of the climate elements. After that, considering soil [24] and climatic [23]
limitations, the final class of land suitability was determined according to the numerical
values of the land index for different classes of land suitability. Finally, the map of land
suitability for irrigated wheat production was prepared.

174
2.4 Modeling to create a digital map of land suitability assessment
To model the land suitability assessment, all land suitability classes were recognized and
coded based on the parameters such as soil organic carbon, texture, pH, EC, calcium
carbonate, depth, gypsum, and coarse fragments.
Google Earth was used to detect all soil profiles by knowing their geographical
coordinates and then saving them as a single KMZ layer. After that, ArcMap software
was used to convert the specified layer to a shape file. In the next step, the prepared shape
file along with the layer related to the digital elevation model for sampling from land
suitability classes and preparing the latest file related to the land suitability classes to
introduce it for the desired model was entered into ArcMap software. This method was
used to prepare and store the final shape files of land suitability classes.
The digital elevation model (one of the primary indicators of land characteristics) was
used to determine the terrain components, which were derived from the ALOS satellite
with a spatial resolution of 12.5 meters. After digital elevation model derivation and
changing the coordinate system to the UTM coordinate system, five indexes: Wetness
(humidity) Index (WI), Multi-resolution Valley Bottom Flatness Index (MrVBF), Multi-
resolution Ridge Top Flatness Index (MrRTF), land shapes, and morphometric Features)
were calculated and derived using SAGA software. Sentinel-2 images with a spatial
resolution of 10 meters from 2017, 2018, and 2019 were utilized to derive the Normalized
Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI). Finally, a shape file of land suitability classes along
with prepared environmental variables was provided to the random forest model in SAGA
software. The model is implemented using 500 trees, with each node containing five
different features (mtry).

3. Results and Discussion

The land suitability evaluation procedure was set based on Food and Agriculture
Organization's (FAO) 1976 general framework in terms of land suitability [26].
According to the findings of the climate assessment in the study area, the climate does
not impose any restrictions on its cultivation and therefore the climate class was obtained
as S1. Table 1 shows the land suitability classes for irrigated wheat in each land unit.
Figure 4 displays the digital map of the land suitability classes for irrigated wheat, and
Table 2 shows the area devoted to the land suitability classes for irrigated wheat. The soils
of these regions have mainly less than 2% slope. Generally, cereal crops require slightly
sloping land for smooth and easy tillage practices. In addition, the soils have suitable
depth; root penetration will stop with soil depth limitation because of a physical barrier
or unsuitable chemical properties [27]. The results of the land suitability analysis showed
that the large parts of the studied area were classified as highly suitable 52.68% (2, 2747.5

175
 ha) (Table 2) and is located mostly in the central part of the studied area (Figure 4).
Because of a physical barrier such as coarse fragments and soil texture, 23.58% of the
studied area was classified as S2s (Table 2), The S2s land units are located in the north
and south parts of the studied area (Figure 4). Due to the soil alkalinity, 20.43% and
2.65% of the studied area were classified as S2n and S3n (Table 2); these are low lands,
located in the south part of the studied area with gypsum-containing soils (Figure 4).
However, 0.31% and 0.33% of the studied area (Table 2), located in the north part of the
studied area (Figure 4) were classified as N1s and S3s, due to soil texture limitations and
the presence of coarse fragments.
The findings show that the accuracy of the results obtained with the square root method
is high and revealed to be more realistic in comparison with other methods' results.
Bagherzadeh and Mansouri Daneshvar (2011) used different methods, including the
square root method, to evaluate land suitability for wheat cultivation in Iran [28]. He fined
that texture/structure, coarse fragments, OC, CEC, and pH are the most significant
limiting factors for irrigated wheat. Zeinodini (2003) evaluated the land suitability for
wheat crops in Iran. The land suitability classification results based on the parametric
method show that the land suitability classes are various from S1 to S3. This author found
that the dominant limiting factors for wheat cultivation are gypsum, texture, and soil
structure [29]. Baqer Zadeh et al. (2012) reported that the Storie method’s results were
very strict and far from reality, whereas the square root represented more balanced results
for the determination of land suitability classes [30].
Table 1: Land suitability classes in each land unit using a parametric approach (square root method) for
irrigated wheat

Land suitability unit Land index suitability class Land suitability unit Land index suitability class
1 60 S2n* 17 16 N1s
2 61 S2n 18 40 S3s
3 65 S2s* 19 62 S2s
4 58 S2s 20 61 S2s
5 83 S1 21 83 S1
6 66 S2n 22 59 S2s
7 88 S1 23 79 S1
8 41 S3n 24 55 S2s
9 56 S2n 25 77 S1
10 81 S1 26 63 S2s
11 94 S1 27 37 S3s
12 89 S1 28 58 S2s
13 91 S1 29 58 S2s
14 83 S1 30 57 S2s
15 89 S1 31 55 S2s
16 88 S1 32 58 S2s
*n and s show soil alkalinity and soil physical (properties) limitations

176
Figure 4. Digital map of land suitability classes for irrigated wheat

177
Figure 5. Probability map of land suitability classes for irrigated wheat

178
According to the probability map of land suitability, the central and northern parts of the
study area have the highest accuracy. The estimation accuracy was low in some parts,
such as those between the northern and central parts, and it was very low in the southern
parts of the study area. Obtaining a probability map, which helps to interpret the map, is
a good achievement. The probability map was obtained based on a digital map of land
suitability.
Table 2: Area related to land suitability classes for irrigated wheat

land suitability class Area (ha) Area (%)

S1 2747.5 52.68
S2s 1229.8 23.58
S2n 1065.6 20.43
S3s 16.3 0.32
S3n 138.5 2.65
N1s 17.4 0.34

4. Conclusions
The purpose of this study was to perform the land suitability evaluation and carry out
suitability mapping for the irrigated wheat crops by integrating environmental auxiliary
variables, using GIS tools. The parametric method (square root formula) was used to
evaluate the suitability. Land suitability analysis of the studied area indicated that 2747.5
ha (52.68%) had no restrictions for wheat cultivation and were classified as highly
suitable S1. About 2294.4 ha (44.01%) of the studied area was classified as moderately
suitable (S2) due to the soil alkalinity and soil physical properties restrictions, for irrigated
wheat cultivation. Due to the soil alkalinity and soil physical properties restrictions, the
remaining 3.31% were classified as marginally suitable (S3) and currently not suitable
(N1). In preparing a land suitability map for irrigated wheat, variables such as the
Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, Inverted-red Edge Chlorophyll Index, Digital
Elevation Model, Multi-resolution Valley Bottom Flatness Index, and Multi-resolution
Ridge Top Flatness Index, all of these variables had the greatest influence on soil changes
and the creation of a digital map of land suitability classes for irrigated wheat.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank all members of the soil science laboratory, Department
of Soil Science, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering and Technology, College of
Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, for providing the facilities to
carry out this work and for their suggestions.

179
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Authors Profile:
Marhaba Sahbani received his BSc degree from plant science Department of
Alberoni University in 2010. He got his MSc degree in soil science from
College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj,
Iran in 2019. Presently he is working as assistant professor in Soil science and
Irrigation Department, Kabul University, Kabul Afghanistan. His area of
research includes Pedology and Land Evaluation.

Fereydoon Sarmadian received his PhD in soil science from College of

Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran in 1992.
From 1989 up to present, he is working as professor in Soil science
Department, University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran. His area of research includes
Pedology and Land Evaluation.

Mohammad Daud Haidari received his BSc degree from Agronomy

Department of Kabul University in 2006. He got his MSc in soil science and
agricultural chemistry from University of Agricultural Sciences (UAS),
Bangalore, India in 2011. In 2012, he obtained his PhD in soil science and
plant nutrition from Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology
(TUAT), Tokyo, Japan in 2017. Presently he is working as assistant professor
in Soil science and Irrigation Department, Kabul University, Kabul
Afghanistan. His area of research includes Soil chemistry and plant nutrition.

183
184
 KPU International Journal of Engineering & Technology
Volume 2, Issue2, Dec. 2022
Date Received: 2022-10-06
e-ISSN:2790-0819, p-ISSN:2790-0800
Date Accepted: 2022-12-19
Date Published: 2022-12-30

Determination of A Suitable Operating Method For Gas Wells From

Jurassic Reservoir Rocks in The Khwaja Gogerdak Gas Field,
Northern Afghanistan
SADAF JALAL1*, MOHAMMAD WALID OMID2, ABDUL SHUKOOR DAWAR3
1*Assist. Professor, Department of Oil and Gas Mines Engineering, Kabul Polytechnic University, KPU campus, 5th
District, Kabul, Afghanistan. Email: [email protected]
2Assist. Professor, Department of Oil and Gas Mines Engineering, Kabul Polytechnic University, KPU campus, 5th
District, Kabul, Afghanistan. Email: [email protected]
3Professor,
Department of Oil and Gas Mines Engineering, Kabul Polytechnic University, KPU campus, 5th District,
Kabul, Afghanistan. Email: [email protected]

Abstract
The technological regime (method) for gas exploitation from wells is the determination of the appropriate flow rate
for gas wells, considering the physical and mechanical properties of reservoir rocks and formation pressure, which
can provide normal gas exploitation during good operation. The objective of this scientific research paper is to
determine a suitable gas extraction method to maximize well flow. By adjusting and choosing a suitable operating
method, we will be able to foresee and stop various problems. These problems include the formation of water tongue
and water penetration into the wells, confinement of the gas within the formation, factors that may damage the
production intervals, and rapid reduction of the formation pressure. Finally, determining and choosing an appropriate
gas exploitation method can help us increase the rate of gas flow and extend the life of the well. This scientific-research
work is a mix of field and library work and is based on the figures measured in the head and bottom of well No. 3. The
measured figures and information collected from this well are: daily gas production, amount of formation, wellhead
pressure, and well bottom pressure, Parameters and characteristics of the productive formation, like the gas
compression capability coefficient, the filtration resistance coefficient, and the permeability coefficient, have been
determined using formulas and graphs, both analytically and graphically. The question is: Which exploitation regime
(method) should we use to minimize the exploitation problems and maximize the amount of gas production? This
scientific research work is a mixture of field and library works and is based on the data collected from the head and
bottom of well no. 3 of the Khwaja Gogerdak gas mine. The measurements, data, and information gathered from the
above-mentioned well include the production rate of gas per day, the amount of pressure of the formation, and the
wellhead. In addition, the parameters and characteristics of the productive formation, like the coefficient of
compression capacity of the gas, coefficient of resistance to filtering, and coefficient of impermeability are determined
by formulations and graphs, both analytical and graphical. The question is: What operating regime (method) should
we use to minimize exploitation problems and maximize gas production? In this article, problems with the gas
exploitation process are well identified, and reasonable solutions are predicted. As a result, without determining an
appropriate technological exploitation regime, it is not possible to extract gas properly from the wells.

Keywords: Suitable gas exploitation regime, daily discharge, well testing, reservoir rocks, gas mine.

*
Corresponding Author

183
 1. Introduction
To extract gas from mines, it is necessary to determine a suitable technological regime
for the exploitation of gas. If a suitable operating regime is not selected, the operating
process will face serious problems such as the destruction of the area around the bottom
of the well (productive interval), formation of sand barriers, accumulation of water on the
bottom of wells, rusting of production equipment, formation of water tabs (uneven
progression of the gas contour), entrapment of gas in reservoir rocks, etc.
To avoid the problems mentioned previously during the process of exploiting Jurassic
reservoir rocks, we must determine an appropriate exploitation regime for well No. 3 and
all other wells drilled in the Khwaja Gogerdak Gas Field. Hydrodynamic testing has
incredible scientific and economic value. We can select a suitable technological gas
exploitation regime by analyzing, interpreting test results, and obtaining various
productive layer parameters.
The main purpose of this research paper is to determine the maximum permissible and
favorable gas flow rate from the Jurassic formation of the Khwaja Gogerdak Gas field
based on the formation pressure, the pressures at the head and bottom of the well, and
well discharges under different operating regimes.
Furthermore, parameters such as porosity, permeability, saturation, and thickness of
the gaseous layers are determined with the help of field studies, comprehensive
calculations, and analyses using formulas, graphs, figures, and tables. Finally, the
necessary parameters are arranged, and appropriate technological gas exploitation
regimes are chosen for the exploitation of gas from wells.
In this study, we are focusing on the following point.
1. Determination of an appropriate technological gas exploitation regime (method)
for wells.
2. Identification of important parameters of production formation (porosity,
permeability, formation pressure, etc.)
3. Determination of an appropriate operating regime for gas production to maximize
the allowable flow rate (discharge rate) of wells.
4. Evaluation of the productivity of wells and associated fluids.

2. The structure map of the Jurassic

The structure of the Khwaja Gogerdak Mines field is located in the north part of
Afghanistan, 23 kilometers east of the city of Sheberghan, Jawzjan, Afghanistan. This is
one of the most gas-rich parts of northern Afghanistan. In the Khwaja Gogerdak Gas
Mining field, gas reservoirs are proven in upper Jurassic limestones, dolomite,
sandstones, and, to some extent, Cretaceous calcareous sediments. Gas production started
from this mine with the cooperation of the Soviet Union in October 1967 (2.6 billion
cubic meters per year). Until now, most of the gas reserves have been depleted from the
Getrif, Albian, and Aptian reservoirs in the Khwaja Gogerdak gas field. The extracted gas

184
was then transported by pipeline to the former Soviet Union and Mazar-e-Sharif
fertilizing and the electric planet. Currently, gas is depleted from the Getrif sediments of
the Khwaja Gorgerdak Mining field. However, the reserve of Jurassic sediments,
which amounts to about 10.6 billion cubic meters, is still intact and has been completely
opened by wells No. 3, 41, and 43. In this mining field, no gas has been extracted from
the Upper Jurassic mine, because of its location at a greater depth and the sourness of its
gas (containing hydrogen sulfide). Preventing future exploitation problems requires
determining optimal exploitation regimes and maximum allowable flow rates from these
wells.

Figure 1: The structural map of the Khwaja Gogerdak gas field

185
 Well No.3
Well, No.3 is drilled on the top of the anticline for evaluation and exploitation of the
Khwaja Gogerdak gas field. The depth of the well is 2800 m.
The characteristics of the well according to the basic information Measured in the
field:
 The average depth of wells Lav = 2309m
 Relative density of gas 𝜌̅ = 0,66
 Stratum heat Tlay = 368𝑘 °
 Stratum pressure Play = 318 atm
 The diameter of exploitation column D = 127mm
 The thickness of the productive layer h = 51m
 Gas viscosity µ= 0,02CPz
750
 Feed meter radius 2δ = 750,Rk = = 375m
2
 Depression ∆P=54at

3. Methodology
The current research was done through both library-based methods and field surveys.
The first part was performed by reviewing the existing literature, but the second part was
carried out with a distributed questionnaire along the studied route.
The data used in this research paper are collected from wells during gas production and
other scientific research reports from the Jawzjan Hydrocarbon Survey Directorate and
the Afghan Gas Directorate. Subsequently, information and field data were analyzed and
evaluated by reliable scientific sources and international scientific experiments. Based on
that, an appropriate method for gas production from the wells, layer filtration resistance
coefficient, the permeability coefficient of the layer, physical-mechanical characteristics
of the rocks, pressure, and temperature of the upper Jurassic production interval of the
Khwaja Gogerdak gas field was determined.
In this research, gas well number (3) of the Khwaja Gogerdak gas field was tested with
the constant regime method. And the well was debited by the DUKT CTDM consumption
meter, and the figures were measured. Pressure and temperature under different working
regimes are written in table 1.
Table 1: The price of gas exploitation parameters that are measured in the wellhead

Gas heat in the Static Choke diameter Regime

Choke coefficient Dynamic pressure
wellhead pressure in Number
C Pmou, atm
Tmou, ko Pmou. st, atm mm

315 62.244 105 100 19.05 1

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 320 46 125 120 15.85 2

321 35.44 138 128 12.7 3

322 25.245 169 145 11.13 4

318 16.917 175 170 9.51 5

4. Determination of an appropriate operating system for the Khwaja Gogerdak

Jurassic wells:
The wells are tested using different gas-producing methods. There are two common
methods to test oil and gas wells:
1. Well testing during constant operation (constant fluid flow rate).
2. Well-testing in static operation (variable fluid flow rates).
The hydrodynamic testing of the well involves determining the necessary parameters
for the well, and the production layer during the filtration of the gas from the bottom of
the well and from the bottom of the well to the surface. Research on the hydrodynamics
of oil and gas wells and the analysis and interpretation of their results are important parts
of the oil and gas production process. [3]
Gas wells were tested during constant operation in this study, and the good flow rate was
measured several times by installing and removing different chokes into the X-mass tree
outlet line. At each flow rate, wellhead and bottom pressures were measured. The
equipment used in the data collection of this research is illustrated in the figures below.

Figure 2: Critical flow rate diaphragm measuring tool

187
 During the investigations, a special gas consumption measurement device (wellhead
monitor and critical flowmeter) is installed on the wellhead outlet lines. The structure of
this device is illustrated in Fig (4). This device is composed of a body (1) and a choke
(2), which is connected to the body through a joint (3). The choke has cone-shaped
canals with specific diameters. In addition, in the unit of measurement, special channels
are installed for connecting the manometer, the duck (5), and the thermometer. [3] [2]
In the study of gas wells, the gas passes through the measurement device and is
released into the atmosphere. Simultaneously, the gas pressure in the measuring device
(dynamic pressure), the pressure in the back space of the tubing (static pressure), and the
gas temperature are measured. Subsequently, the operating regime of the well is changed
by changing the diameter of the choke. For this purpose, the well is shut down for a short
period (10-15 minutes) and the valves are measured by the instruments. After installation
of the new choke, the good flow rate changes, causing pressure changes at the wellhead
after a period of (2-3) hours or more. Pressure and temperature are measured twice.
Basic formulas for performing calculations:
Gas compressibility coefficient calculation formulas:
Z= F (Pacou, Tacou)………… ………….….………..1
Pcri = 49.5-3.7 ∙ 𝜌̅ ……………………………..…...2
Tcri = 93+176 ∙ 𝜌̅ ………………………………….3
𝑃
Pacou = ………………………………………….4
𝑃𝑐𝑟𝑖

𝑇
Tacou= …………………………………….……..5
𝑇𝑐𝑟𝑖

c. The formula to determine a gas well's 24-hour flow rate:

𝐶1 ∙𝑃𝑚∙𝑑𝑖𝑛
𝑄= ̅
m3/24h…………………………6
√𝑍1 ∙𝑇∙𝜌

d. Formula to determine the pressure at the bottom of the well concerning the static
pressure of the well.:
𝑃𝑤 = 𝑃𝑚∙𝑠𝑡 ∙ 𝑒 𝑠 …………………………………..….7
e. Formula to determine the pressure at the bottom of the well using the dynamic pressure
of the wellhead.:

𝑃𝑤 = √𝑃𝑚∙𝑑𝑖𝑛 ∙ 𝑒 2𝑆 + 𝜃𝑞 2 , KGF/cm2………………..8
f. The gas flow equation of the downhole production interval.:
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑦 2 − 𝑃𝑤 2 = 𝐴𝑞 + 𝐵𝑞 2 …………………………..9

188
g. Formula for the determination of the permeability factor of the production film.:
𝐾
116∙𝑚𝑔∙𝑧∙𝑃0 ∙𝑇𝑙𝑎𝑦 ∙ln𝑅 𝑘
𝐾= ∏∙𝐾∙ℎ∙𝑇0
𝑤
……………………….….10

Figure 3: Determination of the gas compressibility coefficient based on the calculated pressure and heat.

4.1.The sequence of calculations:

Well Flow Rate Calculation: After testing the well, we calculate the flow rate of the
well in each gas extraction regime as follows:
C ∙ 𝑃𝑚∙𝑑𝑖𝑛
𝑄= m3/24h
√Z ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝜌̅

189
Here: 𝑃𝑚∙𝑑𝑖𝑛 dynamic pressure before choke, Z gas compressibility coefficient, T Gas
temperature in Kelvin, 𝜌̅ relative density of gas and C is the choke coefficient.
To obtain the flow rate, the coefficient of compressibility for each regime is defined.
First, the value of the critical pressures Pcri, critical temperature Tcri, calculated pressure
Pacou, calculated temperature Tacou, and the value of the compression coefficient is defined
using the above diagram.
Regime 1:
Tcri=93+176𝜌̅ =93+176·0,66=93+116,6=209,160k
Pcri=49,5-3.7𝜌̅ =49,5-3,7·0.66 =47,06at
𝑇𝑚𝑜𝑢1 315
Tacou1= = = 1,5
𝑇cri 209,16

𝑃𝑚∙𝑑𝑖𝑛1 100
𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑢1 = = = 2,12
𝑃cri 47,06
𝑍1 = 0,84
Using the above prices and formulas, the well debit will be calculated as follow:
𝐶1 ∙ 𝑃𝑚∙𝑑𝑖𝑛 62,244 ∙ 100 6224,4
𝑄1 = = = = 471,5𝑇 ∙ 𝑀3 /24ℎ
√𝑍1 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝜌̅ √0,84 ∙ 315 ∙ 0,06 13,2

Regime 2:
𝑇𝑚𝑜𝑢2 320 𝑃𝑚∙𝑑𝑖𝑛2 120
Tacou2= = = 1,53 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑢2 = = = 2,55
𝑇cri 209,16 𝑃cri 47,06

𝑍2 = 0,82
𝐶2 ∙ 𝑃𝑚∙𝑑𝑖𝑛 46 ∙ 120 5520
𝑄2 = = = = 419,45𝑇 ∙ 𝑀3 /24ℎ
√𝑍2 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝜌̅ √0,82 ∙ 320 ∙ 0,62 13,16

Regime 3:
𝑇𝑚𝑜𝑢3 321 𝑃𝑚∙𝑑𝑖𝑛3 128
Tacou3= = = 1,53 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑢3 = = = 2,72
𝑇cri 209,16 𝑃cri 47,06

𝑍3 = 0,8
𝐶3 ∙ 𝑃𝑚∙𝑑𝑖𝑛 35,44 ∙ 128 4536.3
𝑄3 = = = = 344,1𝑇 ∙ 𝑀3 /24ℎ
√𝑍3 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝜌̅ √0,82 ∙ 321 ∙ 0,66 13.18

Regime 4:
𝑇𝑚𝑜𝑢4 322 𝑃𝑚∙𝑑𝑖𝑛4 145
Tacou4= = = 1,54 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑢4 = = = 3,08
𝑇cri 209,16 𝑃cri 47,06

190
𝑍4 = 0,8
𝐶4 ∙ 𝑃𝑚∙𝑑𝑖𝑛 25,245 ∙ 145 3660.5
𝑄4 = = = = 282.6𝑇 ∙ 𝑀3 /24ℎ
√𝑍4 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝜌̅ √0,79 ∙ 322 ∙ 0,66 12,95

Regime 5:
𝑇𝑚𝑜𝑢5 318 𝑃𝑚∙𝑑𝑖𝑛5 170
Tacou5= = = 1,52 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑢5 = = = 3,6
𝑇cri 209,16 𝑃cri 47,06

𝑍5 = 0,78
𝐶5 ∙ 𝑃𝑚∙𝑑𝑖𝑛 16,917 ∙ 170 2875,89
𝑄5 = = = = 255𝑇 ∙ 𝑀3 /24ℎ
√𝑍5 ∙ 𝑇 ∙ 𝜌̅ √0,78 ∙ 318 ∙ 0,66 12,9579

Calculation of bottom-well pressure Pw: For each gas regime, we determine the bottom-
hole pressure Pw with the help of the following formula:
𝑃𝑤 = 𝑃𝑚∙𝑠𝑡 ∙ 𝑒 𝑠
Here: P(m∙st) is static pressure on the back of the tubing, e, the base of the natural
logarithm which is equal to 2.7182, and the price of S can be obtained from the following
formula:
𝐿𝑎𝑣 ∙ 𝜌̅
𝑆=
𝑇𝑎𝑣 ∙ 𝑍𝑎𝑣
In this formula: Lav is the average depth of the well, ρ ̅ is the relative density, and Tav
and Zav are the average temperature and compressibility coefficient of the gas. The
average temperature in the good column is obtained as follows:
T𝑙𝑎𝑦 + T𝑚
𝑇𝑎𝑣 =
2
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑦 + 𝑃𝑤
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = 𝑎𝑡𝑚
2
In the above formula, the bottom well pressure value is not known, so its price is
estimated to be higher than the static pressure.
Regime 1:
T𝑙𝑎𝑦 +T𝑚 368+315 0
95+273=3680k 𝑇𝑎𝑣 = = = 341, 5 𝑘
2 2

𝑇𝑎𝑣 341,5
𝑇𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑢1 = = = 1,63 𝑇𝑐𝑟𝑖 = 209,16
𝑇𝑐𝑡𝑖 209,16
105 + 113 𝑃𝑎𝑣 109
𝑃𝑎𝑣 = = 109 𝑃𝑐𝑟𝑖1 = = = 2,3
2 𝑃𝑐𝑟𝑖 47,06

191
𝑍𝑎𝑣1 = 0,88
𝐿𝑎𝑣 ∙ 𝜌̅ 2500 ∙ 0,66
= = 5,5 𝑒1𝑠 = 1,2066
𝑇𝑎𝑣 ∙ 𝑍𝑎𝑣 341,5 ∙ 0.88
𝑃w1 = 𝑃𝑚∙𝑠𝑡∙1 . 𝑒1𝑠 = 100 ∙ 1,2066 = 126,7𝑎𝑡.
Regime 2:
368 + 320 125 + 133
𝑇𝑎𝑣2 = = 344 𝑃𝑎𝑣2 = = 129
2 2
344 129
𝑇𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑢2 = 1,64 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑢2 = = 2,74
209,116 47,06

𝑍𝑎𝑣2 = 0,87
𝐿𝑎𝑣 ∙ 𝜌̅ 2500 ∙ 0,66
= = 5,5 𝑒2𝑠 1,2066
𝑇𝑎𝑣 ∙ 𝑍𝑎𝑣 344 ∙ 0.87
𝑃w2 = 𝑃𝑚∙𝑠𝑡∙2 . 𝑒2𝑠 = 125 ∙ 1,2066 = 150,8𝑎𝑡.
Regime 3:
368 + 321 138 + 146
𝑇𝑎𝑣3 = = 344,5 𝑃𝑎𝑣3 = = 142
2 2
344,5 141,5
𝑇𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑢3 = = 1,65 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑢3 = =3
209,16 47,06
𝑍𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑢3 = 0,86
𝐿𝑎𝑣 ∙ 𝜌̅ 2500 ∙ 0,66
= = 5,57 𝑒3𝑠 = 1,2107
𝑇𝑎𝑣 ∙ 𝑍𝑎𝑣 344,5 ∙ 0.86
𝑃𝑤3 = 𝑃𝑚∙𝑠𝑡∙3 ∙ 𝑒3𝑠 = 138 ∙ 1,2107 𝑃𝑍3 = 167𝑎𝑡
Regime 4:
368 + 322 169 + 177
𝑇𝑎𝑣4 = = 345 𝑃𝑎𝑣4 = = 173
2 2
345 173
𝑇𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑢3 = = 1,65 𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑢3 = = 3,67
209,16 47,06
𝑍𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑢4 = 0,86
𝜌̅ ∙ 𝐿𝑎𝑣 0,66 ∙ 2500
= = 5,56 𝑒4𝑠 = 1,2066
𝑍𝑎𝑣4 ∙ 𝑇𝑎𝑣4 0,86 ∙ 344,5
𝑃w4 = 𝑃𝑚∙𝑠𝑡∙4 . 𝑒4𝑠 = 1,2066 ∙ 169 = 204𝑎𝑡

192
Regime 5:
368 + 318 175 + 183
𝑇𝑎𝑣5 = = 343 𝑃𝑎𝑣5 = = 179
2 2
179 343
𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑢5 = = 3,8 𝑇𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑢3 = = 1,64
47,06 209,16
𝑍𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑢5 = 0,85
𝜌̅ ∙ 𝐿𝑎𝑣 0,66 ∙ 2500
= = 5,68 𝑒5𝑠 = 1,2107
𝑇𝑎𝑣5 ∙ 𝑍𝑎𝑣5 343 ∙ 0,85
𝑃w5 = 𝑃𝑚∙𝑠𝑡 ∙ 𝑒5𝑠 = 175 ∙ 1,2107 = 211,87𝑎𝑡
4.2.Calculation of good pressure and flowrate parameters:
2
The function between good pressure and flow rate is: 𝑓(𝑄) = 𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑦 − 𝑃w2 . If the line for
this function crosses the point where the two lines of the above graph intersect, the
calculations are performed using the following formula: [8]
2
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑦 − 𝑃𝑤2
𝑓(𝑄) =
𝑄
If this line does not cross the intersection point of the above graph, then the next function
is used for calculations:
2
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑦 − 𝑃𝑤2 − 𝐶
𝑓(𝑄) =
𝑄
2 2
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑦1 − 𝑃w1 2622 − 126,72
1) = = 111,54
𝑄1 471,5
2 2
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑦2 − 𝑃w2 2622 − 150,82
2) = = 109,4
𝑄2 419.45
2 2
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑦3 − 𝑃w3 2622 − 1672
3) = = 135,98
𝑄3 299,7
2 2
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑦4 −𝑃w4 2622 −2042
4) = = 99,55
𝑄4 271,5
2 2
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑦5 − 𝑃w5 2622 − 211,872
5) = = 105,6
𝑄5 255

193
 𝑷𝟐𝒍𝒂𝒚 − 𝑷𝟐𝒘
𝑸

𝑸
Figure 4: The graph determining the coefficients of filtration power

4.3. Assessment and Finalization of Gas Well Calculations:

The result of the parameters measured for well No. 3 of the Jurassic mines in the Khwaja
Gogerdak gas field is illustrated in the figure above. Most of the points take place in a
straight line. This status shows that the calculation was performed correctly. We connect
the mentioned points and continue the resulting line to the intersection of the order axis.
Finally, we will get the price for the coefficient (∝). [3]
2
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑦 − 𝑃𝑤2
𝑄 111.54 − 84
𝑡𝑔 ∝= B = = = 0,058
𝑄 471.5
Factors A and B are coefficients of filtration resistance, which are created as a
result of the movement of gas from the floor to the well. By placing the coefficients
referred to in the gas flow from the reservoir rocks to the well, we obtain the following
equation: [1] [3]
2
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑦 − 𝑃𝐶2 = 𝐴𝑄 + B𝑄2 = 84𝑄 + 0,058𝑄2
Based on the figures calculated, the permeability coefficient for the stratum (K) is
obtained with the following formula.

194
 𝑅𝐾
116 ∙ 𝜇Г ∙ 𝑍 ∙ 𝑃0 ∙ 𝑇𝑙𝑎𝑦 ∙ ln
𝑅𝑤
𝐾=
П ∙ A ∙ ℎ ∙ 𝑇0
Here: 𝜇Г is the gas viscosity in centipoise, h is the stratum diameter on the meter, K is the
permeability coefficient, RK is the radius in meters, and RC is the radius of the well in
meters.
The coefficient of gas compressibility (Z) in productive interval conditions is equal to:
𝑇𝑙𝑎𝑦 368
𝑇𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑢 = = = 1,76
𝑇𝑐𝑟𝑖 209,16
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑦 318
𝑃𝑎𝑐𝑜𝑢 = = = 6.75
𝑃𝑐𝑟𝑖 47,06
𝑍 = 0,905
According to the above formula, the permeability coefficient is equal to:
𝑅𝐾
116 ∙ 𝜇Г ∙ 𝑍 ∙ 𝑃0 ∙ 𝑇𝑙𝑎𝑦 ∙ ln
𝑅𝐶
𝐾= =
П ∙ 𝐴 ∙ ℎ ∙ 𝑇0
375
116 ∙ 0,03 ∙ 0,905 ∙ 105 ∙ 368 (ln )
0,1
= = 𝐾 = 0,70576𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑦
3,14. 84 ∙ 51 ∙ 273
𝐾 = 0,70576 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑦 = 705.76 𝑚 𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑦
The permeability coefficient of the stratum indicates the movement of fluids in the
stratum which varies from a few millidarcys to a few thousand millidarcys (mD). As much
as the permeability factor of the stratum is high, the flow rate of the wells is also higher.
[3]
𝐾𝑔𝐹/𝑐𝑚2 ∙ 24ℎ
𝐴 = 84
1000𝑚3
𝐾𝑔𝐹/𝑐𝑚2 ∙ 24ℎ
𝐵 = 0,058
1000𝑚3
Free Debit: The absolute free debit is obtained by the following formula:

2
√𝐴2 + 4𝐵(𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑦 − 1) − 𝐴
𝑄𝑎𝑏 =
2𝐵
√842 + 4 × 0.058(3182 − 1) − 84 3
𝑚3
𝑄𝑎𝑏 = = 781.8 × 10
2 × 0.058 𝑑𝑎𝑦

195
 If the filtration of the production interval is done according to Darcy's Law and there
𝑚3
are no barriers in the well. The free flow of the well is equal to 781.8 × 103 .
𝑑𝑎𝑦

The maximum allowable flow rate of the well is the favorable well flow rate which
indicates the proper production regime where gas production is constant and with no
complications. The favorable well discharge is determined by the following formula: [1]

−𝐴 + √𝐴2 + 4𝐵. ∆𝑃(2𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑦 − ∆𝑃)

𝑞=
2𝐵
−84 + √842 + 4 × 0.058 × 54(2 × 318 − 54)
𝑞=
2 × 0.058
𝑚3
𝑞 = 308.4 × 103
𝑑𝑎𝑦
𝑚3
The favorable flow rate of gas is: 308.4× 103 . By choosing this amount of flow
𝑑𝑎𝑦
rate, we can avoid the following problems: the destruction of the productive interval,
corrosion of installed columns and production pipes, gas entrapment at the production
interval, and the formation of water tabs. [7]
2
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑦 − 𝑃𝑤2 = A𝑄 + B𝑄2 = 84𝑄 + 0,058𝑄2
2
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑦 − 𝑃𝑤2 = 84(308.4) + 0,058(308.4)2
𝑃𝑤 = 264.0 𝑎𝑡𝑚
The bottom pressure of a well is gained 54 atmospheres, which is less than the
pressure of the productive layer. The reason for the pressure reduction at the bottom of
the well is related to the permeability coefficient of the production interval and its
porosity. Based on the calculations of the gas flow rate equation, the favorable flow rate
from the well was found to be appropriate. The calculated price for the well bottom
pressure corresponds perfectly to the real price obtained by experience.

5. Results and Discussion

After analysis of the data, the physical and chemical properties of the hydrodynamic
gas, and study of the geology of the minefield of a good number (3) from the Jurassic
mine in the Khwaja Gogerdak mining field, the following results have been achieved:
1. The appropriate flow rate for gas extraction is determined by defining the following
parameters: gas compression coefficient, maximum gas flow rate, the quantity of
pressure at the head and bottom of the well, and quantity of dynamic and static
pressure in the wellhead in different extraction regimes.

196
 𝑷𝟐𝒍𝒂𝒚 −𝑷𝟐𝒘
2. Using the function graph 𝑓(𝑄) = the filtration resistance factors are
𝑸
obtained (A=84, and B=0.058) which are created when the gases are filtered through
the production layer.
3. Based on the calculations, the permeability coefficient of the productive layer is
obtained at 705.76 mD(millidarcy)
4. The total daily production of the Jurassic reservoir rocks in the Khwaja Gogerdak
𝑚3
gas field is calculated (at 781.8 × 103 ), which is the highest flow rate for a gas
𝑑𝑎𝑦
well.
5. The maximum permissible discharge from well No (3) in the Khwaja Gogerdak
𝑚3
mining field is 308.4 × 103 . If the flow rate and pressure difference of this well
𝑑𝑎𝑦
is adjusted based on our calculations, the gasification coefficient of the production
layer will be much higher.
6. The gas should only be extracted via tubing pipes, and the diameter of these pipes
should be chosen in which the gas velocity in the wellhead should be received at
approximately (10m/s), otherwise, the industrial equipment will rust.
7. To avoid rust in the good casing and other equipment, the inhibitor needs to be
pumped at the production interval.

A series of calculations are carried out using data obtained from the test of wells No. 3,
41, and 43 from the Khwaja Gogerdak minefield, using different choke diameters.
Finally, the wells debit, the pressure of the wells head and bottom, and the value of the
2 2
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑦 −𝑃𝑤
function ) are obtained which are listed in Tables 2 and 3.
𝑄

Table 2: Basic parameters of gas exploitation

Downhole Protective
Gas debit Choke
2
𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑦 − 𝑃𝑤2 (Well bottom) layer Regime
diameter
pressure pressure number
𝑄 1000 𝑀3/24ℎ Millimeter
Atm Atm

111.54 471.5 126.7 318 19.05 1

109.4 419.45 150.8 318 15.85 2

135.98 344.1 167 318 12.7 3

99.55 282.6 204 318 11.13 4

105.6 255 211.87 318 9.51 5

197
 500 471.5
450 419.45
Gas flow in thousands of cubic meter

400 344.1
350
282.6
300 255
250
200
150
100
50
0
19.05 15.85 12.7 11.13 9.51
choke diameter in mm

Figure 5: Gas flow graph according to chokes diameters

250
211.87
204
200
Downhole pressure to atmosphere

167
150.8
150 126.7

100

50

0
19.05 15.85 12.7 11.13 9.51
Choke diameter mm

Figure 6: Well bottom pressure graph in different chock diameters.

Based on the above descriptions and results, the following can be suggested:
1. Gas reserves should be calculated through pressure reduction.
2. The acidification of the calcareous production layer is suggested at the beginning
of the exploitation process to increase the flow rate.
3. To pump special anti-rust materials (inhibitors), a special valve must be installed
at the bottom of the tubing.
4. Anti-rust materials (inhibitors) must be continuously injected into the well at the
back of the pipes.

198
 5. The chemical composition of the Jurassic production layer gas of the Khwaja
Gogerdak gas field is very different from that of the Heterevien production layer
gas. In this regard, gas extraction should be arranged in separate tubes and
transferred to the gas collection points of the Yatim Taq gas field.
6. The packers must be used when installing tubing to separate the two different
production intervals from each other.

Table 3: Baic parameters of gas exploitation of well No. 3, Khwaja Gogerdak Mining field
Well debit The pressure of the bottom of the well (PZ)

Regime number
Downhole pressure

𝑃𝑙𝑎𝑦
Coefficient C
Coefficient Z
1000M3/24h

2
Well debit

𝑍𝑎𝑣 ∙ 𝑇𝑎𝑣

𝑄
𝜌̅ ∙ 𝐿𝑎𝑣

− 𝑃𝐶2
𝑍𝑎𝑣
Pw

eS
62,244

1,2066

111,54
471,5

126,7
0,84

0,88
5,5

1
419,45

1,2066

109,44
150,8
0,82

0,87
5,5
46

2
1,2107

135,98
299,7

30,44

5,57

0,86
167
0,8

3
24,245

1,2066
271,5

99,55
0,79

5,56

0,86
204

4
16,917

1,2107
211,8

105,6
0,78

5,68

0,85
225

199
 7. Conclusion
Based on data on the upper Jurassic layer in the Khwaja Gogerdak field, and the
findings highlighted in this research paper, the following conclusions are drawn:
1. The Jurassic production layer gas in the Khwaja Gogerdak mining field is composed
of 3.2% hydrogen sulfide and 7% carbon dioxide. The presence of these gases
causes the production equipment to rust at high pressure and temperature, increasing
expenses.
𝑚3
2. The good flow rate should be adjusted to 308.4 × 103 following the
𝑑𝑎𝑦
technological regime defined for the production of wells.
3. Stainless steel casing must be installed into the well during drilling and completion
to avoid rust.
4. During operation, inhibitors must be pumped into the production interval to prevent
rust.
5. Special valves for pumping inhibitors into the well shall be installed in the stainless
steel tubing with the S-75 marking.

200
Reference

[1] H. Devold, An introduction to oil and Gas production, transport, refining and
petrochemical industry, Oslo, 2013, p. 152.

[2] B. Guo, Petroleum production engineering, a computer-assisted approach, Elsev, 2011.

[3] Byars, H.G; corrosion control in petroleum production (pp. 29-30), Houston : TX: NACE
International, 1999.

[4] Mehrad, A.T; Zvolinski, V.P; Kapralova, D.O; Niazmand, M.A; "Assessment of oil and gas
resources of northern Afghanistan and their impact on energy security in the country,"
IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering(Vol. 976, No. 1, P. 012038), no.
IOP Publishing, 2020 December.

[5] Carroll, J; Natural gas hydrates: a guide for engineers., Gulf Professional Publishing,
2020.

[6] W. Lyons, Working guide to petroleum and natural gas production engineering, Gulf
professional publishing, 2009.

[7] M. Zemenkova, Y. Zemenkov, A. Pimnev, and E. Kurushina, "System of controlling the

reliability of hydraulic machinery in oil and gas facilities," In IOP Conference Series:
Materials Science and Engineering (Vol. 127, No. 1, p. 012055), no. IOP Publishing, 2016
April.

[8] D. Green and G. Willhite, Enhanced oil recovery, 2018.

[9] "recovery of different types of oil in Petroleum reservoirs," Proc. Schl. Eng. Tokai Univ.,,
Vols. pp 53-58, no. ser, p. E41.

[10] N. Malik, "Energy resources in Afghanistan and measures to improve for sustainable
development," Journal of Sustainable Energy, 2011.

201
Authors Profile:
Sadaf Jalal received a BSc degree in Oil and Gas Mines Engineering
Department from Kabul Polytechnic University in 2010 and completed his
MSc degree in Geological Engineering and Exploration of mines in 2018.
Presently, she is working as Assist. Prof. in the Department of Oil and Gas
mines Engineering, Kabul Polytechnic University, Kabul Afghanistan. His
areas of research include Petroleum production and fluid mechanic

Mohammad Walid Omid received a B.Sc. degree in Oil and Gas Mines
Engineering from Kabul Polytechnic University in 2014, and MTech
(Master of Technology) degrees in Earth Sciences with a specialization in
Petroleum Geoscience from the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay
(IIT Bombay), Mumbai, India in 2020. He is working as an Assist. Prof. at
the Department of Oil and Gas Mines Engineering, Geology and Mines
Faculty, Kabul Polytechnic University, Kabul Afghanistan. His field of
research includes Active Tectonics, Geology, Geophysics, Remote Sensing, and
GIS.

Abdul Shukoor Dawar completed his B.S. and M.S. degrees in Oil and
Gas Mines Engineering Department from Kabul Polytechnic University in
1986. Presently, He is a Professor in the Department of Oil and Gas mines
Engineering, at Kabul Polytechnic University, Kabul Afghanistan. His field
of research is Oil and Gas well drilling and Oil and Gas Well Testing and
completion.

202
 KPU International Journal of Engineering & Technology
Volume 2, Issue2, Dec. 2022 Date Received: 2022-10-06.
e-ISSN:2790-0819, p-ISSN:2790-0800 Date Accepted: 2022-12-20
Date Published: 2022-12-30.

Landslide and Rockfall Susceptibility Mapping in Kabul-Jalalabad

Road by Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) & Weighted Overly
Mapping (WOM) Method in GIS

KHAIRUDDIN RASIKH 1*, ZAFAR KHAN SAEEDI 2

1* Teaching Assistant, Department of Geology and Mine, Science Faculty, Nangarhar University, Daronta, Afghanistan.
Email: [email protected]
2Teaching Assistant, Department of Geology and Mine, Science Faculty, Nangarhar University, Daronta, Afghanistan.
Email: [email protected]

Abstract
Landside and Rock falls are known as the most destructive natural hazards that threaten the inviolability
of Human communities and infrastructures such as houses, Dames, Tunnels, Roads, etc. Roads in the
mountainous area are known more vulnerable because of different factors like route cute disturbing and
mass imbalances. Kabul-Jalalabad highway is a major part of Afghanistan’s transitional route that
connects the central regions to the eastern part of the country. The transportation system of this route is
threatened by mass movement and rockfall events. This study used nine conditional factors including slope,
lithology, (TWI), road distances, LU/LC, Curvatures, slope direction (aspect), precipitation, and fault
distance. two modules (Analytic hierarchical process (AHP) and Weighted overly mapping (WOM)) are
used in this study, Finally, the Landslide Susceptibility Map(LSM) of both modules is Classified into five
zones(very high, high, moderate, low and very low ) of susceptibility in Arc GIS 10.8; after pairwise
comparison in spice-logic 4.1.4 software; slope, lithology, slope direction, precipitation, and fault distance
respectively identified as effective factors in landslides and rock fall susceptibility, final (LSM) of both
methods shows that high and very high levels sensitivity zones Covers 21.35%, 8.43% for AHP and 40.16%,
10.72% for WOM modules respectively, Accuracy assessment of both module done based on 101 locational
denoted landslides, (ROC) curve and AUC index are used to classifiers accuracy evaluation; finally AHP
module known as much better than (WOM) one because of its (AUC) value that shows 0.923(Excellent)
greater than 0.845(very good) (AUC) index of (WOM) module.

Keywords: Landslide, rock fall, susceptibility, AHP, WOM, Kabul-Jalalabad highway, ROC.

*
Corresponding Author

203
 1. Introduction
Landslides and rock falls are known as one of the most common Natural hazards that
threaten human civilization and welfare in many parts of the world.[1]. These phenomena
are defined as mass (soil and rocks) movement in an unstable condition which often led
massive damage to humanity as much as economic loss, financial cries even injuries or
Causalities [2]. In human civilization, roads are one of the most important infrastructures
which bring facilities for transportation and as well as economic trades that play a great
role in the welfare of society, economic growth, and development of communities. The
financial budget spent for the construction of roads in different geographical locations
depends on the variety of environmental, climatic, and other natural conditions that
requires for its construction, as well as its maintenance and safety. At the same time, the
majority of landslides occur along the roads [3].it means protection of this national capital
is necessary for the long-term suitable use of them.
Kabul-Jalalabad highway is one of the busiest and most important routes in
Afghanistan; this route is characterized by a large exposure to slope instabilities and
landslides, rock fall threatening roads according to climatic and physiographic conditions.
The dominant topographic features result from active tectonic events; they are mainly
high in its western parts and extend to, depressions, and deep valleys in the central
(Laghman province) and eastern (Nangarhar province) parts. Landslide susceptibility
mapping is a novel attempt in Afghanistan; it can be used as an efficient tool that gives
additional efforts in landslide mitigation in a different part of the country. This
phenomenon also causes a lot of damage and many problems, and along with that, that
increases the cost of road construction, the cost of maintenance, repairs, and
reconstruction, meanwhile such unexpected accidents disrupt transportation and increase
traffic risks; therefore Identifying the effective factors in the occurrence of landslides in
an area and zoning its risk is one of the basic tools to achieve solutions to control this
phenomenon and select the most appropriate and practical option.
Landslide and rockfall mitigation are one of the contemporary attempts in the survey,
construction, and maintenance of roads, and its potential susceptibility mapping is
accomplished by different methods all across the world. Landslide susceptibility methods
and modules are developed by researchers and experimented accord to various conditions
in different parts and points of the earth; one of the much more sophisticated and more
advised modules for different natural hazards mitigating like flood hazard and areal
potential sensitivity evaluating method that based on probabilistic approach is analytic
hierarchy process (AHP) that widely used and experimented at different causes by
researchers like C Other methods have also been recommended and used including the

204
frequency ratio logistic Regression (LR)by researchers like [4,5] and weights of evidence
(WoE) used by [6,7].
This study aimed to provide and develop a probabilistic-based approach that was
completed on landslide and rock fall susceptibility assessment along the Kabul- Jalalabad
highway by applying two methods. The first one is the analytic hierarchy process which
is a multi-parametric method that was originally developed [7]. The second one is
Completely GIS-based methods that call weighted overly mapping (WOM) algorithms,
that widely used by many researchers all across the world and produce landslide
susceptibility maps in a quite unpretentious manner [8,9,10].
2. Geographic and Natural Characteristics of Rout of interest (ROI)
The studied route was the Kabul-Jalalabad highway. This highway with a length of
104 km was put into operation in 2010. A large part of the route passes through
mountainous areas with a narrow structure and is located in parts close and parallel to the
Kabul and Alingar rivers. Often the road is built as a trench in the heart of the mountain
and in some places, it is accompanied by tunnels and passes over embankments or bridges
at the valley’s intersection points. The project starts from the center of Kabul city, crosses
the Mahipar and its heights, and faces the soroby plains. Crossing the vicinity of Daronta
Dam, it leads to Jalalabad city. The highest height of the studied route is 2514.76 meters
above sea level.
The western part of the road specified with high elevation, steep slope, and mountainous
physiography mainly surrounded by different types of sedimentary (polyester calcites and
Dolomites, conglomerate, etc.) and highly jointed and fractured metamorphic and igneous
(schist, Gneiss, marble, Amphibolite, Granite Diorite, etc.) Rocks. At the area near the
soroby suburb area of Kabul, this road passes from hill shaped and relatively plate area
containing Cenozoic Clastic sedimentary rocks. After that road extends to a valley
continued parallel to the Kabul river, which is familiarly known by the name of Silk
valley, that is characterized by a steep slope and highly faulted and fractured metamorphic
and igneous rocks that end in the patented area mainly composed by sedimentary fasces.
The studying portions of the road end at approximately 1 km extended with a steep slope
and unstable state jointed Granodioritic rocks which causes rock fall events often more.

205
 Fig. 1: Map of studying Road.

The eastern point of the road is ended at the Daronta subarea of Jalalabad city. Due
to the difference in height, which can be seen in the studied route, from (586m) to
(2514.76m) with different climatic varieties. As in the western parts of this route, the
rainfall amount and temperature are relatively high than the temperature during the year
in the eastern regions. The beginning of the route has a latitude of 34˚ 34ʹ 02ʺ North and
a longitude of 64˚ 24ʹ 17ʺ East, and the end of the route passes through the latitude of 34˚
29ʹ 08ʺ north and a longitude of 71˚ 21ʹ 34ʺ east (Fig.1).

3. Materials and Methods

Landslide is the result of static imbalances, especially in man-made disrupted areas.
The stability of slopes is controlled by various natural and human interrupting factors.
Recognition of these factors is so important for determining the affecting causes of the
occurrence of landslides [9]. Therefore, in the first stage, spatial information was
collected, according to a similar previously conducted Approaches, based on reviewed

206
literature at all (9) factors are considered for preparing a landslide sensitivity map in the
area the selected factors including the type of lithology, land use, and Land cover, road
distances, faults distance, Curvatures, topographic wetness index (TWI), precipitation,
aspect (Slope direction), which described respectively as follows and concluded in the
table (1).
3.1.Lithology:
The lithology is the most important factor in the analysis of natural hazards and many
morphological features of lands and land surface characteristics depend on its type [10].
The lithological information used in this research was extracted from the 1: 100000 scale
map of Afghanistan lithology shape file and after experimental interpretation, classified
in to (6) classes as Class_1, 2 ,3 ,4,5,6 which Categorized respectively like
;Class_1(Mica, biotite, biotite-amphibole, garnet-biotite, garnet-sillimanite-biotite,
pyroxene-amphibole gneiss, plagiogneiss, and schist, migmatite, quartzite, marble,
amphibolite; Class_2 (Limestone, dolomite, marl, Mica, biotite, biotite-amphibole, and
garnet-biotite gneiss, plagiogneiss, migmatite, quartzite, marble, amphibolite,
Granodiorite, Alas kite, Granosyenite, Granite, Granite), Class_3 (Limestone, marble,
quartzite, metasandstone, mica chist), Class_4 (Dunite, Peridotite, Serpentinite
Limestone, dolomite, marl, conglomerate, sandstone, siltstone, shale, bauxite and
bauxite-bearing rocks Sandstone, siltstone, mudstone, carbonaceous shale marl,
conglomerate, weathered acid and mafic volcanic rocks), Class_5 (Gray conglomerate,
gravel stone, sandstone, siltstone, clay, limestone, marl, gypsum, salt, acid and mafic
volcanic rocks Shale, phyllite, mafic volcanic rocks, limestone ), Class_6 (Conglomerate,
shingly sediments, gravel, sand, siltstone, breccia, limestone, gypsum, clay, loam;
andesite, dacite and their tuffs (Dashtinovar Group); phonolite and soevite) which
thematically Spatial extend shown in (Fig.2b) and table (2 & 5).
3.2. Tectonic Fault distances:
The fault distance layer from tectonic failures is also considered one of the potential
factors for landslide occurrence and mass movement phenomenon. This issue is
considered significant because of its localization in a new and relatively active tectonic
setting of Afghanistan which is characterized as areas with strong topographical relief,
which know as a result of continuous fractures in this route and the erosion of the Kabul
River. Tectonic liniments were extracted from the 1:100,000 tectonic map of Afghanistan
and after the essential correction Zoned in 5 Buffering distances as shown in, Table (5)
and (Fig .2d).

207
 3.3.Land cover and land use
(Lc/Lu: Land use and land cover (Lc/Lu) are crucial factors in the occurrence of
landslides because they considerable impact on slope stability [11]. The importance of
this component is determined by the amount of rainfall and the slope of the ground.
Landslides are more likely to occur naturally in areas with steep slopes, moderate
vegetation, and heavy rainfall [12]. ; land use and land cover map along the studded route
was taken from a 1: 100000 scale Shapefile of Afghanistan's land cover map, which was
divided into five Classes as Class_1 (Guardian and fruit trees,) Class_2 (Plate irrigational
and Cultivation area), Class_3 (Marshland Permanently inundated lands), Class_4
(Rangeland) and Class_5 which contain Rock Outcrop and Bare Soil that represented in
(Fig. 2c) and table (5).
3.4.Slope:
The slope has an essential role in controlling material slippage by increasing the
Slope angle, the instability of materials (soil and rock) also increases. To extract this
variable DEM data with a spatial resolution of (30m*30m) was used and its thematic
map was provided by the use of the Slope algorithm under the Spatial Analysis tools of
ArcGIS10.8 program. The slope of the study area varies from (0) degrees to (<72.4)
degrees and was classified into (5) equal interval-based division Classes as shown in
table (5) and (Fig.2g) .This factor is considered as one of the most important indicators
in the study of hazards and natural processes (landslides, rock fall, soil erosion,
groundwater potentiality detection, location of agricultural areas, etc.).For landslide risk
zoning slope used widely by researchers like [12, 13] that Slope factor has been
considered the most important one.
3.5.Aspect:
Aspect or slope direction is also considered a very important factor in the analysis of
environmental hazards and the preparation of landslide susceptibility maps [13, 14].
which controls the amount of humidity and diversity of vegetation with the proportional
absorption of light and solar energy [15] aspect classification is done in ArcGIS 10.8
software environment by using a Digital elevation model (DEM) (with a cell size of 30m
x 30m) table (1) which used for other factors like Slope and curvature, Aspect of studying
road classified into five Classes ( Plate area, North, East, south, and west) as mentioned
in Table (5) and (Fig. 2f) thematic layer.

208
 3.6.Topographic Curvature:
The Topographic Curvature provides influential information about the land surface
stability its role in landslides is its ability to concentrate and disperse surface water
currents, which therefore plays a key role in water infiltrations and their extent [16]. The
Topographic Curvature is the convexity and concavity of a surface using consecutive
topographic distances, this factor is produced in Arc GIS10.8 by the use of DEM data
with similar resolution as slope and aspect, Curvatures done by the Curvature algorithm
of Spatial Analyze tools, Curvature values vary from (-22.3 to +22.4) so that the positive
values represent a convex and the negative values concaves and areas with zero values
shows flat areas this variable were classified into 3 Classes based on the above
characteristics. (Fig 2e).
3.7.Topographic wetness Index (TWI):
This index is one of the important factors in landslide risk assessment analyses. TWI
is introduced by Beven and Kirkby [17] and is considered in most landslide research. The
topographic wetness index is defined by (Eq.1).
𝑆
𝑇𝑊𝐼 = ln ( ) (Eq. 1)
𝑡𝑎𝑛 ∝
Where, S; is the specific area of the water basin, α; is the Slope of the area. This index
was analyzed using (30m*30m) resolution DEM data in the ArcGIS10.8 program, and
values vary from (3.75 to 24.3) and classified into 4 classes with manual intervals as
shown in Table. (5).and (Fig. 2h).
3.8.Annual precipitation:
rainfall is the most important factor in natural disaster assessment such as landslides,
rock Falls, mass movements, vegetation varieties and distribution, plant type and density,
lithology (type of rocks), and know one of the most important factors in landslide
occurrences, it is considered that it would be wrong to address issues such as landslides
without considering it. The role of rainfall is mentioned in the works of [18,19] specified
as an important and effective factor, which is more diagnostic and important. The average
rainfall information of the study area, after being found from the site [20] and then
interpolated with IDW method converted to Raster format, which shows the difference
between the average rainfall in the study area from (572.01 to 701.17) mm/year, which
was classified into 4 classes by manually interval manner in Arc GIS 10.8 as mentioned
in Table (5) and (Fig. 2a).

209
 3.9.Road distances:
The road distance is one of the most important human interrupt factors of natural
hazards that leads to the instability of the slopes and leads to slipping and crawling of the
slopes, which is due to the extension of the road from high to low slopes due to
disturbance of the static balance of areas, and vibrations caused by crossing heavy
vehicles and trucks which considered as a potential cause of landslides; The distance from
the road factor can be mentioned in the works [21]. The road used in this study includes
the main portion of (Kabul-Jalalabad road) which after its geometric correction by
equidistance’s algorithm under the Spatial Analysis tools road distance zoned in
<150m,(150-300)m, (300-450)m,(450-600)m,(600-750)m that mentioned in Table (5)
and (Fig. 2i).
Table 1: Data sources and their resolutions.

Data type Sours Scale / Resolution

Afghanistan Geology Map
Lithology 1:100000
Shapefile from. USGS spatial Data catalog.
Land use and land Afghanistan Geology Map
1:100000
cover Shapefile from. USGS spatial Data catalog.
Afghanistan Geology Map
Fault distances 1:100000
Shapefile from. USGS spatial Data catalog.
Road distances Extracted on Google earth.

Precipitation https://pps.gsfc.nasa.gov
Slope
Aspect
Based on DEM data received from the Earth
Curvatures
Explorer site. 30m*30m
Topographic
wetness index
(TWI)

210
 (a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)
<150 m (150-300)m (300-450)m (450-600)m (600-750)m

Fig. 2: Classified thematic map of all criteria; (a) precipitation, (b) Lithology, (c) Land cover and Land
use, (d) Fault distance. (e) General Curvature, (f) Slope Aspect, (g) Slope (h) Topographic Wetness
Index (TWI), (i) Road distances. 211
 4. Methodology
A natural disaster like landslides, flood hazards, and rock falls Susceptibility analysis
depends on several factors, identifying the influence role of factors that affect the
occurrence of such a natural disaster is the first essential step to their assessments. In this
study, to receive the most influential factors and phenomenon, by reviewing the necessary
sources and references, formal and valuable information bases such as Afghanistan
Natural Disaster Management (ANDM), land transport service departments, and
scientific sources of landslide information were collected.
To enrich the spatial information sources, landslides, and rock fall along the studied
route field visits and interviews with professionals and people living in the nearby area
of the study route have been done and all this information is stored in a suitable database
stored in a GIS environment. to identify the role of influence factor of landslide, referred
to similar works of researches through Google Scholar, research gate, Science direct, and
after receiving information and selecting the decision-making method and identifying the
facility of ArcGIS to weight overly mapping (WOM) after all over special judgment
carried out in Arc GIS 10.8 and also used analysis hierarchy Process (AHP) method. After
analyzing the role of risk factors for landslides and rock falls susceptibility along the
Kabul-Jalalabad route in the GIS environment, spatial analysis was performed with

Table 2: Pairwise Comparison table of main factors.

(X1) (X2) (X3) (X4) (X5) (X6) (X7) (X8) (X9) Weight

Lithology(X1) 1 1/2 5 3 5 3 5 5 1/2 0.191

Slope(X2) 2 1 7 5 3 3 5 6 2 0.276

land cover(X3) 1/5 1/7 1 1/3 1/2 2 2 3 1/3 0.056

Precipitation(X4) 1/3 1/5 3 1 4 2 3 2 1/2 0.106

Fault distances(X5) 1/5 1/3 2 1/4 1 2 2 2 1/2 0.069

Road distances(X6) 1/3 1/3 1/2 1/2 1/2 1 2 2 1/4 0.052

TWI(X7) 1/5 1/5 1/2 1/3 1/2 1/2 1 1/3 1/6 0.030

Curvatures(X8) 1/5 1/6 1/3 1/2 1/2 1/2 3 1 1/4 0.040

Aspects(X9) 2 1/2 3 2 2 4 6 4 1 0.181

* Consistency Ratio 0.066

212
overlay and Raster calculator function of spatial analysis tools; overall configuration and
essential steps of this research are shown in (Fig .3).
Form of this study is divided into three main stages; First stage is defining the length
and wide range of the studding route in this case long portion of the Kabul-Jalalabad road
is considered as long as 104 km and buffered by 750m for each side road’s center line
second stage is the selection of criteria and sub-criteria that have influence role on the
occurrence of landslides and rock falls. In the third stage, the pairwise comparison is done
based on the analytic hierarchy process (AHP) due to more flexibility and facilitates The
spice-logic 4.1.4 software is used to extract the weight of criteria and in the third stage
weight of all criteria and sub-criteria defined for their relevant thematic layers, finally
according to (Eq.7) AHP method defined to graphic form of statistic representation and
spatial distribution.
4.1. AHP Method
The analytic hierarchy process (AHP) is a method for prioritizing criteria that extracts
scaled weight of influence factors through the expert judgment of the problem and
pairwise judgment of criteria and sub-criteria [21].
This module uses in hierarchically organized decision-making issues that contain a
limited number of elements at different levels [22] (Fig.3). The hierarchical structure
measures and combines different factors in complex decision-making processes and
simplifies the combination of different components of factors into a common whole
matrix of rational values [23].
AHP is considered a decision-making and forecasting method that plays the role of
decision factors and criteria in terms of the factors that affect it, which can be used if the
decision hierarchy is defined [24]. In performing pairwise comparisons, factors (criteria)
preference intensity assessment or relative importance which extract after pairwise
comparison by numerical values scaled from 0 to 9 (Table .3)

213
 Fig. 3: Flow chart and essential steps of conducted research methods.

Table 3: Numerical scaled value for pairwise comparison [25].

Scale Degree of preference Explanation

1 Equal importance Contribution to the objective is equal

3 Moderate importance The attribute is slightly favored over another

214
 5 Strong importance The attribute is strongly favored over another
The attribute is very strongly favored over
7 Very strong importance
another
Evidence favoring one attribute is of the highest
9 Extreme importance
possible order of affirmation
2,4,6,8 Intermediate values When compromise is needed

A comparison matrix like Table (2) is then constructed with the results of the preferred
intensity evaluation and the values are compared accordingly to solve the principal
eigenvalue λ therefore, the total information value in a grid cell j is computed using (Eq.
2(
𝑛

λ∗ = ∑ C𝑖 v𝑗 (Eq. 2)
𝑖,𝑗=1

Where λ* is the matrix values of compatibility vectors obtained from the sum of the
multiplication between each specific vector element and the normalized relative weight
considered parameters; Ci is the normalized weight of I Criterion; vj is the standardized
score of j Criterion; i and j are consecutive digit numbers (1, 2, 3…n ) [26].
An important condition in a hierarchical decision-making problem is to avoid
inconsistencies that should be avoided in the decision-making process using the AHP
method. Despite this inconsistency should not exceed a certain threshold that defines as
(Eq.3) [27].
CI
CR = (Eq .3)
RI

Where CR is the consistency Ratio; CI is the consistency Index which obtains from
(Eq.4).and RI is the Random consistency index that depends on the degree of comparison
matrix and is obtained from the table (4).
λ𝑚𝑎𝑥 − n
CI = (Eq. 4)
n−1
Table 4: Degree of matrixes-based incontinency ratio determination [24].
n 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
RI 0 0.58 0.9 1.12 1.24 1.32 1.41 1.45 1.51

215
 The Consistency Index will be equal to the number of comparisons considered (n), so
the CI will be equal to zero to ensure the compatibility ratio (CR) ensures that the original
preferential ratings are consistent. In calculating CI, the normalized relative weights and
the normalized principal vector, and the principal specific value (λ) is first calculated. λ
is simply the mean of the eigenvalues of the comparison matrix [28]. According to
[29].The Nature of AHP is a solution to an eigenvalue problem that involves cross-matrix
comparisons.
The above processes are run to extract prioritizing values for each factor this method
can be summarized in the main steps as follows:
1. Problem recognition for decision
2. Creating a hierarchical structure of the problem at the three levels of purpose,
criteria, and options.
3. Perform pairwise comparisons between criteria using the intensity scale and
determine the weight of the criteria in order.
4. Calculate the maximum specific weight, compatibility ratio, and normalized
values for each criterion/alternative.
5. For an unacceptable CR value, i.e. > 0.10, the comparison must repeat his
judgment in pairwise comparisons until the CR value is at an acceptable level
[30].
6. Defining the weighted value of each class suitably, and running conclusive
formula of module like (Eq.5)
AHP gained its importance, especially in decision-making, due to its interactive
graphical user interfaces, automatic calculation of priorities and variables, and sensitivity
analysis [31]. Perhaps one of its main advantages is that it provides the ability to measure
the consistency of decision-makers preferences and to manipulate quantitative and
qualitative criteria [32]. However, the final decision made using the AHP method is based
on subjective assessments, especially during pairwise comparisons [33]. In this manner
rock fall and landslide susceptibility map (LSM) was finalized by the use of all already
weighed criteria and sub-criteria in (Eq.5)
𝑛

𝐿𝑆𝑀 = ∑ 𝑅𝑖 × 𝑊𝑖 (Eq. 5)
𝑖=1

Where Ri is the rating score of each layer and Wi is the weights for each of the
landslide conditioning factors [34].
These observations are confirmed by [35] that decision-makers in any decision
problem can be subjective and uncertain about their level of priority, mainly due to

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incomplete and uncertain knowledge or information in the decision environment.
Therefore, their preferences are subjective and their choices are influenced by sufficient
information. In addition, in a decision-making process [36] described the term “mental
uncertainty" as scientific ignorance, measurement uncertainty, inability to verify or
observe, censorship, or other knowledge deficiencies.
4.2.Weighted Overlay Mapping (WOM) Method
The weighted overlay mapping (WOM) method is a simple and direct tool of Arc GIS to
produce a susceptibility map [37, 38]. Many researchers used WOM to produce landslide
susceptibility maps [39,40,41]. We used an overlay of raster layers of all controlling
factors to prepare a susceptibility map. Raster layers of each controlling factor were
reclassified and weighted according to their importance determined by AHP (Table 2 &
5). The cumulative weight of all 9 inputting layers was maintained at a total of 100. All
layers were combined by using a weighted overlay tool based on the following (Eq.5).

𝑆 = ∑ 𝑊𝑖 𝑆𝑖𝑗 / ∑ 𝑊𝑖 (Eq. 6)

Where Wi is the weight of the ith factor, Sij represents the subclass weight of the jth factor
and S is the spatial unit of the final map. The completion of this process resulted in the
ultimate production of a landslide susceptibility map of the Highway (Fig. 4a).

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218
.... Continued of table 5.

219
Fig. 4: Rockfall and landslide susceptibility map of Kabul –Jalalabad road; the (a) weight of Overly
Mapping (WOM), (b) Analytic hierarchy process (AHP) method approaches.

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 45
AHP WOM
WOR
40

35
AREAL PERCENTAGE (%)

30

25

20

15

10

0
VERY LOW LOW MODERATE HIGH VERY HIGH
SUSCEPTIBILITY CLASSES
Fig. 5: Areal percentage of rock fall and landslide susceptibility for Kabul –Jalalabad road.

5. Evaluation of research results

Accuracy evaluation of natural disaster susceptibility mapping is one of the basic steps in
assessing the susceptibility of the module that overlaps with the landslide sensitivity map
and its distribution in this cause receiver operating characteristic curve (ROC) is used to
evaluate and compare the accuracy of results. Because of the non-influence rule landslides
occurred Rock falls which were detected by different methods mentioned in the
methodology were denoted around 101 points of landslide and rock fall evidence all
across the studied portion of Kabul-Jalalabad highway as a consequence of filed
observation and Google Earth traces. The receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve
is one of the most desirable tools for graphically assessing the accuracy of classifiers for
rock fall and landslide susceptibility zoning [42]. In addition, the area under the curve
(AUC) index indicates the precision of classifiers, it is quantitative values vary from 0 to
1, that (0.9-1) is excellent, (0.9 - 0.8) very good, (0.8-0.7) good, (0.7 - 0.6) average and

221
(0.6 - 0.5) is weak [43].The closer area under the curve to 1, represents the best accuracy
of classifiers. After finalizing the susceptibility map of methods characterized the
accuracy of either and (AUC) index values gain in Microsoft Excel that shows 0.923 and
0.845 for AHP and WOM respectively with graphical representation in (Fig.6)

Fig. 6: Graphical Represent of methods accuracy assessment by (ROC) curve.

6. Discussion and results

Respectively after applying (Eq.5 &.6) landslide susceptibility of the area obtained
for both studying methods of studying as a form of susceptibility maps which is known
as a good tool for recognition of areas prone to landslides of rock fall, these maps are also
known as a good source of information in the management of natural disasters like issues
titled in this study. Landslide susceptibility zoning maps also show the spatial distribution
that confirms all the factors involved in the potential risk of landslides and rock fall.
However, this map is not able to predict the amount of displacing materials and its exact
time. Nevertheless, predictive models can be valued for regional planning for landslide
risk reduction and prevention assistance [44,45]. In this study to Clarify the relationship

222
between landslide impact factors and their influence role after a Specialistic in judgments
and pair wised comparison for main and sub-criteria shown in table (2, 5) weight of all
Criteria and their relevant classes vary from (0.033 of lithology’s Class_1 to 0.517 of
Fault distances <500m Class ), Slope, lithology, slope aspects, precipitation, fault
distances, and land cover defined as a most influenced factor with 0.276,0.191,
0.181,0.106,0.069 and 0.056 influence weight respectively. The influence weight of slope
classes increases continually with an increase of slope gradient then the highs value of
slope class is obtained for >60 degrees, and the high value of influence weight of lithology
is defined for Class_6 which is shown in table (5) contains Conglomerate, shingly
sediments, gravel, sand, siltstone, breccia, limestone, gypsum, clay, loam; andesite,
decide and their tuffs, and For aspect classes, North, south, and east has more high values
than others as shown in table (5). The AHP module was finalized by defining the main
Criteria values as an implication of (Eq.5), which define in expanded form in (Eq.7)
Susceptibility map of both methods (AHP and WOM) classified into five Sensitivity and
susceptibility levels as (Very low, Low, Medium, High and very high) that frequency of
all zones for both methods are represented in (Fig .5), High and very high levels
sensitivity zones Covers 21.35%, 8.43% for AHP and 40.16%, 10.72% for WOM
respectively. Both methods related (LSM) shows five regions as much more susceptible
than another area along the Kabul Jalalabad road and similarly has a high correlation with
occurred Landslide and rock fall detected point, which indicates the rational accuracy of
methods that five areas recognized with high, slope, positive relief and much weathered
and sensitive Rock types. landslide susceptibility map (LSM) of (WOM) produced by the
user of (Eq.6) and as shown in (Fig.4a) and areal percentage of each one shown in (Fig.5),
which shows many similarities for Very Low, Low and Very High zone of susceptibility
With (AHP), that means this method has more relatively high uncertainty than (AHP)
modules, because of un running pairwise comparison to priorities all influencing factors.
to evaluate the accuracy of each classifier receiver operating Characteristic (ROC) curve
and AUC index used to assess the precision of each module Finally AHP module is
known as a much better tool than (WOM) one because of their (AUC) value which shows
0.923 for (AHP) that is greater than 0.845 (AUC) of (WOM) module and specified in
Excellent and very good Classes respectively. AHP module this ability of prediction is
known as high-level experiment judgments between Criteria and their relevant classes,
which depends on the level of experts’ applicable experience and knowledge to
comparing judgments.
𝐿𝑆𝑀 = 0.867 ∗ 𝑋1 + 0.269 ∗ 𝑋2 + 0.059 ∗ 𝑋3 + 0.104 ∗ 𝑋4 + 0.071 ∗ 𝑋5 + 0.054 ∗
𝑋6 + 0.030 ∗ 𝑋7 + 0.042 ∗ 𝑋8 + 0.181 ∗ 𝑋9 (Eq.7)

223
 7. Conclusion
This study is based on the probabilistic method as analytic Hierarchy processed (AHP)
and weighted overly mapping (WOM). AHP is one of the hierarchy comparison
influences of parameters and their prioritizing method for zoning the risk of landslides
and other natural disasters, which has recently been used widely by researchers in various
parts of the world and denoted with high interest by many researchers. advantages of this
method are the use of a small amount of information (influence factors), spatial
independence of information in estimating the weight of each factor (variable) on the
occurrence of landslides; Non-generalizability, uniqueness of the event, the accuracy of
preconditioned information on pre-existing landslides and inflexibility in small
geographical constraints are the main disadvantages of the method. Weight of the event;
Understanding the factors contributing to landslides is very complex and sometimes
unconventional, while the underlying factors contributing to landslides can be identified
even in field visits to aerial photography facilities, in which case some factors are
neglected to be. Also, in this research, the weighted overlay mapping (WOM) method is
used to increase the accuracy of the final results to detect the most susceptible locations,
accordingly, the final similarity between the results of these two methods that have a close
relation to that. Occurred landslides events distribution and more sensitive influence
Factors, the factors affecting the occurrence of Rockfall and landslides in Kabul-Jalalabad
road in this research by considering (9) criteria and their thematic maps were provided by
the use of ArcGIS10.8 facilities. This study shows about the 5 portions of the road has
high association and spatial coordination for rock fall and landslide susceptibility. Spatial
distribution of high and very high sensitivity for the AHP method from very high and
high potential is (8.43%) and (21.36%) of the study area, respectively, which shows
(10.72%) and (40.16%) in WOM; both of these methods have a close relationship
between more susceptible area and invented points of Rockfall and landslides. Slope
changes, lithological varieties, annual average precipitation, and slope aspect were
determined as the most effective factors.
The accuracy of approaches comparatively Assessed by the use of ROC curves shows
that AHP is much more valid because of its high (0.923) value of the (AUC) index than
the (0.845) of the WOM method.

224
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Authors Profile:
Khairuddin Rasikh received his BSc. Degree in Geology and Earth
Science f r o m Kabul University in 2015 and 2018,he completed his MSc.
degree in Geology and Mine Exploration Engineering from Kabul
Polytechnic University. Currently, He is working as a teaching assistant in
the Department of Geology and Mine at Nangarhar University, Daronta
Afghanistan. His area of interest includes remote sensing and field
observational Base study of slope Failures and Geological structures.

Zafar Khan Saeedi has gote his BSc. Degree in Oil and Gas from the
Engineering Department of Kabul Polytechnic University in 2014 and
2018, he completed his MSc. degree in Geology and Mine Exploration
Engineering from Kabul Polytechnic University. Currently, He is working
as a teaching assistant in the Department of Geology and Mine Department
at Nangarhar University, Daronta Afghanistan. His field of interest is the
Geochronological study of carbonatic sedimentary formations.

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