Electronics Design Workshop

Chapter 1 Familiarizing with electronic

components

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Electronics Design Workshop

1.1 Introduction

Familiarizing oneself with electronic components is an important step in

understanding and working with electronic circuits. Some common electronic
components include:
• Resistor: A component that resists the flow of electrical current, used to limit
current and adjust voltage levels in a circuit.
• Capacitor: A component that stores electrical energy, used to smooth out
voltage fluctuations and filter signals in a circuit.
• Inductor: A component that stores energy in a magnetic field, used to filter
signals and smooth out voltage fluctuations in a circuit.
• Diode: A component that allows current to flow in only one direction, used to
protect circuits from voltage spikes and rectify AC to DC.
• Transistor: A component that can be used to amplify signals or switch current
on and off in a circuit, used to control the flow of current in a circuit.
• Integrated Circuit (IC): A component that contains multiple transistors, diodes,
and other components on a single chip, used to perform complex functions in
a circuit such as amplification, processing and memory.
• LED: A component that emits light when current flows through it, used as
indicator light and lighting.
• OLED: A component that emits light when current flows through it, used as
indicator light and lighting, and have higher contrast ratio than LED.
• Potentiometer: A component that can be used to adjust the resistance in a
circuit, used to control voltage and current levels in a circuit.
• Switch: A component that can be used to open or close a circuit, used to control
the flow of current in a circuit.
• Relay: An electrically operated switch, used to control the flow of current in a
circuit.
• Oscillator: A component that generates a continuous waveform, used in radios
and other electronic devices.

These are just a few examples of the many electronic components that are used in
electronic circuits. Familiarizing oneself with the properties and functions of these
components is an important step in understanding and working with electronic
circuits.

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Electronics Design Workshop

1.1.1 Resistor

A resistor is a passive electronic component that

resists the flow of electrical current. It is used to limit
current and adjust voltage levels in a circuit. The
resistance value is measured in ohms (Ω).
Resistor can be classified into different types based
on the material used, resistance value, tolerance, and
power rating.
• Carbon film resistor: These are made by coating a ceramic rod with carbon film,
and have a tolerance of around 5%.
• Metal film resistor: These are made by coating a ceramic rod with metal film,
and have a tolerance of around 1%.
• Wirewound resistor: These are made by winding a wire, such as nickel-
chromium, around a ceramic rod, and have a tolerance of around 2%.
• Composition resistor: These are made by mixing carbon and other materials
together, and have a tolerance of around 5%.
• Metal oxide film resistor: These are made by coating a ceramic rod with metal
oxide film, and have a tolerance of around 5%.
• Thin film resistor: These are made by depositing a thin film of material, such as
tantalum nitride, on a substrate, and have a tolerance of around 1%.
• Surface-mount resistor: These are smaller in size and have a tolerance of around
1%.

Carbon Resistor. Wire wound Resistor

The color coding of a resistor is a method used to indicate the resistance value of the
resistor. It consists of four color bands which are usually printed on the body of the
resistor. The first two bands indicate the first and second digits of the resistance value,
the third band indicates the multiplier, and the fourth band indicates the tolerance of
the resistor.
The first two bands are used to indicate the first two digits of the resistance value. The
first band represents the first digit and the second band represents the second digit.
The color codes used for the first two bands are:

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Color Code Color Code

Black 0 Green 5
Brown 1 Blue 6
Red 2 Violet 7
Orange 3 Gray 8
Yellow 4 White 9

The third band is used to indicate the multiplier, which is the number of zeros that
follow the first two digits. The color codes used for the third band are:

Color Code Color Code

Black x1 Green x100,000
Brown x10 Blue x1,000,000
Red x100 Violet x10,000,000
Orange x1,000 Gray x100,000,000
Yellow x10,000 White x1,000,000,000

The fourth band is used to indicate the tolerance of the resistor, which is the allowable
range of resistance values. The color codes used for the fourth band are:
Color Code Color Code
Brown 1% Violet 0.1%
Red 2% Gray 0.05%
Green 0.5% Gold 5%
Blue 0.25% Silver 10%

For example, a resistor with a color code of brown, black, red, and gold would have a
resistance value of 1 x 100 Ω + 0 x 10 Ω + 2 x 1 Ω = 120 Ω with a tolerance of 5%.
1.1.2 Capacitor

A capacitor is a passive electronic component that stores electrical energy in an

electric field. Capacitors are commonly used in electronic circuits to store and release
energy, filter signals, and smooth out voltage variations.

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There are several types of capacitors, including ceramic, tantalum, aluminum

electrolytic, and film capacitors. Each type has its own set of characteristics and is used
in different applications.

Some examples of Capacitors

On the basis of polarity, the capacitor are divided into two categories, such as
polarised capacitor and non-polarised capacitor.
Polarized capacitors and non-polarized capacitors are two types of capacitors that
differ in their construction and the way they are used in circuits.
A polarized capacitor is a capacitor that has a positive and a negative electrode and
can only be connected to a circuit in one direction. This means that the positive
electrode must be connected to the positive voltage, and the negative electrode must
be connected to the negative voltage. Examples of polarized capacitors include
tantalum capacitors and aluminum electrolytic capacitors.
A non-polarized capacitor, on the other hand, does not have a positive and a
negative electrode and can be connected to a circuit in any direction. This means that
the positive electrode can be connected to the negative voltage, and the negative
electrode can be connected to the positive voltage. Examples of non-polarized
capacitors include ceramic capacitors, film capacitors and plastic film capacitor.
Polarized capacitors are typically used in circuits where a specific polarity is required,
such as in DC power supply circuits or in circuits that use polarized devices such as
diodes or transistors. Non-polarized capacitors are typically used in circuits where the
polarity is not important, such as in AC power supply circuits or in circuits that use
non-polarized devices such as resistors or inductors.
The capacitors can be divided into two categories, i.e. Fixed Capacitor and Varible
Capacitor.
A fixed capacitor is a capacitor that has a fixed capacitance value and cannot be
adjusted. It is also known as a non-variable capacitor. These types of capacitors are
typically used in circuits where the capacitance value is known and does not need to
be adjusted.

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A variable capacitor, on the other hand, is a capacitor that can have its capacitance
value adjusted. This is achieved by a mechanical or electronic mechanism that allows
for the adjustment of the distance between the plates, or the area of the plates. These
types of capacitors are typically used in circuits where the capacitance value needs to
be adjusted for optimal performance, such as in radio tuning circuits, or in power
supply circuits where the capacitance value needs to be adjusted to match the load.
Variable capacitors can be divided into two types: mechanical variable capacitor and
electronic variable capacitor. Mechanical variable capacitor are typically used in radio
tuning circuit, where a person can physically adjust the capacitor value. Electronic
variable capacitor is typically used in the application where the capacitance value need
to be adjusted by a circuit.

Parallel plat Capacotor Paper Capacitor Variable Capacitor

There are several types of capacitors, each with their own unique characteristics and
applications. Some common types of capacitors include:
• Ceramic capacitors: These capacitors are made from ceramic material and
have small capacitance values. They are widely used in coupling, decoupling,
and filtering applications.
• Tantalum capacitors: These capacitors are made from tantalum and have
relatively large capacitance values. They are used in applications that require
high stability and low leakage, such as in memory backup circuits.
• Aluminum electrolytic capacitors: These capacitors are made from aluminum
and have large capacitance values. They are used in power supply circuits and
other applications that require high capacitance values, such as in power
amplifiers.
• Film capacitors: These capacitors are made from a thin dielectric film and have
high stability and low leakage. They are used in coupling, decoupling, and
filtering applications, such as in audio and video equipment.
• Plastic Film Capacitor : These capacitors are made from plastic material and
have large capacitance values. They are used in applications that require high
stability and low leakage, such as in power supply circuits.

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• Paper capacitors: These capacitors are made from paper impregnated with oil
or wax and have moderate capacitance values. They are used in applications
that require stability and low leakage, such as in vintage audio equipment.
• Supercapacitor: These capacitors are also known as ultra-capacitor, has
extremely high capacitance values, up to several farads. They are used for
energy storage, such as in electric vehicles and backup power systems
Each type of capacitor has its own specific advantages and disadvantages, so the best
choice depends on the application and the desired performance characteristics.
1.1.3 Inductor

An inductor, also known as a reactor or coil, is a passive electronic component that

stores energy in a magnetic field when electric current flows through it. The amount
of energy stored in the magnetic field is directly proportional to the current flowing
through the inductor and the time for which the current flows.
Inductors are typically made of a coil of wire, such as copper or aluminum, wrapped
around a core made of a magnetic material such as iron or ferrite. The core can be in
the form of a toroid, a cylinder, or a flat sheet.
Inductors are used in a variety of electrical circuits, including power supplies, filters,
and transformers. They are used to oppose changes in current, which is known as
inductive reactance. This property is used in filters to block high-frequency signals
while allowing low-frequency signals to pass through, and in power supplies to smooth
out the ripple of DC voltage. Inductors are also used in transformers to transfer
electrical energy from one circuit to another.
Types of Inductor: There are several types of inductors, each with their own unique
characteristics and applications:
1. Air-core inductors: These inductors are made by winding a wire around a non-
magnetic core, such as a plastic or ceramic form. They have the lowest possible
core loss and the highest possible Q factor, making them suitable for high-
frequency applications.
2. Iron-core inductors: These inductors are made by winding a wire around an
iron core. They have a higher core loss and a lower Q factor than air-core
inductors, but they are able to handle higher current levels. They are used in
power supplies and other low-frequency applications.
3. Ferrite-core inductors: These inductors are made by winding a wire around a
ferrite core. They have a higher Q factor than iron-core inductors, and they are
able to handle higher frequency signals. They are commonly used in radio
frequency applications and in switching power supplies.
4. Toroidal inductors: These inductors are made by winding a wire around a
toroidal shaped core. They have a high Q factor and low leakage inductance.
They are commonly used in power supplies, filters, and transformers.

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5. Multi-layer ceramic inductors: These inductors are made by stacking layers of

ceramic material and winding a wire through the layers. They are small in size
and have a high Q factor and high self-resonant frequency. They are commonly
used in portable electronic devices.
6. Planar inductors: These inductors are made by etching a spiral pattern of metal
on a flat substrate. They are small in size and have a high Q factor and high self-
resonant frequency. They are commonly used in portable electronic devices.
7. Variable inductors: These inductors have a core or a winding that can be
adjusted to change the inductance. They are commonly used in tuning circuits
and in applications where a variable inductance is needed.

The Fig. is taken From https://engineeringlearn.com/what-is-inductor-types-of-

inductor-uses-function-symbol-complete-details/
1.1.4 Diode

A diode is a semiconductor device that allows current to flow in only one direction. It
is made up of a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor, which are joined
together to form a p-n junction.

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When a voltage is applied to the p-n junction in the forward direction, the p-type
semiconductor is positively charged and the n-type semiconductor is negatively
charged, creating a depletion region that is devoid of mobile charge carriers. This
depletion region acts as a barrier, allowing current to flow in only one direction.

The Figure is taken from https://www.hackatronic.com/types-of-diode-and-symbol-of-diode/

When a voltage is applied to the p-n junction in the reverse direction, the depletion
region widens, making it difficult for current to flow. This is known as reverse bias.
Diodes are used in a variety of applications such as rectifiers, voltage regulators, signal
processing, and power control. They can also be used in protection circuits, to prevent
damage to electronic devices from voltage spikes.
There are different types of diodes like:
1. Normal diodes (P-N junction diodes)
2. Schottky diodes
3. Zener diodes
4. LED (Light Emitting Diode)
5. LASCR (Laser Diode)
6. photo diodes
7. varactor diodes
8. tunnel diodes
9. pin diodes
10. Gunn diodes
Each one of them has its own unique characteristics and applications.

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The Figures are copied from https://elextutorials.com/2022/08/29/various-types-of-transistors/

1.1.5 Transistor

A transistor is a semiconductor device that can be used to amplify or switch

electronic signals. It is made up of a semiconductor material, usually silicon, with
impurities added to create regions of positive (p-type) and negative (n-type) charge.
There are two main types of transistors, bipolar junction transistors (BJT) and field-
effect transistors (FET).
BJT has three layers of semiconductor material, called the emitter, base and collector.
The emitter-base junction is forward-biased and the base-collector junction is reverse-
biased. When a current flows into the base terminal, it controls the flow of current
between the emitter and collector terminals.
FET has three terminals, the source, gate and drain. The source and drain terminals are
made of n-type or p-type semiconductor material and the gate terminal is made of a
thin insulating material. When a voltage is applied to the gate terminal, it controls the
flow of current between the source and drain terminals.
Transistors are used in a wide range of electronic devices, including amplifiers,
oscillators, digital logic gates, and microprocessors. They are also used in switching
power supplies, DC-DC converters, and other power electronic applications.
There are different types of transistors like:
1. NPN transistor
2. PNP transistor
3. JFET (Junction Field Effect Transistor)
4. MOSFET (Metal Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor)

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5. IGBT (Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor)

6. HEMT (High Electron Mobility Transistor)
7. Tunnel FET
8. UJT (Uni-Junction Transistor)
9. JUGFET (Junction Gate Field Effect Transistor)
Each one of them has its own unique characteristics and applications.
1.1.6 Integrated Circuit (IC)

An integrated circuit (IC) is a small semiconductor device that contains a large number
of transistors, diodes, resistors, and other electronic components. These components
are interconnected to perform a specific function, such as amplification, signal
processing, or digital logic. ICs are also known as microchips or simply chips.
ICs can be classified into two main categories: digital and analog.
Digital ICs perform logical operations, such as AND, OR, NOT, and NAND, and are used
in digital logic circuits, such as computer processors, memory devices, and digital
signal processors (DSPs). Examples of digital ICs include microprocessors, memory
chips, and digital signal processors.
Analog ICs are used to process analog signals, such as sound, light, or temperature,
and are used in applications such as audio equipment, power supplies, and medical
instrumentation. Examples of analog ICs include operational amplifiers (op-amps),
comparators, and analog-to-digital converters (ADCs).
ICs are used in a wide range of electronic devices, including computers, cell phones,
televisions, and automobiles. They are also used in industrial control systems, medical
equipment, and aerospace applications.
ICs are made using a process called photolithography, in which a patterned mask is
used to transfer a circuit design onto a semiconductor wafer. The wafer is then etched
to remove unwanted material, and the remaining material is used to create the
components of the IC. The process is highly automated and allows for the production
of ICs with very small dimensions and high levels of integration.
1.1.7 LED

A Light Emitting Diode (LED) is a type of semiconductor device that emits light when
a current is passed through it. LEDs are made from a semiconductor material, typically
a form of silicon, and are available in a wide range of colors, including red, green, blue,
and white.
LEDs have several advantages over traditional incandescent light bulbs, including:
8. High efficiency: LEDs convert a higher percentage of electrical energy into
light, making them more energy-efficient than incandescent bulbs.
9. Long life: LEDs have a much longer lifespan than incandescent bulbs, typically
lasting for tens of thousands of hours.

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10. Low heat: LEDs produce very little heat compared to incandescent bulbs,
making them safer to use and reducing the risk of fire.
11. Durability: LEDs are solid-state devices that are not easily damaged and can
withstand vibration, shock and other environmental stresses.
12. Variety of colors and brightness: LEDs are available in a wide range of colors
and brightness levels, which allow them to be used in a variety of applications,
such as lighting, displays, and signaling.
13. Low voltage & current: LED's require low voltage and current to operate, so
they can be powered by batteries and solar cells.

Figure is copied for https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode

Due to these advantages, LED technology is widely used for lighting and other
applications such as in automotive, traffic signals, electronic devices, and home
appliances.
LEDs are also used in displays such as in mobile phones, televisions and computer
monitors. They are also used in digital signage and lighting design.
1.1.8 OLED

An Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED) is a type of LED that emits light when a
current is passed through it. OLEDs are made from a thin layer of organic material,
typically made from small molecules or polymers, that is sandwiched between two
electrodes.
OLEDs have several advantages over traditional LEDs and other lighting technologies,
including:

• High efficiency: OLEDs convert a higher percentage of electrical energy into

light, making them more energy-efficient than traditional LEDs.

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• High color quality: OLEDs can produce a wide range of colors, including deep
blacks, and have a high color gamut, which makes them ideal for displays and
lighting applications.
• Thin and flexible: OLEDs are very thin and flexible, which makes them suitable
for use in a wide range of applications such as in mobile phones, televisions,
computer monitors, and other portable devices.
• Fast response time: OLEDs have a very fast response time, making them
suitable for use in high-speed applications such as in gaming, virtual reality, and
augmented reality.
• Wide viewing angle: OLEDs can be viewed from a wide angle, making them
suitable for use in large displays and televisions.
• Low power consumption: OLEDs consume less power than traditional LEDs and
LCDs, which makes them suitable for use in portable devices and for energy-
efficient lighting applications.

OLEDs are widely used in displays such as in smartphones, laptops, and televisions.
They are also used in automotive displays and lighting design. Because of the OLED's
flexibility, they are also used in flexible displays and wearables.
While OLEDs have many advantages, they are relatively new technology, and their
long-term reliability and lifespan are still being studied.
1.1.9 Potentiometer

A potentiometer, also known as a "pot," is a type of variable resistor that is used to

adjust the resistance in a circuit. Potentiometers have three terminals: a common
terminal, a variable terminal (or wiper), and another terminal. The variable terminal can
be moved along a resistive element, typically a carbon track or a conductive plastic
strip, to adjust the resistance between the common terminal and the other terminal.
Potentiometers can be used for a variety of applications, such as:
• Volume control: Potentiometers are commonly used to control the volume in
audio equipment, such as amplifiers and speakers.
• Brightness control: Potentiometers are used to adjust the brightness of lights,
displays, and other electronic devices.
• Position sensing: Potentiometers can be used to measure the position of
mechanical parts, such as in robotics and control systems.
• Temperature control: Potentiometers can be used to control the temperature
in heating and cooling systems.
Potentiometers are available in different types, including:

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• Linear Potentiometers: These have a linear relationship between the position

of the wiper and the resistance.
• Logarithmic Potentiometers: These have a logarithmic relationship between
the position of the wiper and the resistance.
• Multi-turn Potentiometers: These have a circular or rotary movement of the
wiper which enables precision adjustments.
• Digital Potentiometers: These are electronic devices that can be controlled
and programmed by a microcontroller or a computer to adjust the resistance.

The figure is copied from https://components101.com/articles/different-types-of-potentiometers-and-

how-to-use-them

Potentiometer are widely used in various electronic projects, like in audio equipment,
robotics, temperature control systems, and many more. They are also used in
conjunction with other electronic components like op-amps, microcontrollers,
transistors, etc to create more complex and sophisticated systems.
1.1.10 Switches

Switches in electronic circuits are used to control the flow of electrical current. They
can be used to turn a device on or off, or to route electrical signals to different parts
of a circuit. There are many different types of switches, each with their own specific
characteristics and applications. Some common types of switches include:

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• Mechanical switches: These are the most basic type of switch and are typically
operated by hand. Examples include toggle switches, push-button switches, and
rocker switches.
• Solid-state switches: These are electronic switches that use semiconductor
materials to control the flow of current. Examples include transistors and
thyristors.
• Relays: These are electronic switches that use an electromagnet to control the
flow of current. They can be used to switch high-power circuits and are often
used in automotive and industrial applications.
• Optocouplers: These are electronic switches that use light to isolate the input
and output of a circuit. They are used to protect sensitive electronic devices
from voltage spikes and other forms of electrical noise.
• Software-controlled switches: These are switches that are controlled by a
microcontroller or other digital device. They are often used in programmable
electronic devices such as smartphones, computers, and smart home devices.
The specific type of switch used in a circuit will depend on the application and the
requirements of the circuit. Factors that may influence the selection of a switch include
the voltage and current levels, the switching speed, and the environmental conditions.
1.1.11 Relay

A relay is an electronic switch that uses an electromagnet to control the flow of

electrical current. It typically consists of a coil of wire, an armature, and a set of
contacts. When an electric current flows through the coil, it generates a magnetic field
that attracts the armature, causing it to move and close the contacts. This completes
the circuit and allows electrical current to flow through it.
Relays are used in a variety of electronic circuits, particularly in industrial and
automotive applications. They are often used to switch high-power circuits, such as
those used to control lights, motors, and other devices. They can also be used to isolate
different parts of a circuit, protect sensitive electronic devices from voltage spikes and
other forms of electrical noise, and to provide a switching function in programmable
electronic devices.
Relays have several advantages over other types of switches. They can handle higher
voltage and current levels than mechanical switches and transistors, they can switch
circuits quickly and reliably, and they are less likely to wear out or fail over time.
Additionally, relays can be controlled remotely and can be used to create time-delayed
switching functions.
However, relays also have some disadvantages, such as the fact that they require a
continuous power supply to maintain the magnetic field and to activate the switch and
they are relatively larger in size and more expensive than other types of switch.

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The specific type of relay used in a circuit will depend on the application and the
requirements of the circuit, such as the voltage and current levels, the switching speed,
and the environmental conditions.

The Figure is copied from https://www.quisure.com/blog/faq/what-are-the-

common-types-of-relays

There are several types of relays, each with their own specific characteristics and
applications. Some common types include:
• Electromechanical relays: These are the most basic type of relay and consist
of an electromagnet, a set of contacts, and a spring-loaded armature. They can
be used to switch high-power circuits and are often used in automotive and
industrial applications.
• Solid-state relays (SSRs): These relays use semiconductor materials to control
the flow of current, instead of an electromechanical mechanism. They are more
reliable and have longer life compared to electromechanical relays. They can
also switch on and off faster, and handle higher frequencies.
• Reed relays: These relays use a set of thin metal reeds as the switch contacts.
They are small, fast, and have low power consumption. They are often used in
telecommunications, test equipment and other applications where small size
and low power consumption are important.
• Mercury-wetted relays: These relays use a small amount of liquid mercury to
make the electrical contact. They are used in high-voltage and high-current
applications and are known for their high electrical conductivity and long life.
• Relay-driver ICs: These are integrated circuits (ICs) that are specifically
designed to drive and control relays. They can be used to control multiple relays
with a single IC and also provide protection against overcurrent and voltage
spikes.

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• Latching relays: These relays retain the switch position after the coil current is
removed and are useful in applications that require power to be conserved or
switched on and off infrequently.

The specific type of relay used in a circuit will depend on the application and the
requirements of the circuit, such as the voltage and current levels, the switching speed,
and the environmental conditions.
1.1.12 Oscillator

An oscillator is a circuit that generates a repetitive

electrical signal, such as a sine wave, a square wave, or
a triangle wave. The signal can be used as a source of
clock signals for digital circuits, as a carrier wave for
modulating a radio signal, or as a timing reference for
other electronic devices.
Oscillators can be classified into two main categories:
• Linear oscillators: These are oscillators that use linear electronic components
such as resistors, capacitors, and transistors to generate a repetitive signal. They
are typically used to generate low-frequency signals.
• Non-linear oscillators: These are oscillators that use nonlinear electronic
components such as diodes and transistors to generate a repetitive signal. They
are typically used to generate high-frequency signals.
There are many different types of oscillators, each with their own specific
characteristics and applications. Some common types include:
• LC oscillators: These use a combination of an inductor (L) and a capacitor (C)
to generate a sine wave signal.
• RC oscillators: These use a combination of a resistor (R) and a capacitor (C) to
generate a square wave signal.
• Crystal oscillators: These use a quartz crystal to control the frequency of
oscillation. They are known for their high stability and precision and are
commonly used in frequency-critical applications such as clocks and watches.
• Colpitts oscillator: These use a combination of capacitors and transistors to
generate a sine wave signal. They are known for their stability and are
commonly used in radio frequency applications.
• Wien-bridge oscillator: These use a combination of resistors and capacitors to
generate a sine wave signal. They are known for their stability and are
commonly used in audio frequency applications.
The specific type of oscillator used in a circuit will depend on the application and the
requirements of the circuit, such as the frequency, stability, and precision of the signal.

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1.2 Understanding electronic system design flow

Electronic system design is the process of creating an electronic system from a set of
requirements. The design flow typically includes several steps, which can vary
depending on the complexity of the system and the specific requirements. A general
understanding of the electronic system design flow is:
Requirements Gathering: The first step in the design flow is to gather the
requirements for the system. This includes determining what the system is supposed
to do, what inputs it will receive, and what outputs it will produce.
Conceptual Design: The conceptual design is the initial design phase of the system.
This step involves creating a high-level design of the system, including determining
the major subsystems and components, and how they will work together.
Detailed Design: After the conceptual design is completed, the detailed design is
done, which includes the design of each individual component and subsystem. This
includes the selection of specific components, the layout of the circuit board, and the
design of the firmware or software that will control the system.
Prototyping: After the detailed design is complete, a prototype of the system is built
and tested. This allows for any design issues to be identified and addressed before the
final production version of the system is built.
Testing and Verification: After the prototype is built, the system is thoroughly tested
and verified to ensure that it meets all of the requirements and specifications. This step
may include functional testing, stress testing, and environmental testing.
Production: Once the design has been verified and all testing is complete, the system
is ready for production. This step involves manufacturing the system in large quantities.
Maintenance and Support: After the system has been deployed, it will require
ongoing maintenance and support. This may include software updates, hardware
repairs, and addressing any issues that arise during its use.
It's important to note that this is a general understanding of the electronic system
design flow and it may vary depending on the specific system and requirements.
1.3 Time planning using Gantt chart

A Gantt chart is a type of bar chart that is commonly used for project planning and
scheduling. It provides a visual representation of the tasks that need to be completed,
the dependencies between those tasks, and the timeline for completing them. The
chart is named after Henry Gantt, an American engineer and management consultant
who developed the chart in the early 1900s.

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Grantt Chart figure copied from https://www.productplan.com/glossary/gantt-chart/

A Gantt chart typically includes the following elements:

• Tasks: Each task or activity that needs to be completed is represented by a
horizontal bar on the chart.
• Timeline: The chart is divided into time intervals, such as days, weeks, or
months. The length of each task bar represents the duration of the task.
• Dependencies: Tasks are often dependent on other tasks, and these
dependencies are represented by arrows between the tasks. This shows which
tasks must be completed before others can begin.
• Milestones: Important deadlines or completion points are represented by a
diamond-shaped marker on the chart.
• Progress: The completion status of each task is represented by the percentage
of the bar that is filled in.
To use a Gantt chart for time planning:
• Identify the tasks: Break down the project into smaller tasks and list them on
the chart.
• Estimate the duration of each task: Estimate the time required to complete each
task.
• Identify the dependencies: Identify the tasks that are dependent on other tasks
and show the dependencies on the chart using arrows.
• Set the milestones: Identify the key deadlines or completion points for the
project and mark them on the chart as milestones.
• Create the chart: Use a Gantt chart software or template to create the chart and
enter the tasks, duration, dependencies and milestones.

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• Update the chart: Regularly update the chart as the project progresses, to track
the progress, and to adjust the schedule if necessary.
A Gantt chart is a useful tool for time planning as it provides a clear visual
representation of the project schedule, making it easy to identify potential issues, and
to make any necessary adjustments.

1.4 Schematic design and PCB layout

Schematic design and PCB layout are two important steps in the electronic design
process.
Schematic design is the process of creating a visual representation of the electronic
circuit using a set of standard symbols to represent the various components. The
schematic is a blueprint for the circuit and is used to verify that the circuit will work as
intended. It also serves as a reference for the PCB layout.
PCB layout is the process of arranging the electronic components on a printed circuit
board (PCB) so that they are properly connected and function as intended. This
involves determining the physical layout of the components on the board, routing the
connecting traces between the components, and ensuring that the board meets the
necessary electrical and mechanical requirements.
The schematic design and PCB layout are closely related, and they are often done in
parallel. The schematic is used as a reference for the PCB layout, and any changes
made to the schematic during the layout process will also need to be made to the
schematic.
During schematic design, the following steps are typically followed:
• Identify the components required for the circuit
• Connect the components together using a standardized set of symbols
• Verify that the circuit is functioning as intended
During PCB layout, the following steps are typically followed:
• Place the components on the PCB
• Route the connecting traces between the components
• Verify that the board meets the necessary electrical and mechanical
requirements
• Check for any errors or issues
It's important to note that schematic design and PCB layout are iterative processes,
and it may require several iterations before the final version of the circuit is completed.
A well-designed schematic and PCB layout can ensure that the circuit functions
correctly and efficiently, while a poorly designed one can lead to problems such as
signal interference, power supply issues, and component failure.

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1.5 Electronic circuit fabrication

Electronic circuit fabrication is the process of creating a physical circuit board from a
design, which includes schematic and PCB layout. The process typically involves several
steps, including patterning, etching, drilling, and component assembly.
1. Patterning: The first step in electronic circuit fabrication is to create a pattern
on a substrate (typically a PCB or a flexible substrate) which represents the
circuit layout. This is typically done by applying a thin layer of photoresist to the
substrate and exposing it to light through a mask (photolithography). The
exposed areas of the photoresist are then washed away, leaving a pattern on
the substrate that corresponds to the circuit layout.
2. Etching: The next step is to etch away the unwanted parts of the substrate,
leaving only the patterned areas. This is typically done using chemical etching,
where the substrate is exposed to a chemical solution that etches away the
substrate material.
3. Drilling: The third step is drilling the holes for the component leads. The holes
are drilled using a CNC machine, which is controlled by a computer program
that follows the layout of the circuit.
4. Component assembly: The final step is to assemble the components onto the
board. This includes soldering the components in place, and connecting the
component leads to the circuit traces.
5. Testing: After the circuit is fabricated, it's important to test it to make sure it
functions as expected. This can be done by measuring the voltage and current
levels of the circuit, and comparing them to the expected values.

It's important to note that electronic circuit fabrication process can be done in various
ways, through-hole, and surface-mount technology (SMT) are the most common.
Through-hole technology involves inserting component leads through holes in the
board and soldering them on the other side, whereas SMT involves placing the
components directly on the surface of the board and soldering them in place.
It's also important to note that electronic circuit fabrication process can be done in-
house or outsourced to a specialized electronic manufacturing service (EMS) provider,
depending on the resources and capabilities of the organization.

1.6 Soldering and testing

Soldering is the process of joining two pieces of metal (usually metals with a low
melting point) by heating them to a temperature high enough to melt the solder (a
metal alloy with a low melting point) and then flowing it into the joint to create a
strong mechanical and electrical connection.

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Electronics Design Workshop

Testing is the process of evaluating a system or its component(s) with the intent to
find whether it satisfies the specified requirements or not. In electronics, testing is used
to confirm that a circuit functions as intended and to identify any issues that may be
present.
1.7 Heat sink and cooling for critical components

A heat sink is a passive heat exchanger that transfers the heat generated by an
electronic device, such as a CPU or GPU, to a fluid medium, often air or a liquid, where
it can be dissipated away from the device. Heat sinks are typically made of metal, such
as aluminum or copper, and have a large surface area to increase the rate of heat
transfer. They are often used in conjunction with fans or other cooling methods to
improve their effectiveness.

Heat Sink Air Cooling Liquid cooling

Cooling is a critical aspect of electronic design, particularly for high-performance or
high-power devices, as overheating can cause permanent damage or failure of the
device. In addition to heat sinks, other cooling methods that are used to dissipate heat
from critical components include fans, liquid cooling systems, and thermoelectric
cooling.
It is important to ensure that the cooling system is able to dissipate heat quickly and
effectively, and that the temperature of the critical components is kept within safe
operating limits. This can be achieved by selecting the appropriate cooling method,
designing the thermal management system correctly, and monitoring the temperature
of the critical components.
1.8 Electronic system wiring

Electronic system wiring refers to the process of connecting electronic components

and devices to create a functional system. This includes connecting power supplies,
circuit boards, sensors, and other components using wires, cables, and connectors. It
also involves the use of schematics and diagrams to ensure proper connections are
made and to troubleshoot any issues that may arise. In addition, electronic system
wiring also involves the use of proper safety measures to protect against electrical
hazards.

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Electronics Design Workshop

1.9 Building a system enclosure

Building a system enclosure for an electronic

circuit involves enclosing the circuit and its
components in a protective housing. The
enclosure provides physical protection for the
circuit and its components, as well as protection
from environmental factors such as dust, moisture,
and temperature changes.
There are a variety of materials that can be used The figure is copied from https://www.thorlabs.com/
to construct an enclosure, including metal, plastic,
and wood. The choice of material will depend on the specific requirements of the
application, such as the level of protection needed, the operating environment, and
the cost.
The enclosure can be designed to be either sealed or vented. A sealed enclosure
protects the circuit from dust, moisture, and other environmental factors, while a
vented enclosure allows for air flow to cool the circuit.
The enclosure should be designed to allow for easy access to the circuit for
maintenance and repair. This often includes the use of removable panels, doors or
covers, and the use of connectors or plugs to allow for easy removal of the circuit.
In addition, it is important to consider the electrical safety when designing the
enclosure. This includes providing enough clearance around the circuit to prevent
accidental contact, and ensuring that the enclosure is properly grounded to protect
against electrical hazards.

1.10 Electronic system testing and debugging documentation

Electronic system testing and debugging documentation refers to the documents and
procedures used to test and troubleshoot electronic systems. This documentation is
used to ensure that the system is functioning correctly and to identify and fix any issues
that may arise.
Testing documentation includes test plans, test cases, and test procedures that detail
how the system will be tested, what will be tested, and what the expected results are.
This documentation is used to ensure that the system is thoroughly tested and that
any issues are identified and resolved before the system is deployed.
Debugging documentation includes troubleshooting guides, schematics, and
diagrams that provide detailed information about the system's design and operation.
This documentation is used to identify and diagnose issues that may arise during
testing or in the field.

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Electronics Design Workshop

It is also important to have a clear and detailed record of all the bugs identified, how
they were fixed and when they were fixed. This record is crucial when it comes to
maintaining the system, resolving new bugs, and future upgrades.
In summary, electronic system testing and debugging documentation is an important
aspect of electronic system development as it ensures that the system is thoroughly
tested, any issues are identified and resolved, and that there is a clear record of all the
bugs identified, how they were fixed, and when they were fixed. This documentation is
crucial for maintaining the system, resolving new bugs, and future upgrades.

1.11 Documentation using Google docs

Google Docs is a popular tool for creating and editing documents online. It allows
multiple users to collaborate on a document in real-time, making it an ideal tool for
electronic system testing and debugging documentation.
To use Google Docs for electronic system testing and debugging documentation, you
can create a new document and invite other users to collaborate on it. You can also
share a document link with others so they can view or edit the document.
Google Docs offers a variety of formatting options, including headings, bullet points,
tables, and images, which can be used to create clear and organized documentation.
It also has a built-in spell checker, which can help ensure the accuracy of the
documentation.
Google Docs also allows you to add comments and suggestions to the document,
which can be used to collaborate on the testing and debugging process. Users can
leave comments on specific parts of the document, making it easy to track feedback
and suggestions.
In addition, Google Docs also allows users to track changes made to the document,
which can be used to keep track of the testing and debugging process. This feature
allows users to see what changes have been made, when they were made, and who
made them.
Overall, using Google Docs for electronic system testing and debugging
documentation can be very beneficial, as it allows multiple users to collaborate on the
documentation in real-time, and keep track of the testing and debugging process with
comments, suggestions, and changes tracking.

1.12 Documentation using Overleaf

Overleaf is a web-based collaborative

LaTeX editor that allows multiple users to
work on a document at the same time. It is
a useful tool for creating professional-
looking electronic system testing and
debugging documentation.

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To use Overleaf for electronic system testing and debugging documentation, you can
create a new project and invite other users to collaborate on it. The editor interface is
similar to a traditional word processor, but it also includes advanced features such as
equation editing and cross-referencing.
One of the main advantages of using Overleaf for electronic system testing and
debugging documentation is its ability to create high-quality technical documents.
LaTeX is a typesetting system that is commonly used in scientific and technical fields
to produce well-formatted, professional-looking documents.
Overleaf also allows you to track changes made to the document, which can be used
to keep track of the testing and debugging process. This feature allows users to see
what changes have been made, when they were made, and who made them.
In addition, Overleaf also offers a wide range of templates, which can be used to create
documents such as reports, articles, and presentations. This can be useful for creating
a consistent look and feel for the documentation.
Overall, Overleaf is a useful tool for creating professional-looking electronic system
testing and debugging documentation, particularly in the scientific and technical fields.
The ability to track changes, use templates and the professional output makes it a
great tool for this task.

1.13 DSO including various triggering modes

A Digital Storage Oscilloscope (DSO) is an electronic test instrument that allows precise
visualization of electrical signals. It captures and stores a digital representation of the
signal, which can then be displayed on a screen and analyzed. DSOs are widely used
in various fields such as electronics, telecommunications, automotive, and aerospace,
to name a few.
DSOs have several key features that distinguish them from traditional analog
oscilloscopes:
• High resolution and fast sample rate: DSOs can capture and display signals
at a very high resolution and fast sample rate, providing a more detailed view
of the signal.
• Long memory depth: DSOs can store a large number of samples, allowing them
to capture signals over a longer period of time.
• Advanced triggering options: DSOs offer a wide range of triggering options,
including edge, pulse width, video, pattern, and logic triggering, which can help
to identify and isolate specific events or signals in a complex waveform.

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Electronics Design Workshop

• Advanced measurement and analysis functions: DSOs can perform a wide

range of measurements and calculations, such as frequency, phase, and RMS
voltage, as well as advanced analysis functions like FFT and histogram.
• Software and connectivity: DSOs often come with software that allows the
user to control the scope remotely and save, recall, and analyze the signal data.
It also include connectivity options like USB, Ethernet, and GPIB which enables
easy communication with a computer.
In summary, DSOs are powerful electronic test instruments that can capture, display,
and analyze electrical signals with high precision, making them an essential tool for
engineers, technicians, and scientists in a wide range of fields.

The various triggering modes in a DSO include

Edge triggering: triggers the scope when the signal crosses a specified voltage level
or slope.
Pulse width triggering: triggers the scope when the signal stays within a specified
voltage level for a certain time.
Video triggering: triggers the scope when the signal falls within a specific frequency
range and level.
Pattern triggering: triggers the scope when a specific pattern appears in the signal.
Runt triggering: triggers the scope when a signal crosses a voltage level but does not
return to that level within a certain time.
Logic triggering: triggers the scope when a specific logic level or transition is detected
on a digital signal.
These different triggering modes can help to identify and isolate specific events or
signals in a complex waveform, allowing for more precise analysis and troubleshooting.

1.14 1X and 10X probes

1X and 10X probes are two types of probes that are commonly used with
oscilloscopes, including digital storage oscilloscopes (DSOs), to measure electrical
signals.
A 1x probe connects the scope directly to the test point, without any extra attenuation,
making it highly sensitive and capable of detecting even small signals. These probes
are best used in situations where the signal level is low, such as when it's less than 1-
volt peak to peak. However, due to the input capacitance of the scope acting as a low
pass filter, 1x probes have a limited bandwidth, which can actually be advantageous in
low frequency applications, where the probe can filter out high frequency noise from
the low-frequency signal being measured.

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Electronics Design Workshop

The "standard" probes that come with most scopes are called 10x probes, as they
reduce the amplitude of the signal by a factor of ten. This reduction is achieved by
incorporating a 9 megaohm resistor in the probe tip, which acts as a voltage divider.
This added attenuation makes 10x probes ideal for measuring high voltage signals, as
it also increases the scope input impedance by a factor of ten, reducing circuit loading
compared to 1x probes. Another advantage of 10x probes is their wider bandwidth,
thanks to the capacitance in the probe tip that cancels out the scope's inherent input
capacitance, making them suitable for measuring signals with high frequency
components such as square waves and pulsed signals.

(a) The 1X Probe. (b) The secret of 10X Probe

Figure is copied from https://www.rohde-schwarz.com/in/products/test-and-

measurement/essentials-test-equipment/digital-oscilloscopes/understanding-passive-
oscilloscope-
probes_254518.html#:~:text=Ten%20%E2%80%93%20X%20probes%20are%20the,good%
20for%20high%2Dvoltage%20measurements.

1.15 Digital Multi-meter

A Digital Multimeter (DMM) is an electronic measuring instrument

that can measure a variety of electrical quantities, including voltage,
current, resistance, and continuity. It is a versatile tool that is
commonly used in a wide range of fields, including electronics,
electrical engineering, and troubleshooting.
A basic DMM typically includes the following measurement
functions:
• DC voltage: measures the direct current voltage level in a circuit.
• AC voltage: measures the alternating current voltage level in a circuit.
• DC current: measures the direct current flowing through a circuit.

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Electronics Design Workshop

• Resistance: measures the resistance of a circuit or component.

• Continuity: tests for a complete electrical path between two points in a circuit.

Some DMMs also include additional functions such as:

• AC current measurement
• Temperature measurement
• Capacitance measurement
• Frequency measurement
• Diode and transistor test
• Non-contact voltage detection
DMMs typically have a digital display that shows the measurement results, and they
are often powered by batteries. They are also equipped with a variety of different
inputs and connectors, such as banana jacks, alligator clips, and probes to allow for
easy and safe measurement of different types of signals.
In summary, a digital multimeter is a versatile and essential tool for measuring and
troubleshooting electrical circuits, and it is widely used in a wide range of fields.

1.16 LCR bridge

An LCR bridge (also known as an impedance

bridge or L-C-R bridge) is a type of electrical
measuring instrument that is used to
determine the values of inductance (L),
capacitance (C), and resistance (R) in a circuit.
It is a type of bridge circuit that uses a known
reference impedance and a variable
impedance to measure the unknown
impedance.
The basic principle of an LCR bridge is that it uses the difference between two legs of
a bridge circuit to calculate the unknown impedance. The bridge circuit is typically
made up of four arms, with the unknown impedance in one arm, and a known
reference impedance in the other arm, and a variable impedance in the other two arm.
The bridge is balanced when the voltage across the unknown impedance is the same
as the voltage across the reference impedance. When the bridge is unbalanced, the
current flowing through the variable impedance can be used to calculate the unknown
impedance.
LCR bridges are widely used to measure the values of components in electronic circuits.
They are commonly used in industry, research, and education. They are also used to
measure the impedance of devices such as transformers, inductors, capacitors, and

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resistors, and also for measuring the impedance of electronic devices such as
transistors and ICs.
LCR meters are also available which are specialized instruments that measure the LCR
parameters of a component or circuit. These meters use the bridge circuit principle but
also include additional features such as automatic measurement, frequency selection,
and temperature compensation.
In summary, an LCR bridge is a type of electrical measuring instrument that is used to
determine the values of inductance, capacitance, and resistance in a circuit, by
comparing the unknown impedance with a known reference impedance.

1.17 Signal and function generator

A signal generator is a type of electronic test equipment that generates a specific type
of electrical signal, such as a sine wave, square wave, or triangle wave. It is commonly
used to test electronic devices and systems by providing a known input signal to the
device or system under test, and is also used to generate signals for modulation or
demodulation, and to generate test signals for measuring the performance of
electronic devices such as amplifiers, filters, and oscillators.

A signal generator typically includes the following features:

• Frequency range: the range of frequencies that the signal generator is capable
of generating.
• Amplitude range: the range of amplitude levels that the signal generator can
generate.
• Waveform shape: the type of waveform that the signal generator can generate.
Common waveform shapes include sine, square, and triangle waves.
• Modulation: the ability to modulate the signal generator's output signal with
another signal, such as an audio or a RF signal.
• Output impedance: the output impedance of the signal generator, which is the
impedance of the signal generator's output port.
• Connectors: the type of connectors that the signal generator uses to output the
generated signal.
A signal generator can be a stand-alone instrument or can be integrated with other
test equipment such as oscilloscopes, spectrum analyzers and multi-meters. A signal
generator can be controlled by a front panel, computer or a mobile device.
In summary, a signal generator is a type of electronic test equipment that generates
specific types of electrical signals, such as sine waves, square waves, and triangle waves,
it can be used to test electronic devices and systems, to generate signals for

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modulation or demodulation, and to generate test signals for measuring the

performance of electronic devices such as amplifiers, filters, and oscillators.
A function generator is a type of signal generator that
can generate a variety of different types of signals,
including sine waves, square waves, triangle waves, and
arbitrary waveforms. It is commonly used to test
electronic devices and systems, to generate signals for
modulation or demodulation, and to generate test
signals for measuring the performance of electronic
devices such as amplifiers, filters, and oscillators.
A function generator typically includes the following features:
• Frequency range: the range of frequencies that the function generator is
capable of generating.
• Amplitude range: the range of amplitude levels that the function generator
can generate.
• Waveform shape: the type of waveform that the function generator can
generate. Common waveform shapes include sine, square, and triangle waves,
as well as arbitrary waveforms.
• Modulation: the ability to modulate the function generator's output signal with
another signal, such as an audio or a RF signal.
• Output impedance: the output impedance of the function generator, which is
the impedance of the function generator's output port.
• Connectors: the type of connectors that the function generator uses to output
the generated signal.
A function generator can also include built-in sweep and burst functions, which allow
the user to sweep the output frequency over a range or to output a burst of a specified
number of cycles at a specified frequency. Some function generators also include a
built-in arbitrary waveform generator, which allows the user to generate custom
waveforms.
Function generator can also be controlled by a front panel, computer or a mobile
device.
In summary, a function generator is a type of signal generator that generates a variety
of different types of signals, including sine waves, square waves, triangle waves, and
arbitrary waveforms, it can be used to test electronic devices and systems, to generate
signals for modulation or demodulation, and to generate test signals for measuring
the performance of electronic devices such as amplifiers, filters, and oscillators. It also
has more flexibility in terms of frequency range and waveform shape.

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1.18 Logic analyzer or MSO

A logic analyzer is a type of electronic test equipment that is used to capture and
display digital signals. It is commonly used to debug and troubleshoot digital circuits
and systems, as well as to analyze the behavior of digital buses and protocols.
A logic analyzer typically includes the following features:
• Number of channels: the number of digital signals that the logic analyzer can
capture and display simultaneously.
• Sample rate: the rate at which the logic analyzer can capture and display digital
signals.
• Memory depth: the amount of memory available for storing captured digital
signals.
• Triggering: the ability to trigger the logic analyzer to begin capturing and
displaying digital signals based on certain conditions, such as a specific digital
pattern or a specific digital signal transition.
• Decoding: the ability to decode digital buses and protocols, such as I2C, SPI,
and RS-232, and display the decoded data in a human-readable format.
A Logic analyzer can be a stand-alone instrument or can be integrated with other test
equipment such as oscilloscopes, spectrum analyzers, multi-meters and
Function/Signal generator.
A mixed signal oscilloscope (MSO) is a type of oscilloscope that includes both analog
and digital channels. It is similar to a logic analyzer, but also includes the ability to
capture and display analog signals. MSO's are commonly used to debug and
troubleshoot mixed signal systems, which include both analog and digital signals.
A MSO typically includes the following features:
• Number of channels: the number of analog and digital signals that the MSO
can capture and display simultaneously.
• Sample rate: the rate at which the MSO can capture and display signals.
• Memory depth: the amount of memory available for storing captured signals.
• Triggering: the ability to trigger the MSO to begin capturing and displaying
signals based on certain conditions, such as a specific digital pattern or a
specific signal transition.
• Decoding: the ability to decode digital buses and protocols, such as I2C, SPI,
and RS-232, and display the decoded data in a human-readable format.
In summary, a Logic Analyzer is a specialized electronic test equipment that captures
and displays digital signals, and is primarily used to debug and troubleshoot digital
circuits and systems. A MSO is similar to a Logic Analyzer but includes both digital and

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Electronics Design Workshop

analog channels, it is used to debug and troubleshoot mixed signal systems, which
include both analog and digital signals.

Exercise:

1. What are the key differences between resistors and capacitors, and how are
they used in electronic circuits?
2. Describe the process of creating a block diagram to represent the functional
requirements of an electronic system.
3. Using a Gantt chart, outline the steps required to complete a project that
involves designing and building an electronic system from scratch.
4. Explain the purpose of a schematic diagram in electronic circuit design, and
how it is translated into a PCB layout.
5. What are some common mistakes that can occur when soldering electronic
components, and how can they be avoided?
6. Describe the factors that influence the choice of a heat sink for a given
electronic component, and how it can be installed for maximum
effectiveness.
7. How do you determine the appropriate wire gauge for a given circuit, and
what are some common techniques for managing wires in an electronic
system?
8. What are the key considerations when designing and building an enclosure
for an electronic system, and how can you ensure that it provides adequate
protection for the components inside?
9. Describe the importance of documentation in the testing and debugging
phase of electronic system design, and give examples of the types of
information that should be included.
10. How can Google Docs or Overleaf be used to collaborate on electronic
system design documentation, and what are the benefits of doing so?
11. What are the different modes of operation available on a digital storage
oscilloscope (DSO), and how are they used to analyze electronic signals?
12. How does a logic analyzer differ from a traditional oscilloscope, and what
types of electronic circuits are best suited for analysis using a logic analyzer
or mixed signal oscilloscope (MSO)?

Satya P. Singh