Solutions to Problems

from “Essentials of Electronic Testing”

M.
c L. Bushnell and V. D. Agrawal, 2002

February 10, 2006

Please Read This

This manual contains solutions to all problems that appear at the end of the chapters
in the book. At the end of the manual we have included the solutions to problems
we used for the examinations in the Spring 2002 course at Rutgers University, and
Spring 2004 and Spring 2005 courses at Auburn University.
In spite of all the care taken to ensure accuracy, we caution the user that some
answers may contain errors as it is the first release of this manual. We will appreciate
if any errors or comments are forwarded to us by email: [email protected]
or [email protected].
This manual has been created as teaching material that accompanies the book.
To preserve its effectiveness, it should not be distributed. If necessary, only a very
small set of solutions can be copied for distribution in the class. Please do not pass
your copy on to others and ask any one requesting it to contact the authors.
Teachers can also use the presentation slides for 31 lectures (or an alternative
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http://www.caip.rutgers.edu/∼bushnell/rutgers.html
We hope the readers of our book, both teachers and students, will benefit from
this work. We acknowledge the help from colleagues and students in completing
this solution manual and the assistance of the University of Wisconsin-Madison in
its initial distribution.

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Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Chip testing
The events of Example 1.1 are redefined as follows:
PQ: chip is good P: chip passes the test
FQ: chip is bad F: chip fails the test
A 70% yield means, P rob(P Q) = 0.7 and P rob(F Q) = 0.3. Following the analysis
of Example 1.1, P rob(P ) = 0.68. Then,
Bad chips that pass tests
Defect level =
All chips that pass tests
= P rob(F Q|P )
P rob(P |F Q)P rob(F Q)
=
P rob(P )
0.05 × 0.3
= = 0.022
0.68
The defect level is 22, 000 ppm (parts per million).

1.2 Chip testing

Let x denote the escape probability, P rob(P |F Q). Referring to the formula derived
in Problem 1.1, a defect level of 500 ppm means,
P rob(P |F Q)P rob(F Q) x × 0.3
= = 0.0005
P rob(P ) 0.95 × 0.7 + x × 0.3
This gives,
0.0003325
x=
0.29985
Next, we obtain,

Defect coverage = P rob(F |F Q) = 1 − P rob(P |F Q)

= 1 − x = 0.99889

The required defect coverage is 99.889%. This represents the capability of the
test in detecting the actual “defects” that occur and should not be confused with
the “fault coverage,” which is defined for the “single stuck-at” fault model.

1.3 Test cost

Assuming that one vector is applied per clock cycle during the digital test, the rate
of test application is 200 million vectors per second. Therefore,
1000 × 106
Digital test time = =5s
200 × 106

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Adding the analog test time, we get

Total test time = 1.5 + 5.0 = 6.5 s

The testing cost for a 500 M Hz, 1,024 pin tester was obtained as 4.56 cents in
Example 1.2 (see page 11 of the book.) Thus,

Cost of testing a chip = 6.5 × 4.56 = 29.64 cents

The cost of testing bad chips should also be recovered from the price of good chips.
Since the yield of good chips is 70%, we obtain
29.64
Test cost in the price of a chip = ≈ 42 cents
0.7
41.8 cents should be included as the cost of testing while figuring out the
price of chips.

1.4 Test cost and self-test

Following Example 1.2 of the book (pp. 10-11), we obtain

ATE purchase price = $1.2M + 256 × $3, 000 = $1.968M

Assuming a 20% per year linear rate of depreciation, a maintenance cost of 2% of

the price, and an annual operating cost of $0.5M ,

Running cost = $1.968M × 0.2 + $1.968M × 0.02 + $0.5M = $932, 960/year

$932, 960
Testing cost = = 2.96 cents/second
365 × 24 × 3600
Testing cost of the self-test design is 2.96 cents per second, down from
4.56 cents per second calculated in Example 1.2

1.5 Test complexity

Consider a cube of side d. The number of transistors (Nt ) is proportional to the
volume d3 , and the number of pins (Np ) is proportional to the surface area 6d2 .
Thus, the Rent’s rule for the cube can be expressed as,

Np = K × Nt 2/3

where K is a constant, which depends on such technology parameters as the mini-

mum feature spacing. For simplicity, we will assume that this constant is the same
for the flat and cubic chips. Following Example 1.3 (pp. 12-13 of book), we define
the test complexity, T C, as transistors per pin, or T C = Nt /Np . For the cube,
Nt Nt 1
T Ccube = = 2/3
= Nt 1/3
Np KNt K

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Using the Rent’s rule for a flat chip (Equation 1.5 on page 13 of book), we obtain

Nt 1
T Csquare = 1/2
= Nt 1/2
KNt K

Therefore,
T Csquare
= Nt 1/6
T Ccube

This ratio of test complexities continues to increase as the number of transistors (Nt )
on the VLSI device grows. For example, for Nt = 1 million, the square-chip test
complexity is ten times greater than that of the cubic-device. The test problem
of the cubic configuration is less complex than that for the flat chip.
Note: Although chips at present are not designed as three-dimensional objects,
three-dimensional packages and interconnects are in use. An interested reader may
see the article: H. Goldstein, “Packages Go Vertical,” IEEE Spectrum, vol. 38,
no. 8, pp. 46-51, August 2001. Recently, Matrix Semiconductor announced plans
to produce a three-dimensional memory chip. See, “Adding a Third Dimension to
Chips,” Computer, vol. 35, no. 3, p. 29, March 2002.

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Chapter 2: VLSI Testing Process and Test Equipment
2.1 Test types
To reduce the warranty and product liability costs, the manufacturer must adopt a
thorough but cost-effective test plan. A low failure rate, which may be as low as 100
parts per million, means that among one million chips shipped by the manufacturer
there should be no more than 100 defective chips. A suitable test strategy requires
adjustments to tests as the production ramps up. A realistic plan is as follows:
• Initial production: The manufacturer uses parametric tests and vector tests,
the latter with coverage in the 95-100% stuck-at fault range. For high-speed
microprocessor chips, at-speed critical path tests are run. The chips should
be subjected to burn-in test for infant mortality.
• Matured production: If burn-in failures are lower than the required defect level
then that test is eliminated or reduced to a sample basis. Any field returns
are re-tested by the manufacturing tests. If these pass then the manufacturing
tests are augmented, when necessary, by customer-supplied tests.
• Test optimization: Tests are optimized to reduce the manufacturing cost.
First, test sequences that fail a larger number of devices are moved to the
beginning. Second, test sequences that do not fail any devices are dropped.
Such modifications change the emphasis from detection of modeled faults to
detection of actual defects.
• Process monitoring: Once the chip goes into high-volume production, the
manufacturing process and the outgoing product (chips) should be moni-
tored to keep any variations within statistical limits. This means that var-
ious parameters, such as metal resistivity, polysilicon conductivity, transistor
parameters, etc., should be within their three-sigma range (average ± 3 ×
standard deviation). Any excursions outside such a range are immediately
diagnosed and the causes remedied.

2.2 Contact test

Assume a diode drop of 0.7V . Then, the pin voltage range for contact test is given
by:
Upper range : Vpin = 0V − 0.7V − 100µA × 2000Ω
= −0.9V
Lower range : Vpin = 0V − 0.7V − 250µA × 2000Ω
= −1.2V

2.3 Set-up time test

To test a set-up time, tset−up = 360ps, apply the following waveforms to the chip (a
clock-to-Q delay of 400ps is assumed):

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 MC

D Inputs

CLK
360ps
Q Output
400 ps
450ps
Measure Q

At an interval of 450ps after the rising CLK edge, measure Q on the ATE.
If Q = 1, the device passes, otherwise it fails. Using M S instead of M C, repeat
the above waveform sequence, but with D inverted and the expected Q signal also
inverted. At an interval of 450µs after the rising CLK edge, again measure Q on
the ATE. If Q = 0, the device passes, otherwise it fails. The same waveforms are
applied simultaneously to all five D lines, and five simultaneous measurements are
made on the five Q lines.

2.4 Hold time test

To test a hold time, thold = 120ps, apply the following waveforms to the chip (a
clock-to-Q delay of 400ps is assumed):

MC 120ps
D Inputs

CLK
400ps
Q Output
400ps
450 ps
Measure Q

At an interval of 120ps after the rising CLK edge, we lower the D line. If Q = 1
450ps after the rising CLK edge, the device passes, otherwise it fails. Using M S
instead of M C, repeat the above waveform sequence, but with D inverted and the
expected Q signal also inverted. At an interval of 450µs after the rising CLK edge,
again measure Q on the ATE. If Q = 0, the device passes, otherwise it fails. The
same waveforms are applied simultaneously to all five D lines, and five simultaneous
measurements are made on the five Q lines.

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2.5 Threshold test
Perform the threshold test as given on page 32 of the book, but with the following
changes: Assume a 5V supply, and perform binary search to find VIL and VIH . The
following procedure determines VIL :

Write a 1.25V signal to the

input pin and a propagating pattern.
Read the expected output.
Correct Incorrect

Add 0.6V to input pin. Subtract 0.6V to input pin.

Read output pin. Read output pin.
Incorrect Correct
Correct Incorrect
Add 0.3V to input pin. Subtract 0.3V to input pin.
Read output pin. Read output pin.
Incorrect Correct
Correct Incorrect
Add 0.15V to input pin. Subtract 0.15V to input pin.
Read output pin. Read output pin.
Incorrect Correct
Correct Incorrect
Add 0.1V to input pin. Correct Subtract 0.1V to input pin.
Read output pin. Read output pin.
Incorrect
Correct Read input voltage as V Incorrect
IL
If it is 0.8V or greater,
the chip passes.

The advantage of this procedure is that it greatly speeds up the test. The test
for VIH is analogous.

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Chapter 3: Test Economics and Product Quality
3.1 Economic decision
We start with the following formula for the price of the car deriven by John (Equa-
tion 3.2 on page 38 of the book):
20, 000
P = 20, 000 + dollars
n
where n is the number of breakdowns per 15,000 miles since John’s car is driven
15,000 miles in a year. Because Laura drives only 5,000 miles per year, her car is
expected to have n/3 breakdowns per year. Assuming a linear depreciation to zero
value over 20 years and an average repair cost of $250 per breakdown, the annual
cost of driving is
P
C = + K + 250n/3 dollars
20
1, 000
= 1, 000 + + K + 250n/3 dollars
n
where K is the cost of gasoline and regular maintenance, assumed to be the same
for all models. To minimize this cost, we write
dC 1, 000 250 √
=− 2 + = 0 or n = 12
dn n 3
d2 C
This is a minimum because dn2
> 0. The price of a car for minimum transportation
cost is,
20, 000
P = 20, 000 + √ = 25, 774 dollars
12
Laura should invest in a car priced around 25,774 dollars.

3.2 Economic decision

(a) Let x be the daily wages of a technician and c be the cost of components on a
board. When n technicians work in the assembly shop, the cost of one board is,
W arehouse cost
C(n) = + technician
s wages + component cost
n
+workspace cost
10, 000 500n2
= +x+c+
n n
To minimize this cost, we write

dC(n) 10, 000 √

=− + 1, 000n = 0 or n = 20 = 4.47
dn n2

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 d2 C(n)
This is a minimum since dn2
> 0. We obtain the minimum cost as,
C(4) = C(5) = $4, 500 + x + c
To minimize the cost we should either hire four technicians, or reduce
the workforce to five if more than five technicians were already employed.
(b) Substituting x = 200 and c = 10, 000 in the last equation, we get
C(4 or 5) = $4, 500 + 200 + 10, 000 = $14, 700
The minimum cost of a single-board system is $14,700.

3.3 Benefit-cost analysis

Please note a correction in the statement of this problem. The part (a) should read:
Show that this scheme is beneficial for chips whose total cost is less than ten times
the burn-in cost when the burn-in yield is 90%.
(a) Complete elimination of burn-in: Let Ct be the total cost of a chip in the present
scheme where burn-in test is applied to every chip that passes the conventional test.
Let Cb be the per chip cost of burn-in. Ct includes Cb , as well as another component,
Cf , which accounts for the costs of fabrication, conventional test, etc. It is given by,
Cf + yc Cb
Ct =
yc yb
where yc is the yield with the conventional test and yb is the yield reduction due to
burn-in. Since the cost of IDDQ test is 10% of the burn-in cost and there is a 10%
yield loss, the cost of a chip when burn-in is replaced by IDDQ test is given by,
Cf + 0.1yc Cb
C
t =
0.9yc yb
For the new scheme to be beneficial, we must have
9Cb
C
t < Ct or Ct <
yb
For the given 90% burn-in yield, yb = 0.9, and Ct < 10Cb . The total cost should
not exceed ten times the burn-in cost.
(b) Apply burn-in test only to chips that fail IDDQ test: Let yb be the burn-in yield.
Consider all chips that have passed pre-burn-in tests. A fraction yb of these is “good”
chips. We apply IDDQ test to all chips passing the pre-burn-in test. Due to the 10%
yield loss, this will produce a fraction 0.9yb consisting of good chips. The remaining
fraction, 1 − 0.9yb , must be subjected to the burn-in test to recover the lost yield.
For the new scheme to be beneficial, we must have
1
0.1Cb + (1 − 0.9yb )Cb < Cb or yb >
9
Burn-in yield should be greater than 1/9 or 11.1%.

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3.4 Yield and cost
Let Cw be the cost of processing a wafer having N chips and let y(A) be the yield
of chips, where A is the chip area. Then the cost per good chip is obtained as,
Cw
Cc =
N y(A)

DFT changes the chip area to (1 + ∆)A. The number of chips on a wafer of area
N A is now given by, N A/(A + ∆A) = N/(1 + ∆). The cost of a good chip with
DFT is given by,
Cw
Cc (DF T ) = N
1+∆ y(A + ∆A)

Therefore, the cost increase due to DFT is,

Cc (DF T ) − Cc
Cost increase = × 100 percent
Cc


(1 + ∆)y(A)
= − 1 × 100 percent
y(A + ∆A)

Using the yield formula of Equation 3.12 (p. 46 in the book), we get


(1 + Ad/α)−α
Cost increase = (1 + ∆) × percent
(1 + (1 + ∆)Ad/α)−α

 α 
Ad∆
= (1 + ∆) 1 + − 1 × 100 percent
α + Ad
which is the required result.
For the given data, d = 1.25 def ects/cm2 , α = 0.5, ∆ = 0.1, and A = 1 cm2 ,
we obtain

 0.5 
1.25 × 0.1
Cost increase = 1.1 1 + − 1 × 100 percent
0.5 × 1.25
= 13.86%

There is a 13.86% increase in the chip cost due to DFT.

3.5 Defect level and fault coverage

Defect level, DL, is given by Equation 3.20 (p. 50 of the book), as follows:
 β
β + T Af
DL = 1 −
β + Af
where T is the fault coverage, Af is the average number of faults on a chip of area
A, and β is a fault clustering parameter. Further manipulation of this equation

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leads to the following result:
β + T Af
(1 − DL)1/β =
β + Af
(β + Af )(1 − DL)1/β − β
or T = × 100 percent
Af
which is the required result.

3.6 Defect level and fault coverage

Substituting the given fault density, f = 1.45 f aults/cm2 , the fault clustering pa-
rameter, β = 0.11, and the fault coverage, T = 0.95, in Equation 3.20 (page 50 of
the book), we obtain the defect level as,
 
β + T Af β
DL(T ) = 1 −
β + Af
 
0.11 + 0.95 × 1.0 × 1.45 0.11
= 1−
0.11 + 1.0 × 1.45
= 0.00522 or 5, 220 parts per million
The defect level is 5,220 parts per million (ppm).
(a) To obtain the fault coverage T for a required defect level of 1,000 ppm, we
substitute DL = 0.001 in the formula derived in Problem 3.5. Thus,
(0.11 + 1.45) × 0.9991/0.11 − 0.11
T = × 100 = 0.990
1.45
The required fault coverage is 99%.
(b) For a defect level of 500 ppm (DL = 0.0005), we get

(0.11 + 1.45) × 0.99951/0.11 − 0.11

T = × 100 = 0.995
1.45
The required fault coverage is 99.5%.

3.7 Defect level

Defect level, DL(T ), given by Equation 3.20 (p. 50 of the book), can be written as:
(1 + T Af /β)β
DL(T ) = 1 −
(1 + Af /β)β
eT Af
= 1 − Af = 1 − e−Af (1−T ) , as β → ∞
e
Also, as β → ∞, Equation 3.19 (p. 50 of the book) gives the yield,
 −β
Af
Y = 1+ = e−Af
β

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Substituting this expression for yield in the defect level, we get

DL(T ) = 1 − (e−Af )1−T = 1 − Y 1−T

which is the required result.

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Chapter 4: Fault Modeling
4.1 Boolean functions
An n-variable Boolean function is completely specified by its truth-table. The output
n
column in this table is a 2n -bit vector that can be in 22 distinct states, each
specifying a different Boolean function.

4.2 Initialization faults

In the circuit of Figure 4.1 (p. 62 of the book), let Qp denote the present state at
the output of the F F . Let the next state, i.e., the output of the AND gate, be Qn .
We can write the next state function, as

Qn = (Qp + A)(A + B)

If we set A = 1, the next state function, Qn = B, becomes independent of the

present state. That is, irrespective of the present state, the next state can be set to
a value, which is uniquely determined by primary inputs. This makes the fault-free
circuit initializable. When the fault A s-a-0 is present, the above equation reduces to
Qn = Qp . Thus, starting with Qp = X, Qn can never be changed to any value other
than X and, therefore, the circuit will remain uninitialized in the presence
of this fault.
Using the next-state expression, we can easily determine that no other single
stuck-at fault in this circuit will prevent initialization. For example, consider the
s-a-0 fault on the top branch of the fanout of A. The faulty next state function is
Qn = Qp (A + B), which can be set to 0, when Qp = X, by applying A = 1, B = 0.

4.3 Fault counting

See Section 4.5 (last paragraph on p. 70 of the book.)

4.4 Fault counting

For the circuit of Figure 4.6 (p. 72 of book), we have

Number of fault sites = PIs + gates + fanout branches

= 2 + 4 + 6 = 12

Therefore,

Number of single and multiple faults = 3number of fault sites

−1
= 3 12
− 1 = 531, 440

The circuit has 531,440 single and multiple stuck-at faults.

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 V
DD

P1
A
P2
C
A
B C
N1 B

N2 Logic NAND gate.

Ground
CMOS NAND gate.
Circuit for Problem 4.5.

4.5 CMOS faults

(a) A two-input NAND gate is shown in the above figure. The following table gives
tests for transistor stuck-open (sop) faults:

Test No. Fault Test: Vector 1, Vector 2

1 P1 sop 11, 01
2 P2 sop 11, 10
3 N1 sop 01, 11 or 10, 11 or 00, 11
4 N2 sop 01, 11 or 10, 11 or 00, 11

Notice that the sop faults of N1 and N2 have exactly the same tests. These two
faults are equivalent. Equivalence of transistor faults is discussed in the following
paper:
M.-L Flottes, C. Landrault and S. Provossoudovitch, “Fault Modeling and Fault
Equivalence in CMOS Technology,” J. Electronic Testing: Theory and Applications,
vol. 2, pp. 229-241, August 1991.
(b) The following sequence of four vectors contains one vector pair for each fault in
the above table:

11, 01, 11, 10

Notice that this sequence also detects all single stuck-at faults in the logic model of
the NAND gate.
(c) A stuck-at fault in a signal affects two transistors in the two-input NAND gate.
For example, the fault A s-a-1 will mean that N1 remains permanently shorted
(N1-ssh) and P1 remains permanently open (P1-sop). The following table gives all
equivalences:

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 Stuck-at fault Equivalent transistor faults
A s-a-1 N1-ssh and P1-sop
B s-a-1 N1-ssh and P2-sop
C s-a-1 (P1-ssh or P2-ssh) and (N1-sop or N2-sop)
A s-a-0 N1-sop and P1-ssh
B s-a-0 N2-sop and P2-ssh
C s-a-0 N1-ssh, N2-ssh, P1-sop and P2-sop

Notice that the three equivalent faults, A s-a-0, B s-a-0 and C s-a-0, are actually
caused by different faulty transistors. They are detected by the same test (11).

4.6 Fault models

See Section 4.4 in the book.

4.7 Fault indistinguishability

Without loss of information we will write a function f (V ) as f . Thus, the left hand
side of Equation 4.3 is:

[f0 ⊕ f1 ] ⊕ [f0 ⊕ f2 ]
= [f0 f1 + f0 f1 ] ⊕ [f0 f2 + f0 f2 ]
= (f0 f1 + f0 f1 )(f0 f2 + f0 f2 ) + (f0 f1 + f0 f1 )(f0 f2 + f0 f2 )
= (f0 f1 + f0 f1 )(f0 f2 )(f0 f2 ) + (f0 f1 )(f0 f1 )(f0 f2 + f0 f2 )
= (f0 f1 + f0 f1 )(f0 + f2 )(f0 + f2 ) + (f0 + f1 )(f0 + f1 )(f0 f2 + f0 f2 )
= (f0 f1 + f0 f1 )(f0 f2 + f0 f2 ) + (f0 f1 + f0 f1 )(f0 f2 + f0 f2 )
= f0 f1 f2 + f0 f1 f2 + f0 f1 f2 + f0 f1 f2
= (f1 f2 )(f0 + f0 ) + f1 f2 (f0 + f0 )
= f1 f2 + f1 f2
= f1 ⊕ f2
= Left hand side of Equation 4.4

This completes the derivation of Equation 4.4 from Equation 4.3.

4.8 Functional equivalence

Faulty functions for the circuit of Figure 4.12 corresponding to the two faults are:

i(c s − a − 0) = b(ab) = ab
i(f s − a − 1) = (a + b)a = ab

The two faulty functions are indistinguishable and hence the two faults are equiv-
alent.

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4.9 Functional equivalence
Faulty functions for the circuit of Figure 4.6 corresponding to the two faults are:

z(c s − a − 1) = ab.(ab.b)
= ab.(ab + b) = ab
z(f s − a − 1) = ab
The two faulty functions are indistinguishable and hence the faults are equiva-
lent.

4.10 Fault collapsing for test generation

The circuit of Figure 4.9 has 18 single stuck-at faults. Gate-level fault equivalence,
as shown in the following figure, reduces the number to 12. The faults in shaded
boxes have been collapsed as shown by arrows. Many ATPG and fault simulation

sa0 sa0 sa1 A1

A sa0
sa1 sa0 B2
sa1
sa1 sa0
C
sa0 A2 sa1
sa0
sa0 sa1 B1
B sa1
sa1 sa0 sa1

programs will collapse faults as shown above. However, functional fault collapsing
can further reduce the number of faults to 10. As shown in Example 4.11 (see page
75 of the book), the s-a-1 faults on A1 and B1 are equivalent, and so are the s-a-1
faults on A2 and B2.
Whether we take the set of 12 faults or the set of 10 faults, their
detection requires all four input vectors.

4.11 Equivalence and dominance fault collapsing

(a) The given circuit is shown below with fault sites marked by numbers. The
number of potential fault sites is 18. The total number of faults is 36.
(b) The figure shows deletion of equivalent faults using an output to input pass.
Of the 36 faults, 20 remain, giving a collapse ratio 20/36 = 0.56.
(c) Checkpoint lines are shown by boldface numbers. These are three PIs and seven
fanout branches. Line 2 fans out to 4 and 5. Line 3 fans out to 6, 7 and 8.
Line 10 fans out to 12 and 13. There are ten checkpoints and 20 checkpoint
faults. Further, s-a-0 faults on lines 6 and 12 are equivalent and any one of
them can be chosen. Similarly, s-a-0 faults on 7 and 13 are equivalent, and so
are s-a-0 on 5 and s-a-1 on 8. Thus, the size of the fault set is reduced to 17,
giving a collapse ratio 17/36 = 0.47.

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 sa0 sa0
Checkpoints are shown in boldface
1 sa1 9 sa1

14
sa0 6
sa1 12 sa0
sa0 sa0 sa1
sa0 sa1 sa0 sa1 sa0
sa1 4 sa1 sa1 sa0
2
sa1
10 13
3 7 15
sa0 sa0 18
sa1 sa0 sa1
8 17 sa0
sa1 sa0 sa0 sa1
sa1 sa1
sa0 11 16
sa1 sa0 Deleted due to
sa1 equivalence
5
Circuit for Problem 4.11: (b) Equivalence collapse ratio = 20/36 = 0.56
(c) Dominance (uncollapsed faults at checkpoints) collapse ratio = 17/36 = 0.47

4.12 Dominance fault collapsing

(a) Checkpoints are defined for the signals in a combinational circuit. These signals
are the interconnects between Boolean gates, a fact not always explicitly stated. To
avoid ambiguity, the definition on page 78 of the book should read as:
Definition 4.7 Checkpoints. Primary inputs and fanout branches of a combina-
tional circuit consisting only of Boolean gates are called the checkpoints.
To find checkpoints of the circuit of Figure 4.12, we must replace the exclusive-
OR (XOR) function by a primitive Boolean gate implementation. AND, OR, NAND,
NOR and NOT are called the primitive Boolean gates. Functions such as XOR are
sometimes referred to as complex gates. In the following figure, we have assumed
one such implementation. Our result is, therefore, based on this assumption. Other
implementations of the XOR function are possible and can give a different set of
checkpoints.
c
d d1 XOR
a

d2 i
e1
k
e
b
e2

f
h
g

There are nine checkpoints in this circuit. These include three primary inputs,
a, b and c, and six fanout branches, d1, d2, f , e1, e2 and g. The checkpoint fault
set consists of eighteen faults – s-a-0 and s-a-1 faults on the nine lines.
Notice that lines d and e of the original circuit are not checkpoints. If we did

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not model the XOR block with Boolean gates, then those lines will appear to be
checkpoints, whose number will be fourteen. However, detection of those faults will
not guarantee detection of faults on the fanouts that are internal to the XOR block.
Considering the Boolean gate structure, a fault on d corresponds to a simultaneous
(multiple) fault on d1 and d2 and, in general, the detection of a multiple fault is not
equivalent to detection of the component faults.

(b) We evaluate the output function k corresponding to the two faults:

k(d s − a − 0) = c+b+a+b
= c + b + ab
k(g s − a − 1) = c + ab + ab + a
= c + ab + a

The two faulty functions are shown by Karnaugh maps below. In both cases, the
functions have exactly one false minterm, abc. Since the two faulty functions
are identical the corresponding faults are equivalent.

false minterm b false minterm b

b c ab c
a a
c c
ab a
k with d s-a-0 k with g s-a-1

Note: this type of fault equivalence is functional and is often difficult to find by
typical fault analysis tools, which rely on structurally identifiable equivalences.

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Chapter 5: Logic and Fault Simulation
5.1
The eight vectors of Table 5.1 apply all possible inputs to each stage of the 4-bit
ripple-carry adder. The longest path is from the carry input C0 to carry output
C4 . The delay of this path is tested by two vector pairs. Vector 2 followed by
vector 6 applies a rising transition at C0 , which ripples through the circuit to the
C4 output. Similarly, vector 7 followed by vector 3, propagates a falling transition.
The rearranged vectors are given in the following table. This vector set still applies
all input states to all stages of the adder and hence is a better verification sequence.

Vec. no. C0 A0 B0 A1 B1 A2 B2 A3 B3 Path test

2 001010101
6 101010101 Rising transition through path C0 → C4
7 110101010
3 010101010 Falling transition through path C0 → C4
1 000000000
4 011001100
5 100110011
8 111111111

5.2
The following figure shows a two-bit shift register. Initially, both flip-flops are in the
0 state. The first two 0 inputs initialize the flip-flops to the 00 state. Subsequent
inputs, outputs and state transitions are shown in the figure.
Input Output
00111010 00 FF1 FF2 111010000 XX
Initialization
State transitions
XX 0X 00 00 10 01 10 11 11 01 00

10
1/0 1/0

0/0 00 0/0 11 1/1

1/1

0/1
0/1
01

State diagram of 2−bit shift register.

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5.3
The following figure shows a two-bit shift register with a Clear input and the state
diagram.

Shift FF1 FF2 Output

Clear

Edge label: Shift,Clear/Output

X1/0
10
X1/0
10/0 10/0

00/0
10/1
00 11 10/1

00/0 00/1 00/1

01
X1/0 X1/0

State diagram of 2−bit shift register with clear input.

A necessary condition for an Eulerian path that will cover all edges traversing
each edge exactly once is that the indegree must equal outdegree at each vertex.
Since the state diagram does not satisfy this condition, an Eulerian path is not
possible.
Notice that the above is only a necessary (not a sufficient) condition. Another
condition, which is satisfied in this case, is that the graph should be strongly con-
nected.

5.4
The longest path in the circuit (see Figure 5.2) is C0 to C4 . The delay of this path
should be tested for both rising and falling transitions. As shown in Example 5.3, the
path delay for a rising transition is tested by vector 2 followed by 6, which causes
the transition to ripple through the path. Similarly, the path delay for a falling
transition can be tested by vector-pair, 6 followed by 2. From Table 5.2, vectors 1
through 6 cover all stuck-at faults. Since the circuit is combinational, these vectors
can be applied in any order. We construct a sequence of seven vectors using these
six vectors that contains the two delay test vector-pairs. The sequence is 1, 2, 6, 2,
3, 4, 5.
Note: If we use the result of Table 5.3, another sequence of six vectors, 6, 2, 6,
5, 4, 3, for all stuck-at faults and two path delay faults can be constructed.

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5.5
In a combinational circuit, the fault activity is completely determined by the present
vector irrespective of the previous vectors. Therefore, the faults detected by a vector
remain the same irrespective of the position of the vector in the sequence. More
importantly, the reverse order cannot reduce the overall fault coverage of any set of
vectors. In a sequential circuit, the fault activity caused by a vector also depends
on the circuit state caused by the previous vectors. The set of faults detected by a
vector, therefore, varies depending on which vectors precede it. The total coverage
of a sequence of vectors, applied to a sequential circuit in the reverse order, can
be quite different from their original coverage. Although it can increase sometimes,
mostly the overall coverage is found to decrease.

5.6
(a) Behavioral simulator: VHDL or Verilog circuit model, clock cycle accurate tim-
ing.
(b) Circuit-level simulator: e.g., Spice.
(c) Switch-level, or mixed-mode logic (with MOS capability), or circuit-level simu-
lator.
(d) Multiple-delay logic, or circuit-level simulator.
(e) Unit-delay logic simulator.

5.7
When the two control inputs are changed to 0, the bus will be in the “floating” state
and will retain its previous state, which is 1. Thus, the output of the inverter will
remain 0.
In the logic model of Figure 5.7, initially all four inputs to the bus driver (shaded
block) may be 1. That will set the bus node to 1 and the output to 0 states. When
the two control inputs (top and bottom inputs to AND gates in the shaded block)
are changed to 0, the bus output will change to 0 and the output will change to 1.
Thus, the logic model gives incorrect values.

5.8
The following circuit models an AND bus. This is a combinational model, which
does not have memory. When both controls are off, C1 = C2 = 0, and unknown (X)
value appears at the output. Logic simulators are often designed to supply the X
value. The circuit can be modified to produce a 0 or a 1, instead of X. The bus
will be set to a 0 if the X input of the OR gate is removed. It will produce a 1 if
the three-input OR gate is omitted.
When only one control, C1 or C2, is turned on, the corresponding data, either
D1 or D2, appears at the output. When both controls are on, the output is D1 · D2.
Besides the lack of memory, this model does not also have the bidirectional
behavior that is usually present in MOS circuits.

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 C1
D1

Unknown (X) bus output

D2
C2

5.9
The following schematic shows a logic model for a bus with memory. When both
drivers feed data to the bus, i.e., C1 = C2 = 1, D1 · D2 appears at the output,
assuming a 0-dominance. When both drivers are turned off, i.e., C1 = C2 = 0,
the output retains its value through feedback. When only one driver is on, the
corresponding data input appears at the output.

C1
D1

bus output

D2
C2

This model represents most of the characteristics of a MOS bus, with the excep-
tion of bidirectionality. One problem with it is that it is an asynchronous sequential
circuit and cannot be correctly simulated by some simulators. An event-driven logic
simulator can simulate it, but will be inefficient in comparison with synchronous
circuit simulation.

5.10
With the given inputs, 00, and output X, when the clock is applied the circuit will
not be initialized. The reason is that in a three-state logic system the inversion of
X is also X.
The circuit can be initialized to a 1 output by clocking the flip-flop when a 11
input is applied. Then, if we change the input to 10 and clock the flip-flop, the
output will become 0. These two vectors can be correctly simulated by a three-state
logic simulator.

5.11
The two cases are sketched below. The rise and fall delays of the OR gate are
denoted by tr and tf , respectively. In (a) the output pulse width is 8 units and in
(b) it is 4 units.

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 Input
6
tr=3 tf=5

(a) Output

tr=5 tf=3

(b) Output
time units
0

5.12
The two cases are sketched below. The rise and fall delays of the OR gate are
denoted by tr and tf , respectively. In (a), a rise is first scheduled to occur at 3 time
units after the rising edge of the input. Before this rise takes place, the input falls
at 1 unit, and reschedules a falling output at time 6 units. A conservative simulator
produces an unknown (X) output between 3 and 6 units of time. This is shown as
a level between logic 0 and 1 in the following figure.

Input
1
tr=3
tf=5
(a) Output

tr=5

(b) Output tf=3

time units
0

In (b), the output cannot rise until 5 units of time. Meanwhile, at time unit 1, a
fall is scheduled to be completed at time unit 4. Thus, the output does not change
at all.
Case (b) is an example of a pulse being filtered by a slow gate. In simulators,
this phenomenon is referred to as spike suppression. The actual waveform produced
by the simulator depends upon the specific assumptions made. In pessimistic sim-
ulation, a pulse of ambiguous height may be produced as in case (a) above. In
optimistic simulation, the output may remain unchanged if the input pulse width is
smaller than the gate delay.

5.13
Upon the evaluation of a zero-delay gate, if the output changes then the new event
is added to the current event list. Thus, all zero-delay events would be processed
before the current event list becomes empty and the time is advanced.

5.14
For unit-delay simulation only two time slots are needed: current-time and next-
time. When the current-time event list becomes empty, the time pointer is moved

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to the next-time slot, which then becomes the new current-time. The old current-
time slot has no use now and it used as the next-time. Thus, the circular time-wheel
contains only two slots.

5.15
Let us assume that the circuit has F faults and V vectors detect all faults. According
to the given information, the coverage rises linearly from 0 to F faults as the number
of simulated vectors increases from 0 to V . This is shown in the figure below.
Assuming τ to be the CPU time required to simulate one vector in the true-value
Faults detected

0 Vectors simulated
0 V

mode, simulation time for the fault-free circuit is τ V . When no fault-dropping is

done, each faulty circuit is simulated for all V vectors. Therefore, the simulation
time is given by,

T (no f ault dropping) = τ V + F × τ V = τ V (1 + F )

Since faults are uniformly detected, each vector detects F/V new faults not detected
by the previous vectors. Thus, the fault simulator divides the fault set into V equal
subsets, each containing F/V faults. The F/V faulty circuits corresponding to the
faults detected on the first vector are simulated through just one vector requiring
a time τ F/V . The F/V faulty circuits corresponding to the faults detected on the
second vector are simulated through two vectors requiring a time 2τ F/V . Similarly,
the F/V faulty circuits corresponding to the faults detected on the ith vector are
simulated through i vectors requiring a time iτ F/V . When we include the simulation
time for the fault-free circuit, the total CPU time for simulation with fault dropping
is given by,


V
iτ F F 1+V
T (f ault dropping) = τ V + = τ V (1 + · )
i=1
V 2 V

For large F and V , we find

T (f ault dropping)
≈ 0.5
T (no f ault dropping)

5.16
Since no fault dropping is used, the serial fault simulator must simulate the entire
circuit n + 1 times. Assuming the CPU time for one simulation with all vectors is

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t, total time of serial fault simulation is given by,

T (serial) = t(n + 1)

Using CPU time t, the parallel simulator processes w − 1 faults. Thus, it will make
n/(w − 1) such passes, requiring total time,
tn
T (parallel) =
w−1
Therefore,
T (serial) (n + 1)(w − 1)
=
T (parallel) n

5.17
The circuit of Figure 5.22 is shown below. The bits of the four-bit word are assigned
as follows:
Bit 0: G, good circuit

Bit 1: Faulty circuit with fault F1, second input s-a-1

Bit 2: Faulty circuit with fault F2, input to inverter s-a-1

Bit 3: Faulty circuit with fault F3, second input of first AND gate s-a-1
bit 1 (F1)
bit 2 (F2)
bit 3 (F3)
bit 0 (G)

1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1

1
F1 F3
0
sa1 sa1 0
0 1 0 0 0 1 0 1
F2
sa1 0 1 1 0
1
1 1 0 1
1 1 0 0 1 G F1 F2 F3
1
1
1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1

The figure shows the good and faulty circuit values for each signal by a four-bit
word. A comparison among bits of the word at the primary output indicates that
only the bit corresponding to F2 differs with the good circuit output. Hence, the
vector 101 detects F2 but does not detect F1 and F3.

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5.18
The following table shows how the fault effect (D or D) propagates through an
exclusive-OR gate c = a ⊕ b. For a fault to affect the value of c, it should affect the
value of a, or that of b, but not those of both. Therefore, for a fault to be included
in Lc , it should be either in La or in Lb , but not in both. Thus,

Lc = (La ∩ Lb ) ∪ (La ∩ Lb ) ∪ c1 , if c = 0
or Lc = (La ∩ Lb ) ∪ (La ∩ Lb ) ∪ c0 , if c = 1.

One input Other input Output, c

D D 0
D D 0
D D 1
D 0 D
D 0 D
D 1 D
D 1 D

5.19
The two simulators differ in the dynamic memory usage. The major part of the
memory used by each simulator consists of the lists that are stored for each line
of the circuit. These lists are dynamic and continuously change as the simulation
progresses. In a deductive fault simulator, the list for a line contains the faults
that affect the value of that line. In a concurrent fault simulator, the list for a line
contains all faults that affect the gate producing the signal on the line. Thus, the
list may contain some faults that do not affect the output line but only affect the
inputs of the gate. Since such faults will not be included in the fault list of that line
in a deductive fault simulator, the corresponding list will be shorter.
Having a complete picture of faulty-circuit gates (i.e., its input and output signal
values) allows the concurrent simulator to accurately simulate the events occurring
at gates. In general, when gates have different rise and fall delays, the good-circuit
events and various faulty-circuit events on a line can occur at different times. The
timing in a deductive fault simulator basically follows the events of the good-circuit.
The other advantage that the expanded data-structure provides to the cuncur-
rent fault simulator is the ability to simulate a variety of non-Boolean and high-level
gates.

5.20
(a) Though all four types of simulators can be used, deductive and parallel algo-
rithms will experience significant slow down due to embedded memory blocks
that are usually simulated at the functional level. Complexity of the parallel
algorithm will also increase due to the non-Boolean signal states, X and Z. In

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 the deductive algorithm, the fault list propagation for these signal states will
be complex and sometimes approximate.

(b) The best choice will be a concurrent fault simulator.

5.21
(a) When the tests can detect both single faults, there is high probability of de-
tecting the multiple fault. Only in the rare case that the two faults mask each
other (two-way masking) will the multiple fault go undetected.

(b) The test will not detect the multiple fault only if f2 masks the effect of f1
produced by the test. Usually, the probability of this one-way masking is
small, but it is higher than the two-way masking in (a).

(c) In the majority of cases where single faults f1 and f2 are not detectable by the
tests, the multiple fault (f1,f2) may also go undetected. However, in a special
case where a test activates both single faults but fails to propagate the fault
effect to a primary output, the two fault effects may cooperatively propagate
to the output, detecting the fault.

5.22
For N faults, we effectively simulate the good circuit and N faulty copies of the
circuit, each containing one fault. Suppose the circuit has G gates. At any time
about half of the faulty circuit gates are identical to the good circuit gates because
the corresponding faults are not active. Gates in these circuits are not explicitly
simulated by the concurrent fault simulator. For the remaining N/2 circuits in
which some signals differ from the good circuit, only a fraction α of gates actually
differ from their counterparts in the good circuit. Taking all this into account, the
concurrent fault simulator will only evaluate G + αGN/2 gates, which is 1 + αN/2
times the gates simulated in a true-value simulation.

5.23
The following figure shows the TEST-DETECT procedure. First, true-value simu-
lation determines the values for all lines. These are the binary values shown in the
figure. Next, we start at the fault site. The value 0 activates the s-a-1 fault as D.

1 0(D)
0(D)
0
s−a−1 1

1(D) Fault not

detected
1 1(D)

So, we temporarily replace 0 with a D. This is shown as 0(D). Now D fans out to

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the upper AND gate and the NOT gate. For the present signal states, the outputs
of these gates are written as 0(D) and 1(D), respectively. The D at the output of
the NOT gate propagates through the lower AND gate whose output is written as
1(D). Inputs D and D at the inputs of the OR gate leave the output unchanged as
1. Thus, the given fault is not detected.

5.24
Differential fault simulation of two faults requires three steps illustrated in the figure:

1 0
0
0 0 1

1
1
1
Step 1: True−value simulation.

1 0 1
s−a−1 Fault not
0 detected
0 0 1 1
Saved output
1
value is 1
1
1
Step 2: Simulation of first fault.

1 1 0 Fault
1 0
0 detected
s−a−1 1 0
0 1
1 0 Saved output
value is 1
1 0
1
Step 3: Simulation of second fault.

Step 1: True-value simulation. All line values are determined for the given input
vector, 101, using logic simulation. The primary output value, 1 in this case,
is saved.

Step 2: Simulation of first fault. Since the existing value at the site of the s-a-1 fault
is 0, we place a 0 → 1 event there. Event-driven logic simulation propagates
events until no more events exist. If the new output value differs from the
saved true-value output, then the fault will be detected. In this case it is not
detected.

Step 3: Simulation of second fault. We simultaneously restore the values to fault-

free states and compute the values corresponding to the second fault. This is
done by placing a 1 → 0 event at the site of the first fault and a 0 → 1 event at

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 the site of the second fault. Event-driven logic simulation now determines the
output of the second faulty circuit, which is 0 in this case. Since this differs
from the saved good circuit output value of 1, this fault is detected.

The following comments are relevant here:

• It is possible that the first fault changes the value at the site of the second
fault. In that case, Step 3 will begin with just one event, because the second
fault will be inactive for the signal states at the end of Step 2. However, as
the simulation proceeds in Step 3, the second fault will become active and the
second event will be placed.

• If there are no more faults to be simulated and another vector is to be simu-

lated, then corresponding primary input changes are placed as events. True-
value and fault simulation steps are successively repeated.

5.25 Fault sampling

Since the size of fault population (Np = 105 ) is very large compared to the sample
size (Ns = 4, 000), we use the approximation of Equation 5.5 (page 123 in the book.)
3, 900
Sample coverage, x = = 0.975
4, 000

Using Equation 5.8 (see page 123 in the book), we get

4.5 
3σ coverage estimate = x ± 1 + 0.44Ns x(1 − x)
Ns
4.5 
= 0.975 ± 1 + 0.44 × 4, 000 × 0.975 × 0.025
4, 000
= 0.975 ± 0.0075 or 97.50 ± 0.75 percent

5.26 Fault sampling

Assuming that the fault sample size is much smaller than the total fault population,
i.e., Ns Np , we use the result of Equation 5.9 (page 124 in the book), which can
be written as,

4.52
Sample size, Ns = 0.44x(1 − x)
∆2
where ±∆ is the 3σ range of the coverage estimate and x is the sample coverage.
Using the given data, ∆ = 0.02 and x = 0.70, we obtain

4.52 × 0.44 × 0.7 × 0.3

Ns = = 4, 678 faults
0.022

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Chapter 6: Testability Measures
6.1 SCOAP

(1,1)6
IN0 (2,3)4
(6,2)0
IN1 OUT0
(1,1)5 6
5

6
(2,3)4 (CC0,CC1)CO
(1,1)6
IN2
Circuit of Figure 6.1 with combinational SCOAP measures.

6.2 SCOAP

(1,1)5 5
B D (2,3)3
(5,4)0
C G
(1,1)5 5

7 (3,2)5
E
7 F (CC0,CC1)CO
(1,1)6
A (2,4)3

Circuit of Figure 6.20 with combinational SCOAP measures.

6.3 SCOAP

(1,1)9
(1,1)11 11 x (4,2)6
1
x (CC0,CC1)CO
2
(1,1)10 10
x (3,2)8 (4,2)8
3 w
(1,1)10 1
x 8
4 (4,2)6 (5,5)3
(1,1)9 9
x
5
(8,5)0
8 w
(4,2)6 2
(1,1)9 9
x
6
Circuit of Figure 6.21 with combinational SCOAP measures.

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6.4 SCOAP

(1,1)5
x z
1 2 (5,4)0
a 5
(3,2)3 e F
1
(1,1)6 3
x 6 z
2 3
c 5 (CC0,CC1)CO
(1,1)5 b (4,2)3
x z
3 1 f
(1,1)7 7
x d 5 (5,5)0
4 (3,2)5 z 3 F2
7 4
(1,1)6 6
x (4,2)3
5
Circuit of Figure 6.22 with combinational SCOAP measures.

6.5 SCOAP

(1,1)7
E
(1,1)8 (4,4)4
A (3,2)6 (CC0,CC1)CO
8
B
(1,1)8
8
(2,3)6 (8,2)0
(1,1)8 J
C
(1,1)7
D

Circuit of Figure 6.23 with combinational SCOAP measures.

6.6 High-level testability

The data flow graph (DFG) of the given circuit shown below. The table gives the
sequential depth testability measures for all input-output pairs of signals.
XIN m1 m2 loadx m3 YIN loady

REGX REGY

0 0
m4 loado
0
ZERO
0
0
0
REGO 0
0
C15 C10 C9
OUTPUT
Data flow graph (DFG) for the circuit of Figure 6.24.

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 Input Output signal
signal OU T P U T C9 C15 C10 REGX REGY REGO
XIN 2 1 1 2 1 2 2
m1 2 1 1 2 1 2 2
m2 2 1 1 2 1 2 2
loadx 2 1 1 2 1 2 2
m3 3 2 1 1 2 1 3
Y IN 3 2 1 1 2 1 3
loady 3 2 1 1 2 1 3
m4 1 1
loado 1 1
ZERO 1 0 0 1
REGX 1 0 0 1 1 1 1
REGO 0
REGY 2 1 0 0 1 2 2

6.7 SCOAP
The steps of calculation for SCOAP testability measures are shown in the three
figures that follow. Combinational measures are shown as (CC0, CC1)CO and
sequential measures as [SC0, SC1]SO.

(1,1) [0,0]
8

a (2,4)0
(1,1) [0,0] [0,0]0
8

b g
f
(1,1)
8

(4,2)
8 8

c e (2,4)
8 8

[0,0] [0,0]
8

(2, ) [0,0]
8 8
8 8

[0, ]

d
[ , ] Q D
8 8
8 8
8 8

FF
( , )
MC CK (1,1) [0,0]
8

RESET (1,1) [0,0]

8

Circuit of Figure 6.25: PI and PO initialization and first controllability pass.

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 (1,1) [0,0]

8
a (2,4)0
(1,1) [0,0] [0,0]0

8
b f g
(1,1)

8
(4,2)

8 8
c e (2,4)

8 8
[0,0] [0,0]

8
(2,9) [0,0]

8 8
[0,1]

d
Q D
(3,7)

8 8
FF
[1,1]
MC CK (1,1) [0,0]

8
RESET (1,1) [0,0]

8
Circuit of Figure 6.25: Converged controllability values.

a (1,1)3 [0,0]0
(2,4)0
(1,1)5 [0,0]0 [0,0]0 g
b f
(1,1)12 (4,2)2
c e (2,4)9
[0,0]1 [0,0]0
(2,9)4 [0,0]1
[0,1]0

d
Q D
(3,7)6
FF
[1,1]0
MC CK (1,1)16 [0,0]2

RESET (1,1)16 [0,0]2

Circuit of Figure 6.25: All controllability and observability values.

6.8 SCOAP
The steps of calculation for SCOAP testability measures are shown in the three
figures that follow. Combinational measures are shown as (CC0, CC1)CO and
sequential measures as [SC0, SC1]SO.
(2,4)0 [0,0]0
G O1
4
(2,3)
8

G1
[0,0]
8

I1 (1,1) [0,0]
8

(2,4)
8

G5
I2 (1,1) [0,0] [0,0]
8

(2,3) (5,11)0 [0,0]0

8

G2 G8 O2
I (1,1) [0,0]
8

[0,0]
8

3
(4, )
8
8

G6
[0, ]
8
8

I
4
(2, )
8
8

G
3 [0, ]
8
8

(2,4)0 [0,0]0
G7 O
3

( , ) [ , ] (2,4) [0,0]
8
8
8

8
8
8

Q D
FF

MC CLOCK (1,1) [0,0]

8

RESET (1,1) [0,0]

8

Circuit of Figure 6.26: PI and PO initialization and first controllability pass.

Solution Manual V1.4 –
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 (2,4)0 [0,0]0
G O1
4
(2,3)

8
G1
[0,0]

8
I1 (1,1)
[0,0]

8
(2,4)

8
G5
I2 (1,1)
[0,0] [0,0]
8

8
(2,3) (5,11)0 [0,0]0

8
G2 G8 O2
I3 (1,1)
[0,0]
8

8
[0,0]

8
(4,6)

8
G6
[0,1]

8
I4
(2,5)

8
G3
[0,1]

8
(2,4)0 [0,0]0
G7 O
3

(3,7) [1,1] (2,4) [0,0]

8

8
Q D
FF
MC CLOCK (1,1) [0,0]

8
RESET (1,1) [0,0]

8
Circuit of Figure 6.26: Converged controllability values.

3
0 (2,4)0 [0,0]0
G O1
4 4
(2,3)2
G1
4 [0,0]0
9
I1 (1,1)4 [0,0]0 12
(2,4)9
G
11 5
I (1,1)3
[0,0]0 13 [0,0]0
2 (2,3)11 (5,11)0 [0,0]0
G2 G8 O
I3 (1,1)3
[0,0]0 13 [0,0]0 2
11
(4,6)7
G
10 6 [0,1]0
I4
6 9
(2,5)2
4
G3
[0,1]0 (2,4)0 [0,0]0
0
3
G7 O
3

(3,7)4 [1,1]0 (2,4)7 [0,0]1

Q D
FF

MC CLOCK (1,1)14 [0,0]2

RESET (1,1)14 [0,0]2

Circuit of Figure 6.26: All controllability and observability values.

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6.9 SCOAP
The steps of calculation for SCOAP testability measures are shown in the three
figures that follow. Combinational measures are shown as (CC0, CC1)CO and
sequential measures as [SC0, SC1]SO.
(3, ) [1, ]

8
8

8
8
B(x) (1,1)

8
V(x)
(7, ) [0,0]

8 8
8 8

8
[2, ]

(3, ) (3, ) (9,9) (9,9)0

8
8

8
8

8
Q D Q D D(x)
[1, ] [1, ] [2,2] [2,2]0

8
8

8
8

8
FF FF
MR MR

(1,1) [0,0]
8

RESET
(1,1) [0,0]
8

CLOCK
Circuit of Figure 6.27: Initialization and first controllability pass.

(3,15) [1,4]
8

B(x) (1,1)

8
V(x)
(7,16) [0,0]

8 8

8
[2,4]

(3,12) (3,12) (9,9) (9,9)0

8

8
Q D Q D D(x)
[1,3] [1,3] [2,2] [2,2]0
8

8
FF FF
MR MR

(1,1) [0,0]
8

RESET
(1,1) [0,0]
8

CLOCK
Circuit of Figure 6.27: Converged controllability values.

(3,15)6 [1,4]1
B(x) (1,1)8
V(x)
(7,16)2 [0,0]2
[2,4]0

(3,12)9 (3,12)6 (9,9)9 (9,9)0

Q D Q D D(x)
[1,3]2 [1,3]1 [2,2]2 [2,2]0
FF FF
21 21
MR MR
5 5
(1,1)21 [0,0]5 24 6 21 5
RESET
(1,1)21 [0,0]5
CLOCK
Circuit of Figure 6.27: All controllability and observability values.

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6.10 SCOAP
The steps of calculation for SCOAP testability measures are shown in the three
figures that follow. Combinational measures are shown as (CC0, CC1)CO and
sequential measures as [SC0, SC1]SO.

(7, ) [2, ]

8
8

8
8
(7, ) [2, ]

8
8

8
8
D Q D Q

( ,4)

8 8

8 8
[ ,1] 1 2

CLOCK
(1,1) [0,0]
8

8
RESET Q2
(1,1) [0,0]
8

8
(3, )0 [1, ]0

8
Q1 (3, )0 [1, ]0

8
Circuit of Figure 6.28: Initialization and first controllability pass.

(7,11) [2,3]
8

(7,11) [2,3]

8
D Q D Q

(26,4)
8 8

[7,1] 1 2

CLOCK
(1,1) [0,0]
8

RESET Q2
(1,1) [0,0]
8

Q1 (3,7)0 [1,2]0 (3,14)0 [1,4]0

Circuit of Figure 6.28: Converged controllability values.

22 6
(7,11)18 [2,3]5 7 4
(7,11)3 [2,3]1

D Q D Q
7
2
15 (26,4)3
[7,1]1 10 1 2
6
3 17
23 6 10 3 17 5
5

CLOCK
(1,1)10 [0,0]3

RESET Q2
(1,1)10 [0,0]3 (3,14)0 [1,4]0
Q1 (3,7)0 [1,2]0
Circuit of Figure 6.28: All controllability and observability values.

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6.11 SCOAP
The steps of calculation for SCOAP testability measures are shown in the three
figures that follow. Combinational measures are shown as (CC0, CC1)CO and
sequential measures as [SC0, SC1]SO.

( ,7) [ ,2]

8
8

8
h MS
1
D Q D Q

MR

CLOCK
(1,1) [0,0]

8
RESET (1,1) 8
[0,0]

8
Q Q
1 2
(3, ) [1, ] ( ,3) [ ,1]

8
8

8
8

8
8

8
Circuit of Figure 6.29: Initialization and first controllability pass.

(10,7) [3,2]
8

h MS
1
D Q D Q

MR

CLOCK
(1,1) [0,0]
8

RESET
(1,1) [0,0]
8

Q Q
1 2
(3,10) [1,3] (6,3) [2,1]
8

Circuit of Figure 6.29: Converged controllability values.

9 3
(10,7)3 [3,2]1
h MS
1 3
D Q D Q
1

MR
13
4 13 8
3
4
CLOCK
(1,1)8 [0,0]3

RESET
(1,1)9 [0,0]3 Q Q
1 2
(3,10)0 [1,3]0 (6,3)0 [2,1]0

Circuit of Figure 6.29: All controllability and observability values.

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6.12 SCOAP
The steps of calculation for SCOAP testability measures are shown in the three
figures that follow. Combinational measures are shown as (CC0, CC1)CO and
sequential measures as [SC0, SC1]SO.

(5,5) [1,1] (7, ) [2, ]

8
8

8
8
D Q D Q Z
(3, )0 [1, ]0

8
C C
MR MR

(1,1) [0,0]

8
CLOCK
(1,1) [0,0]

8
RESET
X1 (1,1) [0,0] X2 (3, )0 [1, ]0
8

8
Circuit of Figure 6.30: Initialization and first controllability pass.

(5,5) [1,1] (7,12) [2,3]

8

8
D Q D Q Z
(3, )0 [1, ]0

8
C C
MR MR

(1,1) [0,0]
8

CLOCK
(1,1) [0,0]
8

RESET
X1 (1,1) [0,0] X2 (3,8)0 [1,2]0
8

Circuit of Figure 6.30: Continuation of controllability calculations.

(5,5)3 [1,1]1 (7,12)3 [2,3]1

D Q D Q Z
(3,15)0 [1,4]0
C C
MR MR
11 18
11 18
3 5
3 5
(1,1)11 [0,0]3
CLOCK
(1,1)11 [0,0]3
RESET
X1 (1,1)7 [0,0]2 X2 (3,8)0 [1,2]0
Circuit of Figure 6.30: Stabilized controllability and observability values.

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6.13 SCOAP
The steps of calculation for SCOAP testability measures are shown in the four figures
that follow. Combinational measures are shown as (CC0, CC1)CO and sequential
measures as [SC0, SC1]SO.

(2, ) [0, ] ( ,4) [ ,1]

8
8

8
8

8
8

8
(1,1) [0,0] D Q D Q

8
Z

MR MR

(1,1) [0,0]

8
CLOCK
(1,1) [0,0]

8
RESET
A1 A2
(3, )0 [1, ]0 (3, )0 [1, ]0

8
Circuit of Figure 6.31: Initialization and first controllability pass.

(2,9) [0,2] ( ,4) [ ,1]

8
8

8
(1,1) [0,0] D Q D Q
8

MR MR

(1,1) [0,0]
8

CLOCK
(1,1) [0,0]
8

RESET
A1 A2
(3, )0 [1, ]0 (3,7)0 [1,2]0
8

Circuit of Figure 6.31: Continuation of controllability calculation.

(2,9) [0,2] (20,4) [5,1]

8

(1,1) [0,0] D Q D Q
8

MR MR

(1,1) [0,0]
8

CLOCK
(1,1) [0,0]
8

RESET
A1 A2
(3,12)0 [1,3]0 (3,7)0 [1,2]0
Circuit of Figure 6.31: Stabilized controllability values.

(2,9)3 [0,2]1 (20,4)3 [5,1]1

(1,1)11 [0,0]3 D Q D Q
Z

MR MR
15 10
4 15 3 10
(1,1)10 [0,0]3 4
CLOCK 3
(1,1)10 [0,0]3
RESET
A1 A2
(3,12)0 [1,3]0 (3,7)0 [1,2]0
Circuit of Figure 6.31: All controllability and observability values.

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Chapter 7: Combinational Circuit ATPG
7.1 Cubes
AND gate:

a
c
b

a b c
1 D D
Propagation D cubes D 1 D
a b c
(last two cubes are D D D
0 X 0
Singular cover: not propagation D- 1 D D
X 0 0
cubes since they do not D 1 D
1 1 1
propagate D or D):
D D 0
D D 0
a b c
Primitive D cube of failure for a sa1:
0 1 D

Exclusive-OR gate:

a
c
b

a b c
0 D D
D 0 D
D 1 D
a b c Propagation D cubes 1 D D
0 1 1 (last four cubes are 0 D D
Singular cover: 1 0 1 not propagation D- D 0 D
1 1 0 cubes since they do not 1 D D
0 0 0 papagate D or D): D 1 D
D D 0
D D 1
D D 1
D D 0
a b c
Primitive D cubes of failure for a sa1: 0 0 D
0 1 D

Solution Manual V1.4 –
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c L. Bushnell and V. D. Agrawal – For Teachers only Page 40
7.2 Stuck-at fault testing
(a) Three tests for a two-input OR gate:

a
c
b

Vector number a b c Collapsed faults tested

1 0 0 D a sa1, b sa1, c sa1
2 0 1 D b sa0, c sa0
3 1 0 D a sa0, c sa0

(b) Gate replacements:

OR replaced Test results

by: Vector 1 Vector 2 Vector 3
AND pass fail fail
NAND fail pass pass
NOR fail fail fail

The three-vector test will detect the error if the OR gate were to be
replaced by an AND, NAND or NOR gate.

(c) OR gate replaced by an exclusive-OR gate: All three vectors will produce the
same output as that of the OR gate. Therefore, this error will not be detected. It
is necessary to include a fourth vector 11 to detect this error. The addition of the
1
a 0 (1 for OR gate)
c
1
b

fourth vector makes the vector set exhaustive, which completely verifies the truth
table of the gate.
Note: In a simulation-based comparison of two circuits to establish logic equiv-
alence, a good (though not complete) heuristic is to use a vector set that covers all
single stuck-at faults in both circuits. See the paper: V. D. Agrawal, “Choice of
Tests for Logic Verification and Equivalence Checking and the Use of Fault Simula-
tion,” Proc. 13th Int. Conf. VLSI Design, 2000, pp. 306-311.

Solution Manual V1.4 –
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c L. Bushnell and V. D. Agrawal – For Teachers only Page 41
7.3 D-ALG
We level order the signals and proceed as follows:

Step Action Signals D Impl.

no. ABC def gY h kZ front. stack
1 Fault Activation 0 0 D k g =0
Immediate impl. 0 0 0 0 D k g =0
Immediate impl. 1 1 0 0 0 0 D k g =0
Immediate impl. 1 1 0 000 0 D k g =0
Immediate impl. 1 1 0 000 0 D0 φ g =0
Immediate impl. 1 1 0 000 0 D0 1 φ g =0

The fault is redundant, because the D-frontier disappeared. No backtracks.

Signals are shown in the following figure.

A d 0 g 0
Y
0 h
sa1
1 D 0
B e
k Z
C 0
1
f

7.4 D-ALG
We level order the signals and proceed as follows:

Step Action Signals D Impl.

no. ABC def gY h k Z front. stack
1 Fault activation 1 1 D k g=1
2 D-drive h → k 11 1 DD Z f =1
g=1
3 D-drive k → Z 0 11 1 DDD PO B=0
f =1
g=1
Immediate Impl. 0 0 11 1 DDD PO ”
Immediate Impl. 0 0111 1 DDD PO ”
Immediate impl. 0 1 0111 1 DDD PO ”

The test is: A = X, B = 0, C = 1 as shown in the following figure; 0 backtracks.

Solution Manual V1.4 –
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c L. Bushnell and V. D. Agrawal – For Teachers only Page 42
 A d 0 g 1
Y
1 h
sa0
0 D D
B e D
k Z
C 1
1
f

7.5 PODEM
The figure below shows the SCOAP testability measures used for guiding PODEM.

SCOAP values: (CC0,CC1)CO

(2,3)4 (6,3)0
(1,1)6 A d g (6,3)0
Y
6 h
(6,3)6 sa1 (4,7)2
5 k
(1,1)5 B e (3,2)3
Z
(1,1)5 C
5 (6,9)0
(1,1)8
f (3,3)6

(1,1)8
(1,1)5

The steps of the PODEM algorithm are recorded in the following table:

Step Objec- Action Imp. Implied signal values D X

No. tive stack A B C d e f g h k Y Z front. path
1 g=0 Backtrace B = 1 1 φ ok
2 g=0 Backtrace C = 1 1 1 00 0 1 φ none
B=1
3 g = 0 Backtrack C = 0 1 0 11111 1 0 φ none
B=1
4 g = 0 Backtrack B = 0 0 01 11 1 φ none
5 g = 0 Backtrack Empty
Algorithm termination: Objective g=0 is impossible; fault h s-a-1 is redundant.

Explanation: An X-path is a path from the fault site to a PO, such that the
signals on it are either faulty states (D or D) or undetermined. An “ok” for X-
path in the table means that one or more such paths exist. Having no X-path is a
reason for backup because its existence is a necessary condition for the detection of
the fault. When a series of backups leads to an empty stack, it indicates that the
objective g = 0 is impossible. As a result, the fault h s-a-1 cannot be activated
and, hence, it is redundant. Three backtracks.

Solution Manual V1.4 –
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7.6 PODEM
The figure below shows the SCOAP testability measures used for guiding PODEM.

(1,1)13 SCOAP values: (CC0,CC1)CO

A (3,2)11
B k
(1,1)13 (5,4)8
(1,1)13 s
C m
D (9,6)3
(3,2)11
(1,1)13 sa0
(1,1)13 r Z
E (3,2)11
(9,10)0
F o
(1,1)13 q
(1,1)9 (5,4)8 7
G p 11
H
(1,1)9 (3,2)7

The steps of the PODEM algorithms are recorded in the following table:

Step Objec- Action

Imp. Implied signal values D X
No. tive stack ABCDEF GHkmopqsrZ front. path
1 r=1
Backtrace E = 0 E = 0, o = 1 φ ok
2 r=1
Backtrace G = 0 E = 0, G = 0, o = 1, p = 1 PO ok
E=0 q = 0, r = 1, Z = D
Algorithm termination: Fault detected with 0 backtracks.
Test is {ABCDEF GH} = {XXXX0X0X}

Explanation: See the explanation in Problem 7.5.

7.7 PODEM and FAN

The following figure shows the SCOAP testability measures used for guiding PO-
DEM and FAN.
(1,1)14 17
A (2,10)8
17 p
B 17 r
(1,1)12 16
C h (2,8)10 s−a−1
(1,1)16 14
(2,4)13 13
15
(2,7)8 Z
17 g m 10 u (11,10)0
17 (3,2)15
k (5,5)10 10
15
(1,1)16 (2,4)13 (7,2)8
D 14 w
16 q
(6,5)5
12
(1,1)12 s
E l
(5,2)8
F (3,3)10
(1,1)12

Solution Manual V1.4 –
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 Step Objec- Action Imp. Implied signal values D X
No. tive stack ABCDEF ghklmpqsruwZ front. path
1 r=0 Backtrace A = 0 r = 0(D), u = 0 Z ok
2 w=1 Backtrace B = 1 A = 0, B = 1, p = 0, q = 1, s = 1 PO ok
(D-drive) A=0 r = 0(D), u = 0, w = 1, Z = D
Algorithm termination: Fault detected with 0 backtracks. Test is {ABCDEF } = {01XXXX}

The following table gives the steps that PODEM takes:

For an explanation of X-path, see Problem 7.5.

(a) FAN ATPG. Step 1 is the same as for PODEM.

Step 2. Goal: propagate D from r to Z.
Goal: set w = 1, 1 vote for 1, set q = 1, 1 vote for 1, set s = 1, 1 vote for 1,
set B = 1, 2 votes for 1, no votes for 0. Rest of step 2 is exactly the same as
PODEM.
Headlines are m and l.
Initial objective: set r = 0.
Final objective: set B = 1.
Fanout objectives: set B = 1.
Head objectives: not used. 0 backtracks.

(b) The following lists dominators for all signals.

Gate Dominators Gate Dominators Gate Dominators

Z − p r, Z h m, Z
r Z q w, Z k m, Z
u Z s w, Z g m, Z
w Z m Z l s, w, Z

7.8 PODEM
The figure below shows the SCOAP testability measures used for guiding PODEM.

(1,1)14 17
A (2,10)8
17 p
B 17 r
(1,1)12 16
C h (2,8)10
(2,4)13 14
(1,1)16 13
15 0
0 (2,7)8 Z
17 s−a−1 m
D 10 u (11,10)0
g
17 (3,2)15
0 k (5,5)10 10
15 (2,4)13
(1,1)16 (7,2)8
D 14 w
16 0 q
(6,5)5
12
(1,1)12 s
E l
(5,2)8
F (3,3)10
(1,1)12

Solution Manual V1.4 –
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The following table gives the steps of PODEM (see Problem 7.5 for an explanation
of X-path):

Step Objec- Action Imp. Implied signal values D X

No. tive stack ABCDEF ghklmpqsruwZ front. path
1 g = 0(D) Backtrace C=0 C = 0, h = 0 φ ok
2 g = 0(D) Backtrace D=0 C = 0, D = 0, g = 0(D) φ none
C=0 h = 0, k = 0, m = 0, u = 0
3 g = 0(D) Backtrack D=1 C = 0, D = 1, g = 1, h = 0 φ none
C=0 k = 1, m = 1, p = 0, q = 1, r = 0
4 g = 0(D) Backtrack C=1 C = 1, g = 1, h = 1, m = 1 φ none
p = 0, q = 1, r = 0
5 g = 0(D) Backtrack Empty
Algorithm termination: g = 0(D) with X-path impossible; fault g s-a-1 is redundant.
3 backtracks.

7.9 PODEM
The following figure and table show the SCOAP testability measures and the steps
of PODEM. See Problem 7.5 for an explanation of X-path.
(1,1)14 17
A (2,10)8
17 p
B 17 r
0
(1,1)12 s−a−1 16 0
C h (2,8)10
(2,4)13 14
(1,1)16 13
D 15 D
0 1
(2,7)8 Z
17 m 1 10 u (11,10)0
g
17 (3,2)15
1 k (5,5)10 10
15 (2,4)13
(1,1)16 (7,2)8
D 1 14 w
16 q
(6,5)5
12
(1,1)12 s
E l
(5,2)8
F (3,3)10
(1,1)12

Step Objec- Action Imp. Implied signal values D X

No. tive stack ABCDEF ghklmpqsruwZ front. path
1 C − h = 0(D) Backtrace C=0 C = 0, C − h = D h ok
2 h = 0(D) Backtrace D=1 C = 0, D = 1, C − h = D, g = 1, k = 1 φ none
C=0 h = D, m = 1, p = 0, q = 1, r = 0
3 h = 0(D) Backtrack D=0 C = 0, D = 0, C − h = D, g = 0, h = 0 φ none
C=0 k = 0, m = 0, u = 0
4 C − h = 0(D) Backtrack C=1 C = 1, g = 1, h = 1, m = 1, p = 0 φ none
q = 1, s = 1, r = 0, w = 1
5 C − h = 0(D) Backtrack Empty
Algorithm termination: C − h = 0(D) with X-path impossible; fault C − h s-a-1 is redundant.
3 backtracks.

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7.10 FAN
The following figure showsthe SCOAP testability measures used for FAN. The head-
lines are m and l.

(1,1)14 1 17
A (2,10)8
0 17 p
B 17 r s−a−0
(1,1)12 16 0
C h (2,8)10 D
(2,4)13 14
(1,1)16
15
13 (2,7)8
17 0 Z
10 u (11,10)0
g m
17 (3,2)15
k (5,5)10 10
15 (2,4)13
(1,1)16 (7,2)8
D 14 w
16 q
(6,5)5
12
(1,1)12 s
E l
(5,2)8
F (3,3)10
(1,1)12

Step 1: Goal – set r = 1 → set A = p = 1 → set A = m = B = 0

D-frontier = φ.
Conflict at stem A, choose A = 1
Forward imply A = 1, B = 0, p = 0, r = 0, fault r s-a-0 cannot be sensitized–is
redundant (0 backtracks).

7.11 SOCRATES
The following figure shows the SCOAP testability measures used for SOCRATES.

(1,1)14 0 17
A (2,10)8
17 p
B 17 r
(1,1)12 0
16 h (2,8)10
C (2,4)13
(1,1)16 D 14
15 1 s−a−0
1 (2,7)8
17 1 13 Z
1 10 u (11,10)0
g m 0
17 (3,2)15
k (5,5)10 10
15 (2,4)13
(1,1)16 (7,2)8
D 14 w
16 q 1
(6,5)5
12
(1,1)12 s
E l
(5,2)8
F (3,3)10
(1,1)12

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 Static learning
Signal Learned implication
B=1 (w = 0) ⇒ (B = 0)
g=0 (m = 1) ⇒ (g = 1)
C=1 (h = 0) ⇒ (C = 0)
D=1 (k = 0) ⇒ (D = 0)

Step 1: Objective – set m = 1

Implication stack – C = 1
Assignments – C = 1, g = 1, h = 1, m = 1, q = 1
D-frontier – p
Dynamic learning – (k = 0) ⇒ (D = 0), (w = 0) ⇒ (l = 0)

Step 2: Objective – set A = 0

Implication stack – A = 0, C = 1
Assignments – C = 1, g = 1, h = 1, m = 1, q = 1, A = 0, r = 0, u = 0
X-path check – fault propagation path blocked – alternative assignment A = 1
infeasible
Fault m − p s-a-0 is redundant (no backtracks).
No applications of Modus Tollens or constructive dilemma.

7.12 SOCRATES
The following figure shows the SCOAP testability measures used for SOCRATES.

(1,1)14 1 17
A (2,10)8
1 17 p
B 17 r
(1,1)12 0 0
16 h (2,8)10
C (2,4)13
(1,1)16 14
15 D D
1 (2,7)8
17 13 Z
s−a−0 D 10 u D (11,10)0
g 0 m
17 (3,2)15
k 10
D
(5,5)10
15 (2,4)13
(1,1)16 (7,2)8
D 14 w 1
16 q 1
0 (6,5)5
12
(1,1)12 s
E l 1
(5,2)8
F (3,3)10
(1,1)12

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 Static learning
Signal Learned implication
B=1 (w = 0) ⇒ (B = 0)
g=0 (m = 1) ⇒ (g = 1)
C=1 (h = 0) ⇒ (C = 0)
D=1 (k = 0) ⇒ (D = 0)

Step 1: Objective – set g = 1

Implication stack – C = 1
Assignments – C = 1, g = D, h = D
D-frontier – k, m
Dynamic learning – (D = 0) ⇒ (m = D)

Step 2: Objective – set D = 0

Implication stack – D = 0, C = 1
Assignments – C = 1, D = 0, g = D, h = D, k = 0, m = D
D-frontier – p, q, u

Step 3: Objective – Propagate D to u, set A = 1

Implication stack – A = 1, D = 0, C = 1
Assignments – C = 1, D = 0, A = 1, g = D, h = D, k = 0, m = D, p = 0,
r = 0, u = D
D-frontier – Z
Dynamic learning – (B = 0) ⇒ (q = D), (B = 1) ⇒ (w = 1) ⇒ (Z = D)

Step 4: Objective – Propagate D to Z, set w = 1

Implication stack – B = 1, A = 1, D = 0, C = 1
Assignments – C = 1, D = 0, A = 1, B = 1, g = D, h = D, k = 0, m = D,
p = 0, r = 0, u = D, q = 1, s = 1, w = 1, Z = D
Use learned implication (w = 0) ⇒ (B = 0)
Fault tested, no backtracks.
No applications of Modus Tollens or constructive dilemma.

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7.13 D-ALG

Step Action Impl. stack Forward implications D-frontier

1 Fault act. h=0 h = 0, h1 = D, i2 = 0 i1
2 D-prop. g1 = 1, h = 0 g1 = 1, h = 0, h1 = D PO
i1 = D, i2 = 0
3 Justify e1 = 1, g1 = 1 e1 = 1, g1 = 1, h = 0 PO
h=0 h1 = D, i1 = D, i2 = 0
4 Justify a = 1, b = 1 a = 1, b = 1, e1 = 1, g1 = 1 PO
e1 = 1, g1 = 1 e2 = 1, g1 = 1, g2 = 1
h=0 h = 0, h1 = D, i1 = D
i2 = 0
Test found: (a, b, c, d, h, k) = (1, 1, X, X, 0, X); i1 = D

The following figure shows the circuit and the signal values specified by D-
algorithm.

1 a1
a e1 1
b1
b
1

c1
c f1
d1 1 g1
d i1 D
h1
h
s−a−1
0 a2 D
e2
b2
1
1 g2
i2
h2 0
c2
f2
d2
j
k

This test is found without any backtracks.

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7.14 PODEM

Step Objective Impl. Forward implications D X

(goal) stack frontier path
1 Fault act. h=0 h = 0, h1 = D, i2 = 0 i1 ok
2 Fault prop. h = 0, a = 1 a = 1, h = 0, h1 = D i1 ok
g1 = 1 i2 = 0
3 Fault prop. h = 0, a = 1 a = 1, b = 1, e1 = 1 PO ok
g1 = 1 b=1 e2 = 1, g1 = 1, g2 = 1
h = 0, h1 = D, i1 = D
i2 = 0
Test found: (a, b, c, d, h, k) = (1, 1, X, X, 0, X); i1 = D

The following figure shows the SCOAP testability measures used to guide the
PODEM algorithm, and the signal values detremined.

1 a1
(1,1)7 7
a (2,3)5
(1,1)7 b1 (CC0,CC1)CO
b e1 1
1 7 (5,4)2
(1,1)7 7 c1
c f1
(1,1)7 d1 1 g1
d (2,3)5
7 i1 D
(1,1)5 5 h1
h (2,6)0
s−a−1
0 a2 D
(2,3)7 7
9
b2 1
e2
9 1 g2
(2,6)2
(5,4)4 h2
9 c2 i2 0
f2
9 d2
(2,3)7 j
(1,1)3
k (4,2)0

This test is found without any backtracks.

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7.15 FAN
The following figure shows the SCOAP testability measures used to guide the ATPG.
The signal velues are those determined by the steps described below.
e
(2,3)8
9 (11,3)0
(CC0,CC1)CO (7,7)4 4 X
f 1
n r
D
7
7
(2,3)8
(1,1)10 g
A 0 (4,4)7 s
9 (8,8)6
(1,1)10 D D
B d 11 t 6
10 k m (14,6)0
0
s−a−1 10 q D Y
11 h D
q 1
p (5,5,)9
8
u (10,10)6
l 12
v D
12 (16,2)0
(1,1)15 1 Z
C 1

There are no headlines.

Step 1: Goal – sensitize fault

Implication stack – B = 0
Implied signals – B = 0, d = e = f = g = 0, h = l = 0, k = D, m = n = p
= D, q = D, r = D, s = t = u = D, v = D, X = 1, Y = 1
D-frontier – Z

Step 2: Goal – propagate fault to Z

Implication stack – B = 0, C = 1
Implied signals – B = 0, C = 0, d = e = f = g = 0, h = l = 0, k = D,
m = n = p = D, q = D, r = D, s = t = u = D, v = D, X = 1, Y = 1, Z = 1
D-frontier – empty
Sensitization and propagation conditions do not intersect. Hence, the fault is
proved redundant in two steps without any backtracks.

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7.16 FAN
The signal values determined by FAN are shown below. The figure also shows the
SCOAP testability measures. In this case there are no headlines.

1 a1
(1,1)7 7
a (2,3)5
(1,1)7 b1 (CC0,CC1)CO
b e1 1
1 7 (5,4)2
(1,1)7 7 c1
c f1
(1,1)7 d1 1 g1
d (2,3)5
7 i1 D
(1,1)5 5 h1
h (2,6)0
s−a−1
0 a2 D
(2,3)7 7
9
b2 1
e2
9 1 g2
(2,6)2
(5,4)4 h2
9 c2 i2 0
f2
9 d2
(2,3)7 j
(1,1)3
k (4,2)0

Steps 1 and 2: Goal – sensitize fault and propagate it to i1

Implication stack – h = 0, g1 = 1
Implied signals – g1 = 1, h = 0, i1 = D, i2 = 0
D-frontier – φ (fault effect at PO)

Step 3: Goal – set e1 = 1 ⇒ a = 1 and b = 1

Implication stack – h = 0, g1 = 1, a = 1, b = 1
Implied signals – a = 1, b = 1, e1 = 1, e2 = 1, g1 = 1, g2 = 1, h = 0, i1 =
D, i2 = 0
D-frontier – φ (fault effect at PO)
Goal satisfied, test for fault h1 s-a-1 is (a, b, c, d, h, k) = (1, 1, X, X, 0, X),
i1 = D; no backtracks were required.

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7.17 SOCRATES
To obtain a test for the fault n s-a-1 in the circuit of Figure 7.24 (see page 190 of
the book and the figure below), we perform static learning:

Signal Learned implications Signal Learned implications

B=0 (m = 0) ⇒ (B = 1) X=0 (r = 1) ⇒ (X = 1)
(q = 1) ⇒ (B = 1) (Y = 1) ⇒ (X = 1)
(r = 1) ⇒ (B = 1) (v = 1) ⇒ (X = 1)
(s = 0) ⇒ (B = 1) (q = 1) ⇒ (X = 1)
(v = 1) ⇒ (B = 1) (s = 1) ⇒ (X = 1)
(m = 0) ⇒ (X = 1)
d=1 (m = 0) ⇒ (d = 0) Y =0 (X = 1) ⇒ (Y = 1)
(q = 1) ⇒ (d = 0) (v = 1) ⇒ (Y = 1)
(r = 0) ⇒ (d = 0) (r = 0) ⇒ (Y = 1)
(s = 1) ⇒ (d = 0) (d = 0) ⇒ (Y = 1)
(X = 1) ⇒ (d = 0) (m = 0) ⇒ (Y = 1)
(Y = 1) ⇒ (d = 0)
(v = 1) ⇒ (d = 0)
(Z = 0) ⇒ (d = 0)
Z=1 (q = 1) ⇒ (Z = 1)

Step 1: Goal – sensitize fault, m = 0

Static learning – B = 1
Implications – d = 0, X = 1, Y = 1, A = 0, r = D, q = 1, m = 0, s = D,
v = D, Z = 1
D-frontier – φ (null)
Redundant fault, because D-frontier vanishes at gate Z, no decision alterna-
tives. No need for dynamic learning, no use of the constructive dilemma or
Modus Tollens. No backtracks.

e
(2,3)8
9 (11,3)0
(CC0,CC1)CO (7,7)4 4 X
f 1
r D
D
7
n 7
0 (2,3)8 s−a−1
(1,1)10 g
A 0 (4,4)7 s
9 (8,8)6
(1,1)10
B d 11
0 D
k t 6
10 m (14,6)0
1 q 1 Y
D 10
11 h 1
p (5,5,)9 q
8
u (10,10)6
l 12
v D
12 (16,2)0
(1,1)15 Z
C 1

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7.18 SOCRATES
To derive a test for the fault h1 s-a-1 in the circuit of Figure 7.35 (see page 200 of
the book and the figure below), we perform static learning:

Signal Learned implications

e1 = 1 (e2 = 0) ⇒ (e1 = 0)
f1 = 1 (f 2 = 0) ⇒ (f 1 = 0)
e2 = 1 (e1 = 0) ⇒ (e2 = 0)
f2 = 1 (f 1 = 0) ⇒ (f 2 = 0)

Step 1: Goal – sensitize fault

Implication stack – h = 0
Implications – h1 = D, i2 = 0
D-frontier – i1
Dynamic learning is not useful.

Step 2: Goal – propagate fault, set g1 = 1 ⇒ e1 = 1

Implication stack – h = 0, a = 1, b = 1
Implications – h1 = D, i2 = 0, g1 = 1, e1 = 1, e2 = 1, g2 = 1, i1 = D
D-frontier – φ, fault effect at PO
Fault tested in two steps. Constructive Dilemma and Modus Tollens are not
useful.
Test is (a, b, c, d, h, k) = (1, 1, X, X, 0, X).

1 a1
(1,1)7 7
a (2,3)5
(1,1)7 b1 (CC0,CC1)CO
b e1 1
1 7 (5,4)2
(1,1)7 7 c1
c f1
(1,1)7 d1 1 g1
d (2,3)5
7 (1,1)5
i1 D
h 5 h1
(2,6)0
s−a−1
0 a2 D
(2,3)7 7
9
b2 1
e2
9 1 g2
(2,6)2
(5,4)4 h2
9 c2 i2 0
f2
9 d2
(2,3)7 j
(1,1)3
k (4,2)0

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7.19 Redundancy proofs
(1) Proof of d s-a-0 redundant using PODEM.

Step 1: Goal – sensitize fault. Objective – d = 1. Backtrace – Implication

stack – a = 1.
Implication – d = D. D-frontier – g.
Step 2: Goal – propagate fault. Objective – e = 0. Backtrace – Implication
stack – a = 1, b = 0.
Implications – d = D, g = D, h = 1, n = D, p = D, q = 1.
D-frontier – φ.
Fault proved redundant because D-frontier disappears at q – no alternative
assignments possible.

c
n
D
k q
D 1
1 sa0 d
a D m p
b g D
0 e
h 1
f

(2) Proof of m s-a-0 testable using PODEM.

Step 1: Goal – sensitize fault. Objective – g = 1.

Backtrace – Implication stack – a = 1. Implications – g = 1, m = D, n =
0.
D-frontier – p.
Step 2: Goal – propagate fault. Objective – h = 1.
Backtrace – Implication stack – a = 1, b = 0. Implications – g = 1, m =
D, n = 0, h = 1, p = D, q = D.
D-frontier – φ fault at PO.
Test found – a = 1, b = 0; q = D.

c n
0
k q
D
1 d sa0 D
a 1 m p
b g D
0 e
h 1
f

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(3) Redundancy removal.

A. Start with redundant fault d s-a-0.

B. Set fault site to the faulty state and find all implications. For d = 0, we
find g = b. Thus, OR gate g is removed and k and m become fanouts of
PI b. The reduced circuit is shown on the left in the following figure.
a n
k
b q a q
m b
sa0 p
f
h
Circuit after removing d sa0 fault. Circuit after removing m sa0 fault.

C. Examine the reduced circuit for another redundant fault. We find that m
s-a-0, which was testable in the original circuit, is now redundant.
D. Repeat steps B and C until all faults in the reduced circuit are testable.

The above procedure leads to the circuit, q = a ⊕ b, as shown on the right in

the above figure.
Note: This procedure removes only one redundant fault at a time and requires
repeated use of ATPG. It is possible to remove several redundant faults to-
gether, provided they are selected such that the circuit function is preserved.
Removal of a single redundant fault leaves the circuit function unchanged.

7.20 PODEM
SCOAP testability measures for the circuit of Figure 7.24 (page 190 of the book)
are shown in the figure below. Steps of PODEM for the fault Z s-a-1 follow.
e
(2,3)8
9 (11,3)0
(CC0,CC1)CO (7,7)4 4 X
f 1
n r 0
7
7
(2,3)8
(1,1)10 g
A 0 (4,4)7 s
9 (8,8)6
(1,1)10 1 1
B d 11 t 6
10 k m (14,6)0
0
10 q Y
11 h 1
p (5,5,)9 q
0
8
u (10,10)6
l 12
v 0
12 (16,2)0
(1,1)15 1 Z
C s−a−1
1

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Step 1: Goal – sensitize fault. Objective – Z = 0.
Backtrace – Implication stack – C = 1. Implications – none. D-frontier –
empty.
Step 2: Objective – Z = 0.
Backtrace – Implication stack – C = 1, B = 1 (m = 1 ⇒ B = 1).
Implications – none. D-frontier – empty.
Step 3: Objective – Z = 0.
Backtrace – Implication stack – C = 1, B = 1, A = 1
(m = 1 ⇒ d = 1 ⇒ A = 1).
Implications – d = 1, m = 1, q = 0, r = 1, s = 0, v = 0, Z = 1, X = 0, Y = 0.
Objective cannot be met with these inputs.
Step 4: Objective – Z = 0.
Backtrack – Implication stack – C = 1, B = 1, A = 0.
Implications – d = 0, m = 0, q = 1, r = 1, s = 0, v = 0, Z = 1, X = 1, Y = 1.
Objective cannot be met with these inputs.
Step 5: Objective – Z = 0.
Backtrack – Implication stack – C = 1, B = 0.
Implications – d = 0, m = 1, q = 0, r = 0, s = 1, v = 0, Z = 1, X = 1, Y = 1.
Objective cannot be met with these inputs.
Step 6: Objective – Z = 0.
Backtrack – Implication stack – C = 0.
Implications – Z = 1.
Objective cannot be met with this input.
Step 7: Objective – Z = 0.
Backtrack – Implication stack – empty.
No other input choices left, test is impossible, fault is redundant.
4 backtracks required.

7.21 SOCRATES
The SOCARTES solution for fault C s-a-1 in the circuit of Figure 7.24 (page 190
of the book) we will use static learning given in the solution to Problem 7.17. The
algorithm proceeds as follows:
Step 1: Objective – set C = 0.
Implication stack – C = 0.
Implications – none.
D-frontier – Z.
The next figure shows the result of this step.

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 e
(2,3)8
9 (11,3)0
(CC0,CC1)CO (7,7)4 4 X
f
n r
7
7
(2,3)8
(1,1)10 g
A 0 (4,4)7 s
9 (8,8)6
(1,1)10
B d 11 t 6
10 k m (14,6)0
10 q Y
11 h
p (5,5,)9 q
8
u (10,10)6
l 12
0 v
12 (16,2)0
(1,1)15 s−a−1 Z
C
D
Step 1

Step 2: Objective – set v = 1.

Implication stack (static learning) – C = 0, B = 1.
Implications (static learning) – d = 0, X = 1, A = 0, m = 0, q = 1, Y = 1,
r = 1, s = 0, v = 0, Z = 1.
D-frontier – φ (null).
Propagation blocked, no alternative choices, fault found to be redundant with
0 backtracks. Dynamic learning, Constructive Dilemma and Modus Tollens
not used. The following figure shows step 2.
e
(2,3)8
9 (11,3)0
(CC0,CC1)CO (7,7)4 4 X
f 1
n r 1
7
0 7
(2,3)8
(1,1)10 g
A 0 (4,4)7 s
9 0 (8,8)6
(1,1)10 0
B d 11 t 6
10 k m (14,6)0
1 1
10 q Y
11 h 1
p (5,5,)9 q
8
u (10,10)6
l 12
0 v 0
12 (16,2)0
(1,1)15 s−a−1 Z
C 1
D
Step 2

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7.22 FAN
Test generation by FAN for the fault d s-a-1 in the circuit of Figure 7.30 (see page
197 of the book and the figure below) is as follows. We identify k as a headline.

A 1 (2,14)3
(1,1)16 23 5
(9,2)15 l
17
B 1 16
(2,3)14 f
(1,1)16 16
d sa1
g k n
C 1 (3,12)5
(1,1)16 (5,15)0
16 (7,3)10
e
D 16 10
(3,3)14 h
(1,1)16 16
(2,9)8 5 m
E 0 (2,14)3
(1,1)16

Step 1: Objective – propagate any fault effect from k to n.

Implication stack – A = 1.
Implications – l = D or D.
D-frontier – n.

Step 2: Objective – propagate any fault effect from l to n.

Implication stack – A = 1, E = 0.
Implications – l = D or D, m = 0, n = D or D.
D-frontier – −.

Step 3: Objective – sensitize fault.

Implication stack – A = 1, E = 0, C = 0.
Implications – d = D, l = D or D, m = 0, n = D or D.
D-frontier – g.

Step 4: Objective – propagate fault to k, set e = 1.

Implication stack – A = 1, E = 0, C = 0, D = 1.
Implications – d = D, e = 1, g = D, h = 0, k = 0, l = 0, m = 0, n = 0.
D-frontier – φ; D-frontier disappeared, so backtrack.

Step 5: Objective – propagate fault to k,

Implication stack – A = 1, E = 0, C = 0, D = 0.
Implications – d = D, e = 0, g = 1, h = 0, k = 0, l = 0, m = 0, n = 0.
D-frontier – φ; D-frontier disappeared, so backtrack again.

Step 6: Objective – sensitize fault.

Implication stack – A = 1, E = 0, C = 1, B = 0.
Implications – d = D, l = D or D, m = 0, n = D or D.
D-frontier – g.

Step 7: Objective – propagate fault to k.

Implication stack – A = 1, E = 0, C = 1, B = 0, D = 0.

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 Implications – d = D, e = 1, g = D, f = D, h = D, k = 0, l = 0, m = 0,
n = 0.
D-frontier – φ; D-frontier disappeared, so backtrack.
Step 8: Objective – propagate fault to k.
Implication stack – A = 1, E = 0, C = 1, B = 0, D = 1.
Implications – d = D, e = 0, g = 1, f = 1, h = 0, k = 0, l = 0, m = 0, n = 0.
D-frontier – φ; D-frontier disappeared, so backtrack again.
Step 9: Objective – sensitize fault.
Implication stack – A = 1, E = 0, C = 1, B = 1.
Implications – d = 1, l = D or D, m = 0, n = D or D.
D-frontier – −; D-frontier disappeared, so backtrack, but no alternatives left.
Fault is redundant (4 backtracks.)

7.23 SOCRATES
For a SOCRATES solution to find a test for the fault f s-a-1 in the circuit of
Figure 7.30 (see page 197 of the book and the next figure) we use static learning:

Signal Learned implications Signal Learned implications

B=0 (n = 1) ⇒ (B = 1) k=1 (h = 0) ⇒ (k = 0)
C=0 (n = 1) ⇒ (C = 1) (g = 1) ⇒ (k = 0)
D=1 (n = 1) ⇒ (D = 0) (d = 0) ⇒ (k = 0)
d=0 (n = 1) ⇒ (d = 1) (e = 0) ⇒ (k = 0)
e=0 (n = 1) ⇒ (e = 1) l=1 (k = 0) ⇒ (l = 0)
g=0 (k = 0) ⇒ (g = 1) (h = 0) ⇒ (l = 0)
g=1 (n = 1) ⇒ (g = 0) (g = 1) ⇒ (l = 0)
f =0 Redundant, f can never be 0 (d = 0) ⇒ (l = 0)
h=0 (n = 1) ⇒ (h = 1) (e = 0) ⇒ (l = 0)
h=1 (k = 0) ⇒ (h = 0) m=1 (k = 0) ⇒ (m = 0)
(g = 1) ⇒ (h = 0) (h = 0) ⇒ (m = 0)
(e = 0) ⇒ (h = 0) (g = 1) ⇒ (m = 0)
(d = 0) ⇒ (h = 0) (d = 0) ⇒ (m = 0)
k=0 (n = 1) ⇒ (k = 1) (e = 0) ⇒ (m = 0)

Step 1: Objective – sensitize fault, set f = 0.

Static learning indicates that f can never be 0.
Redundant fault, found with 0 backtracks.

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 A (2,14)3
(1,1)16 23 5
(9,2)15 l
16 17
B (2,3)14 f
(1,1)16 16
d sa1
g k n
C (3,12)5
(1,1)16 (5,15)0
16 (7,3)10
e
D 16 10
(3,3)14 h
(1,1)16 16
(2,9)8 5 m
E (2,14)3
(1,1)16

7.24 PODEM
A PODEM solution for a test for the fault e s-a-1 in the circuit of Figure 7.30 (page
190 of the book and the next figure) is as follows:

A l
(1,1)16 23 5
f (2,14)3
17 0
B 16
(2,3)14 (9,2)15
(1,1)16 16
d 0 1
g 1 k n 0
C 0 (3,12)5
(1,1)16 (7,3)10 0 (5,15)0
16 1 sa1
e 0
D 1 16
(3,3)14 10 h
(1,1)16 16
(2,9)8 5 m 0
E (2,14)3
(1,1)16

Step 1: Objective – sensitize fault, (e = 0) → (C = 1).

Implication stack – C = 1.
Implications – none.
D-frontier – null.

Step 2: Objective – sensitize fault, (e = 0) → (D = 1).

Implication stack – C = 1, D = 1.
Implications – e = D, h = 0, k = 0, l = 0, m = 0, n = 0.
D-frontier – null; since D-frontier vanishes, backtrack.

Step 3: Objective – sensitize fault.

Implication stack – C = 1, D = 0.
Implications – e = 1.
D-frontier – null; fault not sensitized, backtrack.

Step 4: Objective – sensitize fault, (e = 0) → (D = 0).

Implication stack – C = 0, D = 0.
Implications – e = D, d = 0, g = 1, f = 1, h = 0, k = 0, l = 0, m = 0, n = 0.
D-frontier – null; since D-frontier vanishes, backtrack.

Step 5: Objective – sensitize fault.

Implication stack – C = 0, D = 1.

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 Implications – e = 1, d = 0, g = 1, f = 1, h = 0, k = 0, l = 0, m = 0, n = 0.
D-frontier – null; fault not sensitized, no choices left, fault is redundant, found
with 3 backtracks.

7.25 PODEM
PODEM solution for a test for the fault B − d s-a-1 in the circuit of Figure 7.39
(page 207 and the figure below) is as follows:

(1,1)6
A (2,3)4
6 (6,3)0 1
d Y
g
sa1 h
(1,1)5 0 1 6 (4,7)2
5
B e
5 k 5 Z
C (3,2)3 (6,9)0
(1,1)5
8 f
8
(3,3)6

Step 1: Objective – sensitize fault.

Implication stack – B = 0.
Implications – e = 1, g = 1.
D-frontier – null.
X-path check indicates no D-frontier. No alternative decisions possible. Re-
dundant fault, found with no backtracks.

7.26 Static compaction

Forward order Reverse order

t1 ∩ t2 = 1010 t5 ∩ t4 = 1100
t3 ∩ t4 = 0100 t3 ∩ t1 = 0010
t5 = 1100 t5 ∩ t4 ∩ t2 = 1100

Compacted vector sets:

Forward order compaction: 1010, 0100, 1100
Recerse order compaction: 0010,1100
Reverse order is better, as it gives 1 fewer vectors.

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Chapter 8: Sequential Circuit ATPG
8.1 Race condition
The signals are sketched in the timing diagram below. We assume ideal logic signals
that change at times 0, 1, 2, etc.:

• time = 0, D falls and CK rises.

• time = 1, outputs of NOT gate and the bottom OR gate rise.

• time ≥ 1, all signals retain their values without any further change.

Neither the state of the master latch nor that of the slave latch is affected by the
change in D. To be stored correctly in the flip-flop, the data input (D) should
change earlier than the rising edge of CK by an interval known as the setup time.
Also, the data should remain unchanged beyond the rising edge of CK for a duration
known as the hold time.

CK

NOT gate
data must not change
top OR gate

bottom OR gate D

top NAND gate CK master latch open master latch closed

bottom NAND gate

Q setup time hold time

Q
time
0 1

Setup time is the time for the master latch to acquire a steady state after the D
input changes while the clock is in the active state (0 for the flip-flop of Figure 8.2
in the book.)
Hold time is the delay of the clock control gates (OR gates in the flip-flop of
Figure 8.2.) It is the interval that the clock takes to isolate the storing gates (two
NAND gates) of the master latch from the data input.
In the above case, data and clock changed simultaneously and the flip-flop
recorded the wrong (old) data. We illustrate a peculiar behavior of the latch when
data and clock changes occur close to each other. As shown in the next figure,
suppose the N OT gate has a delay of two units and all other gates have one unit of
delay. Suppose CK rises one unit after the fall of D. This produces simultaneous
0 → 1 transitions at the outputs of the two OR gates. The two equal delay NAND
gates now oscillate between 00 and 11 states.

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 CK

D
OR1
NAND1
D
NOT 1
1
OR1 NOT
delay 2
OR2
OR2
1
1
CK
NAND1 NAND2

NAND2

The oscillations we observe in this example do not actually occur. Any unbalance
in the delays of the NAND gates will stabilize the state of the latch to either 01 or 10
state. Such delay-dependent behavior is commonly known as the race condition or
metastability. In our example, a race is possible if the separation between the clock
and data transitions is less than the delay of NOT gate. In general, a race condition
or metastability is avoided if the setup and hold time restrictions are satisfied.

8.2
It requires just one vector to initialize the circuit. If the initial state is unknown,
i.e., Cn = X, the vector An = Bn = 1 initializes the state to 1, irrespective of the
presence of any fault at the output Sn . Given this state, detection of any output
fault at the output reduces to a combinational ATPG problem of setting the output
to the opposite value. This can be done by a single vector: (An = 0, Bn = 0) will
set the output to 1 or (An = 0, Bn = 1) will set it to 0. Thus, just two vectors,
an initialization vector 11 followed by an appropriate vector to set the output, will
detect the output fault in the circuit of Figure 8.3 (see page 215 of the book.)

8.3
Considering the combinational logic of the circuit we find that for sensitizing a path
from a PI to PO, Sn , we must specify the other PI as well as the present state, Cn .
Thus, the circuit must be first initialized. Any input fault in the circuit of Figure 8.3
(see page 215 of the book) can be tested as follows:
Vector 1 (Initialization.) If the fault is s-a-1 type, then vector 11 is used to
initialize the circuits (both good and faulty) to 1. If the fault is s-a-0 type,
then vector 00 initializes the circuits to 0.
Vcetor 2 (Fault activation and path sensitization.) For a s-a-1 fault, the cir-
cuit has been initialized to a 1 state. A 0 is applied to the faulty line, activating
the fault as 0/1. Application of 1 to the other input propagates a value 0/1
to the output Sn . For a s-a-0 fault, the circuit is initialized to a 0 state. An
input vector 11 now activates the fault and also propagates its effect to Sn .
Thus, only two vectors are needed to test any input fault.

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8.4
The required test has two steps:

1. Fault activation. Assuming the present state to be unknown, we set the next
state to 1. For Cn = X, backward justification of Cn+1 = 1 in Figure 8.3 (see
page 215 of the book) gives us An = 1 and Bn = 1.

2. Path sensitization. For the next vector, the above next state becomes the
present state and the fault Cn s-a-0 is sensitized. We sensitize a path from Cn
to Sn by setting An = 1 and Bn = 1.

Thus, the test sequence is (An , Bn ) = (1,1), (1,1).

8.5
For test generation with the five-valued algebra, we use the following steps (also see
the illustration):

Step 1: Place a D at the output B in time-frame 0.

Step 2: This can only be justified by either DD or D1 input to the AND gate in
time-frame 0. DD is not possible due to the state input being X in the time-
frame -1. We place D1 by applying A = 1 and assuming that a state 1 can be
justified.

Step 3: Any input, 0 or 1, as shown in the figure, produces a state output X from
time-frame −1. Thus, the faulty circuit cannot be initialized to any known
state, including the 1 needed for the test. Hence, it is impossible to find
a test by the 5-valued algebra.

A A
0 or 1 1
s-a-0 s-a-0
0 or D D
X
1
X

0 or X D
B B
Time-frame -1 Time-frame 0
Test generation attempted with 5-valued algebra.

Following similar steps with the nine-valued algebra (see illustration below), we
find that two 1’s at A detect the fault at B as 1/0 in time-frame 0. Notice that the
fault is detected although the faulty circuit is never initialized.

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 A A
1 1
s-a-0 s-a-0
1/0 1/0
1/X 1/X
1/X
X

X/0 1/0
B B
Time-frame -1 Time-frame 0
Test generation with 9-valued algebra.

8.6 Initialization fault

The following figure illustrates the time-frame expansion procedure of generating
a vector, A = 0, B = 1, which starting from the unknown state detects the fault
A s-a-1 as 1/X. After the application of the input vector, the flip-flop is clocked
before the output can be observed. Even if we add more vectors to the test sequence,
the faulty circuit output will not become deterministic. This is because the faulty
circuit is not initializable. The fault is only potentially detectable.
0 1
A B A=B=X
sa1
0/1
X 1/0

0/X 1/0

Time−frame −1 Time−frame 0
X
C C
X 1/X

0,0/1,0 1,0,0/1
0,0,X 0,0/1,0 0,0,X 0/1,0,0/1
A C A C
sa1 0/1,0/1,X/1 1/0,1,X/0 sa1 0/1,0/1,X/1 1,1/0,X/1
1/0,1/0,X/0 FF 1,1/0,1 1/0,1/0,X/0 FF 0,1,1/0
B 1/0,1/0,X/0 B 1/0,1/0,X/0
1,1,X 1,1,X
Test simulation with initial state 1. Test simulation with initial state 0.

Note: Some test generators will find the potential detection test of the above
type. Others will consider the fault untestable (conservative approach.) Most fault
simulators will find the fault potentially detectable. Interestingly, the two test simu-
lation scenarios in the figure show that the fault is definitely detectable, though the
detection requires multiple observations. If we assume the initial state to be 1 then
the fault is detected as 1/0 after the application of the first clock. However, this

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output will be 1 (same as the correct output) if the initial state was 0. In this case,
repeating the same vector and clocking once again will produce a 1/0 output. A con-
ventional fault simulator will not report such detection because it does not enumerate
the possible initial state scenarios. For such multiple observation tests see reference
[525] of the book.

8.7
The note in the solution of Problem 8.6 explains the operation of a multiple obser-
vation test. Besides simulation, a multiple observation test can also be derived by
the following procedure.
An observable state variable, which cannot be initialized in the faulty circuit
but must be observed for fault detection, is represented symbolically by a Boolean
variable s. Inversion of s is s. A test sequence is derived such that any one of the
following pairs of outputs is produced:

• 0/s and 0/s

• 1/s and 1/s

• 0/s and 1/s

• 0/s and 1/s

We notice that irrespective of the value the uninitialized state variable assumes,
one element in each test output pair will provide definite fault detection. For exam-
ple, the outputs produced by the test (A, B) = (0,1), (0,1) of Problem 8.6 are 1/s
and 1/s, respectively, which agree with the second pair given above.
When the feedback in the circuit of Figure 8.25 (see page 250 of the book) has
no inversion, a test sequence (A, B) = (0,0), (0,1) will produce outputs 0/s and 1/s.
This is a multiple observation test. Details on multiple observation tests may be
found in reference [525] cited in the book.

8.8
The following figure shows the combinational 0 and 1 controllabilities as (CC0, CC1).
Notice that the output measures for a flip-flops are obtained by just adding 1 to
the input measures. This is due to assumptions that the clock has controllabilities
(1,1) and the combinational depth of a flip-flop is 0. The fault site can be driven
to 1/0 by controlling B = 1 and it cannot be driven to 0/1. Thus, its drivabilities
are d(0/1) = ∞ and d(1/0) = 1, respectively. Drivabilities of all other signals are
successively computed by simple path sensitization.
The path shown in bold lines is the least drivability (minimum effort) path.
A test obtained by a drivability-based ATPG procedure is shown in the lower fig-
ure. This three-vector test, (A, B) = (1, 1), (1, 1), (1, X), sensitizes the minimum
drivability path and we find that another path, shown by dotted lines, must also be
sensitized.

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 d(0/1)=

8 8
(CC0,CC1)
D (2,2) d(1/0)=
d(0/1)=

8 8
(1,1) d(1/0)=
A C (4,2) (5,3) Z (16,3)
F2 d(0/1)=

8
d(0/1)= d(0/1)=115

8
s−a−0 (2,2) d(1/0)=203
B d(1/0)=103 (6,3) d(1/0)=

8
E (7,4)
(1,1) F1 d(0/1)=

8
d(0/1)= 8 d(1/0)=101 d(0/1)=105 F3 d(0/1)=205
d(1/0)=1 d(1/0)= d1/0)=

8
Drivabilities for fault B s−a−0 in circuit of Figure 8.9. Bold lines show easiest drivability path.

D 0,0,0

1,1,1
A C 1,1,1 X,1,1 Z

s−a−0 X,1/0,1/0 F2 X,X/1,0/1

B
1,1,X F1 E

X,0/1,0/1 F3 X,X,0/1

A three−vector test for fault B s−a−0. Dotted lines show an additional path sensitized.

8.9 Approximate test

A combinational test for the fault A s-a-0, as shown in the following figure, is
CLR = X, A = 1, P S = 1. The fault is detected at Z as 0/1.
X
CLR
0/1
Z
s−a−0.
A 1 0/1
0/1
0/X
PS NS
1 0
0 0/1
1/0

Combinational test for A s−a−0.

To justify P S = 1 in this test, we generate an input vector for the combinational

circuit that will produce N S = 1 output. We find a vector, CLR = 0, A =
1, P S = 0. In order to apply the required approximation, we assume no fault
during justification. The justification must continue until we can find a vector with
P S = X. P S = 0 is easily justified by an input, CLR = 1, A = X, P S = X.
Thus, the test sequence contains three vectors, (CLR, A, P S) = (1, X, X), (0, 1, 0),
(X, 1, 1), which is simulated in the next figure. We find that the test fails to detect
the fault. In the last time-frame, where the combinational vector is applied, the
P S input is 1/0 instead of 1. This is due to the fault being present in the previous
time-frame. Thus the faulty previous state interferes with the newly generated fault
effect and the output Z becomes 0 instead of 0/1.
A valid test is generated by time-frame expansion when the fault is assumed to
be present in all time-frames (as we did for simulation in the above figure.) The new

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 X 1 1 0 1 X
A CLR A CLR A CLR
PS sa0 PS sa0 PS sa0
X

1/0 1/0

0/1 0/1

1/0 0 0 0

1/0 0
1 X

0 1/0
NS NS NS 0
Z X Z 0 Z 0
Simulation of approximate test sequence shows it to be be invalid.

test, as shown in the following figure, has only one change. In the last time-frame
A is changed to 0. So, no new fault effect is produced there and the fault effect 1/0
produced in time-frame -1 is propagated to Z.
X 1 1 0 0 X
Time−frame −2 A CLR Time−frame −1 A CLR Time−frame 0 A CLR
PS sa0 PS sa0 PS sa0
X

1/0 0

0/1 1

1/0 0 0
1/0

1/0 1/0
1 X

0 1/0
NS NS NS X/0
Z X Z 0 Z 1/0
Correct test generation by time−frame expansion method.

The test sequence is (CLR, A, P S) = (1, X, X), (0, 1, 0), (X, 0, 1/0).

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8.10
A necessary condition for detection of a fault in a sequential circuit is that there
must exist at least one time-frame in which,

1. the fault is activated, and

2. the fault effect is propagated to the boundary of the combinational logic, i.e.,
to one or more PO and/or one or more state variables.

Since the fault is combinationally untestable it is impossible to satisfy these condi-

tions even though the state inputs are assumed to be fully controllable. Thus, no
vector sequence can be generated to test the fault in the sequential circuit.

8.11
Consider the time-frame expansion method of sequential circuit ATPG. A time-
frame consists of combinational logic with some fault activity (fault activation and
path sensitization.) In general, this activity must be justified at the PIs of the time-
frame by three-valued (0, 1 and X) logic and at the state inputs by nine-valued (0,
1, 0/1, 0/X, . . etc.) logic.
There are two types of time-frames, ones in which the fault is activated, and
others where the fault is not activated. Let us consider the time-frame in which the
fault is activated for the first time. To be a part of the test sequence, this time-frame
must propagate the fault effect either to a PO or to a state variable. We call this
the “first detection time-frame.” Clearly, such a time-frame is necessary for fault
detection.
In the first detection time-frame a combinational test detects the fault at its
boundary (PO or state output) when a suitable test vector at PI and state inputs is
applied. All preceding time-frames then only generate fault-free states leading to a
state input that is necessary for the first detection time-frame. If the combinational
test cannot be justified then the first detection time-frame will be impossible and
no sequential test can be obtained for the targeted fault.
A more detailed discussion of this result may be found in the reference [30] cited
in the book.

8.12 Pseudo-combinational test

The pseudo-combinational circuit and a combinational test, A = 0, B = 1, for the
fault D s-a-0 are shown in the following figure. Simulation of the sequential circuit
with input A = 0, B = 1, repeated four times shows that the fault will be detected
as 1/0 appearing as the fourth output. We assume that the initial states of all three
flip-flops are X.

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 D 1 s−a−0 1/0

0 Z
A C 1 1/0

1
B
E 0
1

Pseudo−combinational circuit for the sequential circuit of Figure 8.9..

D s−a−0 1/0,1/0,1/0,1/0

0,0,0,0 C Z
A X,1,1,1 X,X,1,1
F2
1,1,1,1 1/X,1/X,1/X,1/0
B
F1 E
X,1,1,1
X,X,0,0 F3 X,X,X,0

Test simulation in sequential circuit.

8.13
A pseudo-combinational circuit is obtained by shorting all flip-flops in an acyclic
synchronous sequential circuit. We will prove that a test vector for the former,
when repeated dseq + 1 times, will be a test sequence for the latter, where dseq is
called the sequential depth and is the maximum number of flip-flops in any input
to output path. Our proof is based on a series of observations:
Observation 1: A clocked flip-flop is equivalent to a delay that equals the clock
period, T .

Observation 2: The output of a combinational circuit with arbitrary delays is

uniquely determined by the input vector provided (a) output is allowed to
stabilize through a time interval, which equals the longest input to output
combinational path delay after the input is applied, and (b) the input is held
constant throughout that time interval.

Observation 3: A combinational circuit with a single stuck-at fault (and many

other non-feedback types of faults) is also a combinational circuit.
Observations 1 and 2 specify that the basic difference between an acyclic se-
quential circuit and its pseudo-combinational circuit is the delay. The delay of the
former has an upper bound, (dseq + 1)T , where T is the clock period. The delay of
the latter equals that of the longest combinational path in that circuit. Note that
T is greater than the longest combinational path delay.
The given test vector produces two different outputs from the good and faulty
pseudo-combinational circuits. If the conditions of Observation 1 are satisfied, then
the good and faulty acyclic sequential circuits will produce outputs that will differ
in a similar way. This is done by holding the vector at the input for an interval
(dseq + 1)T and clocking the circuit dseq times.

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8.14
“A circuit is initializable” means, given that all flip-flops are in unknown (X) states,
there exists a finite-length input sequence that will bring all flip-flops to known
states. Initializability is often considered in a narrower (and practical) sense to mean
that the finite-length sequence, when simulated by a three-valued logic simulator,
will set all flip-flops in deterministic (0 or 1) states.
The required proof follows from contradiction. We begin with an assertion that
an uninitializable circuit is cycle-free. Then its s-graph is a directed acyclic graph
(DAG), which can be levelized according to the maximum distance from PIs. Levels
of flip-flop vertices must be contiguous integers from 1 to dseq , the sequential depth.
All flip-flops in level 1 are controlled by PIs and can be set to some (may not be
every) known states by one input vector followed by a clock. Similarly, all flip-flops
in level 2 are controlled by PIs and the flip-flops of level 1 (which are now in known
states) and these can be set to known states by a second input vector followed by
another clock. Following this procedure, by the time dseq input vectors have been
applied, each followed by a clock, all flip-flops will be in known states. Since, dseq for
a DAG is a finite integer, the circuit is initialized by a finite length input sequence.
This contradicts our assertion. Hence, the circuit cannot be cycle-free and must be
cyclic.

8.15 Cyclic circuits

Modified s-graphs with PI and PO vertices are shown below. The levels shown
give the minimum distance from PIs. The depths of the two circuits are 1 and 2,
respectively. This depth gives a lower bound on the length of a test sequence for a
fault. In practice, however, a test sequence is almost always longer than this lower
bound. The maximum distance levelization and the corresponding depth is a more
realistic measure of the test length for a cycle-free circuit. For cyclic circuits no
tight measure of test length exists. For an upper bound of 9Nf f on the test length,
where Nf f is the number of flip-flops in the circuit, see Section 8.2.5 of the book.

Level=0 Level=1 Level=1 Level=0

A F2 Z CNT Level=1 Level=2
FF1 FF2 Z

B F1 F3 CLR Level=1
Level=0 Level=1 Level=2 Level=0
Cycle−free circuit of Figure 8.9. Cyclic circuit of Figure 8.13.
Minimum distance levelization of s−graphs.

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8.16 Race fault in asynchronous circuit
A procedure to test the s-a-1 fault at the output of the NOT gate in the circuit of
Figure 8.27 is outlined below:

1. We inject the values of A and A into the feedback loop consisting of the two
NOR gates by applying B = 1. A = 1 is applied to activate the fault. We
assume that the two NOR gates have equal delays and simulate their outputs
independently, with the feedback inputs in the unknown (X) state. This is
illustrated in time-frame 1 in the following figure.

2. The outputs of NOR gates are applied after the feedback delays in time-frame
2. We find that the outputs, 1/0 and 1, are stable since another time-frame
will not change them.

B A B A B A B A B A
1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1

0/1 sa1 0/1 sa1 0/1 sa1 0/1 sa1 0/1 sa1

0/1 0/1 0 0 0
X X/0 1/0 0 1 0 1/0 0
X 1 1
X X 0 0 0/1 0

X/0 1/0 1 1/0 1

0 0 0/1 0 0/1
Q Q Q Q Q
Time−frame 1 Time−frame 2 Time−frame 3 Time−frame 4 Time−frame 5

3. Next we apply B = 0 to activate the loop. Time-frames 3 through 5 show that

in the good circuit the Q output stabilizes to state 0 and the output of the
other NOR gate stabilizes to 1. In the faulty circuit, the outputs of the two
NOR gates oscillate as 11, 00, 11, . . . This oscillation in the idealized logic
model is a manifestation of a metastable behavior. The output Q may settle to
a 1 or to a 0 state depending upon the relative delays of the two NOR gates.
In the absence of more detailed knowledge of circuit parameters (delays, etc.)
we consider the fault to be potentially detectable.

Note: Some ATPG programs will consider this fault to be untestable. Strictly
speaking, the logic model does not have the information to find tests for such faults,
which are often classified as race faults. The “race” refers to an unstable equilibrium
in which two possible states compete, each trying to win by getting through the feed-
back path first. When dealing with the analog behavior of the circuit, this condition
is referred to as metastability. For some set of gate delays the circuit will settle in
the correct state and the fault would be considered redundant. For other delays the

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output will settle in the wrong state and the circuit, which is then indeed faulty, will
be found to be so by the test.

8.17 Oscillation fault

Let us denote the output of NAND gate as Y . The following figure shows test
generation using nine-value logic. First, we initialize Z = 0 and Y = 1 by setting
A = 0. C is then set to 0 to activate the fault as 0/1. To propagate the faulty
state to Y , Z is set to 1 by applying A = B = 1. This makes Y = 1/0, and this
value propagates to the output Z. However, now the two inputs of the NAND gate
become 0/1 and 1/0, respectively, causing Y = 1. Thus, the output Z continues
to change as 1/0 → 1 → 1/0 → 1 . . . . This means that the fault-free circuit will
produce a constant 1 output, while the faulty circuit output will fluctuate between 1
and 0. The period of fluctuation will equal the combined delay of the path including
the four gates. The test has two steps: (1) Initialization, A = 0; (2) Combinational
test, A = B = 1, C = 0.
0−>1
A
1−>1/0−>1−>1/0 .... 0−>1−>1/0−>1−>1/0 ....
1
B
Z

s−a−1 1−>1/0−>1−>1/0 ....

1−>1/0−>1−>1/0 ....
0/1
Y

0
C
(a) Test generation with nine−value logic.

A
A
1 Z
B
C 1 1
C
B
(b) Boolean minimization. (c) Feedback−free combinational circuit.

Solution of Problem 8.17

We evaluate the fault-free function of the circuit as Z = ABY + AC. Further,

Y = CZ = AC. Substituting this, we find Z = ABC + AC = A(B + C). The
function and its two gate combinational (feedback-free) implementation are shown
in the figure.

8.18 Simulation-based initialization

The initialization sequence for the circuit of Figure 8.9 (see page 226 of the book)
is, (A, B) = (0,0), (1,0). The procedure is illustrated in the following table where
the selected vectors are shown in boldface.

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 Simulation-based initialization of circuit of Figure 8.9
Phase Types of vectors Trial vectors States Cost Remarks
A B F 1 F 2 F 3 func.
I Initial condition X X X X X 3 Cost=#FFs
Starting vector 0 0 0 X X 2 Cost red.
Unit Hamm. dist. 1 0 0 1 1 0 Cost red.
Circuit initialized (cost=0), Phase I completed.

The initialization sequence for the circuit of Figure 8.13 (see page 230 of the
book) is, (CN T, CLR)= (0,1). The procedure is illustrated in the following table
where the selected vector is shown in boldface.
Simulation-based initialization of circuit of Figure 8.13
Phase Types of vectors Trial vectors States Cost Remarks
CN T CLR F F 1 F F 2 func.
I Initial condition X X X X 2 Cost=#FFs
Starting vector 0 0 X X 2 No cost red.
Unit Hamm. dist. 1 0 X X 2 No cost red.
0 1 0 0 0 Cost red.
Circuit initialized (cost=0), Phase I completed.

This procedure cannot initialize the circuit in Figure 8.12, because neither CN T =
0 nor CN T = 1 can force any flip-flop into a defined state. These are the only pos-
sible trial vectors. Thus, the initial cost of 2 will never be reduced.

8.19 CONTEST
The CONTEST procedure for the s-a-0 fault in Figure 8.3 is as follows:

Trial vectors Output s

Phase Type of vectors Cost function Remarks
Cn An Bn C n+1 S n+1

I Initial condition X X X X X 1 Cost = number of uninitialized flip-flops.

An arbitrary X 0 0 0 X 0 Phase I completed. Vector 00 accepted.

vector

II Initialization X 0 0 0 X Fault simulation of initialization vector;

8

vector fault not activated.

Unit Hamming 0 0 1 0 1 No cost reduction by any trial vector;
8

distance vectors vector 10 arbitrarily selected.

0 1 0 0 1
8

Unit Hamming 0 0 0 0 0
8

distance vectors 0 1 1 1 1/0 0 Fault detected; vector 11 selected.

The test sequence is (An , Bn ) = (00), (10), (11). The selected vectors are shown in
boxes in the table.

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8.20 CONTEST
Four steps that lead to the detection of the given s-a-0 faults are illustrated below.
For simulation, as a vector is applied to PIs A and B, the next state Cn+1 value is
transferred to the present state input Cn .
Step 1: Initialization vector 00 is simulated with Cn = X. The signal values,
dynamic controllabilities, DC0 and DC1, and propagation cost P C are shown
in the following circuit diagram. P C is always 0 for the PO Sn .
DC0=0
DC1=1 DC0=0 DC0=0
PC=101 PC=101 DC1=2 DC1=1
A PC=101 PC=100 DC0=0
n PC=100 PC=103 DC1=103 DC0=100
0 PC=1 DC1=1
0 s−a−0 PC=1
0 PC=0
PC=101 DC0=0 0 Sn
PC=100 DC1=1 PC=2 X
PC=100 DC1=1
0 PC=100 DC0=100
Bn PC=100
0 PC=0 PC=100
DC0=0 PC=0
DC1=1 X
PC=100 0 C
PC=100 n+1
X
C
n DC0=0
DC0=100 DC1=2
DC1=102 PC=100
PC=0

FF

Activation cost (AC) equals DC1 at the fault site since the fault is of s-a-0
type. We use a weighting factor of 1,000 that multiplies AC. Thus, the fault
detection cost for vector 00 is,
Cost(00) = 1000 × AC + P C
= 1000 × 2 + 101 = 2101

Step 2: Unit Hamming distance vector 10 is simulated using the initial state Cn = 0
obtained in Step 1. All measures and costs are computed, as shown below,
DC0=1
DC1=0 DC0=0 DC0=2
PC=0 PC=1 DC1=1 DC1=0
A PC=0 PC=0 DC0=0
n PC=0 PC=101 DC1=101 DC0=2
1 PC=0 DC1=0
0 s−a−0 PC=0
1 PC=0
PC=0 DC0=1 0 Sn
PC=0 DC1=0 PC=0 1
PC=0 DC1=1
0 PC=0 DC0=0
Bn PC=1
1 PC=0 PC=100
DC0=0 PC=2
1
DC1=1
PC=0 0 C
PC=100 n+1
0
C
n DC0=0
DC0=0 DC1=1
DC1=101 PC=100
PC=0

FF

Cost(10) = 1000 × 1 + 0 = 1000

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Step 3: Another unit Hamming distance vector 01 is simulated using the initial
state of Step 1 and measures and costs are computed, as shown below,
DC0=1
DC1=0 DC0=0 DC0=2
PC=0 PC=0 DC1=1 DC1=0
A PC=0 PC=0 DC0=0
n PC=0 PC=101 DC1=101 DC0=2
0 PC=0 DC1=0
0 s−a−0 PC=0
1 PC=0
PC=1 DC0=1 0 Sn
PC=1 DC1=0 PC=0 1
PC=0 DC1=1
1 PC=0 DC0=0
Bn PC=0
1 PC=0 PC=100
DC0=0 PC=2
1
DC1=1
PC=0 0 C
PC=100 n+1
0
C
n DC0=0
DC0=0 DC1=1
DC1=101 PC=100
PC=0

FF

Cost(01) = 1000 × 1 + 0 = 1000

Since the cost of both trial vectors is the same, we arbitrarily select the first
vector, 10.

Step 4: Now, 10 becomes the current vector. It produces a next state Cn+1 = 0.
We try a unit Hamming distance vector 11 as shown below,
DC0=1
DC1=0 DC0=1 DC0=0
PC=0 PC=0 DC1=0 DC1=1
A PC=0 PC=0 DC0=0
n PC=0 PC=100 DC1=1 DC0=0
1 PC=1 DC1=1
1 s−a−0 PC=0
0 PC=0
PC=0 DC0=2 0 Sn
PC=2 DC1=0 PC=1 1
PC=1 DC1=0
1 PC=0 DC0=1
Bn PC=2
1 PC=0 PC=101
DC0=1 PC=0
0
DC1=0
PC=2 1 C
PC=100 n+1
0
C
n DC0=2
DC0=0 DC1=0
DC1=100 PC=100
PC=0

FF

Cost(11) = 1000 × 0 + 0 = 0

A zero cost indicates that the fault is detected. Thus the complete test se-
quence is (An , Bn ) = (0,0), (1,0), (1,1).

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Chapter 9: Memory Test
9.1 State coupling faults
In the solution we will use the notation < i, j > to indicate a fault type and (x, y) to
indicate the state of the cells i and j respectively. Further, cell i will be the coupled
cell (victim cell) and cell j will be coupling cell (aggressor cell).
Fault excitation conditions:
State Coupling Fault < 1 : 1 > is detected if the state is (0, 0) and a 1 is written
into cell j.
State Coupling Fault < 0 : 0 > is detected if the state is (1, 1) and a 0 is written
into cell j.
State Coupling Fault < 0 : 1 > is detected if the state is (1, 0) and a 1 is written
into cell j.
State Coupling Fault < 1 : 0 > is detected if the state is (0, 1) and a 0 is written
into cell j.
States of the memory as desired by the excitation conditions:
The state is (0, 0) at the end of march steps M0, M2 and M4.
The state is (1, 1) at the end of march steps M1 and M3.
For i < j
The state (1, 0) occurs during the march steps M1 and M4.
The state (0, 1) occurs during the march steps M2 and M3.
For i > j
The state (1, 0) occurs during the march steps M2 and M3.
The state (0, 1) occurs during the march steps M1 and M4.
Fault detection:
For i < j
The fault < 1 : 1 > is detected during the march step M3.
The fault < 0 : 0 > is detected during the march step M4.
The fault < 0 : 1 > is excited during march step M1 and is detected during M2.
The fault < 1 : 0 > is excited during march step M2 and is detected during M3.
For i > j
The fault < 1 : 1 > is detected during the march step M1.
The fault < 0 : 0 > is detected during the march step M2.
The fault < 0 : 1 > is excited during march step M3 and is detected during M4.
The fault < 1 : 0 > is excited during march step M4 and is detected during M5.
Solution provided by K. K. Saluja

9.2 Address decoder faults

To be proven: A test for a NPSF cannot detect the ADF in which two addresses a
and b both access the contents Cb of location b.
Proof by counterexample: Any NPSF test initializes the base cell, then writes the
test pattern to the deleted neighborhood cells, and finally reads the base cell to
check for a fault. The two neighborhood definitions are shown below: For the

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 0 0 1 2
Base Base
1 2 3 cell 2 3 4 5 cell 4
4 6 7 8
Type 1 neighborhood Type 2 neighborhood

type 1 neighborhood, let cell a be cell 0 and cell b be the base cell 2. For the type 2
neighborhood, let cell a be cell 0 and cell b be the base cell 4.
Then, the active NPSFs

0134 2
< 0, ↓, 1, 1; 1 >

and

01 2356 784
< 0, ↓, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1; 1 >

go undetected because any write of the neighborhood cell a instead writes the base
cell b. This either removes the fault effect at cell b or prevents sensitization of the
fault, since cell a cannot be written. No other ANSPF test will be expected in the
sequence to detect this particular fault.
The passive NPSFs, < 1, 0, 1, 1; ↑ /0 > and < 1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1; ↑ /0 > will go
undetected because any read of the base cell b will produce either an AND of the
contents of cells a and b, the OR of a and b, or an intermediate voltage. Since cell
a is a 1, the read is apt to produce the good machine value. No other PNPSF test
will be expected in the sequence to detect this particular fault.
The static NPSFs < 1, 0, 1, 1; −/0 > and < 1, 0, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1; −/0 > both go
undetected, because any write of the neighborhood cell a instead writes the base
cell b. This either writes the good machine value to the base cell or prevents fault
sensitization because cell a cannot be written. No other SNPSF test in the test
sequence will be expected to detect this particular fault.
This completes the proof.

9.3 Transition faults

The transition fault means that when we set CS to a 0, it works. However, if we
change CS from 0 → 1, it remains at 0. Notice that if the chip powers up with CS
set to 1, the fault is not active. Conclusions:
1. If the chip powers up with CS = 0, then it is permanently selected.
2. Otherwise, the first time we select the chip, it works, but it remains perma-
nently selected.
This will appear to be an address decoder fault.

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9.4 Port arbitration faults
An arbitration logic test is as follows:

1. Write a 0 to location x through the DRAM port.

2. Simultaneously write a 0 to x through the DRAM port and write a 1 to x

through the SRAM port.

3. Read BU SY for both the SRAM and DRAM ports. If both BU SY lines are
1, then the chip is faulty. If only one line is 1, then the chip is good.

9.5 ROM testing

The CRC based ROM test requires readout of all n memory locations. If it is 1
bit per location, an LFSR compresses the response. If there are B bits per word, a
B bit MISR compresses the response. In either case, the LFSR or MISR must be
initialized to 0s. There is one extra read from the memory to fetch the CRC stored
in the ROM, which must be compared with the MISR contents.
For a 1 bit per word memory, where K is the number of bits in the CRC, this
leads to n + K reads, which is O(n).
n
For a B bits per word memory, this leads to B + 1 reads (assuming that B = K),
which is O(n).

9.6 Graphs
A Hamiltonian graph traversal visits each node in the graph exactly once, while an
Eulerian traversal traverses each edge exactly once.

9.7 Stuck-open faults

Let us denote the components of the given IFA-13 march test algorithm by M 0
through M 8:

{ M 0 : ⇑ (w0); M 1 : ⇑ (r0, w1, r1); M 2 : ⇑ (r1, w0, r0);

M 3 : ⇓ (r0, w1, r1); M 4 : ⇓ (r1, w0, r0); M 5 : Delay;
M 6 : ⇑ (r0, w1); M 7 : Delay; M 8 : ⇑ (r1) }

We also denote the transistors in the memory cells as follows:

WORD
WORD BIT
BIT A E BIT

C
G
D
B F

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 To prove that IFA-13 detects all stuck-open faults in the memory, we proceed as
follows:

I. For transistor A stuck-open (sop) the necessary test conditions are:

(i) Write a 0 (M0)

(ii) Write a 1 (M1)
(iii) Read a 1 (M1)

II. For transistor B sop, the necessary test conditions are:

(i) Write a 1 (M1)

(ii) Write a 0 (M2)
(iii) Read a 0 (M2)

III. For transistor C sop, the necessary test conditions are:

(i) Write a 0 (M0)

(ii) Write a 1 (M1)
(iii) Read a 1 (M1)

IV. For transistor D sop, the necessary test conditions are:

(i) Write a 1 (M1)

(ii) Write a 0 (M2)
(iii) Read a 0 (M2)

V. For transistor E sop, the necessary test conditions are:

(i) Write a 1 (M1)

(ii) Write a 0 (M2)
(iii) Read a 0 (M2)

VI. For transistor F sop, the necessary test conditions are:

(i) Write a 0 (M0)

(ii) Write a 1 (M1)
(iii) Read a 1 (M1)

VII. For transistor G sop, the necessary test conditions are:

(i) Write a 0 (M0)

(ii) Read a 0 (M1)

That completes the proof.

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9.8 Test types
The probe test can simply write and read a few memory locations to verify that
the chip does not have major damage. It need not test very many cells. It is done
separately from functional test because it needs a short test sequence to keep the
test cheap. Also, it needs a flying-probe tester, since the chip is not packaged. That
is another reason why probe test is done separately.
The contact test forces a current out of a pin and then precisely measures the
pin voltage, which may be negative. It requires an analog tester with a parametric
measurement unit (PMU), whereas the functional tests only require a digital tester.
That is why the contact test is not combined with functional test.

9.9 Idempotent coupling faults

Necessary condition for idempotent coupling fault test: For all coupled cells, each
should be read after a series of possible CFids may have happened, such that the
sensitized CFids do not mask each other (the coupled cells are read while their state
is opposite from the good machine state.)
We consider the MARCH C− test:

{ M 0 :  (w0); M 1 : ⇑ (r0, w1); M 2 : ⇑ (r1, w0);

M 3 : ⇓ (r0, w1); M 4 : ⇓ (r1, w0); M 5 :  (r0) }

For a coupling cell Cj and a coupled cell Ci , we have

Theorem: MARCH C− detects all CFid faults, <↑; 0 >, <↓; 1 >, <↑; 1 >, <↓; 0 >.

Proof:

I. For the fault <↑; 0 > the necessary test conditions are:

(a) First write a 0 to j and a 1 to i

(b) Second, write a 1 to j
(c) Read cell i and check for a 1 before changing i or j

Note that,

1. If Addr(j) < Addr(i), M 2 and M 3 satisfy (a), M 3 satisfies (b), and

M 4 satisfies (c).
2. If Addr(j) > Addr(i), M 0 and M 1 satisfy (a), M 1 satisfies (b), and
M 2 satisfies (c).

II. For the fault <↓, 0 > the necessary test conditions are:

(a) Write a 1 to i and j

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 (b) Write a 0 to j
(c) Check i for a 1 before changing i or j

Note that,

1. If Addr(j) < Addr(i), M 2 satisfies (b) and (c).

2. If Addr(j) > Addr(i), M 3 satisfies (a), and M 4 satisfies (b) and (c).

III. for the fault <↑; 1 > the necessary conditions are:

(a) Write a 0 to i and j

(b) Write a 1 to j
(c) Check i for a 0 before changing i or j

Note that,

1. If Addr(j) < Addr(i), M 0 satisfies (a), and M 1 satisfies (b) and (c).
2. If Addr(j) > Addr(i), M 2 satisfies (a), and M 3 satisfies (b) and (c).

IV. For the fault <↓; 1 > the necessary conditions are:

(a) Write a 0 to i and a 1 to j

(b) Write a 0 to j
(c) Check i for a 0 before changing i or j

Note that,

1. If Addr(j) < Addr(i), M 3 and M 4 satisfy (a), M 4 satisfies (b), and

M 5 satisfies (c).
2. If Addr(j) > Addr(i), M 1 and M 2 satisfy (a), M 2 satisfies (b), and
M 3 satisfies (c).

That completes the proof.

For an n bit memory, the complexity of MARCH C− is O(10n).

9.10 Fault modeling

(a) A state coupling fault (SCF) < i, j > is a memory fault where the coupling cell
i entering the state 0 or 1 causes the coupled cell j to enter the state 0 or 1.
These are denoted as < 0; 0 >, < 0; 1 >, < 1; 0 > and < 1; 1 >.

(b) An inversion coupling fault (CFin) < i, j > is where the coupling cell i having
a transition causes the coupled cell j to invert its state. These are denoted as
<↑; >, <↓; >.

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(c) An idempotent coupling fault (CFid) < i, j > is where the coupling cell i having
a transition causes the coupled cell j to enter a particular state. These are
denoted as <↑; 0 >, <↑; 1 >, <↓; 0 >, and <↓; 1 >.
(d) A dynamic coupling fault (CFdyn) is where a read or write of a cell in one word
forces the contents of a cell in another word to 0 or 1. These are denoted as
< r0|w0; 0 >, < r0|w0; 1 >, < r1|w1; 0 >, and < r1|w1; 1 >.
(e) A rising (falling) transition fault (TF) in a memory cell that can come up in
either the 0 or 1 state, but any attempt to change its state from 0 to 1 (1 to
0) fails. These are denotes as <↑; 0 > and <↓; 1 >.
(f ) An active neighborhood pattern sensitive fault (ANSPF) causes the base cell to
change due to a pattern and transition in the deleted neighborhood. The base
cell can go to 0, 1, or invert.
(g) A passive neighborhood pattern sensitive fault (PNPSF) prevents the base cell
from changing when a particular pattern exists in the deleted neighborhood.
(h) A static neighborhood pattern sensitive fault (SNPSF) forces the base cell into a
particular state when a particular pattern exists in the deleted neighborhood.
(i) A data retention fault causes a memory cell to forget its content over time,
usually due to a damaged SRAM pullup device or a damaged DRAM capacitor.
(j) An address decoder fault in a memory causes, 1) an address i to instead access lo-
cation j, 2) an address i to access no location, or 3) address i to simultaneously
access multiple locations.

9.11 Memory test algorithms

We rigorously prove that the MARCH C− test detects all inversion coupling faults
(CFin).
The MARCH C− test is,
{ M 0 :  (w0); M 1 : ⇑ (r0, w1); M 2 : ⇑ (r1, w0);
M 3 : ⇓ (r0, w1); M 4 : ⇓ (r1, w0); M 5 :  (r0) }
and the inversion coupling faults are <↑; > and <↓; >.
Necessary condition: For all cells that are coupled, each should be read after
series of possible CFins may have occurred, and the number of coupled cell
transitions must be odd.
Fault <↑; >: Address of coupled cell i > address of coupling cell j. Cell j
initialized to 0 by M 0, j is made to ↑ by M 1, coupled cell i set to 0 by M 0,
unexpected inversion detected by M 1, number of coupled cell inversions = 1.
Address of coupled cell i < address of coupling cell j. Cell j initialized
to 0 by M 2, j made to ↑ by M 3, coupled cell i set to 0 by M 2, unexpected
inversion detected by M 3, number of coupled cell inversions = 1.

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Fault <↓; >: Address of coupled cell i > address of coupling cell j. Cell j
initialized to 1 by M 1, j is made to ↓ by M 2, coupled cell i set to 1 by M 1,
unexpected inversion detected by M 2, number of coupled cell inversions = 1.
Address of coupled cell i < address of coupling cell j. Cell j initialized to
1 by M 3, j is made to ↓ by M 4, coupled cell i set to 1 by M 3, unexpected
inversion detected by M 4, number of coupled cell inversions = 1.

That completes the proof.

9.12 Stuck-at faults

We rigorously prove that the MATS++ test catches all stuck-at faults.
The MATS++ test is,

{ M 0 :  (w0); M 1 : ⇑ (r0, w1); M 2 : ⇓ (r1, w0, r0) }

and the stuck-at faults are < ∀/0 > and < ∀/1 >.

Necessary condition: For each cell, a 0 and a 1 must be read.

Fault < ∀/0 >: S-a-0 fault is sensitized by writing a 1 to the cell in M 1. S-a-0 fault
is detected by M 2 when a 0 is read from the cell, while a 1 was expected.

Fault < ∀/1 >: S-a-1 fault is sensitized by writing a 0 to the cell in M 0. S-a-1 fault
is detected by M 1 when a 1 is read from the cell, while a 0 was expected.

That completes the proof.

9.13 Dynamic coupling faults

We rigorously prove that the MARCH C− test detects all dynamic coupling faults.
MARCH C− test is,

{ M 0 :  (w0); M 1 : ⇑ (r0, w1); M 2 : ⇑ (r1, w0);

M 3 : ⇓ (r0, w1); M 4 : ⇓ (r1, w0); M 5 :  (r0) }

and dynamic coupling faults are < r0|w0; 0 >, < r0|w0; 1 >, < r1|w1; 0 > and
< r1|w1; 1 >.

Necessary condition: After initializing the coupled cell, a read (write) of the
coupling cell must be followed by a read of the coupled cell, without any
intervening operations on the coupled cell.

Fault < r0|w0; 0 >: Address of coupled cell i > Address of coupling cell j.
For a write,
i initialized by M1, j written by M2,
i checked by M2 (fault detected).
For a read,

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 i initialized by M3, j read by M3,
i checked by M4 (fault detected).
Address of coupled cell i < Address of coupling cell j.
For a write,
i initialized by M3, j written by M4,
i checked by M4 (fault detected).
For a read,
i initialized by M3, j read by M4,
i checked by M4 (fault detected).
Fault < r0|w0; 1 >: Address of coupled cell i > Address of coupling cell j.
For a write,
i initialized by M4, j written by M4,
i checked by M5 (fault detected).
For a read,
i initialized by M0, j read by M1,
i checked by M1 (fault detected).
Address of coupled cell i < Address of coupling cell j.
For a write,
i initialized by M2, j written by M2
i checked by M3 (fault detected).
For a read,
i initialized by M2, j read by M3,
i checked by M3 (fault detected).
Fault < r1|w1; 0 >: Address of coupled cell i > Address of coupling cell j.
For a write,
i initialized by M1, j written by M1,
i checked by M2 (fault detected).
For a read,
i initialized by M1, j read by M2,
i checked by M2 (fault detected).
Address of coupled cell i < Address of coupling cell j.
For a write,
i initialized by M3, j written by M3
i checked by M4 (fault detected).
For a read,
i initialized by M4, j read by M4,
i checked by M4 (fault detected).
Fault < r1|w1; 1 >: Address of coupled cell i > Address of coupling cell j.
For a write,
i initialized by M0, j written by M1,
i checked by M1 (fault detected).
For a read,
i initialized by M0, j read by M2,

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 i checked by M2 (fault detected).
Address of coupled cell i < Address of coupling cell j.
For a write,
i initialized by M2, j written by M3
i checked by M3 (fault detected).
For a read,
i initialized by M2, j read by M2,
i checked by M3 (fault detected).

That completes the proof.

9.14 Data retention faults

We prove that IFA-13 catches all data retention faults. IFA-13 is,

{ M 0 : ⇑ (w0); M 1 : ⇑ (r0, w1, r1); M 2 : ⇑ (r1, w0, r0);

M 3 : ⇓ (r0, w1, r1); M 4 : ⇓ (r1, w0, r0); M 5 : Delay;
M 6 : ⇑ (r0, w1); M 7 : Delay; M 8 : ⇑ (r1) }

and the faults are < 1/0 af ter time delay > and < 0/1 af ter time delay >.

Necessary condition: Each cell must have a 0(1) written to it, and after a suitable
delay (e.g., 100ms), a 0(1) must be read back from the cell.

Fault < 1/0 af ter time delay >: M6 sensitizes the fault by writing a 1, M7 pro-
vides the necessary time delay, and M8 detects the fault when a 0 is read but
a 1 was expected.

Fault < 0/1 af ter time delay >: M4 sensitizes the fault by writing a 0, M5 pro-
vides the necessary time delay, and M6 detects the fault when a 1 is read but
a 0 was expected.

That completes the proof.

9.15 SRAM physical faults

A physical fault shorting the BIT line to the W ORD line in a SRAM cell is shown
in the figure below. The fault models are discussed next.

WORD
Fault

BIT BIT

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 1. When W ORD = 0 (driven), BIT is always forced to be 0 for all reads/writes
in this column. This causes all writes/reads in the column to be a 1.

2. When W ORD = 1 (driven), BIT is always forced to be 1 for all reads/writes

for this cell. If we are writing 0 into this cell, no error occurs.

(i) When writing 1 into this cell, a 0 will instead be written only if the W ORD
line driver is stronger than the BIT line driver. Otherwise, no error
occurs.
(ii) When reading a 0 from this cell no error occurs. When reading a 1 from
this cell, an error occurs only if the W ORD line driver is stronger than
the BIT line driver.

Case 1 is state coupling fault < 0; 1 > between the faulty crosspoint cell and
all cells in the same column.
We assume a W ORD line driver stronger than a BIT line driver. Then cases
2(i) and 2(ii) are a SA0 fault in the crosspoint cell.

3. Note that whenever BIT is charged for this column, that it also activates
W ORD for the row containing the faulty cell. This makes all cells in the
row having the faulty cell active. The result depends on the column address
decoder and the BIT /BIT driver. If drivers other than those of the faulty
column are also activated (which is usually true with a word-oriented SRAM),
then any write of a 0 into any part of the affected column also activates a
write into the faulty row, at least for the rest of the bits in this memory word.
This would be a state coupling fault < 0; 0 > or < 1; 1 > between the bits in
the row intended to be addressed and the corresponding bits in the row with
the crosspoint fault.

9.16 DRAM physical faults

Consider the fault, two DRAM capacitors shorted together, as shown in the figure
below.

WORD

Fault

BIT BIT

This is a state coupling pair of faults, < 0; 0 > and < 1; 1 >, between the two
cells.

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9.17 Neighborhood PSFs
The two group method cannot be used with the type-2 neighborhood for a pattern
sensitive fault (PSF) test.

0 1 2 Base cell 4
3 4 5 Deleted neighborhood−
6 7 8 cells 0,1,2,3,5,6,7,8

Type−2 neighborhood

Duality is the property that all tests for cell 4 as a base cell also provide the
necessary test patterns when cells 1, 3, 5 or 7 are considered to be the base cell.
This fails for the type-2 neighborhood, bacause the test patterns for cell 4 as the
base cell do not provide all necessary test patterns when diagonal cells 0, 2, 6 or 8
are considered to be the base cell.

9.18 Data retention faults

A data retention fault occurs in a DRAM when the side of memory storage capacitor
connected to the word line transistor has a significant charge leakage fault either to
VSS or to VDD .

9.19 Write recovery faults

A write recovery fault occurs when a write is immediately followed by a read/write
at a different address. It is caused by a fault in the sense amplifier that causes it
to saturate its transistors after the first write. The immediately following read or
write will fail if the data value is the opposite of the data value for the first write.
This happens because the fault prevents the sense amplifier transistors from leaving
saturation and applying the opposite data value.

9.20 Bridging faults

First, we prove that a MARCH test for a CFid will also detect the AND and OR
bridging faults.

I. Necessary steps for CFid <↑; 0 >:

(a) Write 0 to coupling cell j and 1 to coupled cell i

(b) Write 1 to j
(c) Read cell i and check for a 1 before changing i or j

Note that:

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 1. If Addr(j) < Addr(i)
M 0 :  (w0); M 1 : ⇓ (w1) satisfies (a) and (b), and an immediate
M 2 :  (r1) satisfies (c).
2. If Addr(j) > Addr(i)
M 3 :  (w0); M 4 : ⇑ (w1) satisfies (a) and (b), and an immediate
M 5 :  (r1) satisfies (c).
II. Necessary steps for CFid <↓; 0 >:
(a) Write a 1 to i and j
(b) Write a 0 to j
(c) Check i for a 1 before changing i or j
Note that:
1. If Addr(j) < Addr(i)
M 6 :  (w1) satisfies (a), M 7 : ⇑ (r1, w0) satisfies (b) and (c).
2. If Addr(j) > Addr(i)
M 8 :  (w1) satisfies (a), M 9 : ⇓ (r1, w0) satisfies (b) and (c).
III. Necessary steps for CFid <↑; 1 >:
(a) Write a 0 to j and i
(b) Write a 1 to j
(c) Check i for a 0 before changing i or j
Note that:
1. If Addr(j) < Addr(i)
M 10 :  (w0) satisfies (a), M 11 : ⇑ (r0, w1) satisfies (b) and (c).
2. If Addr(j) > Addr(i)
M 12 :  (w0) satisfies (a), M 13 : ⇓ (r0, w1) satisfies (b) and (c).
IV. Necessary steps for CFid <↓; 1 >:
(a) Write a 1 to j and 0 to i
(b) Write a 0 to j
(c) Check i for a 0 before changing i or j
Note that:
1. If Addr(j) < Addr(i)
M 14 :  (w1); M 15 : ⇓ (w0) satisfies (a) and (b) and an immediate
M 16 :  (r0) satisfies (c).
2. If Addr(j) > Addr(i)
M 17 :  (w1); M 18 : ⇑ (w0) satisfies (a) and (b) and an immediate
M 19 :  (r0) satisfies (c).

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That completes the proof of the first part.
Next, to prove that CFid MARCH test also detects all ABFs: < 0, 0/0, 0 >,
< 0, 1/0, 0 >, < 1, 0/0, 0 >, < 1, 1/1, 1 >, and OBFs: < 0, 0/0, 0 >, < 0, 1/1, 1 >,
< 1, 0/1, 1 >, < 1, 1/1, 1 >, we need only check for the middle two ABFs and OBFs.
I. Necessary steps for ABF < 0, 1/0, 0 >, where bit order is (j, i), are,
(a) Write 0 to j and 1 to i.
(b) Read i and report error if it became 0. Sequence M 0 − M 2 in I(1) of
the previous proof does this if Addr(j) < Addr(i), otherwise, sequence
M 3 − M 5 in I(2) does this.
II. Necessary steps for ABF < 1, 0/0, 0 > (bit order j, i) are,
(a) Write 1 to j and 0 to i.
(b) Read j and report error if it became 0. Sequence M 0 − M 2 in I(1) of
the previous proof does this for Addr(j) > Addr(i), otherwise, sequence
M 3 − M 5 does this if Addr(j) < Addr(i).
III. Necessary steps for OBF < 1, 0/1, 1 > (bit order j, i) are,
(a) Write 1 to j and 0 to i.
(b) Read i and report error if it became 1. Sequence M 14 − M 16 in IV(1) of
the previous proof does this for Addr(j) < Addr(i), otherwise, sequence
M 17 − M 19 in IV(2) does this if Addr(j) > Addr(i).
IV. Necessary steps for OBF < 0, 1/1, 1 > (bit order j, i) are,
(a) Write a 0 to j and 1 to i.
(b) Read j and report error if it became 1. Sequence M 14 − M 16 in IV(1) of
the previous proof does this if Addr(j) > Addr(i), otherwise, sequence
M 17 − M 19 in IV(2) does this if Addr(j) < Addr(i).
That completes the proof of the second part.
An alternative, and much simpler, proof:
ABF < 0, 1/0, 0 > and < 1, 0/0, 0 > are equivalent to bidirectional coupling fault
<↑; 0 >.
OBF < 0, 1/1, 1 > and < 1, 0/1, 1 > are equivalent to bidirectional coupling fault
<↓; 1 >

9.21 State coupling faults

We prove that a MARCH test for CFid will also detect state coupling faults.

State coupling fault test for < 0; 0 > is covered by CFid test <↑; 0 >, since the
step writing 1 to the coupling cell is not needed.

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 SCF test for < 0; 1 > is covered by CFid test <↑; 1 >, since the step writing 1 to
the coupling cell is not needed.

SCF test for < 1; 0 > is covered by CFid test <↓; 0 >, since the step writing 0 to
the coupling cell is not needed.

SCF test for < 1; 1 > is covered by CFid test <↓; 1 >, since the step writing 0 to
the coupling cell is not needed.

That completes the proof.

9.22 Neighborhood PSFs

We write the steps (in pseudo-code) for a test to detect the passive neighborhood
pattern sensitive faults (PNPSF),

< 1, 0, 1, 0; ↑ /0 > and < 0, 1, 0, 1; ↓ /1 >

using the two-group method and type-1 neighborhood. The test need not be the
optimal one.

C 0
A b B 1 2 3
D 4

Write ‘0’ to base cell;

Write “1010” to cells 0, 1, 3, 4;
Write ‘1’ to base cell;
Read base cell (test fails in it is ‘0’);
Write ‘1’ to base cell;
Write “0101” to cells 0, 1, 3, 4; Write ‘0’ to base cell;
Read base cell (test fails in it is ‘1’);

9.23 Neighborhood PSFs

We write the steps (in pseudo-code) for a PNPSF test to detect the faults,

< 0, 0, 0, 0; ↑ /0 > and < 1, 1, 1, 1; ↓ /1 >

using the two-group method and type-1 neighborhoods (see figure below):

Write ‘0’ to base cell;

Write “0000” to cells 0, 1, 3, 4;
Write ‘1’ to base cell;
Read the base cell (test fails if it is ‘0’);

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 0 Base cell
1 2 3
4
Type−1 neighborhood

Write ‘1’ to base cell;

Write “1111” to cells 0, 1, 3, 4;
Write ‘0’ to base cell;
Read the base cell (test fails if it is ‘1’);

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Chapter 10: DSP-Based Analog and Mixed-Signal Test
10.1 Unit test period

Ft M 2, 010Hz 201
= = =
Fs N 8, 000Hz 800
That is, M = 201 and N = 800. Unit test period is obtained as,
M 201
UTP = = = 0.1 sec
Ft 2, 010Hz
1
Primitive frequency, ∆ = = 10Hz
UTP

10.2 Unit test period

Primitive frequency, ∆ = 20Hz

1
Unit test period, U T P = = 0.05 sec
∆
Ft 2020Hz
M = = = 101
∆ 20Hz
Would like N = 600, which is relatively prime to 101, so it is OK.

Fs = N × ∆ = 600 × 20Hz = 12, 000Hz

10.3 Unit test period

Ft M 2, 000Hz 1
= = =
Fs N 16, 000Hz 8
1 1
∆ = = = 20Hz
UTP 50ms
but M and N are not relatively prime. We get only eight unique samples and as the

Samples
Amplitude

Time

figure shows every ninth sample repeats. This is a totally inadequate sample set.

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10.4 Unit test period

UTP = 40 msec
1
∆ = = 25Hz
UTP
Fs 8, 000Hz
N = = = 320
∆ 25Hz
Ft 400Hz
M = = = 16
∆ 25Hz
M 16 1
= = ; M and N are not relative primes!
N 320 20
If we choose M = 15, M and N are still not relative primes.
Choose M = 17, M 17
N = 320 ; M and N are relative primes. So we get 320 unique
samples.
Ft = M × ∆ = 17 × 25Hz = 425Hz

10.5 Unit test period

1 1
∆ = = = 25Hz
p 40 msec
Fs 8, 000 s/s
N = = = 320
∆ 25Hz
We must change ∆ and p to get N = 400.
8, 000 s/s
∆ = = 20Hz
400
If Ft = 2, 000Hz, M = F∆t = 2,000Hz
20Hz = 100, and
M
N = 100
400 = 14 , which gives only 4
samples. So, choose either M = 99 or M = 101.
For M = 99, Ft = M × ∆ = 99 × 20Hz = 1, 980Hz, and
For M = 101, Ft = M × ∆ = 101 × 20Hz = 2, 020Hz.
In both cases, we get 400 unique samples.

10.6 Correlation

RM S(A) = 2.8214
RM S(B) = 5.6709
1
G =
RM S(A) · RM S(B) · 1
= 0.6525

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  P
For τ = 0, R = G · A(2πt) · B(2πt)dt
R = 0, due to Fourier
s second principle.

10.7 Correlation
The correlation of A and B is computed by the following MATLAB program:

a = (1/30);
i = 1;
for t = 0:1:(1/3)
A = 16 * sin (6 * pi * t);
B = 14 * sin ((6 * pi * t) + 10);
C = A * B;
end
C = sum(C);
Arms = 16/sqrt(2);
Brms = 14/sqrt(2);
UTP = 1/3;
K = (Arms * Brms * UTP);
G = 1/K;
Corr = G * C

Corr =

7.9948e-16

Correlation = 7.9948 × 10−16

10.8 Multi-tone testing

(a) First harmonics or fundamentals: 6f, 19f, 27f

(b) Second harmonics: 12f, 38f, 54f

(c) Third harmonics: 18f, 57f, 81f

(d) Fourth harmonics: 24f, 76f, 108f

(e) First-order intermodulation: 6f, 19f, 27f

Second-order intermodulation: 25f, 33f, 46f, 13f, 21f, 8f

(f ) Third-order intermodulation products (sum or difference between any funda-

mental and a second-order intermodulation product):
19f, 27f, 40f, 7f, 15f, 2f
31f, 39f, 52f, 19f, 27f, 14f
6f, 14f, 27f, 6f, 2f, 11f

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 44f, 52f, 65f, 32f, 40f, 27f
2f, 6f, 19f, 14f, 6f, 19f
52f, 60f, 73f, 40f, 48f, 35f

10.9 CODEC testing


10H2 /10 + 10H3 /10 + · · ·
T HD =
10H1 /20
0.5mW
H2 (dB) = 10 log = −6.020599913dB
2mW
0.2mW
H3 (dB) = 10 log = −10dB
2mW
H1 dB) = 0

T HD = 10−0.6020599913 + 10−1
= 0.591608
= 59.1608%

10.10 ADC quantization error

We define this as: Actual digitized waveform − Original waveform, to be consistent
with the definitions of DNL and INL. However, the negative of this definition may
also be considered to be correct.

FSR

3/4
Volts

1/2
FSR

1/4
1/8
0
−1/8
1/8

1/4

3/8

1/2

5/8

3/4

7/8

Volts

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10.11 ADC DLE and ILE
For the ADC of Figure 10.8(a) (page 324 of the book), for parts (a)-(d) of the
problem, we assume 32 samples. We add 2 samples on either side for virtual codes.

Code tally T(0) T(1) T(2) T(3) T(4) T(5) T(6) T(7)
6 4 4 4 4 4 4 6
DLE D(0) D(1) D(2) D(3) D(4) D(5) D(6) D(7)
0.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.5
DNL (RMS LSB) 0.5
DNL (Worst) 0.5
Transfer char. C(0) C(1) C(2) C(3) C(4) C(5) C(6) C(7)
0 5 9 13 17 21 25 30
ILE E(0) E(1) E(2) E(3) E(4) E(5) E(6) E(7)
0 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.25 0.5
INL (RMS LSB) 0.2795
INL (Worst) 0.5

Average step size = 4

(a) Graph of DLE function:

0.5
DLE

0.0 Sample #
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

(b) DNL is the worst case DLE value (here it is 0.5 LSB.)

(c) Graph of ILE function:

0.50
ILE

0.25

0.0 Sample #
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

(d) The INL is the worst case ILE value (here it is 0.5 LSB.)

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10.12 ADC DLE and ILE
For the ADC of Figure 10.9(a) (page 324 of the book), for parts (a)-(d) of the
problem, we assume 64 samples. We add 4 samples on either side for virtual codes.

Code tally T(0) T(1) T(2) T(3) T(4) T(5) T(6) T(7)
6 8 7 7 8 6 7 23
DLE D(0) D(1) D(2) D(3) D(4) D(5) D(6) D(7)
−0.33 −0.11 −0.22 −0.22 −0.11 −0.33 −0.22 1.55
DNL (RMS LSB) 0.5905
DNL (Worst) 1.55
Transfer char. C(0) C(1) C(2) C(3) C(4) C(5) C(6) C(7)
0 7 14.5 21.5 29.0 36.0 42.5 57.5
ILE E(0) E(1) E(2) E(3) E(4) E(5) E(6) E(7)
0 −0.22 −0.385 −0.605 −0.77 −0.99 −1.265 −0.6
INL (RMS LSB) 0.71553
INL (Worst) −1.265

Average count = 9
(a) Graph of DLE function:

1.5

1.0
DLE

0.5

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0.0 Sample #

−0.5

(b) DNL is the worst case DLE value (here it is 1.55 LSB.)
(c) Graph of ILE function:
ILE

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0.0 Sample #
−0.22
−0.44
−0.66
−0.88
−1.10
−1.32

(d) The INL is the worst case ILE value (here it is −1.265 LSB.)

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10.13 DAC INL
We assume Vmax = 10V . For the DAC with ∆i given in Table 10.4 (page 335 of the
book):

(+) − (−)
IN L =
2Bn

Vmax 10V
Bn (LSB contribution) = = 5
2n − 1 2 −1
= 0.3225806452V

10V
∆5 = = 0.3125V
32
and ∆4 = ∆3 = ∆2 = 0.3125V as well, since in an ideal converter, each of these
is one quantum voltage. In a real converter, each of these will deviate in different
ways from the quantum voltage.

(+) (−)
e1 15∆1 −∆2 − 2∆3 − 4∆4 − 8∆5
e2 15∆2 −8∆1 − ∆3 − 2∆4 − 4∆5
e3 15∆3 −4∆1 − 8∆2 − ∆4 − 2∆5
e4 15∆4 −2∆1 − 4∆2 − 8∆3 − ∆5
e5 15∆5 −∆1 − 2∆2 − 4∆3 − 8∆4
15(∆1 + ∆2 + ∆3 + ∆4 + ∆5 ) −15∆1 − 15∆2 − 15∆3 − 15∆4 − 15∆5

In the ideal converter, ∆1 = ∆2 = ∆3 = ∆3 = ∆4 = ∆5 , so (+) − (−) = 0,
and INL = 0 . In a real converter, ∆i would vary, so INL would not be 0.

10.14 Multi-tone testing

(a)
Ft M Ft
= , ∆ = 20Hz, M = = 101
Fs N ∆
N = 600, Ft = 2, 020Hz
N Ft 600 × 2, 020Hz
Fs = = = 12, 000Hz
M 101
(b) Choose ∆ = 10Hz to halve the sampling frequency and double the unit test
period to 25 msec.
Then, with 600 samples, Fs = N ∆ = 600 × 10Hz = 6, 000Hz.
Choose M = 101, so Ft = M ∆ = 101 × 10Hz = 1, 010Hz and
Ft 1, 010 M 101
= = =
Fs 6, 000 N 600

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(c) FFT frequency bins for second-order harmonics are: 10f, 18f, 34f

(d) First-order intermodulation distortion bins: 5f, 9f, 17f

Second-order intermodulation bins:
|5 − 9| = 4f, 5 + 9 = 14f
|5 − 17| = 12f, 5 + 17 = 22f
|9 − 17| = 8f, 9 + 17 = 26f

(e) Total harmonic distortion (THD) is the ratio of the energy in the harmonics of
the waveform to the energy in the fundamental. Thus,

 H2
 10 10 + 10 H103 + · · · + 10 H1010

T HD = H1
10 10
where H1 is the amplitude of the fundamental (in dB) and H2 · · · H10 are the
amplitudes of the second through tenth harmonics in dB.

The FFT of the circuit response (the analog output) is taken and the magnitudes
in the bins of the harmonics are measured, along with the magnitude in the bin of
the fundamental.

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Chapter 11: Model-Based Analog and Mixed-Signal Test
11.1 Parametric faults
For the circuit of Figure 11.10,
 t
1 Vin
Vout = Vin + dt
C + R1f 0 R1
Vin t
= R1
R1 C + R f

This is an integrator or low-pass filter, with parameters

fc - filter cutoff frequency: C, Rf

A - AC voltage gain: R1 , C, Rf

A4 - DC voltage gain: R1 , Rf

There are no useful single parametric faults, two useful double parametric faults,
and one useful triple parametric fault.

11.2 Parametric faults

The circuit of Figure 11.14 contains three stages:

First stage, Buffer: fault R1 , R2 , R8 (gain)

Second stage, Integrator: fault C1 (cutoff frequency)

fault R2 , C1 (AC voltage gain)
fault R2 (DC voltage gain)

Third stage, Low-pass filter: fault C2 , R5 (cutoff frequency)

fault R3 , C2 , R5 (AC voltage gain)
fault R3 , R5 (DC voltage gain)

DC feedback between first and third stages: fault R1 , R4 , R6 , R5 , R3

AC feedback between first and third stages: fault R1 , R4 , R6 , R5 , R3 , C2

DC feedback between first and second stages: fault R1 , R4 , R8 , R2 , R7

AC feedback between first and second stages: fault R1 , R4 , R2 , R8 , C1 , R7

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11.3 Parametric faults
Faults for the circuit of Figure 11.15 are,
1st stage: R2 , C1
R1 , R2 , C1 , R3
R1 , R2 , R3

2nd stage: R4 , R5 , R13

3rd stage: C2
R6
R6 , C2

4th stage: C3
R7 , R12
R7 , C3 , R12

5th stage: R8 , R9

6th stage: C4 , R10

R10 , R11
C4 , R10 , R11

DC feedback between stages 1 and 3: R6 , R3 , R2 , R1

AC feedback between stages 1 and 3: R6 , R3 , R2 , R1 , C1 , C2

DC feedback between stages 4 and 6: R7 , R12 , R10 , R11

AC feedback between stages 4 and 6: C3 , C4 , R7 , R12 , R10 , R11

Note: For Problems 11.2 and 11.3, we can simplify the testing of the feedback
by computing the composite transfer function. We usually only need to test for
the location of the dominant and secondary poles, and for any zeroes that cancel
poles (which should also be tested.) These considerations will simplify the testing of
multiple parametric feedback faults.

11.4 Parametric faults

For the circuit of Figure 11.16,
1st stage: R1 , R2 (DC gain)
C, R2 (Roll off f)
R1 , R2 , C (AC gain)

2nd stage: R3 , R4 (DC gain)

3rd stage: R6 , R5 , R7 (Current summing)

4th stage: R8 , R9 (DC gain)

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5th stage: R10 , R11 (DC gain)
R11 , C2 (Roll off f)
R10 , R11 , C2 (AC gain)

11.5 Transistor parametric faults

For the circuit of Figure 11.17, voltage gain Av :

Av = −gM 124 (r0M 125 ||r0M 126 ) × gM 136 (r0M 136 ||r0M 135 )

So this is a stong function of the Early voltage (VA ) and the bias overdrive conditions.

2VA
gm r0 =
V0v
Faults to test:

1. KM 188 /KM 116 controls current source.

2. KM 188 /KM 135 controls current source.

3. R144 controls bias current.

4. KM 124 /KM 125 controls input offset.

5. KM 127 /KM 126 controls input offset.

KM 124
KM 125 KM 126 KM 124
6. 1
+K 1
= KM 126 +KM 125 controls first stage gain.
KM 125 M 126

KM 136
KM 136 KM 135 KM 136
7. 1
+K 1
= KM 135 +KM 136 controls second stage gain.
KM 136 M 135

1
8. KM 136 C1 dominant pole location.

9. 1  zero location.
1
KM 136
−R2 C1

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Chapter 12: Delay Test
12.1 Non-robust path-delay test
The given circuit has no redundant single stuck-at fault. This can be verified either
by an ATPG program or by manually simulating all four input vectors.
The circuit has six paths. The following figure illustrates path counting. Each
PI or gate is assigned a label that gives the number of paths from all PIs. Labels
of PIs are 1. The label of a gate is the sum of labels of its fanins. The label of the
output gate gives the total number of paths.
c
p
3
1 g
a k m z
2 6
b n Number of
1 h q
3 paths from PIs = 6
j
Labels show number of paths from primary inputs.

Eight tests and the singly-testable (nonrobustly testable) path-delay faults (PDFs)
detected by them are listed in the following table. We note that the non-robust de-
tection of a PDF requires an input transition and a statically sensitized path by the
second vector of the two-vector test.

Test Detected PDFs

a = R1, b = S0 ↑a−c−p−z
a = R1, b = S1 ↑ a − g − k − n − q − z and
↑a−g−k−m−p−z
a = F 0, b = S0 ↓a−c−p−z
a = F 0, b = S1 ↓a−g−k−n−q−z
a = S0, b = R1 ↑b−j−q−z
a = S1, b = R1 ↑ b − h − k − m − p − z and
↑b−h−k−n−q−z
a = S0, b = F 0 ↓b−j−q−z
a = S1, b = F 0 ↓b−h−k−m−p−z

Two singly-untestable PDFs are:

1. ↓ a − g − k − m − p − z

2. ↓ b − h − k − n − q − z.

Elimination of untestable PDFs: (This part may be expected only from a stu-
dent of an advanced course.) The procedure in the next figure illustrates the KMS
algorithm, which results in a fully testable circuit. See reference [352] of the book.

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 s−a−1 fault is redundant
c g’
p c
p
a g h’
k m z a g
m z
n
b h q n
b h q
j
j
(ii) Duplicate fanout gate to isolate path. This
(i) Identify untestable PDF a−g−k−m−p−z.
circuit is functionally unchanged and has the
All single stuck−at faults are testable.
same number (6) paths. Fault s−a−1 on g’ is
redundant.

h’ c c
p a p
h’
a g
m z m z
n g’ n
b h q q
b
j j
(iii) Eliminate g’ s−a−1. Function is unchanged, (iv) Apply the same procedure to eliminate the
PDF a−g−k−m−p−z is eliminated, and of the untestable PDF. All 8 PDFs in this XOR circuit
remaining 9 PDFs, b−h−n−q−z is untestable. are testable.

12.2 Robust path-delay tests

To remove the redundant fault Q s-a-1 in the circuit of Figure 12.2, line Q is set to
1, all implied signals are also set, and any gates and signal having no effect on the
primary output are removed. For details of this procedure one may refer to Chapter
7. The resulting circuit is shown below.
A
K

B E J
C

The circuit now has three paths. For each path, all off-path inputs can be directly
controlled from PIs. For example, consider the path, C − E − J − K, shown with
bold lines. We can set off-path inputs as B = S0 and A = S0. Now, applying a
rising or a falling transition at C will robustly test the path for the corresponding
transition. A similar argument applies to the other two paths.
Note: This is a fanout-free circuit. It has exactly one path between each PI-PO
pair. Each path has two single input change (SIC) test vector pairs that are robust
tests for the path.

12.3 Robust path-delay tests

According to Definition 12.3 (see page 422 of the book), a robust path-delay test
must produce an observable output value that is different from the correct output

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whenever the delay of the path exceeds the observation instant (usually the clock
boundary. A general output waveform is shown in the figure.
Transition from
target path
Clock period

Final value

Initial value
Time
Fast non−target Slow
path transitions non−target
suppressed path transitions
by robust test

Observation
time
A robust test example showing a failing path.

Each path to the output can potentially produce a transition, whose time of
occurrence depends on the delay of the path. By properly setting the off-path
values a robust test suppresses all “fast transitions.” Thus, the transition arriving
through the target path is the first transition to appear at the output. If the target
path is faulty then the output value observed will be the “initial value” (0 in the
figure.) To be discriminated with the correct (or expected) output value, this must
be different from the initial value.
Notice that the other slow transitions can make the test to show a failure even
when the target path is not faulty. But they can never make the test to pass when
the target path is faulty. In general, a robust test only guarantees detection and not
diagnosis.
The circuit of Figure 12.4 cannot have a real transition at the output since the
steady-state logic value is always 0. Thus, no robust test is possible for any path in
this circuit.

12.4 Single-input change (SIC) tests

Consider a two-vector input sequence (V 1, V 2) applied to a combinational logic
circuit. For non-robustly testing an input to output path, the sequence should
satisfy two conditions:

1. Static sensitization – the second vector V 2 must sensitize the entire path.

2. Transition at the origin – the two vectors must produce a signal transition at
the origin of the path.

If (V 1, V 2) is a single-input change (SIC) vector-pair, such that

• V 2 sensitizes a target path with path origin at 1(0) for a rising (falling) tran-
sition to be propagated, and

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 • V 1 is same as V 2 except that the bit at the path origin is flipped,
then the (V 1, V 2) vector sequence satisfies the two conditions for a non-robust test
listed above.
Note: If the circuit is free from fanouts, then the input change in V 1 can only
affect the signals on the path. As a result, all off-path signals will remain steady
(S0 or S1) during both vectors and the path will remain sensitized. This is an
over specification of the conditions required for a robust test. Thus, for a fanout
free circuit, there exists a robust path-delay test for every path that is statically
sensitizable. Also see Problem 12.2.

12.5 Path-delay tests

(a) The required test for path ↑ C − F − G in Figure 12.14(a) (page 437 of the
book) is A = S0, B = U 0, C = R1.
(b) Yes, the test will work because a falling transition at B does not violate the
B = U 0 requirement of the test in (a).
(c) The waveforms for the circuit of Figure 12.14(a) for the test in part (b) above
are sketched below. The output rises after three units of time and will have
an incorrect value of 0 at 2.5 units. This test propagates transitions through
two paths, ↓ B − D − F − G and ↑ C − F − G. Any one or both can be faulty.
A diagnosis is not possible with this test.

G
Time units
0 1 2 3
2.5

(d) To diagnose the faulty path, we apply four tests:

1. A = S0, B = S0, C = R1 and F 0 will test the paths ↑ C − F − G and
↓ C − F − G, respectively.
2. A = S0, B = R1 and F 0, C = S1 will test the paths ↑ B − D − F − G
and ↓ B − D − F − G, respectively.

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12.6 Path-delay test robustness
(a) Waveforms for the circuit in Figure 12.14 (b) are sketched below. When the

z
Time units
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
3.5 units
Output monitored:
test fails to detect
the fault.

output z is monitored 3.5 time units after the application of the falling transition
at a, we observe a correct value (0), although the target path a − A − z has a delay
fault. Note that path a − C − D − z is also faulty and interferes with the testing
of the target path. The given input is a non-robust test and, by definition, is only
guaranteed to work if the target path is the only faulty path.
(b) A robust test will require D = S1, which cannot be justified since a must be set
to F 0 to activate the target path. Thus, a robust test is impossible.

12.7 Off-path signals

Consider an exclusive-OR (XOR) circuit, implemented with Boolean gates as shown
in the following figure. There are two paths from input A to output Z. The non-
inverting path A → Z is tested by setting the off-path input B to a steady 0
(B = S0) for any transition (R1 or F 0) at A. A test for the inverting path A → Z
is tested by setting B = S1.
R1 or F0 R1 or F0 R1 or F0
A A S0
S1 S0
R1 or F0 F0 or R1
Z Z
F0 or R1

S0 S0 S1
B B F0 or R1
Tests for a non−inverting path. Tests for an inverting path.

Thus, the off-path input of an XOR circuit should be set to a steady value. If it
is set to S0, then the output transition will be of the same type as the on-path input.
If the off-path input is set to S1, then the output transition will be an inversion of
the on-path input. In general, one might assume that the inverting path would have
greater delay (three gates vs. two gates.)

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12.8 Logical and timing conditions
(a) Logical Condition: For Z to follow A, we must set B, C, etc., to non-controlling
values of the Boolean gate when A has the non-controlling value, or B, C, etc.,
can have any arbitrary values (don’t care) when A has the controlling value.

(b) Timing Condition: When the pre-transition state of A is the non-controlling

value for the Boolean gate then B, C, etc. must be set to non-controlling
values, which should remain steady across the transition on A. When the
pretransition state of A is the controlling value for the Boolean gate then B,
C, etc., can have any arbitrary values (don’t care).

Using these two conditions, off-path signal values can be obtained for propagating
the delay test signal through A. For example, consider an AND gate. A rising
transition at A will require all off-path signals to be U 1. A falling transition at A
will require all off-path signals to be S1.

12.9 Path counting

We consider the combinational circuit as a directed graph with PIs, POs and gates
as vertices, and the arcs drawn according to connectivity. We add two vertices, a
vertex named source from which arcs are directed to all PI vertices, and a sink
vertex to which arcs are directed from all PO vertices. Each vertex v is given a
label, N (v), whose value denotes the number of paths from source to v. The path
counting algorithm is as follows:

1. Initialization: Set all labels to 0. Update N (source) = 1.

2. Count: Update each vertex only after all of its fanin vertices have been up-
dated. Update of vertex v is done as follows:


k
N (v) = N (vi )
i=1

where v1 , v2 , . . ., vk are the fanin vertices of v.

3. Result: N (sink) = number of paths in the circuit.

Complexity: Since each vertex is processed once, there are n updates, where n
is the number of vertices in the graph. Each update requires adding the labels of
the fanin vertices. An upper bound on fanin is n. Thus, the complexity of the path
counting algorithm is O(n2 ), where n = P I + P O + gates + 2. In general, however,
the fanin of a gate does not grow with the number of gates, and the complexity
remains closer to O(n).

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12.10 Pomeranz-Reddy example
In the following figure nodes (PIs and gate outputs) are labeled by the number of
paths between the node and all PIs. Thus, all PI labels are 1. The output label of
ith cell is shown as Ni . Path counting proceeds from left to right. The label of a
node is determined as the sum of the fanin node labels. Thus, N0 = 1, N1 = 4, and

Nk = 2(1 + Nk−1 )

1+N =2 1+N
0 k−1
1 1
2+2N =4 2+2N
0 k−1
N =1 N
0 k−1
N =4 N
1 k

1 1
1+N =2 1+N
0 k−1
Cell 1 Cell k

Using recursion, we obtain

Nk = 2(1 + 2(1 + Nk−2 ))

= 2(1 + 2 + 2Nk−2 )
= 2(1 + 2 + 22 (1 + Nk−3 ))
= . . etc. . .
= 2(1 + 2 + 22 + 23 + 24 + . . . + 2k−1 (1 + N0 ))
= 2(1 + 2 + 22 + 23 + 24 + . . . + 2k−1 ) + 2k , since N0 = 1
= 2(2k − 1) + 2k = 3 × 2k − 2

which is the desired result.

12.11 Sequential path-delay fault testing

A robust test for the path d-e-f-g consists of a vector-pair that must satisfy two
necessary conditions:

1. The values of inputs a, b and c are set in such a way that any change at the
path destination g must be preceded by a change at the path origin d.

2. A transition is applied at the path origin d.

In this case, however, g is the next state for the input d. So any change in d must be
preceded by a change in g. Therefore, as long as a, b and c satisfy the robust test
condition, a transition in d awaits a transition in g, which awaits a transition in d.

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This cyclic situation makes it impossible to create a transition at the path origin.
Hence, no robust test is possible for this path.
Note: This result can be generalized – a path is rubustly untestable if it has an
even number of inversions and its destination feeds back into the origin through a
single clocked flip-flop. Such a path need not be a false path and can often be tested
by a non-robust test.

12.12 Sequential path-delay fault ATPG

The states of signal c for the two tests are: c = U 1 or S1 for ↑ A − D and c = S1 for
↓ A − D. We first initialize c to 1 by applying A = 1 and clocking the flip-flop. Now
the state of c will remain 1 irrespective of the signal value at A. Thus, A = 1101
will robustly test both faults. The following figure illustrates the test, where tf and
tr are the fall and rise delays, respectively, of the path A − D.

b c
FF
CK
U1 or S1
S1 D
A

A 1 1 0 1

b
X
c
t t
f r
D
Rising transition at A
c initialized to 1

Falling transition at A

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Chapter 13: IDDQ Test
13.1 Leakage fault tests
Examining Figure 13.12(c), we see that rows i = 1, 2, and 4 of the leakage fault
table cover all possible tests. We need these stuck-fault vectors:
I1 I2 O1
0 0 1 i=1
0 1 0 i=2
1 0 0 i=4

13.2 Tester time

Total tester cost is 512×$9k = $4, 608, 000. We need to make 0.02×100, 000 = 2, 000
IDDQ measurements. At 2µA resolution, 335.4 msec are needed to make an IDDQ
measurement.
100, 000 − 2, 000
Test time = + 2, 000 × 335.4 msec/vector
750M Hz
= 670.8 sec

Total ATE cost over 10 years = $4, 608, 000 + 10 × $50, 000
= $5, 108, 000

$5, 108, 000

ATE cost/sec =
10 × 365 × 24 × 60 × 60
= $0.0162/sec

Test cost/chip = $0.0162/sec × 670.8 sec

= $10.87/chip

13.3 IDDQ threshold

To reduce the functional field failures to 1%, the IDDQ limit should be below 50µA
according to Figure 13.16. We set the IDDQ threshold to 40µA.

Total cost = Total cost + Field return cost

= # µprocessors × Test cost/µprocessor
+ Failure rate × Field return cost

Thus, without an IDDQ test,

Test cost = 20 × 106 × $40 + 0.01 × 20 × 106 × $300

= $800 million + $60 million = $860 million

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With stringent IDDQ test such that there are no field failures,
Test cost = 20 × 106 × $55 = $1.1 billion
We are better off shipping defective product. Improved IDDQ test adds $300 mil-
lion to the testing costs while saves only $60 million on the field return costs.

13.4 Built-in current testing

50×106 transistors
2
# n wells = = 500, 000
50

Total leakage current = # n wells × n well leakage

+# transistors (drain leakage + subthreshold leakage)
= 500, 000 × 0.5µA + 50, 000, 000(0.01nA + 0.005nA)
= 0.625mA
Assume that maximum current/BIC can be 2.5µA. Then,
# transistors
2.5µA = × 0.5nA + # transistors × 0.015nA
100
= # transistors × 2 × 10−11 A
2.5µA
# transistors = = 125, 000
2 × 10−11 A
At most 62,500 nFET-pFET pairs can be handled by one BIC sensor. The number
of BIC sensors for a partitioned ground bus is given by,
0.625mA
= 250 sensors
2.5µA
Assume that the n-well substrate boundary leaks all the time. Assume that tran-
sistors are on half the time (50% duty cycle.)

13.5 Built-in current testing

50×106
#n wells = 2×30 = 833, 334

Total leakage current = #n wells × 0.55nA + #transistors(0.011nA + 0.006nA)

= 833334 × 0.55nA + 50 × 106 × 0.017nA
= 1.309mA
Load up 1 BIC sensor with only 1.5µA of leakage current (for a safety margin.)

1.309mA
Total # of sensors = = 873 sensors
1.5µA

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Chapter 14: Digital DFT and Scan Design
14.1 Importance of initialization
The left diagram in the following figure shows the test generation for the given s-a-1
fault in the toggle circuit. The present state (P S) is X and so is the next state (N S),
irrespective of the signal value at the primary input (P I). The fault is activated by
setting P I = 0. This produces an output P O = 0/X. Thus, the fault is potentially
detected.
clr

PO
0 PI FF
PI CK
Comb. logic s−a−1
X Toggle circuit with initialization input, clr.

s−a−1 X 0 1 1 0 1
PI clr PI clr PI clr
X
0 1 1
0/1
X 1 1
PO s−a−1 s−a−1 s−a−1
0/X Next
state (NS) X
Present FF X 1 0/1
state (PS) CK Time−frame −2 Time−frame −1 Time−frame 0

Original toggle circuit. PO PO PO

X 0 0/1
Test generation for toggle circuit with initialization input.

We notice that the fault can be activated as 0/1, but to observe its effect we
must have the present state (P S) as 1. Since no input can initialize the circuit, P S
always remains X and the fault can only be potentially detected. Use of an ATPG
program will show that only the P O s-a-1 can be deterministically detected. Two
faults, P I s-a-1 and the one shown in the figure, are potentially detected by P I = 0
input. All other faults are untestable.
A possible design change is shown in the top right diagram. We add an ini-
tialization input clr. When clr = 0, the FF output is forced to 0. For clr = 1
the circuit functions as the original toggle circuit. As shown in the lower right di-
agram, a test for the given s-a-1 fault is obtained in three time-frames. The first
vector, P I = X, clr = 0, initializes the circuit as N S = 0. The second vector,
P I = 1, clr = 1, toggles the state to N S = 1 in time-frame -1. This is the required
state for testing the fault. Third vector, P I = 0, clr = 1, activates the fault, whose
effect is propagated to P O as 0/1.
Use of an ATPG program on the toggle circuit with the initialization input will
show that all faults are deterministically detectable with the exception of one fault.
That fault, clr s-a-1, is potentially detectable.

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14.2 MUX design
Note: The statement of this problem should be revised to read, “Design an economical
CMOS circuit for a static two-to-one multiplexer.”
The following figure shows two static designs of the multiplexer function shown
in (a). A requirement of a static design is that incoming signals should not be
connected to transistor channels. Design (b) uses CMOS transmission gates. Static
inverters in signals A and B provide isolation between the two input signals. The
output inverter cancels the inversion. Note that if inverters in A and B, and the

A
C
D

B
(a) Logic function of multiplexer.

C A B D
C (c) A static design with only
complementary gates.

(b) A static design with transmission gates.

output inverter, are eliminated, the circuit will still provide the multiplexer function.
In that multiplexer, which will require only six transistors, a path between the inputs
A and B can be created momentarily if there is a time delay between the signals C
and C. Such a path can sometimes upset the states of the flip-flops that supply A
and B signals.
The design (c) uses only complementary CMOS gates. Both designs (b) and (c)
require 12 transitors.

14.3 Multiple scan chains

Note: Please observe the corrections to the first printing of the book as posted at

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the website. These corrections are included in second printing of 2001.1
nsf f
Number of flip-flops in each chain = nchain and, therefore, Equation 14.1 will
change to:
nsf f nsf f nsf f
Scan test length = +4+( + 1) × ncomb +
nchain nchain nchain
To compute the gate overhead, we notice that we will need to add a MUX at each
scan chain output to multiplex the scan and the normal output. Input pins will not
require any additional MUXes as the MUXes added at the first flip-flop of each scan
chain can be used to multiplex the corresponding input also. Hence,
4 × nchain + 4 × nsf f
Gate overhead = × 100%
ng + 10 × nf f

Solution provided by K. K. Saluja

14.4 Scan tests

Assume 20 equal length scan chains, each having 2000/20 = 100 flip-flops. Scan
sequence test length is given by:

Scan test length = (ncomb + 2) × nchain + ncomb + 4

= (500 + 2) × 100 + 500 + 4
= 50, 704 clock cycles

where ncomb = number of combinational vectors, and nchain = number of flip-flops

in the longest scan chain.
Gate Overhead: All scanin inputs are obtained as fanouts of normal PIs. A multi-
plexer is inserted between each PO and its normal output signal. The other data
input of the multiplexer is a scanout and control is the test control (TC) PI. As-
suming normal data flip-flops of 10 gates, the overheads are:

Overhead (single chain) = 4nsf f + 4 = 4 × 2000 + 4 = 8, 004 gates

where nsf f = total number of scan flip-flops. A multiplexer is assumed to have

4 gates. Only one multiplexer is added for the scanout.

Extra overhead (20 chains) = 4(Nchain − 1) = 4 × 19 = 76

1
Equation 14.1 should read as:

Scan test length = nsf f + 4 + (nsf f + 1)ncomb + nsf f

= (ncomb + 2)nsf f + ncomb + 4

and Equation 14.2 should read as:

4 × nsf f
Gate overhead of scan = × 100%
ng + 10 × nf f

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 Total gates in pre − scan circuit = 100, 000 + 10nf f = 120, 000
where nf f = total number of flip-flops.
76
Extra overhead of 20 chains = × 100 = 0.06%
120, 000 + 8, 004
An overhead of 0.06% is incurred to reduce the test length by a factor of
∼ 20.
Solution provided by K. K. Saluja

14.5 Modulo-5 counter circuit

The following figure shows a modulo-5 counter circuit. As shown in the state dia-
gram, the states are encoded as 000, 001, 010, 011 and 100. The input CLR = 1
initializes the circuit to the 000 state. Input C = 1, CLR = 0 advances the state
at every clock. The clock signal applied to the three D flip-flops is not shown.
Untestable
s−a−1 faults
Combinational
logic
Z
X1,00
A7
C Q0
Potentially
000 10 A6
10/1 detectable
00 s−a−1 A5
X1
X1 Q1
100 A4
001
00 X1 CLR
A3
10 X1 10
P0 A2
011 010 Q2
10 P1
A1
00 00 P2
Inputs: C, CLR FF

State diagram. FF

FF
Circuit.
Modulo−5 counter.

The output Z remains 0 with the exception of the state 100, which produces a
Z = 1 output.
The combinational circuit (shown in the grey box) is made completely single-fault
testable by removing redundant faults that were identified by an ATPG program.
For the sequential counter, a sequential circuit ATPG program produced 62
vectors to obtain a coverage of (57/62) × 100 = 92.98%. The five untestable faults
were all s-a-1 type and are shown in the figure. Among these the s-a-1 fault on the
CLR signal was potentially detected by the test set.

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14.6 Full-scan design
The following figure shows the scan design of the modulo-5 counter.
TC
Untargeted
SCANIN Combinational s−a−1 fault
logic
Z

C SCANOUT
Q0

Q1

CLR

P0
Q2
P1

P2
FF

FF
Scan flip−flops
FF
Scan−testable modulo−5 counter.

The number of vectors obtained may vary depending on the ATPG program used.
These results were obtained from Bell Labs’ Gentest program. The combanitional
circuit, whose inputs are C, CLR, P 0, P 1 and P 2, and outputs are Z, Q0, Q1 and
Q2, has a collapsed set of 57 faults. All of these faults were detected by 16 vectors.
A complete scan sequence consists of 74 vectors (see Equation 14.1 in the book),
which includes 7 vectors for testing the scan register. The scan circuit contains a
collapsed set of 79 faults. Fault simulation of the 74-vector sequence showed that 78
faults were detected. The undetected s-a-1 fault is marked on the circuit diagram.
It is at the output of the test control (T C) inverter in the first multiplexer.
The reason this fault is not detected is that it was never targeted. Since the scan
register test holds T C to 0 for a continuous scan mode, this fault was not activated.
The fault is, however, activated every time the circuit is set in the normal mode
during the application of the scan sequence. Since in the normal mode the state
of SCAN IN is considered irrelevant, SCAN IN was arbitrarily set to 0. That
prevented the propagation of the fault effect. A suitable strategy for detecting this
fault is to set Q0 outputs of the combinational logic as 0 by applying CLR = 1. At
the same time, the circuit is set in the normal mode by applying T C = 1. The fault
effect is now propagated to the flip-flop and can be scanned out.
We notice that similar faults in the other two multiplexers were detected by our
scan sequence. This is due to the chance occurrence of normal data as 0 and scan

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data as 1 when T C = 1, which would place the fault effect in the flip-flop. T C = 1
was always followed by scanout that detected the fault.
In general, it can be recommended that SCAN IN is set to 1 whenever the circuit
goes to the normal mode (TC=1), provided the AND-OR type of multiplexer is used.

14.7 Scan overhead

If k tracks per routing channel are used for scan routing, then we first modify
Equation 14.4 as,

Y
= Y + kry

where Y is the height of the non-scan chip, r is the number of routing channels, and
y is the track width (i.e., vertical space occupied by a horizontal wire.) Substituting
r = Y (1 − β)/(yT ), where β is the routing fraction of the total chip area and T is
the cell height as a multiple of the track width y, we obtain

kY (1 − β)
Y
=Y +
T
Now the area overhead, which was expressed by Equation 14.5, changes to

  
(1 − β)k
Area overhead of scan = (1 + αs) 1 + − 1 × 100%
T


(1 − β)k
≈ αs + × 100%
T
where α is the fractional width increase of a scan flip-flop over a non-scan flip-flop
cell, and s is the fraction of the total cell area occupied by the flip-flop cells in the
non-scan chip.

14.8 Partial-scan
The s-graph of the circuit in Figure 14.16 is given below.

F1 F2

s-graph for the circuit of Figure 14.16.

By scanning F1 all cycles can be eliminated.

14.9 Partial-scan
The partial-scan circuit is given below. Added circuitry is shown in grey and wiring,
in bold lines. We insert a multiplexer at the input of F1. One input of this mul-
tiplexer is the normal input of F1. The other input is a fanout of PI I, which is
now also used as SCAN IN . The control input of the multiplexer is a new PI, T C.

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T C = 0 is scan mode and T C = 1 is the normal mode. T C = 0 also inhibits the
clocking of the non-scan flip-flop F 2 such that it holds its state during the scan
operation. This is accomplished by using the grey-shaded AND gate. PO Z also
acts as SCAN OU T .
TC

R
I 0
or SCANIN MUX
Z
1 F1 or SCANOUT

CK

F2

CK

Partial-scan design of the circuit of Figure 14.16.

The ATPG circuit is obtained by removing the M U X and F 1, making Z a new

PI SCAN IN Z, and making the AND gate output feeding into the M U X a new PO
SCAN OU T Z. This circuit is shown in the next figure. A sequential circuit ATPG
R
I
SCANOUT_Z

F2
SCANIN_Z
CK

ATPG circuit for the partial-scan design of the circuit of Figure 14.16.

program, GENTEST2 , produced 11 vectors to detect all faults in this circuit. These
vectors were converted into scan sequences (see Chapter 14 of the book.) Thus, a
set of 28 vectors was produced, which also includes 5 vectors for testing the scan
register. The following table shows the test sequence. When the partial-scan circuit
was simulated in the sequential mode, these 28 vectors detected all faults, except
one fault that was potentially detected. That fault was a s-a-1 fault in the M U X
circuit and is shown in the next figure. This happened because we left the input R
in the unknown state (X) during the scan mode. If R = 0 was used instead, the s-a-1
fault in the M U X would not be detected. However, if R = 1 was used, then that
2
Any other sequential ATPG program can also be used. See Chapter 8 of the book.

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fault would have been detected. The detection of such faults is not guaranteed since
they are not targeted by the ATPG. Being a part of the scan structure, the M U X
is not included in the ATPG circuit. This is a typical situation for scan design.
TC

SCANIN

s-a-1 To flip-flop

From circuit

Potentially detected fault in the scan multiplexer.

Test sequence for partial-scan design of circuit of Figure 14.16.

Vector Input bits Functions
number T C R I performed
1 0 X 0 Vectors 1 through 5 test scan
2 0 X 0 register in scan mode (T C = 0).
3 0 X 1 They apply a 0011 bit stream to
4 0 X 1 I and observe it at Z.
5 0 X 0
6 0 X 0 Scan-in 0
7 1 0 0 Apply 00 to R and I in normal mode
8 0 X 1 Scan-out Z and scan-in 1
9 1 1 1 Apply 11 to R and I in normal mode
10 0 X 0 Scan-out Z and scan-in 0
11 1 1 0 Apply 10 to R and I in normal mode
12 0 X 1 Scan-out Z and scan-in 1
13 1 1 0 Apply 10 to R and I in normal mode
14 0 X 0 Scan-out Z and scan-in 0
15 1 1 0 Apply 10 to R and I in normal mode
16 0 X 0 Scan-out Z and scan-in 0
17 1 1 1 Apply 11 to R and I in normal mode
18 0 X 1 Scan-out Z and scan-in 1
19 1 1 0 Apply 10 to R and I in normal mode
20 0 X 1 Scan-out Z and scan-in 1
21 1 1 1 Apply 11 to R and I in normal mode
22 0 X 0 Scan-out Z and scan-in 0
23 1 1 1 Apply 11 to R and I in normal mode
24 0 X 0 Scan-out Z and scan-in 0
25 1 1 1 Apply 11 to R and I in normal mode
26 0 X 1 Scan-out Z and scan-in 1
27 1 0 0 Apply 00 to R and I in normal mode
28 0 X 0 Scan-out Z and scan-in 0

14.10 Partial scan

Suppose we arbitrarily select one non-scan flip-flop and scan all other flip-flops.
Since there are no self-loops in the original s-graph, this partial scan circuit has no
cycles. We will prove the optimality of this design by showing that no flip-flop in this

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design can be dropped from scan without creating a cycle. Suppose we were to drop
one flip-flop from scan. Because the s-graph is fully connected, the two non-scan
flip-flops will form a cycle of length two. By a similar argument, no flip-flop can
be dropped from scan without creating a cycle. Thus, the single non-scan flip-flop
design is optimal.

14.11 Partial scan

By definition of a strongly connected component (SCC), every vertex in this graph
lies on one or more cycles. A simple heuristic may select a vertex that is likely
to be on the largest number of cycles. Deletion of such a vertex removes all those
cycles. It has been observed3 that a vertex with the highest product of indegree
and outdegree offers a good choice. Once such a vertex and all its edges are deleted,
the remaining s-graph may have one or more smaller SCCs. The same procedure
of finding and deleting the vertex with the largest indegree × outdegree product is
recursively applied until the remaining s-graph is free from SCCs.

14.12 Partial-scan overhead

In a partial-scan design no hardware or routing is added to non-scan flip-flops. So,
for the calculation of the area overhead the non-scan flip-flop cells can be treated
like combinational cells. In Equation 14.5, s is the cell area under flip-flops. We get
the required area overhead simply upon replacing s by ps. Thus,

  
(1 − β)k
Area overhead of partial − scan = (1 + αps) 1 + − 1 × 100%
T


(1 − β)k
≈ αps + × 100%
T

14.13 Scan-hold flip-flops

The scan-hold flip-flop (SHFF) of Figure 14.13 (book, page 483) has four extra gates
over the SFF of Figure 14.2. Since the SFF has four gates added already, the SHFF
has eight more gates over a non-scan D flip-flop. Thus, the formula of Equation 14.2
(page 474) can be modified as,
8 × nshf f
Gate overhead of SHFF design = × 100%
ng + 10nf f

where nshf f is the number of SHFFs, nf f is the number of flip-flops in the non-scan
circuit, and ng is the number of gates outside of flip-flops. Note that, in general,
nf f ≥ nshf f , where the equality holds for a full-scan design.
When ng = 100, 000 and nf f = nshf f = 2, 000, the above formula gives an
overhead of 13.3%, which is double that of the full-scan design with SFFs.
3
S. Bhawmik, C. J. Lin, K.-T. Cheng and V. D. Agrawal, “PASCANT: A Partial Scan and Test
Generation System,” Proc. IEEE Custom Integrated Circuits Conf., May 1991, pp. 17.3.1-17.3.4

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14.14 Random-access scan
We use a word oriented memory to allow the simultaneous write and read of multiple
bits. Since there are 10 output pins, we select a 10-bit word size. To have the
capability of 1,000 flip-flops, we require a 100-word memory. There will then be
log2 100 = 7 bits of address. One input pin will be used for the test control (T C)
signal. The remaining 19 input pins will be reconfigured as 10 pins for input data, 7
pins for address, and one pin each for SEL and ACK signals shown in Figure 14.14
(page 485 of the book.) The 10 output pins will be multiplexed under the control
of T C to the 10-bit memory output data.

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Chapter 15: Built-In Self-Test
15.1 Test length
This solution is based on a paper by Wagner, et al.4 If a fault is detected by k out
of N vectors, then the probability of its first detection at vector t is given by the
hypergeometric probability density function:
 
N −t
k−1
Probability of first detection at vector t = pt =  
N
k
The denominator is the number of ways in which k tests for the fault can possibly
be distributed among N vectors. The numerator is the number of ways k tests can
be arranged among N vectors such that (a) the first t − 1 vectors do not detect
the fault, (b) the tth vector detects the fault, and (c) the remaining t − 1 tests are
randomly distributed among the remaining N − t vectors. The average test length
is given by,

N
N +1
T = tpt =
t=1
k+1
where the manipulations leading to the above result may be found in the paper by
Wagner, et al.
In the given case, N = 15 and k = 2. Thus, the average test length is,
15 + 1 16
T = = = 5.333
2+1 3

15.2 Standard LFSR

Consider the polynomial for a standard LFSR shown in the figure:
f (x) = x8 + x7 + x2 + 1

X(t + 1) = Ts X(t)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
X0 (t + 1) 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 X0 (t)
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ X1 (t + 1) ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ X1 (t) ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ X2 (t + 1) ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ X2 (t) ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ X3 (t + 1) ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ X3 (t) ⎥
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ X4 (t + 1) ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 ⎥⎢ X4 (t) ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ X5 (t + 1) ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 ⎥⎢ X5 (t) ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ X6 (t + 1) ⎦ ⎣ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ⎦⎣ X6 (t) ⎦
X7 (t + 1) 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 X7 (t)
4
K. D. Wagner, C. K. Chin, and E. J. McCluckey, “Pseudorandom Testing,” IEEE Trans. on
Computers, vol. C-36, no. 3, pp. 332-343, March 1987.

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 DQ DQ DQ DQ DQ DQ DQ DQ
X X X X X X X X
x 7 7 x 6 6 x 5 5 x 4 4 x 3 3 x 2 2 x 1 1 x0 0

RESET
CK
A standard LFSR

15.3 Modular LFSR

For the modular LFSR shown in the figure, consider the polynomial:

f (x) = x3 + x + 1

DQ DQ DQ
X X X
x0 0 x1 1 x2 2

RESET
CK
Modular LFSR.

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
X0 0 0 1 X0
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ X1 ⎦ (t + 1) = ⎣ 1 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ X1 ⎦ (t)
X2 0 1 0 X2

15.4 Standard LFSR

Pattern # X7 X6 X5 X4 X3 X2 X1 X0
1. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
2. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3. 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
4. 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
5. 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
6. 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
7. 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0
8. 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

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15.5 Modular LFSR

Pattern # X0 X1 X2
1. 0 0 1
2. 1 1 0
3. 0 1 1
4. 1 1 1
5. 1 0 1
6. 1 0 0
7. 0 1 0
8. 0 0 1

15.6 MISRs
Equations representing MISR:

X(t + 1) = Ts X(t) + I(t)

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
X0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 X0 0
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ X1 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ X1 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ X2 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ X2 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ X3 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ X3 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ (t + 1) = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ (t) + ⎢ ⎥
⎢ X4 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 ⎥⎢ X4 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ X5 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 ⎥⎢ X5 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ X6 ⎦ ⎣ 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ⎦⎣ X6 ⎦ ⎣ B ⎦
X7 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 X7 A

Equations for modular MISR:

X(t + 1) = TT
s X(t) + I(t)

Standard equation: X(t + 1) = Ts X(t)

Transpose: XT (t + 1) = XT (t)TT
s

Post-multiply both sides by XT and pre-multiply both sides by X2 , to get

X2 (t + 1) = TT
s X2 (t)

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 ⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
X0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 X0 A
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ X1 ⎥ ⎢ 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ X1 ⎥ ⎢ B ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ X2 ⎥ ⎢ 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ X2 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ X3 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 ⎥⎢ X3 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ (t + 1) = ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ (t) + ⎢ ⎥
⎢ X4 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 ⎥⎢ X4 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ X5 ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 ⎥⎢ X5 ⎥ ⎢ 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ X6 ⎦ ⎣ 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 1 ⎦⎣ X6 ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦
X7 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 X7 0

A DQ DQ DQ DQ DQ DQ DQ DQ
x
B
RESET

CK

Taps: h3 , h5 , h6
The modular LFSR gives the true remainder of the
 output sequence


A,B
primitive polynomial

where is the XOR operator.

X(t + 1) = Ts X(t)
XT (t + 1) = (Ts X(t))T
= XT (t)TT
s
= XT (t)TM

The standard signature is a different state table realization of the modular MISR
signature.

15.7 Weighted random patterns

The circuit under test is shown in the figure below and the following table gives
ATPG generated patterns that provide 100% fault coverage.
a
b
f
c
d

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 100% coverage vectors.
Vector No. Input (a, b, c, d) Output f
1. 1110 0
2. 0101 1
3. 0010 0
4. 0110 1
5. 1000 0

The patterns generated by the circuit of Figure 15.16(b) (page 510 of the book)
are given below:

Pattern # X7 X6 X5 X4 X3 X2 X1 X0 1/2 1/4 1/8 1/16

1. 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
2. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3. 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
4. 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
5. 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6. 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
7. 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
8. 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0
9. 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0
10. 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 0 0

We need two weight sets to test all faults:

A. Use bits a = X6 , b = X4 , c = X2 , d = X0 ; this gets vectors 1, 4 and 5 of the

100% test set.

B. Replace X4 with the 1/2 bit; this gets vectors 2, 3 and 5 of the test set.

Pattern Weight set A Weight set B

# abcd = X6 X4 X2 X0 abcd = X6 21 X2 X0
1. 0001 0101
2. 0000 0000
3. 1000 1000
4. 1000 1000
5. 1100 1000
6. 1100 1000
7. 1110 1010
8. 0110 0010
9. 0111 0111
10. 0011 0111

Required test vectors are shown in bold in the above table. Notice that none of
the 14 , 18 or 16
1
bits are helpful here.

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15.8 Weighted random pattern generator
Use a 4-bit pattern generator. From Appendix B of the book, the primitive polyno-
mial is:

x4 + x + 1

A circuit to generate the required weights is shown below.

1/2
DQ DQ DQ DQ
X X X X
x3 3 x2 2 x1 1 x0 0

RESET
CK 1/4
11/32
1/8

1/16

15.9 Cellular automaton

The CA pattern generator is shown below.

DQ DQ DQ DQ
150 X 3 150 X 2 150 X 1 150 X 0

RESET
CK

Starting with “0001” it generates patterns with a period of 6. These are as

follows:
CA Pattern # X3 X2 X1 X0
1. 0 0 0 1
2. 0 0 1 1
3. 0 1 0 0
4. 1 1 1 0
5. 0 1 0 1
6. 1 1 0 1
7. 0 0 0 1

The four flip-flop LFSR with non-primitive polynomial 1 + x4 and its patterns,
starting from the initial pattern 0001, are shown next. Its period is 4.

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 DQ DQ DQ DQ
X X X X
3 2 1 0

RESET
CK
A non−primitive LFSR.

LFSR Pattern # X3 X2 X1 X0
1. 0 0 0 1
2. 1 0 0 0
3. 0 1 0 0
4. 0 0 1 0
5. 0 0 0 1

The best system would be an LFSR with a primitive polynomial f (x) = 1+x+x4 ,
which would have a period of 15. For this example the CA is better than the non-
primitive LFSR, because the CA has a longer period and is more random.

15.10 Maximal LFSR

A primitive polynomial (see Appendix B of the book) is 1 + x + x3 . Using this
polynomial we design the following maximal length (7) three-bit LFSR. The two-

DQ DQ DQ
X X X
2 1 0

RESET
CK

X2 X1 X0

gate circuit leading to the output X1 converts 010 pattern to 000 without affecting
all other patterns.

15.11 Aliasing probability

p = 0.3, k = 15,
pk ≤ Pal ≤ (1 − p)k

1.435 × 10−8 ≤ Pal ≤ 4.748 × 10−3

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15.12 Fault detection
For multiple faults b s-a-0 and c s-a-0, we have

a b c fgood fbad Sgood Sbad

0 0 0 0 0 000 000
0 0 1 1 0 000 000
0 1 0 0 0 001 000
0 1 1 0 0 010 000
1 0 0 0 0 100 000
1 0 1 1 0 101 000
1 1 0 1 0 110 000
1 1 1 1 0 000 000
0 0 0 0 0 001 000

After 8 clocks:

Signature type Sgood Sbad

LFSR 001 000
TC 4 0

Both the transition count (TC) and LFSR detect the multiple fault.

15.13 LFSR enhancement

A standard LFSR and its patterns are shown below.

DQ DQ DQ 1 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
x2 x 1 x 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0
x2 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0
RESET
CK
Standard LFSR.
The next figure gives an augmented LFSR and the patterns it produces. This
definitely uses less hardware than a counter, which needs more complex gates. It gets
comparatively simpler as the counter width increases. A counter and its patterns
are shown below.

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 DQ DQ DQ 1 0 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0
x2 x 1 x 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0
x2 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
RESET
CK
Augmented LFSR.

D D D
Q Q Q
0 1 2

RESET
CK
Counter.
Q0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
Q1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0
Q2 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0

15.14 Aliasing analysis

Z = Y (B ⊕ C) ⊕ B

Results of circuit simulation are as follows:

A B C Y Z Good machine Failing machine, e sa0
R1 R2 R3 R1 R2 R3
0 0 1 D D 000 000
1 0 0 D 0 011 000
0 1 0 D D 011 000
1 0 1 D D 011 001
1 1 0 1 0 010 100
1 1 1 1 1 111 000
0 1 1 0 1 000 011
0 0 1 D D 001 000
1 0 0 D 0 111 000

For output Y , the fault effect is XORed four times, while the fault effect is
XORed into Z three times, during the first 7 clock periods. Repeating the first
LFSR pattern during the 8th clock period XORs the fault effect in one additional
time frame on each output.
The error vector is set to 1 on an output when it differs from a good machine.
Here are the other error vectors:

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 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Y 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
Z 1 0 1 1 0 0 0 1

Even with the repeated pattern, the cumulative # of 1’s in the error vector
remains odd. This is why aliasing does not occur. If the total # of 1’s in the error
vector becomes even, then aliasing might occur.

15.15 Fault detection

ABC Good A s-a-0 A s-a-1 B − e s-a-0

R1 R2 R3 YZ Bad R1 R2 R3 YZ Bad R1 R2 R3 YZ Bad R1 R2 R3
001 000 11 000 11 000 11 000
100 011 10 011 10 011 10 011
010 011 10 011 10 011 10 011
101 011 11 011 11 011 11 011
110 010 10 010 10 010 10 010
111 111 01 111 11 111 11 111
011 000 01 010 11 000 10 000
001 001 11 100 11 011 11 010
111 001 010 110
Yes Yes Yes

ABC Good B − e s-a-1 C − e s-a-0 C − e s-a-1

R1 R2 R3 YZ Bad R1 R2 R3 YZ Bad R1 R2 R3 YZ Bad R1 R2 R3
001 000 00 000 11 000 11 000
100 011 10 000 10 011 10 011
010 011 10 010 10 011 01 010
101 011 00 111 11 011 11 100
110 010 10 011 10 010 10 001
111 111 11 011 11 111 11 110
011 000 01 010 11 000 01 100
001 001 00 100 11 011 00 011
111 010 010 001
Yes Yes Yes

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15.16 Fault detection

ABC Good B s-a-0 B s-a-1 B − g s-a-0

R1 R2 R3 YZ Bad R1 R2 R3 YZ Bad R1 R2 R3 Y Z Bad R1 R2 R3
001 000 11 000 01 000 11 000
100 011 10 011 10 001 10 011
010 011 10 011 10 110 11 011
101 011 11 011 11 101 11 010
110 010 10 010 10 101 11 110
111 111 11 111 11 100 10 100
011 000 11 000 01 001 01 000
001 001 11 011 01 101 11 001
111 010 111 111
Yes No No

ABC Good B − g s-a-1 f s-a-0 f s-a-1

R1 R2 R3 YZ Bad R1 R2 R3 YZ Bad R1 R2 R3 YZ Bad R1 R2 R3
001 000 10 000 00 000 11 000
100 011 11 010 00 000 10 011
010 011 10 110 01 000 10 011
101 011 10 101 00 001 11 011
110 010 10 100 01 100 10 010
111 111 11 000 01 011 11 111
011 000 01 011 01 000 11 000
001 001 10 000 00 001 11 011
111 010 100 010
Yes Yes Yes

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15.17 Fault detection

ABC Good C s-a-0 C s-a-1 C − g s-a-0

R1 R2 R3 YZ Bad R1 R2 R3 YZ Bad R1 R2 R3 Y Z Bad R1 R2 R3
001 000 10 000 11 000 10 000
100 011 10 010 11 011 10 010
010 011 10 111 01 010 10 111
101 011 10 001 11 100 10 001
110 010 10 110 11 001 10 110
111 111 10 101 11 111 10 101
011 000 10 100 01 000 01 100
001 001 10 000 11 001 10 011
111 010 111 011
Yes No Yes

ABC Good C − g s-a-1 f − Y s-a-0 f − Y s-a-1

R1 R2 R3 YZ Bad R1 R2 R3 YZ Bad R1 R2 R3 YZ Bad R1 R2 R3
001 000 11 000 00 000 10 000
100 011 11 011 00 000 10 010
010 011 11 010 00 000 10 111
101 011 11 110 01 000 11 001
110 010 11 100 00 001 10 111
111 111 11 001 01 100 11 001
011 000 01 111 01 011 11 111
001 001 11 010 01 000 11 000
111 110 001 011
Yes Yes Yes

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15.18 Fault detection

ABC Good B − d s-a-0 B − d s-a-1 B − Z s-a-0

R1 R2 R3 Y Z Bad R1 R2 R3 Y Z Bad R1 R2 R3 Y Z Bad R1 R2 R3
001 000 11 000 11 000 11 000
100 011 10 011 10 011 10 011
010 011 10 011 10 011 11 011
101 011 11 011 11 011 11 010
110 010 10 010 10 010 11 110
111 111 01 111 11 111 10 100
011 000 01 010 01 000 10 000
001 001 11 100 11 001 11 010
111 001 111 110
Yes No Yes

ABC Good B − Z s-a-1 f − k s-a-0 f − k s-a-1

R1 R2 R3 YZ Bad R1 R2 R3 YZ Bad R1 R2 R3 YZ Bad R1 R2 R3
001 000 10 000 10 000 11 000
100 011 11 010 10 010 10 011
010 011 10 110 11 111 10 011
101 011 10 101 10 000 11 011
110 010 10 100 11 010 10 010
111 111 11 000 11 110 11 111
011 000 01 011 01 100 01 000
001 001 10 000 10 011 11 001
111 010 011 111
Yes Yes No

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15.19 Signature computation
(a) The hardware is shown in following figure.

Test Pattern Generator

CLK
D
MR
Q
0 M A
U
Api 1 X

D
MR
Q
0 M B
U
Bpi 1 X

D MS

Q
0 M C
U
1 X

RESET Cpi TEST

Circuit for Problem 15.19 with BIST pattern generator and input MUX.

(b)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
a 0 1 0 a
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ b ⎦ (t + 1) = ⎣ 0 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ b ⎦ (t)
c 1 0 1 c

(c) The table below contains the fault-free outputs of the circuit and the state of
the MISR after every clock. The initial state of the flip-flops is assumed to
be Q1 Q2 Q3 = 000. The output equations used for computing the fault-free
outputs in the table are:

Y = (A ⊕ C) + AB and Z = B + C ⊕ Y

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 A B C Y Z LFSR state
Q1 Q2 Q3
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

Thus the final signature of the good machine is “1 1 0”.

The logic to detect this signature can be implemented by a NAND gate as
evident from the following equation.

GOOD = Q1 Q2 Q3

(d) In the case of the fault q s-a-0, the faulty outputs are:

Yf = Y and Zf = Y

The table below contains the faulty outputs of the circuit and the state of the
LFSR after every clock. The initial state of the flip-flops is assumed to be
Q1 Q2 Q3 = 000 as before.

A B C Y Z LFSR state
Q1 Q2 Q3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0

Thus, the final signature of the faulty circuit will be “0 1 0”, and the test
hardware does not alias.

Solution provided by K. K. Saluja and M. L. Bushnell

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15.20 STUMPS
The four figures show the implementation of STUMPS, its basic component cell
shift register latch (SRL), the LFSR and phase shifter, and the MISR. A logic design
was synthesized using the Synopsys design compiler, which produced a netlist for
simulation. The signature was obtained by simulation.

LFSR
See
detailed Q1 Q2 Q3
figure Phase shifter
R1 1 R2 R3
input 1 0
1 1
A 1 X SRL D 1 U AA
TC SRL SRL
CLK 0 1
SOUT
0 1
input 2 B Y E V BB
SRL 0 SRL 0 SRL
0 1 1 1

0 1
0 0 0
input 3 SRL C 0 Z SRL F W SRL CC
0 0
M1 M2 M3
MISR

R1
input1
(D)
RESET
TC
(Shift/test)
Q

RESET
CLK SOUT
SRL

LFSR
Char. polynomial:
3 MS
1+x+x
D Q D Q D Q
2 1 0
CLK X X X
Shift MR MR

RESET

Q Q Q
1 2 3

Phase shifter

R1 R2 R3

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 12 7 4 3
Characteristic polynomial: x +x +x +x +1, 12 bits to reduce aliasing.
M M M
1 2 3

DQ DQ DQ DQ DQ DQ DQ DQ DQ DQ DQ DQ
x 11 x 10 x9 x8 x7 x6 x5 x4 x3 x2 x1 x0

CLK

RESET
MISR

-- This is vhdl code describing the STUMPS BIST system. The working
-- hardware is obtained from the Synopsys system. Run the Synopsys
-- design_analyzer, read in this vhdl file, and call for high optimization
-- and boundary optimization in order to obtain a good logic design.
--
library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;

entity stumps is

port (test: in std_logic;

shift : in std_logic;
input1 : in std_logic;
input2 : in std_logic;
input3 : in std_logic;
A, B, C, D, E, F: inout std_logic;
AA : inout std_logic;
BB : inout std_logic;
CC : inout std_logic;
clock : in std_logic;
reset : in std_logic;
X0, X1, X2, X3, X4, X5, X6, X7, X8, X9, X10, X11 : inout std_logic
);

end stumps;

architecture stumps_arch of stumps is

signal Q1 : std_logic;
signal Q2 : std_logic;
signal Q3 : std_logic;
signal D1 : std_logic;
signal D2 : std_logic;
signal D3 : std_logic;
signal U, V, W, X, Y, Z : std_logic;

begin -- stumps_arch
X <= (A xor C) or (A xor B);

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 Y <= X xor Z;
Z <= B nor C;

U <= (D xor F) or (D xor E);

V <= U xor W;
W <= E nor F;

-- LFSR AND PHASE SHIFTER

lfsr : process (clock, reset, shift)

begin -- process lfsr

-- activities triggered by asynchronous reset (active low)
if reset = ’0’ then
Q3 <= ’1’;
Q2 <= ’0’;
Q1 <= ’0’;
-- activities triggered by rising edge of clock
elsif (clock’event) and (clock = ’1’) then
if (shift = ’1’) then
Q3 <= D3;
Q2 <= D2;
Q1 <= D1;
end if;
end if;
end process lfsr;

D1 <= Q2 xor Q3;

D2 <= Q1;
D3 <= Q2;

misr: process (clock, reset, X0, X1, X2, X3, X4, X5, X6, X7,
X8, X9, X10, X11)

begin -- process
-- activities triggered by asynchronous reset (active low)
if reset = ’0’ then
X0 <= ’0’;
X1 <= ’0’;
X2 <= ’0’;
X3 <= ’0’;
X4 <= ’0’;
X5 <= ’0’;
X6 <= ’0’;
X7 <= ’0’;
X8 <= ’0’;
X9 <= ’0’;
X10 <= ’0’;
X11 <= ’0’;
-- activities triggered by rising edge of clock

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 elsif clock’event and clock = ’1’ then
-- MISR
X0 <= X1;
X1 <= X2;
X2 <= X3;
X3 <= X4;
X4 <= X5;
X5 <= X6;
X6 <= X7;
X7 <= X8;
X8 <= X9;
X9 <= CC xor X10;
X10 <= F xor X11;
X11 <= C xor (X7 xor X4 xor X3 xor X0);
end if;
end process;

-- SRLS
srls: process (clock)

begin -- process
-- activities triggered by asynchronous reset (active low)
-- activities triggered by rising edge of clock
if reset = ’0’ then
A <= ’0’;
B <= ’0’;
C <= ’0’;
D <= ’0’;
E <= ’0’;
F <= ’0’;
AA <= ’0’;
BB <= ’0’;
CC <= ’0’;
elsif clock’event and clock = ’1’ then
if (shift = ’1’) then
A <= Q3;
B <= A;
C <= B;
D <= Q2;
E <= D;
F <= E;
AA <= Q1;
BB <= AA;
CC <= BB;
else
if (test = ’0’) then
A <= input1;
B <= input2;
C <= input3;
end if;

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 D <= X;
E <= Y;
F <= Z;
AA <= U;
BB <= V;
CC <= W;
end if;
end if;

end process;

end stumps_arch;

A circuit diagram produced by Synopsys is shown on the next page. The final
signature after 12 functional clock periods (each of which requires 3 more shifting
clock periods) is:

(X11, . . . , X0) = 9F 016

The only practical way to compute this is with a simulator that would use the circuit
description in a hardware description language such as VHDL or Verilog.

• Pros of STUMPS:

1. Low hardware overhead (due to shift register latch structure and MISR
that only has 1 position/scan chain.)
2. Little DFT hardware is needed inside the circuit, except for the full-scan
chains.

• Cons of STUMPS:

1. This is a test-per-scan system. Each test pattern requires scan chain length+
1 clocks. So, it is quite slow, and test time is long and costly.

• Observations:

1. It was necessary to use 2 control pins, test and shift, for test mode,
because in test mode, we still wanted to ignore the circuit inputs in
the leftmost scan chain, whereas in the other scan chains, we wanted to
capture the circuit responses in the scan chain.
2. The VHDL simulation was very useful, as it caught conditions where X’s
were being clocked into the MISR.
3. A 12-bit MISR was used to reduce aliasing.

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15.21 MATS+ memory BIST

MATS+ : {M 0 : (w0); M 1 :⇑ (r0, w1); M 2 :⇓ (r1, w0)}

-- This is vhdl code describing the memory BIST for MATS+. The working
-- hardware is obtained from the Synopsys system. Run the Synopsys
-- design_analyzer, read in this vhdl file, and call for high optimization
-- and boundary optimization in order to obtain a good logic design.
library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;

entity mats_plus is

port (
test : in std_logic;
Last_address : in std_logic;
First_address : in std_logic;
clk: in std_logic;
reset: in std_logic;
data_out: in std_logic;
CLEAR : out std_logic;
up_address : out std_logic;
COUNT : out std_logic;
data_in : out std_logic;
WRITE_CMD : out std_logic);

end mats_plus;

architecture mats_plus_arch of mats_plus is

type states is (START, M0, M0s, M1r, M1w, M1rr, M1ww, ERRORS, M2r, M2w,
M2rr, M2ww, CORRECT);
signal next_state, present_state: states;

begin
x: process (Last_address, First_address, test, data_out, present_state)
begin -- process

case present_state is
when START =>
up_address <= ’0’;
COUNT <= ’0’;
data_in <= ’0’;
WRITE_CMD <= ’0’;
if test = ’0’ then
next_state <= START;
CLEAR <= ’0’;
else
next_state <= M0;
CLEAR <= ’1’;

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 end if;
when M0 =>
up_address <= ’1’;
COUNT <= ’1’;
data_in <= ’0’;
WRITE_CMD <= ’1’;
if Last_address = ’0’ then
next_state <= M0;
else
next_state <= M0s;
end if;
when M0s =>
up_address <= ’1’;
COUNT <= ’1’;
data_in <= ’0’;
WRITE_CMD <= ’1’;
CLEAR <= ’1’;
next_state <= M1r;
when M1r =>
up_address <= ’1’;
COUNT <= ’0’;
WRITE_CMD <= ’0’;
if data_out = ’0’ then
next_state <= M1w;
else
next_state <= ERRORS;
end if;
when M1w =>
up_address <= ’1’;
COUNT <= ’1’;
data_in <= ’1’;
WRITE_CMD <= ’1’;
if Last_address = ’0’ then
next_state <= M1r;
else
next_state <= M1rr;
end if;
when M1rr =>
up_address <= ’1’;
COUNT <= ’0’;
WRITE_CMD <= ’0’;
if data_out = ’0’ then
next_state <= M1ww;
else
next_state <= ERRORS;
end if;
when M1ww =>
up_address <= ’1’;
COUNT <= ’0’;
data_in <= ’1’;

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 WRITE_CMD <= ’1’;
next_state <= M2r;
when M2r =>
up_address <= ’0’;
COUNT <= ’0’;
WRITE_CMD <= ’0’;
if data_out = ’0’ then
next_state <= ERRORS;
else
next_state <= M2w;
end if;
when M2w =>
up_address <= ’0’;
COUNT <= ’1’;
data_in <= ’0’;
WRITE_CMD <= ’1’;
if First_address = ’0’ then
next_state <= M2r;
else
next_state <= M2rr;
end if;
when M2rr =>
up_address <= ’0’;
COUNT <= ’0’;
WRITE_CMD <= ’0’;
if data_out = ’0’ then
next_state <= ERRORS;
else
next_state <= M2ww;
end if;
when M2ww =>
up_address <= ’0’;
COUNT <= ’0’;
data_in <= ’0’;
WRITE_CMD <= ’1’;
next_state <= CORRECT;
when others => null;
end case;
end process;

ns: process (clk, test, reset)

begin -- process
if reset = ’1’ then -- asynchronous reset (active low)
present_state <= START;
elsif clk’event and clk = ’1’ then -- rising clock edge
present_state <= next_state;
end if;
end process;

end architecture mats_plus_arch;

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15.22 MARCH X Memory BIST

March X : {M 0 : (w0); M 1 :⇑ (r0, w1);

M 2 :⇓ (r1, w0); M 3 : (r0)}

Last_Address = 0

TEST = 1 / CLEAR = 1 Data_Out = 0

START M0 M0s M1r M1w
CLEAR = 1
Last_Address = 1 / Last_Address = 0
(a) (a) (b) (c)

Last_Address = 1
TEST = 0
Data_Out = 1
M1rr M1ww
CORRECT Data_Out = 0
(b) (c1)
Data_Out = 1

Data_Out = 0 Data_Out = 1

Data_Out = 1 ERROR
M3s M3
Data_Out = 0
(f) (f) Data_Out = 0
Data_Out = 0

Data_Out = 1
M2ww M2rr M2w M2r
Data_Out = 1 Last_Address = 1
Last_Address = 0
(e1) (d) (e) (d)

Signals:

T EST = 1 (test mode), T EST = 0 (normal mode)

U p Add (1 = count up, 0 = count down)
COU N T (1 = step addresses, 0 = do not step)
Data In (data written to memory)
Data Out (data read from memory)
W RIT E (0 = read OP, 1 = write OP)
Last Add (1 means stepper just rolled over to last memory address)
CLEAR (1 = clear address stepper to location 0)

(a): U p Add = 1, COU N T = 1, Data In = 0, W RIT E = 1

(b): U p Add = 1, COU N T = 1, W RIT E = 0

(c): U p Add = 1, COU N T = 1, Data In = 1, W RIT E = 1

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(d): U p Add = 0, COU N T = 1, W RIT E = 0

(e): U p Add = 0, COU N T = 1, Data In = 0, W RIT E = 1

(f ): U p Add = 1, COU N T = 1, W RIT E = 0

(c1): U p Add = 0, COU N T = 1, Data In = 1, W RIT E = 1

(e1): U p Add = 0, COU N T = 0, CLEAR = 1, Data In = 0, W RIT E = 1

15.23 BIST system

(a) The modular LFSR circuit for the CUT of Figure 15.54 (page 548 of the book)
is shown below. The multiplexers disconnect the normal inputs Apad , Bpad
and Cpad , and feed the LFSR-generated patterns to the inputs A, B and C of
the CUT.

MS

DQ DQ DQ DQ
Q Q 2 Q2 3 Q3
1 0 X 1 X X

RESET MR MR MR

CK
C B A
pad pad pad
Input muxes 0 1 0 1 0 1

TEST
C B A

(b)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
Q0 (t + 1) 0 0 0 1 Q0 (t)
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎢ Q1 (t + 1) ⎥ ⎢ 1 0 0 1 ⎥⎢ Q1 (t) ⎥
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ Q2 (t + 1) ⎦ ⎣ 0 1 0 0 ⎦⎣ Q2 (t) ⎦
Q3 (t + 1) 0 0 1 0 Q3 (t)

(c) Probability of aliasing in the 4-bit MISR = 1/24 = 1/16, whereas for a 2-bit
MISR it is 1/22 = 1/4. The next figure shows the MISR circuit which receives
the PO signals X and Y from the CUT of Figure 15.54 (page 648 of the book.)

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 DQ DQ DQ DQ
3 S3 2 S2 S
1
S
0
X X X 1
Y Z
RESET MR MR MR MR

CK

(d)
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
S0 (t + 1) 0 1 0 0 S0 (t) Z
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎢ S1 (t + 1) ⎥ ⎢ 0 0 1 0 ⎥⎢ S1 (t) ⎥ ⎢ Y ⎥
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥+⎢ ⎥
⎣ S2 (t + 1) ⎦ ⎣ 0 0 0 1 ⎦⎣ S2 (t) ⎦ ⎣ 0 ⎦
S3 (t + 1) 1 1 0 0 S3 (t) 0

(e) The circuit has an internal flip-flop, driven by n and driving signal o. There is
no initialization hardware on this flip-flop, so it comes up in a random state.
The variation in signatures happens because sometimes the flip-flop initializes
as 0, and sometimes as 1.
We fix this problem bu adding a RESET line to this flip-flop and initializing
it to 0 when we initialize the LFSR and MISR.

15.24 Up/Down LFSR

From Appendix B, a primitive polynomial for a 4-bit LFSR is f (x) = 1+x+x4 . The
following circuit produces all patterns including 0000, which appears immediately
after the initialization pattern, 0001. A NOR gate has been added to the basic
LFSR to produce the 0000 pattern. The pattern sequence is shown after the circuit
diagram.

MS
DQ DQ DQ DQ

MR MR MR
RESET
CK

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 Pattern No. Pattern Decimal value Remarks
1 0001 1 Initialization pattern
2 0000 0 Forced by NOR gate
3 1000 8
4 0100 4
2 0010 2
6 1001 9
7 1100 12
8 0110 6
9 1011 11
10 0101 5
11 1010 10
12 1101 13
13 1110 14
14 1111 15
15 0111 7
16 0011 3
17 0001 1 Sequence starts repeating

To find the inverse LFSR, we compute the inverse characteristic function:

1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 + x6 + x7 + x8
f (x)

1 x2 x4
1+x+ x4 1 +x +x +x +x4 +x5 +x6
2 3 +x7 +x8
1 +x +x4
x2 +x3 +x5 +x6 +x7 +x8
2
x +x 3 +x6
x5 +x7 +x8
x +x5
4 +x8
x4 +x7

This does not evenly divide the all 1’s polynomial and we get a remainder of
x4 + x7 . We conclude that the inverse LFSR does not exist, so we must synthesize
it as a finite state machine. The following circuit is based on a design synthesized
by Synopsys.

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 UP
MS
0 0 0
DQ DQ DQ DQ
1 1 1
0 0 0 1
MR MR MR
RESET
CK

Up/Down LFSR of Problem 15.24

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Chapter 16: Boundary Scan Standard
16.1 Boundary scan design for testability
(a) A full-scan flip-flop is shown in the figure below.
Multiplexer Master latch Slave latch
D
TC

Q
SD

QN

CK

 
g + 14f
Overhead of full − scan = × 100%
g + 10f

(b) A JTAG boundary scan cell is shown in the figure below.

To
next
ShiftDR cell Mode

From
system 0 To
pin system
1 logic
0
1 D Q D Q
CLK CLK

From ClockDR UpdateDR

last
cell

A MUX has four gates and a flip-flop has ten gates. Therefore,
 
g + 14f + 28(pi + po)
Overhead of boundary scan = × 100%
g + 14f

16.2 Boundary scan economics

Boundary scan uses two MUXes and two FF’s per pin. With four gates (14 transis-
tors) per MUX and ten gates (44 transistors) per master-slave FF, we get

Transistors per I/O = 2 × 14 + 2 × 44 = 116

#transistors cost
Hardware cost = #pins × × + T AP
# of I/O transistor
= (256 × 116 + 262) × 525 × 10−6 cents = 15.73 cents

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 Test time in TCK
s = 5 + #pins × #vectors
5 + 256 × 512, 000
Test time cost = × (4.5 cents/s)
200 × 106 Hz
= 2.94912 cents

16.3 Boundary scan test time

Eack chip has a boundary scan register. It takes 5 clocks to go from shift-DR
through update-DR and back to shift-DR.

First scenario:

Pattern shift − in time = shift − out time

= 1024 + 512 + 1024 + 512 = 3072

Total test time = [Chip 1 time + Chip 2 time

Chip 3 time + Chip 4 time]/clock
= [500, 000(shift time + 5) + shift time
+1, 000, 000(shift time + 5) + shift time
+1, 000, 000(shift time + 5) + shift time
+500, 000(shift time + 5) + shift time]/clock

However, three of the extra shift times can be eliminated by overlap of scan
out with scan in as testing shifts from one chip to the next one.

Total test time = = [3, 000, 000 × 3, 077 + 3, 072]/512 MHz

= 18.0293 s

Second scenario with bypass register:

Chip 1 shift time = 1027

Chip 2 shift time = 515
Chip 3 shift time = 1027
Chip 4 shift time = 515
Total test time = [500, 000(1027 + 5) + 1027
+1, 000, 000(515 + 5) + 515
+1, 000, 000(1027 + 5) + 1027
+500, 000(515 + 5) + 515]/512 MHz
= 4.54688 s

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 To be really thorough, we should add the time to change test instructions. Let
us assume a 6-bit instruction register. Then,

Test instruction change time = (3 + 24 × 1 + 3)/clock

(See Figure 16.11 TAP controller state diagram)
= 30/(512 MHz) = 5.859375×10−8 s

Updated times with instruction changes:

First scenario:

Test time = Prior test time + 1 instruction change

= 18.0293 + 5.859375 × 10−8 s = 18.0293 s

Second scenario:

Test time = Prior test time + 4 instruction changes

= 4.54688 + 5.859375 × 10−8 s = 4.54688 s

So, test instruction changing time is negligible for large chips.

16.4 Interconnect test time

2(1024 + 512 + 1024 + 512)

#tests = 2 × #outputs =
2
= 3, 072

It takes five clocks to go from shift-DR through update-DR and back to shift-DR.

3, 072(#shift clocks + 5) + 1 shift

Test time =
clock
3072[1024 + 512 + 1024 + 512 + 5] + 3072
=
100 MHz
= 0.09455616 s

We cannot use BYPASS mode, because all chips receiving a signal of an intercon-
nect under test must also have their pins sampled during test of that interconnect.
So, all boundary registers of all chips must be active throughout interconnect test.
Also, correct board input signals must be applied to the board inputs during the
interconnect test.
Sequence of JTAG commands:

1. Apply the PRELOAD instruction with 3072 clocks to set the hold registers to
a known state.

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 2. Apply the EXTEST instruction.

3. Apply enough TCK signals to shift the next interconnect test pattern (and
shift out the results of the last interconnect test that were captured in all
boundary registers.) Apply the necessary printed circuit board (PCB) input
test vector to all PCB inputs. Then, apply a functional clock.

4. Loop back to step 2 if there are more interconnect tests to apply. Other-
wise, just apply enough TCK signals to shift out the last response to the last
interconnect test from the boundary scan register.

16.5 Interconnect delay test time

2(500, 000 + 1, 000, 000 + 1, 000, 000)

#tests = 2 × #outputs =
2
= 3, 072

It takes five clocks to go from Shift-DR through Update-DR and back to Shift-DR.
Each test requires two patterns to shift in.

preload + #tests × #shifts

test + 1 shift
Test time =
clock
3072 + 5 + 3072(3072 + 5 + 3072 + 5) + 3072
=
100 MHz
= 0.18911237 s

Sequence of JTAG commands:

1. Apply the PRELOAD instruction with 3072 clocks to set the hold register to
a known state.

2. Apply the EXTEST instruction.

3. Apply enough TCK signals (3072) to shift in the next interconnect test pattern
(first pattern.) Apply the necessary printed circuit board (PCB) input test
vector to all PCB inputs. Then, apply a functional clock. This also shifts out
the response to the last interconnect test.

4. Apply enough TCK signals (3072) to shift in the second pattern for the inter-
connect test. Apply the necessary PCB input test vector to all PCB inputs.
Then, apply a functional clock.

5. Loop back to step 2 if there are more interconnect tests to apply. Otherwise,
apply 3072 TCK’s to shift out the response to the very last interconnect test
from the boundary scan register.

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16.6 Boundary scan delay fault test
Sequence of JTAG commands used to test the path:

1. SAMPLE – Capture pin signals and functional hardware outputs in boundary

scan register.

2. Apply INTEST – Copy boundary scan register contents to hold latch. Apply
as many TCK pulses as are necessary to shift the first test pattern in from
TDI (this will be the number of pins from TDI up to and including this system
input pin.) Then apply a functional system clock.

3. Repeat step 2 to apply the first time frame pattern to the path and shift
the second time frame pattern into the boundary scan register (requires many
TCK pulses.) At this point, the first time frame pattern is applied from the
hold registers and the second time frame pattern is in the boundary scan
register.

4. Repeat the INTEST instruction and immediately apply a functional system

clock. This applies the second time frame pattern to the path under test, clocks
the functional circuit, and captures its response in the boundary scan register.
Then, apply as many TCK pulses as necessary to shift out the response to the
second pattern out through TDO (while simultaneously shifting in the next
test pattern.) The shifted out response will indicate where a timing fault has
occurred.

5. Go back to step 2 if more paths are to be tested.

This sequence can be preceded by IDCODE and USERCODE instructions, in

order to identify which chip, and which part programmings, are in the system.
Other chips in the system may be given BYPASS instructions to speed up scan
chain shifting.

16.7 Test controller

The following VHDL code describes the test controller of Figure 16.11 (page 558 of
the book.) It is used to synthesize a circuit by Synopsys. The results of ATPG and
an schematic of the synthesized circuit follow the VHDL code.

library ieee;
use ieee.std_logic_1164.all;
use ieee.std_logic_arith.all;

entity TAP is port (TCK: in std_logic;

TMS: in std_logic;
TRST: in std_logic;
outputs: out std_logic_vector (0 to 3));
end TAP;

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architecture TAP_imp of TAP is
constant Test_Logic_Reset: std_logic_vector (0 to 3) := X"0";
constant Run_Test_Idle: std_logic_vector (0 to 3) := X"1";
constant Select_DR_Scan: std_logic_vector (0 to 3) := X"2";
constant Capture_DR: std_logic_vector (0 to 3) := X"3";
constant Shift_DR: std_logic_vector (0 to 3) := X"4";
constant Exit1_DR: std_logic_vector (0 to 3) := X"5";
constant Pause_DR: std_logic_vector (0 to 3) := X"6";
constant Exit2_DR: std_logic_vector (0 to 3) := X"7";
constant Update_DR: std_logic_vector (0 to 3) := X"8";
constant Select_IR_Scan: std_logic_vector (0 to 3) := X"9";
constant Capture_IR: std_logic_vector (0 to 3) := X"A";
constant Shift_IR: std_logic_vector (0 to 3) := X"B";
constant Exit1_IR: std_logic_vector (0 to 3) := X"C";
constant Pause_IR: std_logic_vector (0 to 3) := X"D";
constant Exit2_IR: std_logic_vector (0 to 3) := X"E";
constant Update_IR: std_logic_vector (0 to 3) := X"F";
signal next_state: std_logic_vector (0 to 3);
signal present_state: std_logic_vector (0 to 3);

begin -- TAP_imp

outputs <= present_state;

next_st : process (present_state, TMS)

begin -- process next_st

case present_state is
when Test_Logic_Reset =>
if TMS = ’0’ then
next_state <= Run_Test_Idle;
else
next_state <= Test_Logic_Reset;
end if;
when Run_Test_Idle =>
if TMS = ’0’ then
next_state <= Run_Test_Idle;
else
next_state <= Select_DR_Scan;
end if;
when Select_DR_Scan =>
if TMS = ’0’ then
next_state <= Capture_DR;
else
next_state <= Select_IR_Scan;
end if;
when Capture_DR =>
if TMS = ’0’ then
next_state <= Shift_DR;
else

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 next_state <= Exit1_DR;
end if;
when Shift_DR =>
if TMS = ’0’ then
next_state <= Shift_DR;
else
next_state <= Exit1_DR;
end if;
when Exit1_DR =>
if TMS = ’0’ then
next_state <= Pause_DR;
else
next_state <= Update_DR;
end if;
when Pause_DR =>
if TMS = ’0’ then
next_state <= Pause_DR;
else
next_state <= Exit2_DR;
end if;
when Exit2_DR =>
if TMS = ’0’ then
next_state <= Shift_DR;
else
next_state <= Update_DR;
end if;
when Update_DR =>
if TMS = ’0’ then
next_state <= Run_Test_Idle;
else
next_state <= Select_DR_Scan;
end if;
when Select_IR_Scan =>
if TMS = ’0’ then
next_state <= Capture_IR;
else
next_state <= Test_Logic_Reset;
end if;
when Capture_IR =>
if TMS = ’0’ then
next_state <= Shift_IR;
else
next_state <= Exit1_IR;
end if;
when Shift_IR =>
if TMS = ’0’ then
next_state <= Shift_IR;
else
next_state <= Exit1_IR;
end if;

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 when Exit1_IR =>
if TMS = ’0’ then
next_state <= Pause_IR;
else
next_state <= Update_IR;
end if;
when Pause_IR =>
if TMS = ’0’ then
next_state <= Pause_IR;
else
next_state <= Exit2_IR;
end if;
when Exit2_IR =>
if TMS = ’0’ then
next_state <= Shift_IR;
else
next_state <= Update_IR;
end if;
when Update_IR =>
if TMS = ’0’ then
next_state <= Run_Test_Idle;
else
next_state <= Select_DR_Scan;
end if;
when others => next_state <= Test_Logic_Reset;
end case;
end process next_st;

outputs <= present_state;

clocking: process (TCK, TRST)

begin
if TRST = ’0’ then
present_state <= Test_Logic_Reset;
elsif (TCK’event and TCK = ’1’) then
present_state <= next_state;
end if;
end process clocking;

end TAP_imp;

The synthesized controller circuit (see next page) contains three PIs, four POs,
about 60 gates and four flip-flops. A sequential circuit ATPG, available in the
Synopsys Design Analyzer, was used to generate tests for this circuit:
• Total number of collapsed stuck-at faults = 332

• Number of vectors = 28

• Fault coverage = 100%

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Solution Manual V1.4 –
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16.8 Bus and controller testing
Let i = # bits in a JTAG instruction and b = # boundary register cells for System
Logic 2 chip. Test for System Logic 1 chip and interconnect:

1. Reset TAP with TRST* and apply 1 test clock.

1 TCK

2. Set System Logic 1 chip in PRELOAD mode and System Logic 2 chip in
PRELOAD mode. Shift in pattern that stores ‘1’ in 3 CS lines driven by
System Logic 1 Chip and 1 in bus enable signal driven by System Logic 2
Chip.
6 + 2i + 5 + 6 + b T CK
s

3. Set System Logic 1 chip in INTEST mode and System Logic 2 chip in BYPASS
mode.
6 + 2i T CK
s

4. For each test pattern for System Logic 1 chip (512):

a. Scan in the test vector and scan out prior response.

2 + 7 T CK
s
b. Functionally clock the system to apply the vector and capture the response.
3 T CK
s

5. Scan out the last vector response.

2 + 7 + 3 T CK
s

6. For each of 3 memory chips:

a. Put System Logic 1 and 2 chips in EXTEST mode.

6 + 2i T CK
s
b. Shift in a vector that sets the CS output of System Logic 1 chip for the
memory chip to 0 and that sets the CS outputs for the other two memory
chips to 1. The vector should also set the outputs of System Logic 2 chip
as follows:
Bus address = 0
Data = 0
Command = write
Bus enable = 1
2 + 6 + b + 3 T CK
s
c. Shift in a vector that sets the CS output of System Logic 1 chip for the
memory chip to 0 and that sets the CS outputs for the other two memory
chips to 1. The vector should also set the outputs of System Logic 2 chip
as follows:
Bus address = 0

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 Data = 0
Command = read
Bus enable = 0
2 + 6 + b + 3 T CK
s
These two steps check the CS line and verify successful writing and read
back of 0 from System Logic 2 chip to the memory chip.
d. Repeat steps 6a and 6b, but with data set to a 1 to test writing and reading
of 1.
2 × (2 + 6 + b + 3) T CK
s
e. Repeat steps 6a, 6b and 6c, but with address set to all 1’s to fully test the
address lines.
4 × (2 + 6 + b + 3) T CK
s

Total test time = 1 + (6 + 2i + 5 + 6 + b) + 6 + 2i

+512(9 + 3) + 2 + 7 + 3 + 3[6 + 2i + 8(2 + 6 + b + 3)]
= 10i + 25b + 6462 T CK
s + 512 fuctional clocks

16.9 Memory testing

March C− has 10 March elements. We assume the memory chip loads a 4-bit word
at a time and reads out a 4-bit word at a time.
#test patterns = 10 × 1028 = 2684354560
There is a clock overhead of 5 test clocks to apply a pattern after shifting it in. So,
Shift time = 64
#patterns(shift time + 1 + 5) + shift time
Total test time =
clock rate
2684354560 × 70 + 64
=
200 MHz
= 939.53 s

Memory testing (alternative solution)

It takes 5 clocks to apply a pattern after shifting it in. March C− has 10 March
elements.
Test time (without shifting)
= #test patterns = 10 × 4 × 1028 = 10737418240
#patterns(shift time + 6) + shift time
Total test time =
clock rate
Shift time = 64
10737418240 × 70 + 64
Total test time = = 3758.1 s
200 MHz

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 We assume the presence of the hardware in Chapter 16 (page 572 of the book),
where the 4-bit word is made into a shift register to test multi-bit words.

16.10 Full scan and boundary scan

The following schematic shows the full-scan connections to the JTAG circuitry.

Boundary Register Cell

Boundary
Register

256−bit
scan
registers
System I/O

System I/O
System
Circuitry

Scan
Flip−flop

Device ID Register

Bypass Register

Instruction Register

TDI TDO
(Control Signals)
TAP Controller

TCK
TMS
TRST*

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Chapter 17: Analog Test Bus Standard
17.1 Inductance measurement

dI
φ = LI, V =L
dt
One test method would be to apply a current ramp to the inductor while mea-
suring the voltage across it, which should be constant. We will ignore the startup
and shutdown transients and just look at the steady-state response.
Since all of the switches induce a voltage drop (due to their 100Ω resistance), we
can first disable the inductor by applying a known DC current and measuring the
voltage drop in the system. Then, we can calculate the efective series resitance:
I
V = IRef f , so, Ref f =
V
For the current ramp test,
dI
V = Ref f I(t) + L
dt
Let I(t) = 0 + 50 mA/s × t, so dI
dt = 50 mA/s. Then,

50 mA 50 mA
V (t) = Ref f × t+L×
s s
So,

V (t) − Ref f 50 mA
s t
L=
50 mA/s
or
V (t)
L= − Ref f t
50 mA/s

Test method (see Figure 17.8, page 586 of the book):

I. Measure Ref f

A. Turn on S5, S6, SB1(pin1), SB2(pin1), SG(pin1), and force 100µA of

current into AT 1 with ATE current source.
B. Measure voltage V1 between AT 2 and ground.
C. Turn off SB2 at pin1 and turn on SB2 at pin2.
D. Measure voltage V2 between AT 2 and ground.

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 E. V = V1 − V2 . If this is not 0, then there is significant current leakage
through AT 2 or there is series resistance in the inductor.
V1 − V2
Ref f =
100µA
We assume the latter.

II. Measure L

A. Turn off SB2 at pin2 and turn on SB2 at pin1.

B. Apply this current ramp through AT 1:
Current, I

slope=50mA/s

t
0

C. Measure V at two different time instants t1 and t2 (chosen so that the

startup transient at t = 0 has died down.) Use steps I, B through D, to
do this.
D. Compute L twice:

V (t) − Ref f 50mA

s t
L=
50mA/s

The measurements L1 and L2 should agree within 60×10−10 H. If they do

not agree within that tolerance, reject the inductor. Otherwise, average
the measurements:
L1 + L2
Lave =
2
Verify that 59.994µH ≤ Lave ≤ 60.006µH. If Lave is not in this range,
reject the inductor.

An error Verr (t) in the V (t) measurement changes the calculated L by

Verr (t)
∆L = ±
50mA/s

20µV
Verr (t) = 20µV, so ∆L = = 400µH
50mA/s

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Measurement error exceeds inductor tolerance. This is an unreliable test! We need
to change the current slope.
To have |∆L| ≤ 12 60µH × 10−4 , we need
dI 20µV 20µV
= = 1 = 6666.67 A/s
dt |∆L| 2 60µH × 10
−4

Redesign the test with this dI dt , and with sampling times t1 and t2 so that we only
get 100mA maximum current.
100mA
t 1 , t2 < = 0.150µs
6666.67 A/s
This may or may not cause a problem with the startup transient being sampled.
Alternative solution:
Apply a sinusoidal current waveform to the inductor and measure the voltage
across it, which should have some phase shift. Ignore startup and shutdown tran-
sients and just look at the steady-state response.
We assume that the system voltmeter has extremely high impedance, so that we
can ignore the current through it and, therefore, we do not model AB2 R
s. Then:
V1 = I(100Ω + jωL)
V2 = I(100Ω)
V1 − V2 = jωLI
√
Z = jωL = ω 2 L2 = ωL
V1 − V2
L =
ωI
Test method (see Figure 17.8, page 586 of the book):
I. Repeat prior part I to calculate Ref f (series resistance of inductor.)
II. Measure L

A. Turn off SB2 at pin2 and turn on SB2 at pin1.

B. Apply I = sin(2π × 60t) through AT 1.
C. Measure V1 and V2 .
D. V1 − V2 = I(Ref f + jωL), ω = 2π60 rad/s

Z = Ref f + jωL = 2
Ref 2 2
f +ω L
So,
(V1 − V2 )2 2 2 2
= Ref f +ω L
I 2
1 (V1 − V2 )2
L= − Ref
2
f
ω I2
Both Ref f and V1 −V2 have an error term proportional to voltmeter error.
So, the type of analysis at the end of the first solution still applies.

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17.2 Capacitance measurement

dV
Q = CV, I = C
dt
One test method would be to apply a voltage ramp to the capacitor while mea-
suring the current across it, which should be constant. We will ignore the startup
and shutdown transients and just look at the steady-state response.
Since all of the switches induce voltage drop (due to their 100Ω impedance), we
can first disable the capacitor by applying a known DC voltage and measuring the
current in the system. Then, we can calculate the effective series resistance.
V I
I= so Ref f =
Ref f V
For the voltage ramp test,
 t
Idt
V = IRef f + or
0 C
dV I
= (since I will be constant)
dt C
So,
I dV
C= , choose = 50mV /s
dV /dt dt
Test method (see Figure 17.8 on page 586 of the book):

I. Optionally measure Ref f (not needed for accurate C measurement.) Method is

the same as for Part I of solution to Problem 17.1.

II. Measure C

A. Turn on S5, S6, SB1 (pin 1), SG (pin 1), and SB2 ant pin 1.
B. Turn off SB2 at pin 2.
C. Apply the voltage ramp, shown below, at AT 1.
Voltage, V

slope=50mV/s

t
0

D. Measure I at two different time instants t1 and t2 (chosen so that startup

transient at t = 0 has died down.)

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 E. Compute C twice:
I
C=
dV /dt

The measurements should agree within 0.02nF . If they do not, reject the
capacitor. Otherwise, average the measurements.

Cave = C1 + C2
199.98nF ≤ Cave ≤ 200.02nF

If not, reject the capacitor.

Alternative solution:
Apply a sinusoidal current waveform to the capacitor and measure the voltage
in the circuit, which should have some phase shift. Ignore startup and shutdown
transients, and just look at the steady state response. Ignore impedances of S6 and
SB2 in AT 2, since the voltmeter has very high impedance.
1
V1 = I(100Ω + )
jωC
V2 = I(100Ω)
I
V1 − V2 =
jωC

1 jωC ω2 C 2 1
Z = = = =
jωC −ω 2 C 2 ω4 C 4 ωC
I
C =
ωC(V1 − V2 )

Test method to measure C (see Figure 17.8 on page 586 of the book):

A. Turn off SB2 at pin 2 and turn on SB2 at pin 1.

B. Turn on S5, SB1 at pin 1, and SG at pin 2.

C. Apply I = sin(2π × 60t) through AT 1.

D. Measure V1 and V2 ,
1
Z = , so
ωC
(V1 − V2 )2
= ω2 C 2
I2

(V1 − V2 )2
C =
ωI

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17.3 Resistance measurement
To measure a resistance R of value 40Ω±10%, we proceed as follows (see Figure 17.8
on page 586 of the book):

A. Turn on S5, S6, SB1 (pin 1), SB2 (pin 2), SG (pin 1) and force 100µA of current
into AT 1 with ATE current source (AT 1 connects to AB1, AT 2 connects to
AB2.)

B. Measure voltage V1 between AT 2 and Ground.

C. Turn off SB2 at pin 1 and turn on SB2 at pin 2.

D. Measure voltage V2 between AT 2 and Ground.

E. V = V1 − V2 and Ref f = V1 − V2 . This will be correct only if the ATE system

voltmeter has extremely high impedance (so that current flow in AT 2 can be
ignored.) If that holds, there is no voltage drop in SB2 at pins 1 and 2 and at
S6 in AT 2. However, notice that the external R that we are measuring (40Ω)
is smaller than 100Ω, the switch resistance.

First, we calculate the effect of voltmeter measurement error of 20µV :

V1ef f = V1 + 20µV
V2ef f = V2 − 20µV
V1 ± 20µV − (V2 ∓ 20µV )
Ref f =
100µA
V1 − V2
= ± 0.4Ω
100µA
The error of 0.4Ω equals the tolerance on the resistor value of 40Ω. Although this
test can be used, it will most likely reject the vast bulk of resistors tested. A better
test would be to reduce the ATE system voltmeter measurement error to 2µV .
Alternatively, the circuit under test can be redesigned not to use such low-valued
R’s.
We should now calculate a bound on the leakage current Ileak in the voltmeter
on AT 2.

V1AT 2 = V1 − (RSB2p1 + RS6 )Ileak

V2AT 2 = V2 − (RSB2p2 + RS6 )Ileak
V1AT 2 − V2AT 2 = V1 − V2 − Ileak (RSB2p1 + RS6 − RSB2p2 − RS6 )
V1 − V2 = V1AT 2 − V2AT 2 − Ileak (RSB2p1 − RSB2p2 )
Error = ±Ileak (RSB2 mismatch between pins 1 and 2)
1
We should keep this error to be 10 of the system voltmeter error, or 2µV . The
following table shows permitted combinations:

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 RSB2 mismatch Upper bound on Ileak
10Ω 0.2µA
5Ω 0.4µA
2Ω 1.0µA
1Ω 2.0µA
0.1Ω 20.0µA

17.4 Analog core test

The difference between INTEST and PROBE instructions for testing an analog
core is as follows. PROBE does not require boundary scan hardware on lines from
digital circuits to analog circuits, whereas INTEST does. As a result, the PROBE
instruction lets internal digital circuits interact with the analog core, while INTEST
disconnects the digital core and replaces it with set up patterns from the boundary
register.

17.5 Bus impedance calibration

Measurement of resistive impedance in AT 1 and AT 2 buses:
1. In the test bus interface circuit (TBIC), close switch S1 connecting AT 1 to
VH . Ground the other end of AT 1 at the automatic test equipment (ATE).
Measure the current in AT 1, I = (VH − 0)/RAT 1 . So, RAT 1 = VH /I.
2. Repeat step 1, but using AT 2 and closing switch S2. Thus, RAT 2 = VH /I.
3. In the TBIC, close switch S3 to connect AT 1 to VL . Set the other end of AT 1
to VDD at the ATE. Measure the current in AT 1, I = (VDD − VL )/RAT 1 . So,
RAT 1 = (VDD − VL )/I. Compare this value to the result of step 1.
4. Repeat step 3, but using AT 2 and closing switch S4 in the TBIC. Thus,
RAT 2 = (VDD − VL )/I. Compare this value to the result of step 2.
An alternative procedure:
1. Disconnect all pins from AB1.
2. In the TBIC. close switches S5 and S8 to connect both AT 1 and AT 2 together
through AB1.
3. Drive AT 1 with a voltage V1 and drive AT 2 with V2 . Measure the current I
flowing into AT 2 at the ATE:
V1 − V2
I=
Rtotal
So,
V 1 − V2
Rtotal =
I
4. Repeat steps 1 through 3, but using AB2 and closing switches S6 and S7.

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17.6 Bus impedance calibration
1. First, measure resistance in AT 1 and AT 2 switches S5 through S8.

2. At a given pin, connect AB1 by closing SB1 and close SG for that pin. All
other pin switches should be open. Connect AT 1 to AB1. Force VDD into
AT 1 at the automatic test equipment (ATE). Measure I at AT 1:

V Analog pin
DD AT1 S5 AB1 SB1
ATE
TBIC
SG

V
G

VDD − VG
I=
RS5 + RSB1 + RSG
So,
VDD − VG
RSB1 + RSG = − RS5
I
Assume:
RS5 + RS8
RS5 = , from Problem 17.5
2

3. Repeat step 2 closing SL at the pin rather than SG. Then,

VDD − VL
RSB1 + RSL = − RS5
I

4. Repeat steps 1 through 3, but using AB2 instead of AB1 and RS7 rather than
RS5 .

Alternative method:

1. Probe the analog pin with the ATE.

2. Measure resistance in AT 1 and AT 2 switches S5 through S8.

3. At the pin, connect AB1 by closing SB1 for that pin. All other pin switches
should be open. Connect AT 1 to AB1. Force VDD into AT 1 at the ATE.
Make the ATE force the analog pin to ground. Measure I at AT 1.

V Analog pin
DD AT1 S5 AB1 SB1
ATE
TBIC

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 VDD
I =
RS5 + RSB1
VDD
RSB1 = − RS5
I
RS5 + RS8
RS5 = , from Problem 17.5
2

4. Repeat step 3, but using AB2 instead of AB1 and RS7 rather than RS5 .

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Chapter 18: System Test and Core-Based Design
18.1 Fault dictionary
With faults a1 and c0 simultaneously present, the output function of the circuit of
Figure 18.2(a) becomes e = b. Of the four tests shown on the Karnaugh map of
Figure 18.2(b), only T1 will show a failure at the output. Thus, the test syndrome
is 1000. This matches with the third row of the fault dictionary given in Table 18.1.
We diagnose the fault as a1 .
Note: We fail to detect the other fault c0 because its test T2 = (011) is invalidated
by a1 .

18.2 Diagnosis
The fault (a1 , b1 ) makes the faulty function of the circuit of Figure 18.2 a constant
1, i.e., e = 1. Using the diagnostic tree of Figure 18.3, we first apply the test T4 .
According to the Karnaugh map of Figure 18.2, the expected output is 1, which is
the same as the faulty output. Thus, T4 passes, and t4 = 0. So, we follow the upper
branch in the diagnostic tree and apply the test T1 next. The expected output is 0
now and the test shows a failure. We take the lower branch and apply T3 , which also
shows a failure, i.e., (t3 = 1). Following the lower branch, the procedure terminates
giving a diagnosis of three suspected single faults, c1 , d1 and e1 .
Note: The suspected fault set does not contain the actual multiple fault (a1 , b1 ).
This is a failure of the diagnostic procedure based on single faults. One can verify
that the use of the fault dictionary will also lead to the same erroneous diagnosis.

18.3 Diagnosis
Detection of all stuck-at faults in the exclusive-OR circuit of Figure 18.8 requires
all four vectors. The following table shows inputs and outputs for the circuit.

Test Input Output i

vector ab no-fault a0 a1 b0 b1 c0 c1 e1 f0 f1 d0 i0 i1
T1 00 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
T2 01 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 1
T3 10 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
T4 11 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 1

Here aj denotes the fault a s-a-j, and boldface entries mark the outputs that def-
fer from the correct outputs and hence indicate fault detection. We have collapsed
some faults. For example, c0 represents the equivalent fault set [c0 , e0 , g0 ]. Simi-
larly, f1 represents the equivalent set [f1 , d1 , h0 ], and i0 represents the equivalent set
[g1 , h1 , i0 ]. In the above table, we further notice that faulty functions are identical
for c1 and f0 , and for e1 and d0 . Therefore, faults f0 and d0 can be dropped due to
equivalence. The next table gives the fault dictionary with faults arranged in the
order of increasing numerical value of syndrome.

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 Fault Test syndrome
t1 t2 t3 t4
No fault 0 0 0 0
c0 0 0 0 1
e1 0 0 1 0
a0 0 0 1 1
c1 0 1 0 0
b0 0 1 0 1
i0 0 1 1 0
f1 1 0 0 0
i1 1 0 0 1
b1 1 0 1 0
a1 1 1 0 0

Where tk = 1, if test Tk detects the fault, else it is 0.

18.4 Diagnosis
A diagnosis tree constructed from the above fault dictionary is shown in the following
figure.

0 No fault
T4 1
0 c0
T 1 e1
3 T 0
0 4 1
a
0
T2 c
1 0 1
t =0 T4 1
1 T3 0 b0
1
T1 i0 f1
0
t =1
1 T4 1
0 i1
T3 1
0
T2 b1
1
a1

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18.5 Diagnosis
We find the average number of tests for diagnosis using Equation 18.2. Since the
probability of occurrence of faults a1 , b1 , c0 and e0 is 0.25, from the diagnostic tree
of Figure 18.3, we get

Average diagnostic test length

= 3 × P rob(a1 ) + 4 × P rob(b1 ) + 3 × P rob(c0 ) + 2 × P rob(e0 )
= 3 × 0.25 + 4 × 0.25 + 3 × 0.25 + 2 × 0.25
= 3

The diagnosis of a faulty circuit will terminate on average after 3 tests.

18.6 Diagnosis
We will only consider the four faults that have non-zero probabilities of occurrence.
A binary search generally leads to an optimum diagnosis since each test provides a
pass/fail result. Examining the tests of Table 18.1, we find that application of T2
divides the fault set into subsets (c0 , e0 ) and (a1 , b1 ). Similar consideration leads to
the following diagnostic tree.
No fault
0
T3 1
b1
0

T1
1
t2 = 0
a1

T2
t2 = 1

c0
0
T
4 1
e
0

Average diagnostic test length

= 2 × P rob(e0 ) + 2 × P rob(c0 ) + 2 × P rob(a1 ) + 3 × P rob(b1 )
= 3 × 0.25 + 4 × 0.25 + 3 × 0.25 + 2 × 0.25
= 2.25

The average diagnosis time is 2.25 times that of applying one test.

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18.7 Diagnosis
A diagnosis tree for the system of Figure 18.4 and its tests shown in Table 18.3 is
shown below.
0 No fault
T4 1
0 Register A
Register B
T5
1 Register C
0
t1 = 0 T4 1 Register A
Register B
T Register C
1
t1 = 1
0 Comparator
T3 1
0
T2 ALU1
1
ALU0

We first apply test T1 . If it fails, i.e., t1 = 1, we presume that either the ALU’s
or the comparator are faulty. So, we apply T2 . A failure now means ALU 0 is
faulty. Otherwise, we apply T3 , which either fails if ALU 1 is faulty, or passes if the
comparator is faulty.
If T1 passes, we assume that ALU’s are not faulty and the x
s is the syndromes of
ALU’s under t4 and t5 can be changed to 0. Also, the rest of the procedure assumes
that only one unit is faulty. We apply T5 followed by T4 . If T5 fails and T4 passes
then Register C is considered faulty. If T5 passes and T4 fails then both Register A
and Register B become suspects. If both tests fail then we conclude that perhaps
Register C and at least one among the other two registers are faulty.
The diagnostic tree shows that the procedure terminates with the application of
three or fewer tests.

18.8
(a) Since the processor is used to test other modules, its correctness should be
ascertained first. A self-test is, therefore, desirable. If the self-test of the
processor reports a failure then the rest of the tests need not be conducted.

(b) If the random-vector coverages in the ASIC, FSM and DSP are low, additional
vectors can be algorithmically generated to cover the undetected faults in those
modules. These vectors can be loaded in the RAM (after its own self-test has
been successfully completed) and applied to the appropriate module by the
processor. Their responses can also be compacted in the same way as the
processor compacts the responses of the random vectors.

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 Alternatively, the additional vectors can be applied by an external tester via
the on-chip bus.

(c) Since there is a DSP module on the chip it can be used to test the analog
module.

18.9 Rent’s rule

Suppose that Ti is the number of I/O terminals and Gi is the number of gates for
ith circuit. The estimated number of terminals for a circuit with Gi gates is,

T (Gi ) = KGαi

We compute the squared-error as,

10 
  10 
 2
T (Gi ) − Ti 2 KGα
SE = = i
−1
i=1
Ti i=1
Ti

where the sum is carried over 10 benchmark circuits. To minimize the square-error,
we proceed as follows:

10  
dSE KGαi KGαi
=2 −1 =0
dK i=1
Ti Ti

Simplification leads to,

10 Gαi
i=1
K = Tαi 2
10 Gi
i=1 Ti

Using α = 0.5 and the values for Ti (sum of PI and PO) and Gi (gates) from
Table 18.5,
√ we evaluate K = 2.32. The given data and the computed values of
T = 2.32 G are plotted on the following graph.
400
ISCAS’85 combinational benchmarks
c2670
Actual
Rent’s rule c7552
Number of I/O terminals, T

300 c5315

200

100

0
0 500 1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500
Number of gates, G

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 We notice that three circuits, c2670, c5315 and c7552, have much larger number
of terminals than that estimated by the Rent’s rule formula. This is because perhaps
these are combinational parts of scan circuits. Our value of K is strongly influenced
by the majority of circuits that are non-scan type and have fewer terminals. To
represent scan circuits, K will have to be higher.

18.10 Rent’s rule

We substitute the data from Table 18.6 in the formula for K derived in the previous
problem. The calculation gives K = 0.93. This smaller value of K (as compared to
2.32 obtained for combinational circuits) is somewhat
√ typical of sequential circuits.
Actual data and computed values from T = 0.93 G are shown on the following
graph.
400
ISCAS’89 sequential benchmarks
s35932
Actual
Rent’s rule
Number of I/O terminals, T

300
s38584

200

100

0
0 5,000 10,000 15,000 20,000 25,000
Number of gates, G

Note that Rent’s estimates are highly approximate and depend on the style of
design. We find large error in the cases of s35932 and s38584.

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 Final Exam: Graduate Course – Testing of
Ultra Large Scale Integrated Circuits
Rutgers Univ., 16:332:576, Spring 2002
May 15, 2002

Problem 1: Fault Modeling and Simulation (11 Points)

For the circuit of Figure 1, do the following:
(i) Count the total number of single fault sites. (2 points)

(ii) Show that the three single faults, H s-a-1, J s-a-1, and K s-a-1, are equivalent.
(4 points)

(iii) Using the parallel fault simulation algorithm (assuming a four-bit machine
word), or any alternative fault simulation algorithm, determine which of the
three single faults, F s-a-1, H s-a-0, and L s-a-1, are detected by the input
vector A = 1, B = 0. (5 points)

C
A L
E J
s−a−1
H s−a−0
Z

K
G
F
B M
s−a−1

Figure 1: Circuit for fault modeling and simulation problem.

Solution to Problem 1
(1) Total fault sites = #P I + #gates + #f anout branches = 2 + 4 + 6 = 12

(ii) Three faulty functions are:

Z(H s − a − 1) = A.B = A + B
Z(J s − a − 1) = A.AB.B = A.(A + B)B
= A(A + B) = A B = A + B
Z(K s − a − 1) = A.AB.B = A(A + B).B
= (A + B)B = A B = A + B

Final Exam Solution: Testing course 16:332:576 – May 15, 2002 Page 183
 Since the faulty functions are identical, the three faults are equivalent.

(iii) Parallel fault simulation using a four-bit computer word is shown in the figure
below. The fault-free value of a line is represented by bit 0, the value corre-
sponding to fault F s-a-1 by bit 1, the value corresponding to fault H s-a-0
by bit 2, and the value corresponding to fault L s-a-1 by bit 3.

bit 0
bit 1
bit 2
bit 3
1 1 1 1
C
A L
E J s−a−1
0 0 1 1
H s−a−0
1 1 0 1 Z
1 1 0 0

L s−a−1 detected
H s−a−0 detected
F s−a−1 not detected
fault−free output
K 1 0 1 1
G
F
B M
s−a−1
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
L s−a−1 value
fault−free value

H s−a−0 value
F s−a−1 value

Simulated value of the output Z indicates that faults H s-a-0 and L s-a-1 are detected
and F s-a-1 is not detected.

Final Exam Solution: Testing course 16:332:576 – May 15, 2002 Page 184
Problem 2: Combinational ATPG (11 Points)
Consider the circuit under test (CUT) with two outputs, C and S, shown in Figure 2.
We desire a test that will detect a target fault at any one output but not at both
outputs. Figure 2 gives an ATPG model circuit in which the two outputs of the
CUT are combined into an exclusive-OR gate (shown shaded) to produce an output
Z.

C
A H C

E
J Z

G S
K
B F
s−a−1 Circuit under test (CUT)

Figure 2: Circuit for combinational ATPG problem.

(i) Show that when a fault is detected at Z in the ATPG model, it must be
exclusively detected either at C or at S. (4 points)

(ii) Using either the five-valued logic or the nine-valued logic, obtain a test to detect
B s-a-1 exclusively at one of the outputs of the CUT. (4 points)

(iii) Can such a test be found for H s-a-0. (3 points)

Solution to Problem 2
(i) The following table shows how the fault effect (D or D) propagates through an
exclusive-OR gate.

One input Other input Output

D D 0
D D 0
D D 1
D 0 D
D 0 D
D 1 D
D 1 D

That is, for a fault to affect the value of Z, it should affect the value of C, or
that of S, but not those of both. Therefore, when a test detects a fault at Z
the fault must be detected (observable) exclusively at C or S.

Final Exam Solution: Testing course 16:332:576 – May 15, 2002 Page 185
 (ii) Using the five-valued logic a test A = 0, B = 0 is found to detect the fault B
s-a-1 at Z, as shown in the following figure. This test detects the fault at S,
but does not detect it at C.

0 C
A H C 0
0
E D
J Z

G S D
K D
0 D F
B
s−a−1 Circuit under test (CUT)
Test generation for B s−a−1 using five−valued logic.

(iii) The following figure shows that the fault H s-a-0 cannot be detected at Z.
Only on input vector, A = B = 1, can activate the fault but it propagates
the fault to both outputs of the CUT. An exclusive test for this fault is not
possible.

1 C
A H s−a−0 C D
D
E 1
J Z

D
G S D
K 0
1 F
B
Circuit under test (CUT)

No test can detect H s−a−0 at Z.

Final Exam Solution: Testing course 16:332:576 – May 15, 2002 Page 186
Problem 3: Testability Measures (11 Points)
For the circuit of Figure 3, compute the combinational and sequential SCOAP testa-
bility measures (both controllability and observability, and including the CLOCK
and synchronous RESET signals.)

G4 O1
G
1
l1
G
5
l2
G2 G8 O2
l3
G
l4 6

G3
G O3
7
Q D
FF
MC CLOCK

RESET

Figure 3: Circuit for Problem 3.

Solution to Problem 3
The steps of calculation for SCOAP testability measures are shown in the three
figures that follow. Combinational measures are shown as (CC0, CC1)CO and
sequential measures as [SC0, SC1]SO.

(2,4)0 [0,0]0
G4 O1
(2,3)
8

G1
[0,0]
8

(1,1) [0,0]
8

I1
(2,4)
8

G5
(1,1) [0,0] [0,0]
8

I2
(2,3) (5,11)0 [0,0]0
8

G2 G8 O2
I3 (1,1) [0,0]
8

[0,0]
8

(4, )
8
8

G6
[0, ]
8
8

I4
(2, )
8
8

G3
[0, ]
8
8

(2,4)0 [0,0]0
G7 O3

( , ) [ , ] (2,4) [0,0]
8
8
8

8
8
8

Q D
FF
MC CLOCK (1,1) [0,0]
8

RESET (1,1) [0,0]

8

Circuit of Problem 3: PI and PO initialization and first controllability pass.

Final Exam Solution: Testing course 16:332:576 – May 15, 2002 Page 187
 (2,4)0 [0,0]0
G4 O1
(2,3)

8
G1
[0,0]

8
(1,1) [0,0]

8
I1 (2,4)

8
G5
(1,1) [0,0] [0,0]

8
I2 (2,3) (5,11)0 [0,0]0

8
(1,1) [0,0] G2 G8 O

8
I3 [0,0] 2

8
(4,6)

8
G
6 [0,1]

8
I
4
(2,5)

8
G3
[0,1]

8
(2,4)0 [0,0]0
G7 O
3

(3,7) [1,1] (2,4) [0,0]

8

8
Q D
FF

MC CLOCK (1,1) [0,0]

8
RESET (1,1) [0,0]

8
Circuit of Problem 3: Converged controllability values.

3
0 (2,4)0 [0,0]0
G4 O1
4
(2,3)2
4
G1
[0,0]0
(1,1)4 [0,0]0 9
I1 12
(2,4)9
G5
11
(1,1)3 [0,0]0 13 [0,0]0
I2 (2,3)11 (5,11)0 [0,0]0
(1,1)3 [0,0]0 13
G2 G8 O
I3 [0,0]0 2
11
(4,6)7
10
G6
I4 [0,1]0
6 9
(2,5)2
4
G3
[0,1]0 (2,4)0 [0,0]0
0
3
G7 O
3

(3,7)4 [1,1]0 (2,4)7 [0,0]1

Q D
FF
MC CLOCK (1,1)14 [0,0]2

RESET (1,1)14 [0,0]2

Circuit of Problem 3: All controllability and observability values.

Final Exam Solution: Testing course 16:332:576 – May 15, 2002 Page 188
Problem 4: Delay Test
(i) Specify a single input change (SIC) test for the critical path ↑ a − z (shown in
bold lines) in the circuit of Figure 4(i). Is this a robust test? (5 points)

(ii) The circuit of Figure 4(i) is redesigned in Figure 4(ii) to reduce the delay.
Will the SIC test obtained above still test the longest delay path shown in
bold lines? If not, what is the minimum modification required in the test? (6
points)

a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h z
i
(i) Original circuit.

a
b
c
d

e
f
g
h
i
z

(ii) Redesigned circuit.

Figure 4: Circuits for delay test problem.

Solution to Problem 4
(i) A SIC test is found by statically sensitizing the path a − z and applying a rising
transition to a. Thus, the test is: a = R1, b = S0, c = S1, d = S0, e = S1,
f = S0, g = S1, h = S0, i = S1. This is a robust test.

(ii) When the above test is applied to the redesigned circuit, the OR gate at the
output receives a rising transition (R1) at its upper input and a S0 at the lower
input. Although R1 is produced at Z, this transition does not arrive through
the longest path (shown in bold). Thus, the upper path, which is 5-gate long,

Final Exam Solution: Testing course 16:332:576 – May 15, 2002 Page 189
 is tested but the 6-gate path (shown as critical path) is not tested. We find
that no input vector can sensitize this path when a = 1 and the PDF ↑ a − z
for the critical path is untestable.
This part not required: When a = 0, setting h = S1 and leaving all other
inputs as before, we can sensitize the critical path. Thus, the PDF ↓ a − z
for the critical path can be tested by applying a = F 0, h = S1 and leaving all
other inputs as before. We also note that the s-a-1 fault at the output of the
NOT gate is redundant. If that fault is removed, then the 6-gate critical path
will also be removed. Then, the 5-gate path becomes the critical path and it is
robustly testable by the test derived in part (i).

Problem 5: Memory Test (11 Points)

Rigorously prove that the MARCH C− test detects all inversion coupling faults
<↑; >. Indicate the testing time complexity for MARCH C− in terms of n, the
number of bits in the memory.

MARCH C− {  (w0); ⇑ (r0, w1); ⇑ (r1, w0);

⇓ (r0, w1); ⇓ (r1, w0);  (r0) }

Solution to Problem 5
We rigorously prove that the MARCH C− test detects all inversion coupling faults
(CFin).
The MARCH C− test is,
{ M 0 :  (w0); M 1 : ⇑ (r0, w1); M 2 : ⇑ (r1, w0);
M 3 : ⇓ (r0, w1); M 4 : ⇓ (r1, w0); M 5 :  (r0) }
and the inversion coupling faults are <↑; > and <↓; >.
Necessary condition: For all cells that are coupled, each should be read after
series of possible CFins may have occurred, and the number of coupled cell
transitions must be odd.
Fault <↑; >: Address of coupled cell i > address of coupling cell j. Cell j
initialized to 0 by M 0, j is made to ↑ by M 1, coupled cell i set to 0 by M 0,
unexpected inversion detected by M 1, number of coupled cell inversions = 1.
Address of coupled cell i < address of coupling cell j. Cell j initialized
to 0 by M 2, j made to ↑ by M 3, coupled cell i set to 0 by M 2, unexpected
inversion detected by M 3, number of coupled cell inversions = 1.
That completes the proof.
The test complexity is O(10n).

Final Exam Solution: Testing course 16:332:576 – May 15, 2002 Page 190
Problem 6: Analog Test (11 Points)
a. Unit test period. For an analog circuit, the test waveform frequency Ft =
2010 Hz and the sampling frequency in the DSP ATE is 8000 s/s. Compute
the minimum unit test period and the corresponding primitive frequency.

b. Unit test period. A CODEC is to be tested on a DSP ATE with Fs = 8000 s/s.
Originally, P = 40 ms, but that does not allow N ≥ 400. Select a test
waveform frequency as close to 2000 Hz as possible that still generates N ≥
400 unique samples by adjusting ∆. How many test waveform cycles (M ) will
there be in the primitive period?

Solution to Problem 6
a.
Ft M 2, 010Hz 201
= = =
Fs N 8, 000Hz 800
That is, M = 201 and N = 800. Unit test period is obtained as,
M 201
UTP = = = 0.1 sec
Ft 2, 010Hz
1
Primitive frequency, ∆ = = 10Hz
UTP

b.

1 1
∆ = = = 25Hz
p 40 msec
Fs 8, 000 s/s
N = = = 320
∆ 25Hz
We must change ∆ and p to get N = 400.

8, 000 s/s
∆ = = 20Hz
400

If Ft = 2, 000Hz, M = F∆t = 2,000Hz M

20Hz = 100, and N =
100
400 = 14 , which gives
only 4 samples. So, choose either M = 99 or M = 101.
For M = 99, Ft = M × ∆ = 99 × 20Hz = 1, 980Hz, and
For M = 101, Ft = M × ∆ = 101 × 20Hz = 2, 020Hz.
In both cases, we get 400 unique samples.

Final Exam Solution: Testing course 16:332:576 – May 15, 2002 Page 191
Problem 7: DFT (11 Points)
The circuit in Figure 5 is a sequence detector. A sequence 111 in the IN P U T
bit-stream locks the output Z to 1. The state of the circuit can be set to 000 with
output Z = 0 by applying CLEAR = 1.

Z
CLEAR

Q1 Q2 Q3
INPUT
...100111010...

CK

Figure 5: Circuit for DFT Problem 7.

(i) Redesign the circuit using minimum extra hardware to conform to the scan
design rule, “clock must not be gated by a combinational signal.” Neatly
sketch the redesigned circuit. (5 points)

(ii) Sketch the schematic of the full-scan circuit using the multiplexer type of scan
flip-flops (SFFs). Show the complete wiring of the SCAN IN , SCAN OU T
and test control (T C) signals. (6 points)

Solution to Problem 7
(i) To conform to the “clock rule,” we use the clock gating signal Z to inhibit the
data input. This is economically done by inserting an OR gate (shown shaded)
in the following schematic. Z = 0 allows the normal IN P U T to be applied to
the circuit. Z = 1, which occurs only when a 111 stream is detected, forces a
constant 1 input.

Z
CLEAR

...100111010... Q1 Q2 Q3
INPUT

CK

Redesign to avoid clock rule violation.

(ii) The following figure shows the scan wiring. All three D-flip-flops are replaced
by scan flip-flops (SFFs) shown as shaded blocks. The logic of SFF, which
includes a D-flip-flop and a multiplexer, is shown in the second figure.

Final Exam Solution: Testing course 16:332:576 – May 15, 2002 Page 192
 Z
CLEAR

...100111010... Q1 Q2 Q3
INPUT SCANOUT
SFF SFF SFF
SCANIN
CK
TC

Scan circuit (scan wiring shown in bold lines.)

NORMAL INPUT
Q

SCAN INPUT
CK

TC
Scan flip−flop (SFF).

Problem 8: BIST (12 Points)

1. For the circuit in Figure 6, please design an external-XOR LFSR pattern
generator implementing the characteristic polynomial 1+x2 +x3 and an Input
MUX for testing.

d
e l
n o Y
A f m
g p

B h
q r Z
C k
Circuit−Under−Test
Figure 6: Circuit for Problem 8.

2. Express the linear system of matrix equations describing this pattern genera-
tor.

3. Now, assume an exhaustive counter-based pattern generator and the given

response compacter for the circuit in Figure 7. Compute the good machine
signature for the circuit. The output MISR is initialized to “000” before
testing.

4. For the same circuit, compute the bad machine signature for the fault q stuck-
at-0. Does the test hardware alias for this fault?

Final Exam Solution: Testing course 16:332:576 – May 15, 2002 Page 193
 Binary d D
Counter Q
e l Y
ABC A n Q
000 1
f m
001
010 g p
011 B D
100 h sa0 q Z Q Q2
101 C k
110 Circuit−Under−Test
111
Pattern Input MUX
Gener− Api Cpi D
ator Bpi Q
Q
3
Response Compacter

Figure 7: Circuit for Problem 8 with BIST hardware.

Solution to Problem 8
1. The hardware is shown in Figure 8.

Test Pattern Generator

CLK
D
MR
Q
0 M A
U
Api 1 X

D
MR
Q
0 M B
U
Bpi 1 X

D MS

Q
0 M C
U
1 X

RESET Cpi TEST

Figure 8: Circuit for Problem 8 with BIST pattern generator and input MUX.

2.
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤⎡ ⎤
a 0 1 0 a
⎢ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥
⎣ b ⎦ (t + 1) = ⎣ 0 0 1 ⎦ ⎣ b ⎦ (t)
c 1 0 1 c

Final Exam Solution: Testing course 16:332:576 – May 15, 2002 Page 194
 3. The table below contains the fault-free outputs of the circuit and the state
of the LFSR after every clock. The initial state of the flip-flop is assumed to
be Q1 Q2 Q3 = 000. The output equations used for computing the fault-free
outputs in the table are:

Y = (A ⊕ B) + AB and Z = B + C ⊕ Y

A B C Y Z LFSR state
Q1 Q2 Q3
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0
1 0 0 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 0

Thus the final signature of the good machine is “1 1 0”.

The logic to detect this signature can be implemented by a NAND gate as
evident from the following equation.

GOOD = Q1 Q2 Q3

4. In the case of the fault q s-a-0, the faulty outputs are:

Yf = Y and Zf = Y

The table below contains the faulty outputs of the circuit and the state of the
LFSR after every clock. The initial state of the flip-flops is assumed to be
Q1 Q2 Q3 = 000 as before.

A B C Y Z LFSR state
Q1 Q2 Q3
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 0 1 1 0 1 1
1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0

Thus, the final signature of the faulty circuit will be “0 1 0”, and the test
hardware does not alias.

Final Exam Solution: Testing course 16:332:576 – May 15, 2002 Page 195
Problem 9: Boundary Scan (11 Points)
Figure 9 shows two boundary scan cells surrounding the on-chip system logic. We
test the path from the INPUT boundary scan cell, through the on-chip system
logic, and ending at the OUTPUT boundary scan cell. The JTAG commands are:
SAMPLE, PRELOAD, EXTEST, INTEST, RUNBIST, CLAMP, IDCODE, USER-
CODE, HIGHZ, and BYPASS. Please explain the sequence of these commands used
for delay fault testing of this particular path.

INPUT CELL OUTPUT CELL

ShiftDR SO Mode ShiftDR SO Mode

0 On-chip 0
1 System 1
0 Logic 0
1 DQ DQ 1 DQ DQ
CLK CLK CLK CLK

SI ClockDR UpdateDR SI ClockDR UpdateDR

Component boundaries
Used for first phase of INTEST
Used for second phase of INTEST
Not used in the INTEST testing mode

Figure 9: Circuit for Problem 9.

Solution to Problem 9
Here is the sequence of JTAG commands used to test the path:

1. SAMPLE – Capture pin signals and functional hardware outputs in the Bound-
ary Scan Register.

2. Apply INTEST – Copy Boundary Scan Register contents into hold latch. Ap-
ply as many TCK pulses as are necessary to shift the 1st test pattern in from
TDI (this will be the number of pins from TDI up to and including this system
input pin.) Then apply a functional system clock.

3. Repeat Step 2 to apply the 1st time frame pattern to the path and shift the
2nd time frame pattern into the Boundary Scan Register (requires many TCK
pulses.) At this point, the 1st time frame pattern is applied from the hold
registers and the second time frame pattern is in the Boundary Scan Register.

4. Repeat the INTEST instruction and immediately apply a functional system

clock. This applies the second time frame pattern to the path-under-test,
clocks the functional circuit, and captures its response in the Boundary Scan
Register. Then, apply as many TCK pulses as are necessary to shift out the
response to the 2nd pattern out through TDO (while simultaneously shifting

Final Exam Solution: Testing course 16:332:576 – May 15, 2002 Page 196
 in the next test pattern.) The shifted out response will indicate where a timing
fault has occurred.

5. Go back to Step 2 if more paths are to be tested.

This sequence can be preceded by IDCODE and USERCODE instructions, in order

to identify which chips, and which part programmings, are in the system. Other
chips in the system may be given BYPASS instructions to speed up scan chain
shifting by shortening the scan chain.

Final Exam Solution: Testing course 16:332:576 – May 15, 2002 Page 197
Final Exam: Graduate Course – VLSI Testing
Auburn Univ., ELEC 7250, Spring 2004
May 10, 2004

Instructions (please read before you proceed):

1. Please read all problems before starting your answers. Problems can be an-
swered in any order.

2. Attempt all six problems and attempt all parts within each problem.

3. Answers can be written on question sheets or separate sheets or a combination.

Each sheet should have a page number and problem number. On the first sheet
write your name and the total number of sheets you are submitting.

4. Before handing in your answers, please check them thoroughly. If necessary,

extra 10 minutes can be allowed for checking.

Problem 1: Fault Modeling (16 Points)

For the circuit of Figure 1, determine fault equivalences among the five faults shown.

A C
L
E sa1
J
sa0
H
Z
sa1
sa0
sa1
G K M
F
B

Figure 1: Circuit for fault modeling problem.

Solution to Problem 1
Three faults, E sa0, G sa0, and H sa1 are structurally equivalent as they are on the
inputs and output of a NAND gate. The output function for any of these faults is
A + B. The same output function is produced by J sa1 and K sa1 also. Therefore,
all five faults are equivalent.

Problem 2: Testability Measures (16 Points)

For the circuit of Figure 2 compute SCOAP combinational controllability and ob-
servability measures for all lines (8 points).

Final Exam Problems and Solutions: VLSI Testing ELEC 7250 – May 10, 2004 Page 198
 C I

D
A J
F K

G
B
H
L
E
Figure 2: Circuit for testability measures problem.

(i) Assuming that the testability of a stuck-at fault can be represented as the sum
of appropriate controllability and observability, find the set of most difficult
to test faults (4 points).

(ii) Proving a fault to be redundant is a difficult task for an ATPG program. This
circuit has three redundant faults, I s-a-1, J s-a-1, and F s-a-1. Are all of
these faults in your set of most difficult to test faults? If not, explain why not
(4 points).

Solution to Problem 2
Combinational SCOAP testsbility measures, CC0, CC1 and CO, are shown in Fig-
ure 3. For fanout lines only observabilities are shown because their controllabilities
are the same as those of their stems.

(i) Most difficult to test faults in this circuit are those for which controllability and
observability adds up to 7. There are five such faults: D sa0, D sa1, F sa0,
F sa1, and J sa1. Since we can collapse the sa0 faults of the inputs of the
NAND gate J into the output sa1 fault, this set reduces to three faults: D
sa1, F sa1, and J sa1.

(ii) Two out of the three given redundant faults are in the set of difficult to test
faults we identified. The third redundant fault, I sa1 has a SCOAP testability
of 6 that is just below the maximum. To activate this fault, we must set I = 0
and A = 1, making F and J correlated as J = F because of the NAND gate.
Since F and G have the same value, two inputs J and G of the AND gate
K must assume opposite values. This makes the observation of the fault I
sa1 impossible. While computing the observability of line I, SCOAP assumes

Final Exam Problems and Solutions: VLSI Testing ELEC 7250 – May 10, 2004 Page 199
 C 5 I (2,2)4

sa1

(1,1)2 D 6
A J sa1 (2,6)0
F 6 K
(3,2)4
sa1
(1,1)2 G 5
B
H 2
(3,2)0
L
2
E
Figure 3: SCOAP measures, (CC0, CC1)CO, for the circuit of Figure 2.

J and G to be independently controllable and adds their CC1. Thus, the

difficulty of testing the redundant fault I sa1 is underestimated.

Problem 3: Logic Simulation (17 Points)

The following conversation is recorded at a meeting to discuss the verification prob-
lems of the circuit shown in Figure 4:
A B
C
E Z
F FF
CK

Figure 4: Circuit for Problem 3.

Designer: Why does our logic simulator not initialize my circuit?

CAD Engineer: That is due to a limitation of the three-state logic simulator.
Designer: Irrespective of the initial state, the flip-flop should initialize to 1 state
when 1 is applied at the input A and the circuit is clocked. I am not going to change
the circuit. You better fix your simulator.
CAD Manager (not realizing what is being promised): My engineer will find a
solution before the end of the day.
You are the CAD engineer who must take the challenge:

(i) Devise a modification of the three-state logic simulator that will correctly ini-
tialize the circuit of Figure 4 containing a single flip-flop (9 points).

Final Exam Problems and Solutions: VLSI Testing ELEC 7250 – May 10, 2004 Page 200
 (ii) How will you extend the new procedure for circuits with many flip-flops (4
points)? Discuss any limitations (4 points).

Solution to Problem 3
(i) We add a fourth value to the three-value set {0, 1, X}. This value, denoted as
X, is the complement of the unknown or don’t case state X. For a two-input
NAND gate, the function is given by the table below:

Table 1: NAND function with four-state logic.

0 1 X X
0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 X X
X 1 X X 1
X 1 X 1 X

With this logic system, we start the simulation by setting Z = X and apply
A = 1 as the designer specified. Since E = F = X, the table gives, B = X
and C = 1. After the clock CK is applied, we have Z = 1 and the flip-flop is
initialized. Similar tables can be derived for all other logic gates and for gates
with more than two inputs.

(ii) If there are many flip-flops that are initially in the unknown state, then each
should be assigned a separate value, X1 , X2 , etc. Consider a NAND gate whose
inputs have more than one X, say Xi and Xj . If i = j then the output will be
determined by the the above table. If i = j then X’s should be interpretted
as ordinary X’s of the three-valued logic system. Thus, the number of logic
states will be {0, 1, X, X1 , X2 , . . , Xn , X}, when the circuit has n flip-flops.
Limitation: This method of simulation has much higher complexity when
the circuit has a large number of flip-flops. This is because for n flip-flops,
we must use an n + 3 valued logic. However, as a flip-flop get initialized, the
corresponding Xi state disappears. Altenatively, any Xi state can be converted
to X state, reducing the number of simulation states. The effect of such an
action is to increase the pessimism in simulation.

Final Exam Problems and Solutions: VLSI Testing ELEC 7250 – May 10, 2004 Page 201
Problem 4: Podem (17 points)
Use the Podem algorithm to derive a test for the fault G stuck-at-0 in the Schneider’s
example circuit from Roth’s 1967 paper, which is shown in Figure 5 (8 points).
(1,1)10
(2,4)7
(2,3)9 J
F
SCOAP Testability Measures
(1,1)10 (1,1)10 (CC0, CC1) CO
A (2,4)7
(2,3)10 K
(1,1)10
B (2,3)10
(1,1)10 G Z
C sa0 (2,3)10 (5,9)0
(2,4)7
(1,1)10 L
E

(2,3)9
H (2,4)7
M
(1,1)10

Figure 5: Schneider’s circuits for Podem problem.

Neatly write all steps, specifying objectives, operations (backtrace, forward im-
plications, X-path check, etc.) Give the state of the implication stack at each step
(9 points).

Solution to Problem 4
The test for fault G sa0 is A = 0, B = 0, C = 0, E = 0. The steps of Podem are
given in the following table.
Step Objec- Action Imp. Implied signal values D X
No. tive stack A, B, C, E, F, G, H, J, K, L, M, Z front. path
1 Fault
activation
G = 1(D) Backtrace B=0 B=0 φ -
2 G = 1(D) Backtrace C=0 B = 0, C = 0, G = 1(D) K, L OK
B=0
3 D propagation
A=0 Backtrace A=0 B = 0, C = 0, G = 1(D) L, Z OK
C=0 A = 0, F = 1, J = 0, K = D
B=0
4 L=0 Backtrace E=1 B = 0, C = 0, G = 1(D) φ NONE
A=0 A = 0, F = 1, J = 0, K = D
C=0 L = 0, H = 0, M = 1, Z = 0
B=0
5 Restore Backtrack E=0 B = 0, C = 0, G = 1(D)
X path A=0 A = 0, F = 1, J = 0, K = D Fault detected
C=0 L = D, H = 1, M = 0, Z = D
B=0
Algorithm termination: Test A = 0, B = 0, C = 0, E = 0 detects the fault as Z = D
(1 backtrack)

Final Exam Problems and Solutions: VLSI Testing ELEC 7250 – May 10, 2004 Page 202
Problem 5: Delay Test (17 points)
(i) Specify a single input change (SIC) test for the critical path ↑ a − z (shown in
bold lines) in the circuit of Figure 6(i). Is this a robust test? (8 points)

(ii) The circuit of Figure 6(i) is redesigned in Figure 6(ii) to reduce the delay.
Will the SIC test obtained above still test the longest delay path shown in
bold lines? If not, what is the minimum modification required in the test? (9
points)

a
b
c
d
e
f
g
h z
i
(i) Original circuit.

a
b
c
d

e
f
g
h
i
z

(ii) Redesigned circuit.

Figure 6: Circuits for delay test problem.

Solution to Problem 5
(i) A SIC test is found by statically sensitizing the path a − z and applying a rising
transition to a. Thus, the test is: a = R1, b = S0, c = S1, d = S0, e = S1,
f = S0, g = S1, h = S0, i = S1. This is a robust test.

(ii) When the above test is applied to the redesigned circuit, the OR gate at the
output receives a rising transition (R1) at its upper input and a S0 at the lower
input. Although R1 is produced at Z, this transition does not arrive through
the longest path (shown in bold). Thus, the upper path, which is 5-gate long,

Final Exam Problems and Solutions: VLSI Testing ELEC 7250 – May 10, 2004 Page 203
 is tested but the 6-gate path (shown as critical path) is not tested. We find
that no input vector can sensitize this path when a = 1 and the PDF ↑ a − z
for the critical path is untestable.
This part not required: When a = 0, setting h = S1 and leaving all other
inputs as before, we can sensitize the critical path. Thus, the PDF ↓ a − z
for the critical path can be tested by applying a = F 0, h = S1 and leaving all
other inputs as before. We also note that the s-a-1 fault at the output of the
NOT gate is redundant. If that fault is removed, then the 6-gate critical path
will also be removed. Then, the 5-gate path becomes the critical path and it is
robustly testable by the test derived in part (i).

Problem 6: DFT (17 Points)

The circuit in Figure 7 is a sequence detector. A sequence 11111 in the input bit-
stream at A locks the output Z to 1. The output can be unlocked by applying
R = 1.

Z
A FF
FF FF FF FF

CK
R

Figure 7: Circuit for DFT Problem 6.

For scan design, only one pin is available and the only circuit element that can
be used is a two-to-one multiplexer.

(i) Redesign the circuit using minimum extra hardware to conform to the scan
design rule, “clock must not be gated by a combinational signal.” Neatly
sketch the redesigned circuit (8 points).

(ii) Sketch a schematic of the full-scan circuit using minimum extra overhead.
Show the complete wiring of the SCAN IN , SCAN OU T and test control
(T C) signals (9 points).

Solution to Problem 6
The redesigned scan circuit is shown in Figure 8. Two multiplexers have been added
and one AND gate is eliminated. Only one extra pin is used for the test control
signal T C. The added wiring is shown in bold lines.

Final Exam Problems and Solutions: VLSI Testing ELEC 7250 – May 10, 2004 Page 204
 MUX1
1 MUX2
A 1
or FF FF FF FF
SCANIN 0 Z
0 FF or
SCANOUT
CK
R

1−Normal mode, 0−Scan mode

TC

Figure 8: Scan design for the circuit of Figure 7.

(i) Work-around for design rule violation: The clock signal CK is directly supplied
to the last flip-flop. The output of the OR gate now controls a multiplexer,
MUX1. When the control is 0, which can only occur if Z is 1, Z is fed back
into the last flip-flop so that its state remains unchanged. The control will be
1 if either Z = 0 or R = 1. In that case the output of the sequence detecting
AND gate is supplied to the flip-flop. The logic of the multiplexer and the OR
gate can be reduced but this design is based on the use of the given multiplexer
block.

(ii) Scan design: Since the first four flip-flops already form a shift register, no scan
modification is necessary. The last flip-flop is preceded by another multiplexer,
MUX2, in addtion to the one inserted to eliminate the clock rule violation.
The scan wiring is shown in bold lines. Input A is also used as SCAN IN and
Z is used as SCAN OU T . The test control signal T C is the only added input
pin. In the normal mode (T C = 1), the circuit functions as sequence detector.
In the scan mode (T C = 0), the output of the fourth flip-flop is routed into
the last flip-flop, thus forming a shift register of length five between A and Z
pins of the circuit.

Final Exam Problems and Solutions: VLSI Testing ELEC 7250 – May 10, 2004 Page 205
Final Exam: Graduate Course – VLSI Testing
Auburn Univ., ELEC 7250, Spring 2005
April 30, 2005

Instructions (please read before you proceed):

1. Please read all problems before starting your answers. Problems can be an-
swered in any order.

2. Attempt all five problems and attempt all parts within each problem.

3. Answers can be written on question sheets or separate sheets or a combination.

Each sheet should have a page number and problem number. On the first sheet
write your name and the total number of sheets you are submitting.

4. Before handing in your answers, please check them thoroughly. If necessary,

extra 10 minutes can be allowed for checking.

Problem 1: Fault Modeling (20 Points)

(a) In a single-output circuit if two faults are indistinguishable, i.e., they produce
the same output function, then prove that the faults have the same set of tests.
(10 points)

(b) For the circuit of Figure 1, derive tests for faults i sa1 and e sa0. (5 points)
c m

d j
a i sum
b sa1
f k
g
n
h
carry
e sa0
Figure 1: Circuit for Problem 1 on fault modeling.

(c) Are two faults in part (b) distinguishable? If yes, how will you distinguish
between them? If not, why not? (5 points)

Final Exam Problems and Solutions: VLSI Testing ELEC 7250 – April 30, 2005 Page 206
Solution to Problem 1
(a) Consider a Boolean vector X, a logic function f (X), and two faults with cor-
responding functions f1 (X) and f2 (X). For the faults to be indistinguishable,
the two faulty functions must assume identical values for all X:

f1 (X) ≡ f2 (X), ∀ X (1)

Assume that vector X1 is a test for fault 1. Then,

f1 (X1 ) ⊕ f (X1 ) = 1 (2)

From Equation (1) f1 (X1 ) ≡ f2 (X1 ) and substituting this in Equation (2) we
get

f2 (X1 ) ⊕ f (X1 ) = 1 (3)

which implies that X1 is also a test for fault 2. Similarly, any test X2 for fault
2 can be shown to be a test for fault 1. Thus, both faults have exactly the
same tests.

(b) Both faults, i sa1 and e sa0, are detected by exactly one vector, a = b = 1.
This vector is simulated for both faults in parallel in the following figure.

Fault−free state
Fauty circuit state for i sa1
Faulty circuit state for e sa0
m
c 101
111 j
a d 0 1 0 sum
i
b 010
f sa1
111 k
g 111 101
n
h 111
110
carry
e sa0 110

Parallel fault simulation of test a = b = 1 for circuit of Figure 1.

(c) Even though the two faults have the same test set, they are distinguishable
because the two faulty functions differ at each output. For the faults to be
indistinuishable, the condition of Equation (1) in part (a) must be satisfied at
each output. The following table gives a diagnostic procedure:

Final Exam Problems and Solutions: VLSI Testing ELEC 7250 – April 30, 2005 Page 207
 Inputs Outputs Fault
a b sum carry diagnosis
1 1 0 1 No fault
1 1 1 1 Fault i sa1 is present
1 1 0 0 Fault e sa0 is present
1 1 1 0 Some other fault is present

Problem 2: Testability Measures (20 Points)

(a) For the asynchronous circuit of Figure 2 compute SCOAP combinational con-
trollability (CC0, CC1) and combinational observability (CO) measures for
all lines. (10 points)
a
f
b c
h
i
d e g

Figure 2: Circuit for Problem 2 on testability measures.

(b) Assuming that the testability of a fault can be represented as the sum of
the appropriate controllability and observability (e.g., testability measure of a
stuck-at-1 fault will be CC0 + CO), identify the most difficult to test stuck-at
fault. (5 points)

(c) Derive a test for the fault identified in part (b), considering line j to be in
unknown state, initially. (5 points)

Solution to Problem 2
(a) Combinational SCOAP testsbility measures, CC0, CC1 and CO, are shown
in the following figure. Initially, line j is set to CC0 = CC1 = CO = ∞. All
values stabilize after two iterations.

(b) The highest testability measure is CC0 + CO = 6 + 6 = 12 for fault j sa1.

(c) A test for the fault j sa1 consists of two vectors, (a, b) = (0,1) → (X,0).
Derivation of this test by time-frame expansion is illustrated in the following

Final Exam Problems and Solutions: VLSI Testing ELEC 7250 – April 30, 2005 Page 208
 a (1,1)6 (2,3)4
f (CC0, CC1) CO
b c
(1,1)6 (1,1)6 (6,4)0
(6,4)0
(1,1)9
h i
d e (2,2)8
g (3, )3

8
sa1
(3,7)3
j
( , )

8
8
8
Fault with highest testability
(6,4)6 measure, 12

SCOAP measures, (CC0, CC1)CO, for the circuit of Figure 2.

figure. Asynchronous feedback from h to j is broken and initialization j = X

is used. The stability of signals in each time-frame is verified by applying the
new state of h into j.

a X

Time frame 0
f 0
b 0 c
0/1
h i
d e 1
g
sa1
0/1
j 0/1
Time frame −1
a 0 f
0
1 c
b
0
h i
d e 0 0
g
sa1
j X/1 X (initial state)

Test generation for fault j sa1 in the circuit of Figure 2.

Final Exam Problems and Solutions: VLSI Testing ELEC 7250 – April 30, 2005 Page 209
Problem 3: ATPG and fault simulation (20 Points)
Derive a pseudo-combinational circuit for the cycle-free sequential circuit of Figure 3
by shorting all flip-flops (FF). Obtain a combinational test for the fault g sa1 in
the pseudo-combinational circuit. If you succeed in finding a combinational vector
then using fault simulation of the sequential circuit show that the targeted fault is
detected by repeating the same vector. Otherwise, use the time-frame expansion
method to derive a test sequence for this fault. (20 points)

a c i
d g h z
b’ e
b s−a−1 FF k
FF
m
f n
j FF

Figure 3: Circuit for Problem 3.

Solution to Problem 3
The pseudo-combinational circuit for the circuit of Figure 3 is shown below:

a c i
d g h z
b e
s−a−1 k
m
f n
j

Pseudo-combinational circuit for sequential circuit of Figure 3.

A test for g sa1 in the pseudo-combinational circuit is impossible because a =

b = 0 input that is essential to activate the fault, blocks the observation of the fault
effect through the NAND gate j.
This fault is testable in the sequential circuit of Figure 3 because the activation
of the fault and propagation through j can take place in separate time-frames. A
valid test consists of four vectors, (a, b) = (X,0), (0,1), (X,1), (1,X). Its derivation
is shown in the following figure:

Final Exam Problems and Solutions: VLSI Testing ELEC 7250 – April 30, 2005 Page 210
 b a b a b a b a
0 X 1 0 1 X X 1
b’ b b’ b b’ b b’ b
X 0 1 1 X
e d e d e d e d
f f f f
c c c c
sa1 sa1 sa1 sa1
X X/1 0/1 1 1
h g h g h g h g

X i
1 i X i
0
i
j X j 1 j 1/0 j 0
n k m n k m n k m n k m
X X 1 1/0 0

z X z 1 z 1 z 1/0
Time−frame −3 Time−frame −2 Time−frame −1 Time−frame 0

Test generation for g sa1 fault in the sequential circuit of Figure 3.

Problem 4: Fault diagnosis (20 points)

A circuit has six faults that are tested by four tests. Table 2 shows the fault
dictionary, where ti = 1 for fault F j if ith test detects F j. Faults F 1 and F 5 occur
with negligible probability and all other faults are found to be equally likely in a
faulty circuit. Devise a diagnostic tree to minimize the average time of diagnosing a
faulty circuit. Given a faulty circuit, on an average how many tests will be applied
before the fault is found. (20 points)

Table 2: Fault dictionary for Problem 4.

Fault Occurrence Test syndrome
probability t1 t2 t3 t4
No fault - 0 0 0 0
F1 0.00 0 0 0 1
F2 0.25 1 0 0 0
F3 0.25 0 0 1 0
F4 0.25 0 1 0 0
F5 0.00 1 0 1 0
F6 0.25 0 1 0 1

Final Exam Problems and Solutions: VLSI Testing ELEC 7250 – April 30, 2005 Page 211
Solution to Problem 4
Let us denote the tests as T1 , T2 , T3 and T4 , such that ti is the test syndrome of Ti .
We will only consider the four faults that have non-zero probabilities of occurrence.
A binary search generally leads to an optimum diagnosis since each test provides
a pass/fail result. Examining the tests of Table 2, we find that application of T2
divides the fault set into subsets (F4 , F6 ) and (F2 , F3 ). Similar consideration leads
to the following diagnostic tree. We have assumed that the circuit is known to be

F3
0

T
1
1
t2 = 0
F2

T
2
t2 = 1 F4
0
T
4
1

F
6
faulty before the diagnosis begins. Time for diagnosis is estimated as follows:

Average diagnostic test length

= 2 × P rob(F4 ) + 2 × P rob(F6 ) + 2 × P rob(F2 ) + 2 × P rob(F3 )
= 2 × 0.25 + 2 × 0.25 + 2 × 0.25 + 2 × 0.25
= 2.0
The average diagnosis time is two times that of applying one test.

Final Exam Problems and Solutions: VLSI Testing ELEC 7250 – April 30, 2005 Page 212
Problem 5: Scan design (20 Points)
The circuit in Figure 4 is a sequence detector. Only one 100-bit long sequence
0 . . . 11010 in the input bit-stream at P I produces an output P O = 1. The 100-
input AND function is implemented as a tree network of AND gates. The circuit
is customized for a specific bit-stream by inverting the selected inputs of the AND
network.

Giant
AND PO
tree

PI FF FF FF FF FF FF
1 2 3 4 5 100
CK
Figure 4: Circuit for scan design Problem 5.

(a) Considering the AND function as a stand-alone combinational circuit, what

is the minimum number of combinational vectors to completely test all single
stuck-at faults? (5 points)

(b) Implement scan design with minimum hardware and test pin overheads. What
is the test length in clock cycles for testing the combinational logic and the
shift register? (10 points)

(c) Modify the design to reduce the test time by a factor of 10. Add minimal
hardware and no more than 20 pins to the original circuit. (5 points)

Solution to Problem 5
(a) The AND gate will require 101 combinational vectors:

– A single all-1 vector will detect all 100 s-a-0 faults.

– A single s-a-1 fault on an input line i will be tested by a vector containing
i = 0 and all other inputs set to 1. Since there are 100 such faults, 100
vectors will be needed.
– Inverters on input line will require the corresponding bit of the vector to
be complemented. Because of the equivalence of their input and output
faults, inverters do not require any additional tests.
– Tests for input stuck-at faults will cover all other faults in the AND tree.
This is according to the checkpoint theorem on fault dominance.

(b) The minimal scan design requires only one extra pin that is used as the scanout
signal that is necessary for testing the shift register. PI would be used as

Final Exam Problems and Solutions: VLSI Testing ELEC 7250 – April 30, 2005 Page 213
 scanin. Because scanin and scanout are always available, no test control signal
is required. The circuit is shown in the following figure:

Giant
AND PO
tree

PI or scanout
FF FF FF FF FF FF
scanin 1 2 3 4 5 100
CK

Minimum overhead scan design of the circuit of Figure 4.

Only one pin for scan-out is added.

The shift register test will require NF F + 4 = 104 clock cycles. For combina-
tional tests of the AND gate, as soon as a vector is scanned in, the output of
the AND gate is directly observed. So, no scan-out is needed. Thus, applica-
tion of 101 combinational vectors will take 101 × 100 = 10, 100 clocks. The
total length of the scan test is 104 + 10, 100 = 10, 204 clock cycles.

(c) To reduce the test time, nine scan multiplexers are inserted to break up the
shift register into 10 segments, each containing 10 flip-flops. All multiplexers
are controlled by a test control signal T C. The P I signal is used as the scan-in
signal, scanin-1, for the first shift register segment. The other nine segments
are supplied the scan-in through test pins, scanin-2 through scanin-10. Each
shift register segment has a test output pin. The scan schematic is shown in
the following figure:

Giant
AND PO
tree

100 signals to AND network

10 10 10
scanout−1
PI or scanout−2
Flip−flops 1−10
mux

scanin−1 Flip−flops 11−20

mux

scanin−2 scanout−9
scanin−3
mux

Flip−flops 91−100 scanout−10

scanin−10
CK
TC

Reduced test time scan design of the circuit of Figure 4.

Hardware overhead is shown as grey shaded area.

The scan overhead consists of nine multiplexers and 20 pins (T C, 9 scanins,

and 10 scanouts).

Final Exam Problems and Solutions: VLSI Testing ELEC 7250 – April 30, 2005 Page 214
 All shift register segments are tested in parallel by a sequence of 14 clocks.
Scanning in of each combinational vector takes 10 clocks and, therefore, 1,010
clocks will be needed to apply 101 vectors. Thus, total test time is 14+1, 010 =
1, 024 clock cycles.

Final Exam Problems and Solutions: VLSI Testing ELEC 7250 – April 30, 2005 Page 215