Agri 11 – Introduction to Water Management and Irrigation

Iloilo Science and Technology University – Leon Campus

Unit 1
Lesson 4: Water Measurement

Units of Water Measurement

Two Classes of Water Measurement

1. Those expressing a specific volume of water at rest.
2. Those expressing a time rate of flow.

Commonly used units of volume of water at rest are:

a. liter c. hectare-centimeter
b. cubic meter d. hectare-meter

Hectare-centimeter - is a volume of water sufficient to cover 1 hectare a centimeter deep

- 100 cubic meters

Hectare-meter - covers 1 hectare 1 meter deep

- 10,000 cubic meters

Commonly used units of flow are:

a. liters per second c. hectare-centimeter per hour
b. cubic meters per second d. hectare-meters per day

ORIFICE

Flow Through an Orifice

▪ When the water-pressure intensity inside the pipes of a domestic water system is high,
water flows out of an open tap at a high velocity.
▪ When the pressure is low, it flows out slowly.
▪ If water pressure within the pipe were exactly equal to the pressure of the air outside the
pipe, there would be no flow.
▪ Pressure intensity at any point within a static body of water with a free surface is
proportional to the depth of the point below the water surface.
▪ The velocity of water flow through an opening in a vessel (or in a wall across a stream)
which is far below the water surface is greater than the velocity through an opening near
the water surface.
▪ The velocity of a falling body, ignoring atmospheric friction, may be determined from the
vertical distance through which the body falls from rest.
▪ The velocity of water escaping from an opening (orifice) in a vessel, ignoring friction,
may be determined from the height of water in the vessel above the opening.

V = √𝟐𝒈𝒉
Where:V = velocity, in cm/s
g = the acceleration due to gravity (or the force of gravity per unit mass of
water)
= 981 cm/s²
h = the depth of water (or pressure head, causing discharge through an
orifice), cm

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 Agri 11 – Introduction to Water Management and Irrigation
Iloilo Science and Technology University – Leon Campus

If the vertical dimension of the orifice is very long, the velocity of flow through the orifice will be
appreciably greater near the bottom of the orifice than near the top. For instance, it is assumed
that the orifice height is so small as compared with the pressure head causing the discharge
that the difference between velocity near the top and the bottom of the orifice is negligible. The
depth of water is 120 cm.

V = √(2 × 981 × 120) = 485 cm/s

Theoretically, water should flow through an orifice which is 120 cm below the surface at a
velocity of approximately 485 cm/s. Owing to frictional resistance, the actual velocity is
somewhat less than the theoretical velocity.

The opening of water flows through an opening is directly proportional to the cross-sectional
area pf the opening and to the velocity of flow:

Q = AV

Where:
Q = quantity of flow/discharge, rate of flow
A = cross-sectional area of water
V = the mean velocity of perpendicular to the cross-sectional area

The theoretical discharge through an orifice may be determined by substituting the value of V,
i.e.,

Q = A √𝟐𝒈𝒉

If the orifice opening is 10 cm high by 45 cm long) perpendicular to the plane of the paper), the
area would be:

A = 10× 45 = 450 sq. cm.

Experimental has shown that the actual discharge for a standard orifice is approximately six-
tenths the theoretical discharge, so that the actual Q would be computed thus:

Q = 0.6 × 450 × 485 = 130, 950 cu. cm/s

= 0.13 cu. m/s

Finally, the equation for actual discharge through an orifice is

Q = C A √𝟐𝒈𝒉

Where:
C = is a coefficient of discharge determined by experiment. It ranges from
0.027 up to 0.035 or more, depending on the position of the orifice relative to the
sides and bottoms of the vessels or of the water channel and also on the degree
of roundness of the edges of the orifice.

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 Agri 11 – Introduction to Water Management and Irrigation
Iloilo Science and Technology University – Leon Campus

Submerged Orifices
The water cross-sectional area of a submerged orifice is the length of the opening times
the height, or

A = L ×𝑯

The loss of head as water flows through a submerged orifice is a differences in elevation
of the water surface upstream and downstream. Hence, the discharge of a standard submerged
orifice is:
Q = 0.027 𝑨√𝟐𝒈𝒉

Where: Q = discharge, in li/s

A = area of orifice, in sq. cm
h = head, in cm
g = 981 cm/s²

The submerged orifice is used both in its standard form and as a combination head gate
measuring device.

Figure 1. Discharge of Water Through an Orifice under Head

Types of Orifice Used

1. Submerged Orifices with Fixed Dimensions

They are used where the available head is insufficient for weirs. For best results they are
usually rectangular with the horizontal dimension from two to six times the height. They are
generally installed in sufficiently large channels so that the contractions are complete or very
nearly so. The coefficient of discharge will then be approximately 0.027.

Figure 2. Submerged
Orifice

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Iloilo Science and Technology University – Leon Campus

2. Kinds of Adjustable Submerged Orifices

a. Headgate
b. Turnout
c. Measuring device

Such structures generally have one or two slide gates that may be held open in any desired
position. Two gates can be used together to provide a constant head orifice with greater
accuracy. One gate is used to control the water level. Single submerged orifice head gates are
generally not accurate measuring devices and are gradually being replaced by better types of
structures.

For accurate measurements with free-flowing orifices, the height of the orifice should not be
greater than the head. The pressure head is the most difficult to regulate. The means gradually
employed is either an adjustable regulating gate or a spill crest at the desired level allowing
excess water to overflow. Some orifices installations employ both principles to ensure accurate
measurement. With complete contraction, velocity of approach is usually negligible.

WEIR

It is defined as a notch in a wall built across a stream. A notch may be rectangular, trapezoidal,
or triangular in shape.

Flow Through a Weir

Suppose that the water surface is lowered until it drops below the upper edge of the orifice.
Then the pressure head which causes the average velocity, h=1/2 the total depth of water over
the bottom edge of the orifice. Representing the length of orifice by the symbol L, the area
becomes:

A = 2hL

Substituting this value of A

Q = 2 CLh √𝟐𝒈𝒉 = 2 CLh3/2 2g

Since the acceleration due to gravity is nearly constant, it is convenient to represent the product
2C 2g by a single symbol, say C’. Then it follows that:

Q = C’ Lh3/2

Figure 3. Shows that the discharge

through a partly filled orifice is similar to
the discharge over a weir

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 Agri 11 – Introduction to Water Management and Irrigation
Iloilo Science and Technology University – Leon Campus

In measuring the flow of water over weirs, it is convenient and customary to measure the total
depth. Substituting for h its equivalent H/2 results:

Q = C’ L (H/2)3/2 = C’/23/2LH3/2

Or
Q = C” L/H3/2

Where: C” = C’/23/2

The above equation is the general form for discharge of rectangular and trapezoidal weirs. The
only measurements essential in using this equation are those of the length of the weir crest, L
and depth of water flowing over it, H. The velocity need to be measured directly. The coefficient
C”, ordinarily represented by C, has been determined by experiment by the workers. For
rectangular weirs it was found early by Francis to be 0.0184 and hence, the widely used sharp-
crested weir discharge equation is:

Q = 0.0184 LH3/2

Where: Q = discharge, li/s

L = length of weir crest, cm
H = total head, cm

This equation without modification applies accurately only to rectangular weirs in which the
length of weir is the same as the width of the rectangular channel immediately above the weir,
i.e., weirs having suppressed end contractions. For weirs having complete contractions, the
effective length of weir crest, L, is found from the relation:

L = L’ − 0.2 𝐻

Where: L’ = the measured length of weir crest

Therefore, the formula for rectangular weir with complete contraction is:

Q = 0.0184 (L – 0.2H) H3/2

For the 90° triangular weir, the water cross-sectional area is H× 𝐻, or H², and therefore,

Q = C H² 2gh = C’ H5/2

The actual discharge has been found by experiment to be approximately:

Q = 0.0138 H5/2

Where: Q = li/s
H = cm

For trapezoidal weirs (Cipolleti weir), the actual discharge can be computed by the following
formula:

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 Agri 11 – Introduction to Water Management and Irrigation
Iloilo Science and Technology University – Leon Campus

Q = 0.0186LH3/2

Where: Q = discharge, li/s

L = length of weir crest, cm
H = total head, cm

Summary of Weir and Orifice Formula

Table 1 below gives the summary of the formula for weir and orifice.

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 Agri 11 – Introduction to Water Management and Irrigation
Iloilo Science and Technology University – Leon Campus

Effect of Boundary Form on Coefficient of Discharge

When silt deposits in front of an orifice or weir, the flow is changed. This causes one of the
major sources of error in these measuring devices. Note that the orifice and weir formula
presented are for the average conditions and do not reflect changes in boundary form.

A coefficient of 0.027 corresponds to conditions where b/h=0, which is not always the case. For
weirs, the coefficient of 0.0184 corresponds to the value of H/ (H= W) of 0.22 essentially the
condition where the depth over the crest in one third the distance from the bottom to the crest.

Properties of Weirs and Orifices

It is important to note the influence that the change of depth of water H has on the discharge Q
for the various weirs and orifices. For example, when the stream over a rectangular weir
increases until the depth H is doubled, the cross-sectional area is doubled, and the discharge Q
increased by 2.8 times; whereas doubling H over a trapezoidal weir slightly more than double
the area, and increase the discharge 2.88 times. When H on a triangular weir is doubled, area
is increase 4 times and the discharge is increased nearly 5.66 times. When the depth of water H
causing the discharge through submerged orifice is doubled, the area remains unchanged, and
the discharged Q is made only 1.4 times the original discharge.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Weirs and Orifice

The advantages of weirs include the following:

1. Accuracy
2. Simplicity and ease of construction
3. Non-obstruction by moss or floating materials
4. Durability

Its disadvantages include:

1. Requirement of considerable fall of water surface which makes their use in real having level
land impracticable.
2. Deposition of gravel, sand, and silt above weir presents accurate measurements.

For orifices, the advantages are the small loss of head of difference in elevation of the water
surfaces on the upstream and the downstream sides of the orifices making it suitable for use in
canals and ditches having small slopes where it is difficult to obtain fall enough to.

Most serious disadvantages of orifices are:

1. Collecting of floating debris

2. Collecting pf sand and silt above the orifice thus preventing accurate measurement

Weir Box and Pond

When using weirs, the ditch or canal must be made wider and deeper than the average for
some distance upstream from the weir. This is to make the water approach the weir at a low
velocity (usually less than 15 cm per sec) by flowing through a relatively large channel. The

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 Agri 11 – Introduction to Water Management and Irrigation
Iloilo Science and Technology University – Leon Campus

enlarge section of the ditch should be gradually tapered to natural size. Cross currents
upstream from near the weir must be prevented. This may be done by placing baffle boards
across the weir channel. The weir may be placed in a weir box built of concrete or lumber.

Rules for Setting and Operating Weirs

1. The weir should be set at the lower end of a long pool sufficiently wide and deep to given an
even, smooth current with velocity of approach of not over 5 cm per sec which means practically
still water.
2. The center line of the weir box should be parallel to the direction of flow.
3. The face of the weir box should be parallel to the direction of flow.
4.The crest of the weir should be level, so the water passing over it will be of the same depth at
only one point.
5. The upstream edge should be sharp so that the overfalling water touches the crest at only
one point.
6. The distance of the crest above the bottom of the fall should be about three times the depth
of water flowing over the weir crest.
7. The sides of the pool should be at a distance from the sides of the crest nit less than twice
the depth of the water passing over the crest.
8. For accurate measurement the depth over the crest should be no more than one-third the
length of the crest.
9. The depth of water over the crest should be no less than 15 cm, as it is difficult with smaller
depths to get sufficiently accurate gauge readings to give close results.
10. The crest should be placed high enough so water will fall freely below the weir, leaving an
air space under the over-falling sheet of water. If the water below the weir rises above the crest,
this free fall is not possible, and the weir is then said to be submerged. Unless complicated
corrections are made, measurements on submerged weirs are reliable.
11. The gauge or weir scale may be placed on the upstream face of the weir structure and far
enough to one side so that it will be in comparatively still water, or it may be placed at any point
in the weir pond or box, so long as it is a sufficient distance from the weir notch as to be
essentially beyond the downward curve of the scale or gauge should be placed level with the
weir crest. This may be done with the carpenter’s level, or where greater refinement is desired,
with engineer’s level.
12. To prevent erosion by falling water, the ditch downstream from the weir should be protected
by loose rock or by other materials.

Figure 4. Profile of a Thin-Plate Weir

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 Agri 11 – Introduction to Water Management and Irrigation
Iloilo Science and Technology University – Leon Campus

Figure 5. Rectangular Weir with End Contractions

Figure 6. V-Notch, Thin-Plate Weir

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 Agri 11 – Introduction to Water Management and Irrigation
Iloilo Science and Technology University – Leon Campus

Figure 7. Trapezoidal or Cipolleti Weir

PARSHALL FLUME

It is a measuring device designed by Parshall with which the discharge is obtained be

measuring the loss in head caused by forcing a stream of water through a throat or converged
section of a flume with a depressed bottom.

▪ The disadvantage of weirs and submerged orifices are largely overcome by the Parshall
flume.
▪ Care must be exercised in determining the differences in water level to get accurate
measurements, since the head H in which measurement is based is small.
▪ It was first known as the venture flume, being similar to the venture tube or meter early
designed to measure the flow of water in pipes.
▪ Silt will not deposit in the structure where it will affect the accuracy, because velocity is
higher in the flume than in the channel.
▪ Ordinary velocities of approach have little or no effect to the measurement.
▪ The flume may be used with recording or registering instruments when contagious
records of flow are desired, or with an indicating gauge graduated to give the flow in any
unit desired.
▪ It cannot readily be combined with a turnout.
▪ For free flow conditions the exit velocity is relatively high, and channel protection is
generally necessary downstream from the flume to prevent erosion.

The accuracy of the Parshall measuring flume is within the limits that are allowable in irrigation
practice, ordinarily within 5 percent. Flumes ranging from 2.5 centimeters to 3 meters in throat
width are used to measure flows from 0.3 liters per second to 5.5 cubic meters per second or
larger. Small flumes are well suited to the requirement of measuring from water deliveries and
flows in furrows. The Parshall flume operates successfully with less loss of head than required
for weirs.

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 Agri 11 – Introduction to Water Management and Irrigation
Iloilo Science and Technology University – Leon Campus

Figure 8. Parshall Flume

Figure 9. Dimensions of a Parshall Flume

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 Agri 11 – Introduction to Water Management and Irrigation
Iloilo Science and Technology University – Leon Campus

The successful operation of the Parshall flume depends largely upon the correct selection of
size and proper setting of the flume. The probable maximum and minimum flow to be measured
is estimated, and maximum allowable head is determined. The maximum allowable head will
depend on the grade of the channel and the freeboard (distance from normal water surface to
top banks) at the place where the flume is to be installed. Whenever possible, the selection
should be made so that free-flow will always result.

Construction of Parshall Flume

▪ Parshall flumes may be built of wood, concrete blocks, concrete and brick, or heavy
sheet metal in case of smaller sizes.
▪ To secure accuracy in measurement, these flumes must be built to exact dimensions,
especially the converging and throat sections. The flow of the upstream converging
section, especially the crest, must be level. A short inclined floor should be provided as a
reasonably uniform approach where the flume is more than 15 centimeters above the
channel bottom.
▪ The diverging section downstream from the throat can be omitted without affecting the
discharge. The function of the diverging section is to reduce the head loss through the
flume and minimize erosion downstream.

Trapezoidal Flumes

Characteristics:
1. Extreme approach conditions seem to have a minor effect upon head-discharge relationships;
2. Material deposited in the approach did not change the head-discharge relationship
noticeably;
3. A large range of flows can be measured through the structure with a comparatively small
change in head;
4. The flumes will operate under greater submergence than rectangular-shaped ones without
corrections being necessary to determine the exact discharge;
5. The trapezoidal shape fits the common canal section more closely than a rectangular one.
6. Construction details such as transitions and form work are simplified;
7. The relationship between head and discharge is not as easily expressed in the form of an
equation as is the rectangular-shaped flume;
8. The sensitivity of the flume to changes in discharge is less than that for the rectangular-
shaped ones.

Current Meter

It is a device widely used by engineers for measuring flowing water.

Types of Meter:

1. Cup-type with vertical axis - More sensitive to disturbance such as brought close to the bank
and being held stationary. It also offers greater resistance to the flow of water and is thus swept
farther downstream when suspended from a cable. One distinct advantage of this type is that is
a more rugged instrument and can be used by relatively unskilled technicians. It is generally
used for field observations.

2. Propeller-type with Horizontal Axis - Used for higher ranged of velocities (up to 6 to 9 meters
per second). The small-sized propeller-type meter is used when taking measurement near the
walls of pipes and the edges of channels where there is rapid change of velocity. It is less likely

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 Agri 11 – Introduction to Water Management and Irrigation
Iloilo Science and Technology University – Leon Campus

to be fouled by floating weeds and debris. It is more useful for pipe measurements and
laboratory observations.

3. Electromagnetic probe - When it is immersed in flowing water, a voltage is created around the
probe. This voltage is transmitted through the cable to the meter box. The voltage created by
water flowing through the magnetic field is proportional to the velocity of the water. These small
voltages are electronically processed and displaced on the panel meter.

Measuring Technique

1. The meter is calibrated by passing it through still water at a known speed and noting the
number of revolutions per second. When the calibrated meter is held still in running water at the
proper depth, it is thus possible to determine the average velocity of the water by observing the
number of revolutions per second.

2. The current meter is raised and lowered slowly and at a constant rate from the bottom to the
top of the stream which is known as the integration method.

3. Current meters require no obstruction of stream flow and are suited to large streams.

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 Agri 11 – Introduction to Water Management and Irrigation
Iloilo Science and Technology University – Leon Campus

SAMPLE PROBLEMS

1. The theoretical flow velocity in an orifice is 2 m/s. What is the height of water flowing above
the center of the orifice?

2. Given: d = 3 in.
T = 20 hrs
A = 10 ha= 100,000 m²

Required: H in notch weir

3. A rectangular canal is to irrigate an area of 50 ha, 30 ha, and 20 ha rice field. If one
rectangular weir of 0.30 m crest is to be used to control the flow of each area, what should be
the depth of water over the crest of each of the weir in order to supply 1 li/sec to each ha to be
irrigated.

4. An irrigation system turnout serving a 30-ha sector delivered a depth of 40 cm to 90°

triangular weir for a period of 24 hours. Because of high wind velocity and relatively bright days,
evapotranspiration of transplanted rice (at its panicle initiation stage) is estimated at 7.5
mm/day. Is the water allocation able to meet the water requirements of the sector for the next 5
days (when the next rotation schedule of the sector arrives) or not? Justify your answer through
necessary calculations. Assume an irrigation efficiency of 55%.

5.What is the flow over a rectangular weir (without end contraction) when the overflow is 15 cm
deep at a weir length of 30 cm?

6. The capacity of certain canal will be measured using a Cipolleti weir having a length of 50 cm.
If the height of flowing water above the crest is 1 cm, what is the well capacity?

7. With this discharge, what will be the head above the crest if V-notch is installed somewhere
along the same canal?

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 Agri 11 – Introduction to Water Management and Irrigation
Iloilo Science and Technology University – Leon Campus

References:

Fundamentals of Agricultural Engineering Handouts, Central Philippine University, 2018

https://www.fao.org/3/t0848e/t0848e-09.htm

Note that this module provided to you in any form is intended only for use in connection with the subject
you are enrolled in. This module is not for distribution or sale.