DEPARTMENT

OF GEOGRAPHY
DISCUSSION
PAPER SERIES

J.M. W. TURNER AND THE

LANDSCAPE REVOLUTION:
A PERSONAL VIEW

FF Cunningham

SIMON FRASER
UNIVERSITY
BURNABY BRITISH COLUMBIA, CANADA
 $2 per copy

J.M.W. TURNER AND THE LANDSCAPE REVOLUTION:

A PERSONAL VIEW

By
•
F.F. Cunningham

DISCUSSION PAPER NO. 12

Disclaimer: Simon Fraser University, Department of Geography.

Discussion Papers are prepared or edited by
Department members for private circulation to
interested individuals. Since these papers may
represent preliminary work in progress, their
contents should neither be quoted nor referred
to in published work without written consent
of the author.

Comments are invited.

 It has been recognised at least since Plato that the

'objective' environment is not directly accessible to us.

Instead, its signals are screened both by the peculiarities

of the human visual apparatus, and by attitudes and perceptions,

some of which are learned from cultural training and from

individual experiences. Of the many influences embedded within

culture, that of landscape art has been at times very powerful.

The interpretations of nature by landscape artists were

of unequalled importance in Western (i.e. European-cum-North

American) societies from the late 18th to the late 19th

Century. Before this relatively short period, the canons of

landscape appreciation came from literature rather than from

art, and from the late 19th Century onwards photographic

expertise has progressively ousted art in our perceptions. The

19th Century view of the Grand Canyon was doubtless tempered

by the photographic records of the expeditions of J.W. Powell

and the Kolb brothers, but the vision itself, as appreciated

by millions who never saw the Canyon, derived from the romantic

paintings of Thomas Moran. It is clear that our present day

conception of landscape has a different origin, a flavour

mostly drawn from multitudes of colour photographs in magazines

and travel brochures, a flavour which might be summarised as

'National Geographic'.

The Landscape Revolution

The onset of the relatively brief supremacy of landscape

artists was one of a number of manifestations of a massive

* Landscape, Volume 20, Number 1, October 1975, pp. 14-19.

 2.

cultural shift in Western societies in the late 18th Century,

a shift of which the political revolutions in North America

and in France and the Industrial Revolution in England were

but symptoms. The underlying cause was a changed attitude

about man's relation to environment, and it was prompted by

developments in landscape science.

18th Century Europe was torn between two conflicting

convictions. On the one hand stood the Christian traditions

that the material life on earth is inconsequent ial because the

real life is hereafter; that the earth's surface is a ruin

left by the cataclysm of the Flood, and its present inhabitants

the penitent descendants of those saved by Noah; and that

natural catastrophes are warnings or chastisement s from God.

On the other was the Rationalist stance that reasonable

people, through the pursuit of knowledge in a world of

presumed 'natural order', could so arrange society that it

would operate harmoniously to everyone's happiness. Whereas

virtue, even to the point of martydom, had been the central,

earthly concern of Christianity , the pursuit of 'happiness'

becomes a 'self evident' fact in that typically rationalist

document, the American Declaration of Independence . For

Rationalists the characterist ics of both the earth's landscape

and its inhabitants were exquisitely ordered and contrived, the

handiwork of a God who, far from moving in mysterious ways,

must himself be the Supreme Rationalist. The Scottish

scientist: James Hutton (1726-1797), "Father of Modern Geology",

was the first t:o formulate a comprehensiv e synthesis of the

inorganic and organic attributes of the earth on mechanistic

 3.

lines, proposing an elegant and inevitable balance between the

destructive and constructive processes affecting not only the

earth's surface but also its life forms. This balance,

Hutton contended, was such that we could entirely understand

the earth from a persistent enquiry into its present behaviour.

Any deviations, such as God-inspired cataclysms, were not only

unnecessary but unthinkable. To Hutton the earth could not

be a ruin because it was necessarily perfect.

While the inorganic phenomena of the world have given

up ~any of their secrets to this rational approach, based as

it is on an natural order in which the similarities between

like things are assumed to be more significant than individual

differences, human affairs have never fitted well into this

approach except at a gross scale. This disparity has led

to the divergence of 'the two cultures', a divergence which

can be well exemplified in landscape study. The scientific

pursuit of landscape has produced that geomorphological line

of enquiry which has attempted to contain understanding of

landscape within propositions of mathematical probability,

but it is difficult to believe that any formula could arrange

landscape paintings in any scale of agreed merit or importance.

The new geology, which crystallised in the work of

Hutton, had two faces. From its proofs that the earth was

vastly older than the traditional Christian allowance of

some 6,000 years; that the processes of erosion and deposition,

of vulcanism, of uplift and submergence had occurred and

re-occured over that vast interval; that the fossil record

not only showed mankind to be recent, but exhibited a curious

 4.

pattern of profound organic changes which might be explained

in Pvolutionary terms; in all these the new geology was a

flagrant challenge to established beliefs. But, secondly,

the new geological expertise was essential to the spread of

factory industry because of the latter's dependence on greatly

increased supplies of coal and iron, and it was this factory

production which appeared to offer the only hope of achieving

the material millenium. So the new geology not only
revolutionised the interpretation of the landscape, but

sanctioned that rape of the earth which, with admittedly

enhanced living standards, has typified 19th and 20th Century

European and North American economic developments. We are

heirs to both these faces.

These revolutionary attitudes to landscape were not likely

to be lost on artists, so that, contemporaneous with the

advances in landscape science and the Industrial Revolution,

arose (also starting in Britain be it noted) the first group

of landscape artists who could at once persuade themselves,

their patrons, and the general public that the rendering

of the landscape was the most important of all subjects. It

would be misleading to regard this group of British artists

as a school. They were much too varied for that. Turner and

Constable, now regarded as the most significant of that

group, not only shared the contemporary milieu but were each

trained at the Royal Academy schools, yet they might reasonably

be regarded as occupying opposite ends of the spectrum of ideas,

interests, and styles exhibited by the group. It is easy to

 5.

see in Turner's work that he not only lived through one of

the most tumultuous periods of history but was much affected

and perplexed by it. Constable, at least superficially, seems

. .
impervious or even unaware.

J.M.W. Turner

Joseph Mallord William Turner is unmistakably the most

significant of this British group of landscape artists. While

his relative merits and demerits are likely to remain matters

of controversy, he provides a unique insight into the range of

landscape art. Partly from an enormous intellectual curiosity

but also from a competitive urge of pathological dimensions,

Turner not only set out to excel in almost all styles which

were highly regarded in his times, but had enough insight and

energy left over to explore entirely original avenues. His

prodigious energy was put almost entirely into his art. The

tension between, on the one hand, his humble upbringing and, on

the other, his tremendous and acknowledged abilities, provides

an easy target for the psychoanalyst. Turner was brought up

in a London slum. Towards his father, an uneducated barber,

Turner had a touching affection, the more concentrated because

his mother suffered from bouts of mental illness and was

eventually confined to an asylum. In spite of commendable
efforts at self-education, Turner felt himself a parvenu

among many of his patrons and even among his fellow artists.

A head shorter than average, gauche, secretive, but conscious

of his great gifts, he avoided most social entanglements. His

ambitions were boundless.

l __________
'
 6.

Nearly all of Turner's finished works were produced in

the studio, but the raw materials were the vast number of

f ir'st-hand sketches by which he recorded his incessant tours

of Britain and, in later life, of Western Europe. As a

voung man, Turner would walk or ride all day in search of his

subjects. Throughout his life he remained an indefatigable

traveller and was content to put up with the simplest and

cheapest fare. At the age of GO, Turner found himself crossing

the Channel during a storm in which even the captain was

convinced that his vessel would sink. The artist insisted

on being lashed to the mast so that he did not miss the

opportunity of sketching the violent waves. In 1845, at

the age of 70, Turner made his last sketching tour in Europe.

J.M.W. Turner's output is vast, almost beyond belief.

He left behind about 20,000 'works'! Of these, more than 500

were oil paintings, many of which were exhibited during his

lifetime. The largest number of his oils, however, were

painted for his own purposes, and some of these have only

been exhibited in this century. In 1939 some 50 oil paintings

by Turner were discovered in the cellar of the National

Gallery in London. They had been rolled up and left there

after the disposal of Turner's effects almost a century

earlier. Thought for all that time to be merely tarpaulins,

they are in his late, abstract style. They would not have
been accepted in his own day but would have no such problem

today. The great mass of Turner's work is not oils but

water-color paintings and drawings, ranging from superbly

finished products to working sketches. In his earlier years

 7.

Turner's preliminary, first-hand sketches were skilful pencil

or chalk outlines to which he often added wash or water colour

(usually the same evening), but later he found that the merest

jcttings in lines and words were sufficient. From such

fragments he was able, by the aid of a phenomenal visual memory,

to formulate pictures which, among other qualities, can be

very recognisable representatio ns of particular places.

It may help us to appreciate Turner's industry if we pose

that if anyone were to set out to copy all of his output, and

produce one every day, it would take almost 60 years to

complete the task! It follows that no one really knows all

of Turner's output, so that even on that account alone any

evaluation is highly subjective and likely to be disputed. It

is also the case that any estimate of Turner's importance must

concentrate to an unusual degree on his professional progress.

His life outside of his art was trivial, even squalid. But
to grasp his art meaningfully is extraordinar ily difficult.

Apart from the sheer size of his output, few other artists,

except perhaps Picasso, have moved so much in their lifetimes.

In addition Turner did not only grow but he expanded in his

art, embracing additional approaches but seldom relinquishing

any. It is commonly judged that his style was careful and

representatio nal in youth; bold, free, but recognisable in

maturity; nebulous, perverse, and uncertain in old age. In

fact, almost to the last he could produce the careful,

topographica l style when needed (as for his many book

illustration s), as well as the most exquisite water colours.

It also seems the case that Turner began experimental ,

 8.

expressionis t ventures fairly early in his career.

Consequently neither a topical nor a chronologica l approach

to Turner's work is particularly satisfactory .

This account proceeds to first review the styles of

painting thought well of in Turner's time. These were the

first hurdles of his ambitions. Secondly, there follows a
brief survey of his works arranged in chronologica l phases

which the writer recognises but others would dispute. Thirdly

an attempt is made to evaluate the artist and his invluence.

The Styles of Painting in Turner's Times

Except that the relative significance of landscape

increased markedly, the styles of painting favoured during

Turner's long career were largely traditional. Turner himself

classified his work as Historical, Pastoral, Mountain, Marine,

and Architectura l, but these adjectives are neither mutually

exclusive nor comprehensiv e.

'History painting', by which at the end of the 18th

Century was understood the representatio n of moral-pointin g

incioents from the Bible and from Classical history or

mythology, was regarded as the worthiest objective for an

artist. Such art required not only a lofty purpose, but an

enviabJe range of skills in painting figures, costumes,

architecture , landscape, seascape, and skyscape. As with all

other styles of art at this time, its patrons were those

wealthy enough to commission painters, and were of the same

small group who commissioned architects to build them country

houses or palaces, landscape gardeners to plan their estates,

 9.

and interior decorators to fashion furniture, wall hangings,

and ornaments. These patrons customarily had a Classical

education, and their reverence for the past had been reinforced

by the Grand Tour, a holiday on the Continent of Europe during

which they visited specific places (notably Rome), and indeed

were expected to appreciate specified items. These patrons

demanded and .readily discerned in commissioned art the

appropriate Classical and Biblical references, and saw

possible analogies with contemporaneous issues. Such art

obviously demanded a great deal from the viewer.

Respect for the past breeds conventions and models. It

was considered that in history painting Claude Lorraine

(1600-1682), and Nicolas Poussin (1594-1665), Frenchmen who

had spent most of their professional lives in Italy, were the

paragons. Although Claude's subjects, as revealed in the

titles of his most famous works, were Classical or Biblical

incidents, he was unusually pre-occupied with landscape and

with architecture. His figures, which are ostensibly his

chief concern, are usually small (he contrasts strongly with

Nicolas Poussin in this), and his pictures are chiefly note-

worthy for an idealised calm, for a balance of the massing

of buildings or landscape every bit as thoughtful and contrived

as Raphael's figure groups, as well as for a delicate effect

of recession in which he was unrivalled. British collectors

were most anxious to acquire works by Claude and other Old

Masters, and British artists, who had been consistently

schooled to think of themselves as inferior, were equally

 10.

anxiou~ to view them. Before the opening of the National

Gallery in 1824, Britic,h artists had little other access to

such works.

It took an American, Benjamin West, to change the 'history

painting' tradition. It is difficult for us to see his Death

of Wolfe (1771) as the revolutionary work it really was. Firstly,

it depicted a relatively recent event, well within the memory

of many persons then living. Secondly it showed the

participants in the appropriate military uniforms. Joshua Reynolds,

first President of the Royal Academy and arbiter of art taste

in Britain at the time, pleaded with West to paint his

figures in classical armour!

'Portrait painting', though considered a lesser art, had

always been profitable, and became much more so when the

British aristocracy were aped by the rapidly growing numbers

of commercial and industrial nouveaux riches. They too

commissioned country houses and had themselves and their

families' portraits painted.

These two sets of patrons also provided a market for

topographical work, the careful rendering, often in line with

washes of tone or more rarely colour, depicting the country

seat of the patron or scenes on the Grand Tour. Similar

techniques were employed in the representation of places in

Britain, for which there arose an enhanced interest as the

country emerged as the foremost in Europe. From such modest

intentions arose a remarkable and unique galaxy of water

colourist of whom Paul Sandby, John Robert Cozens, Peter de Wint,

 11.

Francis Towne, John Sell Cotman, Thomas Girtin, and Turner

himself were the most notable pioneers. Britain's

national pride, based originally on worsting the French during

the 18th Century, was greatly enhanced by Trafalgar and

Waterloo, and by her new supremacy in manufacturing and in

geological enquiry. The British, developing an interest in

their landscape appropriate to their nationalism, not only

discerned the hand of a preferential providence in their

uniquely large and accessible supplies of coal and iron, but

pretended that their country was a balanced assemblage of the

various types of scenery. They went so far as to detect, in

the more rugged parts of their country, scenery to which they

could attribute the objective 'alpine'! In listing the

scenic gems of their land, their respect for the past,

coupled with the cult of the 'picturesque', ensured that the

most favoured views which were to be admired or drawn were

of castles and abbeys (especially ruined ones), mediaeval

cathedrals, waterfalls, seacliffs, and mountains.

In its range of expertise, 'genre painting' was as

demanding as history painting, but in its aim was categorised

by Reynolds as 'contemptible'. Genre painting was concerned

not with high-minded incident, but with the anonymous and

contemporary majority going about their humdrum business -

farmers tilling fields, fishermen hauling nets, housewives

cleaning house, people at the market or the fair. Hogarth

expanded this approach into much wider contexts of British life.

The Dutch had long excelled in this style, and Reynolds

 12.

conceded their great technjcal skill, but he was almost as

rn11ch offended by thP mere representation, the llnide<-11 ic;ed

rendering of things as they are, as he was by the lack of

high purpose in such art. In fact there was always the

possibility that genre art and history painting might converge.

For instance the genre rendering of the rural landscape

might pay homage to the supposed virtues of living in the

country, virtues which some of the educated British of the

18th Century feared was in danger of extinction by the advance

of industry and commerce. Such genre painting could thus Join

the pastoral tradition pursued by contemporary writers in the

style of the revered Vergil. So, too, the rendering of

contemporary rather than past events might be on an epic

scale. Industrial scenes or warfare might be painted with

high moral intent.

Marine painting blurred the issues even further. It

allowed either 'history' or 'genre' approaches, depending upon

whether the artist was portraying a memorable sea battle or

anonymous shipping. The artificiality of the distinction

was clearest here because the successful rendering of ships,

of whatever kind, demanded considerable technical knowledge

a~ well as skill, and the sea has been notoriously difficult

to paint throughout the history of art. The Dutch attention

to detail had been helpful in this task, and the British were

long convinced that no one, not even the Old Masters, could

ever equal Van de Velde the Younger (1633-1707) in marine

subjects.
 LL

The Young Turner

For an uneducated slum boy like young Turner to break

into the artistic circles of his times, a literature-or iented,

patron-domin ated circle, would seem nearly impossible. Turner

managed it because of his talents, his remarkable powers of

application, and the development through self-educatio n of a

genuine if erratic taste for literature. In the catalogues

of exhibitions of his works he attached quotations from

poets, especially from James Thomson who had first described

nature in realistic terms, and later, and increasingly , some

verses of his own. Turner's quotations were often incorrect,

his historical allusions often hazy, his own verse very

amateurish, but his promptings were genuine enough. "The

fumes of history filled his brain, not its dry facts''.* He
became essentially a history painter. If subsequent generations
such as our own have looked at his work principally in terms

of colour and effect, his own intentions, at least in his

exhibited works, were unmistakably literary.

Turner's father was quick to see his son's talent in

drawing, and had him trained by a drawing master (Thomas Malton).

From 1789 to 1793 the boy attended the rigorous if conventional

Royal Academy Schools which Reynolds had set up. Turner was
a quiet, assiduous, and absorptive student. In 1790, at the
age of fifteen, he had a painting (a watercolour) , shown in

the Royal Academy's annual exhibition, the first of an almost

* Martin Butlin: J.M.W. Turner; Art and Content, p. 10, in

Turner 1775-1851, (The Tate Gallery, 1974).
 14.

uninterrupted stredm of exhibits there, in the British

Institution, and in his own Gallery which he set up in London.

His first oil was not exhibited until 1796.

After leaving the Royal Academy Schools, Turner spent

much time at Dr. Munro's 'manufactury'. Munro, an expert

in men~al illness who treated persons so diverse as George III

and Turner's mother, provided a group of promising young

artists with a place to work, materials, and reproductions or

actual drawings he wished copied. It is not clear how much

Munro was concerned about the prospects of the young men (they

certainly got practise and became acquainted with the work of

a wide variety of artists), and how much he was concerned at

getting good, saleable drawings for almost no cost. Turner

was particularly stimulated in copying work by J.R. Cozens,

who had accompanied William Beckford, author of 'Vathek' and

one of the richest men of his times, on the Grand Tour.

Cozens' wash drawings of Alpine scenery were amongst the very

earliest to show an understanding of scenic grandeur and an

ability to realise it. Turner was also much influenced by

another of Dr. Munro's boy artists, Thomas Girtin. Girtin

and Turner seem to have been the first water-colourists to

apply the desired colours directly to the paper without

preliminary tone washes. Both rapidly developed a virile

style, capable of much more than colouring drawings and

allowing the brush rather than the pencil to be the master.

Althou~h Girtin, (who died very young) made a stir in France,

watercolour was widely and disparagingly called the 'English Art',

 15.

and was never pursued so seriously outside of Britain. Yet

the medium is capable of effects of unequalled subtlety, and

is therefore most appropriate for atmospheric renderings.

Turner also accompanied Girtin on his earliest sketching

tours, a habit that Turner never lost.

Turner was elected ARA at the youngest possible age in

1799 (he had been nominated in spite of the rules in tl1e

previous year) and in 1802 became an RA, the highest recognition

for any British artist, when he was but 27. His oils and

water colours were in demand by rich patrons, and his drawings

were used widely in collections of British views (which

substituted for the modern post card or travel magazine) and

as book illustrations.

In 1802 Turner and many other British artists took

advantage of the termination of the Revolutionary Wars to cross

the Continent from which they had been excluded for nine long

years. The principal objective was the galleries of the

Louvre which had been supplemented by judicious thefts by

Bonaparte from Italian collections. It is significant that

Turner, however, first visited Switzerland to see for

himself the Alps he had drawn second hand from J.R. Cozens,

and he produced there drawings and paintings in which, for

the first time, the true flavour of glacier-clad peaks and

alpine gorges is achieved.

On his return, Turner exhibited his 'Calais Pier', which

was meant not only io illustrate his landing there, but also to

show his superiorit) as a marine painter over the redoubtable

 16.

Van de Velde. Some of the wealthy patrons, notably Sir

George Beaumont, who had been happy enough when Turner more

or less copied Van de Velde (as in his Bridgewater Sea Piece,

1801) were critical of Turner's new departures, and from this

time his progressive move from representational detail to

generalised suggestion led to increasing hostility from some

critics. The newspapers and the general public, however,

continued to give his exhibited works support. For them he

remained that unique phenomenon, a British artist equal to the

Old Masters. The Royal Academy faithfully exhibited anything

he sent to them.

The Mature Turner

During the Napoleonic Wars, which began with a threatened

invasion of Britain in 1803 and lasted for over 10 years,

Britain was again isolated. It was in this period that Turner

achieved a seeming maturity of style which characterised many

of his most famous pictures then and thereafter. The key

picture of this period and style is perhaps his Hannibal, the

outstanding item in the Royal Academy's 1812 Exhibition.

Its origins illustrate well the complexity of its maker's

promptings. Turner had acquired that reverence for the

CJassical past which characterised the British educated

classes, and he saw the apparently endless struggle between

Britain and France as a replay of the Punic Wars between

Rome and Carthage. His natural pessimism was reinforced by

the knowledge that in those Punic Wars the sea power had lost,

and at the time of his painting 'Hannibal', the French debacle

 17.

in Russia had not yet occurred. As regards the actual

painting, the mountain pass is a remembrance of hjs own

crossing of the Mont Cenis (in 1802), but the stormy sky

derived from an experience in the Yorkshire Pennines. Not

only do these natural elements come first in the full title

(Snow and Storm: Hannibal and his Army crossing the Alps), but

in the picture they dominate, indeed overwheJm the human

incidents. Hannibal on his remaining elephant is there if

one looks very hard, but the whole effect is not of heroic

achievement (the foreground Carthaginian soldiers are looting

not marching), but of the ruthless supremacy of natural

forces, and the depravity as well as the ineffectiven ess of

humanity. This is the Byronic stance in paint, and summarises

Turner's most consistent opinions.

But the mature range of Turner cannot be epitomised in

one style. In 1813 Turner produced the equally remarkable

Frosty Morning, the talk of the Royal Academy Exhibition of

that year. It is a still, somewhat sinister rendering of

farm workers in the Dutch style of Cuyp. During this same

period of the Napoleonic Wars, Turner, following West, rendered

some contemporary events in the heroic style, predictably

choosing Nelson and Trafalgar, but he also continued with

the popular Biblical subjects, notably his Deluge and his

Seven Plagues of Egypt, in which he emphasised that the cat-

aclysms of nature were the purposeful chastisement s from God,

and not, as some impious scientists would have it at the time,

merely mechanistic and amoral events. Characterjst ically,

 18.

Turner had gone to great trouble to find out about the geolo-

gical enquiries of his time*, but he was a clear supporter of

Catastrophism. As throughout the remainder his life, at this

stage he reveals an excessive interest in cataclysms and

particularly in shipwrecks.

But the elusive Turner had another quite different style

at this time. His views of the middle Thames, painted (perhaps

in 1807) on wood veneered panels, were done directly in the

open air, probably from a boat. These paintings, which were

never exhibited until this century, unmistakably anticipate

the best of Constable. Indeed Turner's 'The Thames near
Walton Bridges looks as if it might well have been painted
by Constable at his most fluent.

In a genre painting, exhibited at the Royal Academy in

1807, Turner strikes yet another note. In the previous year
David Wilkie had exhibited a genre painting obviously aping

the manner of the Dutchman Teniers, and this had been very

favourably commented upon. Turner's 1807 'Blacksmith' is

clearly an attempt to outdo Wilkie in the Teniers style. The

full title of the picture, A Country Blacksmith Disputing Upon

the Pri~e of Iron, and the Price Charged to the Butcher of

Shoeing his Poney, would have horrified Reynolds.

In yet another imitative vein, Turner's 'Crossing the Brook'

of 1815 portrays the Tamar Valley of southwest England in

a Claudian style intended to show the public that he could

•'• Turner owned copies of the first two sets of Transactions of

the Geological Society, (of London), 1811 & 1814, and was a
friend of McCulloch, one of the leading geologists of the time.
 19.

outdo the Italianate version of British scenery in which

Richard Wilson had excelled. While there must be much art-

ificiality in such a transfer, Turner's 'Crossing the Brook'

is a masterly amalgam of convention and of carefully realised

topography, the more distant parts of the landscape being quite

miraculously achieved.

Turner squarely confronted Claude himself in his two

Carthaginian pictures, Dido Building Carthage, (1815) and his

Decline of the Carthaginian Empire, (1817) (both titles are

in fact longer). Some of those critics who had regarded Claude

as the apex of historical painting became convinced that

Turner had outdone him, and urged that the nation should buy

the Decline of the Carthaginian Empire. Turner himself must

have also been persuaded that he had overmatched Claude (and

we have to recall that for both Turner and most art critics

and patrons this was the supreme test) for in 1829 he made a

will bequeathing the two Carthaginian pictures to the National

Gallery (which had opened only four years earlier), with the

proviso that after his death they would be hung alongside the

two Claude's which the Gallery had acquired (Sea Port and

The Mill). Remembering Turner's frequent comparisons between

Carthage and contemporary Britain, his Decline of the

Carthaginian Empire indicates that, even two years after

Waterloo, he was not at all convinced that Britain could

recover from the long wars with France, and this pessimistic

impression is reinforced by the verses with which he accompanied

the painting.
 20.

__ o
J:~c '.1~_1-1!'1 i_~ ~r;___L int

When hostilities ceased in 1815, Turner, unlike many

other British artir:Jts, was too pre-occupied with commissions

to at once revisit the Continent. In 1817 he made a journey

tn the Rhineland and to the field of Waterloo. One of the

outcomes of this visit was the group of 30 splendid watercolours

of the Rhineland commissioned by Walter Fawkes, the first of

Turner's patrons with whom he became close friends. In 1819

Turner visited Italy for the first time, and it seems clear

that this had a profound effect upon the future direction of

his art. In four months he went through 19 sketch books, and

from these came a series of water colours of unequalled skill

and spontaneity. Although he gave most attention to Rome,

perhaps the best known of the series is his Venice: S. Giorgio

Mag~iore from the Dogana. This is thought to be his first

Venetian subject, and was the opening of a long love-affair

with that city. Venice, especially in morning mist, has

exactly that atmosphere which suited Turner's mature, generalised,

and fluid style, and both the city's decayed condition and

its history equally suited his pessimism about maritime

empires. Turner's instant capture of an entirely new flavour

refutes the notion, popular at present, that only native

ar-1 i_~c;ts can deal with specific locaJities.

Although from 1819 Turner continued with earlier styles,

he had r1early come to a cross-roads which most art critics

consider to be the turning point of his career. Thereafter

his adv~nce was mainly into representation of light rather than

 21.

of form. For this advance water colour was in fact the most

suitable medium, and it is noticeable that Turner's first

encounter with Italy produced very few oils and these unsati~;factory.

The relative prestige of oils, however, ensured that Tu:rne:r would

attempt to achieve in oil what he had instantaneously achieved

in water colour. There was much justification in the subse~uent

and growing criticisms of Turner (from persons such as Sir

George Beaumont) that the artist was attempting to divert oils

to water colour avenues. Turner began to use a preliminary

cover of white on his canvases and to work towards the darker

parts of the picture, a complete reversal of established

practise and indeed of the best uses of oil. His growing pre-

occupation with light resulted in an increasing, and sometimes

quite inartistic over-use of yellow.

From 1819, when Turner was 44, to 1845, when he was 70,

the artist made repeated journeys to Europe (in 1821, 1825,

1826, 1829, 1833, 1836, 1837, 1840, 1841, 1841, 1843, 1844 and

1845, in some of these years making more than one visit). There

is perhaps only one generalisation that may be safely made about

this long, varied, and productive period, and that is that,

while his drawings and water colours continued to secure his

fame, his oil paintings, best known through their almost annual

appearance at Royal Academy Exhibitions, became progressively

more eccentric and less approved, although pictures such as

the Temeraire, or Ulysses, and some of his Venetian oils were

highly regarded.
In 1819, too, Turner finalJy p;ave up h.i'.; LilJ(•:r ~tutlic,r·11m.
 22 •

This wa:; a series of engravinp,s, of which 71 were published

but 3Cl othc:=rc, were left in different degrees of incompleteness.

As so often, the enterprise had been partly prompted by comp-

etition, for Claude had left his 'Liber Veritas', a famous

rollection of his drawings, of which an English edition had

been printed ln 1770. Comparisons are, in fact, most unfair

to Claude whose drawings were merely a recognisible record

of his paintings so that he could keep track of them, whereas

Turner's Liber is a very serious attempt to show the range of

landscape art through his own works, and a collection in which

each study is most carefully finished. Turner did not at

all give up engraving, but rather changed his emphasis during

the 1820's and 1830's, producing large numbers of prints which

reached a wide and generally appreciative public in collections

such as his 'Picturesque Views of England and Wales' and his

'The Rivers of France', and in book illustrations, notably for

poetical works including those of Byron and Scott. Turner

continued th1,our,11 most of his life to make journeys to nearly

all of those places in the British Isles which were considered

picturesque, and through his drawings and engravings, with

their specially imaginative and somewhat theatrical style,

great numbers of the British public came to view their own

countrv in his terms.

The Late Turner

It is not certain whether Turner produced any finished

water colours after 1846, by which date he was 71, but up to

that time he had little difficulty in selling either water

 23

colours or drawings at good prices. He had long been

financially independent, and, while Ruskin claimed that only

after 1840 did Turner paint exclusively for himself, it would

seem that some years earlier the artist had, at least in his

oil colours, decided to let the patrons and the public take

his work or leave it. His Ulysses of 1829 aroused controversy

at least in its representation of the sky, but in fact is a

thoroughly-stylised, historical painting with a close dependence

on Pope's translation of The Odyssey for many of its details.

It should be compared with his highly impressionistic Staffa

of 1832, the first of his important pictures to almost abandon

representationalism.
Turner's oils of Venice, the earliest in 1833, however,

managed to combine representationalism and atmosphere remark-

ably well. They were widely admired, and in a work such as

the 1842 The Dogana it is difficult to deny that Turner had

substantially achieved one of his great ambitions, to capture

in oils the subtlety of water colour.

Some of the works of this late period were a sad dis-

appointment to even Turner's most ardent admirers. The twin

pictures of The Deluge (1843) were almost universally ridiculed.

Turner had long been concerned as to how he might concentrate

the viewer's attention on the focus of his painting, and he

had done this in Hannibal and elsewhere by the vortex comp-

osition, a swirling spiral. In attempting a similar result

the two Deluge paintings are in octagonal frames. Their

purpose was exploratory rather than artistic. Turner had read

 24

annotations prove,:': he strongly disapproved of many of Goethe's

ideas about c0lour theory. Nevertheless, and perh~ps from

perversity, he adopted Goethe's choice of optimistic and

pessimistic (plus and minus) colours for The_ __ Evening of the

Deluge and The Morning After -~he Deluge respectively.

Few would claim much merit for either work. The pictures do

not contrast in mood as one would exoect and those who first

saw them exhibited at the Roval Academy must have noticed

that Turner's own verses which appeared in the catalogue were

eriualJy woeful for each picture.
Most of the oil paintings depicting interiors at Petworth,

the home of Turner's eccentric friend, the third Lord Egremont,

were painted during the 1830's, but were not exhibited, and

it is assumed, perhaps wrongly, that most of them are unfinished.

One could readily imagine the controversy such a picture as

The Music Party would have provoked, even though it is now

highly appreciated as perhaps the earliest appearance of true

Impressionism.

Many of the most si~nificant of Turner's later oils have

a marine setting. Indeed, in many the sea is the real subject,

though the titles commonly concern some human incident. It

is notireahle that, in addition to the freeness of treatment,

these sea paintings also share other common themes in that they

are usually concerned with recent events and that they are

* Turner's copy of Goethe's Farbenlehre in translation is owned

by his relative, Mr. Charles Turner of London. It abounds in
dissenting remarks written by the artist on page margins.
 25

almost unfailingly pessimistic or even frightening. In them

a frequent message is the vanity of humanity in hoping to

control the ruthless sea. Turner crystallised t11e love/hate

relationship which the British have for the sea. On the one

hand it has been their traditional line of defence; it was the

basis of their supremacy in trade, exI1loration, and empire.

But the loss of lives in battle or storm were very real to

Turner. Of many examples, space forbids more than a brief

consideration of three.
Turner's Temeraire of 1838 is rightly considered one

of his finest paintings. The battleship 'Temeraire' which had

distinguished itself greatly at the Battle of Trafalgar, was

towed up the Thames in 1838 to a breaker's yard. Turner's

patriotism combined with his distrust of the new industrial era

in the contrast between the elegant if faded 'Temeraire' and

the ugly tug which pulls her to her last berth. The sky is

perhaps the finest he painted, although Ruskin handed the palm

to Ulysses in this respect.

Turner's Slave Ship of 1840 has a fairly precise literary

origin. He had read of an incident in which slaves, affected

by a plague, had been thrown overboard because insurance could

be claimed for persons lost at sea, but not for those dying

from disease on board. In fact the incident depicted had

occurred in the 1783 when Turner was a boy, but it served his

low opinion of humanity well enough. He accompanied the

painting with some verses of his own, ending;

"Hope, fallacious Hope!

Where is thy market now?"
 26

The extravagance of its colouring was generally deplored, but

Ruskin maintained that the ~~~~Ship was the most important

of all Turner's works. It may be significant that Ruskin owned

the Slave Ship for some years, but, finding it "too painful
to live with", sold it.

Turner's Snow Storm of 1842 is even more advanced or

excessive, depending upon the viewpoint. This records the

great storm already referred to in which Turner, as well as

the captain of the Channel ferry, did not expect to survive.

His treatment was regarded not so much as free but careless.

"Soap suds and whitewash" was Hazlitt's verdict. The compo-

sition is Turner's favourite vortex, but the assymmetry, the

slope of the sea from left to right, and the curious disposition

of dark and light areas, give the whole scene the disturbing

effect that it is about to begin a spiral movement. One

wonders whether any unusually sensitive viewer has ever been

seasick after examining this picture. Few even of Turner's

closest adherents could follow him so far.

Although the present writer considers that the Snow Storm

is the most advanced of Turner's late representational works,

this praise or criticism is usually reserved for his Rain,

Steam a~d Speed of 1844. This shows a Great Western Express

makinB fo~ London, and is intended to represent 'the sublime'

in modern dress. Burke had distinguished 'the sublime', that
1s the impressive or awesome, from 'the beautiful', and

Turner found it easy to use a modern industrial machine as a

sinister example. "The train appears and disappears in the wind
 27

and rain like a mythica l beast of modern times, at war with

nature and regarded by Turner with detached melanch oly''.

Posthumo us Work

After Turner's death, even into this century , quantiti es

of lightly painted canvases by him have been discove red. from

the vaguene ss of many of these it was assumed that they were

unfinish ed and there was precede nt for this judgeme nt. It had

long been Turner's habit to submit works for the Royal Academy 's

annual exhibiti ons which were far from complet e, ''like chaos

before creation ". The artist was taking advantag e of an

indulgen t Academy whose rules allowed R.A.'s and A.R.A. 's

the privileg e of varnishi ng their painting s and adcling a few

touches in the few days between the hanging of accepted works

and the opening of the Annual Exhibiti on. Turner used these

so-calle d 'Varnish ir1g Days' to whip up a formles s, prelimin ary

work into recogniz able shape. On such occasion s his skill and

speed astonish ed his fellow artists, but his intentio ns were

often inartist ic and the results sometim es disastro us, There

is little doubt that a prime motive was largely to outshine

those pictures which happened to have been hung adjacen t to

his own, rather than to realise his own intentio ns. The

pressure of time forced him to resort to technic ally unsound

methods , includin g the applica tion of water colour to oils,

and his overuse of yellow was frequen tly deplored . Some

admirers maintain ed that only those who had seen a Turner work

within a few weeks of its complet ion could have an adequate

idea of its merits.

 28

It is now clear, however, that many of these vague,

unexhibited paintings were not incomplete preliminaries for

future exhibits, but were finished works intended for Turner's

eyes alone. Thus Turner moved beyond the expressionism of

1
1is Snow Storm into an abstract art based on colour rather
than form.
 29

SUMMARY

If the foregoing has but one message it is that any

concensus about J.M.W. Turner's work is unlikely and is at

present premature. It is for this reason that this Section

is headed Summary and not Conclusion. We are far from

knowing the whole Turner output, much further again from

fully understanding Turner the person, though illuminating

attempts have been made by Kenneth Clark, Martin Butlin,

William Rothenstein, Jack Lindsay, and John Gage, in partic11lar.

Nevertheless , certain propositions may be reasonably made

about the characterist ics of Turner's art and his influence.

Firstly, Turner was the earliest great artist for whom

the landscape itself was the hero (or villain). To be sure

he had to graduate thus far. He moved through conventional

representatio n (both his topographica l work and his

geographical ly-displaced, Italianate renderings are of this

sort) to the bold, generalized style exemplified by Hannibal,

for which he was and remains most acclaimed and identified.

En route he turned out, as an aside, those Thames panels which

anticipate Constable but were unknown for decades. :Ruskin

recognised that Turner's generalised style was based on acute

not imprecise visual awareness, but the present writer cannot

agree that Turner either by intent or result was the 'natural'

painter Ruskin claimed he was. Modern Painters would have

been, with much more consistency, a defence of Constable or

Holman Hunt (who rir;htly thought it described his aims rather

than Turner's). Turner is not a matchless eye let loose on

 30

the landscape, but a powerful and unusual mind.

In his middle phase, which might be described as maturity,

Turner is clearly usin~ the 'pathetic fallacy' long-established

in li tera.ture, whereby the ~:>entiments of humanity a1'e echoed

b\' the surrounding landscape. This is in keeping with his

literary promptings and his conviction that the messages of

history are universal. Turner obviously progressed in this

approach so that the natural forces become dominant in the

interplay between man and environment, and the overt message

is carried by representations of nature, a ruthless nature in

comparison with which he saw the doings of humanity as tawdry

and ineffective. This profound disillusionment with humanity

and its prospects is similar to Byron's, and, as with that poet,

perhaps most of the disillusion came from within. Turner was

always conscious of his humble origins and the possible taint

of his mother's madness. His external fears, engendered by

the life and death struggle between Britain and France, were

compounded by his misgivings about the dislocations of society

caused by the Industrial Revolution. Lord Clark has expressed

regret that Turner did not set out to be the prophet of doom

about the industrial take-over, that he spent little time

paintins Blake's 'Satanic Mills'. Certainly he had just the

right scJrts of talents, both technical and temperamental.

Turner anticipated the future of European art in several

respects. His mature style, with recognizable form but a

'misty' effect, as well as its literary connections, was the

starting point of derivative, Romantic painters on both sides

of the Atlantic, notably the Hudson River School. It is

 31

difficult to find any significant followers of his later,

impatient, near-formless style which begins in his Staffa

and which reaches its apex in Snow Storm and Rain, Stream and

Speed. No one else in art so clearly epitomises the fore-

bodings about the future. Alternatively his Thames Panels

might have been an inspiration to the Impression.if:', ts if they

had seen them. It is clear too that in later work, such as

his experiments with the subject of Norham Castle, Turner is

as much interested in light as were the Impressionists a

generation later, but in a different way. The Impressionists,

fortified by a quasi-scientific theory about the complementary

relationships between the colours of an object in light and in

shade, were fascinated by dappled light on water. This

phenomenon is a perplexing one to the painter who has to

'freeze' his vision while its essential character, missed by

the still camera but caught by cine, is a switch between

light and dark components over a short interval of time. Turner,

on the other hand, became pre-occupied with how strong light,

especially light behind objects, envelops and to some extent

consumes forms, an effect widely used in current magazine

adverts. It was a short move from the 1835-40 version of

Norham Castle to the unexhibited colour abstracts by which

Turner anticipated much mid-20th century painting. Even the

intermediate stage of subordinating form to colour is discernible.

Long before Monet produces his different colour versions of

Pink Rigi, Pale Grey and Yellow Rigi, experiments based on the
 32

ac:;r;/mme\_rical form of the famous Rigi Mountain alongside his

he i c1v(od Lake LucPrne.

When we remind ourselves that throughout this astonishing

declension, at the end of which Turner is anticipating the

f'-lture of much European art (but because his relevant work was

unknown, not shaping that future), he continued to turn out

splendid and highly acceptable engravings which closely

conditioned how his fellow countrymen saw Britain and Europe

and how they visualised the settings of many of their favorite

poems, as well as the great number of marvellous water colours

which have still not a wide-enough currency, we are left to

wonder at his multiplicity.
 33

FURTHER READINGS:

T.S.R. Boase, English Art 1800-1870, Oxford Clarendon Press, 1959.

Kenneth Clark, Landscape into Art, Pelican Books, Reprint, 1966.

Kenneth Clark, The Romantic Rebellion, Longman Canada, 19/5.

Martin Davies, The British School, National Gallery Catalogues,

(2nd Edition Revised, 1959).

VJilliam Gaunt, A Concise History of English Painting, Thames

and Hudson, London, 1964, (Reprinted 197~

Guiseppe Gatt, Turner, Dolphin Art Books, Thames and Hudson,

London, 1968.

Jack Lindsay, Turner, His Life and Work, Panther Books, 1973.
(This is much more revealing than the prosaic biography by
A.J. Finberg, (1939), and the inaccurate and sensational
biography by Thornbury (1862).

Landscape in Britain, C. 1750-1850, Tate Gallery, 1973.

Peter Quennell, Romantic England, Writing and Painting 1717-1851,

Weidenfeld and Nicolson, London, 1970.

Graham Reynolds, A Concise History of Watercolours, Thames and

Hudson, London, 1971.

Turner 1775-1851, Tate Gallery, 1974, (for the Exhibition of

16 Nov. 74-Mar. 75).

Turner in the British Museum, Drawings and Watercolours, British

Museum, Toronto, 1975.

EDITOR'S NOTE

Black and white reproductions make very unsatisfactory records

of most of Turner's paintings, particularly his more advanced
ones. The cost of colour reproduction in this periodical
would be prohibitive. It has been decided, therefore, not
to include any illustrations in Professor Cunningham's
article. Colour reproductions of almost all the paintings he
refers to are widely available in art books. [J.T.P.].