Abstract

The determinant of a matrix is very powerful tool that helps in establishing

properties of matrices. Indisputably, its importance in various engineering
and applied science problems has made it a mathematical area of increasing
significance. From developed and existing methods of finding determinant
of a matrix, basketweave method/Sarrus’ rule has been shown to be the
simplest, easiest, very fast, accurate, and straightforward method for the
computation of the determinant of 3 × 3 matrices. However, its gross
limitation is that this method/rule does not work for matrices larger than 3 ×
3 and this fact is well established in literatures. Therefore, the state-of-the-
art methods for finding the determinants of 4 × 4 matrix and larger matrices
are predominantly founded on non-basketweave method/non-Sarrus’ rule. In
this work, extension of the simple, easy, accurate, and straightforward
approach to the determinant of larger matrices is presented. The paper
presents the developments of new method with different schemes based on
the basketweave method/Sarrus’ rule for the computation of the determinant
of 4 × 4. The potency of the new method is revealed in generalization of the
basketweave method/non-Sarrus’ rule for the computation of the
determinant of () matrices. The new method is very efficient, very
consistence for handy calculations, highly accurate, and fastest compared to
other existing methods.

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 INDEX
SL No Particulars Page No

1 INTRODUCTION 3

2 MEANING 3

3 FEATURES,USES & PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANT 4

4 CRAMER’S RULE 5

5 SARRUS METHOD 6-7

6 MINORS & COFACTORS 8-9

7 SOLVING LINEAR EQUATION USING DETERMINANT 10-12

8 PROBLEM 13

9 CONCLUSION 14

10 REFERENCE 15

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Introduction
Over the years, the subject, linear algebra has been shown to be the most
fundamental component in mathematics as it presents powerful tools in wide
varieties of areas from theoretical science to engineering, including
computer science. Its important role and abilities in solving real life
problems and in data clarification have led it to be frequently applied in all
the branches of science, engineering, social science, and management.
During the applications and analysis in such areas of studies, a system of
linear equations can be written in matrix form and solving the system of
linear equations and the inversion of matrices is necessary which is mainly
dependent on determinant (a real number or a function of the elements of
an matrix that yields a single number that well determines something about
the matrix). Therefore, the importance of finding the determinant in linear
algebra cannot be overemphasized as it does not only help in finding
solution to systems of linear equations but it also helps determine whether
the system has a unique solution and helps establish relationship and
properties of matrices. Undoubtedly, the computation of such single number
called the determinant is fundamental in linear algebra. It is one of the basic
concepts in linear algebra which has major applications in various branches
of engineering and applied science problems such as in the solutions
systems of linear equations and also in finding the inverse of an invertible
matrix. Also, many complicated expressions of electrical and mechanical
systems can be conveniently handled by expressing them in “determinant
form.” Therefore, it has become a mathematical area of increasing
significance as the computation of the determinant of an matrix of numbers
or polynomials is a classical problem and challenge for both numerical and
symbolic methods.

MEANING OF DETERMINANTS:

Determinant: Determinant is the numerical value of the square matrix.

So, to every square matrix A = [aij] of order n, we can associate a number
(real or complex) called determinant of the square matrix A. It is denoted by
det A or |A|. Determinants helps in simplifying its evaluation by obtaining
maximum number of zeros in a row or a column.

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FEATURES OF DETERMINANTS:
The determinants is a number associated to a square matrix.
Determinants are possible only for square matrices.
The value of the determinant of order 2 is obtained by multiplying the two
elements on the principal diagonal and substracting the product of the
element on the cross diagonal.
A determinant has a definite value. Etc.
USES OF DETERMINANTS:
Determinants can be used for solving system of linear equations I two or
three variables.
Determinants can also be used for checking the consistency of system of
linear equations.
Consistent system is a system of equations whose solutions are exists.
Inconsistent system is a system of equations whose solutions are does not
exists.
We can say that the determinants is a number that determines the uniqueness
of the solution of linear equations

FEATURES OR PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS:

PROPERTY-1: Transposing rows into columns of a given matrix does not
change the value of the determinant.
PROPEERTY-2 if any two rows (or columns) are interchanged, the value of
the determinant does not change numerically, but the sign changes.
PROPERTY-3 if all the elements of a row or a column are zero, then the
value of the determinant is zero.
PROPERTY-4 if the elements of one row (or column) of a determinant are
identical or proportional to the corresponding elements of another row ( or
column), the value of the determinant is zero.
PROPERTY-5 if each in any row (or in any column ) is multiplied by a
scalar quantity the value of the whole determinant is multiplied by 2.
PROPERTY-6 Generalization of property 5 i.e. if each element of a
determinant of order 3 is multiplied by a scalar quantity K, the value of new
determinant so obtained is 3 times the value of the original determinant.
PROPERTY-7 The addition of a constant multiple of one row (or column)
to another row (or column) leaves the determinant unchanged.
PROPERTY-8 If the elements of any row or any column of a determinant is
sum (difference) of two or more elements, then the determinant can be
expressed as sum (difference) of two or more determinants.
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CRAMER’S RULE:
Definition- In linear algebra, cramer’s rule is a specific formula used for
solving a system of linear equations containing as many equations as
unknowns, efficient whenever the system of equations has a unique solution.
USES OF CRAMER’S RULE
Cramers’s rule can be used to prove that an integer programming problem
whose constraint matrix is totally unimodular and whose right-hand side is
integer, has integer basic solutions. This makes the integer program
substantially easier to solve.
Cramer’s rule is also used to derive the general solutions to an
inhomogeneous linear differential equation by the method of variation of
parameters.
Cramer’s rule has a geometric interpretation that can be considered also a
proof or simply giving insight about its geometric nature.
These geometric arguments work in general and not only in the case of two
equations with two unknowns presented.
Advantages :
We can easily find the unknown variables without the need to know about
the other variable.
This method can be significantly more efficient than eliminating variables in
equations.
This technique helps in obtain the unique set of solutions for a linear system.
This method can be used to take inverse matrices.
Disadvantages
Because we are dividing by det(A) to get , Cramer's rule only works if
det(A) ≠ 0. If det(A) = 0, Cramer's rule cannot be used because a unique
solution doesn't exist since there would be infinitely many solutions, or no
solution at all.
Cramer's rule is slow because we have to evaluate a determinant for each xi.
When we evaluate each det(Ai) we have to perform Gaussian elimination on
each Ai for a total of n times. In comparison, if we were to use the
augmented matrix, [A|b], we would only need to perform Gaussian
elimination once to solve Ax = b.

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SARRUS DIAGRAM
Sarrus Rule says that determinant of the three columns on the left is the sum
of products along dashed diagonals minus the sum of products along solid
diagonals.
Uses of sarrus diagram-
A 3×3 matrix is written as sarrus rule which is sometimes also called the
basketweave method is an alternative way to evaluate the determinant of
3×3 matrix. It is a method that is only applicable to 3×3 matrix.
The numerical value of a determinant of the order 3 only can be determined
by sarrus diagram.
Features of sarrus diagram:
Write down three rows of the and rewrite the first two rows. The three
diagonals sloping down to the right given the three positive terms and the
three diagonals sloping down to the left given the three negative terms. The
value of determinant can be calculated by adding all the values.
The Rule of sarrus is used to calculate the result of 3 ×3 determinants. These
are used to solve linear equations and know if they are compatible.
This theorem allows us to simplify matrices of high dimensions, in sums of
small determinants that we decompose of the main matrix.
By applying this rule in succession, we can obtain determinants of
dimension 2×2 or 3×3, where it is much easier to calculate.
Advantages of sarrus diagram:
Sarrus rule allows us to obtain a much simpler view when calculating the
determinants diagonals.
In sarrus diagram the diagonals appear in a more visual way, without
complicating the resolution of the determinant.
Sarrus diagram is also helpful in determine the sets of vectors are linearly
independent and form the basis of the vector space.
This method is helpful to simplify matrices of high dimensions.
It states that the determinant of a matrix is equal to the sum of the products
of each row and column.
LIMITATIONS OF SARRUS DIAGRAM
Sarrus diagram does not work for matrices larger than 3×3.
This rule will not give the solutions for the system of equations with infinite
solutions.
It also fails for some matrices of rank 2 and dimensions 6 or greater.
It only used for determinant of order 3×3.

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Rule of Sarrus

In linear algebra, the Rule of Sarrus is a mnemonic device for computing

the determinant of a 3×3 matrix named after the French mathematician Pierre Frédéric
Sarrus.

Consider a 3×3 matrix

then its determinant can be computed by the following scheme.

Write out the first two columns of the matrix to the right of the third column, giving
five columns in a row. Then add the products of the diagonals going from top to
bottom (solid) and subtract the products of the diagonals going from bottom to top
(dashed). This yields

Both are special cases of the Leibniz formula, which however does not yield similar
memorization schemes for larger matrices. Sarrus' rule can also be derived using
the Laplace expansion of a 3×3 matrix.

Another way of thinking of Sarrus' rule is to imagine that the matrix is wrapped around
a cylinder, such that the right and left edges are joined.

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Minors and Cofactors

Minors and cofactors can be computed for each of the elements of a matrix. Minor of
an element is equal to the determinant of the remaining elements of the matrix, after
excluding the row and column containing the particular element. The cofactor of an
element can be calculated from the minor of the element. The cofactor of an element is
equal to the product of minor of the element, and -1 to the power of position values of
row and column of the element.

Cofactor of an Element = (-1)i + j × Minor of an Element

Here i and j are the positional values of the row and column of the element. Let us
learn more about the minors and cofactors, and their applications, with the help of
examples, FAQs.

What Are Minors And Cofactors?

Minors and cofactors are defined for each element of the matrix. The minor of an
element of the matrix is equal to the determinant of the remaining elements of the
matrix, obtained after deleting the row and column containing the particular element in
the matrix. The cofactor of an element of the matrix is obtained by multiplying the
minor of the element with -1 to the exponent(power) of the sum of ith row and
jth column containing the element.

The minor of the first element of the first row of the above matrix A has been obtained
after ignoring the first row and first column of the above matrix and forming a new

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matrix. Further, the cofactor of the element a is obtained by multiplying the minor with
(-1) to the power of the position value row and column of element a.

Cofactor of a = (-1)i + j × Minor of a

The minor and cofactor of a matrix are simple numeric values, which are obtained after
taking the determinant of the remaining elements of the given matrix.

Comparison Of Minors And Cofactors

The cofactor is obtained from the minor of the element of a matrix. The cofactor is
equal to the product of the minor of the element of the matrix, and -1 to the power of
the sum of the positional value of the row and column containing the element. The
numeric value of the minor or the cofactor of an element of the matrix is equal but only
differs by a sign, which is dependent on (-1)i + j.

Cofactor of an Element = (-1)i + j× Minor of an Element

Here i and j are the positional values and refer to the row and the column to which the
element belongs. The minor and cofactor of an element of the matrix may have the
same or different sign. The minor is used only to find the determinant of the matrix,
and the cofactor is used to find the adjoint and the inverse of a matrix.

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How To Solve a Linear Equation System Using Determinants?

System Of Linear Equations Involving Three Variables Using

Determinants

Now following algorithm is followed to solve the system (CRITERION

FOR CONSISTENCY)

This method of finding a solution to a system of equations is

called Cramer’s rule.

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Conditions for Infinite and No Solutions

(i) If the value of x, y and z in terms of t satisfy the third equation then the
system is said to be consistent and will have infinite solutions.
(ii) If the values of x, y, z don’t satisfy the third equation, the system is said to
be inconsistent and will have no solution.

Homogeneous linear equations, which always possess at least one solution i.e.
(0, 0, 0). This is called a trivial solution for homogeneous linear equations.
(c) If the system of homogeneous linear equations possesses non-zero/nontrivial
solutions, and Δ = 0. In such a case given system has infinite solutions.
We can also solve these solutions using the matrix inversion method.
We can write the linear equations in the matrix form as AX = B where

Now, solution set is obtained by solving X = A-1 B. Hence the solution set exists
only if the inverse of A exists.

Some Important Results

Condition for the consistency of three simultaneous linear equations in 2
variables

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(d) If each element of any row (or column) can be expressed as a sum of two
terms, then the determinant can be expressed as the sum of the determinants.

It should be noted that while applying operations on determinants at

least one row (or column) must remain unchanged i.e.
The maximum number of simultaneous operations = order of
determinant – 1.

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Problem

A Company is considering three potential marketing strategies, represented by the

column of a 3x3 matrix: Strategy A, Strategy B and Strategy C. Each row of the matrix
represents a different market segment (Segment 1, Segment 2, Segment 3) The
elements of the matrix represent the projected profit (in thousands of dollars) for each
strategy in each market segment. Finding which strategy will get more profit.

Solution

Strategy A Strategy B Strategy C

Segment 1 50 60 70
Segment 2 40 30 20
Segment 3 30 20 10

To determine which strategy would be the most profitable overall, the company can
calculate the determinant of the matrix using Sarrus Expansion. The result of the
determinant represents the overall profit for each strategy.

Evaluate A=50 60 70
40 30 20
30 20 10
+ + +
50 60 70 50 60
40 30 20 40 30
30 20 10 30 20

Del(A) = (50x30x10)+(60x20x30)+(70x40x20)-(70x30x20)-(60x40x10)-
(50x20x40)=2000
Therefore strategy A would yield an overall profit of 2000 thousand dollars.
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Conclusion
The equilibrium of the markets in IS-LM model is solved by using
determinants and Cramer’s rule for a system of linear equations.
Hessian matrix for test of optimal solution is presented in the problem
cost minimization and profit maximization in a company.

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Reference

BOOKS

HIMALAYA PUBLISHING HOUSE : Business Mathematics and Statistics :

2017:45-56
KALYANI PUBLICATIONS: Business Mathematics and Statistics : 2018:99-110
GOYAL BROTHERS PRAKASHAN: Business Mathematics and Statistics
:2015:31-3.34

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