Special Theory of Relativity

1. Background of special theory of relativity

Introduction
Frames of Reference
Postulates of Relativity
Galilean Transformation

2. Relativistic kinematics
Lorentz transformation
Time dilation (Relativity of time)
Length contraction (Relativity of length)
Relativistic velocity transformation
Doppler effect

3. Relativistic dynamics
Relativity of mass
Relativistic momentum & Newton’s second law of motion
Equivalence of mass and energy

1. BACKGROUND OF SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

1.1 INTRODUCTION:
In 1905 a young physicist of 26 named Albert Einstein showed how measurements of time and space
are affected by motion between an observer and what is being observed. Theoretical concept of the
special relativity was introduced in Einstein's paper "On the Electrodynamics of Moving Bodies".
Although motivated by a desire to gain deeper insight into the nature of electromagnetism, Einstein, in
his theory, extended and generalized Newtonian mechanics as well. He correctly predicted the results
of mechanical experiments over the complete range of speeds from u/c = 0 to u/c → 1. Newtonian
mechanics was revealed to be an important special case of a more general theory. In developing this
theory of relativity, Einstein critically examined the procedures used to measure length and time
intervals. These procedures require the use of light signals and, in fact, an assumption about the way
light is propagated is one of the two central hypotheses upon which the theory is based. His theory
resulted in a completely new view of the nature of space and time.
The connection between mechanics and electromagnetism is not surprising because light, which plays
a basic role in making the fundamental space and time measurements that underlie mechanics, is an
electromagnetic phenomenon. However, our low-speed Newtonian environment is so much a part of
our daily life that almost everyone has some conceptual difficulty in understanding Einstein’s ideas of
space-time when he first studies them. Einstein may have put his finger on the difficulty when he said
“Common sense is that layer of prejudices laid down in the mind prior to the age of eighteen.”
1.2. FRAMES OF REFERENCE:
The first step is to clarify what we mean by motion. When we say that something is moving, what we
mean is that its position relative to something else is changing. A passenger moves relative to an
airplane; the airplane moves relative of the earth; the earth moves relative to the sun; the sun moves
relative to the galaxy of stars (the milky way) of which it is a member and so on. In each case a frame
of reference is part of the description of the motion. To say that something is moving always implies a
specific frame of reference.
An inertial frame of reference is one in which Newton’s first law of motion holds. In such a frame, an
object at rest remains at rest and an object in motion continues to move at constant velocity (constant
speed and direction) if no force acts on it. Any frame of reference that moves at constant velocity
relative to an inertial frame is itself an inertial frame.
Special theory of relativity deals with problems that involve inertial frames of reference. General
relativity published by Einstein a decade later deals with problem that involve frames of reference
accelerated with respect to one another.

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1.3. POSTULATES OF SPECIAL RELATIVITY:
Special relativity is based on two postulates which are contradictory in classical mechanics:
1. The laws of physics are the same in all inertial frames of reference (observers in uniform
motion relative to one another)
2. The speed of light in vacuum is same in all inertial frames of reference (all observers,
regardless of their relative motion or of the motion of the source of the light).
Consequences of Einstein’s postulates:

These innocent sounding propositions have far reaching implications. Some of these are:
Time dilation: Moving clocks tick slower than an observer's "stationary" clock.
Length contraction: Objects are observed to be shortened in the direction that they are moving with
respect to the observer.
Relativity of simultaneity: Two events that appear simultaneous to an observer A will not be
simultaneous to an observer B if B is moving with respect to A.
Mass-energy equivalence: According to the relationship E = mc², energy and mass are equivalent
and transmutable.
The defining feature of special relativity is the replacement of the Galilean transformations of classical
mechanics by the Lorentz transformations. (See Maxwell's equations of electromagnetism and
introduction to special relativity).

1.4. GALILEAN TRANSFORMATION:

Suppose we are in an inertial frame of reference S and find the coordinates of some event that occurs
at the time t are x, y, z. Another observer located in a different inertial frame S’ which is moving with
respect to S at constant velocity u, will find that the same event occurs at the time t’ and has the
coordinates x’, y’, z’. How are the measurements x, y, z, t related to x’, y’, z’, t’?
If the clocks in both systems are started when the origins of S and S’ coincide, measurements in the x-
direction made in S will be greater than those made in S’ by the amount of ut, which is the distance S’
has moved in the x-direction. That is,
x = x − ut , ….. …… ….. [1a]
There is no relative motion in the y and z directions, and so
y = y ….. …… ….. [1b]

z = z ….. …… ….. [1c]

y y’
x’

S’ 
S x
O’ u
p
y y’
x X’
O

z z’
ut
Fig.6: Frame S’ moves in the X-direction with speed v relative to frame S.

It is assumed that time can be defined independently of any particular frame of reference. This is an
implicit assumption of classical physics, which is expressed in the transformation equations by the
absence of a transformation for t. We can make this assumption of the universal nature of time explicit
by adding to the Galilean transformations the equation
t  = t ….. …… ….. [1d]

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The set of equations [1a] to [1d] is known as Galilean transformation.
To convert velocity components measured in the S frame to their equivalents in the S’ frame according
to the Galilean transformation, we get

dx '
v x' = = v x − u ….. …… ….. [2a]
dt
dy '
v 'y = = v y ….. …… ….. [2b]
dt
dz '
v =
'
z = v z ….. …… ….. [2c]
dt
We can see that different velocities are assigned to a particle by different observers when the
observers in relative motion.
Although the Galilean transformation and the corresponding velocity transformation seem
straightforward enough, they violate both the postulates of special relativity. The first postulate calls for
the same equations of physics in both the S and S’ inertial frames, but the equations of electricity and
magnetism become very different when the Galilean transformation is used to convert quantities
measured in one frame into their equivalents in the other. The second postulate calls for the same
value of the speed of light c when determined in S or S’. If we measure the speed of light in the x-
direction in the S system to be c, however, in the S’ system it will be
c = c − u according to Eq.[2a].
Clearly a different transformation is required if the postulates of special relativity are to be satisfied.

2. RELATIVISTIC KINEMATICS
2.1. LORENTZ TRANSFORMATION EQUATIONS
We shall use the fundamental postulates of relativity theory and, in addition, the assumption that
space and time are homogeneous. This homogeneity assumption [which can be paraphrased by
saying that all points in space and time are equivalent] means, for example, that the results of a
measurement of a length or time interval of a specific event should not depend on where or when the
interval happens to be in our reference frame.
A reasonable guess about the nature of the correct relationship between x and x’ is
x = k ( x − ut ) ….. ….. ….. [3]

Here k is a factor that does not depend on either x or t but may be a function of v.
Because the equations must have the same form in both S and S’, we need only change the sign of v
(in order to take into account the difference in the direction of relative motion) to write the
corresponding equation for x in terms of x’ and t’:
x = k ( x + ut ) ….. ….. ….. [4]

The factor k must be the same in both frames of reference since there is no difference between S and
S’ other than in the sign of v.
Let us consider that a light pulse that starts at the origin of S at t=0. Since we have assumed that the
origins are coincident at t’ = t = 0, the pulse also starts at the origin of S’ at t’=0. Einstein’s postulates
require that the equation for the x-component of the wave front of the light pulse is
x = ct in frame S
and x  = ct  in frame S’.
Substituting ct for x and ct’ for x’ in Eq.[3] and [4], we get
ct = k (ct  + ut ) = k (c + u )t  … … [5]

and ct  = k (ct − ut ) = k (c − u )t … … [6]

We can eliminate either t’ or t from [5] and [6] and determine k. We get

3
 1 1
k2 = 2
or k= … …[7]
1− u 1− u
2
c2 c2
Substituting
x = k ( x ' + ut ' ) for x in x  = k ( x − ut ) , we get
x = k[k ( x + ut ) − ut ] …. …. [8]

which can be solved for t in terms of x  and t  .

Substituting

x = k ( x ' + ut ' ) for x in x = k ( x − ut ) , we get

x = k[k ( x + ut ) − ut ]
= k 2 ( x + ut ) − kut ..... .... [9]
From [9], we can get

u2
k 2 ( x + ut ) − x [1 − c 2 ] ( x + ut ) − x ut  + xu 2 / c 2
−1

ut = = 2 −1
= …. …. [10]
k [1 − u 2 ] 2 1− u2 / c2
c
From [10], we can write

t  + xu / c 2
t= = k (t  + xu / c 2 ) …. … [11]
1− u / c2 2

The complete relativistic transformation is

x = k ( x + ut ), ….. …… ….. [12a]

y = y , ….. …… ….. [12b]

z = z , ….. …… ….. [12c]

ux
t = k (t  + ), ….. …… ….. [12d]
c2
The inverse transformation is
x = k ( x − ut ) ….. …… ….. [13a]

y = y ….. …… ….. [13b]

z = z ….. …… ….. [13c]

ux
t  = k (t − ) ….. …… ….. [13d]
c2
From Eq. [12d] & [13d], we can see that the time coordinate of one inertial system depends
on both the time and the space coordinates of another inertial system. Hence, instead of
treating space and time separately, as is quite properly done in classical theory, it is natural
in relativity to treat them together.

2.2. TIME DILATION (THE RELATIVITY OF TIME)

Let us consider a clock at the point x  in the moving frame S  . When an observer in S  finds that the
time is t1 an observer in S will find it to be t1, where from Eq.[12d]

t1 = k (t1 + ux  / c 2 )

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After a time interval of t0 (to observer in S  ), the observer in the moving system S  finds that the time is
now t 2 according to his clock. That is, t 0 = t 2 − t1 .

The observer in S, however, measures the same time to be

t 2 = k (t 2 + ux / c 2 ) .
So, to observer in S the duration of time interval t is
t 0
 t = t 2 − t1 = k (t 2 − t1 ) = kt0 = ….. ….. ….. [14]
1− u 2 / c2
Eq.[14] summarizes the effect known as time dilation. According to Eq. [14], observer in S measures
a longer time interval than the observer in S’ measures. This is a general result within special relativity,
which we can summarize as follows:
Consider an occurrence that has a duration Δto. An observer S’ fixed with respect to that occurrence
(i.e its beginning and end take place at the same point in space, according to S’) measures the interval
Δt0, which is known as the proper time. An observer S moving with respect to S’ measures a longer
time interval Δt for the same occurrence. The interval Δt is always longer than Δt0, no matter what the
magnitude or direction of u is.
The time dilation effect has been verified experimentally with decaying elementary particles as well as
with precise atomic clocks carried aboard aircraft.

“A moving clock ticks slower than a clock at rest”

Problem solving strategy:

First make sure that you understand the difference between the proper time t0 in a particular
reference frame and the dilated time t. The proper time t0 in a particular reference frame is the time
interval between two events that occur at the same point in that reference frame. Then the longer time
t is the time interval between the same two events as measured in a second reference frame that
has a speed u with relative to the first frame. The two events will be at different points in this reference
frame.
Check that your answers make sense; t is never smaller than t0, and u is never larger than c.
EXAMPLE 1: Two events occur at the same place xo at times t1 and t2 in S. What is the time
interval between them in S ?

t1 ' = k (t1 − ux0 / c 2 ) , t 2 ' = k (t 2 − ux0 / c 2 )

 t’2 – t’1 = k (t2 – t1).

This is our familiar result for time dilation since (t2 - t1) is the proper time interval.

EXAMPLE 2:
Muons are elementary particles with a (proper) lifetime of 2.2 μs. They are produced with very
high speeds in the upper atmosphere when cosmic rays collide with air molecules. Take the
height Lo of the atmosphere to be 100km in the reference frame of the earth. Find the minimum
speed that enables the muons to survive the journey to the surface of the earth.
Solution:
The birth and decay of the muon can be considered as the ticks of a clock. In the frame of reference of
the Earth (Observer O) this clock is moving and therefore its ticks are slowed by the time dilation
effect. If the muon is moving at a speed that is close to c, the time necessary for the muon to travel
from the top of the atmosphere to the surface of the Earth is:
L0 100km
t = = = 333s
c 3.00 x10 8
If the muon is to be observed at the surface of the earth, it must live for at least 333 µs in the earths’
frame of reference. In the muon’s frame of reference, the interval between its birth and decay is a
proper time interval of 2.2 μs.

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Now
2.2s
333s =
1− u2 /c2
Solving we get u=0.999978c.
If it were not for the time dilation effect, muons would not survive to reach the earths’ surface. The
observation of these muons is a direct verification of the time dilation effect of special relativity.
EXAMPLE 3:
A spacecraft is moving relative to earth. An observer on the earth finds that according to her
clock, 3601s elapse between 1 PM and 2 PM on the spacecraft’s clock. What is the spacecrafts’
speed relative to the earth?
Solution:
Here to = 3600s is the proper time internal on the earth and t = 3601s in the time internal in the moving
frame as measured from the earth.

t0
Now t=
1− u 2 / c2
Therefore

3600 2
v = c 1 − (t 0 / t )2 = ( 2.998x108 m / s ) 1 − ( ) = 7.1x106 m / s
3601
To-days spacecrafts are much slower than this. For instance, the highest speed of the Apollo 11
spacecraft that went to the moon was only 10,840 m/s and its clocks differed from those on the earth
by less than one part in 109.
Most of the experiments that have confirmed time dilation made use of unstable nuclei and elementary
particles which readily attain speeds not far from that of light.

2.3. LENGTH CONTRACTION (RELATIVITY OF LENGTH)

Let us consider a rod lying along the x  axis in the moving frame S  . An observer in this frame
determines the coordinates of its ends to x 1 and x 2 , and so the
proper length of the rod is Y
’
L0 = x2 − x1 .
X1’ X2’
In order to find L = x 2 − x1 , the length of the rod as measured in the
X
stationary frame S at time t, we make use of Eq.[13a] to give ’
x1 = k ( x1 − ut ), and x2 = k ( x2 − ut ) . Z’
Hence,
x2 x x − x L
L = x2 − x1 = + ut − 1 − ut = 2 1 = 0 = L0 1 − u 2 / c 2
k k k k

L = L0 1 − u 2 / c 2 , …. ….. ….. [15]

Fq. [15] summarizes the effect known as length contraction. Observer S’ who is at rest with respect to
the object, measures the rest length L0 (also known as proper Length, in analogy with the proper time).
All observes in motion relative to S’ measure a shorter length, but only along the direction of motion;
length measurements transverse to the direction of the motion are unaffected.
For ordinary speeds (u<<c), the effects of length contraction are too small to be compared.

Faster means shorter

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 L0
L0
L0

L0
L0
L

Fig.4: Some length-contracted objects. Notice that the shortening occurs

only in the direction of motion.

Length contraction suggests that objects in motion are measured to have a shorter length than they do
at rest. The objects do not actually shrink; there is merely a difference in the length measured by
different observers. For example, to observers on earth a high speed rocket ship would appear to be
contracted along its direction of motion, but to an observer on the ship it is the passing earth that
appears to be contracted.

Problem solving strategy:

First make sure that you understand the difference between the proper length l0 and the contracted
length l. The proper length l0 in a particular reference frame is length measured on an object at rest in
that frame. Then the length l is the length between the same two points in the object as measured in a
second reference frame that has speed u relative to the first frame.
Both the lengths l0 and l are measured parallel to the direction of motion. Any length perpendicular to
the direction of motion is unchanged.
Check that your answers make sense; L is never larger than L0, and u is never larger than c.

EXAMPLE 4:
In the reference frame of muon of Example 2 what is the apparent thickness of the earth’s
atmosphere?
Solution:.,.,
In the reference frame of the muon, the earth as we found in example 1 is rushing towards it at a
speed of u = 0.999978C. To an observer on the Earth the height of the atmosphere is its rest length Lo
of 100 Km. To the muon, the moving earth has an atmosphere of height given by

L = L0 1 − u 2 / c 2 = (100km) 1 − (0.999978) 2 = 0.66km = 660m

Note that what appears as a time dilation in one frame of reference, can be regarded as a length
contraction in another frame of reference.
EXAMPLE 5:
A crew member on a space ship that flies past at a speed of 0.99c relative to the earth,
measures its length obtaining 400 m. what length do observers measure on earth?
Solution:
The 400 m length of the space ship is the proper length l0 because it is measured in the frame in which
it is at rest. We want to find the length L measured by the observers on earth which is given by

L = L0 1 − u 2 / c 2 = (400 m) 1 − (0.99) 2 = 56.4 m

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2.4. RELATIVISTIC VELOCITY TRANSFORMATION:
By differentiating the Lorentz transformation equations [12] for x, y, z and t, we get

dx = k (dx + vdt ), dy = dy  , dz = dz , dt = k (dt  + vdx / c 2 ) .

Therefore,

dx 
+u
dx k (dx  + udt ) dt  v x + u
vx = = = = …… ….. … [16a]
dt k (dt  + udx  / c )
2
u dx  u
1+ 2 1 + 2 v x
c dt  c

dy 
1 − u 2 / c 2 v 1 − u 2 / c 2
dy dy dy  dt 
and , v y = = = = =
y
….. [16b]
dt u u u dx  u
   
k ( dt + 2 dx ) k ( dt + 2 dx ) 1+ 2 1 + 2 vx
c c c dt  c
and similarly ,

vz 1 − u 2 / c 2
vz = ….. …… ….. [16c]
u
1 + 2 vx
c
If v x = c, that is, if light is emitted in the moving frame S  in its direction of motion relative to S, an
observer in frame S will measure the speed
vx + u c+u
vx = = =c
u u

1 + 2 vx 1 + 2 c
c c
Thus the observers in the car and on the road both find the same value for the speed of light, as they
must.
We may write the complete set of relativistic velocity transformation as

v + u vy 1 − u 2 / c 2 vz 1 − u 2 / c 2
vx = x , vy = and , vz =
u u u
1 + 2 vx 1 + 2 vx 1 + 2 vx
c c c
The inverse velocity transformation equations are

vx − u vy 1− u 2 / c2 vz 1 − u 2 / c 2
vx = , vy = and , vz =
u u u
1 − 2 vx 1 − 2 vx 1 − 2 vx
c c c
Table: The relativistic velocity transformation equations

vx − u vx + u
vx = vx =
u u
1− 2 vx 1 + 2 vx
c c
vy 1− u 2 / c2 vy 1 − u 2 / c 2
vy = vy =
u u
1 − 2 vx 1 + 2 vx
c c
vz 1 − u 2 / c 2 vz 1 − u 2 / c 2
vz = vz =
u u
1 − 2 vx 1 + 2 vx
c c
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EXAMPLE - 6
An observer in S frame is moving to the right at a speed u = 0.50c away from the stationary
observer in frame S. The observer in S measures the v of a particle moving to the right away
from her. What speed v does the observer in S measure for the particle if a) v = 0.60c? b) v =
0.99c?

v x'
u

S S
Solution :
The relative speed between the frames of reference u = 0.5 c
The speed of the particle in the S frame v = 0.6 c
Speed of the particle in the S frame v =?
vx + u 0.6 c + 0.5 c 1.1
[a] We know, v x = = = c = 0.846 c
u 0.5 c 1.3
1 + 2 vx 1 + 2 0.6
c c
[b] The speed of the particle in S frame v = 0.99 c
0.99 c + 0.5 c 1.49
Hence v = = c = 0.997 c
0.5 c 1.495
1 + 2 0.99 c
c
EXAMPLE - 7
A spaceship moving relative to the earth at a large speed fires a rocket toward the earth with a
speed of 0.84c relative to the spaceship. An earth-based observer measures that the rocket is
approaching with a speed of 0.29c. What is the speed of the spaceship relative to the earth? Is
the spaceship moving toward or away from the earth?

vx = -0.29 c
u
v x' = -0.84 c

S S

Assuming that the space ship is moving away at speed u

'
Speed of the rocket with respect to the spaceship is v x = -0.84 c

Speed of the rocket with respect to the earth is v x = -0.29 c

We know,
vx + u
vx =
u
1 + 2 vx
c
v x − vx − 0.29c − (−0.84c) 0.55 c
or, u = = = = 0.442 c
v x vx (−0.29c)((−0.84c) 1.2436
1+ 2 1+
c c2
Since u is positive the spaceship is receding away from the earth.

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2.5. DOPPLER EFFECT:
Let us suppose that a source of light is moving with constant speed u toward an observer who is
stationary in an inertial frame. As measured in its rest frame, the source emits light waves with
frequency o and time period To= 1/o. What is the frequency  of these waves as received by the
observer?
Let T be time interval between emission
of successive wave crests as observed
in observer’s reference frame. Note that
this is not the interval between the
arrival of successive crests at his
position, because the crests are emitted
at different positions in observer’s
frame. S  uT
cT
During a time T the crest ahead of the
source move a distance cT, and the
source moves a shorter distance uT in the same direction. The distance  between successive crests-
that is, the wavelength – is thus  = (c-u)T , as measured in observer’s frame. The frequency that the
observer measures is c/.
Therefore
c
= …. ….. ….. [17]
(c − u )T
Now the time interval T measured in observer’s frame is related to the time interval T0 between
emissions of successive wave crest by the source [measured in the rest frame of the source] by
To cTo
T= = …. ….. ….. [18]
1− u
2
c − u2
2

c2
Or, since To = 1/o,

1 c2 − u2 c2 − u2
= = 0
T cT0 c
To find , let us substitute the expression of 1/T into Eq.[17] and get

c c2 − u2 c+u
= 0 = 0 , …. …. …. [19]
c−u c c−u

The above equation represents Doppler Effect of electromagnetic wave. This shows that, when the
source moves toward the observer, the apparent frequency  is greater than the emitted frequency o.
the change  =  - o is called the Doppler frequency shift.
When source moves away from the observer, we change the sign of u to get

c−u
 =o …. …. …. [20]
c+u

EXAMPLE - 8
A galaxy in the Constellation Ursa Major is receding from earth at a speed of 15,000 km/s. If
one of the characteristic wavelength of the light the galaxy emits is 550 nm, what is the
corresponding wavelength measured by astronomers on the earth?
Solution :
Speed of light c = 3 x 108 m/s

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Speed of recession of the constellation u = 15000 km/s = 1.5 x 107 m/s = 0.05 c
We know,
When the source moves away from the observer the observed frequency is given by

c−u
r =o
c+u

c c c−u
or, =
r o c+u

c+u  c + .05c 
or,  r = o = 550 nm   = (550 nm) 1.05 = 578.23 nm (Ans)
c−u 
 c − 0.5c  0.95

EXAMPLE - 9
A highway patrolman measures the speed of cars approaching him with a device that sends
out electromagnetic waves with frequency fo and then measures the shift in frequency f of the
waves reflected from the moving car. What fractional frequency shift f/fo is produced by a car
speeding at 35.4 m/s?
Solution :
The patrolman sends out electromagnetic signal of frequency fo
The moving car reflects signal of frequency f
The receiver device receives signal of frequency f f f
Now

c+u c+u f
f a = f o , and f a = f a f
c−u c−u
c+u
Or, f a = f o
c−u
f a c+u f 2u
Or, −1 = − 1, or , =
fo c−u fo c+u
f 2u 2 x 35.4
Or, = = = 2.36 x 10 −7 (Ans)
fo c+u 300000000 + 35.4

3. RELATIVISTIC DYNAMICS
3.1. RELATIVITY OF MASS:
To investigate what happens to the mass of an object as its speed increases, let us consider an elastic
collision ( that is a collision in which kinetic energy is conserved ) between two particles A and B as
witnessed by observers in the reference frames S and S’ [Fig. 5] which are in uniform relative motion .
The properties of A and B are identical when determined in reference frames in which they are at rest.
The frames S and S’ are oriented as in Fig.5 with S’ moving in the +x direction with respect to S at the

velocity v .

11
Before the collision, particle A had been at rest in frame S and particle B in frame S’. Then, at the
same instant, A was thrown in the +y direction at the speed VA while B was thrown in the -Y direction

at the speed V B , where

V A = VB …. …. …. [21]

Hence the behavior of A as seen from S is exactly the same as the behavior of B as seen from S’.
When the two particles collide, A rebounds in the -Y direction at the speed VA while B rebounds in the
+Y direction at the speed V B . If the particles are thrown from positions Y apart, an observer in S finds
that the collision occurs at y=Y/2 and one in S’ finds that it occurs at y’ = y = Y/2. The round-trip time t0
for A as measured in S is therefore,
Y
t0 = …. …. …. [22]
VA
Y
and it is the same for B in S’ : t0 = …. …. …. [23]
VB
If the linear momentum is conserved in the S frame, it must be true that

m AV A = mBVB …. …. …. [24]

where mA and mB are the masses of A and B and VA and VB are their velocities as measured in the S
frame. In S, speed VB is found from
Y
VB = …. …. …. [25]
t
where t is the time required for B to make its round trip as measured in S. In S’, however, the trip of B
requires the time t0 , where
t0
t= …. …. …. [26]
1− u2 / c2
From [25],

Y 1− u2 / c2
VB = = V A 1 − u 2 / c 2 …. …. …. [27]
t0
Y
since from [22] we know that V A = .
t0

y y’

 V’B
S S’ u
x x’ Y

z z’ VA

Fig.5: An elastic collision as observed in two different frames of reference. The balls are initially
Y apart, which is the same distance in both frames since S’ moves only in the X direction.

12
Inserting these expressions for VA and VB in [24], we see that the momentum is conserved provided
that

m A = mB 1 − u 2 / c 2 …. …. …. [28]

Because A and B are identical when at rest with respect to an observer, the difference between mA
and mB means that measurements of mass like those of space and time depend upon the relative
speed between an observer and whatever he or she is observing.
In this example, both A and B are moving in S. In order to obtain a formula that gives the mass m of a
body measured while in motion in terms of its mass mo when measured at rest, we need only consider
a similar example in which VA and VB are very small compared with v. In this case an observer in S will

see B approach A with the velocity v and making a glancing collision (since VB << v) and then
continue on.

In S mA= m0 and mB = m
and so
m0
Relativistic mass m = …. …. …. [29]
1− u 2 / c2
The mass of a body moving at the speed v relative to an observer is larger than its mass when at rest
relative to the observer by the factor

1 1− u2 / c2 .
This mass increase is reciprocal, to an observer in S’, mA= m and mB=m0. Measured from the earth, a
spacecraft in flight is shorter than its twin still on the ground and its mass is greater. To somebody on
the spacecraft in flight, the ship on the ground also appears to be shorter and to have a greater mass.
Relativistic mass increases are significant only at speeds approaching that of light. At a speed one
tenth that of light the mass increase amounts to 0.5 percent but this increase is over 100% at a speed
nine-tenths that of light. Only atomic particles such as electrons, protons, mesons and so on have
sufficiently highly speeds for relativistic effects to be measurable and in dealing with these particles,
the ordinary laws of physics cannot be used.
EXAMPLE 10:
Find the mass of an electron (mo =9.1x10-31 kg) whose velocity is 0.99c.
Solution :
Given u/c=0.99, so

m0 9.1x10 −31
m= = = 64 x10 −31 kg.
1− u / c
2 2
1 − (0.99) 2

which is 7 times greater than the electron’s rest mass.

If v =c , m =  , from which we can conclude that v can never equal c:

No material object can travel as fast as light

3.2. RELATIVISTIC MOMENTUM & NEWTON’S SECOND LAW OF MOTION

Provided that linear momentum is defined as

  m0 u
p = mu = ….. ….. [30]
1− u2 / c2
Conservation of momentum is valid in special relativity just as in classical physics. However, Newton’s
second law of motion is correct only in the form:

13
  d 
 d m0 u m0 
F = (mu ) = [ ]= a …. ….. [31]
dt dt 1 − u 2 / c 2 1− u2 / c2 ( )3
2

when Force F and acceleration are both along the direction of relative motion.

EXAMPLE 11:
Relativistic dynamics of electron: An electron is moving opposite to an electric field of
magnitude E = 5.0  105 N/C. All other forces are negligible in comparison to the electric field
force. Find the magnitudes of momentum and of acceleration at the instants when (i) u = 0.01c
and (ii) 0.99c.

m0 u (9.1 10 −31 )  (0.01  3  10 8 )

(i) momentum pi = = = 2.710-24 kg-m/s
1− u / c
2 2
1 − (0.01) 2

(9.1 10 −31 )  (0.99  3  10 8 )

And pii = = = 1.910-21 kg-m/s
1 − (0.99) 2

And acceleration ai =
F
mo
2
(
1− u 2
c
)3
2
where F = 1.6  10-19  5.0 105 N = 8.0 10-14 N

Hence ai=
8.0 10 −14
9.1 10 −31

1− (0.01)
2
3
2
= 8.8  1016 m/s2

And aii =
8.0 10 −14
9.1 10 −31

1− (0.99 )
2
 3
2
= 2.5  1014 m/s2

1
Thus the momentum increases by a factor of  = whereas the acceleration decreases by
1− u2 / c2
a factor of 3 with the increase of speed u.

3.2. EQUIVALENCE OF MASS AND ENERGY :

Where E = mc2 comes from

Let now see how this relationship can be derived from what we have already done. The work W done

on an object by a constant force of magnitude F that acts through the distance s where F is in the

same direction as s is given by
W = Fs
If no other forces act on the object and the object starts from rest, all the work done on it becomes
K.E., so
K.E. = Fs

In the general case where F need not be constant, the formula for K..E becomes
mu
S S
d [mo u ] u
m0 u 
K .E =  Fds = 
0 0
dt
ds  =  u d [mo u ] =  u  d [
0 0 1− u2 / c2
]

Integrating by parts
 xdy = xy −  ydx ,
we get

14
 u
 m0u  u   u
m0u d u 
K .E = 
 1 − u  2
/ c 2
 −
0

0 1 − u2 / c 2

u d u 
u
m0 u 2
= − m0 
1− u / c2 2
0 1− u2 / c2
Taking 1- u2/c2 = k2, we get
u du = - c2 k dk
and when u = 0 ; k = 1

and when u = u ; k = 1− u 2 c 2
Changing he variable the above equation can be written as
1−u 2 / c 2
m0 u 2 − c 2 k dk
K .E. =
1− u2 / c2
− m0 
0
k
1−u 2 / c 2
m0 u 2
= + m0 c  dk
2

1− u 2 / c2 1

m0 c 2
= − m0 c 2
1− u / c 2 2

= m c 2 − m0 c 2 ........ ........ ..........[32]

From Eq. [32], we see that the K.E of an object is equal to the increase in its mass due to its relativistic
motion multiplied by the square of the speed of light.
Eq [32] may be written as

Total Energy mc2 = m0 c 2 + K .E …. …. …. [33]

If we interpret mc2 as the total energy E of the object, we see that when it is at rest and its K.E =0 , it
nevertheless possesses the energy m0c2 . Accordingly m0c2 is called the rest energy Eo.
We, therefore, have
E = E0 + K .E …. …. …. [34]

Where, E0 = m0 c …. ….
2
…. [35]

If the object is moving, its total energy is

m 0c 2
E = mc 2 = …. …. …. [36]
2 2
1− u /c
For low speeds, u/c <<1,
Then we can write
K.E=mc2-m0c2

−1
 2  2
= m0c 1 − u 2
2
- m0c2
 c 
 1 u2 
= m0c2 1 + + − −  - m0c2 [ neglecting the higher order terms]
 2 c2 

15
 1
= m0u2
2
EXAMPLE 11:
A stationary body explodes into two fragments each of rest mass 1.0 Kg that move apart at
speeds 0.6C relative to the original body. Find the rest mass of the original body.
Solution:
The total energy of the original body must equal the sum of the total energies of the fragments.
Hence

E = E 0 + K .E = E 0 + 0 = E 0
m 01 c 2 m02 c 2 (1.0kg )c 2 (1.0kg )c 2
m0 c 2 = + = +
1 − u1 / c 2
2
1 − u2 / c 2
2
1 − (0.6) 2 1 − (0.6) 2
Therefore,
m0 = 2.5kg
Mass can be created or destroyed but when this happens an equivalent amount of energy
simultaneously vanishes or comes into being and vice versa.

Mass and energy are different aspects of the same thing

The conversion factor between the unit of mass (the kg) and the unit of energy (the joule, J) is c 2. So,
1 kg of matter has an energy content of

m 0 c 2 = (1kg ) * (3x10 8 m / s ) 2 = 9 x1016 J

This is enough to send a payload of a million tons to the moon.

Mass-less particles:

They can exist only if they move with the speed of light

m0 c 2
We know, Total energy E= ,
1− u2 / c2
m0 u
and relativistic momentum p=
1− u2 / c2
When m0 = 0 and u<c, i.e. E = p = 0 i.e.

A mass less particle with a speed less than that of light can have
neither energy nor momentum

However, when mo =o and v =c, E=o/o and p=o/o which are indeterminate: E and p can have any
values. The equations [b] & [c] are consistent with the existence of mass-less particles that possess
energy and momentum provided that they travel with the speed of light.
There is another restriction on mass-less particles.
From Eq. [36], we can write
2
m0 c 4
E =
2

1− u2 / c2
and from [30], we can write

16
 2
m0 u 2
p =
2
,
1− u2 / c2
2
m0 u 2c 2
or, pc =
2 2

1 − u 2 / c2
2 2
Subtracting p c from E2 yields

E 2 = p 2 c 2 + m0 c 4
2

Therefore, for all particles, we have

mo c 4 + p 2 c 2 = Eo + p 2 c 2 …
2 2
E= … … [37]

According to this formula, if a particle exists with m0 = 0, the relationship between its energy and
momentum must be given by
mass - less particles E = pc … … … [38]

In fact, mass-less particles of two different kinds - the photon and the neutrino have indeed been
discovered and their behavior is as expected.
Electronvolts:
In atomic physics the usual unit of energy is electronvolt (eV) where 1 eV is the energy gained by an
electron accelerated through a potential difference of 1 volt.
Since
W =QV
1 eV =(1.602x10-19 C)(1.00V)=1.602x10-19 J
The rest energies of elementary particles are often expressed in MeV and GeV and the corresponding
rest masses in MeV/c2 and GeV/c2. In a similar way the MeV/c and GeV/c are sometimes convenient
units of linear momentum.
EXAMPLE 12:
An electron (m0 = 0.511 MeV/c2) and a photon (m0 =0) both have momenta of 2.00 MeV/c. Find
the total energy of each.
Solution:
The electron’s total energy is

E = m02 c 4 + p 2 c 2 = (0.511MeV / c 2 ) 2 c 4 + ( 2.00MeV / c ) 2 c 2 = 2.064 MeV

17
 PROBLEMS ON SPECIAL THEORY OF RELATIVITY

Relativity of time and length

1. Astronauts in a spaceship traveling at speed of 0.8 c relative to earth sign off from the space
control, saying that they are going to have a nap for 1 hour and then call back. How long does
their nap last as measured on earth?

2. The mean lifetime of a pion traveling at high speed is measured to be 7.5x10-8 s. Its lifetime
when measured at rest is 2.6x10-8 s. How fast is the pion traveling?

3. Suppose that an event occurs in S at x = 1.5 km, y = 10 km, z = 1.0 km, at t = 5.0  10-6
seconds. Let S move relative to S at 0.92 c along the common x-x axis, the origin coinciding
at t = t = 0. What are the coordinates x , y, z, and t of this event in S?

4. A friend of yours who is of the same age as you travels to a distant star which is 8 light years
away from the earth. He claims on return that the trip took just 10 years. How fast did he
travel?

5. A beam of particles of half-life 2.0x10-6 sec travels in the laboratory with a speed 0.96c. How
much distance does the beam travel before the flux falls to (1/2) times the initial flux?

6. The lifetime of µ-mesons is 2.2 µs and their speed is 0.998c, so that they can cover only a
distance of 0.998c x 2.2x10-6 or 658.68 metres in their entire lifetime. Yet they are found in
profusion at sea level i.e. at a depth of 10 km from the upper atmosphere where they are
created. Explain this phenomenon using both time dilation and length contraction effects.

7. A meter stick moves past you at a great speed. Its motion relative to you is parallel to its long
axis. If you measure the length of the moving meter stick to be 1.0 yd (1 yd = 0.9144 m), for
example, by comparing it to a yardstick that is at rest relative to you, what is the speed with
which the meter stick is moving relative to you?

8. An unstable high-energy particle enters a detector and leaves a track 1.05 mm long before it
decays. Its speed relative to the detector was 0.992 c. What is its proper lifetime? That is, how
long would the particle have lasted before decay had it been at rest with respect to the
detector?

VELOCITY TRANSFORMATION:
1. Spacecraft Alpha is moving at a speed 0.90c with respect to the earth. If the spacecraft Beta is
to pass Alpha at a relative speed of 0.50c in the same direction, what speed must Beta have
with respect to the earth?

2. Consider the case of two spaceships approaching each other in the vicinity of a star. Relative
to the star, the spaceship A is approaching at 0.95c, while spaceship B is approaching from
the opposite direction at a velocity of 0.90c with respect to the star. What is the velocity of A
relative to B?

3. A spaceship is moving east at speed 0.90c relative to the earth. A second spaceship is
moving west at speed 0.90c relative to the earth. What is the speed of one space ship relative
to the other?

18
4. Rocket A leaves a space station with a speed of 0.826c. Later, rocket B leaves in the same
direction with a speed 0.635c. What is the speed of rocket A as observed from rocket B?

5. Two twins of rest mass 60.00 kg are headed towards each other in spacecraft whose speeds
relative to the earth are 0.800c. What mass does each twin find for the other?

DOPPLER EFFECT:
1. In terms of c, what relative velocity u between a source of electromagnetic waves and an
observer produces a) 1% decrease in frequency? b) a decrease by a factor of three of the
frequency of the observed light?

2. Certain wavelengths in the light from a galaxy in the Constellation Virgo are observed to be
0.4% longer than the corresponding light from earth sources. What is the radial speed of this
galaxy with respect to earth? Is it approaching or receding?

3. A spaceship, moving away from earth at a speed of 0.90 c, reports back by transmitting a
frequency (measured in the spaceship frame) of 100 MHz. To what frequency must earth
receivers be tuned to receive the report?

RELATIVISTIC MOMENTUM AND ENERGY:

1. What is the percentage increase in the mass of an electron accelerated to a K.E of 500 MeV?
Use rest mass of electron = 0.511 MeV/c2.

1
2. What is the speed of a particle if its kinetic energy is 1% larger than mo u 2 ?
2
3. How much work must be done on a particle with mass mo to accelerate it a) from rest to a
speed of 0.08c? b) from a speed of 0.9c to 0.98c? [Express your answers in terms of moc2]. (c)
How do your answers in part (a) and (b) compare?

4. At what speed is the momentum of a particle twice as great as the result obtained from the
non-relativistic expression mou? b) At what speed is the momentum of a particle differs by 1%
from the value obtained from the non-relativistic expression mou? Is it greater than that
obtained from non-relativistic expression?

5. Calculate the magnitude of the force required to give a 0.145 kg baseball an acceleration a =
1 m/s2 in the direction of the baseball’s initial velocity when this velocity has a magnitude of a)
10 m/s, b) 0.9c , and c) 0.99c.

19