POB Notes For Revision: Asif Mohammed
POB Notes For Revision: Asif Mohammed
Asif Mohammed
Table of Contents
1
Principles of Business
Notes for Revision
Chapter 1 – Background to Business
2
Bartering
Barter is the exchange of one thing for another without the use of
money.
Advantages of Bartering
1. Barter makes is possible to dispose of extra surplus and obtain
things they needed.
3
Disadvantages of Bartering
1. A double coincidence of wants – People had to find someone
who wanted their surplus, but the person must have something
they needed as well.
4
The Characteristics of Money
For something to be considered as money, it must have the following
qualities:
Quality Description
Durable It must be hard-wearing
Acceptable People must agree to its use
Exchangeable It can be exchanged for goods and services
Divisible It is possible to divide it into smaller pieces
Scarce Its value is maintained when it’s harder to acquire
Portable It must be convenient to carry
Homogeneous There must be a standardised appearance for all
notes of a particular value. For example, all $10
notes look the same.
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The Functions of Money
Function Description
A medium of exchange Money makes it easier to exchange goods
which makes barter useless
A measure of value Money can be used to state prices for
goods
A store of value Money can be saved whereas goods often
cannot
A standard for Money can be earned at one time and
postponed payment spent at another
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Documentary Credit
Documentary credit (letters of credit) allows the exporter to
obtain payment before the importer can access the documents
of ownership.
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Debit cards allow the holder to make purchases at home
or abroad, without using cheques or cash.
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Cheques are slips of paper that a bank customer fills
which instructs the bank to do something with the money
in their account.
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Chapter 2 – Types of Businesses and Economic Systems
Mixed Economy
A mixed economy is when some businesses are privately owned and
others are owned by the state.
Public Sector
Public sector businesses are the various forms of enterprise in public
ownership, which are owned by the public, through the government
ownership.
Municipal Undertakings
Municipal Undertakings are enterprises operated on a commercial
basis by local government authorities.
Key Points:
• Financed by local taxation
• Subsidised by grants from central government
Examples: theatres, bus services, art galleries and conference halls.
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State Undertakings
State Undertakings refer to a variety of enterprises operated by the
government on behalf of the public.
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Reasons for State Ownership
To take a monopoly out of private ownership for the good of all
citizens
To keep natural monopoly in public ownership
The initial cost of setting up an enterprise may be too high for
private enterprise
National security may have to be protected through state
ownership
To avoid equipment replication and duplication of services
To save ailing essential industry and to protect jobs.
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The Private Sector
Private sector businesses are owned by individuals or commercial
companies, which run for profit. These are not owned by the
government.
Limited Liability
Limited liability allows people to invest in a business without having
to face the risks of unlimited liability. With limited liability, the
investor is only liable to lose the amount they have put into the
business.
If the name of a business has the abbreviation ‘Ltd’ meaning
‘limited’, this indicated that the business has limited liability.
Unlimited Liability
If a business has unlimited liability. The owners of the business are
not only liable to lose the money they have invested but they can
also lose personal assets.
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Sole Traders
The sole trader is a form of business ownership where:
• A personal service is provided
• Limited capital is available to start up the business
• Large-scale production is not required
This type of business may be operated by the owner alone, or
employees and is usually a small business.
Their market tends to be less diversified than larger businesses
because their level of operations limits their output.
Partnerships
A partnership involves 2-20 people where an exception is banks
which are only allowed to have 10 partners. However, firms such as
accountants, solicitors and stockbrokers can have more than 20
partners.
Disadvantages of Partnerships:
1) Partners are fully liable for the debts of a business should
it go bankrupt due to having unlimited liability.
A partnership deed sets out the right of each partner regarding the
division of the profits. If this deed does not exist, then the profits are
shared equally.
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A sleeping partner is one who may be willing to introduce capital to
the business but may not want to be active in its operation.
Advantages Disadvantages
Easily formed Generally unlimited liability
More people to contribute Possible disagreements between
capital than a sole trader partners
Greater continuity than a sole Each partner is liable for the
trader debts of the business
Expenses and management of Twenty-person membership
the business are shared limit restricts capital resources.
Co-operatives
Co-operatives are a special form of business organisation where they
are incorporated businesses that are owned and controlled by
groups with special interests.
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Private Limited Companies
A private limited company is any company that is not registered as a
public limited company. The company must include the work
‘Limited’ or ‘Ltd’ in its title.
This type of company has to have one shareholder.
The public limited company must include the letters ‘PLC’ in its title.
It takes a minimum of two people to form this company and there is
no maximum membership.
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Franchises
A franchise is a form of business in which a firm that has a successful
service or product (franchisor) enters into a contractual relationship
with another business (franchisee).
Multinationals
A multinational company is a business operating internationally,
although its ownership is usually based in one country.
Economic Systems
The term economy is used to define a country in terms of the total
composition of its economic activities.
The process of producing the things we all want goes through the
decision of what produce is limited by the resources a country has.
Countries all have to solve the following problems:
1) Deciding on what should be produced.
2) Deciding on how production should be organised.
3) Finding the best ways to combine factors of production (land,
labour, capital, enterprise).
4) Deciding if automated or manual methods should be used.
5) Deciding if technological equipment is required.
6) Deciding where the production should take place.
7) Deciding for whom the production should take place.
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Types of Economic Systems
Subsistence Economy
A subsistence economy is one where there is little specialisation of
labour and little trade.
Command Economy
In a Command Economy all the economic decisions are made by the
government. The state decides what will be produced, how it will be
produced, and how it should be allocated to the consumers.
China and Cuba are examples of a command economy.
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Mixed Economy
A mixed economy is a combination of elements from a free economy
and a controlled economy, which means that the production and
supply are shared between the private and public sector.
Caribbean countries have a mixed economy.
Globalisation
Globalisation is the intensification and spread of worldwide social
economic, cultural and political relationships among countries.
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Chapter 3 – Business Organisation
Production
Production is the process and methods used by producers to
transform raw materials, ideas, information or knowledge into goods
and services.
Marketing
Marketing refers to all the processes involved in promoting and
selling goods or services in the most profitable and efficient manner.
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Finance
Finance is possibly the most important resource of all business
functional areas. It is the lifeblood of any business activity.
Human Resources
Human Resources are concerned with managing people within the
organisation.
This refers to the glue that holds the organisation together. There
are six areas:
• Recruitment
• Safety
• Employee Relations
• Compensation and benefits
• Compliance
• Training and Development
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Research and Development
Research and Development is the investigative activity a business
carries out with the aim of getting new knowledge that it can use to
create new products or systems.
Stakeholders of a Business
A stake holder is any person or group of people that has an interest
in the business and its activities.
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Chapter 6 - Entrepreneurship
Entrepreneurship
An entrepreneur is a person who undertakes the risks involved in
establishing and running a business in the hope of making a profit.
The act of managing a business enterprise is referred to as
entrepreneurship.
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6) Evaluating the performance of the business once it has been
established. Profit is the main aim of a business but the
owner(s) will have to continually assess the business.
7) Bearing risks which relate to the willingness to operate while
recognising that there are some elements of uncertainty
involved in business.
8) Making a profit or loss which relates to whether or no the
entrepreneur’s risks pays off.
Characteristics of an Entrepreneur
1) Creative – Must have a vision, imagination and originality.
2) Innovative – Can think of and develop new ideas.
3) Flexible – Can adapt to new challenges and changes and adapts
their original business plan as circumstances require.
4) Goal-orientated – Must work towards clear, realistic and
measurable targets that they have set for the business and all
of its employees.
5) Persistence – must be resilient and will not be put off by any
setbacks. They learn from their mistakes and strive to do better
when something goes wrong.
6) Persevering – must be committed and self-motivated.
7) Risk taker – Able to risk their own money, sometimes money of
others, to set up and run a business.
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Leadership Qualities in an Entrepreneur
A successful entrepreneur requires leadership qualities that inspire
others to work hard and support their drive to achieve the desired
success. These include:
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Decision Making
Conceptualising
The entrepreneur must have an idea, skill or service that others
want, one they can provide a competitive price and achieve a profit.
The entrepreneur is required to make a decision if their research
indicates that their idea is marketable for profit.
Planning
In order to achieve its objectives, a business needs a plan. A
feasibility study provides an investigation, backed by data, to
demonstrate that what is planned is really possible.
Long term planning is about what the firm plans to do rather what it
is currently doing.
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Accessing Financing
The entrepreneur needs to access whether or not the new venture
will be financially viable.
Capital Requirements
Capital refers to the wealth, in the form of money or other assets,
used to start and operate a business.
Sources of Capital
• Entrepreneur’s savings
• Bank loan
• Partners
• Investors
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Organising the Factors of Production
The factors of production are the various elements needed to
produce goods or services.
Land: all natural resources, including farmed land, and the natural
resources in the land and sea.
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Operating the Business
• Operating an effective accounting system is important in order
to be able to regularly analyse how the business is doing.
• Increasing sales is an ongoing process. Consideration will be
given to marketing techniques and advertising.
• Reducing costs can be effective as increasing sales. Exploring
better deals from suppliers is another way to reduce costs.
• Getting paid on time is important for cash flow. Cashing slow
payers systematically and offering discounts to prompt payers
aids cash flow.
• Maintaining records is an ongoing activity. Financial records
enable the entrepreneur to analyse businesses’ performance
regularly.
• Looking ahead involves asking certain questions like: ‘Are
customers offering a better deal?’, ‘Is there a case for setting
new goals?’
Evaluating
Evaluating is necessary to extend the life of a business and to
evaluate the outcome of events once it has been established.
Risk Bearing
If entrepreneurs did not face risks, new businesses would not be
started, innovation opportunities would be missed and there
would be a reduces contribution to general economic
development.
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Entrepreneurs and Economic Development
Entrepreneurs collaborate when they create new businesses that
provide goods and services to satisfy citizens. They also create
jobs and contribute to nation building.
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Contributing to the Nation
Nation building refers to creating a strong sense of national
identity. This requires economic, social and political development.
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Chapter 7 – Establishment of a Business
Reasons for Establishing a Business
1) Financial independence: Operating your own business can lead
to independent financial success, unlike a job there a person is
limited to what their employer is willing to pay them.
Research
Research is carried out to find out if there is a definite need for the
product or service, and to collect information about the potential
market.
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Identification of Resources
Identifying resources needed to operate the business venture.
Acquisition of Funds
Funds to start a business usually comes from the entrepreneur’s own
resources. Using funds from other will incur a cost of borrowing
which is basically interest.
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Reasons for Preparing a Business Plan
Preparing a business plan tests the feasibility of the business idea.
The research that compilation of the business plan demands can save
a lot of time and money if the act of working through the business
plan reveals that idea of the business is not viable.
Operational Plan
This describes the business’s physical location, legal structure,
facilities, equipment and labour the business employs.
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The Marketing Plan
This describes the specific objectives that demonstrate the
entrepreneur has a clear idea of how they will get their product into
the market.
Financial Forecast
This can be seen as turning the plan into numbers, projecting a
forecast for the next three to five years. The forecast should include:
• A cashflow statement and the first 12 months cash-flow
pattern including working capital, salaries and sales.
• A profit and loss forecast on projected scales.
• A sales forecast
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The feasibility study is conducted before the business plan. It will
answer questions such as:
• Will people buy my product?
• What competition exists and how do I compete with them?
• What costs can I expect to have to meet?
• How much finance am I going to need and for how long?
Planning Ahead
Short Term Plans are those that are undertaken on a daily or weekly
basis and include factors such as what to purchase. In a small
business this would be carried out by the owners, and lower
management employees in a large business.
Medium Term Plans are those effected for one or two years and
include implementing procedures that increase the effectiveness of
the business.
Long Term Plans are those that establish the course of the business
over a three-to-five-year period, which set out ways the business
intends to develop from its existing position to where it aims to be in
the long term.
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Government Regulator Practices
The regulatory practices governing the establishment of a business
refer to the legislative rules by which persons who wish to establish a
business should be guided.
When starting up the business the entrepreneur must apply to the
minister of small businesses who is charged with checking and
approving their application.
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Chapter 11 - Production
Production
Aims of production:
Production refers to the process and methods of growing or
changing raw materials and making goods or services that can be use
or sold to satisfy the needs and wants of people and business.
Needs are things that are essential to human survival. The 3 primary
needs are:
• Food
• Clothing
• Shelter
Wants are things that people desire to make the quality of life better
but is not necessary for survival.
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Each of these factors receives a payment/reward in return for its
contribution to production.
1. Land receives rent.
2. Labour receives wages.
3. Capital receives interest.
4. Enterprise receives profit.
Land
Land does not include the land itself, but also all the natural
resources found in the earth and sea. Land can have all sorts of
mineral deposits, nature and even life.
Therefore, land includes:
• The geographical surface area
• Rivers, lakes and seas
• Minerals and chemicals
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Labour
Labour is people’s physical and mental contribution to the creation
of goods and services. It’s the factor that converts resources into
goods/services what people want.
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Capital
Capital is the money that is invested in a business in order to
acquire the assets which the business need to produce or
trade.
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Enterprise
Enterprise is similar to labour but is a separate factor because it
refers to the special skills (entrepreneurship) that some people have
to organise their business.
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Development of Production
Natural Resource Country Example Usage
Bauxite Jamaica, Refined as aluminium, used in pots
Guyana and pans, machines and parts.
Clay Throughout Bricks, earthenware pots
Caribbean
Diamonds Guyana Jewellery, industrial diamonds
Forestry Guyana Furniture
Gold Guyana Jewellery
Limestone Barbados, Cement products
Jamaica, TT
Manganese Guyana Metal and glass production
Natural gas Barbados, Energy fuel
TT
Oil TT Petrol and by-products such as
plastics and paints
Pitch TT Asphalt, shingles
Sand and Silica Throughout Building materials, glass
Caribbean
Sun Throughout Solar energy
Caribbean
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Production and Productivity
Inputs and Outcomes
Inputs are what a business puts into its production process, this
applies to whatever factor of production the business is
engaged in.
The workers wages remain the same, the input of materials is the
same, but output has been doubled.
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Capital for Production
Capital, as a factor of production, refers to the physical tools, plant
and machinery that enables production of goods and services to take
place. This is referred to as capital goods.
Example:
Deep-sea drilling is a classic example where labour alone could not
achieve its output. The equipment (capital) needed makes deep-sea
drilling possible. Such activities are capital-intensive.
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Types and Levels of Production
Types of Production
Production can be divided into three types:
1. Primary production
2. Secondary production
3. Tertiary activities
Collectively they are referred to as the chain of production.
Primary Production
Primary production is the extraction of basic raw materials provided
by nature, which are either above or below the Earth’s surface.
The extractive industries are: agriculture, fishing and mining.
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Secondary Production
Secondary production consists of the manufacturing and construction
industries. They take the materials produced by the extractive
industries and change them into an end product.
Tertiary Production
Tertiary Production are also a form of production because they enable
change of ownership of goods and services.
Tertiary activities begin when goods leave the producer and have to
be transported, stored, insured and sold by traders on the open
market.
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Levels of Production
There are three levels of operation:
1. Subsistence
2. Domestic
3. Surplus
Subsistence Level
This level of production meets only the basic needs of the country in
which it takes place.
Domestic Level
At the domestic level of production everything is produced locally
within the home country. This level does not involve any imports
from foreign countries or exports to other countries.
Some developed countries try to grow all the food they need
because they have the resources to do so.
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Surplus Level
Developed countries have a wide variety of resources and exploit
these to the full. They also have advanced technology which enables
them to take full advantage of their resources.
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Cottage Industries
A cottage industry is one of the smallest types of businesses where
are operated in the home, community centres or some other village
facilities.
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Functions of a Small Business
1) Supplying goods and services that satisfy some demand,
identify a particular need in the market and develop a product
or service that will meet that need.
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Advantages of a Small Business
1) They provide employment opportunities, particularly in rural
and depressed areas.
2) Good working relationships are more easily established and
maintained.
3) Employees are more likely to be personally involved in
achieving the goals of the business.
4) They can profit from a niche in the market and provide goods
or services that larger businesses have no interest in.
5) Closer communication exists between the owner and the
employees, and between the employees themselves.
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Value of a Small Business to a Country
1) Small businesses provide employment which utilizes local
labour available and reduce unemployment.
2) Small businesses can sometimes respond to customers’ needs
faster than larger business.
3) Small businesses are the only way that some needs are met.
For example, garden services which are not suited to be a large
business.
Business Risk
The main risk a business faces is that it will fail to make a profit
which can possibly lead to the stop of trading.
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Reasons why businesses grow and expand:
1) They wish to make a greater level of profit.
2) They are trying to gain economies of scale.
3) They wish to reduce competition and become market leaders.
4) Expansion will only take place if the business can benefit and
make extra profits.
5) They are successful, and expansion is necessary to meet
demand for their product.
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External Growth
External Growth occurs when one firm takes over or merges with
another. This is a popular method of growth because the firm
increases its size quickly.
b) Mergers
A merger or amalgamation is the voluntary combining together
of two or more businesses into a single business that is
mutually agreed by the firms’ management and agreed by their
shareholders.
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c) Takeovers and Acquisitions
An acquisition or takeover refers to a business strategy
whereby the control of a business is taken over by another
business by purchasing at least 51% of its voting shares.
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Different types of mergers and takeovers:
1) Horizontal Integration occurs where a firm merges with or
takes over another firm at the same stage of production.
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3) A Conglomerate Merger or Lateral Merger is the integration or
takeover of two or more companies engaged in unrelated
businesses.
This has the effect of spreading the risks of the business and
also facilitates the sharing of ideas between them.
Linkage Industries
The linkage between primary, secondary and tertiary production are
important because they facilitate a series of relationships (links)
between the productive sectors.
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For example:
Canning and preservation of foods are spins-offs of agriculture. This
is called forward linkage since one industry is producing raw
materials for another industry.
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Effects of Growth on a Business
Business Growth refers to an increase in size and profitability over a
period of time.
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Business Growth and Capital
Business risk is reduced as a business expands, and the possibility of
survival improves.
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Chapter 12 - Marketing
What is market?
The term market can be described as any situation that brings
together the sellers and buyers of goods or services either directly or
indirectly.
What is marketing?
Marketing is all the activities that enable trade to take place in the
most profitable and efficient manner.
It includes identifying customers’ needs through market research,
and all the activities that satisfy those needs by providing the
required goods or services.
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Types of Market
There are 2 markets of concern: The consumer market and the
industrial market.
Consumer Market
The consumer market is the market for products, goods and services
bought by individuals.
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Industrial Market
The industrial market involves the sale of goods between businesses.
There goods are aimed at other businesses as opposed to the
general public.
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Social Media Marketing
This refers to the process of gaining attention through social media
sites.
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Integrated Marketing
Integrated Marketing is a unified, holistic approach to
communication in marketing, combining all aspects of marketing.
Eg: advertising, sales promotion, public relations, direct marketing,
social media marketing.
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