ASSIGNMENT:

Cells
Cell theory

Discovery of cells is one of the remarkable advancements in the field of science. It helps us know that all
the organisms are made up of cells, and these cells help in carrying out various life processes. The structure
and functions of cells helped us to understand life in a better way.

Who discovered cells?

Robert Hooke discovered the cell in 1665. Robert Hooke observed a piece of bottle cork under a compound
microscope and noticed minuscule structures that reminded him of small rooms. Consequently, he named
these “rooms” as cells. However, his compound microscope had limited magnification, and hence, he could
not see any details in the structure. Owing to this limitation, Hooke concluded that these were non-living
entities.
Later Anton Van Leeuwenhoek observed cells under another compound microscope with higher
magnification. This time, he had noted that the cells exhibited some form of movement (motility). As a result,
Leeuwenhoek concluded that these microscopic entities were “alive.” Eventually, after a host of other
observations, these entities were named as animalcules.
In 1883, Robert Brown, a Scottish botanist, provided the very first insights into the cell structure. He was
able to describe the nucleus present in the cells of orchids.
The ideas of all these early thinkers are summarized in modern cell theory, which states:

1. All living things are composed of one or more cells.

2. The cell is the basic unit of life.

3. New cells arise from pre-existing cells.

INTRODUCTION TO CELLS
A cell is a mass of cytoplasm that is bound externally by a cell membrane. Usually microscopic in size, cells
are the smallest structural units of living matter and compose all living things. Most cells have one or
more nuclei and other organelles that carry out a variety of tasks. Some single cells are complete
organisms, such as a bacterium or yeast.
Others are specialized building blocks of multicellular organisms, such as plants and animals. All living
things are made from one or more cells. A cell is the simplest unit of life and they are responsible for keeping
an organism alive and functioning. This introduction to cells is the starting point for the area of biology that
studies the various types of cells and how they work. There is a massive variety of different types of cells
but they all have some common characteristics. Almost every different type of cell contains genetic material,
a membrane and cytoplasm. Cells also have many other features such as organelles and ribosomes that
perform specific functions.
Many different organisms on the tree of life contain only one cell and are known as single-celled or
unicellular organisms. Their single cell performs all the necessary functions to keep the organism alive. All
species of bacteria and archaea are single-celled organisms. On the other hand, large organisms like
humans are made from many trillions of cells that work together to keep the organism alive. The most basic
categorization of Earth’s organisms is determined by different types of cells. All cells can be divided into
one of two classifications: prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells. Prokaryotic cells are found in bacteria and
archaea. Eukaryotic cells are found in organisms from the domain Eukaryota which includes animals,
plants, fungi and protists.

Cells perform a huge number of different roles within your body. For example, epithelial cells protect the
outside surface of the body as part of the skin and cover the organs and body cavities within. Bone cells
build up bones to provide support for the body. Cells of the immune system fight invading bacteria. Blood
and blood cells carry nutrients and oxygen throughout the body while removing carbon dioxide. Each of
these cell types plays a vital role in the growth, development, and day-to-day maintenance of the body.
In spite of their enormous variety, however, cells from all organisms even ones as diverse as humans,
onions, and bacteria, shown from left to right in the pictures below.

The cell is one of the most basic units of life. There are millions of different types of cells. There are cells
that are organisms onto themselves, such as microscopic amoeba and bacteria cells. And there are cells
that only function when part of a larger organism, such as the cells that make up your body.

The cell is the smallest unit of life in our bodies. In the body, there are brain cells, skin cells, liver cells,
stomach cells, and the list goes on. All of these cells have unique functions and features. And all have some
recognizable similarities.

Below is a labelled diagram of a cell to help you identify some of these structures.
All cells have a ‘skin’, called the plasma membrane, protecting it from the outside environment. The cell
membrane regulates the movement of water, nutrients and wastes into and out of the cell. Inside of the cell
membrane are the working parts of the cell. At the center of the cell is the cell nucleus. The cell nucleus
contains the cell’s DNA (the genetic code that coordinates protein synthesis).

In addition to the nucleus, there are many organelles inside of the cell – small structures that help carry
out the day-to-day operations of the cell. One important cellular organelle is the ribosome. Ribosome
participates in protein synthesis. The transcription phase of protein synthesis takes places in the cell
nucleus. After this step is complete, the mRNA leaves the nucleus and travels to the cell’s ribosome, where
translation occurs.

Another important cellular organelle is the mitochondrion. Mitochondria (many mitochondrion) are often
referred to as the power plants of the cell because many of the reactions that produce energy take place in
mitochondria. In the life of a cell are the lysosomes. Lysosomes are organelles that contain enzymes that
aid in the digestion of nutrient molecules and other materials.

Characteristics of Cells
Following are the various essential characteristics of cells:

 Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.

 The cell interior is organized into different individual organelles surrounded by a separate
membrane.
 The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for reproduction and cell
growth.
 Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the cytoplasm.
 Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is mainly responsible for the energy
transactions vital for the survival of the cell.
 Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.
 Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal organization of the cell by synthesizing
selective molecules and processing, directing and sorting them to their appropriate locations.

Types of Cells
Cells are similar to factories with different laborers and departments that work towards a common objective.
Various types of cells perform different functions. Based on cellular structure, there are two types of cells:

 Prokaryotes
 Eukaryotes

Prokaryotic Cells

1. Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. Instead, some prokaryotes such as bacteria have a region within
the cell where the genetic material is freely suspended. This region is called the nucleoid.
2. They all are single-celled microorganisms. Examples include archaea, bacteria, and cyanobacteria.
 3. The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter.
4. The hereditary material can either be DNA or RNA.
5. Prokaryotes generally reproduce by binary fission, a form of asexual reproduction. They are also
known to use conjugation – which is often seen as the prokaryotic equivalent to sexual reproduction
(however, it is NOT sexual reproduction).

Eukaryotic Cells

1. Eukaryotic cells are characterised by a true nucleus.

2. The size of the cells ranges between 10–100 µm in diameter.
3. This broad category involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and animals.
4. The plasma membrane is responsible for monitoring the transport of nutrients and electrolytes in
and out of the cells. It is also responsible for cell to cell communication.
5. They reproduce sexually as well as asexually.
6. There are some contrasting features between plant and animal cells. For e.g, the plant cell contains
chloroplast, central vacuoles, and other plastids, whereas the animal cells do not.

STRUCTURE OF A CELL
Cell Structure
The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions essential to carry out life’s
processes. These components include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and cell organelles.
Read on to explore more insights on cell structure and function.

Every cell is different but there is a basic structure that is common to all cells. A cell is essentially genetic
material in a gel-like substance surrounded by a membrane. The genetic material of cells is found as
molecules called DNA. DNA of a cell holds all the information that a cell needs to keep itself alive. A DNA
molecule contains a code that can be translated by a cell and tells it how to perform different tasks. A gene
is a specific segment of a DNA molecule and each gene tells a cell how to perform one specific task.

The gel-like substance that the genetic material is found in is called the cytoplasm. The cytoplasm fills a
cell and gives it it’s shape. The cytoplasm also allows for different materials to move around the cell. All
cells have other structures in their cytoplasm that help the cell stay alive. Cytoplasm of all cells is surrounded
by a membrane called the plasma membrane. The plasma membrane separates the cell from the outside
world and keeps the contents of the cell together. The plasma membrane provides a barrier that substances
have to pass through before they can enter or exit a cell.

Cell Membrane

 The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of substances in and
out of the cells. It separates the cell from the external environment. The cell membrane is present
in all the cells.
 The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles, such as the
cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma membrane.
 By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permits the movement of selective
substances in and out of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane also protects the cellular
component from damage and leakage.
 It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and its surroundings.
 Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect them from external factors.
The cell wall helps to reinforce this function.

Membrane Lipids
 Membrane lipids are principally of two types, phospholipids and sterols (generally cholesterol).
Both types share the defining characteristic of lipids. They dissolve readily in organic solvents. but
in addition they both have a region that is attracted to and soluble in water. This “amphiphilic”
property (having a dual attraction; i.e., containing both a lipid-soluble and a water-soluble region)
is basic to the role of lipids as building blocks of cellular membranes.

Phospholipid molecules have a head (often of glycerol) to which are attached two long fatty
acid chains that look much like tails. These tails are repelled by water and dissolve readily in organic
solvents, giving the molecule its lipid character. To another part of the head is attached a
phosphoryl group with a negative electrical charge; to this group in turn is attached another group
with a positive or neutral charge. This portion of the phospholipid dissolves in water, thereby
completing the molecule’s amphiphilic character. In contrast, sterols have a complex hydrocarbon
ring structure as the lipid-soluble region and a hydroxyl grouping as the water-soluble region.

When dry phospholipids, or a mixture of such phospholipids and cholesterol, are immersed in water under
laboratory conditions, they spontaneously form globular structures called liposomes.

Lipid bilayer

This type of lipid bilayer, formed by the self-assembly of lipid molecules, is the basic structure of the cell
membrane. It is the most stable thermodynamic structure that a phospholipid-water mixture can take up:
the fatty acid portion of each molecule dissolved in the organic phase formed by the identical regions of the
other molecules and the water-attractive regions surrounded by water and facing away from the fatty acid
regions. The chemical affinity of each region of the amphiphilic molecule is thus satisfied in the bilayer
structure.
Membrane proteins

Membrane proteins are also of two general types. One type, called the extrinsic proteins, is loosely attached
by ionic bonds or calcium bridges to the electrically charged phosphoryl surface of the bilayer. They can
also attach to the second type of protein, called the intrinsic proteins. The intrinsic proteins, as their name
implies, are firmly embedded within the phospholipid bilayer. Almost all intrinsic proteins contain
special amino acid sequences, generally about 20- to 24-amino acids long, that extend through the internal
regions of the cell membrane.
Membrane fluidity

Cell membrane as a fluid collection of amphiphilic molecules. This array of proteins, sterols, and
phospholipids is organized into a liquid crystal, a structure that lends itself readily to rapid cell growth.

Cell Wall

 The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made up of cellulose,
hemicellulose and pectin.
 The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma membrane and other cellular
components. The cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant cells.
 It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.
 It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical shocks and injuries.

Cytoplasm

 The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane.
 Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.
 The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria, ribosomes, are
suspended in this cytoplasm.

Nucleus

 The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.
 It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.
 The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from the rest of the
cell.
  The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant’s cell structure.

ORGANELLES

 Cell organelles

 Nucleus
 Nuclear membrane
 Endoplasmic reticulum
 Golgi Bodies
 Ribosome
 Mitochondria
 Lysosomes
 Chloroplast
 Vacuoles
Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific functions to carry out life’s
processes. The different cell organelles, along with its principal functions, are as follows:

Important organelles include the nucleus, mitochondria, chloroplasts, and the endoplasmic reticulum.

Nucleus

The nucleus is the information center of the cell and is surrounded by a nuclear membrane in
all eukaryotic organisms. It is separated from the cytoplasm by the nuclear envelope, and it houses the
double-stranded, spiral-shaped deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) molecules, which contain the genetic
information necessary for the cell to retain its unique character as it grows and divides.

Nuclear membrane

The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a boundary between the nucleus and other cell
organelles.
Structural organization of the nucleus

STRUCTURE OF DNA

DNA
Several features are common to the genetic structure of most organisms. First is the double-stranded DNA.
Each strand of this molecule is a series of nucleotides, and each nucleotide is composed of a sugar-
phosphate compound attached to one of four nitrogen-containing bases. The sugar-
phosphate compounds link together to form the backbone of the strand. Each of the bases strung along the
backbone is chemically attracted to a corresponding base on the parallel strand of the DNA molecule. This
base pairing joins the two strands of the molecule much as rungs join the two sides of a ladder, and
the chemical bonding of the base pairs twists the doubled strands into a spiral, or helical, shape.

DNA Packaging

Centromere and Chromatids in cell division

The nucleus of the average human cell is only 6 micrometers (6 × 10−6 metre) in diameter, yet it contains
about 1.8 meters of DNA. This is distributed among 46 chromosomes, each consisting of a single
DNA molecule about 40 mm (1.5 inches) long. The extraordinary packaging problem this poses can
be envisaged by a scale model enlarged a million times. On this scale a DNA molecule would be a thin
string 2 mm thick, and the average chromosome would contain 40 km (25 miles) of DNA. With a diameter
of only 6 meters, the nucleus would contain 1,800 km (1,118 miles) of DNA.

These contents must be organized in such a way that they can be copied into RNA accurately and
selectively. DNA is not simply crammed or wound into the nucleus like a ball of string; rather, it is organized,
by molecular interaction with specific nuclear proteins, into a precisely packaged structure. This
combination of DNA with proteins creates a dense, compact fibre called chromatin. An extreme example of
the ordered folding and compaction that chromatin can undergo is seen during cell division, when the
chromatin of each chromosome condenses and is divided between two daughter cells (see below Cell
division and growth).
Nucleosomes: the subunits of chromatin

histone; nucleosome

The compaction of DNA is achieved by winding it around a series of small proteins called histones. Histones
are composed of positively charged amino acids that bind tightly to and neutralize the negative charges of
DNA. There are five classes of histone. Four of them, called H2A, H2B, H3, and H4, contribute two
molecules each to form an octamer, an eight-part core around which two turns of DNA are wrapped. The
resulting beadlike structure is called the nucleosome. The DNA enters and leaves a series of nucleosomes,
linking them like beads along a string in lengths that vary between species of organism or even between
different types of cell within a species. A string of nucleosomes is then coiled into a
solenoid configuration by the fifth histone, called H1. One molecule of H1 binds to the site at which DNA
enters and leaves each nucleosome, and a chain of H1 molecules coils the string of nucleosomes into the
solenoid structure of the chromatin fibre. Nucleosomes not only neutralize the charges of DNA, but they
have other consequences. First, they are an efficient means of packaging. DNA becomes compacted by a
factor of six when wound into nucleosomes and by a factor of about 40 when the nucleosomes are coiled
into a solenoid chromatin fibre. The winding into nucleosomes also allows some inactive DNA to be folded
away in inaccessible conformations, a process that contributes to the selectivity of gene expression.

Organization of chromatin fibre

Several studies indicate that chromatin is organized into a series of large radial loops anchored to specific
scaffold proteins. Each loop consists of a chain of nucleosomes and may be related to units of genetic
organization. This radial arrangement of chromatin loops compacts DNA about a thousand fold. Further
compaction is achieved by a coiling of the entire looped chromatin fibre into a dense structure called a
chromatid, two of which form the chromosome. During cell division, this coiling produces a 10,000-fold
compaction of DNA.

Nuclear Envelope

The nuclear envelope is a double membrane composed of an outer and an inner phospholipid bilayer. The
thin space between the two layers connects with the lumen of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), and
the outer layer is an extension of the outer face of the RER. The inner surface of the nuclear envelope has
a protein lining called the nuclear lamina, which binds to chromatin and other contents of the nucleus. The
entire envelope is perforated by numerous nuclear pores. These transport routes are fully permeable to
small molecules up to the size of the smallest proteins, but they form a selective barrier against movement
of larger molecules.

Each pore is surrounded by an elaborate protein structure called the nuclear pore complex, which selects
molecules for entrance into the nucleus. Entering the nucleus through the pores are the nucleotide building
blocks of DNA and RNA, as well as adenosine triphosphate, which provides the energy for synthesizing
genetic material. Histones and other large proteins must also pass through the pores. These molecules
have special amino acid sequences on their surface that signal admittance by the nuclear pore complexes.
The complexes also regulate the export from the nucleus of RNA and subunits of ribosomes. DNA in
prokaryotes is also organized in loops and is bound to small proteins resembling histones, but these
structures are not enclosed by a nuclear membrane.
Genetic organization of the nucleus

Rearrangement and modification of DNA

Rearrangements and modifications of the nucleotide sequences in DNA are exceptions to the rules of
genetic expression and sometimes cause significant changes in the structure and function of cells. Different
cells of the body owe their specialized structures and functions to different genes. This does not mean that
the set of genetic information varies among the cells of the body. Indeed, for each cell the entire DNA
content of the chromosomes is usually duplicated exactly from generation to generation, and, in general,
the genetic content and arrangement is strikingly similar among different cell types of the same organism.

antibody structure

Genetic expression through RNA

The transcription of the genetic code from DNA to RNA, and the translation of that code from RNA into
protein, exerts the greatest influence on the modulation of genetic information. The process of genetic
expression takes place over several stages, and at each stage is the potential for further differentiation of
cell types.

RNA Synthesis

The synthesis of RNA is performed by enzymes called RNA polymerases. In higher organisms there are
three main RNA polymerases, designated I, II, and III (or sometimes A, B, and C). Each is a
complex protein consisting of many subunits. RNA polymerase I synthesizes three of the four types
of rRNA (called 18S, 28S, and 5.8S RNA); therefore it is active in the nucleolus, where the genes encoding
these rRNA molecules reside. RNA polymerase II synthesizes mRNA, though its initial products are not
mature RNA but larger precursors, called heterogeneous nuclear RNA, which are completed later (see
below Processing of mRNA). The products of RNA polymerase III include tRNA and the fourth RNA
component of the ribosome, called 5S RNA.
Processing of mRNA

During and after synthesis, mRNA precursors undergo a complex series of changes before the mature
molecules are released from the nucleus. First, a modified nucleotide is added to the start of the RNA
molecule by a reaction called capping. This cap later binds to a ribosome in the cytoplasm. The synthesis
of mRNA is not terminated simply by the RNA polymerase’s detachment from DNA, but by chemical
cleavage of the RNA chain. Many (but not all) types of mRNA have a simple polymer of adenosine residues
added to their cleaved ends.

Chromosomes

Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual. Each human cells contain 23 pairs
of chromosomes.

Ribosome
Ribosomes are the protein synthesisers of the cell. Ribosomes are macromolecular machines, found within
all cells, that perform biological protein synthesis (mRNA translation). Ribosomes link amino acids together
in the order specified by the codons of messenger RNA (mRNA) molecules to form polypeptide chains.
Ribosomes consist of two major components: the small and large ribosomal subunits.

Mitochondria
The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because it produces ATP – the cell’s
energy currency.

Lysosomes
Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and help in cell
renewal. Therefore, they are known as the cell’s suicide bags.

Lysosomes formation

Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the pigment called chlorophyll.
Golgi apparatus
Golgi apparatus, also called Golgi complex or Golgi body, membrane-bound organelle of eukaryotic cells
(cells with clearly defined nuclei) that is made up of a series of flattened, stacked pouches called cisternae.

Vacuoles

Vacuoles store food, water, and other waste materials in the cell.

Endoplasmic reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of substances throughout the cell. It plays a
primary role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids, steroids and proteins.

Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER), meshwork of fine disklike tubular membrane vesicles, part of
a continuous membrane organelle within the cytoplasm of eukaryotic cells, that is involved in the synthesis
and storage of lipids, including cholesterol and phospholipids

Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum

Rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), is so named for the appearance of its outer surface, which is studded
with protein-synthesizing particles known as ribosomes. This feature distinguishes it superficially and
functionally from the other major type of endoplasmic reticulum.
Mitochondrion and Chloroplast

Mitochondria oxidize the products of cytoplasmic metabolism to generate adenosine triphosphate (ATP),
the energy currency of the cell. Chloroplasts are the photosynthetic organelles in plants and some algae.
They trap light energy and convert it partly into ATP but mainly into certain chemically reduced molecules
that, together with ATP, are used in the first steps of carbohydrate production. Mitochondria and
chloroplasts share a certain structural resemblance, and both have a somewhat independent existence
within the cell, synthesizing some proteins from instructions supplied by their own DNA.

Mitochondrial and Chloroplast structure

Both organelles are bounded by an external membrane that serves as a barrier by blocking the passage of
cytoplasmic proteins into the organelle. An inner membrane provides an additional barrier that is
impermeable even to small ions such as protons. The membranes of both organelles have a lipid bilayer
Located between the inner and outer membranes is the intermembrane space.

In mitochondria the inner membrane is elaborately folded into structures called cristae that dramatically
increase the surface area of the membrane. In contrast, the inner membrane of chloroplasts is relatively
smooth.

The nature and function of cells

Nature of cell
A cell is enclosed by a plasma membrane, which forms a selective barrier that allows nutrients to enter and
waste products to leave. The interior of the cell is organized into many specialized compartments,
or organelles, each surrounded by a separate membrane. One major organelle, the nucleus, contains the
genetic information necessary for cell growth and reproduction. Each cell contains only one nucleus,
whereas other types of organelles are present in multiple copies in the cellular contents, or cytoplasm.
Organelles include mitochondria, which are responsible for the energy transactions necessary for cell
survival; lysosomes, which digest unwanted materials within the cell; and the endoplasmic reticulum and
the Golgi apparatus, which play important roles in the internal organization of the cell by synthesizing
selected molecules and then processing, sorting, and directing them to their proper locations.

In addition, plant cells contain chloroplasts, which are responsible for photosynthesis, whereby the energy
of sunlight is used to convert molecules of carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O) into carbohydrates.
Between all these organelles is the space in the cytoplasm called the cytosol. The cytosol contains an
organized framework of fibrous molecules that constitute the cytoskeleton, which gives a cell its shape,
enables organelles to move within the cell, and provides a mechanism by which the cell itself can move.
The cytosol also contains more than 10,000 different kinds of molecules that are involved in
cellular biosynthesis, the process of making large biological molecules from small ones.

Specialized organelles are a characteristic of cells of organisms known as eukaryotes. In contrast, cells of
organisms known as prokaryotes do not contain organelles and are generally smaller than eukaryotic cells.
However, all cells share strong similarities in biochemical function.

The molecules of cells

Cells contain a special collection of molecules that are enclosed by a membrane. These molecules give
cells the ability to grow and reproduce. The overall process of cellular reproduction occurs in two steps: cell
growth and cell division. During cell growth, the cell ingests certain molecules from its surroundings by
selectively carrying them through its cell membrane. Once inside the cell, these molecules are subjected to
the action of highly specialized, large, elaborately folded molecules called enzymes. Enzymes act
as catalysts by binding to ingested molecules and regulating the rate at which they are chemically altered.
These chemical alterations make the molecules more useful to the cell. Unlike the ingested
molecules, catalysts are not chemically altered themselves during the reaction, allowing one catalyst to
regulate a specific chemical reaction in many molecules.

Functions of Cell
A cell performs major functions essential for the growth and development of an organism. Important
functions of cell are as follows:

Provides Support and Structure

All the organisms are made up of cells. They form the structural basis of all the organisms. The cell wall
and the cell membrane are the main components that function to provide support and structure to the
organism. For eg., the skin is made up of a large number of cells. Xylem present in the vascular plants is
made of cells that provide structural support to the plants.

Facilitate Growth Mitosis

In the process of mitosis, the parent cell divides into the daughter cells. Thus, the cells multiply and facilitate
the growth in an organism.
Allows Transport of Substances
Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out various chemical processes going on inside the
cells. The waste produced by the chemical processes is eliminated from the cells by active and passive
transport. Small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethanol diffuse across the cell membrane
along the concentration gradient. This is known as passive transport. The larger molecules diffuse across
the cell membrane through active transport where the cells require a lot of energy to transport the
substances.

Energy Production
Cells require energy to carry out various chemical processes. This energy is produced by the cells
through a process called photosynthesis in plants and respiration in animals.

Aids in Reproduction
A cell aids in reproduction through the processes called mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is termed as the
asexual reproduction where the parent cell divides to form daughter cells. Meiosis causes the daughter
cells to be genetically different from the parent cells.

Cell division and growth

In unicellular organisms, cell division is the means of reproduction; in multicellular organisms, it is the
means of tissue growth and maintenance. Survival of the eukaryotes depends upon interactions between
many cell types, and it is essential that a balanced distribution of types be maintained. This is achieved by
the highly regulated process of cell proliferation. The growth and division of different cell populations are
regulated in different ways, but the basic mechanisms are similar throughout multicellular organisms.

Most tissues of the body grow by increasing their cell number, but this growth is highly regulated to maintain
a balance between different tissues. In adults most cell division is involved in tissue renewal rather than
growth, many types of cells undergoing continuous replacement. Skin cells, for example, are constantly
being sloughed off and replaced; in this case, the mature differentiated cells do not divide, but
their population is renewed by division of immature stem cells. In certain other cells, such as those of
the liver, mature cells remain capable of division to allow growth or regeneration after injury.

In contrast to these patterns, other types of cells either cannot divide or are prevented from
dividing by certain molecules produced by nearby cells. As a result, in the adult organism, some
tissues have a greatly reduced capacity to renew damaged or diseased cells. Examples of such
tissues include heart muscle, nerve cells of the central nervous system, and lens cells in
mammals. Maintenance and repair of these cells is limited to replacing intracellular components
rather than replacing entire cells.

Duplication of the genetic material

Before a cell can divide, it must accurately and completely duplicate the genetic information encoded in
its DNA in order for its progeny cells to function and survive. This is a complex problem because of the
great length of DNA molecules. Each human chromosome consists of a long double spiral, or helix, each
strand of which consists of more than 100 million nucleotides.

The duplication of DNA is called DNA replication, and it is initiated by complex enzymes called DNA
polymerases. These progress along the molecule, reading the sequences of nucleotides that are linked
together to make DNA chains. Each strand of the DNA double helix, therefore, acts as a template specifying
the nucleotide structure of a new growing chain. After replication, each of the two daughter DNA double
helices consists of one parental DNA strand wound around one newly synthesized DNA strand.

In order for DNA to replicate, the two strands must be unwound from each other. Enzymes called helicases
unwind the two DNA strands, and additional proteins bind to the separated strands to stabilize them and
prevent them from pairing again. In addition, a remarkable class of enzyme called DNA topoisomerase
removes the helical twists by cutting either one or both strands and then resealing the cut. These enzymes
can also untangle and unknot DNA when it is tightly coiled into a chromatin fibre.

Cell division

Mitosis and Cytokinesis

In eukaryotes the processes of DNA replication and cell division occur at different times of the cell division
cycle. During cell division, DNA condenses to form short, tightly coiled, rod like chromosomes. Each
chromosome then splits longitudinally, forming two identical chromatids. Each pair of chromatids is divided
between the two daughter cells during mitosis, or division of the nucleus, a process in which the
chromosomes are propelled by attachment to a bundle of microtubules called the mitotic spindle.

Mitosis can be divided into five phases. In prophase the mitotic spindle forms and the chromosomes
condense. In Prometaphase the nuclear envelope breaks down (in many but not all eukaryotes) and the
chromosomes attach to the mitotic spindle. Both chromatids of each chromosome attach to the spindle at
a specialized chromosomal region called the kinetochore. In metaphase the condensed chromosomes
align in a plane across the equator of the mitotic spindle. Anaphase follows as the separated chromatids
move abruptly toward opposite spindle poles. Finally, in telophase a new nuclear envelope forms around
each set of unraveling chromatids.
A specialized division of chromosomes called meiosis occurs during the formation of the reproductive cells,
or gametes, of sexually reproducing organisms. Gametes such as ova, sperm, and pollen begin as germ
cells, which, like other types of cells, have two copies of each gene in their nuclei. The chromosomes
composed of these matching genes are called homologs. During DNA replication,
each chromosome duplicates into two attached chromatids.

The cell division cycle

In prokaryotes, DNA synthesis can take place uninterrupted between cell divisions, and new cycles of DNA
synthesis can begin before previous cycles have finished. In contrast, eukaryotes duplicate their DNA
exactly once during a discrete period between cell divisions. This period is called the S (for synthetic) phase.
It is preceded by a period called G1 (meaning “first gap”) and followed by a period called G2, during which
nuclear DNA synthesis does not occur.

The four periods G1, S, G2, and M (for mitosis) make up the cell division cycle. The cell
cycle characteristically lasts between 10 and 20 hours in rapidly proliferating adult cells, but it can be
arrested for weeks or months in quiescent cells or for a lifetime in neurons of the brain. Prolonged arrest of
this type usually occurs during the G1 phase and is sometimes referred to as G0. In contrast, some
embryonic cells, such as those of fruit flies (vinegar flies), can complete entire cycles and divide in only 11
minutes. In these exceptional cases, G1 and G2 are undetectable, and mitosis alternates with DNA
synthesis. In addition, the duration of the S phase varies dramatically. The fruit fly embryo takes only four
minutes to replicate its DNA, compared with several hours in adult cells of the same species.