LOKIBALDER G.

BALDOVI HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS

BSGE 2A

MODUE 4 – DEPTH DETERMINATION

 PRINCIPLES OF DEPTH DETERMINATION

o A fundamental task for a hydrographer, which requires specific knowledge of the
medium, of underwater acoustics, of the plethora of devices available for depth
measurement, of complementary sensors for attitude and heave measurement
and proper procedures to achieve and meet the internationally recommended
standards for accuracy and coverage as articulated in IHO publication S-44 5th
Edition.

2. Lead line and sounding pole↔were the earliest methods used for directly
measuring water depth. Their easy principles of operation ensured their
continued use over many centuries.
3. Single beam echo sounders↔derived from military sonars, were a major
development and have been used in hydrographic surveying since the mid 1900s.
4. The state of the art of the depth measurement equipment was evaluated by the
working group of the S-44 [IHO, 1998] as follows:

1. Single beam echo sounders↕

 It is the traditional equipment used on hydrographic survey
worldwide.
 These echo sounders have also evolved from analogue to digital
recording, with greater precisions and higher accuracies and with
specific features which allow a wider variety of purposes to be
met.
2. Multibeam echo sounder technology↕
 A valuable tool for depth determination when full seafloor
insonification is required.
 An increasing number of National Hydrographic Offices (NHO)
has adopted multibeam technology as the methodology of choice
for the collection of bathymetric data for new chart production.
3. Airborne laser sounding↕
 A new technology which can offer substantial productivity gains
for surveys in shallow, clear water. Airborne laser systems are
capable of measuring depths to 50 m or more.”
LOKIBALDER G. BALDOVI HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
BSGE 2A
LOKIBALDER G. BALDOVI HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
BSGE 2A

 ACOUSTIC FUNDAMENTALS

1. Sea water↔is the medium in which hydrographic measurements normally take

place, therefore knowledge of sea water’s physical properties and of acoustic
waves propagation is important for full comprehension of the contents and aim of
this chapter.
2. Sea Water Acoustic Waves and Physical Characteristics
 Despite electromagnetic waves having an excellent propagation in a
vacuum and air, they hardly penetrate nor propagate through liquids.
 However, acoustic waves, either sonic or ultra-sonic, achieve good
penetration and propagation through all elastic media once these media
can be made to vibrate when exposed to pressure variations.
 The majority of the sensors used for depth determination use acoustic
waves.

Sea Water Acoustic Waves and Physical Characteristics↕

 Acoustic field
 Sonar Equation
 Temperature
 Salinity
 Pressure
 Density

Sea Water Acoustic Waves and Physical Characteristics↕

Acoustic field

 The acoustic waves consist of subtle variations of the

pressure field in the water. Sea water particles move
longitudinally, back and forth, in the direction of the
propagation of the wave, producing adjacent regions of
compression and expansion, similar to those produced by
longitudinal waves in a bar.

Sonar Equation

 The sonar32 equation is used to study and express the

detection capability and performance of echo-sounders as a
function of operating conditions.
LOKIBALDER G. BALDOVI HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
BSGE 2A

Temperature

 The temperature at the sea surface varies with the

geographic position on the earth, with the season of the
year and the time of the day
 The temperature field distribution is a complex one and
cannot be predicted with enough accuracy for hydrographic
surveys; through the water column the behavior of the
temperature is also very complex.

Salinity

 measure of the quantity of dissolved salts and other

minerals in seawater.
 It is normally defined as the total amount of dissolved
solids in seawater in parts per thousand (ppt or ‰) by
weight.
 In practice, _ is not determined directly but is computed
from chlorinity, electrical conductivity, refractive index or
some other property whose relationship to salinity is well
established.

Pressure

 also impacts significantly on the sound velocity variation.

 also impacts significantly on the sound velocity variation.
 major influence on the sound velocity in deep water.

Density

 dependent upon the previous parameters, i.e. temperature,

salinity and pressure.

12. Fifty percent of the ocean waters↔have a density betwe n

1027.7 and 1027.9 kg/cu. m.
13. The largest influence on density is compressibility with
depth. Water with a density of 1028 kg/cu. m. at the surface
would have a density of 1051 kg/cu. m. at a depth of 5000
metres.
LOKIBALDER G. BALDOVI HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
BSGE 2A

3. Salinity, Temperature, and Sound Velocity Determination↔operating

principles and the calculation for mean sound velocity.

1. Instrumentation

1. Sound Velocity Profiler↔is the most common instrument used to

measure the sound velocity profile through the water column.
2. CTD↔is an electronic instrument with sensors for conductivity,
temperature and depth. This instrument records the salinity by
directly measuring the electrical conductivity of the sea water.
3. Thermistors↕
 are elements whose electrical resistance depends on their
temperature, which depends on the amount of heat
radiation falling on it from the sea.

4. Thermistor chains↕
 are used to measure the water temperature at several depths
through the water column. These chains, usually moored,
consist of several thermistor elements, regularly spaced
along a cable. A data logger samples each element
sequentially and records the temperatures as a function of
time.
LOKIBALDER G. BALDOVI HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
BSGE 2A

2. Instrument operation↔Important for successful operation of a sound

velocity profiler, before deployment, the profiler should have the correct
parameters entered with the required recording settings and be calibrated
with the correct atmospheric offset in order to generate reliable depth
measurements.
 It should be stressed that, during the atmospheric offset calibration,
a sound velocity profiler should not be in a pressurized
compartment or the calibration will produce biased offsets and thus
erroneous depth measurements
 Sound velocity profiles should be edited and carefully checked for
anomalous depths and sound velocity readings.
 In general, velocity profilers record both depth and sound velocity,
both downwards and upwards.
 The two profiles should be compared to confirm they are similar
after which the profiles are often meant to create the final profile,
although this not necessarily required, in any event the readings
should be compared and additional information removed to allow
sorting into ascending or descending order.
3. Sound velocity computation↕
 After the sound velocity profile has been validated, it can be
applied to the survey file.
 The computation is used to correct depth measurements with sound
velocity profile data.

4. SEA WATER SOUND PROPAGATION

 This section focuses on sound propagation namely attenuation, reflection,
and refraction.

1. Attenuation↔is the loss in energy of a propagating wave due to

absorption, spherical spreading and scattering by particles in the water
column.

2. Refraction and reflection↔is the process in which the direction of

propagation of the acoustic wave is altered due to a change in sound
velocity within the propagating medium or as the energy passes through
an interface, representing a sound velocity discontinuity between two
media.
LOKIBALDER G. BALDOVI HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
BSGE 2A
LOKIBALDER G. BALDOVI HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
BSGE 2A

a. ACOUSTIC PARAMETERS
i. The characteristics of an echo sounder are determined by
the transducers, namely the directivity, beam width, beam
steering and side lobes level. In this subsection each of
these parameters is analyzed.

1. Frequency↔is the parameter which determines the range and the sound
penetration of sediments.

 The attenuation of the acoustic signal in the water is proportional

to the frequency.
 The higher the frequency is, the higher the attenuation will be and,
consequently, the lower the range and the penetration into the
seafloor.
 The beam width is dependent on the acoustic wave length and on
the size of the transducer.
 For the same beam width a lower frequency will require a larger
transducer.
3. Band width↔Taking f0 as the frequency of maximum power
transmission (resonance frequency) and f1 and f2 as the frequencies
corresponding to one half of that power, the .......... is the frequency
interval between these frequencies (Figure 3.6), i.e. W = f1 − f2


4. Pulse length↔determines the energy transmitted into the water
 for the same power, the longer the pulse length, the higher the
energy put into the water will be and thus the greater the range that
can be achieved with the echo sounder.
 To take advantage of the transducer resonant frequency, the pulse
duration should be at least half its natural period. The drawback of
longer pulses is the decrease in vertical resolution of two adjacent
features
LOKIBALDER G. BALDOVI HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
BSGE 2A

 MOTION SENSORS
o Being able to correct the observed depths and their positioning for vessel motion,
i.e. attitude (roll, pitch, and heading) and heave was a considerable achievement
and advance in hydrographic surveying quality and accuracy. For this purpose
inertial sensors with a heading sensor (usually a gyro or fluxgate compass) or
inertial sensors with the integration of GPS information are used to measure the
attitude and heave of the survey vessel. This next section covers the fundamentals
of motion sensing and measurement accuracy.
o PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

1. Inertial sensors or Inertial Measurement Units (IMU)↕

 are the most common sensors used in hydrography for roll, pitch
and heave measurements.
 These sensors apply Newton’s laws for motion and consist of three
accelerometers, mounted in tri-orthogonal axes, and three angular
rate sensors placed in the same frame which thus experience the
same angular motions as the vessel (strap down system).
2. Inertial sensors with the integration of GPS information↕
 The integration of GPS information provides a means of
determining the vessel’s heading through the use of two GPS
antennas in a baseline, usually oriented longitudinally to the
vessel’s bow.
 The velocity and rate of turn information provided by a GPS
receiver and by the angular rate sensors can be used to compute the
centripetal acceleration. Taking into account this information, roll
and pitch measurements are compensated for the deflection of the
apparent vertical. The output from this sensor is roll and pitch of
higher accuracy which is not susceptible to any horizontal
accelerations.

 ROLL, PITCH, AND HEAVE MEASUREMENT↕

LOKIBALDER G. BALDOVI HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
BSGE 2A

 Since the mid 1990s, affordable and accurate motion sensors have been
utilized in hydrographic surveying.
 It is now considered an essential requirement not only for multibeam but
also for single beam surveys when using automatic data acquisition
systems.
 These sensors are used to compensate the vessel’s motion for roll, pitch
and heave.

 Heading↕

 The recording and application of vessel heading is essential for swath

surveying systems.
 However, for single beam surveys the effect of heading variation (yaw)
during a rotation is not significant if the positioning antenna and the
transducer are located in the same vertical axis.
 When the positioning antenna and the transducer are not in the same
vertical axis, for accurately positioned depths, it is necessary to take
account of the vessel’s heading.

 Accuracy of measurement↕

 The accuracy of roll, pitch, heave and heading should be as higher as

possible.
 Presently available motion sensors are sufficiently accurate to be used in
almost all survey orders.
 However, during horizontal accelerations of the survey vessel, either
centripetal or tangential accelerations, inertial sensors, when used alone,
have measurement biases due to the deviation of the apparent vertical
LOKIBALDER G. BALDOVI HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
BSGE 2A
LOKIBALDER G. BALDOVI HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
BSGE 2A

 TRANSDUCERS
o The transducers are one of the echo sounders’ components; it is transducer
characteristics which dictate some of the operating features of an echo sounder.
For this reason it is particularly important to study their operating principles,
characteristics and related issues such as: beam width, directivity, beam steering,
installation and coverage.

2. transducer characteristics↔which dictate some of the operating features of an

echo sounder.
3. For this reason it is particularly important to study their operating principles,
characteristics and related issues such as: beam width, directivity, beam steering,
installation and coverage.

 CLASSIFICATION WITH REGARD TO OPERATION↓

o magnetostrictive
o piezoelectric
o electrostrictive

 Magnetostrictive↕

 These transducers have an axis of iron with a coil of nickel. A D.C. (direct
current) current or pulse through the axis generates a magnetic field in the
coil which produces a contraction and consequently a reduction of its
diameter.
 This type of transducer is, however, less efficient than transducers which
operate with the piezoelectric effect.
 When the electric current along the axis stops the coil returns to its
original size.

 Piezoelectric↕

 These transducers are made from two plates with a layer of quartz crystals
between.
 The application of an electric potential across the plates produces a
variation in the thickness of the quartz layer (piezoelectric effect).
 Alteration of the electric potential causes vibration of the quartz and
consequently vibration of the entire unit.
LOKIBALDER G. BALDOVI HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
BSGE 2A

 Reciprocally, the mechanical compression of the crystal produces a

potential difference between opposite crystal faces.
 The amplitude of the vibration will be a maximum if the frequency of the
electric potential matches the quartz natural frequency.

 Electrostrictive↕

 These transducers are based on the same principle of the piezoelectric

transducers.
 However, the materials used (usually polycrystalline ceramics or certain
synthetic polymers) do not have naturally piezoelectric characteristics,
therefore during the manufacturing processes they need to be polarized.
 ‒‒‒‒‒- are used almost exclusively these days. These transducers are
lighter, reversible and can be arranged in arrays.
 These arrays with a set of small elements, when properly arranged, allow,
according to the product theorem, similar characteristics to a single piece
transducer.

o BEAM WIDTH

1. depth measurement↔is performed in any direction within the cone

defined by the beam width.
2. beam width↔related to the physical dimensions of the transducer and to
the frequency of the acoustic pulses.

CLASSSIFICATION WITH REGARD TO BEAM↓

 SINGLE BEAM
 MULTI BEAM

 Single beam↔require only a transducer, for both transmission

and reception, but a transducer array may be used particularly
when stabilization is required.
LOKIBALDER G. BALDOVI HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
BSGE 2A

- Knowledge of roll and pitch angles↔are needed for beam

stabilization
- Beam width↔is a function of the transducer dimensions
and acoustic wave length.
- The higher the frequency and the larger the transducer
is,↔the narrower the beam will be.
- The transducer selected for SBES may have a narrow beam
when high directivity is required or a wide beam when
directivity is not the main concern but the detection of
minimum depths or obstacles on the seafloor is the priority.

 Multibeam

 MBES↔usually have separated transducer arrays for

transmission and reception, i.e. one projector and one
hydrophone, where the first is oriented longitudinally and
the second is oriented transversally to the vessel’s bow.
 The most common is to have only one transmitted beam
with a fan shape, narrow along track and broad across
track.
 The reception transducer forms several beams, in
predefined directions, narrow across track and broad along
track, guaranteeing, regardless of the attitude of the
surveying platform, intersection between the transmission
and the reception beams.
LOKIBALDER G. BALDOVI HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
BSGE 2A
LOKIBALDER G. BALDOVI HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
BSGE 2A

 CLASSSIFICATION WITH REGARD TO BEAM↓

 Keel mounted↓
o Flush mounted
o Blister
o Gondola
 Towed
 Portable

 Keel mounted↔This is the common installation for single beam and

multibeam transducers in large vessels, particularly for those designed
for deep water surveys.

o The installation on the keel can be optionally chosen from:

 Flush mounted←the transducer is mounted with the
face in the hull plane. This option is used either in
single beam or multibeam transducers. The advantage is
that it does not require a special structure for the
installation; the disadvantage may be the vessel noise.
 Blister←the transducer is mounted in a structure with a
small hull shape. This option is used for both single and
multibeam transducers. The advantage is the reduction
in hull water flow effect at the transducers face; the
disadvantage is the need for a special structure for the
installation.
 Gondola←the transducer is mounted in a special
gondola shaped structure. This option is used for
multibeam transducers, particularly for deep water
operation. The advantages are the reduction of vessel
noise and the elimination of hull water flow noise at the
transducer face as it passes in between the hull and the
gondola; the disadvantages are the need for a special
structure for the installation and consequently an
increase in the vessel’s draught of the order of a metre.
LOKIBALDER G. BALDOVI HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
BSGE 2A

 Towed↔is used for side scan sonars when it is essential to have good
stability of the transducer, reduction of vessel noise and the ability to
lower the transducer close to the seabed.

 Portable↕

 This method of installation is commonly used either on

single beam and multibeam transducers in small vessels,
specifically aimed at shallow water surveys.
 This installation can be achieved either on the side or over
the bow of the vessel.
 The support structure for the transducer should be rigid and
resistant to torque.
LOKIBALDER G. BALDOVI HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
BSGE 2A

o COVERAGE


 The seafloor coverage, i.e. the ensonified area by SBES, is the area within
the beam, where the footprint size is given by(Figure 3.20):


 For multibeam echo sounders, the ensonified area is the result of the
intersection of the transmitted and received beam patterns and is
dependent upon beam pointing angle, beam width, depth and mean slope
of the seafloor.


LOKIBALDER G. BALDOVI HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
BSGE 2A

 ACOUSTIC SYSTEMS
o In this section, the acoustic systems applied in hydrographic surveying are
described. These systems are divided according to their ability to cover the
seafloor, i.e. SBES and swath systems, either multibeam or interferometric sonar.

o ECHO SOUNDER PARAMETERS↓

1. Power
2. Gain
3. Register intensity
4. Pulse length
5. Scale
6. Phase scale
7. Draught
8. Paper’s speed
9. Sound velocity

o Sound velocity→This is the nominal value of sound velocity that should

correspond to the mean sound velocity in the area of operation.
o Power→The operating range of the echo sounder depends on pulse length,
frequency and transmitted power.
o Gain→entails signal amplification.
o Register intensity→This parameter is used in analogue echo sounders to adjust
the recording intensity.
o Pulse length→is usually selected automatically as a function of the operating
range. is responsible for the vertical resolution of the echo sounder, short pulses
are necessary for a better resolution. It may be necessary to increase the pulse
length in areas with poor reflectivity or with steep slopes.
o Scale→Corresponds to the depth scale of the echo sounder recording window.
The width of the recording paper is fixed; therefore, at small scales one will have
a low vertical resolution.
o Phase scale→Is one way to overcome limitations of the recording resolution
imposed by the echo trace scale.
o Draught→This parameter corresponds to the immersion of the transducer; in
order to record the depth with reference to the instantaneous water level, the
draught should be set and verified before survey operations commence and
regularly thereafter.
LOKIBALDER G. BALDOVI HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
BSGE 2A

o Paper’s speed→is particularly important and should be selected to ensure good

horizontal resolution from depth measurements.
o Sound velocity→This is the nominal value of sound velocity that should
correspond to the mean sound velocity in the area of operation.

 INSTALLATION AND CALIBRATION↓

 Bar check
 Calibration transducer
 Combined method

 Bar check↕
 Consists of lowering a bar or plate underneath the transducer at several depths
(for instance, every two metres) either recording the depth error to apply
afterwards during the data processing or forcing the echo sounder to record
the correct depth from the bar or plate through the adjustment of the sound
velocity parameter (Figure 3.24).
 In such cases the value adopted for calibration is the mean value of the
observations.
 This method should be used down to 20-30 metres
 Calibration transducer↕
 is an apparatus designed to perform the calibration knowing an exact path
length.
 is lowered to several depths, each adjustment of the echo sounder, due to the
performed measurement, is only valid for the corresponding depth. The
calibration value used should be the mean of all the observations.
 The calibration value used should be the mean of all the observations.
 This method should be used down to 20-30 metres.

4. Calibration procedure↔Consists of making the echo sounder record the

correct two-way path inside the calibration transducer by the adjustment of
the sound velocity parameter.

 Combined method↕
 may also be used with a calibration transducer and a sound velocity profiler.
 This method is usually used for depths greater than those detailed above.
 With a sound velocity profile and the adjustment of the true sound velocity at
the transducer draft, a similar procedure to that described in b) above is
followed. In more modern echo sounders, the sound velocity parameter is set
to the actual sound velocity.
LOKIBALDER G. BALDOVI HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
BSGE 2A
LOKIBALDER G. BALDOVI HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS
BSGE 2A

 SOURCES OF ERROS AND QUALTY CONTROL TECHNQUIES↓

 Due to bottom slope
 Due to sound velocity
 Due to time measurement
 Due to roll, pitch, and heave
 Due to draught, settlement, squat and relative position of transducer
 Record reading and resolution
 Interpretation
 Depth reduction