14 Pastos y Forrajes, Vol. 36, No.

1, January-March, 14-21, 2013

Soil mesofauna: biological indicator of soil quality

Ana Socarrás
Instituto de Ecología y Sistemática, CITMA
Carretera de Varona km 3 ½, Capdevila, Boyeros, CP 10800, La Habana, Cuba
E-mail: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The search, use and application of soil quality indicators have been intensified in the last decades, due to the
need to preserve this non renewable resource which is essential for human life, in the face of the increasing
deterioration. The selection of the indicators has been aimed, mainly, at learning the effect of the applied uses
and the course of the rehabilitation of degraded or contaminated soils. The groups which integrate the soil
mesofauna are sensitive to natural and anthropic disturbances of the edaphic environment, which cause
changes in their specific composition and abundance, and produce loss of species and their diversity, with the
subsequent decrease of soil stability and fertility. For such reason, the soil mesofauna is considered a good
biological indicator of the soil conservation status. The number, density and balance of its groups allow to
predict and evaluate the transformations brought about by the application of different agricultural production
methods under specific soil and climate conditions, as well as to consider integrally the functioning of the
ecosystem.
Key words: indicator organisms, soil conservation

INTRODUCTION The number, density and balance of these groups

allow to predict and evaluate the transformations
The soil mesofauna participates in the processes caused by the application of different agricultural
of organic matter decomposition, aeration and nutrient production methods under specific soil and climate
recycling and, particularly, of phosphorus and conditions; as well as to consider, integrally, the
nitrogen mineralization (García-Álvarez and Bello, functioning of the ecosystem, so that the soil-plant
2004). The groups that integrate it are regulators of relation is the basic link for the maintenance of the
the trophic process in the soil environment, helping other system components and, in turn, allows to
in the formation of its microstructure with their evaluate their influence on fertility maintenance and
contributions of dejections, excretions, secretions and soil conservation.
their own dead bodies. They also facilitate the The objective of this review was to collect the
dissemination of spores, fungi and other highest possible amount of information about the use
microorganisms, for which they are known as catalysts of the groups of the soil mesofauna as biological
of the microbial activity. In addition, they are indicators in the diagnosis and evaluation of the
acknowledged as micro-engineers of the soil disturbances produced in a certain ecosystem, subject
environment, because they construct galleries in the to a management or use type.
soil and improve its physical properties, by favoring
aeration and water infiltration. For such reason, they Main groups of the soil mesofauna
constitute decisive factors for productivity The mesofauna is a zoological category whose
maintenance. components live all their lives in the soil, which
Many of the groups which integrate the mesofauna includes: mites (Acari), springtails (Collembola),
are sensitive to natural and anthropic disturbances of symphylans (Symphyla), proturans (Protura),
the environment, which cause changes in their diplurans (Diplura), pauropods (Pauropoda),
specific composition and abundance, and bring about Thysanoptera, barklice (Psocoptera), enchytraeids
the loss of species and their diversity, with the (Enchytraeidae) and polyxenidans (Polyxenida),
subsequent decrease of stability and fertility (Scheu, measuring 0,2-2,0 mm of diameter. Many of these
2002). That is why the mesofauna is considered a good groups are bioindicators of soil stability and fertility
biological indicator of the soil conservation status. (García-Álvarez and Bello, 2004); among them mites
Pastos y Forrajes, Vol. 36, No. 1, January-March, 14-21, 2013 15

and springtails stand out, for being the main Gamasidae are predator mites which exert control
representatives of this type of fauna and having better over the populations of nematodes and other soil
conditions to be used for this purpose. microarthropods. Chocobar (2010) stated that this
These groups show extremely diverse feeding taxon is sensitive to disturbed soils and to the
habits; thus, according to their main feeding unfavorable changes in rainfall and soil humidity,
categories, they may be: herbivores, detritivores, which could be due to the fragility of their body. These
predators (carnivores) and fungivores. characteristics turn it into a good indicator of soil
Mites, according to Behan-Pelletier (1999), are quality, showing higher abundance in the least
potentially powerful indicators, of the ecosystem disturbed ones.
nature as well as its disturbance. This statement is However, Prostigmata are dominant in nutrient-
based on their abundance, because they reach several poor soils, with low calcium carbonate values, low
hundreds of thousands of individuals per square organic matter and little humidity. They are mostly
meter. In addition, they show a large taxonomic and predators, with fragile structure and small size, for
trophic diversity and are easy to collect and preserve. which they presumably have remarkable sensitivity
Among Acari are oribatid mites (Cryptostigmata), to the fluctuations of the water conditions of the
which are important facilitators of organic matter substratum (Andrés, 1990). They are more abundant
decomposition in interaction with the microflora, in disturbed areas because they have high
because they act on the remains of animals and plants, reproductive potential; this allows them to adapt to
fragmenting them and making them more accessible the effect of the disturbing factor, for which in the
to the action of microorganisms. These individuals relative absence of predators and competitors for
are sensitive to the organic matter content, humidity food, they may rapidly increase their number. This
percentage, pH, agricultural practices carried out by group, because of its ecological characteristics, also
man and insecticide use. Within this group there are constitutes a good indicator.
different types of response to environmental In the case of springtails (Collembola), they are
alterations, because their morphological known to depend on the conjugation of the factors
characteristics can make them more resistant. Certain organic matter and humidity, and are sensitive to
oribatid mite species show the existence of adverse environment disturbances (Chocobar, 2010).
circumstances, natural as well as anthropic; and also According to Bellinger, Christiansen and Janssens
of favorable conditions, such as the existence of well (2003), they play a decisive role in the recycling of
preserved forests. Nevertheless, studies are yet to be organic remains and are capable of fractioning and
conducted on their ecology, biology and physiology, grinding plant remains, which increases the
to consider them a group with great uses as implantation of the microflora. The food ingested, once
bioindicators (González, 2001). degraded, intervene in humus formation; many soils
Likewise, Uropodidae form a group of incorporate millions of little balls of Collembola feces
saprophagous Acari, but have little abundance which benefit the roots, due to the continuous release
in the soil, because they show morphological and of nutrients, as they are disintegrated by soil
bioecological characteristics which makes them highly microorganisms (Chocobar, 2010). On the other hand,
demanding regarding habitat quality. They are they participate in the maintenance of fungi and
abundant in the ecosystems with high organic matter nematode concentrations favorable for plant growth;
value, in compost areas and decomposing trunks but they can also eat pathogen fungi and with it they
(García-Álvarez and Bello, 2004). They are also hu- decrease fungal concentrations in crops, for which
mus-producers and respond positively to good soil they are used as bioindicators of soil contamination
aeration conditions. Together with Oribatida, they (González, Díaz and Prieto, 2003). These hexapods
are reported as indicators of high-productivity constitute indicators of the soil pH and humidity; some
soils. The study of their variations constitutes an species are sensitive to chemical products, while
accurate criterion of the health status of the soil others increase their densities. They also serve to
environment. reveal the differences among forests, as well as in the
The Acari also include Astigmata, which belong evolution of ecosystems with different degrees of
to the trophic group of fungivores and are considered disturbance (Palacios-Vargas, 2000).
good indicators of disturbed soils because they Barklice (Psocoptera), on the contrary, include
survive under unfavorable environmental conditions pioneer insects in the re-colonization of altered or
(Andrés, 1990). disturbed areas, for which their presence is an
16 Pastos y Forrajes, Vol. 36, No. 1, January-March, 14-21, 2013

indicator of the progressive recovery process of the mesofauna, in the soil environment, relations or
soil. It is considered a more abundant group under balances have been established among them.
drought conditions. Hansen y Coleman (2000) The utilization of these zoological groups in soil
reported that these insects are more numerous in evaluation entails a qualitative analysis of the trophic
uncovered areas without plant cover. On the other and functional role of each taxon in its environment;
hand, Ducarme, André, Wauthy and Lebrun (2004) as well as their morphological characteristics,
report them as good decomposers of plant, hypha seasonality and degree of sensitivity to the
and spore fragments, in addition to organic detritus. disturbances produced by men or nature. A rational
Protura, Diplura and Pauropoda are groups of the study of the ecology of each group should be
mesofauna with very little frequency and little-known conducted in order to achieve a correct interpretation
ecology. Due to their morphological characteristics of what occurs in the environment, and for the
(soft, small and chitinless body) and their trophic predictions and recommendations to be accurate and
functions (detritivores, fungivores, phytophages or aid the improvement and conservation of the soil.
herbivores and predators) are considered indicators Karg (1963) proposed the Oribatida/Astigmata
of soil stability. balance, due to the close relation between the
Diplura is a group of micro-arthropods which are densities of moss mites and Astigmada, because as
generally found in the soil, under trunks or stones ones increase the others decrease; hence the
and in the litter; they move very rapidly when importance of this balance to measure the degree of
disturbed. Some species are also known which inhabit unbalance among the soil biocoenoses.
caves, are highly specialized and prefer deep strata Another balance, suggested by Andrés (1990),
with lower exposure to soil disturbances. Diplurans was Oribatida/Prostigmata. When Prostigamata
are detritivores and depend especially on a moderate –group indicator of aridity and oligotrophy– reaches
and constant humidity degree (Palacios-Vargas, 2000). numerical dominance with regards to Oribatida,
In Spain, Andrés (1990) reported the presence of this the unbalance degree of the soil communities is
group in forestry plantations with low abundance and irreversible.
its preference for depths under more constant water Mateos (1992) presented the Acari/Collembola
conditions. ratio, which is useful to determine the disturbance
Regarding Protura, their styliform bucal pieces degree in the affected zones. When it is favorable for
suggest they feed on nutrients in aqueous dissolution springtails, indicators of soil fertility and stability, the
(Andrés, 1990), which may come from mycorrhizae. ecosystem is considered to be preserved and stable;
The ecology of this group is very similar to that of while if Acari are the most abundant, an analysis
springtails and it inhabits the deep strata, thus, it is should be made of which Acari group is prevailing
not affected by the alterations which occur in higher and of their function in the soil.
strata. Bedano, Cantú and Doucet (2001) established as
Pauropods (Pauropoda) consume microorganisms effective the Astigmata/Mesostigmata relation to
and fungal hyphae, for which they are considered to predict the instability of the soil environment. If there
be involved in decomposition, although their is a strong presence of the numerator –indicator of
contribution to this process could be relatively poor instability–, the environment is altered and instable.
as compared to that of other mesofauna groups. Some Another ratio proposed by Socarrás and
of their representatives are predators. These Hernández (2010) was detritivores/re-colonizers,
individuals are very sensitive to agricultural practices, which allows to learn the degree of advancement of
with which their population is decreased in 70 % (Pa- the soil recovery process.
lacios-Vargas, 2000).
Utilization of the soil mesofauna groups as indicators
As representatives of herbivores are thrips
of the edaphic environment quality
(Thysanoptera), which feed upon the different
structures of plant roots, and have a soft and whitish The first reports about the use of the groups that
body. integrate the soil mesofauna as biological indicators
worldwide were published by Hermosilla, Reca, Pujalte
Relations or balances among taxa or functional
and Rubio (1977), when studying pasturelands with
groups of the mesofauna
different degrees of disturbance in Argentina. These
Taking into consideration the behavior and authors found that moss mites, springtails, Gamasidae
functions of the groups that compose the soil and Prostigmata showed densities which were
Pastos y Forrajes, Vol. 36, No. 1, January-March, 14-21, 2013 17

affected by the increase of compaction. In another (2006) applied a multivariate analysis on cultivated
study about this topic, Aoki (1979) tested the soils with important results in the evaluation of the
characteristics of the families of moss mites as edaphic environment of different ecosystems, by
bioindicators, through their sensitivity to using Acari and springtails as biological indicators of
environmental changes caused by biotic, abiotic and soil stability and fertility. On the other hand, Gulvik
anthropic factors; they were classified as insensitive, (2007) made a bibliographical review on the use of
very sensitive and intermediate sensitivity groups. Acari as biological indicators in pasturelands.
On the other hand, Ponge (1980) used springtail In Cuba, these studies were started at the end of
species as indicators of ecological variations; and the 1980’s by different institutions of the country, the
recently, because of the great problem of School of Biology of the University of Havana
environmental contamination, the presence of this (Ministry of Higher Education) and the Institute o
group in contaminated soils and the possible Ecology and Systematics of the Environment Agency
utilization of its abundance as measurement to (Ministry of Science, Technology and Environment).
evaluate the effects of soil contaminants, have been In the 1990’s, two institutions of the Ministry of Higher
studied. Prasse (1985) stated that the communities of Education were incorporated to the research to
Acari and springtails show changes in their evaluate pasturelands with livestock production
composition, due to the influence of agricultural management from the soil mesofauna, in the
practices, for which the presence of a taxon or Mayabeque and Matanzas provinces: the Institute of
combination of taxa are effective as bioindicators of Animal Science and the EEPF “Indio Hatuey”,
the treatments with herbicides. respectively. The studies were conducted in different
In the 1990’s an advance was observed in ecosystems, such as: forests, reclaimed mining areas,
ecosystem evaluation from the performance of the areas rehabilitated with bioenergetic species, crops
members of the soil mesofauna. Andrés (1990), Van and urban soils.
Straalen (1998) and Behan-Pelletier (1999) emphasized
Forests
the role of Oribatida as biological indicators of
humidity and organic matter content in forest An approached line was forest evaluation. The
ecosystems, as well as in forestry plantations and highest percentage of individuals corresponded to
agroecosystems. Acari, due to the remarkable contribution of Oribatida,
In more recent years, when studying the response with numerical predominance (13 653 ind/m2); the
of springtails to seasonality and to the presence of second position was occupied by springtails, whose
heavy metals, Cole, Bradford, Shaw and Bardgett average density was 3 975 ind/m2 (Berazaín and Prie-
(2006) found a maximum presence in the rainy season; to, 2001). Prieto, González and Tcherva (2005) reported
while they decreased in the dry season and with the higher values of taxonomic richness for Oribatida in
addition of inorganic compounds containing cadmium another secondary forest of Cuba (21 families).
and zinc. On the other hand, Bedano et al. (2001) The evaluations of forests in Brazil and Cuba (Prie-
applied the Oribatida/Astigmata, Oribatida/ to, Bonfante-Almeida, Ramadán and Fernández, 2002;
Prostigmata and Astigmata/Mesostigmata relations Prieto et al., 2005) showed very interesting results
in four soil uses with different productive systems, to with regards to the sensitivity degree of the different
evaluate soil conservation; while Bellinger, Acari and Collembola families to the soil environment
Christiansen and Janssens (2003) stressed the disturbances.
possible role of springtails as bioindicators in
Pasturelands
reforestation, the agricultural potential of soils and
their use intensity. Socarrás (1999) evaluated the relations among the
Also in this decade, Arroyo, Iturrondobeitía, Ca- groups of the soil mesofauna in pasturelands with
ballero and González-Carcedo (2003) studied nine different managements and disturbances (traditional
cultivation plots with different treatments regarding grazing, intensive grazing and burning) in the
fertilization type or agricultural management, and Mayabeque and Matanzas provinces. The most
found a decrease of the Oribatida density values; affected groups were Collembola and Gamasidae,
contrary to the results obtained in a non-anthropized indicators of soil stability and fertility because they
soil, where the families Oppiidae (Oribatida) and are highly susceptible to soil disturbances as they
Ascidae (Mesostigmata) were reported as have whitish and soft bodies; this allowed to make an
bioindicators of low heavy metal values. Baretta et al. evaluation of the methods and the need to recommend
18 Pastos y Forrajes, Vol. 36, No. 1, January-March, 14-21, 2013

the change of livestock production practice. This Areas rehabilitated with bioenergetic species
author developed other studies in areas of the EEPF
From the results of the evaluations in areas
“Indio Hatuey”, in order to relate the presence of
rehabilitated by sowing bioenergetic plant species, a
certain groups of the mesofauna in pasture species
new index was proposed to learn the degree of
which have different morphological structures. The
advancement of the process of soil recovery, which
highest quantity of mesofauna families was found in
involved two functional groups: detritivores and re-
Andropogon gayanus and Cenchrus ciliaris; these
colonizers (Socarrás and Hernández, 2010). The
grasses show structures which guarantee the
functional category of numerator included the taxa
optimum conditions for the establishment of the
whose trophic function is to decompose the organic
soil fauna in extreme situations of lack and soil
material and simplify the attack by soil
disturbance (Socarrás, Rodríguez, Sánchez and
microorganisms, for its later incorporation to the soil.
Ávila, 2005).
Re-colonizers are composed by barklice, which are
On the other hand, Rodríguez et al. (2008a)
pioneer insects in the re-colonization of altered or
evaluated integrally the soil-plant complex with a
disturbed areas. When this balance favors the
silvopastoral system in a dairy unit of Havana, in
denominator or it is lower than one, it shows that
which they reported lower values of Collembola and
there is superiority in the density of Psocoptera with
Acari with regards to the rest of the mesofauna.
regards to that of detritivore groups in the analyzed
Rodríguez et al. (2008b) also made a compilation of
areas. In addition, it indicates that the area is still
the studies about the soil biota and its role in the
undergoing the fertility and stability recovery
sustainability of systems, as well as in nutrient
process, and that the necessary conditions for the
recycling and the role of fauna in the pasturelands
establishment of the most demanding detritivore
subject to rational Voisin grazing (RVG).
groups have not been created. As the value of the
Reclaimed mine areas numerator becomes higher than one, this means that
there is a dominance of detritivores and a reestablishment
Socarrás and Rodríguez (2004) and Socarrás and
of stability conditions in the soil may be foreseen.
Rodríguez (2007) evaluated the variation of the
relation or balance of the groups that integrate the Crops
soil mesofauna in reforested areas of the mine zone of Prieto, González and Díaz (1989), when studying
Moa (Holguín), with regards to a remnant natural the influence of crop techniques on cassava
forest. The analysis of such variation, 16 years after plantations, obtained minimum values of mesofauna;
the beginning of the rehabilitation of the area with Oribatida stood out and the springtail populations
Pinus cubensis, showed a qualitative and quantitative were depressed. The evaluations were extended to
advance of soil stability and fertility (Oribatida and other crops, such as sugarcane in the Havana province
Collembola); as well as a strong re-colonization of the (González, 2001; González et al., 2003), and density
area by a higher number of native plant species. values of 2 000 ind/m2 were found for Psocoptera, on
Similar density values as those of the remnant Ferralitic Red soil.
natural forest were found, which indicates the In the citrus fruit plots of Artemisa, during the
resilience of the soil system under the studied conditions reconversion period, Socarrás and Vallín (2004) found
(table 1). higher diversity and density of detritivore groups in
organic plots and plots associated to legumes.
Likewise, the evaluation of an integral livestock
Table 1. Rehabilitated area/natural forest for the production-agriculture farm in Artemisa, from the
mesofauna and the groups that integrate it Oribatida/Astigmata ratio and the presence of other
(ind/m2). groups of the soil mesofauna allowed to learn that the
agricultural practices which were being applied in the
16 years 10 years 6 years 4 years polycrop area did not favor the recovery of this
Mesofauna 0,969 1,008 0,920 0,945 fauna, or the stability and conservation of the soil
Oribatida 0,709 0,429 0,162 0,161
environment (Socarrás, 2006). In Jovellanos –Matan-
Astigmata 1,500 2,818 2,764 2,277
Gamasidae 0,666 0,506 0,363 0,666 zas–, in a pastureland and a sugarcane plantation with
Prostigmata 0,912 0,818 1,692 1,583 mulch, Robaina (2009) and Robaina, Socarrás and
Collembola 0,714 0,187 0,376 0,333 Pérez (2010) observed that one of the most important
Psocoptera 1,504 2,607 1,433 0,994 aspects to be taken into consideration to guarantee
Pastos y Forrajes, Vol. 36, No. 1, January-March, 14-21, 2013 19

life in the soil is to maintain adequate cover, through In the evaluations conducted at international level,
the Oribatida/Astigmata and Oribatida/Prostigmata the most widely applied relations or balances have
relations. On the other hand, in a study conducted in been Oribatida/Astigmata, Oribatida/Prostigmata and
four land uses (forest, pastureland, varied crops and Acari/Collembola, because these edaphic groups are
sugarcane) of the red plain of Artemisa and more abundant in the soil and have a well defined
Mayabeque (fig. 1) the Oribatida/Astigmata ratio was function. In Cuba, the most used ones are the first
applied and in sugarcane the ratio was observed to two as they express very well the ecological status of
be lower than one, that is, Astigmata prevailed, for the soil. Nevertheless, the author of this review has
which there was a disturbance in this use (Socarrás made little use of the Acari/Collembola ratio, because
and Robaina, 2011). according to her criterion it does not present clearly
the situation of the soil, having in the numerator a
Urban soils
category (Acari) that involves indicator groups of
The urban soils of the Regla municipality, Havana fertility and infertility, for which their dominance does
City (Fresquet et al., 2009), were evaluated from the not show the real situation of the medium and a
relations among the groups that integrate the qualitative analysis of the groups and their functions
mesofauna (fig. 2). In some areas the ratio was is necessary.
dangerously close to one, that is, there was the same In general, the utilization in Cuba of these biological
quantity of fertility and infertility indicators. These indicators in studies and/or monitoring of the
results allowed to recommend a change of management ecosystems with different degrees of anthropic or
in those scenarios. natural disturbance has allowed to observe the

20000

15000
ind/m 2

10000

5000

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ne
d
an

op
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ca
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cr
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ar
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as

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Land use
Oribatida Astigm ata
Fig. 1. Oribatida/Astigmata ratio in four land uses in the red
plain of Artemisa and Mayabeque.

12000 3000
10000
ind/m 2

8000 2000
ind/m2

6000
4000 1000
2000
0 0
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P. I n
B.
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Land use scenarios Land use scenarios

Oribatida 0-5 cm Astigmata 0-5 cm Oribatida 5-10 cm Astigmata 5-10 cm

Fig. 2. Oribatida/Astigmata ratio in the eight use scenarios of the Regla municipality.
20 Pastos y Forrajes, Vol. 36, No. 1, January-March, 14-21, 2013

situation of the soil and its capacity of recovery; as de calidad de suelos en agroecosistemas del
well as to formulate recommendations about the centro de Argentina. Memorias. XV Congreso
management changes necessary to achieve Latinoamericano de las Ciencias del Suelo. [CD-
production in balance with the environment ROM]. Varadero, Cuba.
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CONCLUSIONS Ecosyst. and Environ. 74:411.
The groups of the soil mesofauna are very Bellinger, P.F.; Christiansen, K.A. & Janssens, F. 2003.
Checklist of the Collembola: Families. Department
sensitive to the changes that occur in the soil
of Biology. University of Antwerp (RUCA).
environment due to natural or anthropic causes,
Antwerp, Belgium. [Disponible en:] http://
causing variations in their density and diversity; for
www.collembola.org./taxa/collembo.htm. [13/01/2011]
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of the soil ecological status. The qualitative analysis vegetation, flora and litter-divellingmicroarthropods
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Received: March 14, 2011

Accepted: November 13, 2012