Fluid 

Mechanics: Fundamentals 
and Applications, 4th edition
Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala
Lecture slides by Mehmet Kanoglu

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 Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION AND BASIC
CONCEPTS

©McGraw‐Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom.  No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Schlieren image
showing the
thermal plume
produced by
Professor Cimbala
as he welcomes
you to the
fascinating world
of fluid mechanics.
Courtesy of Michael J. Hargather and John Cimbala.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Objectives

• Understand the basic concepts of Fluid Mechanics.

• Recognize the various types of fluid flow problems
encountered in practice.
• Model engineering problems and solve them in a
systematic manner.
• Have a working knowledge of accuracy, precision, and
significant digits, and recognize the importance of
dimensional homogeneity in engineering calculations.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 1–1 ■ INTRODUCTION
Mechanics: The oldest physical
science that deals with both
stationary and moving bodies
under the influence of forces.
Statics: The branch of mechanics
that deals with bodies at rest.
Dynamics: The branch that deals
with bodies in motion.
Fluid mechanics: The science
that deals with the behavior of © Goodshoot/Fotosearch RF

fluids at rest (fluid statics) or in Fluid mechanics deals with liquids

motion (fluid dynamics), and the and gases in motion or at rest.
interaction of fluids with solids or
other fluids at the boundaries.
Fluid dynamics: Fluid mechanics is also referred to as fluid dynamics by
considering fluids at rest as a special case of motion with zero velocity.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Hydrodynamics: The study of the motion of fluids that can be
approximated as incompressible (such as liquids, especially
water, and gases at low speeds).
Hydraulics: A subcategory of hydrodynamics, which deals with
liquid flows in pipes and open channels.
Gas dynamics: Deals with the flow of fluids that undergo
significant density changes, such as the flow of gases through
nozzles at high speeds.
Aerodynamics: Deals with the flow of gases (especially air)
over bodies such as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high or
low speeds.
Meteorology, oceanography, and hydrology: Deal with
naturally occurring flows.

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 Fluid: A substance in the liquid What is a Fluid?
or gas phase.
A solid can resist an applied
shear stress by deforming.
A fluid deforms continuously
under the influence of a shear
stress, no matter how small.
In solids, stress is proportional
to strain, but in fluids, stress is
proportional to strain rate.
When a constant shear force is Deformation of a rubber block placed
applied, a solid eventually stops between two parallel plates under the
deforming at some fixed strain influence of a shear force. The shear
angle, whereas a fluid never stress shown is that on the rubber—an
stops deforming and equal but opposite shear stress acts
approaches a constant rate of on the upper plate.
strain.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Stress: Force per unit area.
Normal stress: The normal
component of a force acting on
a surface per unit area.
Shear stress: The tangential
component of a force acting on
a surface per unit area.
Pressure: The normal stress in
a fluid at rest.
Zero shear stress: A fluid at
rest is at a state of zero shear
stress.
When the walls are removed or The normal stress and shear stress at
a liquid container is tilted, a the surface of a fluid element. For
shear develops as the liquid fluids at rest, the shear stress is zero
moves to re-establish a and pressure is the only normal stress.
horizontal free surface.
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 In a liquid, groups of molecules can move relative to each other, but the
volume remains relatively constant because of the strong cohesive
forces between the molecules. As a result, a liquid takes the shape of the
container it is in, and it forms a free surface in a larger container in a
gravitational field.
A gas expands until it encounters the walls of the container and fills the
entire available space. This is because the gas molecules are widely
spaced, and the cohesive forces between them are very small. Unlike
liquids, a gas in an open container cannot form a free surface.

Unlike a liquid, a gas

does not form a free
surface, and it expands
to fill the entire
available space.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Intermolecular bonds are strongest in solids and weakest in gases.
Solid: Molecules are arranged in a pattern that is repeated throughout.
Liquid: Molecules can rotate and translate freely.
Gas: Molecules are far apart from each other, and molecular ordering
is nonexistent.

The arrangement of atoms in different phases: (a) molecules are at

relatively fixed positions in a solid, (b) groups of molecules move about
each other in the liquid phase, and (c) individual molecules move about at
random in the gas phase.
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 Gas and vapor are often used as synonymous words.
Gas: The vapor phase of a substance is customarily
called a gas when it is above the critical temperature.
Vapor: Usually implies that the current phase is not far
from a state of condensation.

Macroscopic or classical approach: Does not require

a knowledge of the behavior of individual molecules and
provides a direct and easy way to analyze engineering
problems.
Microscopic or statistical approach: Based on the
average behavior of large groups of individual molecules.

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 On a microscopic scale, pressure is
determined by the interaction of individual
gas molecules. However, we can measure
the pressure on a macroscopic scale with
a pressure gage.
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 Application Areas of
Fluid Mechanics

© Jochen Schlenker/Getty Images RF

Courtesy of the Biomedical Photography Lab, Penn State
Biomedical Engineering Institute. Used by permission.
Natural flows and weather

U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC)

Fluid dynamics is used extensively
in the design of artificial hearts.
Shown here is the Penn State
Electric Total Artificial Heart. Power plants
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 Boats

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
Human body
© Jose Luis Pelaez Inc/Blend Images LLC RF © Doug Menuez/Getty Images RF

Cars
Aircraft and spacecraft

© Ingram Publishing RF © Purestock/SuperStock/RF

 © Mlenny Photography/Getty Images RF
Wind turbines

© 123RF
Industrial applications

Photo by John M. Cimbala

Piping and plumbing systems

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 1–2 ■ A BRIEF HISTORY
OF FLUID MECHANICS

Courtesy of Gunther Garbrecht. Used by permission.

© Universal History Archive/Getty Images

Segment of Pergamon pipeline. Each clay A mine hoist powered by
pipe section was 13 to 18 cm in diameter. a reversible water wheel.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Courtesy of John Lienhard, University of Houston. Used by Permission.

Osborne Reynolds’ original apparatus for demonstrating

the onset of turbulence in pipes, being operated by John
Lienhard at the University of Manchester in 1975.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Photographs Division [LC-DIG-ppprs-00626].
Courtesy Library of Congress Prints &

Photo courtesy of the Oklahoma Wind Power Initiative. Used by permission.

The Wright brothers take flight
at Kitty Hawk.

Old and new wind turbine technologies

north of Woodward, OK. The modern
turbines have up to 8 MW capacities.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 1–3 ■ THE NO-SLIP CONDITION
Consider the flow of a fluid in a
stationary pipe or over a solid
surface that is nonporous (i.e.,
impermeable to the fluid).
Porous: having minute spaces or holes through which liquid or air may pass.
All experimental observations
indicate that a fluid in motion
comes to a complete stop at the
surface and assumes a zero
velocity relative to the surface.
That is, a fluid in direct contact
with a solid “sticks” to the
surface, and there is no slip. This
“Hunter Rouse: Laminar and Turbulence Flow Film.” Copyright IIHR- is known as the no-slip condition.
Hydroscience & Engineering. The University of Iowa. Used by permission.

The development of a velocity The fluid property responsible for

the no-slip condition and the
profile due to the no-slip condition
development of the boundary
as a fluid flows over a blunt nose. layer is viscosity.
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 Boundary layer: The
flow region adjacent to
the wall in which the
viscous effects (and thus
the velocity gradients)
are significant.

A fluid flowing over a stationary surface

comes to a complete stop at the surface
because of the no-slip condition.

Flow
separation
during flow
over a
curved
surface.
From Head, Malcolm R. 1982 in Flow Visualization II, W. Merzkirch. Ed., 399–403, Washington: Hemisphere.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 1–4 ■ CLASSIFICATION OF FLUID FLOWS
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
Viscous flows: Flows in which the frictional effects are significant.
Inviscid flow regions: In many flows of practical interest, there are
regions (typically regions not close to solid surfaces) where viscous
forces are negligibly small compared to inertial or pressure forces.

The flow of an originally

uniform fluid stream over
a flat plate, and the
regions of viscous flow
(next to the plate on both
sides) and inviscid flow
(away from the plate).
Fundamentals of Boundry Layers, National Committee for Fluid
Mechanics Films, © Education Development Center.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Internal versus External Flow
External flow: The flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such
as a plate, a wire, or a pipe.
Internal flow: The flow in a pipe or duct if the fluid is bounded by
solid surfaces.
Water flow in a pipe is
internal flow, and airflow

Courtesy of NASA and Cislunar Aerospace, Inc.

over a ball is external
flow.
The flow of liquids in a
duct is called open-
channel flow if the duct is
only partially filled with
the liquid and there is a
free surface.
External flow over a tennis ball, and
the turbulent wake region behind.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Incompressible flow: If the
Compressible versus
density of flowing fluid remains
nearly constant throughout (e.g., Incompressible Flow
liquid flow).
Compressible flow: If the
density of fluid changes during
flow (e.g., high-speed gas flow)
When analyzing rockets,
spacecraft, and other systems that
involve high-speed gas flows, the
flow speed is often expressed by
Mach number
V Speed of flow
Ma  
c Speed of sound © G.S. Settles, Gas Dynamics Lab, Penn State University.
Used with permission.

Ma = 1 Sonic flow Schlieren image of the spherical shock

wave produced by a bursting ballon at
Ma < 1 Subsonic flow the Penn State Gas Dynamics Lab.
Ma > 1 Supersonic flow Several secondary shocks are seen in
Ma >> 1 Hypersonic flow the air surrounding the ballon.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Laminar flow: The highly Laminar versus Turbulent Flow
ordered fluid motion
characterized by smooth
layers of fluid. The flow of
high-viscosity fluids such as
oils at low velocities is
typically laminar.
Turbulent flow: The highly
disordered fluid motion that
typically occurs at high
velocities and is

Courtesy of ONERA. Photo by Werlé.

characterized by velocity
fluctuations. The flow of low-
viscosity fluids such as air at
high velocities is typically
turbulent.
Transitional flow: A flow
that alternates between
being laminar and turbulent. Laminar, transitional, and
turbulent flows over a flat plate
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 Natural (or Unforced)
versus Forced Flow
Forced flow: A fluid is forced
to flow over a surface or in a
pipe by external means such

Penn State University. Used with permission.

as a pump or a fan.

© G.S. Settles, Gas Dynamics Lab,

Natural flow: Fluid motion is
due to natural means such as
the buoyancy effect, which
manifests itself as the rise of
warmer (and thus lighter) fluid
and the fall of cooler (and thus
denser) fluid. In this schlieren image of a girl in a
swimming suit, the rise of lighter,
warmer air adjacent to her body
indicates that humans and warm-
blooded animals are surrounded by
thermal plumes of rising warm air.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Steady versus Unsteady Flow
The term steady implies no change at a point with time.
The opposite of steady is unsteady.
In fluid mechanics, unsteady is the most general term that
applies to any flow that is not steady, but transient is typically
used for developing flows.
The term uniform implies no change with location over a
specified region.
The term periodic refers to the kind of unsteady flow in which
the flow oscillates about a steady mean.
Many devices such as turbines, compressors, boilers,
condensers, and heat exchangers operate for long periods of
time under the same conditions, and they are classified as
steady-flow devices.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Photos by Eric G. Paterson. Used by permission.
Comparison of (a) instantaneous snapshot of an unsteady flow,
and (b) long exposure picture of the same flow.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Oscillating wake of a blunt-
based airfoil at Mach
number 0.6. Photo (a) is an
instantaneous image, while
photo (b) is a long-exposure
(time-averaged) image.

(a) Dyment, A., Flodrops, J. P. & Gryson, P. 1982 in Flow

Visualization II, W. Merzkirch, ed., 331–336. Washington:
Hemisphere. Used by permission of Arthur Dyment.
(b) Dyment, A. & Gryson, P. 1978 in Inst. Mèc. Fluides
Lille, No. 78-5. Used by permission of Arthur Dyment.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows
A flow field is best characterized by its velocity distribution.
A flow is said to be one-, two-, or three-dimensional if the flow velocity
varies in one, two, or three dimensions, respectively.
However, the variation of velocity in certain directions can be small
relative to the variation in other directions and can be ignored.

The development of the velocity profile in a circular pipe. V = V(r, z)

and thus the flow is two-dimensional in the entrance region, and
becomes one-dimensional downstream when the velocity profile fully
develops and remains unchanged in the flow direction, V = V(r).
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Flow over a car antenna is approximately
two-dimensional except near the top and
bottom of the antenna.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Uniform versus Nonuniform Flow
Uniform flow implies that all fluid properties, such as velocity, pressure,
temperature, etc., do not vary with position.
A wind tunnel test section, for example, is designed such that the air
flow is as uniform as possible.
Even then, however, the flow does not remain uniform as we approach
the wind tunnel walls, due to the no-slip condition and the presence of a
boundary layer,
The flow just downstream of a well-rounded pipe entrance is nearly
uniform, again except for a very thin boundary layer near the wall.
In engineering practice, it is common to approximate the flow in ducts
and pipes and at inlets and outlets as uniform, even when it is not, for
simplicity in calculations.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 1–5 ■ SYSTEM AND CONTROL VOLUME

System: A quantity of matter or a

region in space chosen for study.
Surroundings: The mass or region
outside the system
Boundary: The real or imaginary
surface that separates the system
from its surroundings.
The boundary of a system can be
fixed or movable. System, surroundings,
Systems may be considered to be and boundary
closed or open.

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 Closed system (Control mass): A fixed amount of mass, and
no mass can cross its boundary.

A closed system with a

moving boundary.

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 Open system (control volume): A properly selected region in space.
It usually encloses a device that involves mass flow such as a
compressor, turbine, or nozzle.
Both mass and energy can cross the boundary of a control volume.
Control surface: The boundaries of a control volume. It can be real or
imaginary.

A control volume may involve fixed,

moving, real, and imaginary boundaries.
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 1–6 ■ IMPORTANCE OF DIMENSIONS AND UNITS

Any physical quantity can be characterized by dimensions.

The magnitudes assigned to the dimensions are called units.
Some basic dimensions such as mass m, length L, time t, and
temperature T are selected as primary or fundamental
dimensions, while others such as velocity V, energy E, and
volume V are expressed in terms of the primary dimensions and
are called secondary dimensions, or derived dimensions.

Metric SI system: A simple and logical system based on a

decimal relationship between the various units.

English system: It has no apparent systematic numerical base,

and various units in this system are related to each other rather
arbitrarily.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 TABLE 1−2
Standard prefixes in SI units

Multiple Prefix
TABLE 1−1 1024 yotta, Y
The seven fundamental (or primary) 1021 zetta, Z
dimensions and their units in SI 1018 exa, E
1015 peta, P
Dimension Unit
1012 tera, T
Length meter (m) 109 giga, G
106 mega, M
Mass kilogram (kg)
103 kilo, k
Time second (s) 102 hecto, h
Temperature kelvin (K) 101 deka, da
10−1 deci, d
Electric current ampere (A)
10−2 centi, c
Amount of light candela (cd) 10−3 milli, m
10−6 micro, μ
Amount of matter mole (mol)
10−9 nano, n
10−12 pico, p
10−15 femto, f
10−18 atto, a
10−21 zepto, z
10−24 yocto, y
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Some SI and English Units

1 lbm = 0.45359 kg
1 ft = 0.3048 m

Work = Force  Distance

1 J = 1 N∙m The SI unit prefixes are used in all
1 cal = 4.1868 J branches of engineering.
1 Btu = 1.0551 kJ

Force = (Mass) (Acceleration)

F = ma

1 N = 1 kgꞏm/s2
1 lbf = 32.174 lbmꞏft/s2
The definition of the force units.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The relative W = mg (N)
magnitudes of the
W weight
force units newton
m mass
(N), kilogram-force
g gravitational
(kgf), and pound-
acceleration
force (lbf).

A body weighing 150 kgf

on earth will weigh only
25 lbf on the moon.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The weight of a unit
mass at sea level.

A typical match yields about

one Btu (or one kJ) of energy
if completely burned.
Photo by John M. Cimbala.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Dimensional homogeneity is the
quality of an equation having
Dimensional homogeneity quantities of the same dimension
on both sides. A valid equation in
physics must be homogeneous,
All equations must be dimensionally homogeneous. since equality cannot apply
between quantities of different
nature.

Unity Conversion Ratios

All nonprimary units (secondary units) can be formed
by combinations of primary units.

m ft
N = kg and lbf = 32.174 lbm
s2 s2
Some unity conversion ratios
N lbf
=1 and =1
kg  m/ s 2
32.174 lbm  ft/ s 2

Unity conversion ratios are identically equal to 1 and are

unitless, and thus such ratios (or their inverses) can be inserted
conveniently into any calculation to properly convert units.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Every unity conversion ratio (as well
as its inverse) is exactly equal to one.
Shown here are a few commonly used
Always check the units in your unity conversion ratios, each within its
calculations. own set of parentheses.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 A mass of 1 lbm weighs 1 lbf on earth.

A quirk in the metric

system of units.
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 1–7 ■ MODELING IN ENGINEERING

An engineering device or process can be studied either

experimentally (testing and taking measurements) or analytically
(by analysis or calculations).
The experimental approach has the advantage that we deal with
the actual physical system, and the desired quantity is
determined by measurement, within the limits of experimental
error. However, this approach is expensive, time-consuming, and
often impractical.
The analytical approach (including the numerical approach) has
the advantage that it is fast and inexpensive, but the results
obtained are subject to the accuracy of the assumptions,
approximations, and idealizations made in the analysis.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Why do we need differential
equations? The descriptions of most
scientific problems involve equations
that relate the changes in some key
variables to each other.
In the limiting case of infinitesimal or
differential changes in variables, we
obtain differential equations that
provide precise mathematical
formulations for the physical principles
and laws by representing the rates of
change as derivatives.
Differential equations are used to
investigate a wide variety of problems
in sciences and engineering.
Do we always need differential
equations? Many problems
encountered in practice can be solved
without resorting to differential Mathematical modeling of
equations and the complications physical problems.
associated with them.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Complex model
(very accurate)
vs.
Simple model

Photo by John M. Cimbala.

(not-so-accurate)

The right choice is usually the

simplest model that yields
(a) Actual engineering problem satisfactory results.

Simplified models are often used in

fluid mechanics to obtain
approximate solutions to difficult
engineering problems.
Here, the helicopter's rotor is
modeled by a disk, across which is
imposed a sudden change in
pressure. The helicopter's body is
modeled by a simple ellipsoid. This
simplified model yields the essential
(b) Minimum essential model of the features of the overall air flow field
engineering problem in the vicinity of the ground.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 1–8 ■ PROBLEM-SOLVING TECHNIQUE

Step 1: Problem Statement

Step 2: Schematic

Step 3: Assumptions and Approximations

Step 4: Physical Laws

Step 5: Properties

Step 6: Calculations

Step 7: Reasoning, Verification, and Discussion

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 A step-by-step approach can greatly
simplify problem solving.

The assumptions made

while solving an engineering
problem must be reasonable
and justifiable.
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 Neatness and organization are
highly valued by employers.
The results obtained from an
engineering analysis must be
checked for reasonableness.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 1–9 ■ ENGINEERING SOFTWARE PACKAGES
All the computing power and the
engineering software packages
available today are just tools,
and tools have meaning only in
the hands of masters.
Hand calculators did not eliminate
the need to teach our children
how to add or subtract, and
sophisticated medical software
packages did not take the place
of medical school training. © Caia Images/Glow Images RF

Neither will engineering software An excellent word-processing

packages replace the traditional program does not make a person a
engineering education. They will good writer; it simply makes a good
simply cause a shift in emphasis writer a more efficient writer.
in the courses from mathematics
to physics.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Equation Solvers

Despite its simplicity, Excel is commonly used in solving systems of

equations in engineering as well as finance. It enables the user to
conduct parametric studies, plot the results, and ask “what if ”
questions. It can also solve simultaneous equations if properly set up.
Engineering Equation Solver (EES) is a program that solves systems of
linear or nonlinear algebraic or differential equations numerically.
It has a large library of built-in thermodynamic property functions as
well as mathematical functions.
Unlike some software packages, equation solvers do not solve
engineering problems; they only solve the equations supplied by the
user.
Therefore, the user must understand the problem and formulate it by
applying any relevant physical laws and relations.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) CFD Software
is used extensively in engineering
and research, and we discuss CFD in
detail in Chap. 15.
We also show example solutions from
CFD throughout the textbook since
CFD graphics are great for illustrating
flow streamlines, velocity, and
pressure distributions, etc. beyond
what we are able to visualize in the

© Girish Kumar Rajan. Used by permission.

laboratory.

The unsteady vortex rope formed in the draft

tube of a model Francis turbine operating at a
discharge coefficient of 0.34. Rope simulated
using the commercial CFD software, ANSYS-
FLUENT. Shown are isocontours of swirling
strength.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 1–10 ■ ACCURACY, PRECISION,
AND SIGNIFICANT DIGITS
Accuracy error (inaccuracy): The value of one
reading minus the true value. In general,
accuracy of a set of measurements refers to the
closeness of the average reading to the true
value. Accuracy is generally associated with
repeatable, fixed errors.
Precision error: The value of one reading minus
the average of readings. In general, precision
of a set of measurements refers to the fineness
of the resolution and the repeatability of the
instrument. Precision is generally associated
with unrepeatable, random errors.
Significant digits: Digits that are relevant and
meaningful.
Illustration of accuracy versus precision. Shooter A
is more precise, but less accurate, while shooter B
is more accurate, but less precise.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 TABLE 1−3
Significant digits

Number of
Exponential Significant
Number Notation Digits
12.3 1.23 × 101 3
123,000 1.23 × 105 3
0.00123 1.23 × 10−3 3
40,300 4.03 × 104 3
40,300 4.0300 × 104 5
0.005600 5.600 × 10−3 4
0.0056 5.6 × 10−3 2
0.006 6. × 10−3 1
A result with more significant digits
than that of given data falsely
implies more precision.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 An instrument with many digits of resolution (stopwatch c) may be less
accurate than an instrument with few digits of resolution (stopwatch a).
What can you say about stopwatches b and d?

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Summary

• Introduction
• The No-Slip Condition
• A Brief History of Fluid Mechanics
• Classification of Fluid Flows
• System and Control Volume
• Importance of Dimensions and Units
• Modeling in Engineering
• Problem Solving Technique
• Engineering Software Packages
• Accuracy, Precision and Significant Digits

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals 
and Applications, 4th edition
Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala
Lecture slides by Mehmet Kanoglu

©McGraw‐Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom.  No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Chapter 2

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS

©McGraw‐Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom.  No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw‐Hill Education.
 A drop forms when
liquid is forced out
of a small tube.
The shape of the
drop is determined
by a balance of
pressure, gravity,
and surface
tension forces.
© Corbis RF

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Objectives

• Have a working knowledge of the basic properties of

fluids and understand the continuum approximation.
• Have a working knowledge of viscosity and the
consequences of the frictional effects it causes in fluid
flow.
• Calculate the capillary rise (or drop) in tubes due to the
surface tension effect.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 2–1 ■ INTRODUCTION
Property: Any characteristic of a
system.
Some familiar properties are
pressure P, temperature T, volume
V, and mass m.
Properties are considered to be
either intensive or extensive.
Intensive properties: Those that
are independent of the mass of a
system, such as temperature,
pressure, and density.
Extensive properties: Those
whose values depend on the size—
or extent—of the system.
Specific properties: Extensive Criterion to differentiate intensive
properties per unit mass. and extensive properties.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Matter is made up of atoms that are
widely spaced in the gas phase. Yet it Continuum
is very convenient to disregard the
atomic nature of a substance and
view it as a continuous, homogeneous
matter with no holes, that is, a
continuum.
The continuum idealization allows us
to treat properties as point functions
and to assume the properties vary
continually in space with no jump
discontinuities.
This idealization is valid as long as
the size of the system we deal with is
large relative to the space between Despite the relatively large gaps
the molecules. This is the case in between molecules, a substance
practically all problems. can be treated as a continuum
In this text we will limit our because of the very large number
consideration to substances that can of molecules even in an extremely
be modeled as a continuum. small volume.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 © PhotoLink/Getty Images RF

The length scale associated with most flows, such as seagulls in

flight, is orders of magnitude larger than the mean free path of
the air molecules. Therefore, here, and for all fluid flows
considered in this book, the continuum idealization is appropriate.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 2–2 ■ DENSITY AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Density Specific gravity: The ratio of the density

of a substance to the density of some

m
V
 kg m
3
 standard substance at a specified
temperature (usually water at 4°C).
Specific volume 
v V m  1  SG 
H O
2

Specific weight: The weight of a unit

volume of a substance.

s  g N m  3

Density is mass per

unit volume; specific
volume is volume
per unit mass.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 TABLE 2–1
The specific gravity of some substances at
20°C and 1 atm unless stated otherwise
Substance SG
Water 1.0
Blood (at 37°C) 1.06
Seawater 1.025
Gasoline 0.68
Ethyl alcohol 0.790
Mercury 13.6
Balsa wood 0.17
Dense oak wood 0.93
Gold 19.3
Bones 1.7–2.0
Ice (at 0°C) 0.916
Air 0.001204

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Density of Ideal Gases
Equation of state: Any equation that relates the pressure,
temperature, and density (or specific volume) of a substance.
Ideal-gas equation of state: The simplest and best-known
equation of state for substances in the gas phase.

Pv  RT or P   RT
The universal
R  Ru /M Ru  8.314 kj/kmol  K gas constant

PV  mRT or PV  NRuT
P1V1 /T1  P2V2 /T2 For a fixed mass

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Temperature Scales
Kelvin scale: The thermodynamic temperature scale in the
SI system.
Rankine scale: The thermodynamic temperature scale in
English system.

T (K)  T (C)  273.15  T (R)/1.8

T (R)  T (F)  459.67  1.8 T (K)

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 An ideal gas is a hypothetical substance
that obeys the relation Pv = RT.
The ideal-gas relation closely
approximates the P-v-T behavior of real
gases at low densities.
At low pressures and high temperatures,
the density of a gas decreases and the
gas behaves like an ideal gas.
In the range of practical interest, many
familiar gases such as air, nitrogen,
oxygen, hydrogen, helium, argon, neon, © G.S. Settles, Gas Dynamics Lab, Penn State University. Used
and carbon dioxide can be treated as with permission.

ideal gases with negligible error. Air behaves as an ideal gas, even
at very high speeds. In this
Dense gases such as water vapor in
schlieren image, a bullet traveling
steam power plants and refrigerant
at about the speed of sound bursts
vapor in refrigerators, however, should
through both sides of a balloon,
not be treated as ideal gases since they
forming two expanding shock
usually exist at a state near saturation.
waves. The turbulent wake of the
bullet is also visible.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 2–3 ■ VAPOR PRESSURE AND CAVITATION

Saturation temperature Tsat: The temperature at which a pure

substance changes phase at a given pressure.
Saturation pressure Psat: The pressure at which a pure
substance changes phase at a given temperature.
Vapor pressure (Pv): The pressure exerted by its vapor in
phase equilibrium with its liquid at a given temperature. It is
identical to the saturation pressure Psat of the liquid (Pv = Psat).
Partial pressure: The pressure of a gas or vapor in a mixture
with other gases. For example, atmospheric air is a mixture of
dry air and water vapor, and atmospheric pressure is the sum
of the partial pressure of dry air and the partial pressure of
water vapor.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 TABLE 2–2
Saturation (or vapor) pressure of water
at various temperatures

Saturation
Temperature Pressure
T, °C Psat, kPa
−10 0.260
−5 0.403
0 0.611
5 0.872
10 1.23
15 1.71
20 2.34
25 3.17
The vapor pressure (saturation
30 4.25
pressure) of a pure substance (e.g.,
40 7.38
water) is the pressure exerted by its
50 12.35
vapor molecules when the system is
100 101.3 (1 atm)
in phase equilibrium with its liquid
150 475.8
molecules at a given temperature.
200 1554
250 3973
300 8581
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 There is a possibility of the liquid
pressure in liquid-flow systems
dropping below the vapor pressure
at some locations, and the resulting
unplanned vaporization.
The vapor bubbles (called
cavitation bubbles since they
form “cavities” in the liquid)
collapse as they are swept away
from the low-pressure regions, Photograph by David Stinebring, ARL/ Pennsylvania State University.
generating highly destructive, Used by permission.

extremely high-pressure waves. Cavitation damage on a 16-mm by

This phenomenon, which is a 23-mm aluminum sample tested at
common cause for drop in 60 m/s for 2.5 h. The sample was
performance and even the erosion located at the cavity collapse
of impeller blades, is called region downstream of a cavity Cavitation is a
phenomenon in

cavitation, and it is an important generator specifically designed to which the static

pressure of a liquid

consideration in the design of produce high damage potential. reduces to below the
liquid's vapour
pressure, leading to

hydraulic turbines and pumps. the formation of

small vapor-filled
cavities in the liquid.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 2–4 ■ ENERGY AND SPECIFIC HEATS
Energy can exist in numerous forms such as thermal, mechanical,
kinetic, potential, electric, magnetic, chemical, and nuclear, and their
sum constitutes the total energy, E of a system.
Macroscopic forms of energy: Those a system possesses as a whole
with respect to some outside reference frame, such as kinetic and
potential energies.
Microscopic forms of energy: Those related to the molecular
structure of a system and the degree of the molecular activity.
Internal energy, U: The sum of all the microscopic forms of energy.
In daily life, we frequently refer to the sensible and latent forms of
internal energy as heat. In engineering, however, those forms of energy
are usually referred to as thermal energy.
Kinetic energy, KE: The energy that a system possesses as a result of
its motion relative to some reference frame.
Potential energy, PE: The energy that a system possesses as a result
of its elevation in a gravitational field.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 © Creatas/PunchStock RF Comstock Images/Jupiterimages RF

At least six different forms of energy are encountered in bringing

power from a nuclear plant to your home, nuclear, thermal,
mechanical, kinetic, magnetic, and electrical.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 u is initial or internal energy
P
h  u  Pv  u  Enthalpy

V2 Energy of a
eflowing  P /  e  h  ke  pe  h   gz (kJ/kg) flowing fluid
2
du  cv dT and dh  c p dT P/ is the flow energy,
u  cv ,avg T and h  cp,avg T also called the flow work,
which is the energy per
h  u  P /  cavg T  P / unit mass needed to
move the fluid and
h  u  cavg T for a P = const. process maintain flow.

h  p / For a T = const. process

Specific heat at constant volume, cv: The energy required to raise the
temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the
volume is maintained constant.
Specific heat at constant pressure, cp: The energy required to raise the
temperature of the unit mass of a substance by one degree as the
pressure is maintained constant.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The internal energy u represents the microscopic
energy of a nonflowing fluid per unit mass,
whereas enthalpy h represents the microscopic
energy of a flowing fluid per unit mass.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 2–5 ■ COMPRESSIBILITY
AND SPEED OF SOUND
Coefficient of Compressibility
We know from experience that the volume
(or density) of a fluid changes with a
change in its temperature or pressure.
Fluids usually expand as they are heated
or depressurized and contract as they are
cooled or pressurized.
But the amount of volume change is
different for different fluids, and we need
to define properties that relate volume
changes to the changes in pressure and
temperature.
Two such properties are:
Fluids, like solids, compress
the bulk modulus of elasticity  when the applied pressure is
the coefficient of volume expansion  increased from P1 to P2.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
  P   P 
  v      
 v  T
 Pa  Coefficient of compressibility
   T (bulk modulus of compressibility
or bulk modulus of elasticity) for
P P fluids
   (T  constant)
v /v  /

The coefficient of compressibility represents the change in pressure

corresponding to a fractional change in volume or density of the fluid
while the temperature remains constant.
What is the coefficient of compressibility of a truly incompressible
substance (v = constant)?
A large value of  indicates that a large change in pressure is needed
to cause a small fractional change in volume, and thus a fluid with a
large  is essentially incompressible.
This is typical for liquids, and explains why liquids are usually
considered to be incompressible.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Water hammer: Characterized by a sound that resembles the
sound produced when a pipe is “hammered.” This occurs when a
liquid in a piping network encounters an abrupt flow restriction
(such as a closing valve) and is locally compressed.
The acoustic waves that are produced strike the pipe surfaces,
bends, and valves as they propagate and reflect along the pipe,
causing the pipe to vibrate and produce the familiar sound.
Water hammering can be quite destructive, leading to leaks or
even structural damage. The effect can be suppressed with a
water hammer arrestor.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Photo provided courtesy of Oatey Company

Water hammer arrestors:

(a) A large surge tower built to
protect the pipeline against water
hammer damage.
Photo by Arris S. Tijsseling, visitor of the University of Adelaide,
Australia. Used by permission
(b) Much smaller arrestors used
for supplying water to a
household washing machine.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 For an ideal gas, P   RT and (P / )T  RT  P /, and thus
 ideal gas  P (Pa)

The coefficient of compressibility of an ideal gas is equal to its absolute

pressure, and the coefficient of compressibility of the gas increases
with increasing pressure.
 P
Ideal gas:  T  constant 
 P
The percent increase of density of an ideal gas during isothermal
compression is equal to the percent increase in pressure.
Isothermal compressibility: The inverse of the coefficient of
compressibility.
The isothermal compressibility of a fluid represents the fractional change
in volume or density corresponding to a unit change in pressure.

11  v  1   
       1/ Pa 
 v   P  T   P  T
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Coefficient of Volume Expansion
The density of a fluid depends more
strongly on temperature than it does
on pressure.
The variation of density with
temperature is responsible for
numerous natural phenomena such
as winds, currents in oceans, rise of
plumes in chimneys, the operation
of hot-air balloons, heat transfer by
natural convection, and even the
rise of hot air and thus the phrase
“heat rises”.
To quantify these effects, we need a
property that represents the © G.S. Settles, Gas Dynamics Lab, Penn State University.
Used with permission

variation of the density of a fluid with Natural convection over

temperature at constant pressure. a woman’s hand.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The coefficient of volume expansion
(volume expansivity): The variation of the
density of a fluid with temperature at constant
pressure.
1  v  1   
      1/K 
v  T  P   T  P
v /v  /
   at constant P
T T
A large value of  for a fluid means a large
change in density with temperature,
and the product  T represents the fraction of
volume change of a fluid that corresponds to a
temperature change of T at constant pressure.
The volume expansion coefficient of an ideal
gas (P = RT ) at a temperature T is
The coefficient of volume expansion
equivalent to the inverse of the temperature:
is a measure of the change in
1 volume of a substance with
idealgas  1/K  temperature at constant pressure.
T
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 In the study of natural convection currents, the condition of the main
fluid body that surrounds the finite hot or cold regions is indicated by
the subscript “infinity” to serve as a reminder that this is the value at a
distance where the presence of the hot or cold region is not felt. In such
cases, the volume expansion coefficient can be expressed
approximately as


      /
or      T  T 
T  T
The combined effects of pressure and temperature changes on the
volume change of a fluid can be determined by taking the specific
volume to be a function of T and P.
 v   v 
d v    dT    dP  ( dT   dP)v
 T  P  P  T
The fractional change in volume (or density) due to changes in
pressure and temperature can be expressed approximately as
v 
   T   P
v 
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 U.S. Navy photo by Photographer's Mate 3rd Class Jonathan Chandler.

Vapor cloud around an F/A-18F Super Hornet as it

flies near the speed of sound. The sudden drop in
temperature produces condensation of water vapor
on a visible vapor cloud.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The variation of the coefficient of volume
expansion of water with temperature in the
range of 20°C to 50°C.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Speed of Sound and Mach Number
Speed of sound (sonic speed): The speed at which an infinitesimally
small pressure wave travels through a medium.

Control volume moving with the

small pressure wave along a duct.

 P 
c  k 
2
c  kRT
   T
For an ideal gas
For any fluid
Propagation of a small
pressure wave along a duct.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The speed of sound in air
increases with temperature. At
typical outside temperatures, c is
about 340 m/s. In round
numbers, therefore, the sound of
thunder from a lightning strike
travels about 1 km in 3 seconds.
If you see the lightning and then
hear the thunder less than 3
seconds later, you know that the
lightning is close, and it is time
to go indoors!
© Bear Dancer Studios/Mark Dierker

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Mach number Ma: The ratio of the
actual speed of the fluid (or an object
in still fluid) to the speed of sound in
the same fluid at the same state.

V
Ma 
c
The Mach number depends on the
speed of sound, which depends on
the state of the fluid.

The speed of sound changes

with temperature and varies
with the fluid.

The Mach number can be different

at different temperatures even if
the flight speed is the same. © Purestock/SuperStock RF

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 2–6 ■ VISCOSITY
Viscosity: A property that represents the internal resistance of a fluid to
motion or the “fluidity”.
Drag force: The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow
direction. The magnitude of this force depends, in part, on viscosity.
Top: © Photodisc/Getty Images RF Bottom: © Digital Vision/Getty Images RF

The viscosity of a fluid is a

measure of its “resistance to
deformation.”
Viscosity is due to the internal
frictional force that develops
between different layers of
fluids as they are forced to
move relative to each other.

A fluid moving relative to a

body exerts a drag force on
the body, partly because of
friction caused by viscosity.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Newtonian fluids: Fluids for
which the rate of deformation is
proportional to the shear stress.

d du
 or 
dt dy
du
 
dy
 N/m 
2 Shear
stress

The behavior of a fluid in laminar Shear force

flow between two parallel plates du
when the upper plate moves with F      N
a constant velocity. dy

F y du V  coefficient of viscosity
 u  y  V and  Dynamic (absolute) viscosity
A  dy 
kg/ms or Ns/m2 or Pas
da Vdt du d  du
d   tan d     dt  1 poise = 0.1 Pas
  dy dt dy
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The rate of deformation (velocity Variation of shear stress with the
gradient) of a Newtonian fluid is rate of deformation for Newtonian
proportional to shear stress, and and non-Newtonian fluids (the
the constant of proportionality is slope of a curve at a point is the
the viscosity. apparent viscosity of the fluid at
that point).
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Kinematic viscosity
m2/s or stoke
v   / 1 stoke = 1 cm2/s

For liquids, both the dynamic and

kinematic viscosities are practically
independent of pressure, and any small
variation with pressure is usually
disregarded, except at extremely high
pressures.
For gases, this is also the case for
dynamic viscosity (at low to moderate
pressures), but not for kinematic
viscosity since the density of a gas is
proportional to its pressure.
aT 1/2
 For gases Dynamic viscosity, in general,
1  b /T does not depend on pressure,
  a10b / T c  For liquids but kinematic viscosity does.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The viscosity of a fluid is directly related to
the pumping power needed to transport a
fluid in a pipe or to move a body through a
fluid.
Viscosity is caused by the cohesive forces
between the molecules in liquids and by
the molecular collisions in gases, and it
varies greatly with temperature.
In a liquid, the molecules possess more
energy at higher temperatures, and they
can oppose the large cohesive
intermolecular forces more strongly. As a
result, the energized liquid molecules can
move more freely.
In a gas, the intermolecular forces are
negligible, and the gas molecules at high
The viscosity of liquids temperatures move randomly at higher
decreases and the viscosity velocities. This results in more molecular
of gases increases with collisions per unit volume per unit time
temperature. and therefore in greater resistance to flow.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The variation of
dynamic (absolute)
viscosity of common
fluids with temperature
at 1 atm
(1 Ns/m2 = 1 kg/ms
= 0.020886 lbfs/ft2)
Data from EES and F. M. White, Fluid Mechanics 7e.
Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 TABLE 2–3
Dynamic viscosity of some fluids at 1 atm
and 20°C (unless otherwise stated)
Dynamic Viscosity
Fluid 𝜇, kg/m⋅s
Glycerin:
-20°C 134.0
0°C 10.5
20°C 1.52
40°C 0.31
Engine oil:
SAE 10W 0.10
SAE 10W30 0.17
SAE 30 0.29
SAE 50 0.86
Mercury 0.0015
Ethyl alcohol 0.0012
Water:
0°C 0.0018
20°C 0.0010
100°C (liquid) 0.00028
100°C (vapor) 0.000012
Blood, 37°C 0.00040
Gasoline 0.00029
Ammonia 0.00015
Air 0.000018
Hydrogen, 0°C 0.0000088

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 L length of the cylinder
𝑛 number of revolutions per
unit time

2 R 3 L 4 2 R 3 nL

T=FR =      n
 
This equation can be used to calculate the viscosity of a fluid by
measuring torque at a specified angular velocity.
Therefore, two concentric cylinders can be used as a viscometer,
a device that measures viscosity.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 2–7 ■ SURFACE TENSION AND
CAPILLARY EFFECT
Liquid droplets behave like small balloons filled with the liquid on
a solid surface, and the surface of the liquid acts like a stretched
elastic membrane under tension.
The pulling force that causes this tension acts parallel to the
surface and is due to the attractive forces between the
molecules of the liquid.
The magnitude of this force per unit length is called surface
tension (or coefficient of surface tension) and is usually
expressed in the unit N/m.
This effect is also called surface energy [per unit area] and is
expressed in the equivalent unit of Nm/m2.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 (a) © Don Paulson Photography/Purestock/SuperStock RF
(b) NPS Photo by Rosalie LaRue
(c) © G.S. Settles, Gas Dynamics Lab, Penn State University.
Used with permission.

Some consequences of surface tension: (a) drops of water beading up

on a leaf, (b) a water strider sitting on top of the surface of water, and
(c) a color schlieren image of the water strider revealing how the water
surface dips down where its feet contact the water (it looks like two
insects but the second one is just a shadow).
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Attractive forces acting on a
liquid molecule at the surface
and deep inside the liquid.
Stretching a liquid film with a U-
F
s  shaped wire, and the forces acting
2b on the movable wire of length b.
W  Force  Distance  F  x  2b s  x   s A
Surface tension: The work done per unit
increase in the surface area of the liquid.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 TABLE 2–4 The free-body
Surface tension of some fluids in air at 1
atm and 20°C (unless otherwise stated) diagram of
half a droplet
Surface Tension
Fluid 𝜎s, N/m* or air bubble
†Water: and half a
0°C 0.076 soap bubble.
20°C 0.073
1000C 0.059
3000C 0.014
Glycerin 0.063
SAE 30 oil 0.035
Mercury 0.440
Ethyl alcohol 0.023
Blood, 37°C 0.058
Gasoline 0.022
Ammonia 0.021
Soap solution 0.025
Kerosene 0.028
2 s
Droplet or air bubble:  
 2 R   s   R 2 Pdroplet  Pdroplet  Pi  Po 
R
4 s
Soap bubble:  
2  2 R   s   R 2 Pbubble  Pbubble  Pi  Po 
R
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Capillary Effect
Capillary effect: The rise or fall of a liquid in a small-diameter tube
inserted into the liquid.
Capillaries: Such narrow tubes or confined flow channels.
The capillary effect is partially responsible for the rise of water to the top
of tall trees.
Meniscus: The curved free surface of a liquid in a capillary tube.
The strength of the capillary effect is quantified by the contact (or
wetting) angle, defined as the angle that the tangent to the liquid surface
makes with the solid surface at the point of contact.

The contact angle

for wetting and
nonwetting fluids.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Photo by Gabrielle Trembley, Pennsylvania State
University. Used by permission.
The meniscus of colored water in a
4-mm-inner-diameter glass tube.
Note that the edge of the meniscus
meets the wall of the capillary tube
at a very small contact angle.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The capillary rise of water and The forces acting on a liquid
the capillary fall of mercury in a column that has risen in a tube
small-diameter glass tube. due to the capillary effect.

2 s
Capillary rise : h cos   R  constant 
 gR
Capillary rise is inversely proportional to the radius of the tube and
density of the liquid.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Summary
• Introduction
• Continuum
• Density and Specific Gravity
• Density of Ideal Gases
• Vapor Pressure and Cavitation
• Energy and Specific Heats
• Compressibility and Speed of Sound
• Coefficient of Compressibility
• Coefficient of Volume Expansion
• Speed of Sound and Mach Number
• Viscosity
• Surface Tension and Capillary Effect

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals 
and Applications, 4th edition
Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala
Lecture slides by Mehmet Kanoglu

©McGraw‐Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom.  No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Chapter 3

PRESSURE AND FLUID STATICS

©McGraw‐Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom.  No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Photo by Susan Dawson. Used by permission.
John Ninomiya flying a cluster of 72 helium-filled balloons over Temecula,
California in April of 2003. The helium balloons displace approximately 230
m3 of air, providing the necessary buoyant force. Don’t try this at home!
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Objectives

• Determine the variation of pressure in a fluid at rest

• Calculate pressure using various kinds of manometers
• Calculate the forces exerted by a fluid at rest on plane or
curved submerged surfaces
• Analyze the stability of floating and submerged bodies
• Analyze the rigid-body motion of fluids in containers
during linear acceleration or rotation

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 3–1 ■ PRESSURE

Pressure: A normal force exerted by a fluid per unit area

1 Pa  1 N/m 2 pascal

1 bar  105 Pa  0.1 MPa  100 kPa

1 atm  101,325 Pa  101.325 kPa  1.01325 bars
1 kgf/cm 2  9.807 N/cm 2  9.807  104 N/m 2  9.807  104 Pa
 0.9807 bar
 0.9679 atm

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 © Ashcroft Inc. Used by permission.
Some basic pressure gages.

The normal stress (or “pressure”) on the

feet of a chubby person is much greater
than on the feet of a slim person.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Absolute pressure: The actual pressure at a given position. It is
measured relative to absolute vacuum (i.e., absolute zero pressure).
Gage pressure: The difference between the absolute pressure and the
local atmospheric pressure. Most pressure-measuring devices are
calibrated to read zero in the atmosphere, and so they indicate gage
pressure.
Vacuum pressures: Pressures below atmospheric pressure.

Throughout
this text, the
Pgage  Pabs  Patm
pressure P will Pvac  Patm  Pabs
denote
absolute
pressure
unless
specified
otherwise.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Pressure at a Point
Pressure is the compressive force per unit area but it is not a
vector.
Pressure at any point in a fluid is the same in all directions.
Pressure has magnitude but not a specific direction, and thus it
is a scalar quantity.

Pressure is a scalar
quantity, not a vector; the
pressure at a point in a
fluid is the same in all
directions.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
  Fx  max  0 : P1 yz  P3 yl sin   0
1
 Fz  maz  0 : P2 yx  P3 yl cos    g x y z  0
2
W  mg   g x y z /2

z  l sin 
x  l cos 
P1  P3  0
1
P2  P3   g z  0
2
P1  P2  P3  P

Forces acting on a
wedge-shaped fluid
element in equilibrium.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 P  P2  P1    g z   s z Variation of Pressure
Pbelow  Pabove   g z  Pabove   s z with Depth
2
P  Patm   gh or Pgage   gh P  P2  P1     g dz
1

When the variation of density

with elevation is known

The pressure of a fluid at

rest increases with depth (as Free-body diagram of a rectangular
a result of added weight). fluid element in equilibrium.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Pressure in a liquid at rest
increases linearly with
In a room filled with a gas, the variation distance from the free
of pressure with height is negligible. surface.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid
regardless of geometry, provided that the points are interconnected by the
same fluid.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Pascal’s law: The F1 F2 F2 A2
pressure applied to a P1  P2    
confined fluid
A1 A2 F1 A1
increases the
pressure throughout
by the same amount.

The area ratio A2/A1 is

called the ideal
mechanical advantage
of the hydraulic lift.

(Top) © Stockbyte/Getty Images RF

Lifting of a large
weight by a small
force by the
application of
Pascal’s law.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 3–2 ■ PRESSURE MEASUREMENT DEVICES
The Barometer
Atmospheric pressure is measured
Patm   gh
by a device called a barometer.
The atmospheric pressure is often
referred to as the barometric
pressure.
A frequently used pressure unit is
the standard atmosphere, which is
defined as the pressure produced
by a column of mercury 760 mm in
height at 0°C (Hg = 13,595 kg/m3)
under standard gravitational
acceleration (g = 9.807 m/s2).

The basic
barometer.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The length or the cross-
sectional area of the
tube has no effect on the
height of the fluid
column of a barometer,
provided that the tube
diameter is large
enough to avoid surface
tension (capillary)
effects.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 At high altitudes, a car engine generates
less power and a person gets less oxygen
because of the lower density of air.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The Manometer
It is commonly used to measure small and moderate
pressure differences. A manometer contains one or more
fluids such as mercury, water, alcohol, or oil.

P2  Patm   gh

The basic
manometer.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Some manometers use a
slanted or inclined tube in order
to increase the resolution
(precision) when reading the
fluid height.
Such devices are called
inclined manometers.
Photo by John M. Cimbala.

A simple U-tube
manometer, with
high pressure
applied to the right
side.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 In stacked-up fluid layers, the
pressure change across a
fluid layer of density  and
height h is gh.

Patm  1 gh1  2 gh2  3 gh3  P1

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Measuring the
pressure drop across a
flow section or a flow
device by a differential
manometer.

P1  1 g (a  h)  2 gh  1 ga  P2

P1  P2  (2  1 ) gh

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Other Pressure Measurement Devices
Bourdon tube: Consists of a hollow metal
tube bent like a hook whose end is closed and
connected to a dial indicator needle.
Pressure transducers: Use various
techniques to convert the pressure effect to an
electrical effect such as a change in voltage,
resistance, or capacitance.
Pressure transducers are smaller and faster,
and they can be more sensitive, reliable, and

(Bottom) Photo by John M. Cimbala.

precise than their mechanical counterparts.
Strain-gage pressure transducers: Work by
having a diaphragm deflect between two
chambers open to the pressure inputs.
Piezoelectric transducers: Also called solid-
state pressure transducers, work on the
principle that an electric potential is generated
Various types of Bourdon
in a crystalline substance when it is subjected tubes used to measure
to mechanical pressure. pressure.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Deadweight tester: Another type of mechanical pressure gage. It is used
primarily for calibration and can measure extremely high pressures.
A deadweight tester measures pressure directly through application of a
weight that provides a force per unit area.
It is constructed with an internal chamber filled with a fluid (usually oil), along
with a tight-fitting piston, cylinder, and plunger.
Weights are applied to the top of the piston, which exerts a force on the oil in
the chamber. The total force F acting on the oil at the piston–oil interface is
the sum of the weight of the piston plus the applied weights.

A deadweight tester is
able to measure
extremely high pressures
(up to 10,000 psi in some
applications).
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 3–3 ■ INTRODUCTION TO FLUID STATICS

Fluid statics: Deals with problems associated with fluids at rest.

The fluid can be either gaseous or liquid.
Hydrostatics: When the fluid is a liquid.
Aerostatics: When the fluid is a gas.
In fluid statics, there is no relative motion between adjacent fluid
layers, and thus there are no shear (tangential) stresses in the fluid
trying to deform it.
The only stress we deal with in fluid statics is the normal stress, which
is the pressure, and the variation of pressure is due only to the weight
of the fluid.
The topic of fluid statics has significance only in gravity fields.
The design of many engineering systems such as water dams and
liquid storage tanks requires the determination of the forces acting on
the surfaces using fluid statics.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 3–4 ■ HYDROSTATIC
FORCES ON SUBMERGED
PLANE SURFACES
A plate, such as a gate valve in
a dam, the wall of a liquid
storage tank, or the hull of a ship
at rest, is subjected to fluid
pressure distributed over its
surface when exposed to a
liquid.

© Comstock Images/Jupiterimages RF
On a plane surface, the
hydrostatic forces form a system
of parallel forces, and we often
need to determine the
magnitude of the force and its
point of application, which is
called the center of pressure.
Hoover Dam.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 When analyzing
hydrostatic forces on
submerged surfaces,
the atmospheric
pressure can be
subtracted for simplicity
when it acts on both
sides of the structure.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Hydrostatic force on an inclined plane surface completely submerged in a liquid.
P  P0   gh  P0   gy sin 
1
FR   P dA   ( P0   gy sin  ) dA  P0 A   g sin  yC   y dA
A A  A
ydA A A
FR  ( P0   gyC sin   A  ( P0   ghC  A  PC A  Pavg A PC  P0   ghC
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 3–4 ■ HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON
SUBMERGED PLANE SURFACES (3)

The pressure at the

centroid of a surface is
equivalent to the
average pressure on
the surface.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The resultant force acting on a
plane surface is equal to the
product of the pressure at the
centroid of the surface and the
surface area, and its line of
action passes through the
center of pressure.

FR  PC A

I xx ,C
yP  yC 
[ yC  P0 /( g sin  )]A
I xx ,C second moment of area
yP  yC 
yC A
I xx ,O 
 y 2 dA (area moment of inertia)
A
about the x-axis.

hP  yP sin  I xx ,O  I xx ,C  yC2 A

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The centroid and the centroidal moments of inertia for some
common geometries.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Pressure acts normal to the surface,
and the hydrostatic forces acting on a
flat plate of any shape form a volume
whose base is the plate area and
whose length is the linearly varying
pressure.
This virtual pressure prism has an
interesting physical interpretation: its
volume is equal to the magnitude of the
resultant hydrostatic force acting on the
plate since FR =  PdA, and the line of
action of this force passes through the
centroid of this homogeneous prism.
The projection of the centroid on the
plate is the pressure center.
Therefore, with the concept of pressure
prism, the problem of describing the The hydrostatic forces acting on a
resultant hydrostatic force on a plane plane surface form a pressure prism
surface reduces to finding the volume whose base (left face) is the surface
and the two coordinates of the centroid and whose length is the pressure.
of this pressure prism.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Special Case:
Submerged
Rectangular Plate

Hydrostatic force acting

on the top surface of a
submerged tilted
rectangular plate.

b ab3 /12
yP  s  
2 [ s  b /2  P0 /( g sin  )]ab
b b2
 s 
2 12[ s  b /2  P0 /( g sin  )]

Tilted rectangular plate: FR  PC A  [ P0   g ( s  b /2) sin  ]ab

Tilted rectangular plate ( s  0): FR  [ P0   g (b sin  )/2]ab
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Hydrostatic force
acting on the top
surface of a
submerged vertical
rectangular plate.

Vertical rectangular plate: FR  [ P0   g ( s  b /2)]ab

Vertical rectangular plate ( s  0): FR  ( P0   gb /2)ab

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Hydrostatic force acting
on the top surface of a
submerged horizontal
rectangular plate.

Horizontal rectangular plate: FR  ( P0   gh)ab

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 3–5 ■ HYDROSTATIC FORCES ON
SUBMERGED CURVED SURFACES

FR  FH2  FV2   FV /FH

Determination of the hydrostatic force acting on a submerged curved surface.
Horizontal force component on curved surface: FH  Fx
Vertical force component on curved surface: FV  Fy  W
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 In many structures of
practical application,
the submerged
surfaces are not flat,
but curved as here at
Glen Canyon Dam in
Utah and Arizona.
© Corbis RF

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 When a curved surface is above the
liquid, the weight of the liquid and the The hydrostatic force acting on a circular
vertical component of the hydrostatic surface always passes through the center
force act in the opposite directions. of the circle since the pressure forces are
normal to the surface and they all pass
through the center.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 in a multilayered fluid of different densities can be determined by
considering different parts of surfaces in different fluids as different
surfaces, finding the force on each part, and then adding them using
vector addition. For a plane surface, it can be expressed as
Plane surface in a multilayered fluid : FR   FR , i   PC , i Ai

PC , i  P0  i ghC , i

The hydrostatic force on a surface

submerged in a multilayered fluid
can be determined by considering
parts of the surface in different
fluids as different surfaces.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 3–6 ■ BUOYANCY AND STABILITY
Buoyant force: The upward force a fluid exerts on a body immersed in it.
The buoyant force is caused by the increase of pressure with depth in a fluid.

The buoyant force acting on

the plate is equal to the
weight of the liquid displaced
by the plate.
For a fluid with constant
density, the buoyant force is
independent of the distance
of the body from the free
surface.
It is also independent of the
density of the solid body.
A flat plate of uniform thickness h submerged
in a liquid parallel to the free surface.
FB  Fbottom  Ftop  f g ( s  h) A  f gsA  f ghA  f gV
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The buoyant forces acting on a
solid body submerged in a fluid and
on a fluid body of the same shape
at the same depth are identical.
The buoyant force FB acts upward
through the centroid C of the
displaced volume and is equal in
magnitude to the weight W of the
displaced fluid, but is opposite in
direction. For a solid of uniform
density, its weight Ws also acts
through the centroid, but its
magnitude is not necessarily equal
to that of the fluid it displaces.
(Here Ws > W and thus Ws > FB;
this solid body would sink.)

Archimedes’ principle: The buoyant force acting

on a body immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight
of the fluid displaced by the body, and it acts upward
through the centroid of the displaced volume.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 For floating bodies, the weight of the entire body must be equal to the
buoyant force, which is the weight of the fluid whose volume is equal to
the volume of the submerged portion of the floating body:

Vsub avg, body

FB  W  f gVsub  avg, body gVtotal  
Vtotal f

A solid body dropped into

a fluid will sink, float, or
remain at rest at any point
in the fluid, depending on
its average density
relative to the density of
the fluid.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 For a body floating on the surface of a liquid, the total weight of the body
must be less than that of the liquid it displaces.
A portion of the body volume is submerged, while the remaining portion is
positioned above the surface of the liquid. Since the system is stationary,
the two vertical forces W and FB must still balance.
For a body of known weight W, we see that as the liquid density f
increases, a smaller percentage of the body volume is submerged.
W  FB  f gVsubmerged  Vsubmerged  W /f g

The density of the water in

Photo by Andy Cimbala. Used with permission.

the Dead Sea is about 24%
higher than that of pure
water. Therefore, people
float much more easily (with
more of their bodies above
the water) in the Dead Sea
than in fresh water or in
normal seawater.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The altitude of a hot air
balloon is controlled by the
temperature difference
between the air inside and
outside the balloon, since
warm air is less dense than
cold air. When the balloon
is neither rising nor falling,
the upward buoyant force
exactly balances the
downward weight.
© PhotoLink/Getty Images RF

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Stability of Immersed and
Floating Bodies

Stability is easily
understood by
analyzing a ball
on the floor.
© Corbis RF

For floating bodies such as ships, stability

is an important consideration for safety.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 A floating body possesses vertical
stability, while an immersed neutrally
buoyant body is neutrally stable since it
does not return to its original position
after a disturbance.

An immersed neutrally buoyant

body is (a) stable if the center of
gravity G is directly below the
center of buoyancy B of the body,
(b) neutrally stable if G and B are
coincident, and (c) unstable if G is
directly above B.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 A ball in a trough between
two hills is stable for small
disturbances, but unstable
for large disturbances.
When the center of gravity G of an immersed
neutrally buoyant body is not vertically
aligned with the center of buoyancy B of the
body, it is not in an equilibrium state and
would rotate to its stable state, even without
any disturbance.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 3–6 ■ BUOYANCY AND STABILITY (8)

A floating body is stable if the body is bottom-heavy and thus the center of
gravity G is below the centroid B of the body, or if the metacenter M is
above point G. However, the body is unstable if point M is below point G.
Metacentric height GM: The distance between the center of gravity G and
the metacenter M—the intersection point of the lines of action of the
buoyant force through the body before and after rotation.
The length of the metacentric height GM above G is a measure of the
stability: the larger it is, the more stable is the floating body.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 3–7 ■ FLUIDS IN RIGID-BODY MOTION
Pressure at a given point has the
same magnitude in all directions,
and thus it is a scalar function.
In this section we obtain relations
for the variation of pressure in fluids
moving like a solid body with or
without acceleration in the absence
of any shear stresses (i.e., no
motion between fluid layers relative
to each other).
 
 F  m  a
 m   dV   dx dy dz
 P dz   P dz  P
 FS , z P  dx dy   P   dx dy   dx dy dz
 z 2 z 2 z
P P
 FS , x  dx dy dz and  FS , y   dx dy dz
x y
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
    
 FS   FS , x i   FS , y j   FS , z k
 P  P  P   
  i j k  dx dy dz   P dx dy dz
 x y z 
 P  P  P 
P  i j k
x y z
  
 FB , z   g mk    g dx dy dzk
    
 F   FS   FB  (P   g k ) dx dy dz
  
Rigid -body motion of fluids: P   g k    a

P  P  P     
i j k   g k    ( ax i  a y j  az k )
x y z
P P P
Accelerating fluids:   a x ,   a y , and    ( g  az )
x y z
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Taylor series expansion of f
from point a to some nearby
point x. As x gets small, it is
common to truncate the
series to first order, keeping
only the first two terms on
the right side.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Special Case 1: Fluids at Rest
For fluids at rest or moving on a straight path at constant velocity, all
components of acceleration are zero, and the relations reduce to
P P dP
Fluids at rest:  0,  0, and   g
x y dz
The pressure remains constant in any
horizontal direction (P is independent of
x and y) and varies only in the vertical
direction as a result of gravity [and thus
P = P(z)]. These relations are applicable

© Imagestate Media (John Foxx)/Imagestate RF

for both compressible and
incompressible fluids.

A glass of water at rest is a special

case of a fluid in rigid-body motion. If
the glass of water were moving at
constant velocity in any direction, the
hydrostatic equations would still apply.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Special Case 2: Free Fall of a Fluid Body
A freely falling body accelerates under the influence of gravity.
When the air resistance is negligible, the acceleration of the
body equals the gravitational acceleration, and acceleration in
any horizontal direction is zero.
Therefore, ax = ay = 0 and az = −g

P P P
Free - falling fluids:   0  P  constant
x y z

In a frame of reference moving with the fluid, it behaves like it is

in an environment with zero gravity. Also, the gage pressure in a
drop of liquid in free fall is zero throughout.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The effect of
acceleration on the
pressure of a liquid
during free fall and
upward
acceleration.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Acceleration on a Straight Path
P P P
  a x ,  0, and    ( g  az )
x y z

P  P ( x, z ) dP  (P /x) dx  (P /z ) dz

dP   ax dx  ( g  az ) dz
Rigid-body motion of a liquid in
P2  P1   ax ( x2  x1 )   ( g  az )( z2  z1 ) a linearly accelerating tank.

Pressure at a point: P  P0  ax x  ( g  az ) z

The system in the figure behaves like a fluid at rest except that g − a
replaces g in the hydrostatic equations.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Lines of constant pressure
(which are the projections of the
surfaces of constant pressure on
the xz-plane) in a linearly
accelerating liquid. Also shown is
the vertical rise.

Vertical rise of surface:

ax
zs  zs 2  zs1   ( x2  x1 )
g  az

dzisobar ax
Surfaces of constant pressure:   constant
dx g  az
dzisobar ax
Slope of isobars: Slope     tan 
dx g  az
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Rotation in a Cylindrical Container
Consider a vertical cylindrical container partially
filled with a liquid. The container is now rotated
about its axis at a constant angular velocity of .
After initial transients, the liquid will move as a
rigid body together with the container. There is
no deformation, and thus there can be no shear
stress, and every fluid particle in the container
moves with the same angular velocity.
P P P
 r 2 ,  0, and   g
r  z
P  P(r , z ) dP  (P /r )dr  (P /z )dz
dP  r 2 dr   g dz
dzisobar r 2

dr g
2 Rigid-body motion of a liquid
Surfaces of constant pressure: zisobar  r  C1
2
in a rotating vertical cylindrical
g container.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 2
zs  r 2  hc
2g
R R  2 2    2 2
R 
V 2 zs r dr  2   2 g r  hc  r dr   R  4 g  hc 
2
r 0 r 0

V   R 2 h0

 2 R2
hc  h0 
4g
2
Free surface: zs  h0  ( R 2  2r 2 )
4g

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 2
Maximum height difference: zs ,max  zs ( R )  zs (0)  R2
2g
dP  r 2 dr   g dz

 2
P2  P1  (r22  r12 )   g ( z2  z1 )
2
 2
Pressure at that point: P  P0  r 2   gz
2
At a fixed radius, the pressure varies hydrostatically
in the vertical direction, as in a fluid at rest.
For a fixed vertical distance z, the pressure varies
with the square of the radial distance r, increasing
from the centerline toward the outer edge.
In any horizontal plane, the pressure difference
between the center and edge of the container of
radius R is

P   2 R 2 /2 Surfaces of constant
pressure in a rotating liquid.
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 Photo courtesy of Paul Hickson, The University of British Columbia.
The 6-meter spinning liquid-mercury mirror
of the Large Zenith Telescope located near
Vancouver, British Columbia.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Summary

• Pressure
• Pressure Measurement Devices
• Introduction to Fluid Statics
• Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Plane Surfaces
• Hydrostatic Forces on Submerged Curved Surfaces
• Buoyancy and Stability
• Fluids in Rigid-Body Motion

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals 
and Applications, 4th edition
Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala
Lecture slides by Mehmet Kanoglu

©McGraw‐Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom.  No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Chapter 5

BERNOULLI AND ENERGY EQUATIONS

©McGraw‐Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom.  No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw‐Hill Education.
 © J. Luke/PhotoLink/Getty Images RF
Wind turbine “farms” are being constructed all over the world to extract
kinetic energy from the wind and convert it to electrical energy. The mass,
energy, momentum, and angular momentum balances are utilized in the
design of a wind turbine. The Bernoulli equation is also useful in the
preliminary design stage.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Objectives

• Apply the conservation of mass equation to balance the

incoming and outgoing flow rates in a flow system.
• Recognize various forms of mechanical energy, and
work with energy conversion efficiencies.
• Understand the use and limitations of the Bernoulli
equation, and apply it to solve a variety of fluid flow
problems.
• Work with the energy equation expressed in terms of
heads, and use it to determine turbine power output and
pumping power requirements.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 5–1 ■ INTRODUCTION
You are already familiar with
numerous conservation laws
such as the laws of conservation
of mass, conservation of energy,
and conservation of momentum.
Historically, the conservation
laws are first applied to a fixed
quantity of matter called a
closed system or just a system,
and then extended to regions in
Courtesy of Hydro Tasmania, www.hydro.com.au. Used by permission.
space called control volumes.
Many fluid flow devices such as this
The conservation relations are
Pelton wheel hydraulic turbine are
also called balance equations
analyzed by applying the conservation
since any conserved quantity
of mass and energy principles, along
must balance during a process.
with the linear momentum equation.

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 Conservation of Mass
The conservation of mass relation for a closed system undergoing a
change is expressed as msys = constant or dmsys/dt = 0, which is the
statement that the mass of the system remains constant during a
process.
Mass balance for a control volume (CV) in rate form:
dmCV
Conservation of mass : m in  m out 
dt
the total rates of mass flow into
m in and m out and out of the control volume

the rate of change of mass within the control

dmCV /dt volume boundaries.

Continuity equation: In fluid mechanics, the conservation of mass

relation written for a differential control volume is usually called the
continuity equation.

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 The Linear Momentum Equation
Linear momentum: The product of the mass and the velocity of a body
is called the linear momentum or just the momentum of the body.
The momentum of a rigid body of mass m moving with a velocity V is
mV.
Newton’s second law: The acceleration of a body is proportional to the
net force acting on it and is inversely proportional to its mass, and that
the rate of change of the momentum of a body is equal to the net force
acting on the body.
Conservation of momentum principle: The momentum of a system
remains constant only when the net force acting on it is zero, and thus
the momentum of such systems is conserved.
Linear momentum equation: In fluid mechanics, Newton’s second law is
usually referred to as the linear momentum equation.

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 Conservation of Energy
The conservation of energy principle (the energy balance): The net
energy transfer to or from a system during a process be equal to the
change in the energy content of the system.
Energy can be transferred to or from a closed system by heat or work.
Control volumes also involve energy transfer via mass flow.

  dECV
Conservation of energy: Ein  Eout 
dt
E in and E out the total rates of energy transfer into
and out of the control volume

the rate of change of energy within

dECV /dt the control volume boundaries

In fluid mechanics, we usually limit our consideration to mechanical

forms of energy only.
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 5–2 ■ CONSERVATION OF MASS
Conservation of mass: Mass, like energy, is a conserved property,
and it cannot be created or destroyed during a process.
Closed systems: The mass of the system remain constant during a
process.
Control volumes: Mass can cross the boundaries, and so we must
keep track of the amount of mass entering and leaving the control
volume.

Mass is conserved even during chemical reactions.

Mass m and energy E can be converted to each other:

E  mc 2

c is the speed of light in a vacuum, c = 2.9979  108 m/s

The mass change due to energy change is negligible.
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 Mass and Volume Flow Rates
Mass flow rate: The amount of mass flowing
through a cross section per unit time.

The differential mass flow rate

 m  Vn dAc
Point functions have exact differentials

dAc  Ac 2  Ac1    r22  r12 

2
 1

Path functions have inexact differentials

2
 1
 m  m total not m 2  m 1 The normal velocity Vn for a
surface is the component of
velocity perpendicular to the
surface.
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  m  Vn dAc
Average velocity
m   δm   Vn dAc
Ac Ac
 kg/s  1
Vavg 
Ac  Ac
Vn dAc
Mass flow rate
m  Vavg Ac  kg/s Volume flow rate

V V   Vn dAc  Vavg Ac  VAc (m3 /s)
m  V  Ac
v

The volume flow rate is the

The average velocity Vavg is defined as the volume of fluid flowing through
average speed through a cross section. a cross section per unit time.
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 Conservation of Mass Principle
The conservation of mass principle for a control volume: The net
mass transfer to or from a control volume during a time interval t is
equal to the net change (increase or decrease) in the total mass within
the control volume during t.

 Total mass entering  Total mass leaving  Net change of mass 

 the CV during t    the CV during t    within the CV during t 

min  mout  mCV (kg) mCV  mfinal  minitial

m in  m out  dmCV /dt (kg)

m in and m out the total rates of mass flow into

and out of the control volume
the rate of change of mass within the
dmCV /dt
control volume boundaries.
Mass balance is applicable to any control
volume undergoing any kind of process.
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 min  mout  mCV (kg)

Conservation of mass principle for an

ordinary bathtub.

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 dm   dV Total mass within the CV : mCV    dV
CV

dmCV d
Rate if change of mass within the CV :    dV
dt dt CV
 
Normal component of velocity : Vn  V cos   V  n
 
Differential mass flow rate : 
 m  Vn dA   V cos   dA   V  n dA 
 
Net mass flow rate : m net    m   Vn dA  
CS CS CS

 V  n dA

The differential control volume

dV and the differential control
surface dA used in the
derivation of the conservation
of mass relation.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
  
General conservation of mass:
d
dt CV
 
 dV    V  n dA  0
CS

The time rate of change of mass within the control volume plus the net mass
flow rate through the control surface is equal to zero.
d
  dV    Vn A    Vn A  0
dt CV
out in

d dmCV
  dV   m   m or   m   m
dt CV
in out dt in out

The conservation of mass

equation is obtained by replacing
B in the Reynolds transport
theorem by mass m, and b by 1
(m per unit mass = m/m = 1).

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 A control surface should
always be selected
normal to the flow at all
locations where it
crosses the fluid flow to
avoid complications,
even though the result is
the same.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Moving or Deforming Control Volumes
Equations 5–17 and 5–19 are also valid for moving control volumes provided
that the absolute velocity 𝑉 is replaced by the relative velocity 𝑉 𝑟, which is the
fluid velocity relative to the control surface (Chap. 4). In the case of a moving
but nondeforming control volume, relative velocity is the fluid velocity observed
by a person moving with the control volume and is expressed as 𝑉 𝑟 𝑉 𝑉 CS,
where 𝑉 is the fluid velocity and 𝑉 CS is the velocity of the control surface, both
relative to a fixed point outside. Note that this is a vector subtraction.
Some practical problems (such as the injection of medication through the
needle of a syringe by the forced motion of the plunger) involve deforming
control volumes. The conservation of mass relations developed can still be
used for such deforming control volumes provided that the velocity of the fluid
crossing a deforming part of the control surface is expressed relative to the
control surface (that is, the fluid velocity should be expressed relative to a
reference frame attached to the deforming part of the control surface). The
relative velocity in this case at any point on the control surface is expressed
again as 𝑉 𝑟 𝑉 𝑉 CS, where 𝑉 CS is the local velocity of the control surface at
that point relative to a fixed point outside the control volume.

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 Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes
During a steady-flow process, the total amount of mass contained within a
control volume does not change with time (mCV = constant).
Then the conservation of mass principle requires that the total amount of
mass entering a control volume equal the total amount of mass leaving it.

For steady-flow processes, we are

interested in the amount of mass flowing
per unit time, that is, the mass flow rate.

 m   m
in out
(kg/s) Multiple inlets and exits

Single
m 1  m 2  1V1 A1  2 V2 A2 stream
Many engineering devices such as nozzles,
diffusers, turbines, compressors, and
pumps involve a single stream (only one
inlet and one outlet).
Conservation of mass principle for a two-
inlet–one-outlet steady-flow system.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Special Case: Incompressible Flow
The conservation of mass relations can be simplified even further when
the fluid is incompressible, which is usually the case for liquids.

V  V
in out
(m3 /s) Steady,
incompressible flow

Steady,
V1  V2  V1 A1  V2 A2 incompressible flow
(single stream)

There is no such thing as a “conservation of

volume” principle.
However, for steady flow of liquids, the volume
flow rates, as well as the mass flow rates,
remain constant since liquids are essentially
incompressible substances.

During a steady-flow process, volume

flow rates are not necessarily conserved
although mass flow rates are.
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 5–3 ■ MECHANICAL ENERGY AND EFFICIENCY
Mechanical energy: The form of energy that can be converted to
mechanical work completely and directly by an ideal mechanical device
such as an ideal turbine.
Mechanical energy of a flowing fluid per unit mass
P V2 Mechanical energy = Flow energy + kinetic
emech    gz
 2 energy + potential energy
Mechanical energy change

P2  P1 V2 2  V12
emech    g ( z2  z1 ) (kj/kg)
 2
The mechanical energy of a fluid does not change during flow if its
pressure, density, velocity, and elevation remain constant.
In the absence of any irreversible losses, the mechanical energy
change represents the mechanical work supplied to the fluid (if emech >
0) or extracted from the fluid (if emech < 0).
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 © Corbis RF

Mechanical energy is a useful concept for flows that do not

involve significant heat transfer or energy conversion, such
as the flow of gasoline from an underground tank into a car.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Mechanical energy is illustrated by an ideal hydraulic turbine coupled with an
ideal generator. In the absence of irreversible losses, the maximum produced
power is proportional to (a) the change in water surface elevation from the
upstream to the downstream reservoir or (b) (close-up view) the drop in water
pressure from just upstream to just downstream of the turbine.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The available mechanical energy of water at the
bottom of a container is equal to the avaiable
mechanical energy at any depth including the
free surface of the container.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Shaft work: The transfer of mechanical energy is usually
accomplished by a rotating shaft, and thus mechanical work is
often referred to as shaft work.
A pump or a fan receives shaft work (usually from an electric
motor) and transfers it to the fluid as mechanical energy (less
frictional losses).
A turbine converts the mechanical energy of a fluid to shaft work.

Mechanical efficiency of a device or process

Mechanical energy output Emech, out Emech, loss

mech    1
Mechanical energy input Emech, in Emech, in

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The effectiveness of the conversion process between
the mechanical work supplied or extracted and the
mechanical energy of the fluid is expressed by the
pump efficiency and turbine efficiency

Mechanical power increase of the fluid E mech,fluid Wpump, u

pump     
Mechanical power input Wshaft, in Wpump

E mech, fluid  E mech, out  E mech, in

Mechanical power output Wshaft, out Wturbine

turbine    

Mechanical power decrease of the fluid Emech, fluid Wturbine,e

E mech, fluid  E mech, in  E mech, out

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The mechanical efficiency
of a fan is the ratio of the
kinetic energy of air at the
fan exit to the mechanical
power input.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Motor efficiency

Mechanical power output Wshaft, out

Motor: motor   
Electric power input Welect, in
Generator efficiency
Electric power output Welect, out
Generaror: generator   
Mechanical power input Wshaft, in

Pump-Motor overall efficiency

Wpump, u E mech, fluid
pump  motor  pump motor    
Welect, in Welect, in
Turbine-Generator overall efficiency
Welect, out Welect, out
turbine  gen  turbine generator 


Wturbine, e E mech, fluid
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The overall efficiency of a turbine–
generator is the product of the efficiency
of the turbine and the efficiency of the
generator, and represents the fraction of
the mechanical energy of the fluid
converted to electric energy.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The efficiencies defined range between 0 and 100%.
0% corresponds to the conversion of the entire
mechanical or electric energy input to thermal
energy, and the device in this case functions like
a resistance heater.
100% corresponds to the case of perfect conversion
with no friction or other irreversibilities, and thus no
conversion of mechanical or electric energy to
thermal energy (no losses).

For systems that involve only mechanical forms of

energy and its transfer as shaft work, the
conservation of energy is
Emech, in  Emech, out  Emech, system  Emech, loss
Emech, loss: The conversion of mechanical
energy to thermal energy due to irreversibilities
such as friction.
Many fluid flow problems involve mechanical forms
of energy only, and such problems are conveniently
solved by using a mechanical energy balance.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 5–4 ■ THE BERNOULLI EQUATION
Bernoulli equation: An approximate relation between pressure, velocity, and
elevation, and is valid in regions of steady, incompressible flow where net
frictional forces are negligible.
Despite its simplicity, it has proven to be a very powerful tool in fluid
mechanics.
The Bernoulli approximation is typically useful in flow regions outside of
boundary layers and wakes, where the fluid motion is governed by the
combined effects of pressure and gravity forces.

The Bernoulli equation is an

approximate equation that is valid
only in inviscid regions of flow
where net viscous forces are
negligibly small compared to
inertial, gravitational, or pressure
forces. Such regions occur
outside of boundary layers and
wakes.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Acceleration of a Fluid Particle
In two-dimensional flow, the acceleration can be decomposed into two
components:
streamwise acceleration as along the streamline and
normal acceleration an in the direction normal to the streamline, which is
given as an = V2/R.
Streamwise acceleration is due to a change in speed along a streamline, and
normal acceleration is due to a change in direction.
For particles that move along a straight path, an = 0 since the radius of
curvature is infinity and thus there is no change in direction. The Bernoulli
equation results from a force balance along a streamline.
V V dV V ds V
dV  ds  dt  
s t dt s dt t
V /t  0 V  V ( s)
dV V ds V dV
as    V V
dt s dt s ds
Acceleration in steady During steady flow, a fluid may not
V  ds /dt accelerate in time at a fixed point,
flow is due to the change
of velocity with position. but it may accelerate in space.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
dV
 Fs  mas P dA   P  dP   W sin   mV
ds
m  V   dA ds W  mg   g dA ds
dz dV
sin   dz /ds dP dA   g dA ds   dA ds V
ds ds
dP   g dz  V dV V dV  12 d (V 2 )
dP1
 d V 2   g dz  0
 2
Steady flow
dP V 2
   2  gz  constant (along a streamline)
The forces acting on a fluid Steady, incompressible flow Bernoulli
particle along a streamline. equation
P V2
  gz  constant  along a streamline 
 2
The sum of the kinetic, potential, and
The Bernoulli equation between any two
flow energies of a fluid particle is
points on the same streamline
constant along a streamline during
steady flow when compressibility and P1 V12 P2 P2 2
  gz1    gz2
frictional effects are negligible.  2  2
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The incompressible Bernoulli equation is
derived assuming incompressible flow,
and thus it should not be used for flows
with significant compressibility effects.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The Bernoulli equation can be viewed as the
“conservation of mechanical energy principle.”
This is equivalent to the general conservation of
energy principle for systems that do not involve
any conversion of mechanical energy and thermal
energy to each other, and thus the mechanical
energy and thermal energy are conserved
separately.
The Bernoulli equation states that during steady,
incompressible flow with negligible friction, the
The Bernoulli equation various forms of mechanical energy are converted
states that the sum of the to each other, but their sum remains constant.
kinetic, potential, and flow There is no dissipation of mechanical energy
energies of a fluid particle during such flows since there is no friction that
is constant along a converts mechanical energy to sensible thermal
streamline during steady (internal) energy.
flow. The Bernoulli equation is commonly used in
practice since a variety of practical fluid flow
problems can be analyzed to reasonable
accuracy with it.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Force Balance across Streamlines
Force balance in the direction n normal to the streamline yields the following
relation applicable across the streamlines for steady, incompressible flow:

P V2
 dn  gz  constant  across streamlines 
 R

For flow along a straight line, R →  and

this equation reduces to
P/ + gz = constant or
P =  gz + constant, which is an
expression for the variation of hydrostatic
pressure with vertical distance for a
stationary fluid body.

Pressure decreases towards the center

of curvature when streamlines are curved
(a), but the variation of pressure with
elevation in steady, incompressible flow
along a straight line (b) is the same as
that in stationary fluid.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Unsteady, Compressible Flow

The Bernoulli equation for unsteady, compressible flow:

dP V V2
Unsteady, compressible flow :  

t
ds 
2
 gz  constant

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures
The kinetic and potential energies of the fluid can be converted to flow energy
(and vice versa) during flow, causing the pressure to change. Multiplying the
Bernoulli equation by the density gives
V2
P   gz  constant (along a streamline)
2
P is the static pressure: It does not incorporate any dynamic effects; it
represents the actual thermodynamic pressure of the fluid. This is the same as
the pressure used in thermodynamics and property tables.
V2/2 is the dynamic pressure: It represents the pressure rise when the fluid
in motion is brought to a stop isentropically.
gz is the hydrostatic pressure: It is not pressure in a real sense since its
value depends on the reference level selected; it accounts for the elevation
effects, i.e., fluid weight on pressure. (Be careful of the sign—unlike hydrostatic
pressure gh which increases with fluid depth h, the hydrostatic pressure term
gz decreases with fluid depth.)

Total pressure: The sum of the static, dynamic, and

hydrostatic pressures. Therefore, the Bernoulli equation
states that the total pressure along a streamline is constant.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Stagnation pressure: The sum of the static and dynamic pressures. It
represents the pressure at a point where the fluid is brought to a
complete stop isentropically.
V2
Pstag  p (kPa)
2

V

2 Pstag  P 


Photo by Po-Ya Abel Chuang. Used by permission.

Close-up of a Pitot-static probe, The static, dynamic, and

showing the stagnation pressure hole stagnation pressures measured
and two of the five static circumferential using piezometer tubes.
pressure holes.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Careless drilling of
the static pressure
tap may result in an
erroneous reading
of the static
pressure head.

Streaklines produced by
colored fluid introduced
upstream of an airfoil; since
the flow is steady, the
streaklines are the same as
streamlines and pathlines.
The stagnation streamline
is marked.
Courtesy of ONERA. Photo by Werlé.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation

1. Steady flow The Bernoulli equation is applicable to steady flow.

2. Frictionless flow Every flow involves some friction, no matter how small, and
frictional effects may or may not be negligible.
3. No shaft work The Bernoulli equation is not applicable in a flow section that
involves a pump, turbine, fan, or any other machine or impeller since such
devices destroy the streamlines and carry out energy interactions with the fluid
particles. When these devices exist, the energy equation should be used
instead.
4. Incompressible flow Density is taken constant in the derivation of the Bernoulli
equation. The flow is incompressible for liquids and also by gases at Mach
numbers less than about 0.3.
5. No heat transfer The density of a gas is inversely proportional to temperature,
and thus the Bernoulli equation should not be used for flow sections that involve
significant temperature change such as heating or cooling sections.
6. Flow along a streamline Strictly speaking, the Bernoulli equation is applicable
along a streamline. However, when a region of the flow is irrotational and there
is negligibly small vorticity in the flow field, the Bernoulli equation becomes
applicable across streamlines as well.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Frictional effects, heat transfer, and components that disturb the
streamlined structure of flow make the Bernoulli equation
invalid. It should not be used in any of the flows shown here.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 When the flow is irrotational, the
Bernoulli equation becomes
applicable between any two
points along the flow (not just on
the same streamline).

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Energy Grade Line (EGL)
It is often convenient to represent the level of mechanical energy graphically
using heights to facilitate visualization of the various terms of the Bernoulli
equation. Dividing each term of the Bernoulli equation by g gives
P V2
  z  H  constant (along a streamline)
g 2g
P/g is the pressure head; it represents the height of a fluid column that
produces the static pressure P.
V2/2g is the velocity head; it represents the elevation needed for a fluid to
reach the velocity V during frictionless free fall.
z is the elevation head; it represents the potential energy of the fluid.

An alternative form of the

Bernoulli equation is expressed
in terms of heads as: The sum
of the pressure, velocity, and
elevation heads is constant
along a streamline.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Hydraulic grade line (HGL), P/g + z The line that represents
the sum of the static pressure and the elevation heads.
Energy grade line (EGL), P/g + V2/2g + z The line that
represents the total head of the fluid.
Dynamic head, V2/2g The difference between the heights of
EGL and HGL.

The hydraulic
grade line (HGL)
and the energy
grade line (EGL)
for free discharge
from a reservoir
through a
horizontal pipe
with a diffuser.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Notes on HGL and EGL
For stationary bodies such as reservoirs or lakes, the EGL and HGL coincide with the
free surface of the liquid.
The EGL is always a distance V2/2g above the HGL. These two curves approach each
other as the velocity decreases, and they diverge as the velocity increases.
In an idealized Bernoulli-type flow, EGL is horizontal and its height remains constant.
For open-channel flow, the HGL coincides with the free surface of the liquid, and the EGL
is a distance V2/2g above the free surface.
At a pipe exit, the pressure head is zero (atmospheric pressure) and thus the HGL
coincides with the pipe outlet.
The mechanical energy loss due to frictional effects (conversion to thermal energy)
causes the EGL and HGL to slope downward in the direction of flow. The slope is a
measure of the head loss in the pipe. A component, such as a valve, that generates
significant frictional effects causes a sudden drop in both EGL and HGL at that location.
A steep jump/drop occurs in EGL and HGL whenever mechanical energy is added or
removed to or from the fluid (pump, turbine).
The (gage) pressure of a fluid is zero at locations where the HGL intersects the fluid. The
pressure in a flow section that lies above the HGL is negative, and the pressure in a
section that lies below the HGL is positive.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 In an idealized Bernoulli-type flow,
EGL is horizontal and its height
remains constant. But this is not the
case for HGL when the flow velocity
varies along the flow.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 A steep jump occurs in EGL and HGL
whenever mechanical energy is added to
the fluid by a pump, and a steep drop
occurs whenever mechanical energy is
removed from the fluid by a turbine.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The gage pressure of a fluid is zero at
locations where the HGL intersects the
fluid, and the pressure is negative
(vacuum) in a flow section that lies
above the HGL.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 ignore 0 0
2 2
P1 V P2 V P1 Patm
  z1 
1
  z2 
2
  z2
g 2g g 2g g g

P1  Patm P1, gage

z2  
g g

Example:
Spraying Water
into the Air

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Example:
Water Discharge
from a Large Tank

ignore
P1 V12 P2 V2 2 0 V2 2
  z1    z2  z1  V2  2 gz1
g 2g g 2g 2g

The relation V  2 gz is called the Torricelli equation

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 0
P1 V2
P2 V2 2 0 V2 2
 1
 z1    z2  z1 
g 2g g 2g 2g

V2  2 gz1

Example:
Siphoning Out Gasoline
from a Fuel Tank

P2 V2 2 0 P3 V32 P P
  z2    z3  atm  3  z3
g 2g g 2g g g P3  Patm   gz3
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Example: Velocity
Measurement by a Pitot Tube

P1   g  h1  h2 
P2   g  h1  h2  h3 

0
p1 V 2 2
p2 V2 V12 P2  P1
  z1 
1
  z2  
g 2g g 2g 2g g

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Example: The Rise of the
Ocean Due to a Hurricane

© Brand X Pictures/PunchStock RF

The eye of hurricane Linda (1997 in

the Pacific Ocean near Baja
California) is clearly visible in this
satellite photo.
0
p A VA p V 2 2
PB  PA VA 2
  zA  B  B  zB  
g 2g g 2g g 2g

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Example: Bernoulli Equation for Compressible Flow

dP V 2
   2  gz  constant  along a streamline 
dP dP
 

P /RT
 RT ln P

V2
Isothermal peocess: RT ln P + + gz = constant
2
2
 k P V
Isentropic flow:     gz  constant
k 1  2
2 2
 k  P1 V1  k  P2 V2
    gz1      gz2
 k  1  1 2  k  1  2 2
k /  k 1
P1   k  1 2
 1    Ma 2
P2   2  
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 © Corbis RF

Compressible flow of a gas through turbine

blades is often modeled as isentropic, and
the compressible form of the Bernoulli
equation is a reasonable approximation.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 5–5 ■ GENERAL ENERGY EQUATION
Ein  Eout  E
 dEsys

Qnet in  Wnet in 
dt
d
Qnet in  Wnet in    e dV
 
dt sys
Q net in  Q in  Q out

Wnet in  Win  Wout

V2
e  u  ke  pe  u   gz
2
The first law of thermodynamics
(the conservation of energy
principle): Energy cannot be
created or destroyed during a
process; it can only change forms.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The energy change of a system
during a process is equal to the net
work and heat transfer between the
system and its surroundings.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Energy Transfer
by Heat, Q
Thermal energy: The sensible
and latent forms of internal
energy.
Heat Transfer: The transfer of
energy from one system to
another as a result of a
temperature difference.
The direction of heat transfer
is always from the higher-
temperature body to the
lower-temperature one.
Temperature difference is the driving
Adiabatic process: A process force for heat transfer. The larger the
during which there is no heat temperature difference, the higher is
transfer. the rate of heat transfer. Condensation
Heat transfer rate: The time of water vapor from the room is shown
rate of heat transfer. for the coldest can.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Energy Transfer by Work, W
Work: The energy transfer associated with a force acting through a
distance.
A rising piston, a rotating shaft, and an electric wire crossing the system
boundaries are all associated with work interactions.
Power: The time rate of doing work.
Car engines and hydraulic, steam, and gas turbines produce work;
compressors, pumps, fans, and mixers consume work.

Wtotal  Wshaft  Wpressure  Wviscous  Wother

Wshaft The work transmitted by a rotating shaft

Wpressure The work done by the pressure forces on the control surface
Wviscous The work done by the normal and shear components of
viscous forces on the control surface
Wother The work done by other forces such as electric, magnetic, and
surface tension

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Shaft A force F acting through a moment T
arm r generates a torque T T  Fr  F 
Work r
This force acts through a distance s s   2 r  n
Shaft T
work Wsh  Fs   r   2 rn   2 nT  kJ 
 
The power transmitted through the shaft is the shaft work done per unit time:
Wshaft   Tshift  2 n Tshaft Wsh  2 n T  kW 

Shaft work is proportional to the

Energy transmission through rotating shafts torque applied and the number of
is commonly encountered in practice. revolutions of the shaft.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Work Done by Pressure Forces
 Wboundary  PA ds
 Wpressure   Wboundary  PAVpiston Vpiston  ds /dt
 
Wpressure   P dA Vn   P dA(V  n )
  P  
Wpressure, net in    P(V  n )dA    (V  n )dA

A A 
 
Wnet in  Wshaft, net in  Wpressure, net in  Wshaft, net in   P(V  n )dA
   
A

The pressure force

acting on (a) the moving
boundary of a system in
a piston-cylinder device,
and (b) the differential
surface area of a
system of arbitrary
shape.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The conservation of energy equation is
obtained by replacing B in the Reynolds
transport theorem by energy E and b by e.
dEsys
Q net in  Wshaft, net in  Wpressure, net in 
dt
e  u  ke  pe  u  V 2 /2  gz

dEsys d  
  e dV   e(Vr  n ) A
dt dt CV CS

d  
Qnet in  Wshaft, net in  Wpressure, net in   e dV   e(Vr  n )dA
  
dt CV CS

 The net rate of energy   The time rate of   The net flow rate of 
     
 transfer into a CV by 
  change of the energy 
  energy out of the control 
 heat and work transfer   content of the CV   surface by mass flow 
     
d  P   
Qnet in  Wshaft, net in   e dV     e (Vr  n )dA
 
dt CV CS   
d  P   
Fixed CV : Q net in  Wshaft, net in 
dt CV e dV  CS    e (Vr  n )dA
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 In a typical engineering problem, the
control volume may contain many
inlets and outlets; energy flows in at
each inlet, and energy flows out at
each outlet. Energy also enters the
control volume through net heat
transfer and net shaft work.

 
m   (V  n )dAc
Ac

d P  P 
Q net in  Wshaft, net in   e dV   m   e    m   e 
dt CV out   in    e  u  ke  pe

d P V2  P V2 
Q net in  Wshaft, net in   e dV   m   u   gz    m   u   gz 
dt CV out  2  in   2 
d  V2   V2 
Q net in  Wshaft, net in   e dV   m  h   gz    m  h   gz 
dt CV out  2  in  2 
h  u  Pv  u  P /

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 A control volume
5–6 ■ ENERGY with only one inlet
and one outlet and
ANALYSIS OF energy interactions.
STEADY FLOWS
The net rate of energy transfer to a
control volume by heat transfer and work
during steady flow is equal to the
difference between the rates of outgoing
and incoming energy flows by mass flow.
 V2   V2 
Q net in  Wshaft, net in   mh 
  gz    m  h 
  gz 
out  2  in  2 
 V2 2  V12 
Q net in  Wshaft, net in  m  h2  h1   g  z2  z1 
 2 
V2 2  V12
qnet in  wshaft, net in  h2  h1   g  z2  z1  h  u  P /
2
P1 V12 P2 V2 2
wshaft, net in    gz1    gz2   u2  u1  qnet in 
1 2 2 2
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Ideal flow  no mechanical energy loss : qnet in  u2  u1

Real flow  with mechanical energy loss : emech,loss  u2  u1  qnet in

emech, in  emech, out  emech, loss

V12
P1 P2 V2 2
wshaft, net in    gz1    gz2  emech, loss
1 2 2 2
wshaft, net in  wpump  wturbine

P1 V12 P2 V2 2
  gz1  wpump    gz2  wturbine  emech, loss
1 2 2 2

 P1 V12    P2 V2 2  
m 
  gz1   Wpump  m  
  gz2   Wturbine  E mech, loss
 1 2   2 2 

E mech, loss  E mech loss, pump  E mech loss, turbine  E mech loss, piping

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The lost mechanical
energy in a fluid flow
system results in an
increase in the
internal energy of the
fluid and thus in a rise
of fluid temperature.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 A typical power plant
has numerous pipes,
elbows, valves, pumps,
and turbines, all of
which have irreversible
losses.
© Brand X Pictures/PunchStock RF

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Energy equation in terms of heads

P1 V12 P2 V2 2
  z1  hpump,u    z2  hturbine,e  hL
1 g 2 g 2 g 2 g

where
wpump, u Wpump, u pumpWpump
• hpump, u    is the useful head delivered to the
g mg
 mg

fluid by the pump. Because of irreversible losses in the pump, ℎpump, u is less
than 𝑊 pump/𝑚 by the factor 𝜂pump.

wturbine, e Wturbine, e Wturbine

• hturbine, e    is the extracted head removed
g mg
  turbine mg

from the fluid by the turbine. Because of irreversible losses in the turbine,
ℎ𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒, 𝑒 is greater than 𝑊 𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑏𝑖𝑛𝑒/𝑚𝑔 by the factor 𝜂turbine.

emech loss, piping E mech loss, piping

• h   is the irreversible head loss between 1 and
L
g mg

2 due to all components of the piping system other than the pump or turbine.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Mechanical energy flow chart for a fluid flow system that involves a
pump and a turbine. Vertical dimensions show each energy term
expressed as an equivalent column height of fluid, i.e., head.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 P1 V12 P2 V2 2
  z1  hpump, u    z2  hturbine, e  hL (5-74)
1 g 2 g 2 g 2 g

Special Case: Incompressible Flow with No

Mechanical Work Devices and Negligible Friction
When piping losses are negligible, there is negligible dissipation of
mechanical energy into thermal energy, and thus hL = emech loss, piping /g ≅ 0.
Also, hpump, u = hturbine, e = 0 when there are no mechanical work devices
such as fans, pumps, or turbines. Then Eq. 5–74 reduces to

P1 V12 P2 V2 2 P V2
  z1    z2 or   z1  constant
 g 2g  g 2g  g 2g

This is the Bernoulli equation derived earlier using Newton’s second

law of motion.
Thus, the Bernoulli equation can be thought of as a degenerate form of
the energy equation.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Kinetic Energy Correction Factor, 
The kinetic energy of a fluid stream obtained from V2/2 is not the same as the
actual kinetic energy of the fluid stream since the square of a sum is not equal
to the sum of the squares of its components.
This error can be corrected by replacing the kinetic energy terms V2/2 in the
energy equation by Vavg2/2, where  is the kinetic energy correction factor.

The correction factor is 2.0 for fully developed laminar

pipe flow, and it ranges between 1.04 and 1.11 for fully
developed turbulent flow in a round pipe.

When the kinetic energy correction factors are included, the energy equations
for steady incompressible flow become

 P1 V12    P2 V2 2  
m   1  gz1   Wpump  m    2  gz2   Wturbine  E mech, loss
 2   2 

P1 V12 P2 V2 2
 1  z1  hpump, u   2  z2  hturbine, e  hL
g 2g g 2g
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The determination of the kinetic
energy correction factor using
the actual velocity distribution
V(r) and the average velocity
Vavg at a cross section.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Example:
Hydroelectric Power
Generation from a Dam

P1 V12 P V 2
 1  z1  hpump,0u  2   2 2  z20  hturbine, e  hL
g 2g g 2g
hturbine, e  z1  hL

Wturbine, e  mgh
 turbine, e Welectric  turbine  genWturbine, e
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Example: Fan Selection for Air Cooling of a Computer

Energy equation between 3 and 4

P3  P4 
m  Wfan  m  Emech loss, fan
 

 p4  P3
Wfan, u  m



Energy equation between 1 and 2

 0 
P V 2  P V 2  0
m  1
 1 1  
 gz1  Wfan  m  2
 2 2
 gz2   Wturbine  E mech loss, lfan

  2    2 
 
Wfan  E mech loss, fan  Wfan, u

V2 2 Wfan, u
Wfan, u  m  2 Welect 
2 fan  motor
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Example: Pumping Water
from a Lake to a Reservoir Wpump u  pumpWshaft
Energy
equation  P1 V12    P2 V2 2 
m   1
  gz1   Wpump, u  m    2
  gz2 
between 1  2   2 
and 2
 Wturbine, e  E mech loos, piping

Wpump, u  mgz
 2  E mech loos, piping

E mech loos, piping  mgh

 L

For the Wpump, u

pump P  Pout  Pin 
V

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Summary
• Introduction
• Conservation of Mass
• The Linear Momentum Equation
• Conservation of Energy
• Conservation of Mass
• Mass and Volume Flow Rates
• Conservation of Mass Principle
• Moving or Deforming Control Volumes
• Mass Balance for Steady-Flow Processes
• Special Case: Incompressible Flow
• Mechanical Energy and Efficiency

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 • The Bernoulli Equation
• Acceleration of a Fluid Particle
• Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation
• Force Balance across Streamlines
• Unsteady, compressible flow
• Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures
• Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation
• Hydraulic Grade Line (HGL) and Energy Grade Line (EGL)
• Applications of the Bernouli Equation
• General Energy Equation
• Energy Transfer by Heat, Q
• Energy Transfer by Work, W
• Shaft Work
• Work Done by Pressure Forces
• Energy Analysis of Steady Flows
• Special Case: Incompressible Flow with No Mechanical Work Devices
and Negligible Friction
• Kinetic Energy Correction Factor, 

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals 
and Applications, 4th edition
Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala
Lecture slides by Mehmet Kanoglu

©McGraw‐Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom.  No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Chapter 6

MOMENTUM ANALYSIS OF FLOW 
SYSTEMS

©McGraw‐Hill Education. All rights reserved. Authorized only for instructor use in the classroom.  No reproduction or further distribution permitted without the prior written consent of McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Adapted from Dabiri et al., J. Exp. Biol. 208: 1257–1265.
Photo by Sean P. Colin and John H. Costello.

Steady swimming of the jellyfish Aurelia aurita. Fluorescent dye

placed directly upstream of the animal is drawn underneath the bell
as the body relaxes and forms vortex rings below the animal as the
body contracts and ejects fluid. The vortex rings simultaneously
induce flows for both feeding and propulsion.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Objectives

• Identify the various kinds of forces and moments acting on a

control volume
• Use control volume analysis to determine the forces
associated with fluid flow
• Use control volume analysis to determine the moments
caused by fluid flow and the torque transmitted

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 6–1 ■ NEWTON’S LAWS
Newton’s laws: Relations between motions of bodies and the forces
acting on them.
Newton’s first law: A body at rest remains at rest, and a body in
motion remains in motion at the same velocity in a straight path when
the net force acting on it is zero.
Therefore, a body tends to preserve its state of inertia.
Newton’s second law: The acceleration of a body is proportional to
the net force acting on it and is inversely proportional to its mass.
Newton’s third law: When a body exerts a force on a second body,
the second body exerts an equal and opposite force on the first.
Therefore, the direction of an exposed reaction force depends on
the body taken as the system.
 

 d V d (mV )
Newton's second law: F  ma  m 
dt dt
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Linear momentum or just the momentum of the body: The product of the
mass and the velocity of a body.
Newton’s second law is usually referred to as the linear momentum equation.
Conservation of momentum principle: The
momentum of a system remains constant
only when the net force acting on it is zero.

Linear momentum is the Newton’s second law is also

product of mass and velocity, expressed as the rate of change
and its direction is the direction of the momentum of a body is
of velocity. equal to the net force acting on it.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The counterpart of Newton’s second law for rotating rigid bodies is
expressed as 𝑀 𝐼𝛼⃗ where 𝑀 is the net moment or torque applied on the
body, I is the moment of inertia of the body about the axis of rotation, and
𝛼⃗ is the angular acceleration. It can also be expressed in terms of the rate
of change of angular momentum 𝑑𝐻⁄𝑑𝑡 as
  
  d  d (I  ) d H
Angular momentum equation: M  I  I   (6 - 2)
dt dt dt
d  x dH x
Angular momentum about x-axis: M x  Ix 
dt dt
The conservation of angular
momentum Principle: The total angular
momentum of a rotating body remains
constant when the net torque acting on it
is zero, and thus the angular momentum
of such systems is conserved.

The rate of change of the angular

momentum of a body is equal to
the net torque acting on it.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 6–2 ■ CHOOSING A CONTROL VOLUME
A control volume can be selected as any arbitrary
region in space through which fluid flows, and its
bounding control surface can be fixed, moving, and
even deforming during flow.
Many flow systems involve stationary hardware firmly
fixed to a stationary surface, and such systems are
best analyzed using fixed control volumes.
When analyzing flow systems that are moving or
deforming, it is usually more convenient to allow the
control volume to move or deform.
In deforming control volume, part of the control
surface moves relative to other parts.
Examples of
(a) fixed,
(b) moving,
and
(c) deforming
control
volumes.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 6–3 ■ FORCES ACTING ON A CONTROL VOLUME
The forces acting on a control volume consist of
Body forces that act throughout the entire body of the control
volume (such as gravity, electric, and magnetic forces) and
Surface forces that act on the control surface (such as pressure
and viscous forces and reaction forces at points of contact).
Only external forces are considered in the analysis.
  
Total force acting on control volume: F F body   Fsurface

The total force acting on a control

volume is composed of body
forces and surface forces; body
force is shown on a differential
volume element, and surface
force is shown on a differential
surface element.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The most common body force is that of gravity, which exerts a downward force on
every differential element of the control volume.
 
Gravitational force acting on a fluid element: d Fgravity  p g dV
 
Gravitational vector in cartesian coordinates: g  g k

 Fbody  
 
Total body force acting on control volume: p g dV  mCV g
CV

Surface forces are not as simple to

analyze since they consist of both
normal and tangential components.
Normal stresses are composed of
pressure (which always acts inwardly
normal) and viscous stresses.
Shear stresses are composed entirely
of viscous stresses.

The gravitational force acting on a

differential volume element of fluid is
equal to its weight; the axes have been
rotated so that the gravity vector acts
downward in the negative z-direction.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 When coordinate
axes are rotated (a)
to (b), the
components of the
surface force
change, even
though the force
itself remains the
same; only two
dimensions are
shown here.
 
Surface force acting on a differential surface element: d Fsurface   ij  n dA
 
Total surface force acting on control surface:  Fsurface    ij  ndA
CS

   
 F   Fbody   Fsurface    g dV    ij  n dA

CV CS

    
Total force: 
 F   Fgravity   Fpressure   Fviscous   Fother
totalforce

    
body force surface forces

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Components of the stress tensor in
Cartesian coordinates on the right, top,
and front faces.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 A common simplification in the application of Newton’s laws of motion is to
subtract the atmospheric pressure and work with gage pressures.
This is because atmospheric pressure acts in all directions, and its
effect cancels out in every direction.
This means we can also ignore the pressure forces at outlet sections where
the fluid is discharged to the atmosphere since the discharge pressure in
such cases is very near atmospheric pressure at subsonic velocities.

Atmospheric pressure acts in all Cross section through a faucet assembly,

directions, and thus it can be ignored illustrating the importance of choosing a
when performing force balances since control volume wisely; CV B is much
its effect cancels out in every direction. easier to work with than CV A.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 6–4 ■ THE LINEAR MOMENTUM EQUATION
Newton’s second law for a system of mass m subjected to net force ∑ 𝐹⃗ is
expressed as

  dV d 
F  ma  m  (mV ) (6 - 13)
dt dt
where 𝑚𝑉 is the linear momentum of the system. Noting that both the density
and velocity may change from point to point within the system, Newton’s
second law can be expressed more generally as
d
 
 F   pVdV (6 - 14)
dt sys
Newton’s second law can be stated as
The sum of all external forces acting on a system is equal to the
time rate of change of linear momentum of the system.
This statement is valid for a coordinate system that is at rest or moves
with a constant velocity, called an inertial coordinate system or inertial
reference frame.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 
d (mV )sys d    
  pV dV   pV (Vr  n ) dA
dt dt CV CS

 d    
General:  F   pV dV   pV (Vr  n ) dA
dt CV CS

 The sum of all   The time rate of change   The net flow rate of 
 external forces   of the linear momentum    linear momentum out of the 
     
 acting on a CV  of the contents of the CV  controlsurface by mass flow 

  
Vr  V  VCS
d    
Fixed CV :  F   pV dV   pV (V  n ) dA
dt CV CS

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The linear momentum equation is
obtained by replacing B in the Reynolds
transport theorem by the momentum 𝑚𝑉,
and b by the momentum per unit mass 𝑉.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The momentum equation is
commonly used to calculate
the forces (usually on support
systems or connectors)
induced by the flow.

In most flow systems, the sum of

forces ∑ 𝐹⃗ consists of weights,  d    

pressure forces, and reaction forces.

F 
dt 
CV
pV dV   pV (V  n ) dA
CS
Gage pressures are used here since
atmospheric pressure cancels out on
all sides of the control surface.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
    
Steady flow:  F    V (V  n ) dA r
Special Cases
CS

 
Mass flow rate across an inlet or outlet: m   (V  n ) dAc  Vavg Ac
Ac

Momentum flow rate across a uniform inlet or outlet:

    
 Ac
 V (V  n ) dAc  Vavg Ac V avg  mV
 avg

In a typical engineering
problem, the control volume
may contain many inlets and
outlets; at each inlet or outlet
we define the mass flow rate
and the average velocity.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Examples of inlets or outlets in which
the uniform flow approximation is
reasonable:
(a) the well-rounded entrance to a pipe,
(b) the entrance to a wind tunnel test
section, and
(c) a slice through a free water jet in air.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Momentum-Flux Correction Factor, 
The velocity across most inlets and outlets is not uniform.
The control surface integral of Eq. 6–17 may be converted into algebraic form using
a dimensionless correction factor , called the momentum-flux correction factor.
d    
 F    V dV    V (V  n ) dA (6 - 17)
dt CV CS

 d   
 F    V dV   mV
 avg    mV avg
dt CV out in

   
Momentum flux across an inlet or outlet:  Ac
 V (V  n ) dAc   mV
 avg
     is always greater than or equal to 1.
 V (V  n ) dAc  V (V  n ) dAc
 is close to 1 for turbulent flow and

Ac Ac

mV
 avg Vavg AcVavg not very close to 1 for fully developed
laminar flow.
2
1  V 
Momentum-flux correction factor:     dAc
Ac  Vavg 
Ac

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 2 2
 r  1  V 
2
4 R  r 
2

Ac Ac  Vavg  
V  2Vavg 1  2   dA   R 2  2 r dr
1 
 R 
c
 R2 0

0 EXAMPLE:
0 y 
3
4
Laminar flow:   4 y dy  4   
2
Momentum-Flux
1
 3 1 3 Correction Factor for
Laminar Pipe Flow

Velocity profile over a

cross section of a pipe
in which the flow is fully
developed and laminar.

For turbulent flow β may have an

insignificant effect at inlets and outlets,
but for laminar flow β may be important
and should not be neglected. It is wise
to include β in all momentum control
volume problems.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Steady Flow
  
Steady linear momentum equation:  F    m V    mV

out in

The net force acting on the control volume during steady

flow is equal to the difference between the rates of
outgoing and incoming momentum flows.

The net force acting on the

control volume during steady
flow is equal to the difference
between the outgoing and the
incoming momentum fluxes.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
    Steady Flow
One inlet and one outlet:  F  m ( 2 V2  1 V1 )
with One Inlet
Along x-coordinate:  Fx  m ( 2V2, x  1V1, x ) and One Outlet

The determination by vector addition of

A control volume with only one the reaction force on the support caused
inlet and one outlet. by a change of direction of water.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Flow with No External Forces

d (mV )CV  
No external forces: 0    mV
    mV

dt out in
In the absence of external forces, the rate of change of the
momentum of a control volume is equal to the difference between
the rates of incoming and outgoing momentum flow rates.

 
d (mV )CV d VCV  
 mCV  (m a )CV  mCV a
dt dt
  

F  mbody a    mV
    mV

t
h
r
u
s
t

in out

The thrust needed to lift the space shuttle is

generated by the rocket engines as a result of
momentum change of the fuel as it is
accelerated from about zero to an exit speed of
NASA

about 2000 m/s after combustion.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 6–5 ■ REVIEW OF ROTATIONAL MOTION AND
ANGULAR MOMENTUM
Rotational motion: A motion during
which all points in the body move in
circles about the axis of rotation.
Rotational motion is described with
angular quantities such as the angular
distance , angular velocity , and
angular acceleration .
Angular velocity: The angular
distance traveled per unit time.
Angular acceleration: The rate of
change of angular velocity.
d d (l r ) 1 dl V
   
dt dt r dt r
d  d 2 1 dV at The relations between angular distance ,
  2   angular velocity  , and linear velocity V.
dt dt r dt r
V  r and at  r
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Newton’s second law requires that there must be a force acting in the
tangential direction to cause angular acceleration.
The strength of the rotating effect, called the moment or torque, is
proportional to the magnitude of the force and its distance from the axis of
rotation.
The perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation to the line of action of
the force is called the moment arm, and the torque M acting on a point
mass m at a normal distance r from the axis of rotation is expressed as

M  rFt  rmat  mr 2

Magnitude of torque: M  r 2  m    r 2  m    I 
mass  mass 

I is the moment of inertia of the body about the axis of rotation, which is
a measure of the inertia of a body against rotation.
Unlike mass, the rotational inertia of a body also depends on the
distribution of the mass of the body with respect to the axis of rotation.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Analogy between corresponding
linear and angular quantities.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Magnitude of angular momentum: H   r 2  m    r 2  m    I 
mass  mass 
 
H  I
  
  d  d (I  ) d H
Angular momentum equation: M  I  I  
dt dt dt

Angular momentum of point

mass m rotating at angular
velocity  at distance r from
the axis of rotation.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 2 n
Angular velocity versus rpm:   2 n (rad/min)  (rad/s)
60
Wshaft  FV  Fr  M 

shaft power: Wshaft   M  2 nM


1 2
Rotational kinetic energy: KE r  I 
2

The relations between

angular velocity, rpm, and
the power transmitted
through a shaft.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 During rotational motion, the direction of velocity changes even when
its magnitude remains constant. Velocity is a vector quantity, and thus
a change in direction constitutes a change in velocity with time, and
thus acceleration. This is called centripetal acceleration.
V2
ar   r 2
r
Centripetal acceleration is directed toward the axis of rotation (opposite
direction of radial acceleration), and thus the radial acceleration is
negative. Centripetal acceleration is the result of a force acting on an
element of the body toward the axis of rotation, known as the
centripetal force, whose magnitude is
Fr  mV 2 /r
Tangential and radial accelerations are perpendicular to each other,
and the total linear acceleration is determined by their vector sum:
  
a  at  ar
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 6–6 ■ THE ANGULAR
MOMENTUM EQUATION
Many engineering problems involve the
moment of the linear momentum of flow
streams, and the rotational effects caused
by them.
Such problems are best analyzed by the
angular momentum equation, also called
the moment of momentum equation.
An important class of fluid devices, called
turbomachines, which include centrifugal
pumps, turbines, and fans, is analyzed by
the angular momentum equation.
The moment of a force 𝐹⃗ about a
point O is the vector product of the
A force whose line of
position vector 𝑟⃗ and 𝐹⃗ .
action passes through
point O produces zero   
moment about point O. Moment of a force: M  rF

Magnitude of the moment of a force: M  Fr sin 

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The determination
of the direction of
the moment by the
right-hand rule.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
   
Moment of momentum: H  r  mV
  
Moment of momentum ( system): H sys   (r  V ) dV
sys

d H sys d  
Rate of change of moment of momentum:   (r  V ) dV
dt dt sys

d H sys
   
M   M   (r  F )
dt

d H sys d    
  (r  V ) dV   (r  V )(Vr  n ) dA
 

dt dt CV CS

 d      
General:  M   (r  V ) dV   (r  V )(Vr  n ) dA
dt CV CS

 The net flow rate of 

 The sum of all   The time rate of change   
 external moments angular momentum
  of the angular momentum   
     out of the control 
 acting on a CV   of the contents of the CV  
 surface by mass flow 
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
  d      
General:  M   (r  V ) dV   (r  V )(Vr  n ) dA
dt CV CS

 The net flow rate of 

 The sum of all   The time rate of change   
 external moments angular momentum
  of the angular momentum   
     out of the control 
 acting on a CV   of the contents of the CV  
 surface by mass flow 
  
Vr  V  VCS
d
      
Fixed CV :  M   (r  V ) dV   (r  V ) (V  n ) dA
dt CV CS
 
Vr  V
The forces acting on the control volume consist of body forces
that act throughout the entire body of the control volume such
as gravity, and surface forces that act on the control surface
such as the pressure and reaction forces at points of contact.
The net torque consists of the moments of these forces as
well as the torques applied on the control volume.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The angular momentum equation is
obtained by replacing B in the Reynolds
transport theorem by the angular
momentum 𝐻, and b by the angular
momentum per unit mass 𝑟⃗ 𝑉.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Special Cases
During steady flow, the amount of angular momentum within the control
volume remains constant, and thus the time rate of change of angular
momentum of the contents of the control volume is zero.
    
Steady flow:  M   (r  V )(V  n ) dA r
CS

An approximate form of the angular momentum equation in terms of

average properties at inlets and outlets:
d       
 M   (r  V ) dV   (r  mV
 )   (r  mV
 )
dt CV out in

    
Steady flow:  M   (r  mV
 )   (r  m V )
out in

The net torque acting on the control volume during steady flow is equal to the
difference between the outgoing and incoming angular momentum flow rates.

 M   rmV
   rmV
 scalar form of angular
out in momentum equation
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 A rotating lawn sprinkler is a
good example of application
of the angular momentum
equation.
© John A. Rizzo/Getty Images RF

The net torque acting on a

control volume during steady
flow is equal to the difference
between the outgoing and
incoming angular momentum
flow rates.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Flow with No External Moments

d H CV    
No external moments : 0   (r  mV
 )   (r  mV
 )
dt out in

In the absence of external moments, the rate of change of the angular

momentum of a control volume is equal to the difference between the
incoming and outgoing angular momentum fluxes.

When the moment of inertia I of the control volume remains constant,

the irst term on the right side of the above equation becomes simply
moment of inertia times angular acceleration. Therefore, the control
volume in this case can be treated as a solid body, with a net torque of
     
M body  I body    (r  mV
 )   (r  mV
 )
in out

This approach can be used to determine the angular acceleration of

space vehicles and aircraft when a rocket is fired in a direction different
than the direction of motion.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Radial-Flow Devices
Radial-flow devices: Many rotary-flow devices such as centrifugal pumps
and fans involve flow in the radial direction normal to the axis of rotation.
Axial-flow devices are easily analyzed using the linear momentum equation.
Radial-flow devices involve large changes in angular momentum of the fluid
and are best analyzed with the help of the angular momentum equation.

Side and frontal views of a typical centrifugal pump.

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 The conservation of mass equation for steady incompressible flow
V1  V2  V  (2 r1b1 )V1,n  (2 r2b2 )V2,n
V V angular momentum equation
V1,n  and V2,n   M   rmV
   rmV

2 r1b1 2 r2b2 out in

Euler's turbine equation: Tshaft  m (r2V2,t  rV

1 1,t )

Tshaft  m (r2V2 sin  2  rV

1 1 sin 1 )

When V1,t   r1 and V2,t   r2

Tshaft,ideal  m  (r22  r12 )

Wshaft   Tshaft  2 n Tshaft

  2 n
An annular control volume that
encloses the impeller section of
a centrifugal pump.
©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Lawn sprinklers often
have rotating heads to
spread the water over
a large area.
© Andy Sotiriou/Getty Images RF

©McGraw‐Hill Education.
 Summary
• Newton’s Laws
• Choosing a Control Volume
• Forces Acting on a Control Volume
• The Linear Momentum Equation
• Special Cases
• Momentum-Flux Correction Factor, 
• Steady Flow
• Flow with No External Forces
• Review of Rotational Motion and Angular Momentum
• The Angular Momentum Equation
• Special Cases
• Flow with No External Moments
• Radial-Flow Devices

©McGraw‐Hill Education.