CHAPTER

algebra
1
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 identify quotients and remainders of polynomials;
 use the factor and remainder theorems to work x3 - 5x2 + 7x + 3 ≡ (x2 - 7x + 21)(x + 2) - 39
with polynomials; The quotient is Q(x) = x2 - 7x + 21.
 complete the square and solve quadratic equations The remainder R(x) = -39.
and inequalities;
 identify identities and determine unknown
constants;
EXERCISE 1.a
 solve equations and inequalities involving the In each of the following cases:
modulus function;
 express rational fractions in partial form and carry (a) Divide A(x) by B(x) to find the remainder R(x) and the
out decomposition. quotient Q(x)

POLYNOMIALS (b) Write down A(x) in the form:

A(x) = B(x).Q(x) + R(x).
A polynomial P(x) is an expression in x in the form 1. A(x) = 2x2 + 2x + 2 B(x) = x + 3
axn + bxn-1 + cxn-2 + … + jx + k, where a, b, c, … k are real 2. A(x) = 2x3 + x2 + 3x + 1 B(x) = x - 3
numbers, a ≠ 0 and n is a non – negative integer. If xn is 3. A(x) = 3x4 - 2x2 - 1 B(x) = x2 - 1
the highest power of x appearing in a polynomial, with 4. A(x) = 4x4 + 2x3 -2x2 -2 B(x) = 2x2 + 1
a ≠ 0, then Q(x) is a polynomial of degree n.

Polynomial division Remainder Theorem

If A(x) and B(x) are non-zero polynomials with degree When a polynomial P(x) is divided by (sx - t), the
of A(x) ≥ degree of B(x), then there are two polynomials t
remainder is P( s ), where s and t are constants.
Q(x) and R(x) such that A(x) ≡ B(x).Q(x) + R(x), where
either R(x) = 0 or the degree of R(x)<B(x). The symbol ≡
When a polynomial P(x) is divided by x – t, the
means that the LHS = RHS for all values of x.
remainder is the constant P(t)
The polynomial A(x) is called the dividend, B(x) the
Examples
divisor, Q(x) the quotient and R(x) the remainder. Also if
R(x) = 0 then A(x) ≡ B(x).Q(x) and we say that B(x) is a
1. Find the remainder when x3 – 3x + 4 is divided by
factor of A(x), and A(x) is divisible by B(x).
x + 3.
Solution
Example
Let P(x) = x3 – 3x + 4
Then P(-3) = (-3)3 - 3 (3) + 4 [the - 3 is from x + 3 = 0, x = -3]
Find the quotient and the remainder if the polynomial
= -27 + 9 + 4
A(x) = x3 - 5x2 + 7x + 3 is divided by x + 2.
= - 14
Therefore the remainder is = - 14
Solution
x2 - 7x + 21
x + 2 x3 - 5x2 + 7x + 3 2. Find the remainder when x3 – 3x + 4 is divided by
-(x3 + 2x2) 2x + 3.
- 7x2 + 7x + 3 Solution
-(-7x2 - 14x) Let P(x) = x3 – 3x + 4
-3 -3 3 -3
21x + 3 Then P( 2 ) = ( 2 ) - 3( 2 ) + 4 [the ( -3 ) is from 2x + 3 = 0]
2
-(21x + 42) 1
- 39 =58

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 1

 Example Example
Find the factors of x 3 – x 2 – 5x – 3 and hence solve the
If f (x) = x3 + ax2 + bx + 6 and the remainders of f (x) equation x3 – x2- 5x – 3 = 0.
when divided by x + 1 and x + 2 are 20 and 8
respectively, find the values of a and b. Solution
Let P(x) = x 3 - x 2 - 5x - 3
By remainder theorem, P(1) = 13 - 12 - 5(1) – 3 = - 8
-When x + 1 is the divisor, f (x) = f (-1), substitute x therefore (x - 1) is not a factor.
by -1 in f (x) P(2) = 23 - 22 - 5(2) – 3 = - 9
x3 + ax2 + bx + 6 = (-1)3 + a(-1)2 + b( -1) + 6 = 20 therefore (x - 2) is not a factor.
-1 + a – b + 6 = 20 P(-1) = (-1)3 – (-1)2 - 5(-1) - 3 = 0
a – b = 15 ……………. 1 therefore (x + 1) is a factor.
-When x +2 is the divisor, f (x) = f (-2), substitute x Since we have one of the factors, we divide P(x) by this
by -2 in f (x) factor to find the other two factors.
x3 + ax2 + bx + 6 = (-2)3 + a(-2)2 + b(-2) + 6 = 8
-8 + 4a - 2b + 6 = 8 x 2 -2x - 3
4a - 2b = 10 ………………… 2 x + 1 x 3 - x 2 - 5x - 3
-(x 3 + x 2)
Solving the simultaneous equations 1 and 2 by 2x 2 - 5x
substitution, -(-2x 2 - 2x)
a = b +15………………. 3 [From Equation 1] - 3x - 3
-(-3x - 3)
Substituting Equation 3 into Equation 2 0
4(b +15)– 2b = 10
4b + 60 - 2b = 10 This gives x 3 - x 2 - 5x – 3 = (x + 1)(x 2 - 2x - 3)
4b - 2b = 10 - 60
2b = -50 By Factorising x 2 - 2x - 3
b = -25 = (x + 1)(x + 1)(x - 3)
= (x + 1)2(x - 3)
Substituting b by -25 into Equation 1, So x 3 - x 2 - 5x – 3 = (x + 1)2(x – 3)
a = -25 + 15 = -10 So to solve x 3 - x 2 - 5x – 3 = 0
Therefore a = -10 and b = -25 Would mean (x + 1)2(x - 3) = 0
∴ x = - 1(twice) or x = 3
EXERCISE 1.b
1. Find the remainder when the first polynomial is divided
by the second. EXERCISE 1.c
(a) x3 – 5x2 + 2x – 3 (x – 1)
(b) 2x2 - 3x + 5 (x – 3) 1.Use the factor theorem to factorise the following
(c) x3 + 3x2 - 2x + 1 (2x - 1) cubic polynomials p(x). In each case write down
(d) x4 - x3 + 2x2 - 7x - 2 (x - 2) the real roots of the equation P(x) = 0:
(e) 3x4 + x2 – 7x + 6 (x + 3)
(a) x 3 + 2x 2 - 5x - 6 (b) x 3 - 3x 2 - 13x + 15
2. When x3 + 2x2 – px + 1 is divided by x – 1 the remainder (c) x - 3x - 9x – 5
3 2
(d) x 3 + 3x 2 - 4x – 12
is 5. Find the value of p. (e) 3x - x - 12x + 4 (f ) 6x 3 + 7x 2 - x – 2
3 2

3. When 3x3 – x2 + ax + b is divided by x – 1 and x + 1 the (g) x 3 + 2x 2 - 4x + 1.

remainders are 8 and -6 respectively. Find the values of a
and b. 2. Use the factor theorem to factorise the following
4. When 2x3 – x2 + ax + b is divided by x – 2 and x - 3 are cubic polynomials P(x). In each case write down the
and 63 respectively the remainders 25, find the values of real roots of the equation P(x) = 0:
a and b.
(a) x3+2x2-5x-6 (b) x3-3x2-x+3
(c) x3-3x2-13x+15 (d) x3-3x2-9x-5
Factor Theorem (e) x3+3x2-4x-12 (f ) 2x3+7x2-5x-4
(g)3x3-x2-12x+4 (h) x3+2x2-4x+1.
t
If P(x) is a polynomial such that P( s ) = 0 then
(sx – t) is a factor of P(x).
t
Conversely if (sx – t) is a factor of P(x) then P( s ) = 0.

2 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

QUADRATICS 3
So y = 2(x - 4 ) 2 - 8
41

3 1
Completing the Square y = 2(x - 4 ) 2- 5 8

Any quadratic expression of the form y = ax 2 + bx + c 3 1

Therefore a = 2, p = - 4 and q = - 5 8 .
can be written in the form y = a(x + p)2 + q. 3
The process through which we express y = ax 2 + bx + c There is a vertex at the point ( 3 4 ; -5 1 ).
in the form y = a(x + p)2 + q is completing the square 4 8
and this technique is very useful for solving quadratic y
equations and finding the maximum and minimum y = 2x 2 - 3x - 4
points of the graph of the quadratic function also called
vertices (plural for vertex).

Example

Express y = x 2 + 4x - 11 in the form a(x + p)2 + q and -0.851 0 2.351

x
hence state the values of a, p and q. • 3 1
V( 4 ; -5 8 )

Solution
We must first of all note that we can only complete the
square of a quadratic expression for which the coefficient
of x 2 is 1. For y = x 2 + 4x - 11, the coefficient of x 2 is 1 so EXERCISE 1.d
we can proceed as follows,
y = x 2 + 4x - 11 Express the following quadratic expressions in the
y = x 2 + 4x +(2)2 - (2)2 - 11 [We add and subtract half form a(x + p)2 + q and hence state the values of a, p
the coefficient of x squared i.e. in this case ( 22 - 22 ) and q for each of them.
Now y = x 2 + 4x +(22 ) = (x +2)2 [perfect square]
So we can write the expression in the form 1. y = x 2 - x - 4 2. y = x2 + 6x + 8
y = (x+2)2 - (22 ) - 11
= (x + 2)2 - 4 -11 3. y = x 2 + 5x - 7 4. y = x 2 + 9x -21
y = (x +2)2 - 15
5. y = x 2 - 3x + 1 6. y = 5x 2 - 8x + 1
Therefore a = 1, p = 2 and q = -15.

There is a vertex at the point (-2 ; -15).
Roots of Quadratic Equations
Example
The nature of the roots of a quadratic equation
Express y = 2x 2 - 3x - 4 in the form a(x + p)2 + q and y = ax² + bx + c = 0 can be easily be determined by
hence state the values of a, p and q. using the discriminant of the equation. The discriminant,
Using these results sketch the graph of y = 2x 2 - 3x - 4. also written as is given by  = b² - 4ac.
Solution (i) If b² - 4ac < 0, then the equation has no real roots
In this case the coefficient of x 2 is not 1 but 2 so we or in other words the curve does not touch or cut the
factor out 2 and then complete the square as follows. x-axis.
y = 2x 2 - 3x - 4 y y = ax 2 + bx + c

3
y = 2[ x 2 - 2 x - 2 ]
3 3 3
= 2[ x 2 - 2 x + (- 4 )2 - (- 4 )2 - 2]

3 [b² - 4ac < 0]

Note that (- 4 )2 is half the coefficient of x squared. We
added it and subtracted it so the expression remains the
0 x
same.
3 3
So y = 2[(x - 4 )2 - ( 4 ) 2- 2] (ii) If  > 0 then the equation has two distinct real
3 9 roots i.e. the curve cuts the x-axis at two different
y= 2[(x - ) 2 - ( 16
4 ) -2]
points.The graph of such an equation may look like
3 41 the ones shown on the next page .
y= 2[(x - 4 ) 2 - 16 ]

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 3

 y y = ax 2 + bx + c Solutions
1. 3x² - 7x - 10 = 0
Descriminant b2 - 4ac
[a > 0] a = 3, b = -7 and c =-10
= (-7)2 - 4(3)(-10) = 49 + 120 = 160 > 0
Two real distinct roots exist for this equation.
0 x
2. x² - 4x + 4 = 0
y Descriminant b2 - 4ac
a = 1, b =-4 and c = 4.
= (-4)2 - 4(1)(4) = 16 -16 = 0.
Two real repeated roots exist for this equation.

3. 5x² - 7x + 17 = 0
0 x Descriminant b2 - 4ac
[a < 0] a =5 ,b = -7 and c = 17
y = ax 2 + bx + c (-7)2 - 4(5)(17)= 49 -340 = -291 < 0.
This equation does not have any real roots. We
(iii) If △ = 0, then the equation has two equal roots. can also say that the graph of this equation does
We can also say that the equation has real repeated not cut the x-axis at any point.
roots. If we look at the two possible graphs of this
equation we see that in both cases the x-axis is a
tangent to the curve at the point where the roots
exist as shown below. EXERCISE 1.e

y y = ax 2 + bx + c 1.State the nature of the roots of the following

quadratic equations without solving the equations.
1 1
(a) 2 x² - 3 x + 4 = 0 (b) x² - x + 9 = 0
[a > 0]

(c) 7x² - x + 14 = 0 (d) x² - 10x + 25 = 0

0 x (e) 3x² - 30x + 75 = 0 (f ) 2x2 - x + 2
y
1 1
(g) x + x - 1 = 2 (h) 4x2 -20x + 25 = 0

0 x (i) x2 = 4x + 7 (j) 3x2 + x = 1.

[a < 0] 2. If 2x² + 5x + a = 0 has two real distinct roots find the

largest interger value of a.

3. If 3x² + bx + 7 = 0 has two real repeated roots find the

value of b.

y =ax 2 + bx + c

Quadratic Inequalities
Examples
When solving quadratic inequalities we follow the
State the nature of the roots of the following quadratic same procedures for quadratic equations but if we
equations. divide or multiply by a negative constant, the sign of the
inequality changes direction.
1. 3x² - 7x - 10 = 0 2. x² - 4x + 10 = 0
3. 5x² - 7x + 17 = 0

4 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

The solution of an inequality is not just one number but This immediately means that x > 4 and x < - 1 are out
a set of numbers that is best represented on a number because the sign changes from each side of the critical
line. values. So the solution is -1 < x < 4 or can be represented
on a numberline as shown below.
Examples

Solve the following inequalities. -1 4

(i) (x + 3)(2x + 7) ≤ 0
(ii) x2 < 3x + 4
1 1
(iii) 3x2 - x - 2 < 0 (iii) 3x2 - x - 2 <0

Solutions We factorise the denominator

(i) (x + 3)(2x + 7) ≤ 0 i. e. 3x 2 - x - 2
= 3x 2 - 3x + 2x – 2
In this case the values for which the inequality sign is = 3x (x – 1) + 2 (x – 1)
7 = (3x + 2)(x – 1)
dependent are x = - 3 and x = - 2 .
These are called critical values we then investigate the
1
signs around the critical values on the number line as So 3x2 - x - 2 < 0
follows.
1 1
Now remember if a < b then a > b
1

-7 -3
2
2 e. g 3 < 1 then 32 > 1
2 1
If we take x = - 4 and plug it into the inequality or 7 < 5 then 7 > 5
2
(-4 + 3)(-8 + 7) = (-1)(-1) = + 1, this is greater than zero
i.e. + ve so any number less than – 3 is out of range. So (3x + 2)(x – 1) > 0
If we take x = - 2 and plug it into the inequality -3
(-2 + 3)(-4 + 7) = (1)(3) = + 3, this is also positive so any CV’s are x = 2 and x = 1
7
number greater than – 2 is out of the range.
7 1
So the solution to the inequality is – 3 ≤ x ≤ - 2 -3
2

Using x = 0; (0 + 2)(0 – 1) = (2)(- 1) = - 2

7
2
-3
The signs will alternate so the solution is 32 < x < 1

Note that when we have critical values on the number

line, the signs in between them will alternate or change,
so we only have to use one number less than one critical -3 0 1

value (c.v) to see how the signs will change from one 2
interval to the next.
EXERCISE 1.f
(ii) x 2 < 3x + 4 Solve the following inequalities.
x 2 - 3x – 4 < 0
x 2 - 4x + x – 4 < 0 1. x (5x + 1) < 0 2. (x + 3) (2x + 7) ≤ 0
x (x – 4) + 1 (x – 4) < 0 3. x 2 - 9 > 0 4. 2x 2 < 6x + 8
∴ (x + 1)(x – 4) < 0 x+3
5. x 2 - 7x ≤ 10 6. - x-3 <0
x-1 x+1
C V’s are x = - 1 and x = 4

-1 4

Using x = 0, we get (0 + 1)(0 – 4) = (1)(-4) which is

– ve so between – 1 and 4 we have negative values for
the inequality.

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 5

 Simultaneous Equations
1± 1+40 1+ 1+40 1 - 1+40
∴ y = 2 so y = 2 or
2
When one equation is quadratic and the other is linear
the method of substitution is effective.
And x = - 4 + [ 1+
2
41
] [
or – 4 + 1 - 41
2
]
Example

Solve the following pair of simultaneous equations EXERCISE 1.g

x + y = 2
x² + y² = 1 Solve the following simultaneous equations:

Solutions 1. x + y = -2 and -x2 + y = -4

From [equation 1] x = 2 – y [equation 3] 2. x2 - 2x + y = 8 and y = x - 4
Substituting [equation 3] into [equation 2] 3. y = x2 - 3x and y = 4x
x² - y² = 1 4. y = x2 and x + y = 5
5. y = x2 – x and x + y = 6
(2-y)² - y² = 1
4 – 4y + y² - y² = 1
4 - 4y = 1
4 – 1 = 4y Disguised Quadratic Equations
3
= y
4 So far we have been dealing with quadratic equations
in the variable x which have been clearly visible at first
Substituting y into [equation 3]
sight as being equations of the form
y = ax² + bx + c = 0. However some equations may not
x = 2–y
appear to be quadratic when as a matter of fact they are.
x = 2- 3
4
Consider the equation x 4 - 13x2 + 36 = 0
x = 1.25
This a quartic equation i.e. the highest power of the
unknown x is 4.
Therefore x = 1.25 and y = 3
4
Now if re-write the equation as (x 2 ) 2 - 13x2 + 36 = 0
and then substitute x 2 by q we now have the equation,
Example q 2 - 13q + 36 = 0

Solve the following pair of simultaneous equations. This is now a quadratic equation in q which we can now
solve for q. In this case we can factorise using the two
x–y=-4
factors -9 and -4 since (-9)(-4)=36 and (-9)+(-4) =-13.
x² + 7x + 12 = 0 So q 2 - 9q - 4q + 36 = 0
Solution q(q - 9) - 4(q - 9) = 0
(q - 4)(q - 9) = 0
x – y = - 4 [equation 1] q = 4 or q = 9
x² + 7x + 12 = 0 [equation 2]
We now replace q by x 2 and so x 2 - 4 = 0 or x 2 - 9 = 0
Using [equation 1] x = y – 4 and
substituting [equation 1] into [equation 2] s[Note: solving by difference of two squares]
(y – 4)² + 7(y – 4) + 2 = 0
(x + 2)(x -2) = 0 or (x + 3)(x -3)= 0
∴ y² - 4y – 4y + 16 + 7y – 28 + 2 = 0
y² - 8y + 7y + 16 – 28 + 2 = 0 Thus x = 4 or x = 9 , i.e. x = ± 2 or x = ± 3.

y² - y – 10 = 0 We expect four values of x because we have just solved

This is a quadratic equation in y so a = +1; b = -1; and an equation in which the highest power of the unknown
c = -10 was 4.

(-1) 2 - 4(1)(-10) x = -2 ; 2 ;-3 ; 3

-(-1) ±
y= 2

1± 1+40
y = 2

6 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

Example Example
Given that
8
Solve the equation x 3 - 6x + x = 0. (Ax + B)(x 2 + 3) + Cx 2(5x – 2)
≡ - 13x 3 + 18x 2 + 6x + 36
Solution
8 Find the values of the constants A, B and C.
x 3 - 6x + x = 0. [multiply throughout by x to remove fraction]
Solution
x 4 - 6x 2 + 8 = 0. We remove brackets, simplify and group like terms:
Ax 3 + 3Ax + Bx 2 + 3B + 5Cx 3 - 2Cx 2
This is a quadratic equation in x 2 , so we let v = x 2 and ≡ - 13x 3 + 18x 2 + 6x + 36
obtain the equation, ∴ Ax 3 + 5Cx 3 + Bx 2 - 2Cx 2 + 3Ax + 3B
v 2 - 6v + 8 = 0 [factors are -2 and -4] ≡ - 13x 3 + 18x 2 + 6x + 36
v 2 - 2v - 4v+ 8 = 0 ∴ (A + 5C)x 3 + (B – 2C)x 2 + 3Ax + 3B
(v - 2)(v - 4) = 0 and thus v = 2 or v = 4. ≡ 13x 3 + 18x 2 + 6x + 36
But v = x2 x= v
x = 2 or 4 ∴ A + 5C = - 13
x = +2 or + 2 B – 2C = 18
3A = 6
3B = 36
6
EXERCISE 1.h ∴ A = 3 = 2 and B = 36 = 12
3
So 2 + 5C = - 13
Solve the following equations: 5C = - 13 – 2
15
C=- 5 =-3
1. x 4 - 2x2 - 3 = 0 2. x 6 - 28x3 + 7 = 0
∴ A = 2; B = 12 and C = - 3.
6
3. x - 5 x + 6 = 0 4. x 2 + 1 = x

5. x 4 - x2 - 12 = 0 6. x 6 - 2x3 - 8 = 0
EXERCISE 1.i
Identities Find the values of the constants A, B and C in the
An identity is an expression such as identities (1) to (6):
( 1 – x )( 1 + x + x2) ≡ 1 – x3 1. A(x + 3) + B(x + 2) ≡ 4x + 9
Because it is true when x = 0 and when x = 1 or when 2. A(x + 1) + B(x – 3) ≡ 8x + 16
3. A(x 2 + x + 3) + (Bx + 2)(2x + 1) + C ≡ x 2 - x + 2
x = 100. It is true for all values of x.
4. A(x 2 + 4) + (x – 2)(Bx + 1)+ C ≡ 4x 2 - 7x + 22
For an equation like x + 2 = 3. This is only true for 5. A(x 2 + x + 1) + (Bx + 3)(2x – 5)+ C ≡ 7x 2 - 7x + 3
one value of x. 6. 3x 2 + 18x – 5≡ A(x + B)2 + C
We may be required to find the values of constants when
given an identity. The values of the constants can be 7. In each of the following find the values of the constants A
and B:
found by equating coefficients. This is possible because
(a) (Ax + B)(x – 3) ≡ 4x2 - 11x - 3
for all identities the L. H. S = R. H. S for any value of (b) (Ax + B)(2x + 5) ≡ 6x2 + 11x - 10
the unknown variable.
(c) (Ax + B)(x2 + 4) ≡ 2x3 – 3x2 + 8x – 12
Example (d) (Ax + B)(3x2 – 2x – 1) ≡ 6x3 – 7x2 + 1.
Given that A(x2 + x + 2) + (Bx + C) x ≡ - x 2 - 2x + 4
Find the values of the constants A, B and C.
The Modulus function
Solution
The modulus or absolute value function is defined
We remove all brackets and simplify the L. H. S. i. e.
as
(Ax 2 + Bx 2) + (Ax + Cx) + 2A
∴ (A + B)x 2 + (A + C)x + 2A ≡ - x 2 - 2x + 4
So by equating coefficients we obtain the following
{x;x ≥ 0
|x| = -x;x < 0 }
equations:
A + B = - 1; A + C = - 2 and 2A = 4 so A = 4 = 2
2 This function is not defined by any equation rather the
So 2 + B = - 1 and B = - 1 – 2 = - 3
rate consists of two separate cases. In other words, the
Also 2 + C = - 2
rate is given x as argument, the value is x if x ≥ 0 and is
∴C=-2–2=-4
– x if x < 0.
∴ A = 2; B = - 3 and C = - 4.

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 7

 1. Given that f (x) = |2x - 4| Or

f (0) = |2(0) - 4| = |0 - 4| = | - 4| = 4 – (4x + 2) = 2x + 1

f (1) = |2(1) - 4| = |2 - 4| = | - 2| = 2 - 4x – 2 = 2x + 1

f (-2) = |2(-2) - 4| = |-4 - 4| = | - 8| = 8 - 2 – 1 = 2x + 4x

Graphically a comparison of the linear function So 6x = - 3

f (x) =2x - 4 and its absolute value function f (x) =|2x - 4|
1
is shown below. ∴ x = - 36 = - 2
y
f (x) =2x - 4 From the two possibilities according to the definition of
1
|x| we have x = - 2 .

Let us CHECK to clarify:

0 x LHS ; RHS
2
-4
y |4(-1/2) + 2| = |-2 + 2| = |0| = 0 ; 2(-1/2) ) + 1 = - 1 + 1
f (x) =|2x - 4| =0

4 1
So x = - 2 is valid.

0 2 x Some equations involving the modulus function may

require the use of the following relations:
-4
(i) | a| = | b | ⇔ a2 = b2 [⇒ means it implies that]
(ii) |x - a| = b ⇔ a - b < x < a + b [⇔ means if and only if ]
Equations Involving Modulus
Example
Let us consider the equation of the form |ax + b| = cx + d.
Solve the inequality |x - 1| < 3.
Now if we adhere to the definition of the modulus
function, we then have two situations that we have to Solution
consider, these being:
Using |x - a| = b ⇔ a - b < x < a + b,
(i) ax + b = cx + d or where b = 3 and a = 1, so for |x - 1| < 3
1-3<x<1+3
(ii) – (ax + b) = cx + d -2 < x < 4

Example
-2 4
Solve the equation |4x + 2| = 2x + 1
Example
Solution
Solve the inequality |x - 3| ≤ 2x + 1
It is either 4x + 2 = 2x+ 1 or – (4x + 2) = 2x + 1
Solution
4x + 2 = 2x + 1
Graphical method:
4x – 2x = 1 – 2
Consider the graphs of y = |x - 3| and y = 2x + 1
y y = 2x +1
2x = - 1 y =|x - 3|

∴ x = - 12
3

-2 0 -2 3 x
3

-3

8 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

The solid line is above or on the dashed line when x ≤ 2 EXERCISE 1.j
3 1. Solve the following equations:
Method 2 (a) |x - 3| = 3 (b) |2x + 1| = | 3x + 9|
(c) |x - 3| = | 3x + 1| (d) |5x + 1| = | 11 - 2x|
If x < 3; |x - 3| = x - 3, so 3 - x ≥ 2x + 1
- x - 2x ≥1-3 2. Solve the following inequalities:
- 3x ≥ -2 (a) |2x + 7| ≤ 3 (b) |3x + 2| ≥ 8
(c) |x| ≥ | 2x - 3| (d) |x - 3| ≤ | 3x + 1|
x≤ 2
3
3. Solve the following equations:
If x ≥ 3; then |x - 3| = x - 3, so x - 3 ≥ 2x + 1 (a) |x| = | 3x + 1| (b) |x - 1| + |x| = 1
x - 2x ≥ 1 + 3 (c) -|1 - x| +|x + 1| = 2 (d) 4|x | = | x - 1|
x ≤-4
This is inconsistent with x ≥ 3, so the complete solution Partial fractions
is x ≤ 2 . 
3 ax + b
Rational fractions such as can be split
2 (px + q)(rx + s)(tx + u)
3
into partial fractions of the form A + B + C
Example (px + q) (rx + s) (tx + u)
This process is called decomposition or splitting into
Solve the equation |x - 3| = | 3x - 1| partial fractions.

Solution Partial fractions with linear factors

Using | a| = | b | ⇔ a2 = b2, (x - 3)2 = (3x - 1)2, where ax + b ≡ A + B + C

a = x - 3 and b = 3x - 1, (px + q)(rx + s)(tx + u) (px + q) (rx + s) (tx + u)
(x - 3)2 = (3x - 1)2
x2 - 6x + 9 = 9x2 - 6x + 1
8x2 - 8 = 0 Example
8(x2 - 1) = 0
Decompose 2x + 5 into partial fractions.
(x + 1)(x - 1) = 0
(x + 5)(x + 3)
x = -1 or x = 1
Solution
Example 2x + 5 ≡ A B
+
(x + 5)(x + 3) (x + 5) (x + 3)
Solve the inequality |x - 5| ≥ | 2x - 6|
Multiplying both sides of the identity by (x + 5)(x + 3):
2x + 5 ≡ A(x + 5) + B(x + 3).
Solution
This is an identity so we can equate coefficients to find
Using | a| = | b | ⇔ a2 = b2,
the values of the constants A and B:
|x - 5| ≥ | 2x - 6|
(x - 5)2 ≥ (2x - 6)2 2x + 5 ≡ Ax + 5A + Bx + 3B,
x2 - 10x + 25 ≥ 4x2 - 12x + 36 2x + 5 ≡ (A + B)x + 5A + 3B
3x2 - 14x + 11 ≤ 0
3x2 - 3x - 11x + 11 ≤ 0 A + B = 2 ....... ₁
3x(x - 1) - 11(x - 1) ≤ 0 5A + 3B = 5....... ₂
(3x - 11)(x - 1) ≤ 0
The critical values are x = 1 and x = 11 Solving these two equations simultaneously gives
3 +
+ -
A = 11 and B = - 1
1 11 3 2
3

1 ≤ x ≤ 11
3 2x + 5 ≡ 5 - 1
(x + 5)(x + 3) 2(x + 5) 2(x + 5)

1 11
3

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 9

 Example Multiplying both sides of the identity by (x - 3)2 to obtain the
value of B:
Decompose 35 - 5x into partial fractions.
≡ A(x - 3) + B + C(x - 3)
2
(x + 2)(x - 1)(x - 3) 4
(x - 1) (x - 1)
Solution
Putting x = 3 gives B = 2
35 - 5x ≡ A + B + C
(x + 2)(x - 1)(x - 3) (x + 2) (x - 1) (x - 3) The value of C can be obtained by a suitable substitution of
x into the original identity and then using the now known
Multiplying both sides of the identity by (x + 2)(x - 1)
values of A and B. One such value of x would be x = 0:
(x - 3) 35 - 5x ≡ A(x - 1)(x - 3) + B(x + 2)(x - 3) +C(x +
2)(x - 1) 4 = A + B + C
(0- 1)(0 - 3)2 (0 - 1) (0 - 3)2 (0 - 3)
Putting x = -2 to find A; C = -1

35 + 10 ≡ A(-3)(-5) + B(0)(-5) + C(0)(-3) Partial fractions with a quadratic factor

ax2+bx + c A
45 = 15A so A = 3 ≡ + Bx2+ C
(px + q)(rx + s)2 (px + q) (rx + s)
Putting x =1 to find B;
The rational function shown on the RHS of the identity
35 - 5 ≡ A(0)(-2)+B(3)(-2)+C(3)(0) above has the quadratic factor (rx + s)2 in the denominator.
Such types of fractions can be decomposed using the result
30 = -6B so B = -5 shown on the RHS of the identity. Substitution is a technique
that may also be used instead together with the equating of
Putting x =3 to find C; coefficients to find the values of the constants A, B and C.

35 - 15 ≡ A(2)(0)+B(5)(0)+C(5)(2) Example

Express 4-x in partial fractions.

20 = 10C so C = 2
(x + 1)(x 2 + 4)
35 - 5x ≡ 3 - 5 + 2 Solution
(x + 2)(x - 1)(x - 3) (x + 2) (x - 1) (x - 3)
4-x A
≡ + Bx2+ C
(x + 1)(x 2 + 4) (px + q) (rx + s)
Multiplying both sides of the identity by (x + 1) to obtain the
Partial fractions with a repeated factor
value of A:
ax2+bx + c A B C
(px + q)(rx + s)2 ≡ (px + q) + (rx + s)2 + (rx + s) Bx + C ≡ A + Bx + C(x + 1)
(x 2 + 4) (x 2 + s)
The rational function shown on the RHS of the Putting x = -1 gives A = 1
identity above has the repeated factor (rx + s)2 in the
denominator. Such types of fractions can be decomposed Multiplying both sides of the identity by (x2 + 4) to obtain the
using the result shown on the RHS of the identity. value of B by substitution followed by equating of coefficients
Substitution is a technique that may be used instead to obtain the value of C :
of the equating of coefficients to find the values of the 4-x ≡ A(x + 4) + Bx + C;
2
constants A, B and C. (x + 1) (x + 1)
Putting x = 0 and using the known values of A = 1; C = 0
Example
4 To obtain the value of C we use the original identity and
Decompose (x - 1)(x - 3)2 into partial fractions.
substitute the now known values of A = 1 and C = 0, followed
by equating coefficients to obtain the value of B:
Solution
4 A B C 4 - x ≡ A(x2 + 4) + Bx(x + 1)
(x - 1)(x - 3)2 ≡ + + 4 - x ≡ Ax2 + 4A + Bx2 +Bx
(x - 1) (x - 3)2 (x - 3)
Multiplying both sides of the identity by (x - 1) to obtain the A + B = 0 [coefficient of x2] and B = -1 [coefficient of x]
value of A:
4-x ≡ 1 - x
B ≡ A + B(x - 12) + C (x - 1) (x + 1)(x 2 + 4) (x + 1) (x 2 + 4)
(x - 3)2 (x - 3) (x - 3)
Putting x = 1 gives A = 1

10 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 EXERCISE 1.j TEST 1
1. Express the following as partial fractions: 1. The cubic polynomial x3 - 2x2 - 2x + 4 has a factor
(x - k), where k is an integer.
(a) 10x + 8 (b) 28
(a) Use the factor theorem to find the values of k
(x - 1)(x + 5) (2x - 1)(x + 3)
(b) Hence find exactly all three roots of the cubic equation
25 x3 - 2x2 - -2x + 4 = 0 [07]
(c) 10x - 6 (d) 2. Solve the following inequalities
(x 2 - 9) (x 2 - 3x - 4)
3x + 2 4x + 1
(a) < [03]
(e) 8 - 7x (f ) 6x +11x - 8
2
4 7
(x3 + 3x 2 - 1) (x - 1)(x + 2)2
(b) 9(x - 2) > 4(x + 3) [03]
(g) x +x
2
(h) 3 + 17x 2

(x - 1)(x 2 + 1) (1 + 4x )(4 + x 2) (c) |4x + 1| ≤ | 4x - 1| [04]

3. Solve the following equations:

(a) 15 + x - 8 x = 0 [03]

(b) |x| = |3 - x| + 3 [03]

4. (a) Express y = x2 + 6x - 4 in the form y = (x + p)2 + q, where

p and q are constants. [03]
(b) Hence write down the coordinates of the vertex of the
graph of y = x2 + 6x - 4. [02]

5. Express 17x - 5x as partial fractions. [03]

(x + 4)(2x + 3)
6. Solve the following pair of equations simultaneously:

y = 2x + 3 and y2 + xy = 16x [04]

TOTAL = 35

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 11

 functions (I)
CHAPTER
2
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: x2 – 2x – 15 – 9 = 0
 understand the terms function, domain, range, one- x2 – 2x – 24 = 0
one function, inverse function and composition of (x + 4)(x – 6) = 0
functions; So (x + 4) = 0 or (x – 6) = 0
 identify the range of a function; x = - 4 or x = 6
 find the inverse of a one-one function;
 identify identities and determine unknown EXERCISE 2.a
constants;
 illustrate the graphical relationship between a one- Find the value of x for which the given function has the given
value:
one function and its inverse. 1
1. f (x) = x 2 ; f (x) = 9 2. f (x) = ; f (x) = 1
x2
1
Functions 3. f (x) = x – 2x; f (x) = 3 4. f (x) = x + ; f (x) = 2
2
x
5. f (x) = 2x + 1; f (x) = - 9 6. f (x) = (x +1)(x - 2); f (x) = 0
A function is a rule that can be applied to one number
7. If f (x) = x2 – 2x – 15, find:
to give another number.
(a) f (2) (b) f (-2) (c) the values of x for which f (x) = 0.
Given y = 2x – 6, find y when x = 2;
y = 2(2) – 6 = 4 – 6 = - 2
There are three parts to a function
2 is the input 2x-6 the formula -2 is the output

We can also describe the function y = 2x – 6 in terms of

A B C
f (x) = 2x – 6 where y = f (x). In this case x is the input Inputs Function Outputs
value, f is the rule or mapping being used to lead us to [Domain] [Range]
y, the output value.
Given f (x) = x - 4x + x - 1
3 2
f : x 2x – 6 is read as x+1
'f such that x is mapped onto 2x – 6'
Also g : x x 2 - 6x + 4 is ‘g such that x is mapped onto This function is defined when x ≠ - 1. This defines the
x 2 - 6x + 4' or g (x) = x 2 - 6x + 4. Usually we will use the domain, where the domain is the set of input values.
For the function f (x) = x - 4x + x - 1 , where x ≠ - 1.
3 2
alphabetical letters f, g and h to denote functions.
x+1
This defines the range. The range is the set of output
Example values.
Given that f (x) = x² - 2x + 3 find
(i) f (4) (ii) f (0) (iii) f (3) (iv) f (-1) Inverse functions f

Solution f
x0 y0
(i) f (4) = 4² - 2(4) + 3 = 16 – 8 + 3 = 11
(ii) f (0) = 0² - 2(0) + 3 = 0 + 0 + 3 = 3 f
x1 y1
(iii) f (3) = 3² - 2(3) + 3 = 9 – 6 + 3 = 6
(iv) f (-1) = (-1)² - 2(-1) + 3 = 1 + 2 +3 = 6
x2 y2
Example
If f (x) = x² - 2x -15 find
(a) f (2) (b) The value of x for which f (x) = 9 If we consider the function y = f (x) we can visualize
the input values and output values to belong to certain
Solution groups of numbers. The function (mapping) f is
[Note: there is a difference between question (a) and (b)] mapping x 0 to y 0. It is also mapping x1 to y1 and x2 to y2.
(a) f (2) = 2² - 2(2) – 15 = 4 – 4 - 15 = - 15 Now we can also have a special function that
(b) f (x) = x2 – 2x – 15 = 9 maps the output values back to their input values.

12 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 -1
This function is called the Inverse function. The inverse 3. Given that f (x) = px + q such that f (6) = 3
-1
function of f is denoted as f . -1 -1
and f (-29) = - 2. Find f (27).
f -1
Composite functions
x0 f -1 y0
Composite functions are functions which have another
f -1 function or functions within them. Consider the two
x1 y1
functions f(x) and g(x).
Now f [g (x)] is a composite function in which the
x2 y2
variable x in f (x) is substituted by the function g(x)
itself, f [g(x)] can also be written as fg(x) or just fg.
In the figure above we see that f -1 (inverse of f ) maps y 0
to x 0, y1 to x1 and y2 to x2. Also g[f (x)] is a composite function in which the
variable x in g(x) is substituted by the function f (x)
Example itself.
x+2 -1 -1
If f : x x-2
, where x ≠ 2, find f i. e f (x) Example
Given that f (x) = 2x + 7 and g (x) = 3x
4
. Find
Solution
-1
To find f (x) we will let f (x) = y and then make x (i) f [g(x)] (ii) g [f (x)]
the subject.
Solutions
Thus y (x – 2) = x + 2 [multiplying both sides by (x – 2)]
xy – 2y = x + 2 [Removing brackets] (i) f (x) = 2x + 7, for f [g(x)] we replace x in f (x) by
xy – x = 2y + 2 [Putting terms in x all on one side]
x(y - 1) = 2y + 2 [Factoring out x on L.H.S] g(x).
x (y - 1) 2y + 2)
So (y - 1) = (y - 1) [Dividing both sides by (y – 1)] f [g(x)] = 2[g(x)] + 7
2y + 2 2 + 2y
x= y - 1 or x = = 2[ 3x ] + 7
y - 1 4
3x
[When we have x on one side only we substitute x by f
-1
(x) and y by = +7
2

x]. (ii) g(x) = 3x so for g[f (x)] we replace x in g(x) by

4
-1 2 + 2x
f (x) = x-1
f (x).
2 + 2x
We will check to see if f -1(x) = x - 1 truly is the g [f (x)] = 34 [f (x)]

inverse of f (x). Let us take x = 3 = 3 [2x + 7]

4
3+2 5 3
f (3) = = 1
= 5, so f (3) = 5 = 4
(2x) + 3 (7)
3 - 2 4
-1 -1 6x 21
Now if f (x) is true f (5) should give us 3. = 4
+ 4
-1 2 + 2(5)
2 + 10 12 6x + 21 3x 1
f (5) = 5 - 1 = = 4 = 3. = 4 or 2 + 54
4
-1 2 + 2x
This is true, so f (x) = and x ≠ 1.
x - 1
Example

EXERCISE 2.b Given that f (x) = x + 5 and g (x) = 4 – 2x, find
5
1. Find the inverse for the following functions:
(a) f (x) = x3 (b) f (x) = 3x – 1 (i) fg(x) (ii) g[g(x)]
5
x , (x ≥ 0) 5x + 3
(c) f (x) = (d) f (x) = .
2 Solutions
(i) fg(x) = [g(x)] + 5
2. Given f (x) =
3
x , where x ≥ 0, find the value of 5
-1 -1 1 [4 - 2x] + 5
(a) f (2) (b) f ( 2 ) =
-1 -1
5
(c) f (8) (d) f (5).
4 - 2x + 5
= 5

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 13

 y
9 - 2x f (x)= x 2 + 1
= 5

(ii) g[g(x)] = 4 – 2 [g(x)]

= 4 – 2[4 – 2x]
= 4 – 8 + 4x f (x)= x 2 - 1
= 4x - 4
1
= 4(x – 1)

x
EXERCISE 2.c -1 0 1

1. Given that f (x) = x 2 and g (x) = 4x - 1. Find the following: -1

(a) f g (x) (b) g f (x).
4
2. Given that f (x) = 5 – x and g(x) = (x ≠ 0), find the value
x The domain is any real number x for both. Now the
of the following:
(a) f f (x) (b) gg(x) range is all the output values and these are found on the
1 y – axis. The range for f (x) = x 2 - 1 is any real number y
3. Given that f (x) = 2x + 5, g(x) = x 2 and h (x) = x , where
greater or equal to – 1 i. e. y ≥ - 1, the range for
x ≠ 0, find the following:
f (x) = x 2 + 1 is any real number y greater or equal to 1,
(a) fg(x) (b) gh(x) (c) fhg (x)
i. e. y ≥ 1. Thus a clearer picture of the range can be seen
4. Given that f (x) = ax +b, f (2) = 19 and f f (0) = 55, find a when we sketch the graph of a function and look at the
and b. y – axis closely.
5. Given that f (x) = x and g(x) = 3x - 2. Find a, b and c
such that EXERCISE 2.d
(a) fg(a) = 100 (b) gg(b) = 55 (c) fg(c) = 169.
1. For each of the following define the range of the
function:
Mapping 1
(a) f (x) = x , (x ≠ 0) (b) f (x) = (x 2 + x - 2)
1 x-1
(i) Given a function such as f (x) = x + 1 (c) f (x) = 2x -3 (d) g (x) = x + 1
f (1) = 2
f (2) = 3 1 t
(e) f (x) = x , (x ≠ 0) (f ) h (t) = t - 1
f (3) = 4
This is a one to one mapping. 2. Determine the type of mapping of each function i.e.
one to one, many to one or one to many. The domain
(ii) Given a function such as f (x) = x2 + 1 is where x is a real number:
f (-2) = 5 since f (-2) = f (2) = 5 1 1
f (-1) = 2 and also f (-1) = f (1) = 2 (a) f (x) = x ; (x ≠ 0) (b) g(x) = x 2 ; (x ≠ 0)
f (0) = 1 (c) f (x) = x3 + 1 (d) f (x) = - 4x2
f (1) = 2
(e) f (x)= (x - 1) ; (x ≠ 0).
2
f (2) = 5
There are two domain values leading to one
Inverse of a Function
codomain value.
This is called a many to one mapping
We will now take a further look at the inverse of a func-
tion.
(iii) Given f (x) = x where x ≥ 0
f (0) = 0
Examples
f (1) = 1 = ±1 (two values)
f (2)= 2 = ± 2 (two values) 1. Given that f : x →3x + 2, find f ( x )
-1

This is called a one to many mapping.

Solution
Looking more closely at range through graphical
analysis.Consider the functions f (x) = x 2 - 1 and Let y = 3x + 2
f (x) = x 2 + 1. The sketch graphs of these two graphs y-2
are shown below (note: both functions have the same Then 3 =x [ making x the subject ]

domain). Therefore f
-1
(x) =
x-2
3

14 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 -1
2. Given that f (x) = x 3 , find f (x) y
f (x) = x 2
y=x
Solution
Let y = x3
3
y =x y= x = f -1(x)

∴f -1
(x) =
3
x or f - 1 (x) = x 1/3
x
0

One graphical technique that can be employed to see
as to whether a function is a one to one function or not -1
over a certain domain is a test called the horizontal line Thus the graph of f (x) is a reflection in the line y = x
test (hlt). Consider the functions f (x) = x 3 , with domain of f (x).
x a real number and g (x) = x 2 with the same domain.
This is true for any one–one function over a certain
The sketch graphs of these two functions are shown domain such as h(x) = log e (x) = ln x
below. h-1(x) = e x
y
y = x3 y=x
y y y = x2

h(x) = log e (x) = ln x

1
x
x x 0 1
0 0

EXERCISE 2.e

A horizontal line parallel to the x – axis is drawn on Find the inverse of the following functions:
both graphs of the functions.The horizontal line cuts the 1. f (x) = 3x + 2 2. f (x) = x5 (x ≥ 0)
graph y = x 3 only once over this domain while the same 1
3. f (x) = 1 – 6x (x ≥ 0) 4. f (x) = (x ≠ 0)
horizontal line cuts the graph of y = x 2 twice over the x
5. f (x) = x4 (x ≥ 0) 6. h (x) = x 3 (x ≥ 0)
same domain. 1
7. f (x) = e 2x 8. f (x)= ln( 2 x)
If a horizontal line cuts the graph of y = f (x) at one
point only within a certain domain then this function 9. In the sketch, the following functions are
is a one-one function and an inverse exists within this represented below :
domain. f : with equation y = 3x
g : the reflection of f in the line y = x
If a horizontal line cuts the graph of a function y = f (x)
h : the reflection of g in the x-axis
more than once within a certain specified domain then
this function is not a one–one function and an inverse y f
does not exist within this domain. y=x

There is a relationship that exists between the function

f (x) and its inverse f - 1 (x) (if it is one-one) which can g
be graphically interpreted. (0;1)
x
Consider y = f (x) = x (Domain x ≥ 0). If we reflect 0
(1;0)
f (x) = x , in the line y = x, we obtain the graph y = x 2
for (x ≥ 0) but this is the inverse of f (x) = x 2 . h
(a) Determine the defining equations of g and h in the
form y = ......

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 15

 (b) Determine, with aid of the sketch, the values of x for
which:
TEST 2
(i) 3x > 0 (ii) log 1 (x) ≤ 0
6 1. The functions h and g are defined by h such that
10. In the sketch below f (x) = ax h(x) = 2x + 3, where x is a real number and g is such
that g(x) = 1 , where x is a real number and x ≠ 1.
x-1
f (a) Find an expression for the inverse function h-1(x)
h y
[02]
(b)(i) Find an expression for the composite function
gh(x) [03]
g (ii) Hence evaluate gh(7) [02]
1 (c) What is the graphical relationship between h(x)
x and h-1(x)? [02]
1
0 2. The function g is given by g : x → 2x - 16x, where
2

x is a real number and x ≤ 8. Also h is given by

h : x → 8 , for x ≠ 0
x
(a) Determine the values of x for which g(x) = 0 [02]
(a) Find a if the graph of f passes through the
point (2 ; 9 ) (b) Find an expression for gh(x) [03]
4

(b) Determine g(x) if g(x) = f -1(x). 3. By using a graphical approach, state whether the
(c) Determine h(x) if h is symmetrical to the f about following functions are one-one functions on the
the x-axis. domains stated in the brackets or not?
(d) Write down the domains and ranges of f, g and h. (a) f (x) = x2 ; (x < 0)
(b) f (x) = x3 ; (x ≤ 0)
(c) f (x) 1x= ; (x < 0) [06]

TOTAL = 20

16 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 CHAPTER
coordinate
geometry
3
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: 2. (a) If the point (k ; - 5) lies on the line 2x + 4y = 8,
 find the length, gradient and mid-point of a line find k.
segment; (b) If (3 ; a) and (b ; 2) lie on the line y = 2x + 6, find a
 find the equation of a straight line; and b.
 work with parallel and perpendicular lines;
 interpret and use linear equations of the form Solutions
y = mx + c, y -y1 = m(x - x1) and ax + by + c = 0;
 understand the relationship between a graph and its (a) If (k ;-5) lies on the line, substitute (k ;-5) in the
associated algebraic equation. equation 2x + 4y = 8 where x = k and y = -5

i.e. 2k – 20 = 8
Linear equations
2k =8
k = 14
Gradient of a Line (b) Substitute each point into y = 2x + 6 to get two
equations and solve them simultaneously.
change in y y -y
Gradient = change in x or x 1 - x0 , when given the two
1 0
If (3 ; a) and (b ; 2) ;
points (x 0 ; y 0) and (x 1 ; y 1) found on the line.

Example Substituting (3,a): 2 = 2b + 6

a=6+6
Given that a line passes through the points (1 ; 5) and a = 12
(3 ; 1). Calculate the gradient of this line.
Substituting (b ; 2): 2 = 2b + 6
Solution 2-6 = 2b

5-1 1-5 4 2b
Gradient = 1 - 3 or 3 - 1 - =
2 2
= -4 b = -2
2 (b) y = 2x + 6 is a straight line with a gradient m = 2 and
=-2 c = 6, so if (3 ; a) and (b ; 2) lie on line then
The general equation of a straight line is y = mx +c,
a-2
where m the coefficient of x is the gradient of the line gradient = 3 - b = 2 or 2 - a = 2
b-3
and c is the y – intercept. The y - intercept is where the
line cuts the y -axis. So a – 2 = 2(3 – b) at (b, 2)
∴ a – 2 = 6 – 2b also x = b and y = 2
Examples ∴ a = 6 + 2 – 2b so 2 = 2(b) + 6
a = 8 – 2b ∴ 2 = 2b + 6
1. Given the line 3y = x - 9. Find the gradient of the line - 4 = 2b
And ∴ b = - 2
Solutions Substituting b = - 2 into a = 8 – 2b
3y = x - 9 a = 8 – 2(-2)
3y x 9 [make y the subject]
So = - ∴ a = 8 + 4 = 12
3 3 3

Thus y = x - 3, the gradient m is the coefficient of x So a = 12 and b = - 2

3
so m = 1
3

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 17

 Distance Between Two Points Coordinates of the mid - point
Example y
Given two points A (-2, 1) and B (2, 3). Find the y1 B (x 1 , y 1 )
distance between them.

Solution M x0 + x1 , y0 + y1
The points are plotted on a cartesian plane. 2 2
y0
A line is drawn to join the two points. Trace the A (x0, y0)
movement from A to B first in the x direction then in
the y direction. This will form a right-angled triangle.
y
B(2,3) 0 x0 x1 x
3

2 The graph shows the two points A (x 0 ; y 0 ) and

2 units
B (x1 ; y1). The point M is the point in the middle of the
A(-2,1)
1 line segment from A to B, thus the point M is the mid
4 units – point of the line segment AB.

-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 x In general the coordinates of the mid – point between

any two points A(x 0 ; y 0 ) and B (x1 ; y1) can be found
-1 using the formula
Mid-point M = x 0 + x 1 ; y 0 + y 1 s
Since there are 2 units in the y direction and 4 units in 2 2
the x direction, the formula to find |AB| is as follows: Example
|AB| = (3-1) + [2 - (-2)]
2 2

= 4 + 16 Find the coordinates of the mid - point of the line

20 segment that joins the points A (2 ; 3) and B (-2 ; 1)
=
= 4×5 Solution
2 + (-2) 3 + 1
= 2 5 units ;
2 2

The general formula for finding the distance between 0 4

The point is at ;
2 2
two points
A(x 1 ; y 1) and B(x 2 ; y 2) = (0 ; 2)
= |AB| = (y1 - y2)2 + (x1 - x2) 2

A graph is not necessary all the time to find the distance EXERCISE 3.a
between two points.
1. Find the gradient of the lines passing through the
A = (-2 ; 1) B = (2 ; 3) following points:
(a) (3, 1) and (2, 8) (b) (-1, 6) and (4, - 2)
|AB| = [2 -(-2)]2 + (3 - 1)2 (c) (2, 6) and (4, 2) (d) (1, - 3) and (5, 7)
(e) (-1, - 4) and (3, - 3)
= 4 + 16
= 20 2. Determine whether the following points lie on the graph of
3y – 2x = 7:
= 2 5 units (a) (-2, 1) (b) (4, 6)

3. If the point (k, - 4) lies on the line 3x + 5y = 10, find k.

4. If (a, 3) and (2, b) lie on the line y = 2x + 6, find a and b.

5.Given the following coordinates find the distance between

them and the coordinates of the mid - point of the line
joining them:

(a) (3, 6) and (5, 2) (b) (0, - 1) and (0, 1)

(c) (-2, 4) and (2, 1) (d) (9, 0) and (0, 0)

18 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

Equation of a Straight Line
5
=c
2
The equation of a straight line can be found when two
points on the line are given or when one point and the Therefore the equation is
gradient of the line are given.
3
y =- x+ 5
Given two points on the line 4 2

Multiplying through out by 4

The first step is to calculate the gradient and then find
4y = - 3x + 10
the value of c (y – intercept).
4y = 10 - 3x or 3x + 4y – 10 = 0 (ax + by + c = 0)
Example Where a = 3; b = 4 and c = -10

Find the equation of the straight line joining the points Gradient of Parallel Lines
(3 ; 6) and (5 ; 2). y
B(2,2) C(6,2)
Solution 2

4
Gradient = 6 - 2 = -2 = -2 1
3-5

Remember the general equation of a straight line

y = mx + c -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 6 x
∴ y = -2x + c
-1
To find c just take any one of the two pairs of
coordinates (3 ; 6) or (5 ; 2) and substitute in the A(-2,-2) -2
D(2,-2)
equation y = -2x + c.

When x = 3; y = 6 or when x = 5; y = 2 The shape ABCD on the x – y plane shown above is a

∴ 6 = - 2(3) + c ∴ 2 = - 2(5) + c parallelogram.
6 = - 6 + c 2 = - 10 + c The gradient of the line joining points A (-2 ; - 2) and
2 -(-2) 2+2 4
6 + 6 = c 2 + 10 = c B (2 ; 2) is = 2 +2 = 4 = 1
2 -(-2)
12 = c 12 = c
The gradient of the line joining points C (6 ; 2) and
Therefore the equation is y = - 2x + 12 2 - -2
D (2 ; - 2) is 6 -2
= 44 = 1

We see that the side AB is parallel to the side CD we

Example
expected this is because the shape is a parallelogram.
Find the equation of a straight line passing through the Thus the gradients of parallel lines are equal.
3
point (2; 1), given that its gradient is - 4 . Giving your
Also the gradient of the line between points B (2 ; 2)
answer in the form ax + by + c = 0 2-2 0
and C (6 ; 2) is 6 - 2 = 4 = 0
Solution
The gradient of the line between points A (-2 ; - 2) and
- 2 -(-2) -2 + 2
y = mx + c; m =
3
- 4 so, D (2 ; - 2) is 2 -(-2) = 2 + 2 = 0 = 0
4

3 Thus these two sides are parallel as well.
y=- 4 x+c
[Note that a line with a gradient of 0 is parallel to the
From the given point (2 ; 1) when y = 1 and x = 2 x – axis i. e. horizontal line].
When lines are parallel their gradients are equal.
3
So 1 = - 4 (2) + c
Example
6
1=- 4
+c
Find the equation of the line parallel to line y = 5x – 2
3
1= - 2 +c and passing through the point (-2 ; 6)

3 2 3
1 + 2 = c ; i.e. c = +
2 2

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 19

 Solution Example
If the two lines are parallel their gradient is 5,
the equation for the other line is y = 5x + c Find the equation of the straight line that is parallel to
the line y = 4x – 3 and passing through the point (2 ; 9).

when x = - 2; y = 6 Solution
6 = 5(-2) + c
6 = - 10 + c From y = 4x – 3 gradient = 4
6 + 10 = c Using y = mx + c and substituting x = 2 and y = 9
16 = c 9 = 4(x) + c
Therefore y = 5x + 16 9-8=c
c=1
Gradients of Perpendicular Lines Equation of line is y = 4x + 1

The gradient of any straight line is m. Since y = mx +c Example

where m is the gradient.
1 Deduce the equation of a line that passes through the
The gradient of the perpendicular line is - m
point (2 ; 1) and is perpendicular to a line that passes
y through the points (0 ; 1) and (1 ; 0).
B y = mx + c
0
Solution
A 1
y = - m x + c1
Using the points (0 ; 1) and (1 ; 0), the gradient of the
0 x perpendicular line = mp = 1 - 0 = -1
0-1
N So gradient of line = m = 1 [since m × mp = -1]
The diagram shows the line N that is perpendicular to
line AB Using y = mx + c at the point (2 ; 1)
[The gradient of AB] x [The gradient of the perpendicular line N] 1 = (-1)(2) + c
m × -1 1+2=c
m
=-1 c=3
Examples Therefore equation of line is y = - x + 3

1
1. Given that y = - 3 x - 2. What is the gradient of the
line perpendicular to this line?
EXERCISE 1.g

Solution 1. Find the equation of the straight line that is parallel to the
line y = 4x – 3 and passing through the point (2 ; - 9).
The gradient of the given line is - 13 [coefficient of x]
The gradient of the perpendicular line is 2. Find the equation of the line that is parallel to the line 3x +
-1 -3
- 1/3
= -1 × 1 = 3 4y = 1 and cuts the x axis where x = - 2.

This gives 3 as the gradient of the perpendicular line. 3. Given that y = 2x – 1, find the line that is perpendicular to
this line and passes through the origin.
2. Find the gradient of any line that is perpendicular to
4. Given that y +x = 3, find the line that is perpendicular to
the line between (1 ; - 3) and (5 ; 7)
this line and cuts the y axis at a point where y = - 1.

Solution 5. Deduce the equation of a line that passes through the point
(2 ; 1) and is perpendicular to a line that passes through the
Gradient of the given line = -3
1-5
-7
points (0 ; -1) and (1 ; 2)

= -10 6 .(a) Find the equation of the straight line p which is the
-4
5 perpendicular bisector of the points A(-2 ; 3) and
= 2 B(1 ; 5), and the equation of the straight line q, which
is the perpendicular bisector of the points B(1 ;-5) and
-1 C(17 ; 1).
The gradient of the perpendicular line = 5/2
2 (b) show that p is perpendicular to q.
2
= - 1÷ 5 = - 5
2 7. The points O, T and S have coordinates (0 ; 0) , (4 ; 3) and
This gives - 5 as the gradient of the line required.
(a ; b) respectively. Given that OS is perpendicular to TS,

20 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 (a) show that a2 + b2 = 4a + 3b , Solution
Given also that a = 1, 
y
(b) Find to 2 decimal places , the possible values of b. (a)
8. (a) Find the gradient of the straight line with equation 3 C(2 ; 3)
2x + 3y = 5,
r
(b) Find the gradient of the straight line which passes
through the point (4 ; 5) and is perpendicular to the  
line 2x + 3y = 5. O 2 x

9. A(-7 ; 3) and B(5 ; 7) are two given points. Determine:

(a) the coordinates of M, the midpoint of AB 

(b) the distance from C(-2 ; -5) to M (b) Using x 2 + y 2 = 1
(c) the equation of the line AB
(2) 2 + (3) 2 = r2
(d) the equation of the line perpendicular to AB which
passes through M.
4 + 9 = r2
r2 = 13
10. PQRS is a quadrilateral with P(-3 ; 2), Q(1 ; 4) and The equation of the circle is x 2 + y 2 = 1
S(2 ; -1). Determine the:
(a) gradient of QS Example
(b) midpoint M of PS
(c) coordinates of R(x ; y) such that PQRS is a P(k ; -√2) is a point on the circle x 2 + y 2 = 20. Determine the
parallelogram possible values of k.
(d) equation of RS
(e) coordinates of A, if A is the x-intercept of the line RS Solution
(f ) length of QR.
Substitute (k ; -√2) into x 2 + y 2 = 20 which is the
equation of the equation and solve:
Equation of a circle
k2 + (-√2) 2 = 20
A circle is a set or a locus of points equidistant from k 2 = 20 - 2
a fixed point. The fixed point O being the centre of k 2 = 18
the circle. 
y ∴ k = -√18 or √18

Circles not centred at the origin O(0 ; 0)

C(x ; y)
r The circle shown below has its centre at C(a ; b) which
is
 
O x not the origin O(0 ; 0).

y

P(x ; y)
r

The distance from the centre O to any point C(x ; y) on 
C(a ; b)
the circumference of the circle is the radius r.  
O x

Equation of circle with centre at O(0 ; 0)

The equation of a circle with centre at the origin


O(0 ; 0) is x 2 + y 2 = r2, with radius r = √x2 + y2
The equation of a circle not centred at origin C(a ; b)
can be written in the form
Example (x - a)2 + (y - b)2 = r2
A circle with centre O(0 ; 0) passes through the point Upon expansion this equation can alternatively be
(2 ; 3), expressed as

(a) Draw a sketch graph of the circle x2 + y2 -2ax - 2by + a2 + b2 = r2

(b) Find the equation of the circle.

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 21

 The centre lies at C(a ; b). = [0 - (1)2 + (7 - 4)2]
= 10
Examples Equation of circle is (x - 1)2 + (y - 4)2 = 10
Determine the coordinates of the centre and radius
length of the following circles:
(a) (x - 2)2 + (y - 5)2 = 10 Equation of a tangent to a circle
(b) x2 +2x + y2 - 6y = 2 Tangent
Normal

Solutions P
(a) (x - 2)2 + (y - 5)2 = 10
This equation is in the form (x - a)2 + (y - b)2 = r2
a = 2 ; b = 5 and r2 = 10 
O(0 ; 0)

Centre lies at (2 ; 5) and the radius r = √10

y

r = √10
The diagram above shows a circle with a tangent
5 (2 ; 5) touching at the contact point P. In a circle, the radius or
diameter drawn to the point of contact with the tangent

O 2 x forms part of the line perpendicular to the circle. This
perpendicular line is also known as the normal.

The product of the gradient of the normal to the circle

(b) x +2x + y - 6y =2
2 2 and the gradient of the tangent is -1. That is,
To express this equation in the form GradientNormal × GradientTangent = -1
(x - a)2 + (y - b)2 = r2 we complete the squares:
x2 +2x +(1)2 - (1)2 + y2 - 6y + (-3)2 - (-3)2 = 2 Example
(x + 1)2 + (y -3)2 + (1)2 - (1)2 - (-3)2 = 2
Determine the equation of the tangent to the circle
(x + 1)2 + (y -3)2 - 1 - 9 = 2
x2 - 2x + y2 + 4y = 5 at the point P(2 ; 4).
(x + 1)2 + (y -3)2 = 1 + 9 + 2
(x + 1)2 + (y -3)2 = 12
Solution
a = -1 ; b = 3 ∴ lies at (-1 ; 3)
radius = r = √12 = 2√3 To find the centre of the circle we express
 x2 - 2x + y2 + 4y = 5 in the form (x - a)2 + (y - b)2 = r2
y
∴ (x2 - 2x + 1) + (y2 +4y + 4) =5 +1 + 4
 ∴ (x - 1)2 + (y + 2)2 = 10
r = 2√3 Centre at the point C(1 ; -2) with r = √10

GradientNormal = 4 - (-2) = 6
 3
(-1 ; 3)
2-1
 -1 O x 1
GradientTangent = - 6 [GradientNormal × GradientTangent = -1]

y-4
∴ Equation of tangent is =-1
x-2 6

6(y - 4) = -(x - 2)
6y - 24 = -x + 2 
Example 6y = -x + 24 + 2
y

Determine the equation of the circle with centre C(1 ; 4) x 26 Tangent

y=- +
passing through the point Q(0 ; 7). 6 6
y
Normal
 Q(0 ; 7)  P(2 ; 4)
Solution r =√10
r =√10
CQ is the radius
 O x
 y = - x + 26
4

C(1 ; -2) 6 6
 C(1 ;4)
 O 1 x 

r2 = CQ2 
22 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry
 EXERCISE 3.c
TEST 3
1. Find the equation of the straight line that:
(a) passes through (4 ; -3) and is parallel to y = 3x + 5
1. Determine the equation of the circle with centre at the
(b) passes through (6 ; -4) and is perpendicular to the
origin O(0 ; 0), and:
(a) a radius of 3 units (b) a radius of √7 units
line 3y + 10x = 8. [07]
(c) a radius of 3√2 units (d) passing through point (-2 ; 3)
2. (a) Find the coordinates of the point T given that
2. Do the following equations represent circles or not? M(3 ; -2) is the midpoint of the straight line
Give reasons for your answers. joining T to U(9 ; -2)
(a) 4x 2 + 4y 2 = 36 (b) x 2 + 4y 2 = 4 (b) Calculate the distance from point T to U. [06]
(c) x - y + y = 17
2 2
(d) bx 2 + by 2 = 9
3. Determine the equation of the circle with centre
3. (3 ; a) is a point on the circle x 2 + y 2 = 18. Determine (-1 ; 1) and radius √3 units. [03]
the possible values of a.

4. Two points (a ; 2) and (-4 ; b) lie on the circle x 2 + y 2 = 16.

4. Find the equation of the tangent which touches
Determine the distance between these two points. the circle 4x2 + 4y2 = 65 at the point P(-4 ; 1 ). [04]
2

5. A(-3; 4) is a point on a circle with centre at the origin. TOTAL = 20

(a) Determine the equation of the circle.
(b) Determine the coordinates of B, if AB is a diameter.
(c) Show that the point C(0 ; 5) lies on this circle.

6. Determine the equation of the circle with centre:

(a) (2 ; 10) and radius of 4 units
(b) (-2√5 ; 4) and passing through the origin
(c) (3 ; -5) and passing through (-1 ; 1)
(d)(-2 ; 4) and radius of r units.

7. Determine the centre and radius of each circle.

(a) x2 - 4x + y2 + 2y - 20 = 0
(b) x2 + 2x + y2 - 12 = 0
(c) x2 - 8x + y2 - 2y - 20 = 0
(d) x2 + 6x + y2 - 5y - 2 = 0

8. Determine the equation of the circle passing through

points A(12 ; 4), B(8 ; 12) and C(- 6 ; -2).

9. Find the equation of the tangent which touches the

circle:
(a) x 2 + y 2 = 25 at the point P(-3 ; 4)
(b) x 2 + y 2 = 5 at the point P(-1 ; -2).

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 23

 CHAPTER
circular
measure
4
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: To convert an angle in degrees to radians we
multiply the angle by π
180˚
 understand the definition of a radian, and use the
relationship between radians and degrees; Examples
 use the formulae s = rθ and A = 12 r2θ in solving Convert the following angles to radians:
problems concerning arc length and sector area of
a circle. (i) 45˚
(ii) 60˚
Radian Measure (iii) 75˚
(iv) 90˚
The calculation of the sine or tangent of a small angle
requires the calculation of the radian, arc: radius. The Solutions
value of this ratio depends on the angle only. Thus if the π × 45˚ π
radius is doubled so is the arc, if the angle remains the (i) 45˚ = = 4 radians
180˚
same. This gives an alternative way of measuring angles
(ii) 60˚ = π × 60˚ = π3 radians
and it is known as circular measure or radian measure. 180˚
The unit for this measurement is called the radian. (iii) 75˚ = π × 75˚ = 15π radians
A 180˚ 36
π × 90˚ π
r (iv) 90˚ = = 2
radians.
180˚
r To convert angles from radians to degrees, we simply
O q
multiply the number or fractions in front of π by 180˚
r
Examples
B
Convert the following angles to degrees:
In the figure above the sectorOAB is such that the
arc length AB = radius r. The the angle between these (i) 3π radians
two radii is equivalent to 1 radian. 4
(ii) 2π radians
1 radian ≈ 57.30 (3 s .f ) 5
(iii) 3π radians
2
One radian is the angle made by an arc of length equal
to the radius. The figure below shows a semi – circle. Solutions

(i) 3π radians = 3 × 180˚ = 135˚

4 4
(ii) 2π radians = 2 × 180˚ = 72˚
5 5
π 3π
(iii) radians = 3 × 180˚ = 270˚.
2 2
r O r

1
The arc length of a semi – circle is 2 (2πr) = πr, so that
the radian measure of 180˚ is π, in other words
π
180˚ = π radians ; 10 = 180˚ radians

24 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 (b) 6cm
EXERCISE 4.a
A B
1. Convert the following angles to radians: 5cm
5cm
q
(a) 50˚ (b) 65˚ (c) 220˚
(d) 80˚ (e) 270˚ (f ) 360˚ O
(g) 22.5˚ (h) 120˚ (i) 300˚
Arc length = rθ ; 6 = 12 r ; [note that θ is in radians]
2. Express the following angles in degrees: r = 12cm
A
7π
(a) π radians (b) 5π radians (c) radians (c)
5 6 6

(d) 4π radians (e) 6π radians (f ) π radians
3 5 6 O q 5cm

(g) π radians (h) 4π radians (i) 5π radians
7 7 2 3cm

B
Arc length and Sector area 3
We need to find θ first; 5 = 3θ ; θ = 5
radians
B

s r Thus, the area of sector(OAB) = 1 r2θ = 1 (3cm)2( 3 )

2 2 5
θ 1 3
= × 9 × cm2
O
r 2 5
A
= 15 cm2
2

The diagram above shows a circle of radius r with an

angle θ subtended at the centre. The arc AB has a length (a) Calculate the angle subtended by the sector of area of
s and the sector AOB contains the angle θ which is in 4.13cm2 at the centre of a circle of radius 5.29 cm.
radians.
(b) Find the area of a sector of a circle of radius 8 cm if
1
Arc length = s = rθ ; Area of sector = r2θ the of the sector subtends an angle of 1 radians.
2 4

Examples (c) A and B are points on the cirumference of a circle O

and radius 4 cm. If the chord AB is of length 6 cm
a) Find the angle subtended at the center by an arc find
length 5cm on a circle of radius 5cm. (i) the angle the minor arc AB subtends at the centre.
b) The arc AB is of length 6cm and subtends an angle of (ii) the area of the corresponding sector AOB.
1
2
radians at the center of the circle. Find the radius
of the circle. Solutions
c) An arc AB of length 5cm is marked on a circle of
(a)
radius 3cm. Find the area of the sector bounded by
A B
this arc and the radii from A to B. Area = 4.13 cm2

Solutions q 5.29cm

(a) 5cm O

A B 4.13 cm2 = 1 (5.29cm)2(θ)

4
r
q 4.12 = 13.99(θ)

O θ = 0.294 radians.

Arc length = rθ ; 5 = 5θ ; θ = 1 radian

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 25

 (b) A Find the value of θ and the area of the minor segment
bounded by PQ and the circle.
8cm

Solution
1
O
4
sin( θ ) = 4
2 7
8cm 4
θ = 2sin-1( )
B 7
= 1.22
Area of minor segment PQ
Area of sector = 1 (8 cm)2( 1 ) = Area(Sector POQ) - Area(Triangle POQ)
2 4
A 1 1
= 8 cm2 = r2θ - r2sinθ
2 2
4 cm
1
(c)(i) Using cosine rule to find θ ; = (7cm)(1.22) - 1 (7cm)2sin(1.22)
2 2
62 = 42 + 42 - 2(4)(4)(cosθ) 6 cm
O q
36 = 32 - 32(cosθ) =
9 4 cm
8 = 1 -1cosθ
cosθ = - [since cosθ is negative, θ is obtuse ] B Example
8
θ = 1.70 radians. A chord of circle subtends an angle of θ radians at the
centre of the circle. The area of the minor segment cut
1 1
(ii) Area of sector = 2 r2θ = 2 × (4 cm)2 × 1.70 = 13.6 cm2 off by the chord is one twelfth of the area of the circle.
Prove that 6θ = π + 6sinθ.
Area of Minor Segment
Solution
B

θ
O O
A
θ
B
A

Area of minor segment

The diagram above shows a circle, centre O with the = Area(Sector AOB) - Area(Triangle AOB)
chord AB within the sector OAB. The sector AOB is
1 2 1 2
comprised of the isosceles triangle OAB and the shaded r θ - r sinθ = 1 πr2
2 2 12
minor segment AB.
6r2θ - 6r2sinθ = cr2
Area(Minor segment AB) 6θ - 6sinθ = π
= Area(Sector AOB) - Area(Triangle AOB) 6θ = π + 6sinθ Shown
1 2 1
= r θ - r2sinθ
2 2
EXERCISE 4.b
Example
1. In a circle with centre O andd radius 5 cm. PQ is chord of
length 10 cm. Find
(a) the area of triangle POQ
O (b) the area of the sector POQ
θ 7cm
2. A chord of length 20 cm divides a circle of radius 14 cm
4cm 4cm into two segments. Find the area of each segment.
P Q
3. A chord XY of length 6.3 cm subtends an angle of 2π
In the diagram above P and Q are points on the radians at the centre of a circle. Find 3
circumference of circle, centre O and radius 7cm. (a) the length of the arc XY
Angle POQ = θ radians and the length of the chord PQ (b) the area of the minor segment cut off by the chord XY.
is 8cm.

26 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

4. Two circles each of radius 28 cm are drawn with their
centres 40 cm apart. Find the length of their common TEST 4
chord. Find also the area common to both circles.
1. Find the radius of a circle in which an arc of length
30 cm subtends an angle of π radians at the centre.
28cm
[04 ]
40cm 2. Two discs of radii 10 cm and 24 cm are placed on a
flat surface. If their centres are 26 cm apart, find the
perimeter of the ' figure eight' shape.

5. A chord of a circle subtends an angle of θ radians at the

centre of the circle. The area of the minor segment cut 24 cm
off by the chord is one eighth of the area of the circle. 10 cm
Prove that 4θ = π + 4sinθ. O 26 cm O
Z
6. The diagram shows a sector of a circle, centre O,
containing θ radians. find the area of the region
XYZ of the diagram giving your answer in
terms of θ.
Y

[06]
3.
O X
16 cm

q
R S
O
7. The diagram shows a sector of a circle
of radius r cm containing an angle of The diagram above shows a semi - circle RTS on RS
θ radians. the area of the sector is as diameter. The mid-point of RS is O. The point T on
A cm2 the semi- circle is such that the area of the sector TOS
A cm2 and the perimeter is 50 cm.
q r cm is equal to twice the area of the segment RT. Given that
(a) Find θ in terms of r, the angle POB is θ radians, show that
(b) Show that A = -r2 + 25r.
O
3θ = 2(π - sinθ) [04]
8. The diagram shows a circle with centre
Z O
O and radius r. Points X, Y and Z lie 4.
on the circle such that XY is the r
diameter. Angle YXZ = θ radians 2.5 cm
π
θ 3
X Y
(a) Write down the size of angle
r O r
P R
XOZ in terms of θ,
(b) Use triangle XOZ to express
(XZ)2 in terms of r and θ, Q
(c) By considering the right - angled triangleXYZ, write
down the length of AC in terms of r and θ.

In the diagram, PQR is an arc of a circle with centre O and

radius 2.5 cm. Angle PQR = π radians. Calculate the area of
3
the region enclosed by PS, SR and the arc PQR, giving your
answer correct to two significant figures. [06]

TOTAL = 20

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 27

 trigonometry
CHAPTER
5
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to:
 sketch and use graphs of the sine, cosine and tan(30°) = tan π = 1 = √3 .
6 √3 3
tangent functions;
 use the exact values of the sine,cosine and tangent The trigonometric functions cosecant, secant and
of 30°, 45°, 60° and related angles; cotangent (abbreviated as cosec, sec and cot respectively) are
 use the notations sin-1x,cos-1x and tan-1x to denote defined as:
the principal values of the inverse trigonometric 1 1 1
relations; cosecθ ≡ ; secθ ≡ ; tanθ ≡
sinθ cosθ tanθ
 use trigonometrical identities for the simplification
and exact evaluation of expressions and solution of Graphs of trigonometric functions
equations;
(a) y = sinθ
 express asinθ + bcosθ in the forms Rsin(θ ± α) and
sinθ
Rcos(θ ± α). 1

y = sinθ
Trigonometric functions
-360o -270o -180o -90o 0 90o 180o 270o 360o θ

There are exact values of some trigonometric functions.

Consider the triangles shown below. -1

G
B From the graph of sinθ above we obtain the following
30° properties of the sine function;
2 √3 √2 √2
o
1 o (i) The function y = sinθ is periodic with period
60° 45 45
360°(2π) i.e. sin(θ + 360°) = sinθ or in radians
E 1 F A 1 1 C
sin(θ + 2π) = sinθ
(ii) The function y = sinθ is an odd function i.e.
From the isosceles triangle ABC above with two sides
sin(-θ) = -sinθ
with length 1 unit,
(iii) The maximum value or amplitude of y = sinθ is 1
and its minimum value is -1 i.e. -1 ≤ sinθ ≤ 1
cos(45°) = cos π = 1 ; sin(45°) = sin π = 1
4 √2 4 √2 (b) y = cosθ
tan(45°) = tan π = 1 = 1. cosθ
4 1 1

If we rationalise the denominators of cos(45°) and y = cosθ

sin(45°), 0 360o
θ
-360o -270o -180o -90o 90o 180o 270o

cos(45°) = cos π = 1 = √2 and sin(45°) = sin π = √2

4 √2 2 4 2 -1

If we then use triangle EFG above,

From the graph of cosθ above we obtain the following
cos(60°) = cos π = 1 ; sin(60°) = sin π = √3 and properties of the cosine function;
3 2 3 2
tan(60°) = tan π = √3 = √3, also
3
(i) The function y = cosθ is periodic with period
1
360°(2π) i.e. cos(θ + 360°) = cosθ or in radians
cos(30°) = cos π = √3 ; sin(30°) = sin π = 1 and
6 6 cos(θ + 2π) = cosθ
2 2
(ii) The function y = cosθ is an even function i.e.
cos(-θ) = cosθ

28 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

(iii) The maximum value or amplitude of y = cosθ is 1
and its minimum value is -1 i.e. -1 ≤ cosθ ≤ 1
(d) Using cosecθ ≡ 1 , where θ = π ;
sinθ 4
The graph of y = cosθ is a translation 90° to the left
of the graph of y = cosθ thus we have the following
reduction formulae for the relationship between cosθ cosec( π ) = 1
π = 1
1 = √2.
4 sin( )
and sinθ: 4 √2

cos(90° - θ) = sinθ or in radians cos( π - θ) = sinθ

2 EXERCISE 5.a
π
sin(90° - θ) = cosθ or in radians sin( - θ) = cosθ
2 1. Find the exact values of :
cos(180° - θ) = -cosθ or in radians cos( π- θ) = -cosθ
(a) sin(135°) (b) tan(240°) (c) cos(120°) (d) tan(240°)
(c) y = tanθ
(e) sin(225°) (f ) cos( 3π ) (g) sin(- π ) (h) cos(- π )
tanθ y = tanθ 2 6 8
1

(i) cosec( π ) (j) cot( 5π ) (k) cosec(- 3π ) (l) sec(-13π )

2 6 4 2
-360o -270o -180o -90o 0 90o 180o 270o 360o θ

-1
Compound angles

Some trigonometric ratios may involve the addition

From the graph of tanθ above we obtain the following or subtraction of angles. Such angles are known as
properties of the tangent function; compound angles and the use of the following formulae
is extremely useful when such types of angles are
(i) The function y = tanθ is periodic with period 180°(π) encountered.
i.e. tan(θ +180°) = tanθ or in radians tan(θ + π) = tanθ
(ii) The function y = tanθ is an odd function sin(A + B) ≡ sinAcosB + sinBcosA
i.e. tan(-θ) =-tanθ sin(A - B) ≡ sinAcosB - sinBcosA
(iii) The function y = tanθ is undefined at cos(A + B) ≡ cosAcosB - sinAsinB
cos(A - B) ≡ cosAcosB + sinAsinB
θ = ±90° ; ±270° ; ... or in radians θ = ± π ; ± 3π ; ...
2 2 tan(A + B) ≡ tanA + tanB
1 - tanAtanB
(iv) Unlike y = sinθ and y = cosθ, y = tanθ is unbounded
or it does not have a maximum or minimum value tan(A - B) ≡ tanA - tanB
1 + tanAtanB
i.e. - ∞ ≤ tanθ ≤ ∞.
Examples
Examples
Expand each of the following :
Write down the exact values of the following:
(a) cos(2x + 45°) (b) sin(3y - 60°) (c) tan(25° - 4y)
(a) sin(120°) (b) cos( 3π ) (c) sec( π π
) (d) cosec( )
4 3 4 Solutions
Solutions
(a) For cos(2x + 45°), using
Exact means we are not to use a calculator; cos(A + B) ≡ cosAcosB - sinAsinB
where A = 2x and B = 45°;
(a) Using sin(180°- θ) = sinθ, where θ = 120°;
cos(2x + 45°) ≡ cos2xcos45° - sin2xsin45°
sin(180°- 120°) = sin(60°) = √3
2
(b) For sin(3y - 60°), using
(b) Using cos( π- θ) = -cosθ, where θ = 3π ; sin(A - B) ≡ sinAcosB - sinBcosA
4
where A = 3y and B = 60°;
cos( π - 3π ) = -cos( π )=- √2
4 4 2
sin(3y - B) ≡ sin3ycos60° - sin60°cos3y
1 π
(c) Using secθ ≡ , where θ = ;
cosθ 3
(c) For tan(25° - 4y), using tan(A - B) ≡ tanA - tanB ,
1 + tanAtanB
1 1 where A = 25° and B = 4y;
sec( π ) = cos( π ) = 1 =2
3 3 2

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 29

 (a) sin(105°) (b) cos(105°) (c) tan(105°).
tan(25° - 4y) ≡ tan25° - tan4y
1 + tan25°tan4y 4. By writing cosx in terms of x , find an alternative
expression for 1 - cosx . 2
Example 1 + cosx

Simplify cos3AsinA - sin3AcosA 5. Prove that 4sin(x + π )sin(x - π ) = 2 - 4cos2x.

6 6
6. Given that tan2x = 12 , find the possible values of tanx.
Solution 5

cos3AsinA - sin3AcosA
Double angle formulae
≡ sinAcos3A - cosAsin3A
≡ sin(A - 3A) These types of formulae arise from situations whereby
≡ sin(-2A) the angles present in compound angles such as
≡ - sin(2A) sin(A + B) are equal i.e. A = B and we then have
sin(A + A) ≡ sin(2A) or sin(B + B) ≡ sin(2B).
Example
The following formulae arise from such situations.
Prove that sin(2A + B) + sin(2A - B) ≡ 2sin2AcosB
sin2A ≡ 2sinAcosA
cos2A ≡ cos2A - sin2A
Solution
tan2A ≡ 2tanA2
sin(2A + B) + sin(2A - B) 1 - tan A
≡ [sin2AcosB + sinBcos2A] + [sin2AcosB-sinBcos2A]
However there are some other identities which may have
≡ sin2AcosB + sin2AcosB + sinBcos2A - sinBcos2A
been given ealier on in this chapter. These identities
≡ 2sin2AcosB
work closely with most of those which have already been
dealt with up to this point.
Hence sin(2A + B) + sin(2A - B) ≡ 2sin2AcosB
cos2A + sin2A ≡ 1
Example
1 + tan2A ≡ sec2A
Find the exact value of tanθ, given that 1 + cot2A ≡ cosec2A
sin(θ + 60°) = 2cos(θ - 30°)
The last two identities shown above are obtained by
Solution dividing cos2A + sin2A ≡ 1 throughout by cos2A and
sin2A respectively. Furthermore we can employ
Using formulae for sin(A + B) and cos(θ - C), cos2A + sin2A ≡ 1 to obtain alternative identities for
where A = θ, B = 60° and C = 30°; cos2A as follows,

sinθcos60° + sin60°cosθ = 2[cosθcos30° + sinθsin30°] cos2A ≡ cos2A - sin2A

≡ cos2A - (1 - cos2A) [cos2A + sin2A ≡ 1]
sinθ( 1 ) + (√3 )cosθ = 2[cosθ(√3 ) + sinθ( 1 )] ≡ 2cos2A - 1
2 2 2 2
1 sinθ - sinθ = √3 cosθ - √3 cosθ cos2A ≡ cos2A - sin2A
2 2 ≡ (1 - sin2A) - sin2A [cos2A + sin2A ≡ 1]
sinθ = √3 ÷ - 1 ≡ 1 - 2sin2A
cosθ 2 2
But tanθ ≡ sinθ Example
cosθ
So therefore tanθ = -√3 Given that cosA = 2 , find the exact value of
5

EXERCISE 5.b (a) cos2A (b) cos2(2A)

1. Expand each of the following :
Solutions
(a) cos(x + 20°) (b) sin(2x + 10°) (c) sin(x - 2y)
(a) cos2A ≡ 2cos2A - 1
(d) cos(x - 2y) (e) cos(2α - 40°).
cos2A = 2( 2 )2 - 1
5
2. Prove that sin(75°) - cos(105°) - sin(15°) - cos(15°) = 0. 8
= - 1 = - 17
25 25
3. Find the exact values of the following :
(b) cos2(2A) = [cos(2A)]2

30 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 17 2 289
= [- ] = determine sin(A - B).
25 625
Example 2. Prove : sin3θ - 2 = cos3θ .
sinθ cosθ
3 and cosB = 24 , where A and B are
Given that cosA = 2 , find the possible values of cos A . 3. Given that cosA =
5 25
3 2
Solution acute, find the exact values of
Using cos2A ≡ 2cos2A - 1, let u = A
2 (a) tanA (b) sinB (c) cos(A - B) (d) tan(A + B)
cos2u ≡ 2cos2u - 1
4. If sinA = 2 and A is obtuse, find the exact values of cosA,
3
cos2 A ≡ 2cos2 A - 1 sin2A and tan2A.
2 2

5. Evaluate sin75° - sin15° .

cosA = 2cos2 A - 1 cos75°- cos15°
2
6. lf tanA = 4 and 90° ≤ A ≤ 360°, evaluate
2 = 2cos2 A - 1 3
3 2
(a) sin2A (b) cos2A (c) tan2A.
2 2 A
+ 1 = 2cos
3 2 7. If A and B are both acute angles; sinA = 1 and
5 A sinB = 1 : √5
= 2cos2
3 2 √10
5
= cos2 A (a) Prove that in(A + B) = 1
6 2 √2
A 1 (b) Show that A + B = 45°
cos = ± √(30)
2 6
8. If cosA = - 3 where 180° ≤ A ≤ 360° and cosB = 12
5 13
Example
where 180° ≤ B ≤ 360°, determine sin(A + B).
If sinA = 2 , and A is obtuse, find the exact values of
3
Proof of trigonometrical identies
cosA, sin2A and tan2A.
The proof of trigonometrical identities can be done
Solutions
in numerous ways but the process generally involes
sin2A = ( 2 )2 = 4 ; 1 - 4 = cos2A [cos2A + sin2A ≡ 1]
manipulation of either one of the sides up to a point
3 9 9 whereby both sides are in the same mathematical form.
5 Upon reaching this point the identity has been proven.
cos A =
2
9
cosA = ± √ 59 There are basically four techniques that may be
employed to prove identities:
cosA = - √ 59 [ A is obtuse ]
(i) Starting with the Left hand side (LHS) working
√5 towards the right hand side (RHS)
cosA = -
3 (ii) Starting with the Right hand side (RHS) working
sin2A ≡ 2sinAcosA towards the left hand side (LHS)
(iii) Subtracting one side from the other and working
√5
sin2A = 2( 2 )(- ) = -4√5 towards showing that the result is 0
3 3 9
(iv) Dividing one side by the other and try to show that
sin2A 4
tan2A ≡ ; cos2A = 1 - 2sin2A = 1 - 2( 9 ) the result is 1.
cos2A
= 1
9
Examples

tan2A = - 4√5 ÷ 1 = - 4√5 tanθ

9 9 1. Simplify, sec 2θ - 1

Since sec2θ - 1 ≡ tan2 θ

EXERCISE 5.c 1
= tanθ2 =
tan θ tanθ
1. If cosA = 4 ; sinA < 0 ; cosB = 12 and 0° < B < 90°,
5 13 = cotθ

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 31

 EXERCISE 5.d
2. Simplify, (cosecθ - 1)(cosecθ + 1)tan 2θ
1
1. Prove that 2cos2 A - 4sin2 A ≡ 2
3 sec2A
Solution
(cosecθ - 1)(cosecθ + 1)tan 2θ 2. Prove that sin x cot x ≡ cos x
1
= (cosec 2θ - 1)tan 2θ 3. Prove that ≡ cosecθ
1 - cos 2 θ
= cot2θ x tan2 θ
1 4. Prove that cot A - tan A ≡ 2cotA
= tan 2θ x tan2θ 2 2
cosA - cos3A
5. Prove that ≡ sinAcosA
sinA
=1
1 6. Prove that (1 + cotx)2 + (1 - cotx)2 ≡ 2 cosecx
3. Prove that secθ - tanθ ≡ secθ + tanθ
7. Prove that cosecx - sinx ≡ cotxcosx
You need to show that
1
÷ secθ + tanθ = 1 8. Prove that sin(A + π ) ≡ cosA.
secθ - tanθ 2

(secθ - tanθ )(secθ + tanθ) = 1 The form asinx + bcosx

sec2θ - tan2θ = 1 Some problems in trigonometry may be in the form
asinx + bcosx where a and b are constants. Such types
1 usually appear in physics and engineering. However,
Therefore ≡ secθ + tanθ expressing such expressions in an alternative form
secθ - tanθ
enables solution and handling of the problems involved
to be easier.
Example
Graphically translations of the form f (x ± k), where k is
Prove the identity sin2AcotAsecA ≡ sinA a constant in trigonometrical functions can be shown in
the form asinx + bcosx.
Solution If a and b are positive constants,

LHS: sin2AcotAsecA asinx ± bcosx ≡ Rsin(x ± α),

acosx ± bsinx ≡ Rcos(x ± α),
= sin2A sinA[cosA ][ cosA
1
]
= sin A
2
where R = √a +b, 2 2

and Rcosα = a, Rsinα = b, with α being an acute angle.

sinA
Rsinα b
= sinA = RHS Proven. = tanα so α = tan-1[ a ]
Rcosα

Example Example

1 + cotA Express c in the form Rsin(x + α)

Prove the identity ≡ cotA
1 + tanA
Solution
Solution
Identifying sinx + √3cosx with Rsin(x + α) gives
LHS: 1 + cotA
1 + tanA
cosA sinA + cosA sinx + √3cosx ≡ R[sinxcos α + sinαcosx]
1 + sinA sinA sinx + √3cosx ≡ Rsinxcos α + sinαcosx
= 1 + sinA =
cosA + sinA
cosA cosA By equating coefficients ; Rcosα =1 and Rsinα = √3,

[sinAsinA+ cosA][cosAcosA
+ sinA]
a = 1, b =√3;
=

= cosA
R=
√ 1 + (√3)
2 2
= √4 = 2
sinA tan α = √3 , α = tan-1 √3 = 60°
1 1
= cotA = RHS Proven.
sinx + √3cosx ≡ 2sin(x + 60)°

32 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

Example From the diagram we see that angles from 00 to 3600 can
be split into four equal parts called quadrants. In Q1(the
Express 5cosA + 6sinAin the form Rcos(A - α) first quadrant) all the trigonometric ratios are positive.
However in Q2(the second quadrant) only the sine of
Solution an angle is positive. In Q3(the third quadrant) only the
tangent of an angle is positive and in Q4(the fourth
Identifying 5cosA + 6sinA with Rcos(A - α)
quadrant) only the cosine of an angle is positive.
5cosA + 6sinA ≡ R[cosAcos α + sinαsinA]
5cosA + 6sinA ≡ RcosAcos α + RsinαsinA Example
Solve the equation 4 – 7sinθ = 0, for angles θ between 0˚
By equating coefficients ; Rcosα =5 and Rsinα = 6, and 360˚.
a = 5, b = 6;
Solution
R=
√ 52 + 62 = √(61)
4 – 7sinθ = 0
6 6
tan α = , α = tan-1 = 50.2° (3 s.f ) 4 = 7sinθ or 7 sinθ = 4
5 5
4
So sinθ = 7
5cosA + 6sinA ≡ √(61)cos(A - 50.2°) 4
Thus θ = sin-1 7
EXERCISE 5.e
Note that sinθ is + ve so the angles are in the first
1. Given that R > 0 and α is acute, express quadrant (Q 1 ) and in the second quadrant (Q 2 ).

So θ = 34.8˚ in Q ; for Q 2 , θ = 180˚ - 34.8˚ = 145.15˚

(a) sinx + 2cosx in the form Rcos(x - α)° 1

(b) sinx + 2cosx in the form Rsin(x + α)° So θ = [34.8˚; 145.2˚](3 s.f )
(c) 2cosx - sinx in the form Rcos(x - α)°
(d) sinx - 2cosx in the form Rsin(x - α)°. Example

2. Express 12cosA + 9sinA in the form Rcos(A - θ )°, Solve the equation tan θ = - 0.7 for 0˚ < θ < 360˚
where R > 0 and 0° < θ < 90°.
Solution
3. Express 5sinθ + 12cosθ in the form Rsin(A + θ)°,
where R > 0 and 0° < θ < 90°. tanθ = - 0.7
So θ = tan-1 (-0.7)
4. Express 3cosx - 4sinx in the form Rcos(x + α)°, θ = - 34.992˚
where R > 0 and 0° < θ < 90°.
This initial value is out of the prescribed range
Trigonometric Equations (0˚ < θ < 360˚), so we use the quadrants Q 2 and Q 4
since tanθ is negative in these quadrants.
Equations which contain trigonometric ratios are called So in Q 3 , θ = 180˚ + θ = 180˚ + (-34.992˚) = 145.008˚
trigonometric equations. There are usually an uncountable
(infinite) number of solutions to such equations, but solutions In Q θ = 360˚ + - 34.992˚
4

are often restricted to those between 0˚ and 360˚. The figure θ = 325.008˚
below shows a summary for angles from 0˚ to 360˚. So θ = [145.008˚; 325.008˚]

900
Q2 Q1
sine All Positive Example

Solve the equation cosθ = 0.6 for 0˚ < θ < 360˚

[1800 - q] q
Solution

1800 00 cosθ = 0.6

tangent cosine
θ = cos-1(0.6)
θ = 53.13˚
[1800 + q] [3600 - q] Since cosθ is positive, another angle whose cosine is
equivalent to 0.6 is found in Q 4 .
Q3 Q4
i. e. θ = 360˚ - 53.13˚ = 306.87˚
2700 So θ = [53.1˚; 306.9˚]

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 33

 We will now look at trigonometric equations of the form Example
sin(nx) = k, cos(nx) = k and tan(nx) = k and equations
easily reducible to these forms, where n is a small integer Find all the values of x between 0° and 360° for which
(whole number) or a simple fraction. 2sinx + 8cos2 x = 5,
Giving your answers correct to the nearest 0.1°.
In general, for the equation sin(nx) = k ; (nx) = sin-1(k)
Solution.
Also for cos(nx) = k ; (nx) = cos-1(k)
2sinx + 8cos2 x = 5
And for tan(nx) = k ; (nx) = tan-1(k) [cos x + sin2 x ≡ 1 so cos2 x ≡ 1 - sin2x]
2

2sinx + 8(1 - sin2 x) = 5

Let us look closely at the following examples. 2sinx + 8 - 8sin2x = 5
2sinx - 8sin2 x + 3 = 0
Examples Let y = sinx
2y - 8y2 + 3 = 0
Solve the following trigonometric equations for x in the 8y2 + 2y + 3 = 0
interval 0˚ < x < 360˚: 8y - 6y + 4y + 3 = 0
2

2y(4y - 3) + 1(4y - 3) = 0
(i) cos(2x) = 1 (2y+1)(4y-3) = 0
4
1 3
(ii) tan(3x) = 3 y = - 2 and y = 4
1 3
(iii) sin(3x) = - 0.45 sinx = - 2 and sinx = 4
1 3
Solutions x = sin-1 (- 2 ) and x = sin-1 ( 4 )

(i) cos(2x) = 14 x = 30°; 46.6°; 131.4°; 210°

1 Example
∴ (2x) = cos-1 4
1
[First find cos-1 4 before you divide by 2] Solve equation sinx + √3cosx = 1
1
If we let 2x = θ, θ = cos-1 4
Solution
Since θ is +ve, it lies in Q 1 and Q 4 ,
So θ = [75.52˚; 284.48˚], but θ = 2x Firstly expressing sinx + √3cosx in the form Rsin(x + α)
So 2x = [75.52˚; 284.48˚]
sinx + √3cosx ≡ Rsinxcos α + sinαcosx

[ 75.52 284.48
]
0 0

And x = 2 ; 2 By equating coefficients ; Rcosα =1 and Rsinα = √3,

a = 1, b =√3;
x = [37.8˚; 142.2˚] (3 s.f )

(ii) tan (3x) = 3, let 3x = θ, so tan(θ) = 3

R= √ 1 + (√3)
2 2
= √4 = 2

θ = tan-1(3) [Angles lie in Q 1 and Q 3 ] tan α= √3 , α = tan-1 √3 = 60°

1 1

θ = [71.565˚; 251.565˚], but θ = 3x, sinx + √3cosx ≡ 2sin(x + 60)°

[ 71.565 3 ]
So 2sin(x + 60)° = 1
0
251.565 0

So x = 3 ;
sin(x + 60)° = 1
x = [23.9˚; 83.9˚] (3 s.f ) 2
Let u = x + 60
(iii) sin (3x) = - 0.45, let 3x = θ,
so sin (θ) = - 0.45, θ = sin-1 (-0.45) 1
u = sin-1 = [30° ; 150°]
2
θ = 206.744˚; 333.256˚, but θ = 3x But u = x + 60, so

[ 206.744 333.256
]
0 0

So x = ; x = [30° - 60° ; 150° - 60°]

3 3

x = [68.9˚; 111.1˚] (nearest 0.1˚) x = 90°, 330°

34 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 EXERCISE 5.e TEST 5
1. Solve the following trigonometric equations in the sinA
1. Prove that + 1 + cosA ≡ 2cosecA [04]
interval 0˚ < θ < 360˚. 1 + cosA sinA
2. Solve the equation 3sin2x + 4cosx = 4, giving all the roots
(a) sinθ = 0.84 (b) cosθ = 0.27 correct to 2 decimal places in the interval 0˚ ≤ x ≤ 360˚.[04]

(c) tanθ = 1.9 (d) sinθ = - 0.73 3. (a) Solve the equation sin(x - π ) = 1 , for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π.[04]
6 2
-11
1 (b) Evaluate tan √3 + tan
-1
. [03]
(e) 4sinθ = 3 Cosθ (f ) 3sinθ = Sin θ √3
4. Find, in exact from, all the roots of the equation
(g) 4tanθ + 5 = 0 (h) 3sinθ = tanθ 2sin2 t + cosec2 t = 3 which lie between 0 and 2π. [05]

2.Solve the following trigonometric equations in the 5. Solve the equation 3sinx - 2cosx = 1, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π. [05]
interval 0˚ ≤ x ≤ 360˚.
TOTAL = 25
1
(a) cos(2x) = (b) tan(4x) = 3.5
4
1
(c) sin(2x) = - 0.62 (d) cos(4x) = - 5

(e) tan(2x) = 0.5 (f ) sin(5x) = - 0.65

2. Find the roots (if there are any) in the interval

- 180˚ < θ ≤ 180˚ of the following equations.

θ 1
(a) tan 2q = - 5 (b) sin =-
5 5
3

θ 1 2q
(c) cos ( )= 2 (d) tan 3 = 0.5
3

(e) sin 2θ = - 0.4 (f ) sin (θ + 30˚) = 0.891

5

(g) sin (θ + 60˚) = 1

2
4. If cos (3θ + 2) = π , find the value of θ.
-1

5. Solve the equation 3cosθ - 4sinθ = 2, for the interval

0˚ ≤ θ ≤ 360˚.

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 35

 CHAPTER
series
6
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: Example
 recognise arithmetic and geometric progressions;
 use formulae for the nth term and sum of the first n Find the first term a, the common difference d and
terms for arithmetic and geometric progessions; hence the 12th term of this progression:
 use the condition for convergence and the formula
for the sum to infinity of a convergent geometric 3 + 9 + 15+ …
progression; Solution
 use and interpret sigma notation;
 use the expansion (a + b)n; The first term a = 3
 use the expansion (1 + x)n; Now a=3
a+d=9
Progressions
Also a + 2d = 15
Arithmetic Progressions So 3 + d = 9
d=9–3=6
An arithmetic progression is a progression whose
terms go up or down by constant steps. Consider the Also 3 + 2d = 15
progression below: So 2d = 15 – 3 = 12
12
1+ 6+ 11+ 16+ 21+ … So d= 2 =6

We can write out this sequence in an alternative way i.e. Thus the common difference d = 6

1 + (1 + 5) + (6 + 5) + (11 + 5) + (16 + 5) + … The nth term = a + (n – 1)d

So 12th term = a + (12 – 1)d
So to get each successive term we are adding a constant = 3 + (11)(6)
number 5. This number is called the common difference. = 3 + 66
Also in theprogression: = 69.

1+-1+-3+-5+-7+-9+… Sum of First n Terms (Sn)

The common difference is – 2; since The sum of the first n terms of an arithmetic progression
(1 – 2) = - 1 with first term a and common difference d is
(- 1 – 2) = - 3
(- 3 – 2) = - 5 n n
Sn = [2a + (n – 1) d] or (a + l) where l is the last term
(- 5 – 2) = - 7 2 2

Examples
This is also an arithmetic progression. In general any
arithmetic progression can be written in the form Find the sum of the first 13 terms of the progressions
below:
a + (a + d) + (a + 2d) + (a + 3d) + … + a + (n – 1)d + …
(i) 5 + 2 + - 1 + … (ii) 73 + 67 + 61 + …
where a is the first term of the progression and d is the
common difference. Once we have a and d we might
Solutions
want to find the nth term of this progression.
(i) a = 5 and
The nth term of an arithmetic progression is ; d = 2 – 5 = - 3
= - 1 – 2 = - 3
a + (n – 1)d where n is a positive whole number. n
Sn = [2a + (n – 1)d]
2

36 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 Since n = 13 1(2 15 - 1 )
∴ S(15) = 2-1
13
S13 = 2 [2(5) + (13 – 1)(-3)] = 32767
= 6.5 [10 + (12)(-3)] Example
= - 169
(ii) a = 73 The second term of a geometric progression is 6 and
d = 67 – 73 = - 6 the fourth term is 54. Find the sums of two possible
= 61 – 67 = - 6 progressions to 20 terms.
n = 13 Solution
n
Sn = [2a + (n – 1)d]
2
G.P. is in the form a+ ar+ ar 2+ ar 3+ ar 4+ …+ ar n-1+ …
13
S13 = 2 [2(73) + (13 – 1)(6)] nth term = ar n-1 ;
= (6.5) [146 + 12(-6)]
= (6.5) [146 – 72] = (6.5)(74) [2 nd term, n = 2] = ar 2-1 = ar = 6
[4 nd term, n = 4] = ar 4-1 = ar 3 = 54
= 481
ar 3 54
= =9
Geometric Progressions ar 6

1
r2 = 9 so r = ± 3
1 1
Consider the progression 1 + + + +…
2 4 8
For r = - 3 ; ar = a(-3) = 6 so a = - 2
Each term is being generated by multiplying the For r = 3 ; ar = a(3) = 6 so a = 2
previous term by a certain number. Alternatively written
this progression can also be written as For progression with r = -3 < 1;
1 1 1 1 1 -2(1 - (-3) 20)
1+ ( 2 )(1) + ( 2 )( 2 ) + ( 2 )( 4 ) +… S20 = 1 -(-3)
-2(1 - (-3) 20) 1 20
1 = = [3 - 1]
Thus each successive term is being multiplied by 2
. This 4 2
is an example of a geometric progression. Any geometric
For progression with r = 3 > 1;
progression can be written as
20
S20 = 2(1 - (-3) )
a + ar+ ar + ar + ar + …+ ar + …
2 3 4 n-1
1 -(3)
2(1 - (-3) 20)
Where a is the first term and r is the common ratio. = -2
= 320 - 1
The nth term = ar n-1 where n is a positive whole number.
The sum of n terms of a geometric progression
EXERCISE 6.a
n
a(1 - r ) 1. Give or write five examples of arithmetic progressions.
Sn = 1 -r when r < 1
2. Give five examples of Geometric progressions
n
= a(r - 1 ) when r > 1 3. Find the sum of the first 7 terms of the progression
r-1
Example 1 + 4 + 7 + 10 + 13 + …
4. Determine the number of the term whose value is 22 in the
Find the sum of the first 15 terms of the progression 1 1
progression 2 + 4 +5 +7+…
2 2
1 + 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 + … 5. Find the sum of the first 12 terms of the progression
5 + 9 + 13 + 17 + …
Solution
6. Find the 15th term of an arithmetic progression of which
1
First term a = 1 the first term is 2 and the tenth term is 16.
2
2 4 8 16 7. Determine the tenth term of the progression
Now 1 = 2 = 4 = 8 = 2
3 + 6 + 12 + 24 + …
So this progression is geometric and r = 2.
[Hint: check whether it is arithmetic or geometric first]
To find S(15) we use 8. The first term of a geometric progression is 12 and the fifth
a(r n - 1 ) term is 55. Determine the 8th term and the 11th term.
S(15) = since r > 1
1-r

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 37

 = [3(1) - 1] + [3(2) - 1] + [3(3) - 1]
9. Find the sum of the first 10 terms in the progression
= [3 - 1] + [6 - 1] + [9 - 1]
1 1 1 1
1+ + + + +…
2 4 8 16
= 2 + 5 + 8 = 15

10. The first term of a geometric progression is 27, the last Example
term is 8 and the sum of the progression is 65. What k=4
is the common ratio and how many terms are there in
the progression?
Expand ∑ [3k ]
k=1
3

Solution
k=4
Examples ∑ [3k ]
k=1
3

1. Find the second; fifth and 14 term for the

th = 3(1)3 + 3(2)3 + 3(3)3 + 3(4)3
progression
= 3 + 24 + 81 + 192 = 300
(- 1 )n
(2n - 1)!
The sybmbol ! is factorial and it means;
Examples
3! = 1 x 2 x 3
7! = 7 x 6 x 5 x 4 x 3 x 2 x 1! 1.Write 12 + 24 + 36 + ... + 1200 in sigma notation.

Solution
Where n! = n x (n – 1) x (n – 2) x 1
Where n is greater or equal to zero. Also 0! = 1
12 = 12(1) ; 24 = 12(1) ; 36 = 12(1) ; ... ; 1200 = 12(10)
k=10
Solutions
(- 1 )2
So 12 + 24 + 36 + ... + 1200 = ∑ [12k ]
k=1
(a) 2nd
term = [(4) - 1]! k=4

1
= =
3!
1
6
2. Expand ∑ i(i + 2)
k=1
Solution
(- 1 )5 k=4
(b) 5th term = [2(5) - 1]!
-1
∑ i(i + 2)
k=1
= (10 - 1)!
= [1(1 + 2)] + [2(2 + 2)] + [3(3 + 2)] + [4(4 + 2)]
= -9!1
1 = 3 + 8 + 15 + 24 = 50
= - 362880

(- 1 )14
(c) 14th term =
[2(14) - 1]!
1
= 27!

Sigma notation
k=n
The progression T1 + T2 + T3 + ... + Tn = ∑ T , is read
k=1
n

'Sigma Tn from k = 1 to k = n.' Σ is the capital letter

for S in the Greek alphabet and represents a sum or
addition of terms.

Example
k=3
Evaluate ∑ [3k - 1]
k=1
k=3
Solution
∑ [3k - 1]
k=1

38 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 EXERCISE6.b For geometric sequences in which |r|<1 we can find the
sum to infinity of the terms of this geometric sequence
1. Expand each of the following : |r|<1means that – 1 < r < 1 for the sum to infinity to
6 5 10 exist, if r is outside the range – 1 < r < 1 the sum to
(a) ∑
k=1
k
k+2
(b) ∑ k=1
[k2] (c) ∑ [-1]
k=1
k
infinity does not exist. This means that only convergent
geometric progressions have a sum to infinity.
5 5 5
∑ ∑ ∑ k +k 2 The sum to infinity of a geometric sequence with |r|<1
2
(d) [2k] (e) [2k] (f ) a
k=2 k=1 k=1 is S∞ = 1 - r

2. Write each of the following in sigma notation : Example

(a) 1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6 Find the sum to infinity of the geometric sequence

1 1 1 1 1 16 + 12 + 9 +...
(b) 1 + + + + + ... +
2 3 4 5 10
Solution
(c) 1.2 + 2.3 + 3.4 + ... to n terms
12 3
(d) b + b + b + ... to n terms a = 16 ; r = = ,
16 4

(e) xn + xn-1y + xn-2y2 + ... + xyn-1 + yn Now since |r|< 1, the sum to infinity exists.
1 2 3 4 21
a
(f ) + + + + ... +
2 3 4 5 21 S∞ = 1 - r = 1 1- 3/4 = 64
(g) q2 + 3q4 + 5q6 + ... to n terms.
S∞ = 64

Example

An ant starts at a point P on the floor. It walks 1m east,

Sum to Infinity (S∞)
then 0.5m west, then 0.25m west , and so on halving
the distance at each change of direction. How far from
Some sequences are such that
∞ point P does it end up?
∑
Sn = ak , where k is an integer
k=1 Solution
e. g - 1; 1; - 1; 1; - 1; 1; - 1; 1; … We can express the final distance from P as
1 1 1
The first four terms form a pattern that is recurring in 1 - + - +... , which is a G.P with common
2 4 1 8 1
the rest of the sequence. The total sum of this sequence ratio r = - . Since < 1, this series has a sum to
2 2
would be 0. infinity i.e. it is convergent to a limit.
∞ This limit is how far from the point P the ant will end
Consider the sequence ∑( 1k )
k=1
k
up.
∞
∑( 1k )
a
Distance from P = S∞ = 1 - r = 1 = 2
k
= ( 11 )1 + ( 12 )2 + ( 13 )3 + ... 1
1 - (- 2 ) 3
k=1
2
= 1 + 1 + 1 + ... The ant ends up m from P.
3
1 4 27
We see that the denominator of each successive term Example
gets larger as k gets larger i.e. ( 1 )k → 0 as k → ∞.
k
This sequence is said to be covergent towards a certain For which values of p will the infinite series
number. Sequences whose nth term approaches a finite (1 - p) + (1 - p)2 + ... convergent and what is the sum of
number as n becomes larger are known as convergent the series?
sequences and the number to which the sequence
converges is known as the limit of the sequence. Solution

For example: 10, 5; 2.5; 1.25; 0.625; ... converges (gets In this series a = 1 - p and r = 1 - p
closer and closer) towards the limit zero. The series will converge only if – 1 < r < 1
∴–1<1-p<1
∴ -2 < - p < 0

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 39

 ∴ 2 > p > 0 or 0 < p < 2 Series Expansions

For 0 < p < 2: S∞ = 1 - r = 1 -1(1- p- p) = 1 - p

a The Binomial Series
p
Note that for all other values of p outside the interval Pascal’s Triangle
0 < p < 2 this series does not converge and thus it does
not have a um to infinity i.e. it is divergent. The expansion (a + b)² = a² + 2ab + b² is known as a
binomial expansion since it has the sum of two algebraic
terms a and b being raised to a power, which in this case
EXERCISE6.c is 2. In general any binomial expansion can be expressed
as (a + b)n where n is a positive integer. For n = 3,
1.Find the sum to infinity of the following geometric
sequences: (a + b)³ = a³ + 3a²b + 3b²a + b³

(a) 1; 0; - 1; 1; 0; - 1; 1; 0; - 1; … So (a + b)¹ = a+b

(b) 1; 0; - 1; 0; 1; 0; - 1; 0’ … (a + b)² = a² + 2ab + b²
(c) 0; 2; 0; - 2; 0; 2; 0; - 2; ... (a + b)³ = a³ + 3a²b + 3b²a + b³
2. Find the common ratio of a G.P which has a first term of
You should notice that the coefficients of (the numbers
11 and a sum to infinity of 6.
3. Find the first term of a geometric sequence which has a before) a and b are:
common ratio of 0.75 and a sum to infinity of 12. 1 1
4. A frog sits at one end of a table which is 2m long. 1 2 1
In its first jump the frog goes a distance of 1m along the 1 3 3 1
table, with its second jump 0.5m , with its third jump
0.25m and so on. Upon continuation of expanding the brackets for higher
(a) What is the frog’s final position? powers, the sequence continues:
(b) After how many jumps will the frog be within
1cm of the far end of the table? 1 4 6 4 1
5. The sum to infinity of a geometric progression is 15. The
1 5 10 10 5 1
common ratio is 2 .
3 1 6 15 20 15 6 1
(a) Determine the first three terms of this progression etc.
(b) Find the sum of the first fifty terms of this progression
This sequence is known as Pascal's triangle. Each of the
6. For a geometric progression, S∞ = 5 and r = -0.11. numbers is found by adding together the two numbers
directly above it. So the 20 in the last line is found by
(a) Find the first term adding together 10 and 10. Each of the 10s in the line
(b) Find the difference between S20 and S30 expressing it in above are found by adding together a 6 and a 4.
terms of r.
So it is possible to expand (a + b)n to any positive whole
7. In an infinite sequence of circles, the diameter of the first
circle is 180cm and the diameter of each successive circle number n power by knowing Pascal"s triangle.
is 2 of that of its predecessor.
3 Example
Find the sum of the areas of the circles.
Find (5 + x)3
8. The first term of a geometric progression is √3 and the
second term is √3 - 1. Solution

(a) Write down, in surd form, the third term of the The power that we are expanding the bracket to is 3, so
progression. we look at the third line of Pascal’s triangle, which is
(b) Calculate, in its simplest form, the sum to infinity of the
progression.
1 3 3 1.
9. For which values of v is the infinite series
2(3v - 1) + 2(3v - 1)2 + ... covergent? So the answer is: 53 + 3 × (52 × x) + 3 × (x2 × 5) + x3[we
are replacing a by 5 and b by x in the expansion of
10. A seed grows into a tree with a height of 2m in its first (a + b)3 above] so
year. Its growth each year thereafter is 3 of its growth
in the previous year. 4
(5 + x)3 = 125 + 125x + 25x2 + x3
What is the greatest height it can reach?

40 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

It is, often impractical to write out Pascal's triangle every (1.0012)5 = 1.00601441728
time, when all that we need to know are the entries on
the nth line. Clearly, the first number on the nth line is = 1.006014(6d.p)
1. The second number is n. The third number is: n(n - 1)
1×2 Example
In general, the rth number in the nth line is: n!
(r - 1)r!
(which is Cr on your calculator).
n Expand (4 + 2x)6 in ascending powers of x up to the
term in x3.
n! means ‘n factorial’ where n! = n × (n-1) × … × 2 × 1
Solution
Cr is also often written as and is pronounced
n

“n choose r”. Substitute 4 for a in the Binomial theorem and 2x for b:

The Binomial Theorem 46 + (6C1)(45)(2x) + (6C2)(44)(2x)2 + (6C3)(43)(2x)3 + …

The Binomial Theorem states that, where n is a positive = 4096 + (6 ×1024 ×2x) + (15 ×256 ×4x2)
integer: + (20 ×64 ×8x3) + …

(a + b)n = an + (nC1)an-1b + (nC2)an-2b2 + … + (nCn-1)abn-1 + bn. = 4096 + 12288x + 15360x2 + 10240x3 + …

When a = 1 and b = x, (a + b)n = (1 + x)n and upon

employing the binomial theorem stated above, Example

(1 + x)n = 1 + nC1x + nC2x2 + ... + nCrxr + ... + nCnxn Expand (3 - 2x)5 in ascending powers of x up to the
term in x3 and hence use your result to evaluate (2.99)5
= 1 + nx + n(n - 1) x2 + ... + n(n - 1)...(n - r + 1) xr - 1 + xn correct to 2 decimal places.
2! r!
= nCrxr. Solution

For the expansion (1 + x)n the rth term = nCr - 1xr - 1 Using (a + x)n = an[1 + x ]n, where a = 3, -2x substitutes
a
x and n = 5:
For the expansion (a + x)n , where n is a positive integer,
(3 - 2x)5 = 35[1 - 2x ]5
x n 3
(a + x) = a [1 +
n n
]
a
= 3 + 5(35 - 1)(-2x) + 5(5 - 1) (35 - 2)(-2x)2
5

= an[nC0 + nC1( x )1 + nC2( x )2 + ... + nCr( x )r +... + nCnxn] 2!

a a a
+ 5(5 - 1)(5 - 2)(5 - 3)(35 - 3)(-2x)3 + ...
= a + na x + n(n - 1) an - 2x2 + ... + xn
n n-1 3!
2! r=n = 243 - 810x + 1080x2 - 720x3 + ...
If n is a positive integer (a + x)n = ∑ nCran - rxr
r=0 For (2.99)5 let 3 - 2x = 2.99 and so x = 0.005 and
Example subtituting 0.005 for x in the expansion:

Expand (1 + x)5 in ascending powers of x up to the term (3 - 2x)5 = 243 - 810(0.005) + 1080(0.005)2
in x3 and hence use your result to evaluate (1.0012)5 -720(0.005)3 + ...
correct to 6 decimal places.
= 238.97691 = 238.98(2d.p)
Solution

Using (1 + x)n = nCrxr ; EXERCISE6.d

(1 + x)5 = 5C0x0 + 5C1x1 + 5C2x2 + 5C3x3 + ... 1. Expand the following using pascal's triangle:

= 1 + 5x + 10x2 + 10x3 + ... (a) (2 + x)3 (b) (6 + 3x)3 (c) (3 + x)4 (d) (7 - x)4

For (1.0012)5 let 1 + x = 1.0012 and so x = 0.0012 and 2. Expand the following using the binomial theorem:
subtituting 0.0012 for x in the expansion:
(a) (1 + 2x)4 (b) (x + 2y)4 (c) (3 - 2x)6 (d) (3x + 2 )5
x
(1.0012)5 = 1 + 5(0.0012) + 10(0.0012)2 + 10(0.0012)3 +...

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 41

 Examples
3. Use the binomial theorem to expand (1 + x)10 in ascending
powers of x, up to and including the term in x4. Expand the following as a series of asscending powers
of x up to and including the ter in x3 stating the set of
4. Expand each of the following expressions in ascending values of x for each expansion is valid.
powers of x, up to and including the term in x3 :
1
(i) (1 + x) 2 (ii) (3 - x)-2
(a) (1 - x)10(1 + 2x) (b) (1 + x2)(1 + 2x)8
Solutions
(c) (1 - 4x)(1 + x)6 (d) (1 + x + x2)(1 - 3x)5

5. Expand (3 + x)7 in ascending powers of x, up to and (i) For |x| < 1,

including the term in x3. Hence evaluate (3.07)7 correct to n(n - 1) 2
six significant figures. (1 + x)n = 1 + nx + x + n(n - 1)(n - 2) x3 +...
2! 3!
6. If y is sufficiently small to allow any terms in y5 or higher Replacing n by 1 for (1 + x)n
to be neglected, show that 2 1 1
1 1 1 1
1 2( 2- 1)
(1 + x) 2 =1+ x+ x2
+ 2(2 - 1)( 2 - 2) x3 +...
(1 + y)6(1 -2y3)10 ≈ 1 + 6y - 15y2 - 105y4. 2 2! 3!
1 1 1 1 3
x 2 (- 2 ) 2 (- 2 )(- 2 )
=1+ 2 + 2! x2 + 3! x3 + ...
Extension of the binomial theorem
x x2 x3
=1+ - + - ... for |x|< 1
The binomial expansion of (1 + x) for any value of n
n 2 8 16
takes on a slightly different form in which the term nCr (ii) Using (a + bx)n = an(1 + bx )n, where n = -2, a = 3 and
becomes void or meaningless as the factorial notation a
b = -1.
(n!) has no meaning when applied to fractions and
1
negative numbers. However we can now use the notation (3 - x)-2 = 9 [ 1 + (-2)(- x )1 + (-2)(-3) (- x )2
3 2! 3
n
(r ) = n(n - 1)(n - 2)...(n - r + 1) + (-2)(-3)(-4) (- x )3]
r! 3! 3
n n n
Thus (1 + x)n = 1 + ( 1 )x + ( 2 )x2 + ( 3 )x3 + ... = 1 [1 + 2 x + 1 x2 + 4 x3 + ... ]
9 3 3 27

= 1 + nx + n(n - 1) x2 + n(n - 1)(n - 2) x3+... = 1 + 2 x + 1 x2 + 4 x3 + ....

2! 3! 9 27 27 243
x -2 x
For all of n which are real numbers, provided -1 < x < 1 The expansion of (1 - 3 ) is valid for | 3 |< 1
i..e|x| < 1
In this case the series carries on to infinity. i.e. -3 < x < 3.
Therefore the expansion (3 - x)-2 is also valid for
Also for (a + bx)n, where a and b are constants, -3 < x < 3.

(a + bx)n = an(1 + bx )n
a Example
n n n
= an[1 + ( )( bxa )1 + ( 2 )( bxa )2 + ( 3 )( bxa )3 + ...
√
1+x
1 Expand 1 - 3x as a series of asscending powers of x
up to and including the ter in x2.
Provided that  bx < 1.
a
Solution
Vital expanions worth memorising are 1

√
1+x 1
2
1 - 3x = (1 + x) (1 - 3x)- 2
(1 + x)-1 = 1 - x + x2 - x3 + x4 + ... for |x| < 1 1 1 1
1
Now (1 + x) 2
= 1 + x + 2 ( 2 - 1) x2 + ... for -1 < x <1
(1 - x)-1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + x4 + ... for |x| < 1 2 2! 1 1
1
2 ( 2 - 1)
and (1 - 3x)- 2 = 1 + (- 1 )(-3x) + (-3x)2 + ...
2 2!

for -1 < -3x <1

1

√
1+x 1
2
Hence 1 - 3x = (1 + x) (1 - 3x)
- 2

42 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

= (1 + 1 x - 1 x2 + ... )(1 + 3 x + 1 x2 + ... )
TEST 6
2 8 2 2
1. Three consecutvetive terms of an arithmetic
= 1 + 2x + 4x2 + 3 x3 - 27 x4 + ...
2 64 progression have a sum of 36 and a product of
1428.
= 1 + 2x + 4x + ... 2
[up to term including x2]
(a) Find the three terms. [06]
(b) Find the sum of the first 25 terms [02]
This is valid provided that -1 < x < 1 and - 1 < x < 1
3 3
2. A geometric series has first term 2 and common
i.e. - < x < 1
1
3 3 ratio 3 . Find the greatest number of terms the
2
series can have without its sum exceeding 125. [05]
EXERCISE 6.e
3. When (1 + ax)n is expanded in ascending powers of x,
1. Expand the following series in ascending powers of x
up to and including the term in x3. In each case give the series expansion is 1 + 2x + x2 + ... , find the
values of n and a. 15 [05]
the range of values of x for which the expansion is valid: 8
1
(c) (1 + x ) 4. Expand (2u + 3 )n using the binomal theorem. [06]
1
2
(a) (1 + 4x) (b) (1 + 4x)-2 -
2
2 u

2- x 5. Expand (1 + u + u2)6 in ascendig powers of u up to and

√
(d) 1 (e) (f ) (1 + x )-1
2

1+ x √(1 - 2x) including the term in u3. [06]

5
1
2. By substituting 0.08 for x in (1 + x) 2 and its expansion find
TOTAL = 30
√3 correct to four significant figures.

3. If x is so small that x2 and higher powers of x may be

neglected show that
1
≈- 1 - 1 x
(x + 2)( x - 1) 2 4
4. Show that 12 ≈ 4 + 20 x + 88 x2 , provided that
(3 + x )(1 - x)2 3 9
x is small enough to neglect powers higher than 2.

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 43

 CHAPTER
Logarithmic &
exponential functions
7
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: The third law of logarithms is
 understand the relationship between logarithms and log ax = x log a
exponential functions;
 understand the definition and properties of ex and Examples
lnx, including their relationship as inverse functions
and their graphs; log 23 = 3 log 2 log 34 = 4 log 3
 use logarithms to solve equations of the form
ax = b, and similar inequalities; Examples
 use logarithms to transform a given relationship to
linear form and employ this to determine unknown Given that logb2 = 0.69 logb3 = 1.10
constants by considering the gradient and/ or logb5 = 1.61 logb7 = 1.95
intercept.
Evalute the following
Logarithms 8
(i) logb(49) (ii) logb( 125 )
Given any two numbers b and y there exists a number x
Solutions
such that the number x is said to be the logarithm of y to
base b written as x = logb(y). 8
(i) logb(49) (ii) logb( 125 )

Thus bx = y if and only if logb(y) = x.The logarithm of y to = logb(72) = logb(8) -logb(125)

base b is the power to which b must be raised to give y.
= 2logb(7) = 3logb(2) -3logb(5)
Examples
= 2(1.95) = 3(0.69) - 3(1.61)
If 10 = 100
2
then log10(100) = 2
100 = 1 then log10(1) = 0 = 3.9 = -2.76
103 = 1000 then log10(1000) = 3
The function y = logb(x) is called the logarithmic
Laws of Logarithms function of x where b is called the base. Also y = logb(x)
means that by = x. The function by = x is called the
The first law of logarithms is exponential function of x. The word exponent simply
log ab = log a + log b means power or index. There is a close relationship
Examples between y = logb(x) and by = x that enables to move
from one to the other.
log 10 = log (5 × 2) = log 5 +log 2
log 15 = log (3 × 5) = log 3 + log 5 The following results are important when dealing with
log 24 = log (2 × 12) = log 2 + log 12 logarithms and logarithmic functions.
or log (3 × 8) = log 3 +log 8
or log (4 × 6) = log 4 + log 6 (1) log b (1) = 0 (2) log b (b) = 1

The second law of logarithms is 1

(3) For any n, log b (b n ) = n log b (b) = n (4) log b ( x) =
log a = log a – log b log x (b)
b
Examples
2
log ( 3 ) = log 2 – log3 (5) log a (b) =
log c (b)
[change of base from base a to base c]
log c (a )
30
log(13 ) = log 30 – log13

44 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

Examples The graphs of the functions y = logb (x) and y = bx are
shown below, where y = logb (x) is the inverse function
Evaluate the following: of y = bx.
y = bx y=x
(a) log3(27) (b) log81(3) y
1
(c) log3(81 ) (d) log 1 (16)
4 y = logb(x)
(e) Change log2(7) the following to base 10. 1

Solutions

0 1 x
(a) log3(27) = log3(33) = 3log3(3) = 3 × 1 = 3

(b) let log81 3 = x ; 81x = 3; (34)x = 31; 4x = 1; x = 1

4
Example
1
(c) log3( 81 ) = log3(81) = -1log3(3 ) = -4log3(3) = -4
-1 4

(i) Sketch the graphs of y =log3 (x) and y =3x on the

(d) log 1 (16) = log 1 (42) = 2log 1 (4) = 2log 1 ( 1 )-1 = -2 same axes.
4 4 4 4 4 (ii)What is the relationship between these two graphs?
log (b) Explain this relationship.
(e) using log a (b) = c ,where a = 2, b = 7 and c = 10
log c (a)
Solutions
y=x
log10(7) = log10(7) = 2.81(3 s.f ) y = 3x
log10(2) (i) y

We can also group logarithms together provided that

y = log3(x)
they are in the same base.
1
Examples

0 1 3 x
Express each of the following as a single logarithm

(a) logb - 3logc + 2loga (b) 2log2 + log150 - log600

Solutions (ii) y = 3x is a reflection of y = log3 (x) in the line y = x.

This is because y =3x is the inverse function of
(a) logb -3logc + 2loga y = log3(x).
= logb -logc3 + loga2
= logb +loga2 - logc3 Exponential Equations
= loga2b -logc3
Any equation of the form bx = c where b and c are
a2b
= log[ 3 ] constants is called an exponential equation. In such
c
equations the unknown first exists as an exponent
(b) 2log2 + log150 - log600 or power. We can solve such types of equations by
= log22 + log150 - log6000 converting them to an algebraic equation by the use
= log4 + log150 - log6000 of logarithms.
= log[4 × 150] - log6000
= log[600] - log6000 Example
600
= log[ 6000 ] Solve the equation (6.5)x = 19

= log(0.1) = -1 Solution

(6.5)x = 19
xlog(6.5) = log19

x = log(19)
log(6.5)
x = 1.57(3 s.f )

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 45

 Example
 ( x+ 2) 
log   [ b log b ( x ) = x]
Solve the equation 5 = 15, giving your answer
(2x -1) 2  x 
= 23
correct to 3 significant figures.
(x + 2)
=8
Solution x
5(2x -1) = 15 x + 2 = 8x
(2x -1)log5 = log15 [using log ax = x log a]
2xlog5 - log5 = log15 7x = 2
2xlog5 = log[15 × 5] [using log ab = log a + log b]
2xlog5 = log[75] x= 2
7
2x = log(75) Example
log(5)

Solve the following equation log7[x2] - log7[2x]=log7(15)

log(75)
x= 1
2 log(5) Solution
x = 1.34(3 s.f )
log7[x2] - log7[2x] = log7(15)
Example log7x2 log72x log715
7 + 7 =7
Solve the equation 5x -1 = 23x -1, giving your answer x + 2x = 15
2

correct to 3 significant figures. x2 + 2x -15 = 0

(x + 5)(x - 3) = 0
Solution x = - 5 or x = 3

5x -1 = 23x -1
Example
5x = (23)x
5 2 Solve the following equations simultaneously
5 = 5
x

8x 2
y log28 = x and 2 x + 8 y = 8192
log(2.5)
x= = - 1.95(3 s.f )
log 5
8 Solution

y log28 = x and 2 x + 8 y = 8192

Logarithmic Equations
From equation 1, we have that x = 3y, since ylog223 = x
A logarithmic equation is one in which the unknown
quantity appears in the form of a logarithm. It can So 23y + 8y = 8192
often be solved by transforming it into an algebraic
equation by making both sides of the equation the 8y + 8y = 8192
exponent (power) of the base to which the logarithm
or logarithms present are in. If the logs present are in 2(8y) = 8192
different bases they should first be changed to the same
8y = 4096
base.
8y = 84
Example
y = 4 and x = 3 × 4 = 12
Solve the equation log2[x + 2] - log2[x] = 3

Solution

log2[x + 2] - log2[x] = 3

log [ x +x 2 ] = 3 [Express L.H.S as a single log]

46 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 EXERCISE 7.a Base e

The base e is an irrational number

which was discovered by
1. Solve the following equations giving answers which are not Leonhard Euler(1707 -
exact to 3 significant figures. 1783) who suggested its use
as a base for logarithms in
(a) 42x-1=10 (b) (2)x + 1 = 3x
an unpublished paper he
(c) [ 1 ]3x + 2 = 25 (d) [ 1 ]7x = 27
wrote in 1728.
2 4
e ≈ 2.71828 (5d.p).
Mathematics applied to
2. Express each of the following as a single logarithm. natural phenomena such
[All logs are in base 10] as population growth
(a) 2log5+log25 and radioactivity has this
(b) 2log2 + log150-log600 Leonhard Euler
constant e playing a central role.
(c) 3log5 + 5log3 The logarithm to base e written loge(x) is
(d) 2log4 - 4log2
abbreviated by standard as
(e) 3log2+3log5-log106
(f ) log64 - 2log4 + 5log2 - log27
lnx(read ‘loge x’) for the natural logarithm of x.

3. Change the following logarithms to the base indicated in lnx follows the same rules as any other logarithm of any
square brackets. base b.

(a) log2 7 [base 10] (b) log2 [3][base 5] Thus lna + lnb = ln(ab); elnx = x and lne = 1

If y = logex = lnx then ey = x

(c) log 1 [9] [base 7] (d) log 1 [6] [base 10] If y = ex then lny = x
2 4 If 0< x < 1, lnx is negative
If x < 0, lnx is undefined.

3. Sketch the graphs of the following pairs of functions on the

Linearization Through Use of Logarithms
same axes.

1 In some cases we may encounter an exponential

(a) y = 5x and y = log5 (x) (b) y =( )x and y = log 1 (x)
4
4
function in the form y = abx or a power function in
4. Solve the following equations.
the form y = axb.

(a) log5[6n2] - log5[13n] =log5(5) In both cases we may need to find the values of the
(b) log9[21x2] - log9[-7] =log9(10) constants a and b and this can be achieved by making use
(c) 21log5x + log53 = log5(5x + 2) of logarithms to transform them both into a linear form
(d) log5[24 + x] + log5[x] = 2 analogous or similar to the form y= mx + c .This
technique is called linearization.
5. Given the simultaneous equations,
2a = 3b, a + b = 1. Consider the exponential function y= abx.
Show that a = log3
log6 logy = log[abx] [taking logs of both sides]
logy = loga + logbx log(y) logy = xlogb + loga
6. Solve the following pairs of equations simultaneously.
logy = xlogb + loga
(a) log6 + log(x - 3) = 2logy and 2y - x = 3
(b) log(x + y) = 0 and 2 logx = log(y + 1). log(a)

0 x
Special Bases
The equation logy = xlogb + loga
is a linear (straight line) equation
Base 10
of the form y = mx + c, where
y = logy, m = logb and
Base 10 is a commonly used due to the fact that our c = loga . The graph of logy = xlogb + loga
system of writing numbers is the decimal system which would be plotted as logy (vertical axis) against
is based on powers of 10. Thus the log10(x) is usually x (horizontal axis).
written as logx.

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 47

 Also for y = axb log(y) log(y)= blog(x)+ log(a) Example
logy = log[axb]
logy = loga + logxb The surface area of a cube of side x is given by A = 6x 2 .
log y = loga + b logx log(a)
By using a power law model, show that there is a linear
log y = blogx + loga relationship between log A and log x 2 .
This is also a linear equation 0 log(x)
in the form of y = mx + c,
where y = log y, m =b and c = loga.
The graph of logy = blogx + loga is
plotted with log(y)(vertical axis) against x
log(x)(horizontal axis).

Example.

Given the function y = sxt, where s and t are constants, x

(a) Show that the graph of logy against log x is a x
straight line.
(b) If this straight line meets the logy axis where Solution
logy = 0.6 and the log x axis where logx = -1.53.
Find the value of s and the value of t. A = 6x 2 so log [A] = log [6x 2 ]
log (A) = log 6 + log x 2 , using y = mx + c
Solutions. y = log A; c = log 6 and mx = log x 2 , where m = 1

(a) y = sxt, so logy = log [sxt] [taking logs of both sides] Shown
log y = log s + log xt
log y = t log x + logs Example
The above equation is a linear (straight line) equation of
the form y= mx + c ,where y = log y, m = t and c = log s. If log (y) = 0.4 + 0.6x, express y in terms of x.
Shown
Solution

(b) Using log y = t logx + logs , where logy = 0.6 log y = 0.4 + 0.6x is analogous (similar) to the equation
and logx = -1.53, a sketch graph of of a straight line y = mx + c, where y = logy ; c = 0.4 and
logy = t logx + logs is shown below showing mx = 0.6x.
both the given points of intersection.
Since log is to base 10
log(y) logy = t logx + logs

10[logy] = 10[0.4+0.6x]
0.6
So y = (100.4)(100.6)x
100.4 = 2. 51 (3 s. f )
-1.53 0 log(x)
100.6 = 3. 98 (3 s. f )
So y = (2.51) (3.98)x

To find the gradient of this line we use the two points Example
(0 ; 0.6) and (-1.53 ; 0),
If log10 (y) = 0.7 + 2 log10x, express y in terms of x.
So t = m = 0.6 - 0 = 0.6 = 0.4
0 - (-1.5) 1.5
Solution
To find s we use either points (0 ; 0.6) or (-1.53 ; 0) and
For log10(y) = 0.7 + 2log10 (x)
substitute any one of them into the equation
logy = t(logx) + logs . log10 (y) = 0.7 + log10 (x2)
log10(y) (x2)]
So 10 = 10[0.7+log10
Using (0.6 ; 0) , 0.6 = (0.392)(0)+ logs 2
logs = 0.6 so s = 100.6 = 3.98(2d.p) ∴ y =10(0.7)10log10(x )
Using (-1.53 ; 0), 0 = (0.392)(-1.53) + logs ∴ y = (5.01)x2
logs = 0.59976, so s = 100.59976 = 3.98 (3 d.p).

s = 3.98 and t = 0.392

48 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

Example So b = 0.8 and to find the value of c we can use any point
on the line logy = blogx + loga, we will use the point
The table below shows the relationship between the two (0.72 ; 0.62).
variables y and x. By drawing an appropriate graph show
that there is an approximate law of the form y = axb Using the equation y=axb, 0.62 = a(0.72)0.8
stating the values of a and b.
0.62
a = (0.72)0.8 = 0.806 = 0.8 (1 d.p)
x 0.39 0.72 2.23 6.31 56.23
y 0.24 0.62 1.00 2.23 12.29 a = b = 0.8 (1d.p) and the relationship is approximately

Solution y = 0.8x0.8
y = axb
logy = log [axb ]
logy = loga + logxb EXERCISE 7.b
logy = loga + blogx
logy = blogx + loga 1. Express y in terms of x for the following.
gradient = m = b and = loga
(a) log20(y) = 0.6 + 0.8x
We can plot the graph of logy against log x to find out (b) log10(y) = 0.2 + 2 logx
the relationship between the two logarithms. (c) log10(y) = 0.9 + 1.8x
(d) log10(y) = 0.7 + 4 log10(x)
log x -0.4 0.1 0.35 0.8 1.75 (e) log10(y) = - 0.6 – 6 log10(x)
log y -0.6 -0.2 0.0 0.35 1.1
2. The variables u and v are related by the equation v = cud,
logy where c and d are constants
logy = blogx + loga
(a) Show that the graph of lnv against lnu is a straight line.
1.5 (b)This line meets with the lnv - axis where lnv = 0.5 and the
lnu - axis where lnu = 2. Find the value of c and the value
of d.

3. The variables x and y are related by the equation y = cx,

1.0
where c is a constant.

(a) Show that the graph of lny against x is a straight line

passing through the origin.
0.5
(b) The line passes through the point where x = 2 and lny = 3.

Find

(i) the value of c, correct to 2 decimal places,

-1 0 1.0 2.0 logx
(ii) the value of y when x = 5.2. [Hint : use ln instead of log]

6. In an experiment on cell growth, the following data were

obtained, where N is the number of cells at a time t minutes
-0.5
after the start of the growth.

t 1.4 2.6 3.4 8.1 10
N 9 18 31 822 3100
From the graph we can see the linear relationship from
which we can then obtain the values of a and b. At t = 10, a chemical was introduced which killed off the
cell culture.The mathematical relationship between N and
t was thought to be modeled by N = abt, where a and b are
b = gradient , so using the two points (-0.2 ; 0.1) and
constants.
(-0.6 ; -0.4), (a) What is the name of this type of mathematical model?
(b) Use a graph to determine how these figures confirm the
b = m = -0.2 - (-06) = 0.4 = 0.8 supposition that the relationship is of this form. Find
0.1 - (-0.4) 0.5
the values of a and b, each to the nearest integer.
Using your acquired model from part (a), calculate the
value of N when
(i) t = 5.4 (ii) t = 9.3

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 49

 (c) If the growth had not been stopped at t = 10 and had
continued according to your model, how many cells
TEST 7
would there have been after 22 minutes?
1. Write as a single logarithm:
(a) 2log 3 + 3log 4
7. A diamond mining research company in Mutare came up (b) 3 - 2log 5
with a table of values showing the relationship between y (c) 2log s - 3log t - 4log r + 2 [06]
and x as shown below.
2. Solve for x in the following equations, giving your
answers correct to 3 decimal places if the answer is
x 1.7 2.2 3.0 3.3 4.1 not exact.
y 2 3 5 6 9
(a) 32x+1 + 3 = 10(3x) [04]
A brilliant graduate trainee claimed that an approximately (b) log10(x + 6) + log10(x - 3) = log 10 [04]
linear relationship existed between y and x in the form
y2 = a + bx. Show that she was correct and by plotting a 3. Give your answers correct to three significant figures.
graph find the values of the constants a and b. The variables p and q are related such that the graph
of log q against p is a straight line passing through
the points (-1 ; 0) and (0 ; 1).
log(q)

-1 0 p

(a) Find the equation of the straight line and hence find
q in terms of p [04]
(b) Write down the value of q when p = 3 [01]

4. Show that (loga b2)(logb a3) ≡ 6. [04]

5. Answer the whole of this question on a sheet of graph

paper.

n 1 2 3 4
Q 9.2 3.49 1.98 1.32

(a) Using the values in the table above, copy and

complete the table below. Give the values of
log10n and log10Q correct to two decimal places. [04]

log10n 0 0.60
log10Q 0.96 0.12

(b) From the table construct the straight line graph of

log10Q against log10n. [07]

(c) The variable Q is given by an equation of the form

Q = anb where a and b are constants.

By taking logarithms, show that this equation is

verified by the straight line you have drawn in
part(b), in which b is the gradient. [03]

(d) Find the value of a and b, giving each to one decimal

place. [03]
TOTAL = 40

50 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 differentiation
CHAPTER
8
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: 1 1 1 1
x -2 - - -
3 4 50
 understand and employ the concept of limits with
regard to derivatives; y 0.25 0.111 0.00391 0.0004
 understand the idea of the gradient of a2 curve and
use the notations f ´(x), f ˝(x), dy and d y2 ;
dx dx We can clearly see that as x approaches zero the values
 use the derivative of x (for any rational n) coupled
n of x are getting smaller and smaller. But what number
with constant multiples, sums, differences of are they approaching? We will now also take values of
functions, and of composite functions using the x from the right of zero and see what happens as we
chain rule; approach zero from the right hand side. We will use,
 apply differentiation to gradients, tangents and
1 1 1 1
normals, increasing and decreasing functions and x= ,x = ,x = - and x =
2 3 4 50
rates of change;
 locate stationary points, and employ such Now since y = x 2 we get the same results as before as
information in sketching graphs; shown in the table below.
 use the derivatives of ex, lnx, sinx, cosx, tanx,
coupled with constant multiples, sums, differences 1 1 1 1
and composites; x 2 3 4 50
 differentiate products and quotients;
 find and use the first derivative of a function y 0.25 0.111 0.00391 0.0004
defined implicitly or parametrically;

Limit of a Function From our results it shows that we are approaching zero
from both sides . In this case we can say that the limit of
In order for us to understand the technique of y = x2 when x approaches zero written as
differentiation, we must first look at the limit of a
function. Consider the function y = x2 shown below. lim(x → 0)(y) = lim(x → 0)(x 2 ) = 0.
y
y = x2 Let us now look at y = ex whose graph is shown below.

y y = ex

0 x 1

If we take some negative values of x close to zero, we can 0 x

see what happens when we approach zero from the left.
We will take the following values of x,
1 1 1 1
x=- ,x = - ,x = - and x = - We will approach zero from both sides this time using,
2 3 4 50
1 1 1 1 1
x = -1 ; - 2 ; - ; - from the left and 1 ; 2 ; ;
By substituting our values of x into y = x we get the2
50 100 50
1
following table of results. from the right.
100

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 51

 Upon substituting these values of x into y = ex we get the
following results displayed in the tables below.
EXERCISE 8.a

Find,
1 1 1 1. lim(x → 0)[5x 2 - 2x + 2]
x -1 - - -
2 50 100 2. lim(x → 2)[x 2 + 2x + 6]
3. lim(x → 0)[(x + 1)(x + 4)]
y 0.3679 0.6065 0.9801 0.9900 4. lim(x → 0)[(x + 5)] 2
5. lim(x →-1)[ln(x + 2)]
6. lim(x → 0)[e 2x ]
1 1 1
x 1 2 50 100 7. Use the sketch graph of y = ln(x - 4) shown below to
find lim(x →5)[ln(x - 4)]
y 2.7183 1.6487 1.0202 1.010 y

y = ln (x - 4)
Our results show that the limit of ex as x approaches
zero from either side is 1.

So lim(x → 0-)(y) = lim(x→ -)(e x ) = 1 and lim(x → 0+)(e x ) = 1. 5 x

0 0

Where 0- means approaching 0 from the left and 0+

means approaching 0 from the right.

Since we have one limit we can combine the two Derivatives

statements and write the following,
y y = f (x)
lim(x → 0)(e x ) = 1 i.e the limit of ex as x approaches 0 is 1.

In general if lim(x → x -)[ f(x)] = L and T

0
lim(x → x +)[f (x )] = L then lim(x → x )[f(x)] = L.
0 0

Also one very important result is that lim(x → x )[k] = k P

0
where k is a constant.
Example x
0

Find the lim(x → 1)(lnx).

Solution. Let us now look closely at the graph of the function

y =f (x) shown above.
y
In this case f (x) = lnx
so we sketch the graph The tangent T to the curve at the point P will have a
y = lnx gradient (slope) equal to the gradient of the curve
of y = lnx.
y = f(x) at this very same point P. Instead of using the
From the graph tangent method we can use the derivative or gradient
dy
shown above we can function denoted as f ´(x) or to find this gradient.
0 1 x dx
clearly see that f (x)
approaches 0 from both dy
Now means the derivative of y with respect to the
sides of 1. This can also dx
variable x.
be determined from the
table of results of the substitution Let us now introduce the two points on the curve
of values of x from both sides of x = 1. y = f (x) which are [x, f (x)] and
x f (x) x f (x) [x+∆x, f (x+∆x)].
0.1 -2.303 3 1.099
0.2 -1.609 2 0.693 ∆x (‘delta x’) is a symbol that means a very small
0.3 -1.204 1.5 0.405 increment in x.
0.9 -0.105 1.05 0.049
The results from the tables above also show that the
lim(x → 1)[lnx] = 0

52 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

The graphical representation of this situation is shown The graph of y = 3 is a straight horizontal line and
below. remember that the gradient of any horizontal line is 0.
y y = f (x)
Examples.

f (x0+ ∆x) [x0 + ∆x , f (x0 + ∆x)] dy

Find the differential for the function y = f (x) given
T dx
that,

f (x0) [(x0, f (x0)] (i) f (x) = 3x2 -4x + 3 (ii) f (x) = 4x7 – x6 + x5 – 3x-3
(iii) f (x) = 3x3-5x+6 (iv) f (x) = x(x-3)(x+4)
1
x0 x0+∆x x (v) f (x) = x2(x - )
0 x

Solutions.
increment in y dy d d
Remember that gradient = increment in x . (i) dx = dx [y] = dx [3x2 -4x + 3]
d d d
= dx [3x2] + dx [-4x] + dx [3]
So the gradient of the curve shown in the graph above is
the gradient of the tangent which in this case would be = 6x2+- 4 + 0
f(x0+ ∆x) - f(x0) f(x0+ ∆x) - f(x0) = 6x2- 4
(x0 + ∆x) - x0 = ∆x dy d
(ii) dx = dx [4x7 – x6 + x5 – 3x-3]
If we then take the limit of this it would mean that our d d d d
= dx [4x7] + dx [– x6 ] + dx [ x5 ] + dx [-3x-3]
tangent is now exactly touching the curve at the point P
instead of it being a chord. = 4(7)x(7 - 1)+6(-1)x(6 - 1)+5x(5 - 1)+(-3)x(-3 - 1)
dy f (x+ ∆x) - f (x) . = 28x6 – 6x5+5x4 +3x-4.
Thus f ´(x) = = lim (x →0) ∆x
dx
At this point we can now define the derivative or
gradient function of f (x). dy d
dy (iii) dx = dx [3x3 - 5x + 6 ]
Gradient function , derivative or of the function d d d
dx
f (x) is the rate of change of f (x) with respect to the = [3x3]
+ dx [-5x] + dx [6]
dx
variable x and is equal to lim(x →0) f
(x+ ∆x) - f (x)
∆x
where = 3(3)x(3 - 1) -5 + 0
∆x is a small increase in x.
= 9x2 – 5.
The result of this limit is the derived function f ´(x).
Note that this function will give us the gradient or slope dy d
(iv) dx = dx [x(x - 3)(x + 4)] [in this case we must remove
of the curve y = f (x) at any point x.
brackets first, simplify and then proceed].
Results for differentiation. So x(x - 3)(x + 4) = x3 + x2 - 12x.
dy d
dy
Thus dx = dx [x(x -3)(x + 4)]
1. for y = xn = nxn-1 where n is a rational d 3
dx
number. = [x + x2 -12x]
dx
d 3 d d
dy = [x ] + [x2] + [-12x]
2. dx for y = axn= a(n)xn-1 where a is a constant. dx dx dx

dy
= 3x(3 - 1)+2x(2 - 1) + -12x(1 - 1)
3. for y = a = 0 where is a constant.
dx = 3x2 + 2x – 12.
y
dy d 1
(v) dx = dx [x2 (x - )] [in this case we must remove
3 y=3 x
brackets first, simplify and then proceed ]
1
Since x 2(x - ) = x3 – x,
0 x x
dy d
dx
= dx
[x3 – x ] = 3x(3 - 1) – x(1 - 1)
= 3x2- x0
Result (3) can be understood by looking at the graph of = 3x2- 1.
y = a where a = 3 as shown above.

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 53

 d Solution
It is vital that we understand that reads ‘the
dxd
derivative with respect to x’, just as would read ‘the To find the gradient of the curve y = x3 - 3x2 + 6, we first
dt
derivative with respect to t’ dy
find and then substitute the value of of x into the
d dx
19 gradient function.
Thus dt , where y = 12t3 - t
d 19 dy d
= dt [12t3 - t ] = dx [x3 - 3x2 + 6]
dx
d d 19 d
= dt [12t3 ] + dt [- t ] d d
= dx [x3 ]+ dx [- 3x2 ] + dx [ 6]
=12t (3 - 1)+19(-1)t (-1 - 1) = 3x2 - 6x.
= 12t2 +19t-2
So f ´(x) = 3x2 - 6x is the function that will give us the
gradient of the curve at any point.
We must take note of the fact that we have carried out
the process of differentiation once in all the examples
dy Thus the gradient of the curve at (3 ; 6) is
above thus we can conclude that dx is the first f ´(x = 3) = f ´(3)
derivative of y with respect to the variable x. = 3(3)2 – 6(3)
= 27- 18 = 9.
EXERCISE 8.b

Find the derivative of the following functions. Example

1. y = 7x 2. y = x 3. y = x0 4. y = 14
Find the gradient of the curve y = 6t3 – 10t2 + 2t at the
5. y = 1000 6. y = 3t – 4t 7. y = 7x – 17x + 30x
3 2 3
point (-3 ; 9).
8. y = 145x 9. y = x-1 10. y = 14x-1 – 7x-3 + 5x-6
11. y = (3x )
2 2
12. y = 14 + x3 Solution.
13. y = 100 14. y = x – 3
15. y = 4x – 7 16. y = 13x +6
17. y = 36q2 – 14q + 1 18. y = (x - 1) (x +1)
Find the gradient function of y i.e. dy .
dt
u4 dy d
19. y = (v2 + 1) (v2 – 1) 20. y = = dt [6t3 – 10t2 + 2t]
dt
3
21. y = 3x7 - 12x3 - 11x + 29.5 22. y = 4s2 - 3 = 18t2 - 20t + 2.
4 Gradient at (-3 ; 9) = f ´(t = - 3)
23. y = 16x -2
24. y = 32x – 4x 2
x
17 = f ´(- 3)
25. y = 4 . 26. y = 3x -1
x = 18(-3)2 - 20(- 3) + 2
27. y = 2 - 3x 2
28. y = 1 + 2x + 3x2 = 162 + 60 + 2 = 224.
1 3
29. y = x2 – 2x2 30. x - x2 Example
31. y = x3 – 2x4 32. y = 4(1 + 2x – x2)
33. y = 2x(1 – x) 34. y = x(2x +1) – 1 At what point is the gradient of y = x2+ 6x + 3 equal to
35. y = – (3 - x3) 36. y = 2x(3x + 2) 10?
8
37. y = (x – 2)(x -1)(x +7) 38. y = 2v - 3v2 - 4
39. y = (x -3)2 40. y = 11 – x9 v Solution.

dy d
Application of the First Derivative dx
= dx [x2+ 6x + 3] = 2x +6 .

The first derivative of a function is used to find the To find the point at which the gradient = 10, we simply
gradient of a curve at any point (x0 ; y0).Thus, once we dy
equate to 10.
have the first derivative of a function y = f (x), we can dx
So 2x +6 = 10
substitute the value of x which corresponds with the 2x = 4; x = 2.
point on the curve. To find the point we need to find the value of y at which
x = 2.
Example So y = (2)2 + 6(2) + 3 = 4 + 12 + 3 = 19.

What is the gradient of the curve y = x3 - 3x2 + 6 at the Thus the required point is (2 ; 19)
point (3 ; 6)?

54 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 Tangents and Normals
EXERCISE 8.c y = f (x)
1. Find the gradient of the curve y = 4x3 + 12x2 - 17x + 3.5
y
at the point x = - 4.

2. When is the tangent to the curve y = 3x2 – 5x + 10 parallel

to the line y = 20 – 11x? T

P(x0 ; y0)
3. At what two points is the gradient of
y0
y =2x3 - 9x2 + 36x -11 equal to 24?

4. Find the gradient of the curve y = 12t3 - 2t2 + 5t – 12 at the

point where t = -3. N
0 x0 x
5
5. What is the gradient of the curve y = 2x - at the point
x
(2 ; 1)? The diagram above shows the graph of y = f (x) and the
tangent T touching the curve at the point P(x0, y0). The
6. At what point is point is the gradient of y = 6x – 10x + 20
2 straight line N perpendicular to the tangent T at point
equal to 20? P(x ,
0 0
y ) is called the Normal to the tangent T.

(i) The gradient of the curve y = f (x) at the point

7. Find the gradient of the curve f (x) = 2x3 - 8x2 + 5x + 9 P(x0, y0) is equal to the gradient of the Tangent T at
at x = - 3 this same point.
8. At what point is the gradient of the curve f (x) = x2 - 8x + 4
(ii) If the gradient of the tangent T is m then the
equal to -2? 1
gradient of the normal N is - , such that the
m
9. (a) Find the point at which f (x) = a - 6x - x2 has a gradient product of the two gradients is equal to – 1
i.e. [m (- )] = - 1
equal to 2. 1
m
(b) Given that this point you obtained in part (a) is x0 find
the value of a given that f (x0 ) =12 . Example

10. A curve is defined by y = ax2 + b, where a and b Find the equation of the tangent to the curve
are constants. Given that the gradient of this curve at the y = 5x - 7x + 4 at the point (2 ; 10)
2

point (2 ; -2) is 3, find the values of a and b.

Solution
11. Given that the curve with equation y = Ax2 + Bx has
gradient 7 at the point (6 ; 8), find the values of the To find gradient of tangent at point (2 ; 10), find
constants A and B. gradient of curve at point (2 ; 10), they are equivalent.
dy
12. A curve has equation y = Ax3 + Bx2 + D, where A, B, C and = 10x – 7 = f ´ ( x ) , gradient at (2 ; 10)
dx
D are constants. Given that the curve has gradient - 4 at = f ´ (x = 2)
the point (1 ; 2), and gradient 8 at the point (-1 ; 6), find = f ´ (2) = 10(2) – 7 = 20 – 7 = 13.
A, B, C and D.
So using the equation y = mx + c at (2 ; 10) and m = 13

10 = (13)(2) + c
So 10 – 26 = c
c = -16
Thus equation of tangent is y = 13x – 16.

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 55

 Example. 8. Find the equation of the tangent to y = 5x2 - 7x + 4 at the
point (-2 ; 10).
Find the equation of the normal to the curve y = x 4 - 4x 3
1 9. Given the function f (x) = x3 + 5x2 - x - 4 find,
at the point for which x = (a) f ´(-3)
2
(b) the values of k such that f ´(k) = 56
Solution.
dy d 10. Find the equation of the normal to y = x4 - 4x3 at the
dx
= dx [x 4 - 4x 3 ] = 4x3- 12x2 = f ´ (x) 1
1 1 1 point for which x = .
f 1(x = 2 ) = 4( 2 )3 - 12( 2 )2 2
1 1 11. Find the equation of the normal to the curve with
= 4( 8 ) – 12( )
4 equation y = x3 - 3x2 - 2x - 6 at the point where it
1 1
= -3= -2 2 crosses the y -axis.
2 1 5
So the gradient of the tangent to curve at x = is - 1
2 2 12. The tangent to the curve with equation y = at the
or -2.5 x2
1
point ( ; 4) meets the axes at R and S.
1 2 5 2 2
Find the coordinates of R and S.
Thus gradient of normal at x = is since (- )( ) = - 1
2 5 2 5
4 14. The normal to the curve y = x3 + cx at the point (2 ; d) has
1 1 1 1 7
At x = ;y= ( )4 –4 ( )3 = 16 - 8 = - 16 gradient 0.5. Find the values of the constants c and d.
2 2 2
2 15. The curve C has equation y = x3 + 2x2 . Find the equation
So using y = mx + c, where m = ,
5 of the normal to this curve at the point (1 ; -1).
7 2 1 7 1
- 16 = ( )( ) + c → - 16 = ( ) + c Second Derivatives
5 2 5
7 1
c = - 16 - = - 0.6375. Given the function y = f (x) we have dealt with the first
5 dy
derivative of f (x) written f ´ (x) or dx . If we differenti-
So the equation of the normal is dy
2 ate dx or f ´ (x) we obtain the second derivative of f (x)
y= x – 0.6375 or y = 0.4x – 0.6375. d2y d2y d dy d
5
written f ´´ (x) or ( dx2 ) where ( dx2 ) = [ ], dx
dx dx
d
EXERCISE 8.d means the derivative with respect to x just as dt would
mean the derivative with respect to t.
1. At a particular point of the curve y = x 2 + k, the equation of
the tangent is y = 6x – 7. Find the value of the constant k.
Examples
2
2. At a particular point the curve y = 5x - 12x + 1, the
Find the second derivatives of the following functions.
equation of the normal is x + 18y + c = 0.
Find the value of the constant c.
1 (a) f (x)= x2 + 4x + 2 (b) f (x) = x3 - 3x + 2
3. Show that the equation of the tangent to the curve y = at -
1 1
x
the point for which x = p is p 2 y + x = 2p. At what point on (c) f (x) =2x 3
- x4
the curve is the equation of the tangent 9y + x + 6 = 0?
Solutions
4. Find the coordinates of the two points on the same curve
y – 2x 3 - 5x 2 + 9x – 1 at which the gradient of the tangent (a) f (x) = x2 + 4x + 2 ,
is 13. d
f ´(x) = 2x + 4 , f ´´(x) = (2x+4) = 2
dx
5. Find the equation of the normal to the curve f ´´(x) = 2
y = (2x – 1)(3x + 5) at the point (1 ; 8).
Give your answer in the form ax + by + c = 0, where a, b (b) f (x) = x3 - 3x + 2
and c are integers. f ´(x) = 3x2 - 3 , f ´´(x) = d (3x2 - 3) = 6x
dx
f ´´(x) = 6x
6. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve
y = 1 – 2x3 + 3x2 at the point (-2 ; 29) -1 1
(c) f (x) = 2x( 3
)
- x( 4
)

d
7. (a) Find the equation of the tangent to the curve 1 1
f ´ (x) = dx [2x
( 3
)
- x( 4 ]
)
y = 3x2-7x - 4e x at the point (0 ; -1).
(b) Using your results from part(a) find the equation of the 2 4
1
3

normal to the same curve at the point (0 ; -1). =- 3

x (- 3
)
- x (- 4
)
4

56 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 d 2 4 3
Solutions.
f ´´ (x) = [- x (- 3
)
- 1
x (- 4
)
] dy
dx 3 4 (a) At the stationary point =0
dx
8 7 3 7
= x(- 3
)
+ 16 x (- 4
) d
9
dx
[2x2 - 4x +1] = 4x - 4

Thus stationary point lies at the point where

EXERCISE 8.e
4x - 4 = 0.
Find the second derivatives of the following functions :
So x = 1 at stationary point.
1. f (x) = 3x - 17x + 20x 2. f (x) = x
3 2 ( 3
1
)
+ 2x
1
(- 5 ) To find the location is to find the coordinates thus
we substitute x = 1 into the function to obtain the
3. f (x) = x2 - 7x + 1 4. f (x) = x6 + 6x + 1 value of y at the stationary point.
Thus y = 2(1)2 - 4(1) +1 = 2 – 4 + 1 = -1.
1
5. y = t3 - 2
√t - 4t 6. y = u(-4) - 8u(-3) + 18u(-1)
Stationary point is located or situated at (1 ; -1)
1
7. y = √s - 5 s + 18s
3 (-5)
8. y = x - 3x + 4x - 2
3 2

(b) f ´ (- 2) is the derivative of f (x) at x = - 2 and f ´ (6)

9. y = (3x4 + 1)(x - 7) 10. y = (x2 - 1)(2x + 3)
is the derivative of f (x) at x = 6.
6x - 5 dy d
√x + 5 f ´ (x) = = dx [x3 - 6x2 - 36x +15] = 3x2 -12x -36.
11. y = 12. y = dx
√x x2

√x +1
1 1
Now f ´ (- 2) = 3(-2)2 -12(-2) – 36
13. y = 14. y = 3x6 - 2x4 - 14x-12 + 56.
-√x = 12 +24 -36 =36 -36 = 0 [shown].
Also f (6) = 3(6)2 - 12(6) -36 = 3(36) – 72 - 36
’

Stationary Points = 108 – 108 = 0 [shown].

y
y = f (x) Stationary points are found where f ´ (x) = 0
T1 i.e. at x = -2 and x = 6.
(-ve) (+ve) Thus to find the coordinates we substitute corresponding
A
values of x into the function.
0
B At x = - 2 ; y = (- 2)3 - 6(- 2)2 - 36(-2) + 15
(-ve) T2
(+ve) = - 8 – 24 + 72 +15 = 55

At x = 6 ; y = (6)3 - 6(6)2 - 36(6) + 15

The graph of f (x) shown above indicates the two = 216 - 216 – 216 +15 = -201
tangents T1 and T2 to the graph of y = f (x) at the points
A and B respectively. We notice that both of these Coordinates of stationary points are (-2 ; 55) and
tangents are parallel to the x – axis.This means that the (6 ; -201).
gradient (slope) of the curve at both these points is zero.
Such points where the gradient of any curve is zero are Nature of Stationary Points.
called Stationary or Turning points. At these points the
gradient is changing from positive to negative or from
negative to positive.

Examples.

(a) Find the location of the stationary point on the curve

y = 2x2 - 4x + 1. minimum point maximum point
(b) A function f (x) is defined as follows :
f (x) = x3 - 6x2 - 36x + 15. The diagrams above show two types of stationary points.
Show that f ´ (-2) = f ´ (6) = 0 and hence find the
coordinates of the two stationary points. These are

(i) Maximum Points

(ii) Minimum Points

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 57

 At a minimum point the gradient changes from being The graph below shows a sketch of what the curve
negative to being to positive.
y = 3x 2 + 12x + 5 will look like:
At a maximum point the gradient changes from being
y y = 3x 2 + 12x + 15
positive to negative.

For us to determine the nature of a stationary point we

employ the second derivative i.e

d 2y d 2y d dy 5
,where = dx [ ] = f ´´(x).
dx 2 dx 2 dx

This function is obtained by simply differentiating the -2 0

x
function f (x) twice.

d 2y -7
(i) If > 0 at a stationary point x, then we have a
dx 2
minimum point at this point. Minimum point

d 2y (ii) For y = x 3 - x 2 - x + 1
(ii) If < 0 at a stationary point x, then we have a
dx 2 dy d
maximum point at this point. = [x 3 - x 2 - x + 1]
dx dx
= 3x 2 - 2x – 1
Examples
dy
= 0 at stationary point
For each of the following functions, dx

So 3x 2 - 2x – 1 = 0
(a) Find the coordinates of the stationary point, 3x 2 - 3x + x – 1 = 0
(b) Say with reasoning, whether this is a maximum 3x(x – 1) + 1(x – 1) = 0
or a minimum point. (3x + 1)(x -1) = 0
1
Stationary points are found at x = - 3 and x = 1.
(i) y = 3x 2 + 12x + 5
(ii) y = x 3 - x 2 - x + 1 d 2y d
f ˝(x) = = [3x 2 - 2x – 1]
dx 2 dx
Solutions = 6x – 2

(i) To find a stationary point, we use

dy
. [ ] = -4 < 0 (Maximum point)
So f ˝ -
1
3
dx
dy dy d Also f ˝(1) = 4 > 0 (Minimum point)
dx
= 0 at stationary point; = dx
[3x 2 + 12x + 5]
dx
1 32
So at (- 3 ; ) (Max – point) and
= 6x + 12 = 0 27

at (1 ; 0) (Min _ point)
So 6x = - 12 and x = - 2 at stationary point.
y – coordinate is where y = 3(-2)2 + 12(-2) + 5 = - 7 Example

So stationary point lies at (-2 ; -7). A farmer decides to fence off a rectangular garden with
2
d y an area of 1600m2 to plant some vegetables. What
To determine its nature, we employ or f ˝(x) should the dimensions of the garden be in order to
dx 2
minimize the length of fence required?
at x = - 2.
d 2y d
= [6x + 12] = 6 Solution
dx 2 dx x

d 2y y
Since > 0 we have a minimum point at (-2 ; - 7).
dx 2

58 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

If we let the garden length be x metres and the width be Solutions.

y, x × y =1600 so y = 1600 (a) Volume = [(x)×(3x)×(h) ]cm3 = 80cm3

x 80
3x2 h = 80, so h = 3x2 .
Now the total amount of fence required is the perimeter
of the garden = P. (b) Total surface area = A cm2
1600 3200
P = 2x + 2y = 2x + 2[ ] = 2x + . = 2(x × h) + 2(x × 3x) + 2(3x × h)]cm2
x x
80
A = 2x[3x2 ] + 6x[ 802 ] + 6x2
We wish to minimize the perimeter of the garden in 3x
order to save the length of fencing so we will let
[160 + 3(160)]
A = 160 + 160
x
+ 6x2 = 3x + 6x2
3x
P(x )= 2x+ 3200 .
x
A = 6x2 + 640 (Shown)
The minimum and maximum points of this function 3x
P(x) are then located using the differentiation as follows,
(c) Using A = 6x2 + 640 , A is a function in x so we can
3x
d write this function as A(x) = 6x2 + 640
P´(x) = [2x + 3200 ] = 2 - 3200x(-2) 3x
dx x We then proceed to find the stationary value of A(x) as
P´(x) = 0 (at turning point) follows,
d 640 640
So 2 - 3200x(-2) = 0, A´(x) = dx [6x2 + 3x ] = 12x - 3x2

x2 = 1600 and x = 40 [we ignore -40 since x is a length] 640
d A´(x) = 0 (at stationary point) so 12x - 3x2 = 0
P´(x) = [2 - 3200x(-2) ] = 6400x(-3), 640
dx
and so 12x = 3x2
P´´(40) = 6400[40](-3) = 0.1
160 1

36x3 = 640 therefore x = ( 9 )3 [at stationary point]

Since P´´(40)>0 we have a minimum point at x = 40 .
160 1 1

(d) A = 6[( 9 )3 ]2 + [3( 1609 ) ] = 122.61cm2 (2d.p.)

3

The farmer should use a length of 40 m and a width

1600
of 40 m = 40 m i.e. a square of side length 40 m will A´´(x) = 12 + 1280
minimize the length of fence required for the garden. 3x3
160 1

Example. This is a minimum point since A´´ [( 9 )3 ] > 0

A rectangular box has width of x cm , length 3x cm and

height h cm. The volume of this box is 80 cm3. EXERCISE 8.e

1. Find the turning points of the curve f (x) = x3 - 6x2 + 9x + 6

showing clearly how you determine the nature of the points
hcm
1
2. Find the turning points of the function f (x) = 16x + x2
showing clearly how you determine the nature of the points.

3. Locate all stationary points of the following functions and

xcm state the nature of each of these points:
3xcm
(a) f (x) = x2 + 2x + 3 (b) f (x) = x2 - 7x + 1 (c) x6 + 6x +1
1

(a) Express h in terms of x. (d) x 5 (e) x3 - 3x2 + 4x - 2.

4. Find the coordinates of the stationary points of each of the

(b) Show that the total surface area A cm2 of this box
640
following curves
can expressed in terms of x as A = 6x2 + 3x .
(a) y = x2 + 6x + 5 (b) y = 2x2 - 3x + 1
(c) Given that x can vary, calculate the value of x for
which A has stationary value. (c) y =6 - x2 (d) y = 3 - 5x + x2

(e) y = x3 - 6x2 - 36x (f ) y = x4 - 2x2 + 3
(d) Find this value of A and determine whether it is
a minimum or a maximum. (g) y = 1 - 6x + 6x2 + 2x3 - 3x4

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 59

 5. A window consists of an upper 2x 13. A closed cubical box of square base has volume 8 m2.
rectangular part ABCD of height y metres C D Given that the square base has sides of length x metres,
and width 2x metres and a lower part find expressions in terms of x for
which is a semi-circle of radius x metres on
AB as diameter as shown in the diagram. y (a) the height of the box,
The perimeter of the window is 10m. y (b) given also that the surface area of the box is a
minimum, find the value of x.

(a) Find an expression in terms of x and π A 2x 14. The figure below shows a rectangular box, with no top,
B
for the total area of the window. which is made of thin plastic. The volume of the box
(b) Find the value of x for which the area is 500 cm3. The base of the box is a square with sides of
of the window is a maximum . length x cm.
d 2y
Use dx 2 to verify that the area is

maximum for this value of x.

6. A farmer decides to fence off a goat’s pen in the shape of a

rectangle with length 10x metres and width 4(2 - x) metres
as shown.
xcm
Goat’s Pen 4(2 - x) m
xcm
10x m (a) Show that the area, A cm2, of plastic used to make this box
(a) Find an expression in terms of x for the area of
the goat’s pen. is given by
(b) Using your result from part (a) find the maximum
possible area the goat’s pen can have. (b) Given that x varies, find the value of x for which .

7. A 5-year projection of population trends suggests that t (c) Find the height of the box when x has this value.
years from now, the population of a certain community will
be P(t)=[-t3 + 9t2 + 48t + 50] thousand . (d) Show that when x has this value, the area of plastic used is
(a) At what time during the 5-year period will the least.
population be growing most rapidly?
(b) At what time during the 5-year period will the 15. The cross section of an object has the shape of a quarter –
population be growing least rapidly? circle of radius r adjoining a rectangle of width x and height
r, as shown in the diagram below.
8. It is estimated that the cost of constructing an office
building n floors high is C(n)=[2n2 + 500n + 600] thousand
US Dollars. How many floors should the building have in
order to minimize the average cost per floor? r

9. At what point does the tangent to the curve

y = 2x3 - 3x2 + 6x have the smallest slope? r x
What is the slope of the tangent at this point?
(a) The perimeter and area of the cross – section are P and A
10. At a speed of S km/h a vehicle will travel y kilometers on respectively. Express each of P and A in terms of r and x,
1 1 1
and hence show that A = 2 Pr - r 2 .
each litre of fuel, where y = 5+ 5 S-800 S2.
Calculate the speed at which the vehicle should be driven
(b) Taking the perimeter P of the cross-section as fixed, find
for maximum economy.
x in terms of r for the case when the area A of the cross-
section is a maximum, and show that, for this value of x, A
11. A cylindrical can is made so that the sum of its height and
is a maximum and not a minimum.
the circumference of its base is 45π cm.
Find the radius of the base of the cylinder if the volume of
the can is a maximum.

12. An open metal tank with a square base is made from

12 m2 of sheet metal. Find the length of the side of the
base for the volume of the tank to be a maximum and find
this maximum volume.

60 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

Derivatives of Trigonomertic functions
√3 1
= 2 (- sin θ) - (cos θ)
2
Given that θ is measured in radians,
= - 1 [sin θ + cos θ]
d d 2
(sin θ) = cos θ (cos θ) = - sin θ.
dθ dθ
d d Example
dθ
(tan θ) = sec2 θ dθ
(cot θ) = - cosec2 θ
d d Find the smallest positive value of θ for which the curve
dθ(sec θ) = sec θ tan θ dθ(cosec θ) = - cosec θ tan θ.
y = 2θ + 3 cos θ has a gradient of 1 .
2
Examples
Solution
Write down the derivatives of the following functions: dy
y = 2θ + 3 cos θ gives = 2 - 3 sin θ.
dθ
(i) sin θ + cos θ (ii) 8 - 2 cos θ dy
When = 1 , 2 - 3 sin θ = 1
dθ 2 2
(iii) 3 sin θ - 2 cos θ (iv) sin[ π - θ]
3 3 sin θ = 3
2
Solutions
sin θ = 1
2
(i) Let y = sin θ + cos θ
θ = sin ( 1 ) = π .
-1

dy d 2 6
= dθ [sin θ + cos θ]
dθ The smallest positive value of θ for which sin θ = 1 is π
[Note that θ is given in radians.] 2 6
= cos θ - sin θ
Example
(ii) Let y = 8 - 2 cos θ

dy Find the equation of the tangent to the curve

= d [ 8 - 2 cos θ] y = 3cos θ - 2sin θ where θ = π .
dθ dθ 4
= 0 - (2)(- sin θ) = 2 sin θ Solution

(iii) Let y = 3 sin θ - 2 cos θ y = f (θ) = 3cos θ - 2sin θ

dy d dy
= [3 sin θ - 2 cos θ] = -3sin θ -2cos θ
dθ dθ dθ
= 3 cos θ - (2)( - sin θ) π π π π
Gradient at θ = or f ' ( ) = -3sin ( ) - 2cos( )
4 4 4 4
-3 2 5
= 3 cos θ + 2 sin θ = - =-
√2 √2 √2
(iv) Let y = sin[ π - θ] Gradient of tangent at θ = π is equal to the gradient of
3 4
5
In this case we have a compound angle so we first the curve at θ = π which is equal to - .
4 √2
expand, simplify and then differentiate. Using the
compound angle identity π π π 1
At θ = ; y = 3cos( ) - 2sin( ) =
4 4 4 √2
sin(A - B) ≡ sinAcosB - sinBcosA, where A = π and Using y = mx + c where y = 1
and m = - 5
3 √2 √2
B = θ.
1 5 π
√2 = - √2 [ 4 ] + c
sin[ π - θ] = sin π cosθ - sinθ cos π
3 3 3 1 5
c= + [ π ]
√3 1 √2 √2 4
= cosθ - sinθ
2 2 5 1 5
y=- x + + [ π ]
dy √2 √2 √2 4
So = d [ √3 cosθ - 1 sinθ]
dθ dθ 2 2
√2y + 5x + 1 - 5π = 0
d 4
= √3 d (cosθ) - 1 (sinθ)
2 dθ 2 dθ

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 61

 Differentiation of Logarithmic and Exponential The Chain Rule
functions
Consider y = g(u) where u = f (x)
Exponential functions
dy dy du
= ×
d dx du dx
If y = eax then (eax) = aeax, where a is a constant
dx
This rule is called the chain rule and is employed to
Example differentiate a function of a function.

Find the coordinates of the point on the curve where Examples

y = 2x - ex has a stationary point.
Find the derivatives of the following functions:
Solution
(i) y = √(x3 - 5) (ii) cos(2θ - π ).
dy 3
y = 2x - e ; x
=2-e x
dx
Solutions
y has a stationary point where 2 - e = 0 x 1
2
(i) y = √(x - 5) = (x - 5)
3 3

So ex = 2 and therefore x = ln2 and y = 2ln2 - eln2 1

= ln4 - 2 Let u = x - 5 ⇒ y = u
3 2

-1
du dy
Stationary point lies at (ln2 ; ln4 - 2) = 3x2 and = 1 u2
dx du 2
dy dy du
The Logarithmic function Using = ×
dx du dx
-1

If y = lnx ; dy = 1 . = ( 1 u 2 )(3x2)
dx x 2
dy 3x2
Also if y = ln(ax), = 1 where a is a constant. =
1
dx x 2u 2
Examples = 3x2
2√(x3 - 5)
Write down the derivatives of the following: (ii) cos(2θ - π )
3
5 π
(i) lnx7 (ii) ln(9x2) (iii) ln( ) Let u = 2θ - ⇒ y = cos(u)
√x 3
du dy
Solutions =2 and = -sin(u)
dθ du
dy dy du
(i) let y = lnx7 = 7lnx Using = ×
dθ du dθ
dy dy
= d [7lnx] = 7 d lnx = 7( 1 ) = 7 . dθ
= -sin(u) × 2
dx dx dx x x
(ii) let y = ln(9x2) = ln9 + lnx2 = ln9 + 2lnx = -2sin( 2θ - π )
3
dy d d d
= [ ln9 + 2lnx] = [ln9] + [2lnx]
dx dx dx dx
EXERCISE 8.f
= 0 + 2( 1 ) = 2
x x
1. Write down the derivatives of the following functions:
(iii) let y = ln( 5 ) = ln5 - ln√x = ln5 - 1 lnx
√x 2 (a) ln(5x6) (b) -ln(24x2) (c) e-5x (d) 1 e-8x.
dy d 2
= [ ln5 - 1 lnx ]
dx dx 2 2. Find the value of θ for which the curve y = 2θ + 3cosθ has
a gradient of - 1 .
= 0 - ( )( 1 )
1 2
2 x
1 3. Find the equation of the tangent to the curve
=-
2x y = 3cosθ -2sinθ where θ = - π .
4
4. Differentiate the following functions :

(a) ln(x - 3)2 (b) (x + 7)5 (c) cos( 4θ - π )

4

62 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 (d) (x2 + 9)6 (e) e-3x (f ) 5ln(x3 + 1) Using the product rule dy = u dv + v du
dx dx dx
(g) cos(θ ) 3
(h) sin θ 2
(i) 3 dy
2√(x3 - 5)
= e-3x(- cosec2x) + cotx(-3e-3x)
dx

(j) sin(π - 3x) (k) e-sinx (l) ln(-cosx) = -e-3x[ cosec2x + 3cotx]

Derivatives of products and quotients Quotient rule

Product rule Consider the function y = u where both u and v are

v
functions of the variable x.
Consider the function y = u(x)v(x) where both u and v dy
du dv

are functions of x. The function y is the product of the = v dx -2 u dx

dx v
function of u(x) and v(x).
The result stated above is called the quotient rule and
d (y) = d (uv) = u dv + v du should be employed when differentiating a function
dx dx dx dx which is in the form of a quotient.
The result stated above is called the product rule and
can be employed to find the derivative of a product of Examples
functions having the same variable.
Differentiate the following functions with respect to x :
Examples
(i) y = 3x - 4 (ii) y = (5x + 1)3
4

1 - 7x (3x - 7)
Differentiate the following functions with respect to x :
cos(-4x)
(iii) y =
sin(-4x)
(i) y = x(x + 5)4 (ii) y = x2sinx (iii) y = e-3xcotx
Solutions
Solutions 3x - 4
(i) y =
1 - 7x
(i) y = x(x + 5)4
This is of the form y = u where u = 3x - 4 and
v
This is of the form y = uv where u = x and v = (x + 5)4 v = 1 - 7x.
du dv
dy
Using the product rule dy =u dv +v du = v dx -2 u dx
dx v
dx dx dx
dy (1 - 7x)(3) - (3x - 4)(-7)
= (x)[4(x + 5)3] + (x + 5)4(1) = (1 - 7x)2
dx

= 3 - 21x + 21x -28

= 4x(x + 5)3 + (x + 5)4 (1 - 7x)2

= (x + 5)3[4x + x + 5] = (1 -21
- 7x)2

= (x + 5)3[5x + 5] = -21(1 - 7x)- 2

(5x + 1)4
(ii) y = x2sinx (ii) y =
(3x - 7)3

This is of the form y = uv where u = x2 and v = sinx This is of the form y = u where u = (5x + 1)4 and
v
v = (3x - 7)3.
dy dv du
Using the product rule =u + v dy
du dv
dx dx dx = v dx -2 u dx
dy dx v
= x2(cosx) + sinx(2x)
dx (3x - 7)3(4)(5)(5x + 1)3 - (5x + 1)4(3)(3)(3x - 7)2
=
(3x - 7)6
= x2(cosx) + 2xsinx
= 20(3x - 7) (5x +(3x
1)3 - 9(5x + 1)4(3x - 7)2
3

- 7)6
(iii) y = e-3xcotx
= (3x - 7) (5x + 1) [60x -6 140 - 45x - 9]
3 3

(3x - 7)
This is of the form y = uv where u =e-3x and v = cotx
= (3x - 7) (5x + 1) [15x - 149]
3 3

6
(3x - 7)

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 63

 Implicit functions
= (3x - 7) (2 - 6)
(5x + 1) (15x - 149)
3

We may encounter functions that cannot be written or

= (3x - 7) (5x + 1) (15x - 149)
-4 3 expressed in the form y = f (x). For example the function
y = 9 - x2 is a function that is in the form y = f (x)
cos(-4x) whereas the function y + xy + y2 = 5 cannot be expressed
(iii) y = sin(-4x)
in the form y = f (x) i.e. the variable y cannot be made
u the subject. Such types of functions are called implicit
This is of the form y = where u = cos(- 4x)
v functions and functions that can be written in the form
and v = sin(- 4x).
du dv y = f (x) are explicit functions.
dy v dx - u dx
dx
= v2
To find the derivative of y + xy + y2 = 5, this equation
sin(- 4x)(4)sin(- 4x) - cos(- 4x)(-4)cos(- 4x) may be written as f (x) + xf (x) + [f (x)]2 = 5, where
= [sin(- 4x)]2

=
4[sin2(- 4x) + cos2(- 4x)] y = f (x) and dy = f '(x).
[sin2 (- 4x)] dx
4(1) Differentiating term by term we have
= sin2(-4x)

= 4cosec2(- 4x) (i) d f (x) = f '(x) = dy

dx dx

EXERCISE 8.f (ii) xf (x) is a product therefore

d dy
1. Differentiate the following with respect to x, xf (x) = (1)f (x) + xf ' (x) = y + x
dx dx
simplifying your answers where possible.
i.e. d (xy) = y + x dy
dx dx
(a) y = x(3x + 8)9 (b) y = x3(6x + 13)7
(iii) [f (x)] is a function of a function
2

(c) y = (3x2 + 2)-3(3x + 1)6 (d) y = x3√(x + 5) d dy

Therefore [f (x)]2 = [2f (x)]f '(x) = 2y
dx dx
(e) y = [(x + 7)5]√x (f ) y = (4x + 6)-8(3x - 1)-6 d 2 dy
i.e. (y ) = 2y
dx dx
4x 4x - 2
(g) y = (h) y = d
2x - 7 2x + 4 (iv) (5) =0
dx
(i) y = x6 (j) y = (6x + 2)4
3

(x + 2)3 (2x - 4) Therefore differentiating y + xy + y2 = 5 w.r.t x we get

2. Find the coordinates of any of the stationary points dy dy dy
on the following curves and state the nature of these + (y + x ) + 2y =0 N.B
dx dx dx Every term is
stationary points. differentiated w.r.t x
or ( 1 + x + 2y) dy + y = 0
dx
(a) y = (x - 3)4x2 (b) y = x5

(x - 2)3 If g(y) is any function of y where y = f (x) then g(y) is a

(c) y = 12 - x (d) y = x(x - 5) 4 function of a function of x. Thus the derivative of g(y)
x +8 w.r.t x is
N.B
3. Find the equation of the d dy g'(y) is the first derivative
[g(y)] = g'(y) of g(y) w.r.t y
dx dx
(i) tangent (ii) normal to the following curves at the
given points on the curve: For example d (cosy) = -siny dy
dx dx

(a) y = x2(x - 1)5 at the point (1 ; 2) Examples

(b) y = 3x at the point ( 2 ; 4)

2
Differentiate the following functions with respect to x :
x+1
(i) x3 + xy3 + y4 = 7 (ii) x = ye2x

Solutions

(i) if x3 + xy3 + y4 = 7 then

d d d d
dx (x ) + dx (xy3) + dx (y4 ) = dx (7)
3

64 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 dy dy dx d dt 1
i.e. 3x2 + [x(3y2) + y3] + 4y3 =0 = (t2) = 2t ⇒ =
dx dx dt dt dx 2t
dy dy 1 1 t -3.
[x(3y2) + 4y3] + 3x2 + y3 = 0 Therefore = (t -2) × ( )=
dx dx 2t 2
dy
[x(3y2) + 4y3] = - 3x2 - y3 At x - axis y = 0 ⇒ 1 - 1 = 0 ⇒ t = 1.
dx t
dy -3x - y2 3
= Now if t = 1 ; dy at P = 1 (1)-3 = 1
dx x(3y2) + 4y3 dx 2 2
(ii) x = ye2x Therefore P lies at (1 ; 0), using y = mx + c
N.B
Every term is
d d
(x ) = (ye2x) differentiated w.r.t x 0 = ( 1 )(1) + c
dx dx 2
dy 2x
1 = 2ye2x + e c=- 1
dx 2
dy 2x 1 1
1 - 2ye2x = e Equation of tangent is y = x - or 2y = x - 1.
dx 2 2
dy
= (1 - 2ye2x)e-2x
dx
EXERCISE 8.g
Parametric equations
1.Find the derivatives of the following :
In some cases a direct relationship between x and y may
be made easier to work with when expressed in terms of (a) x3 + e2x (b) e(3x +4) (c) e-xcosx
a third variable. This third variable is called a parameter.
(d) ln 2 (e) ln 1 -x-3 (f ) ln √x
x2 2 4
Consider the equations x = t3 , y = t - 5
(g) x3√(x - 1) (h) cos2(3x) (i) ln(cotx)
A point P(x ; y) lies on the curve representing the
relationship if and only if the coordinates of P are 2. Find the coordinates of the point on the curve y = 2lnx - x
where the tangent is parallel to the line y = x.
( t3 ; t - 5).
If both x and y are given as functions of t
3. Differentiate the following functions with respect to x :
dy dy dt
= ×
dx dt dx (a) x2 - y2 = 5 (b) 2x2 - xy - y2 = 10

dt 1 (c) x(x - y) = y2 (d) 1 - 1 = ey

But = x y
dx dx
(f ) x - y2 = 1
2
(e) xe2y = x + 1
dt dy 4 9
dy dt
Therefore
dx
= 4. Find the equation of the tangent at (1 ; 1 ) to the curve
dx 3
dt whose equation is 2x2 -3x + +3y2 + 2y = 0
Example
5. Find dy in terms of the parameter:
dx
A curve is given by the parametric equations : x = t 2,
(a) x = t 3 , y = t 2 (b) x = (t - 1)2 , y = t 2 + 1
y = 1 - 1 (t > 0). The curve cuts the x - axis at P. Find t t2
t (c) x = sin2θ , y = cos3θ (d) x = , y=
1-t 1-t
the equation of the tangent to the curve at P. 6. If x = sint and y = cos2t, find dy in terms of x and
dx
Solution d 2y
prove that 2 + 4 = 0.
dx

Gradient of tangent at P = Gradient of curve at P.

dy
Gradient of curve at P = at P
dx
dy dy dt
= ×
dx dt dx
dy d
dt
= dt
[1 - 1 ] = t -2.
t

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 65

 Rates of increase (ii) The original value of y was 4 - 4 + 2(4)2 = 32 and the
percentage change in
When change or variation is dependent on another 3r
× 100% = 15r %
δy
variable x, then dy gives the rate at which y increases in y= y
× 100% ≈ 20
dx 32 32

comparison to x. Connected rates of change

Small increments Some situations or problems involving rates of one

variable compared with another do not give a direct
Consider two variables, x and y , connected or related by relationship between these two variables. However, each
the equation y = f (x). of these two variables may be related to a third variable.
dy dy dt
If x increases by a small increment δx then y increases by The use of the identity = × is useful for the
dx dt dx
a corresponding small amount δy.
solution of problems of this nature.
δy
Now lim(δx → 0) = dy i.e. as δx approaches 0
δx dx
δy dy
Example
approaches .
δx dx
A spherical football is being pumped so that its volume
δy dy dy
So provided that δx is small, ≈ ⇒ δy ≈ δx . increases at a constant rate of 3.5cm3s-1. Find the rate
δx dx dx
of increase of the radius when the volume of the ball is
This approximation can be used to make an estimation 66cm3.
of the value of a function very near to known value i.e.
y + δy can be estimated if y is known at a particular value Solution
of x.
If, at time t, the radius of the ball is r and the volume is
Example V then
dV
Using y = √x , estimate the value of √(100.5) V = 4 πr3 (Volume of sphere) ⇒ = 4 π(3)r2
3 dr 3
Solution = 4πr2.
1 1
dy d dr
) = 1 x-
1
y = √x = x 2 ⇒ = (x 2 2 Rate of increase of radius = , and we are given
dx dx 2 dt
dy dV
δx gives δy ≈ 1 (x- 2 )δx.
1
δy ≈ = 3.5
dx 2 dt
dr dr dV dV dV
We can use x = 100 and δx = 0.5 Using = × = ÷
dt dV dt dt dr
1 1 dr 3.5 7
δy ≈ 2√100 (0.5) = 2(10) (0.5) = 0.025. ⇒ = =
dt 4πr2 8πr2
Thus √(100.5) ≈ 0.025. To find r, substitute V = 66 in V = 4 πr3 and
3
3
Example √
r = (15.75 ) = 2.50665.
7 dr
If y = 4 - x + 2x2 and x is increased from 4 by an amount Therefore, when V = 66, =
r dt 8π(2.50665)2
100
where r is small, find in terms of r,
= 0.044327249
(i) the approximate change in y,
(ii) the percentage change in y. i.e. the radius is increasing ata rate of 0.0443 cms-1(3 s.f.)

Solutions
dy d
(i) = (4 - x + 2x2) = -1 + 4x
dx dx
dy
(at x = 4) = -1 + 4(4) = 15
dx
dy r 3r
δy ≈ × δx ≈ 15 × 100 = 20 .
dx

66 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 Example
EXERCISE 8.h
(i) Expresss ex as a series of escending powers of x up to
1. Given the function y = x3 + x2 - 5, x is increased from 3 to and including the term in x4. Hence using this series,
3.05. What is the approximate change in y? find the approximation of e3 correct 5 decimal places.

2. For the function T = 6 , find the new value of T (ii) Using your expansion for ex from part (a), find the
s+1
approximately due to an increase in s from 8 to 8.1. series expansion for e-3x up to and including the term
in x4.
3. A piece of wire of length 20 cm is shaped into the form of
a sector of a circle of radius r cm and angle θ radians.
Solutions
(a) Show that the area A cm2 of the sector is given by
A = (10 - r)r = 10r - r2 . (i) When f (x) = ex , f '(x) = f ''(x) = f '''(x) = f ''''(x) = ex
(b) If r is increased by 4% when r = 5 cm, find the
approximate change in A. Then f (0) = 1, f '(0) = f ''(0) = f '''(0) = f ''''(0) = 1

4. The length of a cone is 20 cm but the radius of its Now using

circular base is increased from 10 cm to 10.01 cm.
f (x) = f (0) + f '(0)x + f ''(0)x + f '''(0)x + f ''''(0)x + ...
2 3 4
Find the approximate change in the volume of the
cone in terms of π. 2! 3! 4!

ex = 1 + x + x + x + x + ...
2 3 4

5. The radius r cm of a sphere is 10 cm and it is increasing at 2! 3! 4!

the rate of 0.25 cms-1. At what rate is
To find the approximation for e3, we substitute 3 for x in
(a) the volume increasing, the series expansion of ex.
(b) the surface area increasing?
So e3 = 1 + 3 + 3 + 3 + 3 + ...
2 3 4

4 3 2! 3! 4!
[Volume (Sphere) = πr , Surface area = 4πr2]
3
= 1 + 3 + 9 + 27 + 81 + ...
2 6 24
6. A closed cylinder is of fixed length 20 cm but its
radius is increasing at the rate of 3cms-1 . find the rate = 16.375 (3 d.p)
of increase of its total surface area when the radius is
8 cm. [Leave your answer in terms of π]. (ii) To find the series expansion for e-3x we replace x by
-3x in the series found for ex.
7. Two quatities u and v are related by the equation
e-3x = 1 + (-3x) + (-3x) + (-3x) + (-3x) + ...
2 3 4
(u - 1)(v + 2) = c where c is a constant. When u = 5
2! 3! 4!
units, v = 7 units and v is changing at the rate of 0.04
= 1 - 3x + 9x - 27x + 81x + ...
2 3 4
units per second.
2! 3! 4!
Find the rate at which u is changing.
Example

Maclaurin's series (i) Express sin(2x) as aseries of ascending powers of x as

far as the term in x3.
We will now look at the series expansion for f (x), where
f (x) is a function of x. We will employ Maclaurin's (ii) Hence show that, if x is small enough for x3 and
theorem which states that higher powers to be neglected,

f (x) = f (0) + f '(0)x + f ''(0)x + f '''(0)x + f ''''(0)x + ...

2 3 4
ex + sin(2x) ≈ 1 + 3x + x
2

2! 3! 4! 2!
Solutions
Shown on the right hand side is the Maclaurin's
series for the function f (x). It can be used to obtain an (i) If f (x) = sin(2x),
expansion for a function of x, in ascending powers of x.
However, for this to be feasible, f '(x) = 2cos(2x), f ''(x) = -4sin(2x), f '''(x) = -8cos(2x)

(i) it must be possible to find all the derivatives of f (x), Then f (0) = 0, f '(0) = 2, f ''(0) = 0, f '''(0) = -8
(ii) all derivatives must be defined at x = 0,
So sin(2x) = 0 + 2x + 0x - 8x + ...
2 3
(iii) the series obtained must be a convergent series.
2! 3!
= 2x - 8x + ...
3

3!

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 67

 dy 2
dy
(ii) ex + sin(2x) 4. Given that y = ln(4 + 3x), find and show that 2 = - 9
dx dx 16
when x = 0.
= [1 + x + x + x + ...] + [ 2x - 8x + ... ]
2 3 3
Hence or otherwise, obtain the Maclaurin series for
2!3! 3! ln(4 + 3x), up to and including the term in x3.
= 1 + ( x + 2x) + x 2
+ x3
- 8x 3
+ ...
5. Given that y = cos( π + 2x ), find d y .
2
2! 3! 3! 3 dx2
= 1 + 3x + x - 7x + ...
2 3
π
2! 3! N.B Hence obtain the Maclaurin series for cos( + 2x ) ,
3
Ignoring the term up to and including the term in x2.
≈ 1 + 3x + x Shown
2
in x3
2!
Example

(i) Use the Maclaurin's theorem to find the series

expansion of ln(1 + x) up to and including the term
in x4.

(ii) Use your answer to part (a) to determine ln(0.75)

correct to 5 decimal places.

Solution

(i) If f (x) = ln(1 + x),

f '(x) = (1+ x)-1, f ''(x) = -(1+ x)-2,

f '''(x) = 2(1+ x)-3 , f ''''(x) = -6(1 + x)-4

Then f (0) = 0, f '(0) = 1, f ''(0) = -1,

f ''' (0) = 2, f '''' (0) = -6

So ln(1 + x) = 0 + (1)(x) + (-1)x2 + (2)x3 + (-6)x4 + ...

2! 3! 4!
=x - x2
+ x3
- x 4
+ ...
2! 3! 4!
(ii) To determine ln(0.75), let 1 + x = 0.75
So x = 1 - 0.75 = - 0.25.
So to obtain ln(0.75) we substitute -0.25 for x in the
series expansion of ln(1 + x).

ln(0.75) = (- 0.25) - (- 0.25) - (- 0.25) - (- 0.25) +...

2 3 4

2 3 4
= - 0.28743 (5 d. p).

EXERCISE 8.i

1. Use the expansion of ex to find the value of e0.4 to 2

significant figures.

2. Use Maclaurin's theorem to find the series expansion of

tan(x) giving all terms up to and including that in x4 .
Hence show that if x is sufficiently small for terms in x5
and higher powers to be neglected, then
tan(x)
= x - x2 + 4 x3 - 4 x4
(1 + x) 3 3
3. Obtain the first three terms in the Maclaurin series for
ln(4 + x).

68 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 TEST 8
1. Find the derivatives of the following:

(i) ln( x - 7 )2 (ii) cos(4x - π ) [05]

3
2.
hcm

xcm

3xcm
A box with a length of 3x cm, width x cm and height
h cm is as shown in the diagram above.
(a) Show that the volume of this box can be
expressed as

V = 9x[48 - 1 x2] [04]

2
(b) Given that x can vary, find the minimum value of V
explaining your answer. [04]
3. Differentiate y2 - 2xy + 3y = 7x with respect to x.

d 2y dy dy
Hence show that 2 (-2x + 2y + 3)= (4 - 3 ) [07]
dx dx dx

4. If x = - t + e t and y = e 2t - 2t, show that

dy
= 2(1 + e t) [04]
dx

5. For the function y = 3x2 + cx + d, where c and d are

constants, when x changes from 2 = 2.02, y changes
from 2 to2.12 approximately. Find the values of c and
d. [05]

6. Some petrol is spilt onto a level surface and spreads

out in the shape of a circle. The radius r of the circle
is increasing at a rate of 0.6 cms-1. At what rate is
the area of the circle increasing? [06]

TOTAL = 35

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 69

 integration
CHAPTER
9
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: y = x3 + k is called the integral of 3x2 with respect to x,
written as ∫3x2 dx = x 3 + k, where ∫ is the integral sign
 Understand integration as the reverse of and dx means that this is integration with respect to the
differentiation variable x abbreviated as (w.r.t.x.).
 Integrate (ax+b)n, including the case where
n = -1, eax + b, and sums and differences of these To find ∫3x2 dx, we notice that x3 differentiates to give
 Evaluate definite integrals [areas and volumes of
3x2 which has the required result.Therefore we now have,
revolution].
Integrate fractions [Rational, Proper and Improper]

 Work with the integrals of the six basic
∫x2 dx = 1 x3 + k.
3
trigonometric functions .
We can now introduce the first result to be used for
 Integrate products of functions [ By parts]
integration.
 Use the technique of substitution to find integrals
of functions requiring this method.
dy ax n+1
If = ax n , then y = n + 1 + k (n≠1),
dx
Integration
∫axndx = nax+ 1
n+1

dy + k.
Consider the function y = x3, = 3x2, i.e. the derivative
dx
with respect to x is 3x2. Now what if we are given Where a and k are constants and k is the constant of
dy
= 3x and are then required to find y in terms of x?
2 integration.
dx

The process which would enable us to do this would be Examples

the reverse process of differentiation which is
called Integration.Thus to find y in terms of x given Find,
2
(i) ∫4x 2 dx (ii) ∫ x2 dx (iii) ∫3 x dx
dy
= 3x2 would be to find the anti-derivative of
dx Solutions.
dy
dx
= 3x2. (i) ∫4x 2 dx, a = 4 and n = 2.
1
Integration is the reverse process of differentiation So ∫4x 2 dx = (4)[ 2 + 1 ]x (2 + 1) + k
4
= 3 x 3+ k .
dy
Now we know that if y = x3, = 3x2, but for y = x3 + 1,
dx
y = x3 + 4 and y = x3 + 13 2
dy dy (ii) ∫ x2 dx, a = 2 and n = -2
is also equal to 3x2. In fact if y = x3+ k , = 3x2 2 1
dx dx
dy ∫ x dx2 = ∫ 2x -2 dx = 2 [ -2 + 1]x (-2 + 1) + k
where k is a constant. So given = 3x we do not
2
dx
= -2x -1 + k
know whether the original function contains a constant
2
or not. So for this important reason we would write =- x +k
1
y = x3+ k as the function whose derivative is (iii) ∫3 x dx, a = 3 and n = 2 ,
1
dy
= 3x2, where k is called the constant of integration. So ∫3 x dx = ∫3x 2 dx
dx
1
= 3[ 1 ]x
1
dy
(
2
+ 1)
+k
y + c → Differentiation → +1
dx 2
dy
y + c ← Integration ←
dx

70 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 3 1
3 Solutions.
= x( 2 + k = 2x 2 + k
+ 1)

( 1 + 1)
2
(i) ∫(x - 3) 2 dx = ∫(x - 3)(x - 3)dx
Note that ∫af (x)dx = a ∫f (x)dx , where f (x) is a = ∫(x 2 - 6x + 9)dx
function of x and a is a constant.
= ∫x 2 dx - ∫6xdx + ∫9dx
In our study of differentiation we saw that 1 1
= [ 2 + 1 ]x (2+1) - 6 [ 1 + 1 ]x (1+1) + 9x + k
d 1
[af(x) + bf(x)] = af ´(x) + bf´ (x). = x 3 - 3x 2 + 9x + k.
dx 3

Where a and b are constants and f ´(x)and g´ (x) are the

(ii) ∫[ = ∫(x 3 - 4)dx
x 4 - 4x
derivatives of f (x) and g (x) respectively. x
]dx
The integral ∫ f(x)dx behaves in exactly the same = ∫x 3 dx - ∫4dx
manner thus, 1
= [ 3 + 1 ]x (3 + 1) - 4x + k
∫[af (x) + bg(x)]dx = a∫ f(x)dx + b ∫ g(x)dx 1
= 4 x 4 - 4x + k
The result above applies to any number of functions.
(iii) ∫3 x (x 2 - x +1)dx
Examples.
= ∫3x ( dx - ∫3x ( dx + ∫3x (1)dx
1 1 1
2 + 2) 2 + 1) 2

Find, 1 5 1 3
= (3) 5 x( 2 + 1)
- (3) 3 x( 2 + 1)
1
(i) ∫(x 2 + 3x + 5)dx (ii) ∫(2 -
+1 +1
x2
)dx 2 2

1 1
+ (3) 1 x( 2 + 1)

Solutions. +1
2
7 5 3
1 1 1
= 3( 7 )x 2 - 3( 5 )x 2 + 3( 3 )x 2 + k
(i) ∫(x 2 + 3x+ 5)dx
2 2 2
= ∫x dx + ∫3xdx + ∫5dx
2
7 5 3
6 6
=
1
x (2 +1)
+
1
3( 1 + 1 )x (1+1) +
5
x (0+1) +k = 7 x 2 - 5 x 2 + 2x 2 + k.
2+1 0+1

1 3
=
3
x3 +
2
x 2 + 5x + k. EXERCISE 9.a

1 1 1. Integrate the following with respect to x:

(ii) ∫(2 - x2 )dx = ∫2dx - ∫ x2 dx
1 (a) x2 (b) x2 – 5x (c) (x - 3) (x - 3)
= 2x - ( -2 + 1 )x (-2 + 1) + k

= 2x - (-x)-1 + k (d) x2 - 2x (e) (x + 4)2 (f ) x2 + 5x – 6

1 (g) x2 – 4x + 3 (h) x - 2 (i) 2x2 + 4x2 – 2x + 3
= 2x + + k.
x
(x - 3)
(j) √x (k) x2 + 3x - 1 (l)
x3

In some cases we have to carry out some algebraic 1 1 1 1
(n) x + 5x +3
3

manipulation in order for us to proceed with the actual (m) x 2 + 3x 4 (o) 5x- 2 + 2x- 5
3
x
process of integration.
(p) 3√x(x - 2x + 1). 3

Examples.

Find,

(i) ∫(x - 3) 2 dx (ii) ∫[

x 4 - 4x
x
]dx

(iii) ∫3 x (x 2 - x +1)dx

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 71

 Constants of integration Since the curve passes through the point (3 ; -10) we
dy 6
If we are given the gradient function [ or f ´(x)] of dx substitute y = -10 and x = 3 into y = 3x - x + k
a function and the coordinates of the point through Therefore -10 = 3(3) - 6 + k
3
which it passes through i.e. P(x0 ; y0), we can then use -10 = 9 - 2 + k
this information to find the equation of the curve. This is
done by obtaining the antiderivative (integral) of dx .
dy So k = -17
Therefore the equation of the curve is y = 3x - 6 - 17.
x
dy
In general ∫( dx )dx = y + k or ∫f ´(x)dx = f (x) + k.
EXERCISE 9.b
The value of the constant k is then obtained by
1. The gradient of a curve at the point (x ; y) on the curve is
substitution of the x and y values through which the dy
curve passes through. given by dx = 3x2 + 5.
Given that the point (-1 ; 7) lies on the curve, determine
Example. the equation of the curve.

1 2. A curve passes through the point (-2 ; 8) and its gradient

The gradient of a curve at the point (x ; y) is 12x3 - x2 function is 4x3 - 6x. Find the equation of the curve.
and the curve passes through the point (1 ; -2).
Find the equation of the curve. 3. The gradient of a curve at the point (x ; y) is 16x3 + 2x +1.
Given that the curve passes through the point (0.5 ; 3) find
Solution. the equation of the curve.
dy 5
4. Find y as a function of x, given that dx = x2 -7, (x ≠ 0),
1 and that y = -12 when x = 5.
The gradient function is given as 12x3 - x2
dy
So dx = 12x3 - x (-2). 5. A function f (x) is such that f´(x) = 3√x - 5, for x ≥ 0.
Given that f (4) = 3, find an expression for f (x).
y = ∫(12x3 - x(-2))dx
1 1
6. Find y as a function of x given that d y2 = 12x2 - 6 and that
2
= 12 (3+1)x(3 + 1) - (-2+1) x(-2 + 1) + k
dy dx
when x =1 , dx = -2 and y = 1.
= 12 x4 - 1 x(-1) + k
4 (-1)
7. The curve with equation y = ax2 + bx + c passes through the
= 3x + x
4 (-1)
+k points P(2 ; 6) and Q(3 ; 16) and has a gradient of 7 at the
point P. Find the values of the constants a, b and c.
Since the curve passes through the point (1 ; -2) we
8. A certain curve has an equation which satisfies
substitute y = -2 and x = 1 into y = 3x4 + x(-1) + k d2y
i.e. -2 = 3(1)4 + 1(-1) + k dx2 = 24x - 2 for all values of x.The point P(1 ; 4) lies on
2

-2 = 4 + k the curve and the gradient of the curve at P is 5.

So k = - 6 Determine the equation of the curve.

Therefore y = 3x4 + x(-1) - 6 or y = x4 + 1 - 6.

x Area Under a Curve

Example. When we introduce limits onto the integral sign, we

are now dealing with definite integration or proper
dy 6
A curve is such that dx = x2 + 3. Given that the curve integration.
passes through the point P(3 ; -10), find,
The diagram below shows the graph of the function
(i) the equation of the curve, y = f (x) and the region R bounded by the lines x = a,
x = b and the curve y = f (x).
Solution. y

y = f (x)
(i) y = ∫( dy )dx = ∫( 62 + 3)dx = 6∫x(-2) dx + ∫3dx
dx x 1
= 6 (-2+1) x(-2+1) + 3x + k

= - 6x(-1) + 3x + k R
= 3x - 6 + k. 0 a b x
x

72 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

The area under the curve y = f (x) bounded by 3 3
x = a and x = b is found by Area (R1) = ∫0 ydx = ∫0(x2 + 2x)dx
b
Area (R) = ∫ a
f (x) dx x3
=[3 + 2 ]0
2x 2 3

x3 2 3
To find the area of this region R we can use ∫y dx = ( 3 + x )0

(3) 3 2
- the dx indicates that the limits a and b are x limits. = 3 + (3) - (0)
- the constant a is called the lower limit of the integral.
- the constant b is called the upper limit of the integral. = 27 + 9 = 9 + 9 = 18 (units)
2
3

Example. To find the area from x = - 2 to x = 0 i.e. area (R2) we use

0 0
Find the area of the region R under the curve y = x2 Area (R 2 ) = ∫-2 ydx = ∫-2 ( x + 2 x ) dx
2

between x = 0 and x = 4.
= [ x + x 2 ]- 2
3 0

Solution. 3

(0) 3 (-2) 3
= [ 3 + (0)2] – [ 3 + (-2)2]
It is always useful to sketch a graph of the curve to
indicate the region concerned as this makes the problem -8
easier to tackle. = (0) – [ 3 + 4]
y
8
= 3 -4
y = x2
1
= - 4 = -1 3 (units)
2
3

Now we obtain a negative value for the area because the

region R2 is below the x – axis. We ignore the negative
sign and Area (R2) = 1 13 (units) .
0 2
4

So Area required = (18 + 1 13 ) units = 58

2 2
4
units .
∫x [3 ]
dx = x
3 4
2 3
0 0

= [ - ]
4 0
3 3
EXERCISE 9.c
3 3

64
= units 2 1. Find the area under the curve y = x2 + 3 and the lines
3 N.B
x = 4 and x = -1
We include (units)2
= 21 1 units 2 because this is an area.
3
2. Find the area under the curve y = - x2 and the line
x = 0 and x = -4
Example
2
3. Find the area under the curve y = x2 - 5x – 6 and the
Find the area of the region under the curve y = x + 2x line x = - 2 and x = 5
bounded by the lines x = -2 and x = 3
y
4.
Solution y = 4x + 1
y
It is very helpful to draw a 15
y = x 2 +2x
sketch graph of the function
1 R
so as to visualize the region
concerned. 0 1 3
1 x
R1 4
Area = Area (R1) + Area (R2)
-2 R2 0 3 x
The diagram above shows the region under y = 4x + 1
between x = 1 and x = 3.

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 73

 y1= f (b) and y0= f (a).
Find the area of the shaded region by
(a) Using the formula for the area of a trapezium. The required area is given by
(b) Using integration.

∫ ∫
y f(b)
1
Calculate the areas of the following shaded regions. AR= xdy =
y0
xdy
f (a)
5. y
y = x 2 + 4x + 4
In this case x must be expressed as a function of y before
we proceed with the integration.

Example.

Find the area between the curve y = x2 and the y-axis

0 3 x between y = 1 and y =5.

y
Solution.
6.
y = 4 - x2 We sketch the graph and indicate the required region R.
y
y = x2
5

0 2 x R

1
y
7. 0 a b x
y = 4x - x 2

∫ ∫
f(b) 5
0 4 x
Now AR= xdy = xdy
f (a) 1
1
where f (a)=1 and f (b)=5, but x = √y = y( 2 ).
8. y

∫
y = 3x 2 + 2x + 4 5
3
1 1 2
AR = 1
= y( 2 + 1) = 3 y( 2 )
y dy2 1
+1
1 2
2 ( 32 ) 2 3
-1 0 2 x = 3
5 - 3
1( 2 )

125
= 3 (units)2
9. Find the area between the curve y = x + 6x + 5 and the
2

x-axis from x = 0 to x = 5. Area between two curves

10. Find the total area enclosed between and the y
x - axis from x = 1 to x = 3. y = f (x)

R y = g (x)

Area between a curve and the y - axis

a 0 b x
y
y = f (x)
y1 = f (b)
Consider the region R shown on the previous page
R created by the intersection of the two curves y = f (x)and
y = g (x) at the two intersection points x = a and
y0 = f (a)
x = b. We can describe this region R as an enclosed
0 a b x region.

Consider the area of the region shown above which is

bounded by the curve y = f (x) and the y-axis between

74 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

In general the area of an enclosed region R i.e. the area
between two intersecting curves is given by EXERCISE 9.d

∫
f(b)

AR= [g (x)-f (x)]dy

f (a)
1. Find the area enclosed between the curve y2 = 4 - x and
the y - axis from y = 0 to y = 2.

∫ ∫
f(b) f(b)
2. Find the area enclosed by the curve (y - 1)2 = x the
or AR= g(x)dy - f(x)dy where a < b and g(x) is y -axis and the line y = 3.
f (a) f (a)

the curve on top of the enclosed region. 3. Using , find the following shaded areas:
y
Example. (a) y - (x - 2)3

Find the area enclosed between the curve y = x2 - 2x -3 y=8

and the line y = x + 1.

Solution. y=1
0 x
We first find the two intersection points i.e.
where x2 - 2x - 3 = x + 1
y
x2 - 2x - 3 - x - 1 = 0
x2 - 3x - 4 = 0 (b)
(x - 4)(x +1) = 0
So x = 4 or x = -1.
y=x
Using these two points we now indicate the enclosed
region as shown below. y=4

y = x 2 - 2x -3
y = x+1
0 x
R
-1 0 4 x
(c)
y

∫
f(b)

AR = [g(x)-f (x)]dy ;
f (a)

g(x) = x + 1 and f (x) = x2 - 2x - 3.

y=1

∫ ∫
4 4

- y = 0.25
(x + 1)dx (x2 - 2x - 3)dx
-1 -1

∫
4

= (- x2 + 3x + 4)dx 0 x
-1
x3 3x 2 64 1 3 4. y
= - 3 + 2 + 4x = (- 3 + 24 + 16) - ( 3 + 2 - 4)

56 13 125 k y=x
= 3 - (- 6 ) = 6 (units)2
R
125
AR = 6 (units)2

0 x

The diagram above shows the graph of .

Given that the area of the shaded region R is 72 units, find
the value of the constant k. [36 (units)2]

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 75

 5. The line y = 3x + 1 meets the curve y = x2 + 3 at the points Solution
T and U. y y = 1 + x2
(a) Calculate the coordinates of T and U.
(b) Sketch the line and the curve on the same set of axes.
(c) calculate the area of the finite region bounded by the
line and the curve.
R 1
6. (a) Sketch, on the same diagram , the curves y = x2 - 5x and -2 1
0 x
y = 3 - x2 and find their points of intersection.
(b) Find the area of the region enclosed by the two curves.

1 1
Volumes of Revolution Volume = (VR) = ∫-2πy dx = ∫
2 2 2
-2
π(1 + x ) dx
1
(i)
y A
= ∫
-2
π(1 + 2x + x )dx
2 4

2 x5 1
= [π(x + 3 x 3 + 5 )]- 2

2 5
2 (-2) 5
= π [1 + 3 (1) + (1)
3 3
0 4 x 5
] – [-2 + 3 (-2) + 2 ]
(ii) 2 1 -16 32
= π [(1 + 3 + 5 ) – (-2 + 3 - 5 )]
y A
28 206
= [ 15 - ( 15 )] N.B
We include (units)3
3 3 because this is a volume
= 15 5 (units)
0 x
Example

Find the volume of the solid generated when the region

bounded by y = x 3 and the y - axis between y = 2 and
In fig (i) above the region between OA and the x – axis
y = 8 is rotated through 360˚ about the y – axis.
is rotated about the x – axis through 360˚, it sweeps out a
solid cone as shown in fig (ii).
Solution
y y = x3
A solid shape constructed in this way is called a Solid 8
8
of revolution. The volume of a solid of revolution is Volume =(VR) = ∫ 2πx dy
2
R
sometimes called a Volume of revolution.
3
1 2
When the region under the graph of y = f (x) between Since y = x → x = y 3
x = a and x = b (where a < b) is rotated 360˚ about the 0 2 x
x – axis, the volume of the solid of revolution formed is 2
So x = (y ) = y
1
3
2 2
3

b b
∫ π[f( x )] dx or ∫ πy dx
a
2
a
2
8
VR = ∫ 2πy 3 dy
2

When the region bounded by the graph of y = f (x), the 3 5 8

= [π( 5 )y 3 ]2
lines y = c and y = d and the y – axis is rotated 360˚ about 5
3 5
the y – axis, the volume of the solid formed is = [π( 3 )(8 3 )] - [π( 5 )(2 3 )]
5 5
d 3 5
= [π( 5 )(8 3 - 2 3 )]
∫ πx dy
c
2

1
Example = 6547 5 π (units) 3

Find the volume generated when the region under

y =1 + x 2 between x = - 2 and x = 1 is rotated through
360˚ about the x – axis.

76 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

Example (c)
y
Find the volume of solid generated when the shaded region y = 3 + x2
shown below is rotated through 180˚ about the x – axis. 5

y
3
y=3 x 0 x

R [about the y - axis]

(d) y = x2 +1
0 3 y
x
4

2
In this case the curve is y = 3 x , the lower bound is the
line x = 0 and the upper bound is the line x = 3. 0 x
The rotation is through 180˚ so
3 3
π
VR = ∫0 ( π ) y dx = 2 ∫0 (3 x ) dx
2 2
[about the y - axis]
2 (e)
3 3
π
= 2 ∫0 (3x ) dx = π ∫0 9x dx
1/2 2 y
2 y = x 2 -7x + 10

[ ] [
2

]
2
=π
9x 3
2
π
=2 ( 2
9(3) 9(0)
- 2 ) 10
2 2 0

= 2 [ 0]
π 9(9)
2 - = 2 [ 2 ] (units)
π 81 3

0 2 5 x
π81
= 4 (units)3
[about the x - axis]
1 (f )
= 20 4 π(units)3 y

EXERCISE 9.e
1. Find the volumes generated when the following
shaded regions shown below are rotated 360˚ about 0 x
the axes indicated in square brackets.
-2 y = -x2
(a) y
y = (x -1) [about the y - axis]

2. A glass bowl is formed by rotating 360˚ about the y-axis

0 1 4 x the region between the curves y = x2 and y = x3. Find the
volume of glass in the bowl.
[about the x - axis]
3. In each case the region enclosed between the following
curves and the x - axis is rotated through 3600 about the
(b) x - axis. Find the volume of the solid generated.
y y = 2 + x2
(a) y = - x2 + 1 (b) y = ( x - 3)( x + 1)

(c) y = x2 - 3x (d) y = x2 - 5x + 6
2

-1 0 3 x

[about the x - axis]

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 77

 Integrating E xponential Functions
EXERCISE 9.e
Consider the exponential function y = e (ax + b)
where a and b are constants.
1. Integrate each of the following w.r.t. x
1
∫e (ax + b)
dx =
a
e (ax + b)
+k,
(a) e-4x (b) 5e-5x (c) e(4x - 3) (d) 6e(x - 3)
Examples
2. Evaluate the following integrals.
Find (a) 3 (b) 1
∫
0
e 2xdx ∫
-1
5e(x + 1)dx
(i) ∫3e -2x
dx (ii) ∫5e (1-5x)
dx (c) 4 (d) 3
∫ e(2 - x)dx ∫ e(- x - 3)dx
Solutions 3 0

3. Integrate each of the following w.r.t. x

(i) ∫3e -2x dx (ii) ∫5e (1-5x) dx
(a) 1 (b) 5 (c) 1 (d) 6
=3(- 1 )e -2x =5(- 1 )e (1-5x) 2x x-2 4x + 3 3x + 2
2 5
= - 3 e -2x + k = -e (1-5x) + k 4. Evaluate
2
2 3 5 2
(a) ∫ 3 dx (b)∫ 1 dx (c) ∫ 4 dx (d)∫ 1 dx
11+x 1 2x - 1 4 x-3 0 -x + 2
Example
2
Find ∫ e4xdx
0
Integrating using Partial fractions
Solution
1
We may encounter integrals of proper fractions i.e.
∫e 4x dx = 4 e 4x + k fractions in which the numerator is of a degree less than
N.B
k disappears when the degree of the denominator.
[ ]
2
∫
0
e dx =
4x 1 4x 2
4
e
0
a definate integral
1 (e 8 - 1) is calculatted.
= Integration of an improper fraction first requires
4
rearrangement of the improper fraction into a non -
There are some functions whose integrals fractional part and a proper fractional part.
are logarithmic. These functions are rational
functions which usually appear in the form 1 ,
ax + b Example
where a and b are constants.
Integrate 4x - 6 w.r.t. x.
1 1 (x - 1)(x - 2)
∫ax + b dx = 4
lnax + b + k
Solution
Examples
6 2 This is a proper fraction so we can express it in the form
Find (i) ∫7 - 8x dx (ii) ∫ 3 1- x dx
0
A + B i.e.
(x - 1) (x - 2) N.B
Solutions Using partial
4x - 6 = 2 + 2 fractions.
(x - 1)(x - 2) (x - 1) (x - 2)
(i) ∫7 -68x dx
4x - 6
Therefore ∫ (x - 1)(x - 2) dx = ∫ 2 dx + ∫ 2 dx
= (6)(- 1 )ln7 - 8x (x - 1) (x - 2)
8
3
= 2lnx - 1 + 2lnx - 2+ lnK
= - 4 ln7 - 8x+ k
2 = 2lnK(x - 1)(x - 2)
1
(ii)∫ 3 - x dx
0

[ ]
2
= (- 1)ln3 - x
0

= -[ ln3 - 2 - ln3 - 0]

= ln 3

78 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

Example Solution

Find ∫ x 2 + 2 dx x3
2
For ∫ dx, If f (x) = 1 + x4, then f ' (x) = 4x3
x -4 1 + x4
1
Solution and c = 4

This fraction is improper, so we must first fragment the

x3 1
numerator and then use partial fractions as follows, So ∫ 1 + x4 dx = 4 ln 1 + x4  + k
x2 + 2 6 1
= (x -2 4) + 6 = 1 +
2
= 4 lnA 1 + x4 , k = lnA
x2 - 4 x -4 x2 - 4
=1+ 6
(x + 2)(x - 2)
EXERCISE 9.f
6 3 6
= 3 ( 1 ) - 2 ( 1 ) (x + 2)(x - 2) 1. Integrate each of the following functions w.r.t. x.
(x + 2)(x - 2) 2 x-2 x+2
3 3 8 2x - 2
So x + 2 = 1 + 3 ( 1 ) - 2 ( 1 )
2
(a) x(x + 2) (b) (c) (x - 3)(x - 2)
x2 - 4 2 x-2 x+2 (x + 2)(x - 2)
2x
(d) x2 - 2 x2
2
x2 + 2 1
Then ∫ x2 - 4 dx = ∫1 dx +∫ 2 ( 1
3 3 (e) (x - 1)(x + 1) (f )
)dx -∫ 2 ( )dx x - 16 (x + 2)(x + 1)
x-2 x+2
3 3
= x + 2 lnx - 2- 2 lnx + 2 + lnA 2. Evaluate
2
x
(a)∫ 2x2 + 1 dx (b) ∫
4
dx
= x + 3 ln A x - 2  2 x + x 0 x2 + 3
2 x+2

3. Integrate each of the following functions w.r.t. x.

Fractions of the form c f '(x)
f (x) 2x - 5 4
(a) (b)
x2 - 5x + 6 8 + 4x
k f '(x)
Fractions of the form f (x) can be integrated through e2x 1
recognition of the numerator being a derivative of the (c) (d)
e +52x
xlnx
denominator, where c is a constant. In such cases we can
4. Evaluate
use the following result
(a)∫ x + 2 dx (b)∫ x + 2 dx
2 3

∫ c ff (x)
'(x)
dx = lnf (x)+ k. 0 x+ 1 2 x(x + 4)

3 4 1
5
Example (c)∫ (2x + 3) dx (d)∫ dx
1 -1 x2 + x - 6

2x + 7
Find ∫ dx
x2 + 7x - 19

Solution

c f '(x)
This integral is in the form ∫ dx, where
f (x)
f (x) = x2 + 7x - 19, f ' (x) = 2x + 7 and c = 1.

2x + 7
Therefore ∫ dx = lnx2 + 7x - 19+ lnA
x2 + 7x - 19
N.B = lnAx2 + 7x - 19
k = lnA

Example

x3
Find ∫ dx
1 + x4

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 79

 Integrating Trigonometric Functions
EXERCISE 9.g
With reference to the first derivative of the first six
trigonometric functions, since integration is the reverse 1. Integrate each function with respect to x.
process of differentiation, we can then obtain the
following results : (a) sin(-2x) (b) cos(5x) (c) - sec2(3x)

d π
(sinx) = cosx ⇔ ∫cosx dx = sinx + k (d) cos( 4 - 2x) (e) -cosec2(4x) (f ) 4sin(5x - α)
dx
d (g) -10sec(4x) tan(4x)
dx
(cosx) = - sinx ⇔ ∫sinx dx = - cosx + k
2. Evaluate
d
(tanx) = sec x 2
⇔ ∫sec x dx = tanx + k
2 π π
dx (a) ∫3
0
sin(3x)dx (b) ∫ 6
0
2cos(2x - 2π )dx
d
(secx) = secx tanx ⇔ ∫secx tanxdx = secx + k π

2cos(2x - 2π ) dx
dx 0.5
(c) ∫ (d) ∫ 2sec2(2x)dx
4

d -0.5 0
(cosecx) = - cosecx cotx ⇔ ∫cosecx cotx dx = secx + k 0.5 2
dx 3. (a)∫ √(1 - 2x) dx (b) ∫ 2e(x +1)dx
-0.5 0
d
dx
(cotx) = - cosec x 2
⇔ ∫cosec x dx = - cotx + k
2

Two results which are very useful for integrals of sine

Examples and cosine are
Integrate the following with respect to x :
∫cosx sinnx dx = 1 sin(n +1)x + k
π n+1
(i) 5sec2x (ii) cosec2( 2x + 3 )
∫sinx cosnx dx = - 1 cos(n +1)x + k
π π
(iii) cosec(6x) cotx (iv) sec( 3 - 3x ) tan( 3 - 3x)
n+1
For sin2x and cos2x we can employ the double angle
Solutions formulae as follows ;

(i) ∫5sec2x dx = 5∫sec2x dx = 5tanx + k ∫sin2x dx = ∫ 12 [1 - cos2x]dx

π 1
(ii) ∫cosec2( 2x + 3 ) dx = - 2 cot(2x + 3 ) + k
π 1
= ∫ 2 dx - 12 ∫cos(2x)dx

(iii) ∫cosec(6x) cotx dx = - 16 cosec(6x) + k = x - 1 sin(2x) + k

2 4

π π 1
(iv) ∫sec( 3 - 3x ) tan( 3 - 3x) = - 3 sec( 3 - 3x)
π ∫cos2x dx = ∫ 12 [1 + cos2x]dx
1
Example = ∫ 2 dx + 1 ∫cos(2x)dx
2
π x 1
Evaluate ∫ 4sin(2x - 2π )dx
0
2 = 2 + 4
sin(2x) + k

Example
Solution
Find ∫ 8sin4xcos2x dx
π π
∫4sin( 2x - 2
) dx = 4∫sin( 2x - 2 ) dx
Solution
= -4(1 ) cos( 2x - 2π )
2 1
π ∫8sin4x cos2x dx = 8∫[ 2 (1 - cos2x)]2[ 12 (1 + cos2x)]2
= -2cos( 2x - 2 ) + k
= ∫(1 - cos2x)2 (1 + cos2x) dx
π π

∫ 4sin(2x - 2π )dx
0
2
[
= -2cos( 2x - 2 )
π
] 2

π π = ∫ (1 - cos2x - cos22x + cos32x) dx

= (-2)[cos(π - 2 ) - cos( - 2 )]
1
= (-2)[0 - 0] = 0 = x - 2 sin2x - ∫cos22x dx + ∫cos32x dx
80 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry
Now ∫cos22x dx = ∫1 ( 1 + cos4x)dx = 4∫(sec2x - 1) tan3x dx
2

= x + 1 (1 )sin4x = 4∫sec2x tan3x dx - 4∫tan3x dx

2 2 4

= x + 1 sin4x + k
2 8 = 4∫sec2x tan3x dx - 4∫tanx(sec2x - 1) dx
and ∫cos32x dx = ∫cos2x(1 - sin22x)dx
= 4∫sec2x tan3x dx - 4∫tanx sec2x dx + 4∫tanx dx
= ∫cos2x dx - ∫cos2x sin22x dx 1 1
= 4(4 )tan4x - 4(2 )tan2x + 4∫tanx dx
= 1 sin2x - ( 1 )( 1 ) sin32x + k sinx -f ' (x)
2 2 3
Now ∫tanx dx = ∫ cosx dx = ∫ f (x) dx,
⇒ ∫ 8sin4xcos2x dx = x - 1 sin2x - x - 1 sin4x
2 2 8 where f (x) = cosx
1
+ sin2x - 1 sin3(2x) + k
2 6 = - lncosx = lnsecx
= x - 1 sin4x - 1 sin (2x) + k
3
2 8 6
⇒ ∫4tan5x dx = tan4x - 2tanx + 4 lnsecx+ k
Example
π
x
Evaluate ∫ sin( 2x )cos( 2 )dx
0
3
EXERCISE 9.h

Solution 1. Integrate each function with respect to x ;

π
x
For ∫ sin( 2x )cos( 2 )dx , we can use the identity
0
3
(a) 2cos2x (b) 3sin5x (c) 4sin4x

2sinx cosx ≡ sin2x ⇒ 2sin( x )cos( x ) ≡ sinx (d) 2cos4x (e) 3tan2x (f ) 2cos3(3x)
2 2
(g) tan3(3x) (h) sin3(4x)
⇒ sin( x )cos( x ) ≡ 1 sinx
2 2 2
π
x x
π 2. Find
Therefore ∫ sin( )cos( 2 )dx = ∫ 12 sinx dx
0
3
2π 0
3

(a)∫3sin2x cos3x dx (b) ∫sin10x cos3x dx

=
1
2 [- cos ] 0
3
=
1 1
2[ 2 - 1]

=-4
3 (c) ∫sin2x cos2x dx (d) ∫cos(3x)sin(3x) dx

Example 3. Evaluate the following ;

π π

(a)∫ 4 sin3xcos3xdx (b) ∫π3 2sin(4x)cos(2x)dx

Find (i) ∫3tan4x dx (ii) ∫4tan5x dx 0 6
π π

(c)∫ tan6x dx (d) ∫ 2cos(5x)sin(5x) dx

4 4
Solution 0 0

(i) For integrals of tannx where n ≥ 2 the identity

Integration by Parts
tan2x ≡ sec2x - 1 is a very powerful tool.
This technique is used to integrate the product of two
∫3tan4x dx = 3∫tan4x dx = 3∫tan2x(sec2x - 1) dx functions.

= 3∫sec2x tan2x dx - 3∫tan2x dx Consider the product rule from differentiation and
N.B integrating both sides of this rule with respect to x i.e.
= 3 tan(2 + 1)x - 3∫sec2x - 1dx
∫sec2x tan2x dx 2+1 d
(uv) = u
dv
+v
du
1
= tan(n + 1) + k dx dx dx
n+1 = tan3x - 3tan2x + 3x + k
∫ dxd (uv)dx = ∫(u
dv
dx
)dx + ∫(v du
dx
) dx
(ii) ∫4tan5x dx = 4∫tan2x tan3x dx
dv du
⇒ ∫(u )dx = uv - ∫(v dx ) dx
dx

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 81

 If we make ∫(u dv )dx the subject =
x3
- x3
+k
dx 3 lnx 9
dv x3
⇒ ∫(u
dx
)dx = uv - ∫(v du
dx
) dx = 9 (3lnx - 1) + k
dv
The function to integrated should be in the form u
dx
Example
․u is the function to be integrated
dv
Find ∫xe-2x dx
․v' or is to integrated to obtain v
dx
Solution
Example
Let u = x since u' = 1 (much simpler)
Find ∫2x(x + 3)3 dx
1 1
v' = e-2x ⇒ v = - 2 e-2x u = x ; v = - 2 e-2x
Solution u' = 1 ; v' = e-2x

∫2x(x + 3)3 dx ∫xe-2x dx = (x)(- 12 e-2x) - ∫ - 12 e-2x (1) dx

The function 2x becomes simpler when differentiated. = - x e-2x + (12 )(- 12 )e-2x + k
Therefore we let u = 2x and dv = (x + 3)3 2
dx x 1
= - 2 e-2x - 2 e-2x + k

= - e (x + 1) + k
-2x
1
u = 2x ; v = 4 (x + 3)4 2
u' =2 ; v' = (x + 3) 3

In some cases we may encounter an integral that requires

When v' =(x + 3)3 the process of integration by parts to be carried out
twice. This usually occurs when one of the functions
1 1
⇒ ∫2x(x + 3)3 dx = (2x)[ 4 (x + 3)4] -∫4 (x + 3)4(2) dx included in the product is either cos(ax) or sin(ax),
where a is a constant.
x 1
= 2 (x + 3)4 - ∫ 4 (x + 3)4 dx
Example
= x (x + 3) - 4
(1 )( 1)(x + 3) + k
5
2 2 5
Find ∫x2 sinx dx
x 1
= 2 (x + 3)4 - (10)(x + 3)5 + k
Solution
= (x + 3) [5x - (x + 3)] + k
4

10
Let I = ∫x2 sinx dx
= (x + 3) [4x - 3] + k
4

10
Let u = x2 and v' = sinx ;
u = x2 ; v = -cosx
Example ⇒ u' = 2x and v = - cosx u' = 2x ; v' = sinx

Find ∫x2lnx dx I = (x2)(-cosx) - ∫(2x)cosx dx

Solution
We now see that ∫(2x)cosx dx requires integration by
parts.
In this case the integral of lnx is quite complex so let
u = lnx and v' = x2
x3 For ∫(2x)cosx dx, u = 2x and v' = cosx
u =lnx ; v =
3
u' = 1 ; v' = x2
x u =2x ; v = sinx
x3 u' = 2 ; v' = cosx
⇒ ∫x2lnx dx =
x3
(lnx)( 3 ) - ∫( 3 )(1x )dx
x3
= 3 lnx - ∫ x3 dx
2

82 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 Integration by Substitution
⇒ ∫(2x)cosx dx = (2x)(sinx) - ∫sinx(2) dx
Some expressions besides fractions and products can be
= 2x sinx - 2(-cosx) integrated by employing suitable substitution.

= 2x sinx + 2cosx + k Example

⇒ I = - x2 cosx + (2x sinx + 2cosx) + k Use the substitution u = x - 4 to find ∫ x - 2 dx

√(x - 4)

= - x2 cosx + 2cosx + 2x sinx + k Solution

= (2 - x2) cosx + 2x sinx + k u = x - 4 ⇒ du = dx ;

Also since u = x - 4 ⇒ x - 2 = (u + 4) - 2
EXERCISE 9.i
x-2= u+2
All problems are to be tackled by integration by parts
x-2 u+2
Hence ∫ dx = ∫ du
√(x - 4) √u
1. Integrate each function with respect to x ;

(a) x2(x - 3)2 (b) 2x(x + 1)3 (c) (5 - x)2x

= ∫(u + 2)u - 12 du

= ∫(u 2 + 2u- 2 )du

1 1
(d) 3x(2x + 3)5 (e) (x + 1)(4 + x)2 (f ) (x - 4)(x - 3)5

(g) (4x + 1)(2x + 3)2 3 1

= 2 u 2 + 4u - 2 + k
3
2. Find 1
= 2 u 2 (u + 6)+ k u=x-4
x 3
3x - 1
(a) ∫ dx (b) ∫ dx 1
(x + 1)2 √(1 - 2x) = 2 u 2 [(x - 4) + 6]+ k
3
(c) ∫x√(2 - x) dx (d) ∫2 - 5x√(3 - 2x) dx 1
= 2 u 2 (x + 2 ) + k
3
3. Integrate each function with respect to x ;
2
= 3 √(x - 4)[x + 2] + k
(a) 3x cosx (b) x sin2x (c) x e-4x
Example
(d) x2e-x (e) x2 lnx (f ) √x lnx
5
Using the substitution u = x - 3 evaluate ∫ x(x - 3)2dx
(g) (6x - 1)cos3x 3

4. Evaluate the following ; Solution

π
1
x u
(a) ∫ 2x(x - 3)2dx (b) ∫ x sin(2x)dx u = x - 3 ⇒ du = dx ; Also x = u + 3
2

0 0 3 0
1 6 x
(c)∫ -4(x + 1)exdx (d)∫ √(x - 2) dx 5 2 5 2
⇒ ∫ x(x - 3)2dx = ∫ (u + 3)u2du
-1 3
π
(e) ∫π
3
x cos(3x)dx 3 0
2
6

5. Integrate the following with respect to x ;

= ∫ (u3 + 3u2)du
0

[4
= u + u3 ]
4 2

(a) - x sinx
2
(b) 2x (x + 3)
2 3
(c) x e
2 -x
0

= [ (2) + (2)3] - [0]

4
(d) - x2cos(2x) (e) x3e-2x (f ) (x + 1)2 cosx 4
16
= + 8 = 12
4

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 83

 EXERCISE 9.j
TEST 9
1. Find the following integrals in each case using the 7 1
suggested substitution. 1. Evaluate ∫ (x - 3)(x - 4) dx
5
[05]

(a) ∫x(x + 4)2 dx ; u = x + 4 2. Find

(b) ∫(x - 4)(x - 1)3 dx ; u = x - 1 (a) ∫(e 2x + 4lnx - 4x5) dx [05]

(c) ∫(3x + 1)(2x - 5)2 dx ; u = 2x - 5
(b) ∫( - 4x - 7)8 dx [05]
(d) ∫ x 2 dx ; u = x + 1
(x + 1)
3. Find the following integrals with respect to x ;
(e) ∫ x dx ; u = x + 3
x+3
(a) x2(x + 3)3 (b) sin2(-3x) (c) tan2(2x) + 3 [12]
(f ) ∫ x + 2 3 dx ; u = x + 3
(2x - 3)
4. y
2. Evaluate the following using a suitable substitution ;
y = 3x
x 6 6
(b) ∫ x(x - 3) dx (c) ∫ x√(x + 3)
4
(a) ∫ 2
3
x - 2 dx 4 1 P
y= x2
3. By using the substitution u = √(1 + x ), show that
2
4-x
√3
∫ x3√(1 + x2)dx = 58 0
0 15 x
4. Find the following integrals using the suggested
substitution.
x The diagram above shows part of the curve with
(a) ∫ dx ; u 2 = 3 - x
equation y = x
2
√(3 - x) , together with the line y = 3x.
4-x
(b) ∫2x√(3x + 4)dx ; u 2 = 3x - 4
The curve and the line meet at the origin and at the
2x + 1
(c) ∫ dx ; u = x - 3 point P.
√(x -3)6
(d) ∫x√(x +1)dx ; u 2 = x + 1 (a) Find the coordinates of the point P. [02]

(b) Calculate the area of the shaded region [08]

5. Find the volume of the solid generated by rotating

the region under the curve y = x2 - 4x through 180°
about the x - axis. [04]

6. Use integration by parts to show that

4
∫ xlnx dx
1
= 8ln4 - 15
4
[06]
3
7. Evaluate ∫ (3x + 1)(2 - x)4dx
1
[05]

TOTAL = 50

84 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 CHAPTER
differential
Equations
10
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: First order differential equations with variables separable
usually emerge when dealing with
 Formulate simple statements involving rate of
change in the form of a differential equation;  Population growth
 Radioactive decay
 Employ integration to find the general solution  Heat gain / heat loss of a body
for a first order differential equation with variables
separable; Any first order differential equation can be expressed in
dy
the form f (y) = g(x). If we integrate both sides with
dx
 Use initial conditions to find a particular solution;
respect to x we obtain the general solution.
 Intepret the solution of a differential equation in
the context of a problem being mathematically Note that f (y) is separated from g(x).
modelled by the equation.
dy
∫ [ f (y) dx ]dx = ∫g(x)dx
dy
Differential Equations dx = dy
dx
A differential equation is an equation that2involves at
⇒ ∫f (y)dy = ∫g(x)dx
least one differential coefficient i .e. dy , d y etc.
dx dx 2 Example
dy
If it only contains it is described as a first order
dx Find the general solution of the differential equation
d 2y
differential equation. If it contains it is a second dy
dx 2 = 6x 2 - 8
dx
order differential equation. Integrate both sides
Solution
with respect to x
Consider the first order differential equation dy dy
dx
= 6x 2 - 8 ⇒ ∫[ dx ]dx = ∫(6x 2 - 8) dx
dy
= 2x. If we integrate both sides of the equation with
dx ⇒ y = 3x2 - 8x + k
respect to x we obtain the solution y = x2 + k.
Now y = x2 + k is called the general solution of dy = 2x. Thus y = 3x2 - 8x + k is the required general solution of
dx the differential equation.
If we were to assign various values of k and draw the
graphs we would obtain a 'family' of curves as shown Example
below. y
Find the general solution of the differential equation
y=x +1
2
y=x +2
2
y=x2+3 dy 2x
y=x2 = .
dx y

Solution
3 Separate variables and
dy 2x
2 dx
= y ⇒ ∫y dy = ∫2x dx integrate both sides
with respect to x

1 y2
⇒ = x2 + k0
2
x ⇒ y2 = 2x2 + k k = 2k0

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 85

 Example
1 t2
⇒ 3 ln3v - 4 = t - +k
2
Find the general solution of the differential equation
dy
tany = e -3x.
dx
EXERCISE 10.a
Solution
Find the general solution of the following differential
dy equations ;
∫[tany dx
] dy = ∫e -3x
dx Integrate both sides
dy dy
with respect to x 1. 2y =-x 2. - y = e -3x
⇒ ∫tany dy = ∫e -3x
dx dx dx
dy dy
1 -3x 3. x = 7y2 4. tan(2y) =ex
⇒ - lncosx= - e +k - lncosx= lnsecx dx dx
2 dx dy
1 5. 80 = -4+x 6. 2xy =8
⇒ lnsecx= - 2 e -3x + k dt dx
dv dy
7. t = √(v + 1) 8. 2 = 3x2(y2 - 1)
dt dx
dy dy
Example 9. + 2x cosecy = 0 10. = 4xe - y
dx dx

Find the general solution of the differential equation

dy x(y - 7)
= Particular Solutions of Differential Equations
dx x2 + 8
Separate variables and
Solution integrate both sides If we have some further information about the curve
with respect to x represented by the general solution, such as the
dy x(y - 7) 1 dy x
= x2 + 8 ⇒ (y - 7) dx = x2 + 8 coordinates of any one point through which it passes, we
dx
can use this information to find the value of the arbitrary
1 dy x
⇒ ∫[ (y - 7) dx ] dy = ∫x2 + 8 dx constant. When we obtain the value of the arbitrary
constant we now have the particular solution of the
differential equation.

1 x Example
⇒ ∫(y - 7) dy = ∫ x2 + 8 dx
dy 2
Solve the differential equation = 2 given that y = 2
⇒ lny - 7 = lnx + 8+ lnA 2 dx xy
when x =1.
⇒ lny - 7 = ln Ax2 + 8
Solution
e lnx = x Separate variables and
⇒ y - 7 = A (x2 + 8) dy 2 dy 2 integrate both sides
= x2y ⇒ y = 2 with respect to x
dx dx x
⇒ y = A (x2 + 8) + 7 dy 2
⇒ ∫ [y dx ] dy = ∫ 2 dx
x

Example ⇒ ∫y dy = ∫ x22 dx
y2 2
Find the general solution of the differential equation ⇒ 2 =- x + k0
dv 4 k = 2k0
= 3v - 3vt - 4 + 4t ⇒ y2 = - x +k
dt

Solution To find the value of k we use the initial condition

y = 2 when x = 1 and substitute the given values into
dv
= 3v(1 - t) - 4(1 - t ) Factorise by grouping the general solution i.e.
dt
dv 4
= (1 - t)(3v - 4) (2)2 = - 1 + k
dt
1 dv
∫[ (3v - 4) dt ] dt = ∫(1 - t)dt 4+4= k ⇒ k =8
Integrate both sides
4
1 with respect to t ⇒ y2 = - x +8
∫(3v - 4) dt = ∫(1 - t)dt
86 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry
Example Modelling of Differential Equations
dy 1
Solve the differential equation 2cosy =- In some cases we may be required to come up with
dx x
or formulate a mathematical model in the form of
given that y = π when x =1. a differential equation that describes or represents a
2
certain phenomenon or situation. This technique is
Solution called Mathematical modelling.
dy 1 dy
2cosy =- x represents the rate of increase in y in comparison to
dx dx
dy 1 x.
⇒ ∫ [2cosy dx ] dy = ∫-
x
dx Integrate both sides

1 with respect to x When the variation in a quantity, r say, depends on the

⇒ ∫ 2cosy dy = ∫- x
dx
changing value of another quantity, s, then the rate of
increase of r compared with s can be expressed as dr .
⇒ 2 siny = - lnx+ k ds

Examples of such situations are as follows;

To find the value of k we use the initial condition
π
y = 2 when x = 1 and substitute the given values into
 If P is the population of colony of bacteria in a
the general solution i.e.
petri dish and t is the time in minutes, the rate at
π which the population of bacteria increases with time
2 sin( 2 ) = - ln1+ k
can be written as dP .
dt
2(1) = - (0) + k ⇒ k = 2
 If the profit, P, made by a firm selling calculators
depends upon n, the number of calculators sold,
⇒ 2 siny = - lnx+ 2 dP
then represents the rate of increase in profit in
dn
comparison with the increase in sales.

Example
EXERCISE 10.b
The population of fish in a large lake, in thousands, is
Find the particular solution for each of the following
denoted by P and time in years is denoted by t. The rate
differential equations :s
of increase of the population with respect to time varies
1. 2y dy = x2 ; y = 4 when x = 2 directly with P and inversely with t.
dx
2. sec x dx = 22t ; x = π when t = 0
2 (a) Explain carefully how each part of the above
dt t +3 4
information leads to the differential equation
3. 2
dv
= 8 ; v = 2 when t = 1
dt v dP P
dy = 2xy
=k , where k is a positive constant.
4. ; y = 4 when x = 0 dt t
dx
(b) Show that the general solution of this equation is
= 2y cotx ; ( 0 < x < π, y > 0 ), y = 1 when x = π
dy
5.
dx 3
dv 1 P = atk where a is a constant.
6. = ; v = 2 when t = 1
dt 2v
7. x dy = 2 + dy ; x > 1 and x = 2 when y = 1 (c) Given that P = 10 when t = 10, and that P = 90
dx dx when t = 30, find
8. e y dy
+ sinx = 0 ; x = π when y = 1
dx 2
(i) the value of k and the value of P,
9. x dy +3=y-4 dy ; x = 1 when y = 13
dx dx
(ii) the value of P when t = 6,
10. cosv
dv
= u2 cosec2 (v) ; u =
1
when v =
π
du 2 2
(iii) the positive value of t when P = 40.

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 87

 Solutions Example
dP
(a) is the rate of change of the population with After t seconds the temperature of a liquid is θ°C above
dt
respect to time, that of the surrouding air. The rate of decrease of θ with
respect to t varies directly with both t and θ.
dP
→ rate increases directly with P ⇒ ∝P
dt
(a) Express this information in the form of a
dP 1
→ rate increases inversely with P ⇒ ∝ differential equation.
dt t
(b) Show that y = Ae -pt , where A and p are positive
2
This variation is joint so we combine the two results i.e.
constants.
dP 1
∝ P×
dt t (c) When t = 0, y = 81 and when t = 60 , y = 54.
dP P
⇒ ∝
dt t
(i) Find the value of A (ii) show that p = ln1.5 .
dP 3600
The population is increasing so > 0.
dt
(d) If the temperature of the surrounding air is 10°C,
k is the constant of proportionality and so k > 0 find

dP
⇒ = k P (i) the temperature of the liquid after 2 minutes,
dt t
dP P (ii) the value of t when the temperature of the
(b) = k t
dt
Separate variables
liquid is 37°C.
1 dP k
P dt = t
Solutions
1 k
⇒∫ P dP = ∫ t dt
Integrate both sides
dθ
with respect to t (a) The rate is decreasing so <0.
dt
⇒ lnP  = k ln t + C dθ
Also varies directly with both t and θ so this
dt
⇒ lnP  = ln t k + C dθ
is joint variation ⇒ - ∝t×θ
dt
lntk + C e lnx
=x
⇒ e lnP  = e dθ
⇒- = k t θ where k is a
dt
lntk positive constant.
⇒ P = (e )(eC )
a = eC 1
⇒ P = at k Shown (b) ∫ θ dθ = ∫- k t dt Separate variables and
integrate both sides
1 with respect to t
(c) (i) P = 10 when t = 10, and that P = 90 ⇒ ∫ θ dθ = - k ∫ t dt
when t = 30,
kt 2 Take exponent of both
⇒ lnθ = - 2 + C sides and e lnθ = θ
(10) = a(10)k  and (90) = a(30)k  kt
+C
2
-
⇒ θ =e 2
[Equation ] ÷ [Equation ] ⇒ 9 = 3k k
-pt + C p= 2
θ =e
2

⇒
⇒ k=2
Substituting k = 2 into one of the equations to ⇒ θ = e-pt (eC)
2

A = eC
find a,
-pt2
⇒ θ = Ae Shown
Using  (90) = a(30)2 ⇒ a = 0.1
(c) When t = 0, y = 81 and when t = 60 , y = 54.
(ii) P = 0.1t 2, when t = 6 ⇒ P = 0.1(6) 2 = 3.6 Substituting into the general solution θ = A e
-pt 2

(iii) When P = 40 ⇒ 40 = 0.1t 2 81 = A(e 0 ) and 54 = Ae- p(3600)

40 Take reciprocal of
t2= = 400 ⇒ A = 81 also 54 = 81e- p(3600)
0.1 both sides
⇒ t = √(400) = ± 20
Time is always 54 81
⇒ = e- 3600 p ⇒ = e 3600 p
positive. 81 54
The required value is t = 20

88 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 Express this statement as a differential equation relating h
81 Take log e of both
with the time t.
⇒ ln ( ) = 3600p sides and ln (ex ) = x
54
ln1.5 Show that the general solution of the differential equation
⇒p= Shown
3600 relating h and t may be expressed in the form h3 = Et + F,
where E and F are constants.
(d) (i) t = 2minutes = 2 × 60 seconds = 120 seconds
ln1.5 (120)2 A new mound was started at time t = 0 and after 2 years its
⇒ θ = 81e - 3600
height was 18 m. Find the time by which its height would
grow to a height of 30 m.
= 16°C above surrounding air
3. At time t = 0 there are 4000 trout in a lake. At time t days
= 16°C + 10°C = 26°C the birthrate of trout is equal to one twenty fifth of the
number F of fish present. Trout are taken from the lake at a
Subtract temperature rate of 50 per day.
(ii) 37°C - 10°C = 27°C of surrounding air
ln1.5 t 2
(i) Modelling F as a continous variable show that
⇒ 27 = 81e - 3600
dF
27 Take log e of both 25 = F - 50
⇒ ln ( ) = - ln1.5 t 2 sides and ln (ex ) = x
dt
81 3600
(ii) Solve the differential equation to find F in terms of t.

√ ln(81 ) × -
27 3600 (iii) Find the time taken for the trout in the lake to
⇒ t= ln 1.5 increase to 5500.

t = 98.76355932 seconds (iv) Find the population of trout in the lake after 20 days.

4. A radioactive substance is decaying at a rate proportional to

= 1 minute 38.8 seconds
the amount, Q , of substance left. This can be expressed as
dQ
= -kQ, where k isa positive constant.
dt
EXERCISE 10.c
(a) Find the general solution of the differential equation.
1. Water flows out of a tank through a hole at the bottom,
and at time t minutes the depth of the water in the tank (b) When t = 0, Q = 100. Show that Q = 100e-kt
is h metres. At time t = 0 the depth of the water is 4 m.
After 20 minutes the depth is 3 m. The objective is to find (c) Sketch the graph of Q against t, fot t ≥ 0.
the time, t0 , correct to the nearest minute, at which the
ln2
depth is 2 m. (d) When t = 1600, Q = 50. Show that k =
1600
(a) In a simple model the rate at which the depth of the
water in the tank decreases is taken to be constant. (e) Show that when t = 200, approximately 91.7 % of the
Find t0 , using this model. original radioactive substance remains.

(b) In a more refined model the rate at which the depth of 5. In a certain chemical reaction, a substance is transformed
the water remaining in the tank is decreasing at any into a compound. The mass of the substance at any given
instant is proportional to the square root of the depth time is M and the substance is being transformed at a
of the water at that instant. rate that is proportional to the mass of the substance at
that time. Given that the original mass is 50g and 20g is
(i) Show that the more refined model leads to the transformed after 200 seconds,
differential equation
(a) Form and solve the differential equation relating
dh
- = - c√h , where c is a positive constant. M and t.
dt
(ii) Find the general solution of the differential (b) Find the mass of the substance transformed in 300
equation in part (i) seconds.

(iii) Find t0 using the more refined model.

2. Sawdust from a timbre operation is dumped in a heap,

which is a large mound, roughly conical in shape, which
continually increases in size as more sawdust is added to
the top. As a mathematical model, the rate at which the
height increases is inversely proportional to h2.

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 89

 TEST 10
1. Find the general solutions of the following
differential equations :
dy dy 2cosx
(a) = 3x2(3 + y) (b) = [08]
dx dx y

2. At time t, a variable is increasing at a rate

proportional to ut , is given by the differential
du
equation = kut where k is a constant.
dt
kt2
(a) Show that u = A e 2 , where A is a second
constant. [04]

(b) Given that u = 5 when t = 0 and u = 10 when

t = 2, find

(i) the value of A and k [04]

(ii) the value of u when t = 4 [02]

3. The gradient of the curve at the point (x ; y) is given

dy
by = 8xy
dx

(a) Find the general solution of the differential

equation. [03]

(b) The curve passes through the point (0 ; e).

Find the equation of the curvein the form
y = f (x) [03]
dy y2 - 1
4. Solve the differential equation = , given
2tanx
that y = 3 when x = π .
dx
2
Hence express y in terms of x [05]

5. A circular patch of fluid on the surface of water has

radius r metres at the time t minutes.
When t = 0, r = 2 and when t = 8, r = 4. The objective
is to predict the value of t0, when r = 12.

(i) In a simpe midel the rate of increase in r is taken

to be constant. Find t0 for this model [05]

(ii) In a more refined model, the rate of increase of r is

1
taken to be proportional to r .
Express this statement as a differential equation,
and find the general solution.
Hence find t0 for the second model. [06]

TOTAL = 40

90 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 functions (II)
CHAPTER
11
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: The graphs of these odd functions are shown below

 define and work with even, odd, periodic and non y y = x3

- periodic functions,
 perform general curve sketching using axis -
intercepts, symmetry, end behaviour, asymptotes
and stationary points, 0 x
 define and work with translations, reflections and
stretches of functions, with the main focus upon
curve sketching,
 sketch curves of modulus functions and rational
functions
sinθ
1
Even Functions
y = sinθ

A function f (x) is said to be Even if f (x) = f (- x) for all -360o -270o -180o -90o 0 90o 180o 270o 360o θ
values of x. If a function f (x) is even the graph of f (x)
will be symmetrical about the vertical or y - axis. -1

Examples of even functions are y = x 2 and y = cosx.

The graphs of these two even functions are shown below. Periodic Functions
y
A function f (x) is said to be periodic if f (x) if
y=x2
f (x) = f (x + p), where p is the period of the function.
The period being the width after which the basic pattern
of the graph of repeats itself.

Examples of periodic functions are y = tanx and y = sinx

tanθ y = tanθ
O x 1

cosθ
360o θ
1 0
-360o -270o -180o -90o 90o 180o 270o

y = cosθ
θ -1
-360o -270o -180o -90o 0 90o 180o 270o 360o

tanx = tan(x + π) ; p = π or 180°

-1

sinx = sin( x + 2π) ; p = 2π or 360°

Odd Functions
The Modulus function
A function f (x) is said to be odd if f (x) = f (- x) for all
values of x. All Odd functions have graphs that are The modulus function of y = f (x) written as y = | f (x)| is
symmetrical about the Origin O(0 ; 0). entirely a positive quantity based on the definition of the
modulus function
Examples of Odd functions are y = x3 and y = sinx.
{x,x
|x| = -x,x < 0
≥ 0
}
Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 91
 Steps taken to sketch the graph of y = | f (x)| are as parallel to the y - axis. In terms of coordinates the point
follows (x0 ; y0) is mapped onto the point (x0 ; y0 + k)

y = ex + 2
(i) Make a light sketch of y = f (x)
(ii) Retain the parts of y = f (x) where y is positive y
y = ex
(iii) Reflect in the x - axis all parts of the graph of
y = f (x) for which y is negative i.e. reflect all parts 3
below the x - axis.
1
The graphs of (i) y = | 2x - 4 | (ii) y = | x2 + x -2| and
x+6 0 x
(iii) y = | | are shown below
x

(i) y
f (x) =|2x - 4| (ii) (a) y = f (x - k), where k is a constant is translation of
the graph of y = f (x) k units to the right parallel to
4 the x - axis. In terms of coordinates the point
(x0 ; y0) is mapped onto the point (x0 + k ; y0 )

2 x (b) y = f (x + k), where k is a constant is translation of

-4 the graph of y = f (x) k units to the left parallel to
the x - axis. In terms of coordinates the point
(x0 ; y0) is mapped onto the point (x0 - k ; y0 )
y
(ii) The graphs of y = x2, y = (x - 2)2 and y = (x + 2)2 are
y = |x + x - 2|
2
shown below.
y
y=x2+2 y=x2 y=x2-2
1 5
(- 2 ; 4 )

(-2 ; 0) 0 (1 ; 0) x

y -2 O 2 x
(iii) x+6
y=| | Reflections
x

1 (i) y = - f (x) is the reflection of the graph of y = f (x) in

the x - axis. In terms of coordinates the point
(x0 ; y0 ) is mapped onto the point (x0 ; - y0 )
0 x
(ii) y = f (- x) is the reflection of the graph of y = f (x) in
the y - axis. In terms of coordinates the point
(x0 ; y0 ) is mapped onto the point (- x0 ; y0 ).
Simple transformations
The graphs of y = - e x and y = e -x are shown below
From the graph of y = f (x) we can deduce steps of a where f (x) = e x.
y
sequence of transformations that can lead us to the y = e -x y=ex
graph of say y = h (x) .

Translations
1

(i) y = f (x) + k, where k is a constant is a translation of

y = f (x) by k units parallel to the y - axis. The 0 x
direction of the translation depends on whether k is -1

positive or negative. The graphs of y = ex and y = ex + 2

are shown below. This is a translation 2 positive units
y=-ex

92 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

Stretches
EXERCISE 11. a
(i) y = k f (x), where k is a constant is a stretch of the
graph of y = f (x) parallel to the y - axis by a scale 1. Sketch the graphs of the following functions
factor of k. In terms of coordinates the point
(x0 ; y0 ) is mapped onto the point ( x0 ; ky0 ). (a) y = (x - 3)2 (b) y = (x + 3)2

(ii) y = f (k x), where k is a constant is a stretch of the (c) y = 2ex (d) y = 2e -x

graph of y = f (x) parallel to the x - axis by a scale
factor of k. In terms of coordinates the point (e) y = 4lnx (f ) y = - 4lnx
x
(x0 ; y0 ) is mapped onto the point ( k0 ; y0 ).
(g) y = 3(x + 2) (h) y = 3 + e - x
Example
(i) y = - e2x (j) y = ln(-x)
Sketch the graph of y = 3(x -1)

Solution
The following steps expose the characteristics about the
For the graph of y = 3(x -1) we can first sketch the graph graph of the function y = f (x) which are required to
of y = x -1 and then stretch the graph of y = x -1 parallel sketch its graph.
to y - axis by a scale factor of 3 since this case k = 3
y y =3(x - 1) 1. Symmetry i.e. if f (x) = f (- x) or if f (- x) = - f (x)

y=x-1 2. x and y intercepts

3. End behaviour of the function as x → ± ∞

1 x
-1 4. Stationary or turning points

-3 5. Asymptotes

However not all five steps are necessarilly applicable to

all functions and usually as soon as enough information
Example has been gained a sketch of the graph of the function
is possible.
Sketch the graph of y = 2cosx
Example
Solution
Sketch the graph of y = 4 + 3x - x2
For the graph of y = 2cosx we can first sketch the graph
of y = cosx and then stretch the graph of y = cosx parallel Solution
to y - axis by a scale factor of 2 since this case k = 2. The
graphs of y = cosx and y = 2cosx are shown below. Intercepts

x - axis (y = 0); 4 + 3x - x2 = 0
2
y = 2cosθ
⇒ (x + 1)(x - 4) = 0
1

⇒ graph cuts x - axis at (-1 ; 0) and at (4 ; 0)

θ
-270o -180o -90o 0 90o 180o 270o 360o

y - axis (x = 0); when x = 0, y = 4

y = cosθ
-1
⇒ graph cuts y - axis at (0 ; 4)
-2

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 93

 End behaviour Stationary points

x → ± ∞ For large x the x2 term is dominant f ' (x) = -32 ; there are no stationary points.
x

Thus as x → + ∞ , y → ∞ ; x → - ∞ , y → - ∞ ; The sketch graph of the function y = x + 3 is shown

x
below.
Asymptotes y x+3
y =
x
There are no vertical or horizontal asymptotes i.e. there
is no value of x for which f (x) is undefined
1
Stationary points y=1

3 -3 0 x
f ' (x) = 3 - 2x ⇒ stationary point lies at x =
2 -1

The sketch graph of the function y = 4 +3x - x2 is

shown below.
y

(0 ; 4) Example
y = 4 + 3x - x 2
Sketch the graph of y = x3 + 2x - 5x - 6

-1 O 4 Solution
x
Intercepts

x - axis (y = 0) ; x3 + 2x - 5x - 6 = 0

Example (x - 2)(x + 1)(x +3) = 0

Sketch the graph of y = x + 3 Graph cuts x - axis at x = 2, x = -1 and at x = -3

x
Solution y - axis (x = 0) ; f (0) = - 6 Graph cuts y - axis at (0 ; - 6)

The function y = x + 3 can be written in the form End behaviour

x
3 x → ± ∞ For large x the x3 term is dominant
y=1+ by fragmenting the numerator
x

Intercepts Thus as x → + ∞ , y → ∞ ; x → - ∞ , y → - ∞ ;

x - axis (y = 0); x = - 3 when y = 0 Asymptotes

⇒ graph cuts x - axis at (-3 ; 0) There are no vertical or horizontal asymptotes i.e. there
is no value of x for which f (x) is undefined.
y - axis (x = 0); no y - intercept since the function is
undefined at x = 0. Stationary points

Asymptotes f '(x) = 3x2 + 4x - 5 = 0

y - axis or the line x = 0 is a vertical asymptote to the maximum at x = -2√19

curve.
minimum at x = -2√19.
As x → 0 (approaching 0 from the right) y → + ∞
+

As x → 0 - (approaching 0 from the right) y → - ∞

The line y = 1 is the horizontal asymptote to the curve.

94 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

The sketch of the graph is shown below
1
The graph of y =f (x)

The sketch of y = f (x) can then be used to sketch the

1
graph of y =f (x)

It is vital that we consider the followints points

1
(i) for values of x for which f (x) > 0, then f (x) < 0
1
(ii) for values of x for which f (x)< 0, then f (x) > 0
1
Example (iii) If f (x) = 0 when x = k , then f (x) is undefined for

Sketch the graph of y = 2x 2+1

2
this value of x and thus x = k is a vertical asymptote
x
of y = 1
Solution f (x)
1
(iv) If f (x) cuts the y - axis at the point ( 0 ; a), then
2x2 +1 f (x)
f (x) = 2 can be written in the form
x 1
will cut the y - axis at the point (0 ; )
f (x) = 2 + 12
a
x 1
(v) As f (x) → ± ∞ then → 0
f (x)
Symmetry
(vi) If a maximum / minimum exists at x = x0 on
f (x) = f (- x) so graph is symmetrical about the y - axis y = f (x) then there exists a minimum / maximum at
x = x0 on y = 1
f (x)
Intercepts
Example
1
x - axis (y = 0) ; 2 + = 0 ; Graph does not cut the
02
x - axis Make a sketch of y = x 2 -5x + 6 and hence sketch the

y - axis (x = 0) ; 2 + 12 = 0 ; no y - intercept i.e. graph graph of y = 1

x x2 - 5x + 6
does not cut the y - axis
Solution
End behaviour
Intercepts
x → ± ∞ For large x the x3 term is dominant
y = x 2 -5x + 6
Thus as x → + ∞ , y → ∞ ; x → - ∞ , y → - ∞ ; = (x - 2)(x - 3)

Stationary points x - axis (y = 0) ; graph cuts x - axis at x = 2 and at x = 3

f '(x) = -2x -3 = 0 ; No stationary points. y - axis (x = 0) ; graph cuts y - axis at (0 ; 6)

The sketch of the graph is shown below End behaviour

x → ± ∞ ; As x → + ∞ , y → ∞ ;
As x → - ∞ , y → - ∞

Stationary points

f '(x) = 2x - 5 ; f ''(x) = 2
5 1
Minimum point at ( 2 ; - 4 )

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 95

 The sketch graph of y = x 2 -5x + 6 is shown below
2. State the sequence of transformations that must be used to
y map f (x) = xn to :
y = x 2 - 5x + 6
(a) y = xn + 3 (b) y = - xn

(c) y = (-x)n (d) y = (x - 2 )n

6 (e) y = 4xn (f ) y = ( x )n
2
(h) y = 3(x -1)n + 5

0 2 5 3 3. Sketch the graphs of :

2
x
1
- 4 (a) y = 1 (b) y = 1
Minimum point x2 - x - 6 x2 + 3x - 4

For y = 1 = 1
x2 - 5x + 6 f (x)
TEST 11
Intercepts
1. (a) Sketch the graph of y = 2x 2 +7x + 5 [05]
y - axis (x = 0) ; f (0) = 6 Graph cuts y - axis at (0 ; 6)
(b) Hence sketch the graph of y = 1 [05]
1 x2 - 5x + 6
⇒ for y = the graph cuts the y - axis at (0 ; 1 )
f (x) 6 2. Sketch the graphs of :
Stationary points (a) y = 1 - 12 [04]
x
5 1 1|
f (x) has a minimum point at ( ; - ) (b) Hence sketch the graph of y = | 1 - [05]
2 4 x2
5
⇒ has a maximum point at ( 2 ; - 4 ) 3. State clearly the sequence of transformations that map
y = x2 to y = 4(x + 1)2 + 3 [06]
The sketch of the graph of y = 2 1 is shown
x - 5x + 6 4. Prove that, for all real x,
below.
y
1
1
0 < x2 + 6x + 10 ≤ 1 [05]
y= x2 - 5x + 6

TOTAL = 30
1
6
0 2 5 3 x
2

Maximum point
-4

EXERCISE 11. b

1. Sketch the graphs of the following functions

(a) y = | 3x + 2 | (b) y = | x2 + x - 2|
8 2
(c) y = | 3 - | (d) y = | 1 - |
x x2
(e) y = x3 + 3 (f ) y = sinx + 2

96 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 CHAPTER
vectors
12
By the end of this chapter, students should be able to: 2D Representations

 understand the concept of a vector in terms of P is any point in the x - y plane with coordinates (x ; y).
magnitude and direction
 understand the concept of scalar multiplication i is the unit vector along the x - axis and j is the unit
 perform simple ector operations such as finding vector along the y - axis.
magnitude, dot product operations and fing the
angle between two vectors With Q at (x ; 0) and R at (0 ; y) :
 perform vector croos products and use the concept → → →
to find the vector which is normal (perpendicular) ⇒ AB = OQ + QP
to two given vectors → →
 understand the concept the idea of an equation of a = OQ + OR
plane in both scalar and cartesian form
 calculate the perpendicular distance from a point to ⇒ r = xi + yj
a line and from a point to a plane y
 find the angle between a line and a plane and the
angle between two planes R(0 ; y) P
 find the line of intersection of between two planes
yj
General propeties of vectors j
r

 a non - zero vector has the magnitude of a

positive real number and a direction in space
 a vector may represented by two letters describing O i
xi
Q (x ; 0) x

a line with the order of the letters indicating 3D Representations

the direction and the length of the line being its
magnitude. P is a point on the x - y - z space with coordinates
→ →
(x ; y ; z). i is the unit vector along the x - axis, j is the
vector AB and magnitude |AB | unit vector along the y - axis and k is the unit vector
The alternative to this notation is to use a single along the z - axis.
bold letter, for example c then the magnitude is
→
|c| OP = r = xi + yj + zk,
→ →
The Unit vector length OP = |OP | = x2 + y2 +z2

 A uit vector e.g. u , has a magnitude of one i.e.

| u | = 1 and can point in any direction. P(x ; y ;z)
Somtimes a unit vector is written with an accent
over it e.g. û
→ zk r
If is F any vector, then the unit vector of is given by
→
F
F̂ = → , which is the →
unit vector in the O
| F |
direction of F yj
xi

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 97

 Addition (Sum) of Vectors Note that if k > 0, then the vector kv is the same
direction as v and if k < 0 then kv is in the opposite
The law used to show the sum of two vectors is called direction to v.
the Parallelogram or Triangle law.
Example
If two vectors a and b arre represented in magnitude Find the unit vector v = 5i - 2j + 4k
and direction by the adjacent sides of a parallelogram
from a point, then their resultant vector r is represented Solution
in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the
parallelogram passing through the point. The magnitude |v|= 5 2 + (-2)2 +42 = 45 = 3 5
D C
Therefore, using vu to denote a unit vector in the
a direction of v, we have
r
5 2 4
i- j+ k, the vector has length 1 and is in
3 5 3 5 3 5

the direction of v.
A b B
5
1 -2
Note, that vu can also be written as
3 5 4
AB + AD = AC , now AB = a and AD = b

b + a = r therefore r = a + b Example
Two vectors are given by A B = 2i - j - k and
If two vectors are represented in magnitude and
direction by the adjacent sides of a triangle, taken in B C = i + 3j + 4k.
order, then their resultant vector is represented but Find,
opposite in direction by the third side (a) AC (b) B C - A B
C
Solution

2 B -1
a -1 3
r -1 4

A C
(a) AC = (2i - j - k) + (i + 3j + 4k)
B → 2i - i + - j + 3j - k + 4k = i + 2j + 3k
A b

(b) B C - A B = (2i - j - k) - (i + 3j + 4k)

AB + BC = AC now BC = a and AB = b → 2i - i + - j - 3j - k - 4k = i - 4j - 5k

b + a = r therefore r = a + b
Vector Equations
Scalar Multiplication
Component Rules
If we have a general vector (a ; b ; c) then the vector
k(a ; b ; c) is parallel to vector (a ; b ; c). Consider the vectors a = x1i + y1 j + z1 k and
b = x2 i + y2 j + z2 k in a 3 dimensional space.
The constant k is called the scalar i.e.

[][]
a ka
k(a ; b ; c) = k b = kb = (k a ; kb ; kc) 1. a = b implies that x1 = x2 ; y1 = y2 and z1 = z2
c kc 2. a + b = (x1 + x2 )i + (y1 + y2)j + (z1+ z2)k

[] [][]
1 1 2
e.g. if v = 2 , then 2v = 2 2 = 4 3. a - b = (x1 - x2 )i + (y1 - y2)j + (z1 - z2)k
3 3 6 4. ma = mx1i +my1 j + mz1 k, where m is a scalar quantity.

98 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

In 3D, space if a point A has position vector a and point dot product of two perpendicular vectors is zero.
B has position vector b, then their distance AB is given
by Conversely, the only way the dot product can be zero is
if the angle between the rwo vectors is 90° (or trivially if
one or both of the vectors is the zero vector). Thus, two
|AB| = | b - a | = (x1 - x2 )2 + (y1 - y2)2 + (z1 - z2)2
non - zero vectors have a dot product of zero if and only
if they are perpendicular (orthogonal).
The Dot (Inner) Product
EXERCISE 12. a
[] []
a1 b1
The dot product of two vectors a2 and b2 is given
a3 b3 1. The diagram below shows the four points A,B ,C and D on

[ ][ ]
the cartesian plane.
a1 b1
by a.b = a2 . b2 = a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3  y
a3 b3 B
3
An equivalent definition of the dot product is C
2

a.b = |a||b| cos(θ) 

1

Where is the angle between the two vectors (see

diagram below) -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6x
-1
a
D
-2
θ
(a) Write down the position vectors of the points A,B ,C
b and D .
(b) Write down the following displacements as column
vectors.
Example (i) AC (ii) D C (iii) A B

[] []
1 -2 (iv) B C (v) A D.
The dotproduct of 3 and 4 is (c) Show that OABC is a parallelogram.
-2 -1

[ ][ ]
1 -2 2. Find which of the following pairs of vectors are
a.b = 3 . 4 = (1)(-2) + (3)(4) + -2)(-1) = 12 perpendicular to each other.
-2 -1 a = 2i + j - 2k, b = 2i - 2j + k ,
c = i + 2j + 2k, d = 3i + 2j - 2k.
Also we see that 12 = a.b = |a||b| cos(θ) = √14√21cos(θ),

[ ] [ ]
-2 -2
solving, gives θ = 45.6°.
3. The vectors A B and AC are 6 and -3
respectively. -3 6
Example
(i) Determine the lengths of the vectors.
Find the dot product of i - j +3k and 3i +3j (ii) Find the scalar (dot) product A B . AC .
(iii)Use your result from part (ii) to calculate the angle
Solution between these two vectors.

[ ][ ]
1 3 4. Find a unit vector that is perpendicular to i + 2j - 3k
Now (i - j +3k).(3i +3j) = -1 . 3 =0
3 0
5. The triangle ABC is such that AB = 2i - 2j + k and
AC = 2i - 2j + k. Find angle BAC and the area of the
As shown in the last example, the dot product is zero. triangle.
An important use of the dot product is to test whether
or not two vectors are orthogonal (perpendicular) to
each other.

Two vectors are perpendicular if the angle between them

is 90°. Thus, using the second formula, we see that the

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 99

 6. Example
z D E
Find the vector equation of the line which is parallel
A B to 4i + 5j - k and passes through a point with position
vector 3i - j - 2k.

2k y Solution

2j G F The vector equation is r = 3i - j - 2k + t(4i + 5j - k),

where r is the position vector of a general point on the
line and t is a scalar.
O C x
2i
Lines are called skew if they do not intersect and if they
OABCDEFG, shown in the figure is a cuboid. Given that are not parallel. So to prove that two lines are skew you
OA . = 2k, O G . = 2j and O C . = 2i prove they don’t intersect.
Calcualte,
(i) | DF .| Example
(ii) the angle between AG . and OB .
i. Find the vector equation of line l1 passing through
the points A(1 ; -2 ; 6) and B(7 ; 1 ; -3).
Equations of lines and planes ii A second line l2 has equation
r = i +2j + 3k + s(4i - 6j + 2k) .
Lines in three dimensions Show that line l1 and l2 are skew.

A line is determined by point and a direction. Thus, to Solution

find an equation representing a line in three dimensions
choose a point P0 on the line and a non - zero vector i. The direction of the line is =b-a
v parallel to the line. Since any constant multiple of

[ ] [ ][ ]
AB 7 1 6
a vector still points in the same direction, it seems = 1 - -2 = 3
reasonable that a pont on the line can be found by -2 6 -8
starting at the point P0 on the line and following a The line passes through (1 ; -2 ; 6), so the equation is
constant multiple of the vector v.

[] []
1 6
z r = -2 +t 3
6 -8

tv ii. To show lines are skew we show they can’t intersect.

We do this by writing the two vector equations equal
to each other and attempting to solve the equations:
.P (x ; y0 ; z0)

[] [][] []
0 0 1 6 1 4
-2 +t 3 = 2 + s -6 It is essential that the
r 6 -8 3 2 lines are written with
y different parameters.

We can form equations:

1 + 6t = 1 + 4s → 6t – 4s = 0 
-2 + 3t = 2 – 6s → 3t + 6s = 4 
6 – 8t = 3 + 2s → 8t + 2s = 3 
Solving equations (1) and (2):
6t – 4s = 0 
x
6t + 12s = 8  × 2
Subtract equations to remove t : 16s = 8 ⇒ s = 0.5.
If r0 is the position vector of the point P0, then the line From equation , we then get t = 1 .
3
must have the form To show they are skew lines, we must check that these
values do not work in the 3rd equation:
r = r0 + tv, where t is a scalar quantity.
8t + 2 = 8 × 1 + 2 × 0.5 ≠ 3
3
This is the vector equation of a line in 3 dimensions.
Therefore the lines are skew.

100 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

Cartesian equation of a line

[] []
2 -2 EXERCISE 12. b
The vector equation r = 4 +t 3
5 8 1. Write down the vector equation of the line passing

[]
can be written as a Cartesian equation by eliminating 3
the parameter t. through A(4 ; 8 ; 6) with direction vector -4
7
x = 2 - 2t ⇒ -2t = x -2 ⇒ t= x-2 2. Write down the cartesian equation of the line passing
-2 through the point (4 ; 8 ; 6) and parallel to the vector
y = 4 + 3t ⇒ 3t = y - 4 ⇒ t= y-4 2i + 3j - k.
3
3. Write down the cartesian equation of the line passing
z = 5 + 8t ⇒ 8t = z - 5 ⇒ t = z - 5 →
8 through the points with position vectors OP = 4i - j + 3k
→
y-4 and OQ = 2i + 3j - 7k.
So t = x - 2 = = z-5
-2 3 8
4. Show that the lines with equations
Therefore the Cartesian equation of the line through the
point (2 ; 4 ; 5) in the direction -2i + 3j + 8k is r = 10i + λ(-i - j) , r = 4k + t(-i + j) are perpendicular.

x-2 = y-4 = z-5 5. The points P, Q and R have position vectors 2i + 3j + 2k,
-2 3 8 i - 4j + 4k and 2i + j + 2k respectively with respect to an
In general, the Cartesian equation of the line which origin O. Find the equation of the line PR, in the form
r = u + λv.

[]
l
passes through the point (a ; b ; c) in the direction m 6. Relative to a fixed origin O, the point A has position vector
n 3i + 2j – k, the point B has position vector 5i + j + k, and
is x-a = x-b = x-c the point C has position vector 7i – j.
l m n
Note that from the cartesian equation the numerator (a) Find the cosine of angle ABC.
(b) Find the exact value of the area of triangle ABC.

[]
a
gives the position vector b of a point on the line and The point D has position vector 7i + 3k.
c

[]
l (c) Show that AC is perpendicular to CD.
the denominator gives the direction vector m
n
Example Perpendicular distance from a point to a line
For the line through (4; 7 ; -1) in the direction We will now look at how to find the perpendicular
2i – 3j – 5k, find: distance from a point P in 3D to the line r also within
i. its vector equation; this same space.
ii. its Cartesian equation.
Example
Solution

[] []
4 2 Find the perpendicular distance from a point P(3 ; 5 ; 2)
i. Vector equation is r = 7 + λ -3 where λ is a to the line with equation
parameter -1 -5

[] []
2 1

[] []
4 2 r= 3 + λ -1
ii. Using r = 7 + λ -3 and eliminating λ, -1 4
-1 -5 Solution
x = 4 + 2λ ⇒ λ = - 4
x
-2
The line passes through the point A(2 ; 3 ; -1) and has
y-7
y = 4 + 3λ ⇒ λ = -3 direction i - j + 4k.

z = 5 + 8λ ⇒ λ = z + 1 Let Q be the closest point on the line to P.

-5
Then PQ is perpendicular to the direction of the line r.
Upon elimination of λ, the cartesian equation is

x-4 = y-7 = z+1

-2 -3 -5

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 101

 As Q lies on the line, the position vector of Q will have
the form EXERCISE 12. c
→
OQ =
[ 2 + t
3 - t
-1 + 4 t ] for some t
1. The point A has position vector [ ]
2
4 , the line l
6

[ ] [ ]
1 1

.
has equation r = 2 + λ -1 .
P(3 ; 5 ; 2) -1 1
Find the length of the perpendicular from A to l.

[]
1
-1 2. The point C has coordinates (-3 ; 2 ; - 4) and the line l
4

.Q
1
has equation r = 2
3[ ] [ ]
-1
+ t 1 , where t is a parameter.
1
Find the position vector of P on l such that OP is

.
perpendicular to l.

A(2 ; 3 ; -1) 3. The point A has coordinates (4 ; 6 ; - 4) and the line l has

[ ] [ ]
5 1

[ ] []
equation r = 1 + λ -1 .
→ 2 + t 3 -2 1
Therefore PQ = q - p = 3 - t - 5
-1 + 4 t 2 Find the coordinates of the point B on l such AB is
perpendicular to l.

[ ] [ ]
3
-1 + t 0 , the line l
= -2 - t 4. . The point B has position vector
-1
-3 + 4 t
has equation r = 2i + j + t(i + 2j + 3k).
→ Show that the length of the perpendicular from B to
Since PQ is perpendicular to the direction of the line,
√7
37
we have l is units.

[-1 + t
-2 - t
-3 + 4 t ]. [ ] 1
-1
4
=0 The Cross Product

⇒ -1 + t + 2 + t -12 + 16t = 0 Besides the usual addition of vectors and multiplication

of vectors by scalars, there are also two types of
multiplication of vectors by other vectors. One type the
⇒ 18t = 11 dot product ; the result of the dot product of two vectors
11 is a scalar.
⇒ t = 18
The other type, called the cross product, is a vector
product since it yields another vector rather than a scalar.
Substituting this value of t into the expression for ,
we then get NB: As with the dot product, the cross product contains
valuable information about the two vectors themselves.
→ 1
PQ = 18 []-7
-47
-10
The cross product of two vectors a = []
a1
a2 and
a3
The shortest distance from point P to the line is the

[]
→ b1
magnitude of the vector PQ
b = b2 is given by

[ ]
b3
→ 1 √(2358) a2b3 - a3b2
PQ  = 18 (49 + 2209 + 100) = units
18 a×b= a3b1 - a1b3 a × b is read as 'a cross b'
a1b2 - a2b1

Although this may seem like a strange definition, its

useful properties will soon become evident. There is an
easy way to remember the formula for the cross product
by using the properties of determinants.
102 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry
 [ ]
c1 c2 c3 Equations of a Plane
The determinant of the 3 × 3 matrix a1 a2 a3 i.e.
b1 b2 b3 If we have a point P0(x0 ; y0 ; z0) on a plane, let us
suppose that we have a vector that is orthogonal
c1 c2 c3 c1 a a c2 a a c3 a a

[]
a1 a2 a3 = 2 3
- 1 3
+ 1 2 a
b1 b2 b3 b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2 (perpendicular) to this same plane , n = b .
c
Now if c1 = i , c2 = j and c3 = k, the cross product of this This vector is called the normal vector. Now assume that
matrix is P(x ; y ; z) is any point on the plane. Now since we are
i j k i a a j a a k a a working with vectors we will let r0 and r be the position
a1 a2 a3 2 3 1 3 1 2 vectors for P0 and P respectively as shown below
b1 b2 b3 = b2 b3 - b1 b3 + b1 b2

a × b is perpendicular to
a
b the vectors a and b

a×b

Example

Find the cross productof the two vectors a = 3i - 2j - 2k

Notice that we added the vector r - r0 which will be
and b = -i + 5k.
completely in the plane. Also notice that we placed the
normal vector on the plane, but there is no reason to
Solution expect this to be the case. We placed it there to illustrate
this point.
It is completely possible that the
Now normal vector does not touch the
plane in any way.
i j k i -2 -2 j 3 -2 k
3 -2 -2
3 -2
= - +
-1 0 5 0 5 -1 5 -1 0
Now, because n is orthogonal to the plane, it is also
orthogonal to any other vector that lies in the plan.
= -10i - 13j - 2k In particular it is orthogonal to r - r0. Since these two
vectors are perpendicular, their dot product is equal to 0
i.e.
EXERCISE 12 . d
n.(r - r0) = 0 ⇒ n.r = n.r0
1. Perform the following cross products :
This is called the vector equation of the plane.
i j k i j k
(a) 4 -2 6 (b) 0 10 8
2 -3 3 -1 2 6 A slightly more useful form of this equation is as
follows.
i j k i j k
(c) 0 -3 1 (d) 3 2 2 Start with the first form of the vector equation and wrtie
4 1 2 -1 -2 -5 down a vector for the difference i.e.
2. Find the vector normal to the plane containing the vectors
p = 2i - 4j + 3k and q = i + 2j - 3k.

[] [] [] [ ][ ]
4 2 2 x - x0
3. If a = 10 , b = -4 and c = 14 a
b . y - y0 = 0.
8 2 4 z - z0
c
Find a vector perpendicular to the plane ABC.

[] []
3 2
4. If a = 7 ,b = 3 . Find a vector perpendicular
1 4 to the plane OAB.

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 103

 Computing the dot product gives To give the answer in cartesian coordinates

[ ][ ] []
a(x - x0) + b(y - y0) + c(z - z0) = 0. x -9 x
y . 0 = - 21 since r = y
z -3 z
This is called the cartesian form of the equation of a
plane. Usually it is written as ⇒ -9x - 3z = - 21

ax + by + cz = d ; where d = ax0 + by0+ cz0

⇒ -9x - 3z + 21 = 0 (Is the cartesian equation of the
Note that a, b and c are plane)
components of a normal vector
perpendicular to the plane.

EXERCISE 12 . e
So to find the equation of the plane, we first find n, the
normal to the plane. Upon doing this, we simply apply 1. Find the equation of the plane containing the vectors
the formula
[ ] [ ]
→ 2 → 4
AB = 1 and AC = -2 given that the
r.n = a.n where a is any point on the plane. 1 9

[ ]
2
Example position vector of A = 1 .
3
If a = i + 2j + 4k, b = 2i - j + k and c = i - j + 4k,

[ ] [ ] [ ]
2 0 2
Find the vector equation of the plane ABC 2. If a = 1 .b = 2 and c = -1 , find the vector
3 -1 0
Solution equation of the plane containing a, b and c.

[][][] [] []
→ 2 1 1 5 2
AB = b - a = -1 - 2 = -3 3. The line l has equation r = 0 +λ 1 where λ is a
1 4 -3 5 0
real number. Find the equation of the plane containing the

[][][]
→ 1 1 0 origin O and l.
AC = c - a = -1 - 2 = -3
4 4 0
4. (a)Find the vector equation of the plane which passes
through the point with position vector 3i + 2j + 5k and
Using the cross product to to find the vector which is perpendicular to i + k,
perpendicular to the plane, we have
i j k (b) find the cartesian equation of this plane.
→ 3→ -2 -2
n = AB × AC =
[ ] [ ] [ ]
-1 0 5 2 0 2
5. If a = 1 .b = 2 and c = -1 , find the equation of
3 -1 0
i -3 -3 j 1 -3 k 1 -3
the plane containing the vectors a, b and c.
= - +
-3 0 0 0 0 -3

= i(0 -9) - j(0 - 0) + k(-3 - 0) Perpendicular distance from a point to a plane

= -9i - 3k We can also find the perpendicular distance from a point

in 3D space to a plane within the same space.

We can now use the relationship r.n = a.n, where for a

Example
we can usse any of the points a, b or c.

[ ] [ ][ ] Find the perpendicular distance from the point

-9 1 -9
⇒ r. 0 = 2 . 0 = -9 + 0 - 12 = - 21 P(3 ; 5 ; 2) to the plane with equation 3x - 2y + z = 4
-3 4 -3

[]
-9 Solution
⇒ r. 0 = - 21.
-3 Let Q be foot of the perpendicular from point P to the
plane.

104 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

 ⇒ Perpendicular distance is

|η1α + η2 β + η3γ + d| |(3)(3) + (-2)(5) + (1)(2) - 4|

=
( η 2 + η 2 + η 2) (32 + (-2)2 + 12)
1 2 3

|- 3| 3√14
= =
√14 14

EXERCISE 12 . f

[]
1. Find the perpendicular distance from the point
3

[ ]
1
However, the normal vector 2 is a vector
-1 P(2 ; 4 ; 6) to the plane r. 1 = 2.
3

[]
→ 3
perpendicular to the plane. So PQ = λ -2 2. The planes Π1 and Π2 have equations 2x - 2y + 4z = 0
1
and 3x + y + 6z = 0 respectively. Find the length of the

[] []
perpendicular from P(7 ; 2 ; -1) to Π2.
3 3
Thus, the equation of the line PQ is r = 5 + λ -2
2 1
3. Show that the perpendicular distance from the point

[ ]
22
We can find the coordinates of Q by seeing where the (0 ; 0 ; 0) to the plane with equation r. 33 = 66 is
-12
line l intersects with the plane 3x - 2y + z = 4.
66
.
√1717
Substituting x = 3 + 3λ, y = 5 - 2λ, and z = 2 + λ, into
the equation of the plane, gives 4. Determine the perpendicular distance , pd , of the point
(2 ; -3 ; 4) from the plane whose equation is
3(3 + 3λ) - 2(5 - 2λ) + (2 + λ) = 4
x + 2y + 2z = 13.
9 + 9λ - 10 + 4λ + 2 + λ = 4
5. The planes Π1 and Π2 have equations 4x - y - 2z = 6
3 and x + 2y + 2z = -3 respectively. Find the length of the
⇒ λ =
14 perpendicular from A(0 ; 2 ; -4) to Π1.

[]
→ 3 3
-2 The angle between a line and a plane
So the vector PQ =
14 1
To find the angle between a line and a plane, there are
Therefore the
→
perpendicular distance from P to the two steps :
plane is PQ .
→ 3 3√(14) Step 1 : Find the angle between the normal vector and
 PQ  = √(9 + 4 + 1) = the direction vector of the line.
14 14
Alternatively we can employ the distance formula.
Step 2 : Subtract the angle from Step 1 from 90° in
The perpendicular distance from (α ; β ; γ) from order to obtain the required angle.

|η1α + η2 β + η3γ + d|
η1x + η2 y + η3z + d = 0 is
(η 2 + η 2 + η 2)
1 2 3

e.g. Find the perpendicular distance from the point

P(3 ; 5 ; 2) to the plane with equation 3x - 2y + z = 4 Diagram required here!

Solution: (α ; β ; γ) = (3 ; 5 ; 2) and equation of the plane

is 3x - 2y + z - 4 = 0.

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 105

 [ ]
0
b.n is parallel to 2 .
i.e. angle Φ is cos Φ = 4
|b||n|
Find the acute angle between l and p1.
Required angle is 90° - Φ = θ

Example The angle between two planes

y Let Π1 and Π2 be two planes in the 3 dimensional

Find the angle between the line x + 2 = = z-3 space. The angle θ between these two planes is defined
2 1 -1
by means of the normal vectors n1 and n2 of Π1 and Π2

[]
4 through the relationship
and the plane r. 3 = 5.
-2

Solution n1.n2
cosθ =
|n1||n2|

[]
2
First, we find the angle between the vectors 1 and
-1 The formula implies that the angle θ satisfies 0 ≤ θ ≤ π

[]
2
4
3 .
-2

[ ][ ]
4 4
3 . 3 = 8 + 3 + 2 = 13.
-2 -2 Diagram required here!

Now |2i + j - k| = √6 and |4i + 3j - 2k| = √(29)

⇒ 13 = √6 √(29)cosθ ⇒ θ = 9.76°

Required angle between plane and line is

90° - 9.76° = 80.2°

Example

EXERCISE 12 . g The planes Π1 and Π2 have equations x + 2y - 3z = 0

and x + 6y + 4z = 0 respectively. Find the acute angle
1. Find the angle between the line and the plane between the two planes.

[ ] [ ][ ]
1 1 1
(a) r = -1 + λ 1 , r. -2 =4 Solution
0 1 2

[] []
1 1
y +1 z+3
(b) x - 2 = = , 2x - y - 2z = 4 Π1 : r. 2 =0 ; Π2 : r. 6 =0
2 6 3 -3 4

[ ]
1
2. The points P and Q have the position vectors 2 n1.n2
Let the acute angle be θ. Then using cosθ = ,
4 |n1||n2|

[ ]
3
2 respectively, referred to the origin O. Find the

[ ].[ ]
and
5 1 1
2 6
acute angle between the line PQ and the plane x + 2y = 0. -3 4 1
cosθ = =
√(14)√(53) √(742)
3. The plane p has equation 4x + 6y - 4z + 8 = 0 and the line
l has equation r = 8i - 7k + λ(i + j + 6k). Find the acute
angle between l and p. θ = 87.9°

[ ]
1
4. The plane p1 has equation r. 4 = 4. The line l
-3

[ ]
6
passes through the point A with position vector 8 and
10

106 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry

The line of intersection between two planes
EXERCISE 12 . h
At times, it is necessary to determine the line of

[ ]
1
intersection between two planes. In order to do this, we
1. The planes p1 and p2 have equations r. 4 =6
can employ the following two step procedure. -8

[ ]
0
Step 1 : If the equation is not in cartesian form, we have and r. 0 = 2 respectively.
1
to express it in cartesian form.
Find the acute angle between the two planes.
Step 2 : Express either x and y in terms of z or x and z 2. The plane Π has equation 3x + 6y + z = 4. Calculate
in terms of y or y and z in terms of x. the acute angle between the plane and the line x = 0.

These steps are shown in the example below. 3. Find the acute angle between the plane Π1 : x - z = 0 and
Π2 : x + 5y + z =14.
Example
4. The planes Π1 and Π2 have equations 3x - y - z = 2 and

[]
1 z = 0. Calculate the acute angle between these two planes.
The planes Π1 and Π2 have equations r. 2 =4
-3

[]
0 5. The planes Π1 and Π2 have equations x + y + 2z = 2 and
and r. 1 = 1 respectively. x - 3y + 3z = 3 respectively. Find the vector equation of
1 the line of intersection between Π1 and Π2.
The two planes intersect in a straight line l. Find the
6. The equation of Π1 is 2y + 4z = 0 and the equation of Π2 is
vector equation of l.

[ ]
-8
Solution r. 2 = 2. The planes intersect at l, a straight line.
6
In cartesian form, x + 2y - 3z = 4  Find the eeequation of l.
y+z=1 

 × (- 2) ⇒ -2y - 2z = -2 

To eliminate z we add  and 

⇒ x - 5z = 2

⇒ x = 5z + 2

Now in  (5z + 2) + 2y - 3z = 4

⇒ 5z - 3z + 2y = 4 - 2

⇒ 2y = 2 - 2z

⇒ y=1-z

[][ ]
x 5z + 2
Therefore y = 1 - z
z z

=
[ 5z + 2
-z + 1
z + 0 ]
[] []
5 2
= z -1 + 1
1 0
Therefore letting z = λ, the line l has equation

[] []
5 2
r = λ -1 + 1
1 0

Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry 107

 TEST 12  TEST 12
1. Find the unit vector Uv parallel to 1.(a) Find the vector equation of line l1 passing through
v = 4i + 12j + 6k [03] the points A(2 ; -4 ; 12) and B(7 ; 1 ; -3). [03]
(b) A second line l2 has equation

[] []
a 2
2. Find a and b if 6 = k -6 [04] r = i +2j + 3k + s(2i - 3j + k) .
b 10 Show that line l1 and l2 are skew. [05]
3.
z G F 2. For the line through (4; 7 ; -1) in the direction
2i – 3j – 5k, find:
D E (a) its vector equation, [02]

(b) its cartesian equation. [02]

y
3. Find the perpendicular distance from the point
C B P(3 ; 5 ; 2) to the plane with equation
6x - 4y + 2z = 8 [06]
O A x
4. The planes Π1 and Π2 have equations
In the diagram, OABCDEFG is a cuboid, O is the → 2x + 4y - 6z = 0 and x + 6y + 4z = 0 respectively. Find
origin and →
the unit vectors i, j and k are parallel to, OA the acute angle between the two planes. [04]
→ →
OC and OD respectively. The vector OF = 10i + 8j + 6k
5. Find the angle between the line x + 2 = y = z-3
(a) Write down in terms of i, j and k 2 1 -1

[]
→
8
(i) the vector OG [02] and the plane r. 6 = 5. [05]
-4

[]
→
(ii) the vector AG [02] 2
6. The planes Π1 and Π2 have equations r. 4 =4
→ -6

[]
(b) Find a unit vector in the direction of OF in terms 0
of i, j and k [02] and r. 2 = 1 respectively.
2
→
4. (a) The vector AB = 2i - 3j + 6k. The point A is The two planes intersect in a straight line l. Find the
(-3 ; 3 ; 3). vector equation of l. [08]
Find the coordinates of the point B. [01]
→ TOTAL = 35
(b) The vector AB = -4i + 6j + qk, where q can take
different values.

(i) If AB and CD are parallel, find the value

of q [01]

(ii) If AB and CD are perpendicular,

find the value of q. [02]

5. OABC is a triangular pyramid. The position vectors

of A, B and C relative to the origin O, are

[] [] []
2 0 0
a= 4 , b= -4 and c = 1 respectively.
-4 3 1
(a) Find |a| and |b| [03]
(b) Find a.b (dot product) [02]
(c) Calculate the angle AOB correct to the nearest
degree. [03]
TOTAL = 25

108 Chapter 4: Euclidean Circle Geometry