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INDIGENOUS
PEOPLES
 INDIGENOUS
PEOPLES
An Encyclopedia of Culture, History,
and Threats to Survival

VOLUME 1: A–D

Victoria R. Williams
Copyright © 2020 by ABC-CLIO, LLC

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without
prior permission in writing from the publisher.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Williams, Victoria, author.

Title: Indigenous peoples : an encyclopedia of culture, history, and
  threats to survival / Victoria R. Williams.
Description: Santa Barbara, California : ABC-CLIO, an Imprint of ABC-CLIO,
  LLC, [2020] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019026786 (print) | LCCN 2019026787 (ebook) | ISBN
  9781440861192 (v. 1 ; hardcover) | ISBN 9781440861208 (v. 2 ; hardcover)
  | ISBN 9781440861215 (v. 3 ; hardcover) | ISBN 9781440861222 (v. 4 ;
  hardcover) | ISBN 9781440861178 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781440861185 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Indigenous peoples—Encyclopedias.
Classification: LCC GN380 .W5494 2020 (print) | LCC GN380 (ebook) | DDC
 305.8003—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019026786
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019026787

ISBN: 978-1-4408-6117-8 (set)

978-1-4408-6119-2 (vol. 1)
978-1-4408-6120-8 (vol. 2)
978-1-4408-6121-5 (vol. 3)
978-1-4408-6122-2 (vol. 4)
978-1-4408-6118-5 (ebook)

24 23 22 21 20   1 2 3 4 5

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 Contents

List of Entries, vii

Geographical List of Entries, xiii
Preface, xix
Introduction, xxi

A–Z Entries, 1

Appendix: United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 1211

Selected Bibliography, 1219
Index, 1223

v
 List of Entries

Volume 1
Abkhaz Armenian
Aboriginal Australian Aruban
Acehnese Asháninka
Acholi Asiri
Adivasi Assyrian
Aeta Avar
Afar Aymara
Agul Azeri
Ahwazi
Aimaq Baganda
Ainu Baka
Ajar Bakhtiyari
Aka Balawar
Akan Baluch
Akha Bamileke
Akie Bashkir
Alawi Basque
Albanian Bassa
Aleut Batak
Altai BaTwa
Ambonese Bavarian
Amhara Bedouin
Annang Beja
Anuak Berber
Anutan Bhil
Apache Bicol

vii
viii  List of Entries

Bilen Faroese
Bonairean Finn
Bosniak Flemish
Bougainvillian Fon
Breton Frisian
Bribri Friulian
Bubi Fulani
Bugi Fur
Bulgarian
Bunun Gagauz
Burakumin Galician
Buryat Garifuna
Garo
Cabindan Gilaki and
Canarian  Mazandarani
Carpatho-Rusyn Gond
Catalan Gorani
Cham Greek
Chamorro Guarani
Chechen Guaymi
Chewa Gujarati
Chiquitano Guna
Chukchi Gwich’in
Chuvash
Circassian Hadhramis
Comanche Hadza
Copts Haida
Cornish Hani
Corsican Haratine
Crimean Tatar Hausa
Croat Hazara
Hezhe
Daasanach Himba
Dai Hindi
Dayak Hmong
Degar Hopi
Dinka Hui
Diola Hutu and Tutsi
Dogon
Dom Icelander
Doma Igbo
Druze Igorot
Ijaw
Volume 2 i-Kiribati
Ingush
East Timorese Innu
Edo Inuit
Evenk iTaukei
Ewe Izhorian
 List of Entries  ix

Jews Maltese
Juhuro Manchu
Jumma Mande
Mandean
Kachin Mansi
Kalasha Manx
Kalenjin Māori
Kanak Mapuche
Kanaka Maoli Maronites
Kanuri Marsh Arab
Karakalpak Marshallese
Karamojong Martu
Karbi Matis
Karelian Mayan
Karen Mbuti
Kasaian Mende
Kashmiri Mi’kmaq
Kavalan Mingrelian
Kayapó Miskito
Ket Mixtec
Khasi Moldovan
Khmer Mon
Kickapoo Mongol
Komi Mordvin
Korean Moriori
Koryak Mossi
Kumyk Mosuo
Kurd Mozabite
Kyrgyz Muhamasheen
Mursi
Volume 3
Naga
Lak Nahua
Lakota Nanai
Latgalian Nauruan
Latvian Nenet
Lenca Nicobarese
Lezgin Ni-Vanuatu
Lhotshampa Nivkh
Liechtensteiner Nogai
Livonian Nuba
Lozi Nubian
Lur Nyamwezi

Maasai Occitan
Macedonian Ogiek
Madurese Ojibwe
Magyar Onge
Malagasy Orang Asli
x  List of Entries

Oraon Svan
Oromo Swahili
Ossetian Swede
Otomi Székely

Palestinian Tahitian
Pangasinan Talysh
Papuan Tamil
Pashtun Tharu
Pech Tibetan
Pemón Tiv
Piaroa Tlingit
Pipil Toba
Pomak Tohono O’odham
Pumi Tokelauan
Tonga
Qashqai Tongan
Quechua Torres Strait Islanders
Tripuri
Rapa Nui Trique
Rohingya Trobriander
Roma Tsonga
Romansh Tuareg
Rotuman Tubu
Ryūkyūans Turkana
Turkmen
Tuvaluan
Volume 4
Udmurt
Saharawi
Uncontacted Peoples
Sakalava
Urueu-Wau-Wau
Samaritan
U’wa
Sami
Uyghur
Samoans
Uzbek
San
Sardinian
Sateré-Mawé Vep
Sea Gypsy
Selkup Walloon
Seminoles Walpiri
Serer Walser
Shabak Wanniyala-Aetto
Shilluk Waorani
Shipibo-Conibo Warao
Sidama Wayuu
Sikh Welsh
Somali Worimi
Sorb Wurundjeri
 List of Entries  xi

Xhosa Zápara
Xicaque Zapotec
Zaza
Yagnobi Zomi
Yanomami Zoque
Yapese Zulu
Yazidi Zuni
Yoruba
Yupik
 Geographical List of Entries

Africa and Middle East Chewa

Copts
Acholi
Afar
Ahwazi Daasanach
Aka Dinka
Akan Diola
Akie Dogon
Alawi Dom
Amhara Doma
Annang Druze
Anuak
Asiri Edo
Assyrian
Ewe
Baganda
Baka Fon
Bakhtiyari Fulani
Bamileke Fur
Bassa
BaTwa Gilaki and Mazandarani
Bedouin
Beja Hadhramis
Berber Hadza
Bilen
Haratine
Bubi
Hausa
Cabindan Himba
Canarian Hutu and Tutsi

xiii
xiv  Geographical List of Entries

Igbo Tiv
Ijaw Tonga
Tsonga
Jews Tuareg
Tubu
Kalenjin Turkana
Kanuri
Karamojong Xhosa
Kasaian
Kurd Yazidi
Yoruba
Lozi
Lur Zulu

Maasai
Central and South America
Malagasy
Mande Aruban
Mandean Asháninka
Maronites Aymara
Marsh Arab
Mbuti Bonairean
Mende Bribri
Mossi
Mozabite Chiquitano
Muhamasheen
Mursi Garifuna
Guarani
Nuba Guaymi
Nubian Guna
Nyamwezi
Kayapó
Ogiek
Oromo Lenca

Palestinian Mapuche
Matis
Qashqai Mayan
Miskito
Saharawi
Sakalava Pech
Samaritan Pemón
San Piaroa
Serer Pipil
Shabak
Shilluk Quechua
Sidama
Somali Sateré-Mawé
Swahili Shipibo-Conibo
 Geographical List of Entries  xv

Toba Liechtensteiner
Livonian
Urueu-Wau-Wau
U’wa Macedonian
Magyar
Waorani Maltese
Warao Manx
Wayuu Moldovan
Mongol
Xicaque
Occitan
Yanomami
Pomak
Zápara
Roma
Europe Romansh
Albanian
Sami
Sardinian
Basque
Sorb
Bavarian
Swede
Bosniak
Székely
Breton
Bulgarian
Walloon
Walser
Carpatho-Rusyn
Welsh
Catalan
Cornish
Corsican North America
Crimean Tatar
Aleut
Croat
Apache

Faroese Comanche
Finn
Flemish Gwich’in
Frisian
Friulian Haida
Hopi
Gagauz
Galician Innu
Gorani Inuit
Greek
Kanaka Maoli
Icelander Kickapoo

Karelian Lakota

Latgalian Mi’kmaq
Latvian Mixtec
xvi  Geographical List of Entries

Nahua Tongan
Torres Strait Islanders
Ojibwe Trobriander
Otomi Tuvaluan

Seminoles Walpiri
Worimi
Tlingit Wurundjeri
Tohono O’odham
Trique Yapese
Tsimshian
Other
Yupik
Sea Gypsy
Zapotec
Zoque Uncontacted Peoples
Zuni
Russian Federation and Central Asia

Oceania Abkhaz
Agul
Aboriginal Australian Ajar
Anutan Altai
Armenian
Bougainvillian
Avar
Azeri
Chamorro
Bashkir
i-Kiribati
Buryat
iTaukei
Chechen
Kanak Chukchi
Chuvash
Māori
Circassian
Marshallese
Martu Evenk
Moriori
Hazara
Nauruan
Ni-Vanuatu Ingush
Izhorian
Papuan
Juhuro
Rapa Nui
Rotuman Karakalpak
Ket
Samoans Komi
Koryak
Tahitian Kumyk
Tokelauan Kyrgyz
 Geographical List of Entries  xvii

Lak Dai
Lezgin Dayak
Degar
Mansi
Mingrelian East Timorese
Mongol
Mordvin Garo
Gond
Nanai Gujarati
Nenet
Nivkh Hani
Nogai Hezhe
Hindi
Ossetian Hmong
Hui
Selkup
Svan Igorot

Talysh Jumma
Turkmen
Kachin
Udmurt Kalasha
Uzbek Karbi
Karen
Vep Kashmiri
Kavalan
Yagnobi Khasi
Khmer
South and Southeast Asia Korean
Acehnese
Adivasi Lhotshampa
Aeta
Aimaq Madurese
Ainu Manchu
Akha Mon
Ambonese Mosuo

Balawar Naga
Baluch Nicobarese
Batak
Bhil Onge
Bicol Orang Asli
Bugi Oraon
Bunun
Burakumin Pangasinan
Pashtun
Cham Pumi
xviii  Geographical List of Entries

Rohingya Uyghur
Ryūkyūans
Wanniyala-Aetto
Sikh
Zaza
Tamil Zomi
Tharu
Tibetan
Tripuri
 Preface

This multivolume encyclopedia concentrates on the many locale. Readers can assume that the access to health care
peoples around the world who can be described as indige- or education for the indigenous people concerned will be
nous. The term indigenous has been generically employed for worse than for the nonindigenous population of an area.
many years alongside other descriptions that have essentially I have tried to keep the book as jargon-free as possible
the same meaning (e.g., tribes, first peoples, first nations, so that it may be enjoyed by general readers. Nonetheless,
aboriginals, ethnic groups, adivasi, janajat, ­hunter-gatherers, this book is primarily aimed at researchers. Keeping this
nomads, and hill people). The United Nations Declaration on in mind, each entry can be read as a stand-alone item or as
the Rights of Indigenous Peoples is included in this book as a part of a wider topic. Additionally, each entry is followed
reference to help readers understand which peoples may be by a see also section that enables cross-referencing as well
classified as indigenous. It should be noted, however, that the as a Further Reading list. Sidebars are scattered throughout
term indigenous can have negative connotations, and some the volumes to provide interesting information connected
peoples classed as indigenous by outsiders may choose not to the entries, and the Native Voices boxes document indi-
to define themselves as such. viduals and groups that have contributed in a significant
This book focuses on indigenous peoples with whom way to indigenous rights or who have worked to highlight
American readers may be less familiar, though it includes issues affecting indigenous communities. Many of the
a number of Native American peoples too. In addition to peoples featured are embroiled in ongoing situations (e.g.,
North America, the entries look at peoples from Africa, Jews, Palestinians, Rohingyas, Yazidis, Kurds, Uyghurs). I
Asia, the Middle East, Oceania, Europe, South America, have striven to write about these situations from as neutral
and Central America. Some of the peoples live in localized a standpoint as possible.
areas; others have a global diaspora or travel the world. While writing this book, I became seriously ill for a
Alongside the various people’s histories, health care, and time. I would like to thank my editor, Jane Glenn, and the
education, I have tried to detail their languages, knowledge acquisitions editor at ABC-CLIO, Kaitlin Ciarmiello, for
and beliefs, politics, culture, and social structure as well as their help and understanding during this period. I would
how they interact with their surroundings. Some of the also like to extend my gratitude to the staff at Ealing Hos-
peoples’ histories stretch back millennia, while others are pital in West London for their care. The fact that I could
more recent or virtually undocumented. To broaden the access free-at-the-point-of-use health care just minutes
scope of this book, I have also included some emerging from my house brought home to me that many of the peo-
national groups that maintain links to their earliest com- ples written about in this book have little or no healthcare
munities. Where a people’s healthcare or education infor- provision. I hope this book goes some way to highlight the
mation is unavailable, I have included the data for their various issues facing many indigenous communities.

xix
 Introduction

Who Are Indigenous Peoples? indigenousness exist. For example, the Study of the Problem
It is thought that there are over 370 million indigenous of Discrimination against Indigenous Populations: Final
peoples spread across ninety countries (APF and OHCHR Report submitted by the United Nations’ special rappor-
2013) that stretch from the Arctic to the South Pacific. teur, José R. Martínez Cobo, provides the most widely cited
Examples of indigenous peoples include those inhabiting working definition of indigenous peoples:
the Americas, such as the Lakota in the United States, the
Aymaras in Bolivia, the Saami of Arctic Europe, and the Indigenous communities, peoples and nations are those
Aborigines, Torres Strait Islanders, and the Maoris of Oce- which, having a historical continuity with pre-invasion
ania. There are also some indigenous peoples who do not and pre-colonial societies that developed on their terri-
live on land (the sea gypsies). But what is meant by the tories, consider themselves distinct from other sectors
term indigenous? of the societies now prevailing on those territories, or
At present, there is no universally accepted definition parts of them. They form at present non-dominant sec-
of indigenous, despite considerable efforts to define the tors of society and are determined to preserve, develop
term. Indigenous does not solely refer to race, ethnicity, and transmit to future generations their ancestral ter-
or religion, but rather to a complex form of identity that ritories, and their ethnic identity, as the basis of their
encompasses the natural connection of a community’s continued existence as peoples, in accordance with
inhabitants to their environment, the state in which they their own cultural patterns, social institutions and legal
live, their continuation of habitation, and their lifestyle. system. (APF and OHCHR 2013)
Moreover, some peoples considered indigenous by out-
siders argue against the adoption of a formal, universal This definition also suggests that an indigenous
definition of indigenousness because they feel that any person is:
such definition needs to be flexible enough to respect the
right of people to define themselves as indigenous rather One who belongs to these indigenous populations
than to have a definition imposed on them by others. This through self-identification as indigenous (group con-
reluctance to be classified as indigenous is one of the rea- sciousness) and is recognized and accepted by these
sons that no formal definition of indigenousness has been populations as one of its members (acceptance by
adopted in international law. Rather, various definitions of the group). This preserves for these communities the

xxi
xxii Introduction

sovereign right and power to decide who belongs to should be less emphasis on the early definitions of aborig-
them, without external interference. inality but rather an emphasis on:
According to ILO Convention No. 169, indigenous
peoples are descendants of populations “which inhab- 1. Self-definition as indigenous and distinctly dif-
ited a country or geographical region during its con- ferent from other groups within a state
quest or colonization or the establishment of present 2. A special attachment to and use of their tradi-
state boundaries” and “retain some or all of their own tional land, whereby their ancestral land and
social, economic, cultural and political institutions.” territory has a fundamental importance for
(APF and OHCHR 2013) their collective physical and cultural survival as
peoples
The following issues are also generally considered rele- 3. An experience of subjugation, marginaliza-
vant to the understanding of indigenousness: tion, dispossession, exclusion, or discrimination
because of their different cultures, ways of life, or
1. Priority in time, with respect to the occupation modes of production than the dominant model
and use of a specific territory
2. The voluntary perpetuation of cultural dis- These factors reveal the lack of a universally agreed-upon
tinctiveness, which may include the aspects definition of indigenousness.
of language, social organization, religion and Despite continuing debate, the benchmark of self-­
spiritual values, modes of production, laws, and identification of indigenousness most widely recognized
institutions today is the right to self-determination of indigenous-
3. Self-identification, as well as recognition by ness. Another inclusive definition of indigenousness is to
other groups, or by state authorities, as a distinct define indigenous peoples as those that hold a deep sense of
collectivity belonging to a particular location brought about through
4. An experience of subjugation, marginalization, their long-term occupancy of the area.
dispossession, exclusion, or discrimination, Regardless of the lack of a universal definition of indig-
whether or not these conditions persist enousness, many indigenous peoples face similar human
rights issues. This is especially true of indigenous peoples
However, these factors do not, and cannot, represent a who either live in parts of the world where authorities do
comprehensive definition of the concept of being indig- not embrace the rights of indigenous peoples or where the
enous. Therefore, the term indigenous remains flexi- existence of indigenous peoples is not recognized. Exam-
ble, fluid, and ambivalent. The ambivalence inherent in ples of issues that frequently impact indigenous peoples
the term is reflected in the plethora of words applied include the need to seek recognition of their identities
to groups generally considered to be indigenous. These and lifestyles and the right to their ancestral lands and
terms include aboriginal, native, tribal, first nation, orig- the natural resources associated with those lands. Indig-
inal, and precontact. The variety of terms also highlights enous peoples each have unique and distinctive cultures,
the worldwide spread of indigenous peoples, as different languages, legal systems, and histories. Many indigenous
terms are applied to indigenous peoples depending on peoples share legacies of being removed from their tradi-
where they live. tional lands and territories and have histories of subjuga-
Debates over definitions of indigenousness tend to tion, discrimination, and violations of their human rights.
focus on African and Asian peoples. In relation to Asian For centuries, they may have experienced the erosion of
peoples, the term indigenous peoples typically refers to dis- their own political and cultural institutions and been neg-
tinct cultural groups, including the Adivasis, tribal peoples, atively affected by development that poses a serious threat
hill tribes, or scheduled tribes. Meanwhile, in the context to their existence.
of Africa, indigenous peoples may be referred to as pasto- Following years of neglect by both domestic and
ralists or hunter-gatherers. Some commentators also argue international authorities, many indigenous peoples are
that all African peoples are indigenous to Africa, a belief increasingly visible and vociferous in their demands for
addressed by the Working Group of Experts on Indigenous recognition and support. In lieu of a definition of indig-
Populations/Communities in Africa, who suggested there enousness, it is, perhaps, more useful to identify, rather
 Introduction xxiii

than define, indigenous peoples using the criterion of self-­ faced by each indigenous community varies. Indigenous
identification. This approach is advocated by the United peoples often have much in common with other neglected
Nations. sections of society and minority groups, including a lack of
political representation, barriers to their political partici-
pation, economic disadvantages, a lack of social services,
Issues Facing Indigenous Peoples and harassment by mainstream society and officials.
Over the last decades, a number of issues related to the It is a lack of access to health care and education that
human rights of indigenous peoples have come to inter- has the greatest impact on indigenous peoples the world
national attention. While the problems faced by each over. Across almost the entire world, traditional healing
indigenous group differ depending on a group’s history, methods coexist with Western medical care. For indige-
as well as the laws and policies of the countries in which nous peoples, however, traditional healing systems are
they live, there are many common elements among the especially important. According to World Health Organ-
issues indigenous peoples face. For example, common ization (WHO) estimates, at least 80 percent of the people
problems include rights of landownership and occupa- living in developing countries rely on traditional healing
tion, fishing and hunting rights, and the issues of how systems as their main source of health care. In particular,
to safeguard or revive indigenous languages and culture, children born to indigenous families are often especially
how to improve the socioeconomic status of indigenous hard hit by the lack of healthcare services. Indigenous
communities, and how to increase indigenous peoples’ children typically live in geographically isolated areas
access to health care and education. Other issues faced to which governments do not provide even basic social
by indigenous peoples include discrimination, violence, services, including health care. Therefore, these indig-
and poverty, which threaten their physical and psycho- enous children have limited or no access to health care.
logical well-being. Indirect issues include environmen- The children are also at particular risk of being unable
tal destruction and climate change. These threaten the to access services because they are often not registered
peoples’ existence and the survival of the land on which at birth and so cannot obtain the identity papers needed
they live. to access such services as health care and education. The
According to the International Fund for Agricultural healthcare statistics for indigenous peoples are revealing.
Development (IFAD) and the World Bank, indigenous For instance,
peoples comprise 5 percent of the world population, yet
they constitute 15 percent of the world’s poor. One-third In parts of Australia, the Aboriginal and Torres Strait
of the world’s extremely poor rural people are also indige- Islanders have a diabetes prevalence rate as high as 26
nous (IFAD 2018). An estimated 65 percent of the world’s percent. This is six times higher than that of the general
land exists under indigenous customary ownership (World population.
Bank 2018). However, many governments only recognize a In Rwanda, Twa households have seven times higher
fraction of this land as belonging to indigenous peoples. rates of poor sanitation and are twice as likely to lack
The vulnerability felt by indigenous peoples in regard to safe drinking water compared to the Rwandan popula-
insecure land occupancy is an element in conflict, envi- tion on the whole.
ronmental degradation, and slow economic development. In Vietnam, more than 60 percent of babies born to
In turn, these factors threaten the survival of indigenous ethnic minorities, including indigenous peoples, are
cultures and knowledge. The loss of indigenous knowledge born without prenatal care. This compares to 30 percent
is a factor in the loss of biodiversity and environmental for Vietnam’s majority population.
health on which both the indigenous peoples and outsid- In Canada, Inuit youngsters have some of the world’s
ers depend. For indigenous peoples, the land on which highest suicide rates, at eleven times the national
they rely is inextricably linked to their identities, cultures, average.
and livelihoods as well as to their physical, mental, and In Panama, the average infant mortality rate among
spiritual health. indigenous children is over three times higher than
Each country has its own policies that it uses to decide among the overall population (60–85 deaths/1,000 live
which people are indigenous and how those people should births versus the national average of 17.6/1,000 live
be treated. Therefore, the type and extent of the problems births). (WHO 2007)
xxiv Introduction

It is likely that millions of indigenous children around In the 1960s and 1970s, the modern indigenous rights
the world are taught in languages they do not use and movement gained momentum through the establishment
may not even understand. Moreover, the participation of numerous large national and international nongovern-
of indigenous peoples in designing school curricula is mental organizations (NGOs). Many of the new NGOs
limited. Such factors mean that indigenous peoples often were specifically aimed at tackling issues concerning
face difficulty accessing even basic education. A lack of indigenous peoples, including the systemic discrimination
indigenous education sets indigenous children apart from and human rights violations faced by indigenous peoples
their own cultures and increasingly leads to indigenous globally.
children being assimilated into mainstream societies. The In 1971, the Sub-Commission on the Prevention of Dis-
lack of indigenous education also results in indigenous crimination and the Protection of Minorities appointed
children having high dropout rates and often high unem- one of its members, José R. Martínez Cobo, as special rap-
ployment rates. Indigenous rights campaigners have porteur to conduct a comprehensive study on the preju-
stressed the need for lessons to be taught in indigenous dices faced by indigenous peoples and to address a wide
languages and for culturally specific education to be range of issues affecting indigenous peoples, including the
offered. Many activists have called for indigenous lan- role of intergovernmental and nongovernmental organiza-
guages to be integrated into national curricula and argued tions, the need for people’s basic human rights to be upheld,
that multilingual teaching should occur at all educational and the areas in need of special attention, such as health,
levels, not just to help indigenous peoples compete for housing, education, language, culture, employment, land
jobs or in business but for the preservation of indigenous occupancy, political participation, religious rights, and
languages and cultures. equality in justice. Martínez Cobo’s report, known popu-
Indigenous groups’ lack of education is often linked to larly as the Martínez Cobo Study, laid the foundations for
their deficient economic development. However, economic the modern indigenous international human rights move-
development plans often neglect the concerns of indige- ment, as together with the Sub-­Commission on Preven-
nous peoples or do not take into sufficient consideration tion of Discrimination and Protection of Minorities and
the views and needs of indigenous communities. Addi- the work of NGOs, the Martínez Cobo Study led, in 1982,
tionally, decision-making processes are often indifferent to to the formation of the Working Group on Indigenous
the contributions that could be made by indigenous peo- Populations (WGIP) by the United Nations Economic and
ples. As a result of the disregard with which indigenous Social Council. The WGIP had five members (one from
peoples are treated, the laws and policies drawn up by each of the world’s geopolitical regions), while states, UN
majority populations frequently pay little regard to their organizations, NGOs, and representatives of indigenous
concerns. In turn, this often leads to land disputes and vio- peoples participated in the WGIP as observers. The WGIP
lent tension over the use of natural resources. Such conflict was mandated to
threatens indigenous peoples’ way of life and, ultimately,
the very survival of the indigenous peoples who were ini- 1. Review developments regarding the promotion
tially disregarded. and protection of indigenous peoples’ human
rights and fundamental freedoms
2. Pay special attention to the development of
A Recent History of International standards concerning indigenous rights
Developments Concerning Indigenous Rights
The International Labour Organization (ILO) was the first One of the WGIP’s greatest achievements was the formu-
international body to address indigenous issues and to lation of a Draft Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous
suggest that collaboration and international attention be Peoples. In 2007, this was adopted as the United Nations
paid to indigenous concerns. Since the start of the 1920s, Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP
the ILO has worked to protect and promote indigenous or DOTROIP) by the UN General Assembly.
rights, and it developed two international mechanisms Other notable events in the recent history of the rec-
solely related to indigenous peoples: the Indigenous and ognition of indigenous people include the declaration of
Tribal Populations Convention, 1957 (No. 107), and the the International Year of the World’s Indigenous People
Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention, 1989 (No. 169). in 1993. For many years, indigenous groups had called
 Introduction xxv

for an international year to highlight globally the many society; reaffirmed the commitment of the international
issues they faced. The objective of the year was to increase community to the economic, social, and cultural well-­
international cooperation to solve the problems facing being of indigenous peoples; and highlighted the need for
indigenous peoples in the areas of human rights, the envi- sustainable development in areas inhabited by indigenous
ronment, development, education, and health. The year peoples. The conference called upon states to make stren-
also aimed to develop relationships between the interna- uous efforts to ensure that the human rights and funda-
tional community and indigenous peoples who would see mental freedoms of indigenous peoples were respected,
indigenous people participate in the planning and imple- that indigenous peoples were given equality, and that the
mentation of projects that would affect them. As part of importance of their distinct identities, cultures, and social
the year’s program of activities, the UN secretary-general organizations were recognized. The conference also rec-
opened a voluntary fund that provided help to numerous ommended that an international decade of the world’s
small community-based projects involving indigenous indigenous people be proclaimed.
people, and Rigoberta Menchu Tum, a Guatemalan Indian Following this recommendation, the UN General
rights activist and the recipient of the 1992 Nobel Peace Assembly proclaimed 1995–2004 the International Decade
Prize, was appointed as the year’s goodwill ambassador. of the World’s Indigenous People. The decade was intended
In 1992, the United Nations Conference on Environ- to strengthen international cooperation to achieve solu-
ment and Development (the Earth Summit) was held in tions to the problems facing indigenous peoples, includ-
Rio de Janeiro. This was an important event in the relation- ing issues involving human rights, education, health care,
ship between indigenous peoples and the United Nations, and the environment. Other goals were the promotion
as the conference recognized that indigenous communi- and protection of the rights of indigenous peoples and
ties have a vital role to play in managing their environ- the empowerment of indigenous peoples to make choices
ments and in the development of their surroundings. This that would enable them to maintain their cultural identity
is because indigenous people have an inherent knowledge while participating in the wider political, economic, and
of the environment and history of traditional practices that social spheres. Another key objective was the adoption
can benefit their surroundings. The summit stressed the of the United Nations Draft Declaration on the Rights of
need for national and international efforts to implement Indigenous Peoples.
environmentally beneficial, sustainable development that In 1994, the UN General Assembly designated August 9
recognizes and involves indigenous communities. Chap- as the annual International Day of the World’s Indigenous
ter 26 of the summit’s program of action (Agenda 21) was People throughout the International Decade of the World’s
exclusively devoted to indigenous peoples, and one of the Indigenous People. As the decade drew to a close, many
outcomes of the summit was the signing of the Convention indigenous people called for a second decade to be held to
on Biological Diversity, which includes areas specifically continue the work achieved during the first. Meanwhile,
concerned with indigenous peoples and the environment. a report by the secretary-general surveying the decade
At the same time as the Earth Summit, representatives suggested that despite the important developments that
of indigenous peoples convened at a parallel meeting of had occurred, many indigenous peoples continued to be
indigenous groups. The indigenous peoples adopted their among the world’s poorest and most marginalized inhab-
own declaration on the environment and development, the itants. In 2004, the United Nations Economic and Social
Kari-Oka Declaration, as well as a charter, the Indigenous Council (ECOSOC) unanimously recommended that a
Peoples Earth Charter. second International Decade of the World’s Indigenous
In 1993, the World Conference on Human Rights took People be declared after the first’s conclusion.
place in Vienna, Austria. The conference was attended In 2007, the United Nations Expert Mechanism on the
by hundreds of indigenous peoples and their represent- Rights of Indigenous Peoples (EMRIP) was established
atives who addressed the plenary session. The key out- to provide the Human Rights Council with advice on the
come of the conference was that the representatives of rights of indigenous peoples, and it created studies on spe-
171 states adopted by consensus the Vienna Declaration cific issues affecting those rights. At the tenth session of
and Programme of Action of the World Conference on EMRIP in 2017, the key issues reported as facing indige-
Human Rights that recognized the unique contributions nous peoples were aggressive development, intrusion on
of indigenous peoples to the development and variety of their lands by businesses, and climate change. In 2019,
xxvi Introduction

the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Indigenous groups living in China are also problematic
Affairs (UN DESA) declared 2019 as the International Year because China has traditionally denied the existence of
of Indigenous Languages to raise international awareness some indigenous peoples within its borders. Also, in the
of the loss of indigenous languages. case of Mongolia, the majority population shares a her-
itage of being nomadic and pastoral. Can the population
of an entire country be considered indigenous? Similarly,
Problems with the Classification of how does one classify the populations of the independ-
Indigenous Peoples ent island nations of the South Pacific or those of Scan-
The numerous terms used to describe indigenous peoples dinavian countries such as Sweden, where, until recently,
as well as the looseness of the criteria by which peoples can around 85 percent of Swedes were descended from peo-
be considered indigenous create many issues. Some com- ple that settled in Scandinavia around thirteen thousand
mentators consider the approach adopted by the United years ago?
Nations as being deliberately evasive, which leaves the issue Additionally, national groups such as the Fijians are
of indigenousness unresolved; if any group can choose to rarely considered indigenous because they control their
self-identify as indigenous, then the attempt at inclusive- own country. However, the iTaukei, who make up over half
ness means peoples who may at first not seem obviously the total Fijian population, are considered the indigenous
indigenous, such as the Boers (South Africans of European people of the Fiji Islands alongside the Rotumans. In turn,
ancestry), are able to assert their indigenousness. the vast majority of Rotumans live away from their home-
Every definition of indigenous should include the land, either elsewhere in Fiji or in Samoa, Australia, New
Yanomami, who live in villages within the Amazon rain- Zealand, or the United States.
forest on the border between Venezuela and Brazil. The One of the most intriguing peoples to consider in
Yanomami follow a traditional lifestyle and face huge chal- regard to definitions of indigenousness are the Mapuches
lenges caused by resource development on their ancestral of Chile. For centuries before the arrival of the Spanish, the
lands. However, the case for indigenousness is not always Mapuches maintained a large agricultural society. Though
so clear-cut. For example, as the original inhabitants of they did not establish the commanding cities of the Incas
Hokkaido Island, many Ainu are part of mainstream and Nahuas, they did form a complex social and admin-
Japanese society and are largely indistinguishable from istration system that helped them keep colonists at bay
other Japanese to most outsiders. The Mayans of Central temporarily. Following the Spanish conquest of Mapuche
America once formed large societies that, at the time of areas, the Spanish advanced against the Mapuches and
European conquest, dominated the region in which they attacked them in often brutal raids. Nevertheless, the Map-
lived. Later, depopulation caused by the Spanish conquest uches maintained their independence for some time. Over
transformed the Mayans into an impoverished, colonized time, however, governments moved against the Mapuches,
society that shared many economic and political char- forcing them from their lands and onto an official reserva-
acteristics with indigenous peoples, but does that mean tion. To a degree, the large size of the Mapuche population
Mayans are indigenous? protected them against the government’s activities, includ-
Similarly, issues of defining indigenousness exist regard- ing land dispossessions, restrictions on Mapuche rights,
ing Africa. Should indigenous status in Africa be associ- and assimilationist policies.
ated with population size, land use, political participation, Under President Allende, the Mapuches faced even
or other factors? The San, who live as small communities greater mistreatment, and so they organized themselves
in the Kalahari Desert, are generally considered as indige- domestically and internationally to claim recognition of
nous and as such attract a great deal of international atten- their rights and needs. While few peoples could dispute
tion. But what about Rwanda’s Hutu and Tutsi, who form the seriousness of the Mapuches’ struggle, some might
large, complex populations? The Hutu and Tutsi are often quibble that the Mapuches are not indigenous on account
not considered indigenous because of their roles within of their large population, mainly settled lifestyle, and the
the modern political structures of the area they inhabit. agricultural and political development that Mapuches
Then again, the Hutu migrated to Africa’s Great Lakes experienced before European contact. Instead, argue some
region during the tenth century, long before European commentators, it may be the case that rather than being
colonization. indigenous, the Mapuches have found a common cause
 Introduction xxvii

with indigenous peoples that have also faced attacks on Much of the interest in indigenous peoples has focused
their culture, land, and political rights. on the relationship between indigenous communities and
Similarly, the Mayans have endured terrible oppression European colonists, including the displacement of indig-
in times of military rule and civil conflict, and they often enous communities by European settlers. However, some
attend political meetings of indigenous peoples. How- commentators argue that this discussion ignores the
ever, like the Mapuches, the Mayans had developed an equally disruptive overrunning of indigenous peoples by
agricultural society before being conquered by the Span- Asian, African, and other societies. Linking indigenous-
ish, stripped of their lands, and subjected to conversion ness with colonization may also fail to relate an experience
attempts by missionaries. Then they had to endure gener- of indigenous peoples that is separate from their interac-
ations of neglect, poverty, and brutality. There is no doubt tion with outsiders. Standard classifications of indigenous-
that Mayan peasants have endured difficult times. How- ness, critics argue, posit indigenous groups as helpless and
ever, it is debatable whether the Mayans fit definitions of locks them into being linked to a time and relationship
indigenous, except for those definitions that revolve around with other peoples. Critics argue that this type of defini-
the relationship between colonists and the colonized. tion is, ironically, inherently Eurocentric and espoused by
In India, many terms have been used to classify indig- nonindigenous groups that hail indigenous peoples as foils
enous peoples, including Adivasis (original inhabitants), for the shortcomings of industrial society. This approach
Adim Jati (ancient tribes), and Vanavasi (forest dwellers). also fails to celebrate the ability of many peoples classified
The Indian government refers to the state’s indigenous peo- as indigenous to survive adversity even after they have lost
ples as scheduled tribes and to their land as scheduled areas. their homeland or ancestral territories.
However, despite there being several names for indigenous On a similar note, white Afrikaners in South Africa and
peoples in India, the Indian government traditionally has the Kashmiri Pundits of India have both approached the
no official definition with which it decides whether a peo- Working Group on Indigenous Populations as indigenous
ple are indigenous. Rather, official suggestions of indige- peoples. However, neither of these communities has a his-
nousness are that indigenous people are primitive, have a tory of suffering isolation or discrimination. Rather, until
distinctive culture, are geographically isolated, and are shy recently, both were in power and discriminated against
about contact with outsiders. Under these terms, India’s others. Historical context is then important. At various
indigenous peoples range from groups such as the Gonds times, most peoples classified as indigenous have fought
and Bhils, who have very large populations, to the Onge, with and displaced other indigenous peoples. For exam-
who have a population of 101 people. ple, the Iroquois displaced the Huron while the Blackfoot
Recently, definitions of indigenousness have become entered Cree land. Not all indigenous peoples have been
linked to colonization. Indeed, over time, the concept of marginalized, suffered discrimination, or been conquered,
what classifies peoples as indigenous is increasingly syn- for many indigenous peoples have exploited, defeated, and
onymous with powerlessness, marginalization, neglect, displaced other indigenous communities at some point.
and crises. Thus, in terms of colonization, the Mayans Though indigenous peoples struggle for survival in the
are deemed indigenous by dint of their political margin- contemporary world, others have undoubtedly flourished
alization and exploitation by elites. However, the classifi- before and after European colonization (Coates 2004).
cation of indigenous peoples as being those that lived in Another difficulty with classifying indigenous peoples
an area precontact with Europeans negates the fact that relocating to outside their homeland relates to diasporas.
many European peoples, such as the Welsh or Basque, For example, if a Māori person moves to France, is that
are as indigenous to their homelands as First Nations or person still considered indigenous? The Māori is indige-
Aborigines. Consequently, some researchers prefer to dis- nous in New Zealand, but what happens when he or she
cuss indigenousness in relation to internal colonization lives abroad?
whereby indigenous peoples are overwhelmed by settler Does the term indigenous invariably relate to weak-
societies. It is arguable that basing definitions of indige- nesses and loss, exclusion, and marginalization? It is a
nousness in contemporary politics ignores the fluidity of complex area and one that is not just purely academic, for
history; though such definitions are sensitive to modern it is of crucial international political importance. Since the
realities, they do not necessarily take into account histori- 1970s, in general, supporters of peoples considered indig-
cal context and developments. enous have been better at highlighting issues affecting
xxviii Introduction

indigenous peoples than have the indigenous peoples United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous
themselves, who may face hostility from national author- Peoples.” https://www.ohchr.org/documents/issues/ipeoples​
ities if they try to attract attention to their cause. Com- /undripmanualfornhris.pdf.
Coates, Ken S. 2004. A Global History of Indigenous Peoples:
paratively, wealthy Western governments have moved to Struggle and Survival. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
tackle long-standing legal issues affecting indigenous peo- International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD). 2018.
ples and also sought to provide a greater degree of social “Indigenous Peoples’ Collective Rights to Lands, Territories
redress for past acts against indigenous communities. and Natural Resources: Lessons from IFAD-Supported Pro-
Contrastingly, poorer countries in Asia and Africa have jects.” https://www.ifad.org/documents/38714170/40272519​
paid far less attention to the indigenous societies in their /IPs_Land.pdf/ea85011b-7f67-4b02-9399-aaea99c414ba.
Iyall Smith, Keri E. 2006. The State and Indigenous Movements.
midst and have been slow to help indigenous communi- New York: Routledge.
ties in terms of economic development, land reclamation, Lawson, Russell M. 2013. Encyclopedia of American Indian Issues
and the provision of health care and education. Ultimately, Today. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood.
classifications of indigenousness are highly complex yet Stavenhagen, Rodolfo. 2013. The Emergence of Indigenous Peo-
necessary to deal with life-and-death situations. Perhaps ples. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer.
in a world of hashtags and identity activism, language and The World Bank. 2018. “Indigenous Peoples.” The World
Bank, September 24. http://www.worldbank.org/en/topic​
labels matter more than ever. /indigenouspeoples.
Further Reading World Health Organization (WHO). 2007. “Health of Indigenous
Asia Pacific Forum (APF) and Office of the United Nations High Peoples.” WHO, October. https://www.who.int/mediacentre​
Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). 2013. “The /factsheets/fs326/en.
 A

ABKHAZ includes around 110,000 people, but this may well be

an overestimate (Minority Rights Group International
Current Location Republic of Abkhazia (Georgia); Cau- 2015). In contrast, in 1998, the United Nations Develop-
casus region ment Programme (UNDP) estimated the population of
Current Population 93,267–220,000 Abkhazia as somewhere between 180,000 and 220,000
Language Abkhaz; Russian people. On the basis of a 2005 electoral roll, International
Interesting Fact Native Abkhaz paganism has recently Crisis Group put the total population of Abkhazia between
enjoyed a revival, with people rec- 157,000 and 190,000 people (Minority Rights Group
ognizing the Seven Shrines of the International 2015). However, the last Soviet census of the
Abkhaz—holy sites respected by Abkhaz put their population at 93,267 people, while the
most Abkhaz, whatever their religious Abkhazian official government census estimated there
beliefs. were 94,606 Abkhaz living in Abkhazia, though both fig-
ures may have been overstated at the expense of other
Overview minorities within the country (Beacháin 2011). Abkhaz
The Abkhaz (also known as the Abkhazians) are a people population figures are also clouded because substantial
indigenous to the Republic of Abkhazia and the Caucasus numbers of Abkhaz have acquired Russian passports in
region of Eurasia. The Abkhaz speak the Abkhaz language, recent years, meaning they are classed as Russian citizens
which is a northwestern Caucasian language related to by Russian politicians.
Circassian and the defunct Ubykh languages, and Russian, There is undeniably a significant Abkhaz diaspora liv-
which is the lingua franca of Abkhazia. In Abkhaz, the Abk- ing in Turkey, with the people having descended from the
haz people are known as the Apswa. After years of Soviet rule, Abkhaz exiled by Russia during the nineteenth century.
many Abkhaz are nonreligious, though some are Christian, Since Abkhazia’s secession from Georgia, many Abkhaz
Muslim, or followers of the Abkhaz native pagan religion. have migrated to live in the Russian Federation. According
to the 2002 Georgian census, 3,500 Abkhaz live in Georgia
(Minority Rights Group International 2015).
Population, Diaspora, and Migration Since 2011, 14,000 foreign citizens have migrated to
There are unreliable population figures for the Abkhaz. Abkhazia, with 9,200 of these migrants receiving work
Abkhaz leaders claim the ethnic Abkhaz population permits. Most of the migrants are seeking seasonal jobs

1
2 Abkhaz

in the agriculture sector and come from Uzbekistan, Tajik- 1810, Abkhazia became a Russian protectorate. For dec-
istan, and Armenian. The Abkhaz fear of becoming out- ades, the Abkhaz held sporadic small rebellions against
numbered in their homeland has resulted in foreigners Russia that culminated in major rebellions in the 1860s
not being permitted to buy real estate in Abkhazia (del and 1870s. Russia quelled these rebellions ruthlessly,
Valle 2015). resulting in two hundred thousand Abkhaz being forced
by Russian authorities to move from Abkhazia to Turkey
(Beacháin 2011). The exile of the Abkhaz is remembered
Geography and Environment in Abkhaz folklore as amha’dzhyrra (meaning “the exile”).
Abkhazia is a self-declared independent state located in After the mass relocation of so many of their people, the
the northwest corner of the Republic of Georgia. Very Abkhaz were left leaderless. This allowed the Russians to
few countries recognize Abkhazia’s independence, how- claim direct rule over Abkhazia and to import many peo-
ever, and the international community in general regards ple from Mingrelia, Armenia, and Greece to Abkhazia as
Abkhazia as Georgian territory. The Black Sea lies to the well as ethnic Russians.
southwest of Abkhazia, and the Caucasus Mountains and The Russian Empire collapsed in 1917, allowing for the
Russia lie to its northeast. Abkhazia’s most important natu- emergence of the Republic of Georgia, which incorporated
ral resources are timber, coal, and hydroelectric power. The the Abkhaz population. In 1919, the rebellious Abkhaz
main crops are citrus fruits, corn, millet, walnuts, hazel- were awarded autonomy within the state of Georgia. How-
nuts, and tea. The country’s principal exports are nuts and ever, the Red Army’s invasion of Georgia in 1921 abolished
fruit that are sold to Russia. Georgia’s independence and with it Abkhaz autonomy,
resulting in both Georgia and Abkhazia becoming part
of the Soviet Union. The Soviets continually revised the
History and Politics political status of Abkhazia until, in 1931, Abkhazia was
Between the sixth and ninth centuries, Abkhazia formed demoted to being an autonomous state within Georgia.
a kingdom within part of the ancient Georgian region Under the rule of Georgian-born dictator Joseph Stalin, a
known as Colchis. The earliest Abkhazian realm encom- policy of Georgianization was rigorously implemented in
passed the entire region of western Georgia and consoli- the 1930s and 1940s. This policy saw significant numbers
dated various Abkhaz tribes. The kingdom flourished for of Georgians relocate to Abkhaz areas. Abkhaz schools
two hundred years before being supplanted in 978 by the were shut, and Abkhaz children were made to study the
Kingdom of Abkhazians and Kartvelians, which was ruled Georgian language while Abkhaz-language publications
by the Bagrationi family. were banned. The policy of Georgianization lessened
In the thirteenth century, this kingdom was conquered somewhat after Stalin’s death in 1953, and living condi-
by the Mongols and divided into numerous small princi- tions for the Abkhaz improved slightly.
palities, including Abkhazia. The people of Abkhazia, the Nonetheless, the Abkhaz sought independence from
Abkhaz, were in frequent conflict with the population of Georgia in 1957, 1964, 1967, 1978, and 1989. The end of
the principality of Mingrelia, which was located in the eth- the Soviet era in the early 1990s led to the start of the
nic Georgian region. In the fourteenth and fifteenth cen- bitter Georgian-Abkhaz war (1992–1993) that claimed
turies, the Abkhaz were in close contact with the Genoese around ten thousand lives (Beacháin 2011). Volunteer
people of Genoa, then an independent state in Liguria, on fighters from the North Caucasus as well as Russian
the northwestern Italian coast. However, the association units stationed nearby supported the Abkhaz, helping to
between the Abkhaz and the Ottomans, who brought Islam contribute to an Abkhaz victory along with the de facto
to Abkhazia, soon eclipsed the relationship between the secession of Abkhazia from Georgia. During the war, there
Abkhaz and the Genoese. Prior to the interaction between were considerable human rights violations on both sides,
the Abkhaz and the Ottomans, Christianity had been the including extensive ethnic cleansing; the harassment of
chief Abkhaz religion, but the Ottomans spread Islam ethnic groups, including the Abkhaz; kidnappings; hostage
throughout Abkhazia, where it coexisted with indigenous taking; and the indiscriminate bombing of civilian popu-
pagan beliefs that the people had maintained despite turn- lations (Minority Rights Group International 2015). The
ing to Christianity. fighting also resulted in around 250,000 Georgians (mostly
The Ottoman influence over the Abkhaz ultimately Mingrelians) who had been living in Abkhazia migrating
waned with the expansion of the Russian Empire, and in to other parts of Georgia.
 Abkhaz 3

Negotiations to end the conflict were overseen by the dairy products or grow crops, such as corn, millet, fruits,
United Nations while Russian CIS peacekeeping forces and nuts. One staple Abkhazian dish is mamalyga (boiled
were stationed in Abkhazia in 1993. Peace negotiations cornmeal to which ingredients such as soft, fresh cheese
were frequently hindered by disputes over Georgia’s desire or milk is added). The Abkhaz also use cornmeal to make
to prioritize the return of internally displaced persons and flatbread and desserts. Abkhaz cuisine rarely uses wheat
the Abkhaz’s desire to prioritize the matter of Abkhazia’s flour, except in dishes such as achash (cheese pies) and
independence. Since the announcement of a cease-fire cheese dumplings. Another popular Abkhaz food is sweet
in May 1994, a substantial (though debated) number of corn, which the Abkhaz boil, fry, or roast over open fires.
Georgians returned to the Gali District of southern Abk- Fresh cheese (ashvlaguan) and yogurt (ahartsvy) are other
hazia. However, many of these returnees were displaced dietary staples.
once more when fighting between Abkhazia and Georgia In addition to eating meat, poultry, and dairy products,
erupted again in May 1998. the Abkhaz also enjoy many vegetable dishes, including
The first president of Abkhazia was war hero Vladislav achapa, a type of salad that incorporates cooked green
Ardzinba (1994–2005), who, although initially popular, beans, cabbage, and stinging nettles. Nuts, tomatoes,
became increasingly unpopular as he became more dicta- cucumbers, pickled gherkins, artichokes, radishes, and
torial. During the 2004 Abkhazia presidential elections, a parsley are also extremely popular Abkhaz ingredients.
standoff developed when former KGB agent Raul Khad- The Abkhaz drink local wines, and almost all Abkhaz
jimba, who was favored by the Russians, failed to recognize farms produce a grape vodka called chacha. Another tradi-
that he had lost to Sergei Bagapsh. To break the deadlock, tional Abkhaz drink is the honey-based atshadzyua, which
a unity ticket was brokered that saw Khadjimba run for is used as a folk remedy to treat disease.
election as Bagapsh’s vice president. The Abkhaz electorate
enthusiastically welcomed this move.
In August 2009, a brief conflict broke out in Abkhazia Health Care and Education
involving the Russian and Georgian armies. After the war, In recent years, Russia has overseen the construction of
Russia declared Abkhazia an independent state. However, new hospitals and schools in Abkhazia. Young Abkhaz go
the only countries to recognize Abkhazia’s autonomy are to college outside Abkhazia. Often, however, Abkhaz stu-
Nicaragua, Venezuela, and Naura. This lack of international dents do not return to Abkhazia after graduation because
recognition of Abkhazian independence has allowed Rus- the country has a weak economy that is reliant on Rus-
sia to wage increasing political and economic power over sian tourism and may well prove unsustainable in the long
Abkhazia. run. The Abkhaz constitution grants minorities the right
to primary and secondary schooling in their native lan-
guage. However, in practice, Russian is the most under-
Society, Culture, and Tradition stood language in Abkhazia and is recognized as the state’s
Located close to the North Caucasus, the Kartvelians second official language. Efforts to increase the number of
inhabiting other parts of Georgia, as well as merchants ­Abkhaz-language speakers have been limited. Few teach-
and traders from the Black Sea, have exposed Abkhaz to ers are qualified to teach the language, and there is resist-
myriad cultures and traditions for millennia. However, a ance from Abkhaz that prefer to speak Russian.
vital element of Abkhaz culture is the concept of apswara, At present, the Abkhaz suffer from the interrelated
which translates as “Abkhaz-ness.” The philosophy of issues of high unemployment and crime rates as well as
apswara places great store on family honor, personal drug and alcohol dependency (Pender 2017).
integrity, and female chastity. Abkhaz society is extremely
conservative and patriarchal, with clans and family rela-
tionships being highly prized. As part of this focus on Threats to Survival
clanship, the Abkhaz consider people with the same fam- The Abkhaz have endured decades of conflict and interna-
ily name to be related. tional isolation. The current Abkhaz capital city, Sukhumi,
Despite the conservative nature of Abkhaz society, the lies in ruins because of ongoing social unrest. Areas of
people enjoy good food, wine, and dancing. In the past, the Abkhazia suffer from high crime and unemployment rates,
Abkhaz foraged for edible plants and hunted wild game. and an increasing number of Abkhaz are drug and alcohol
But today, the people rear cattle, and farmers produce dependent. In addition, lack of recognition for Abkhazia as
4  Aboriginal Australian

an independent state means that the Russian grip on the ABORIGINAL AUSTRALIAN
Abkhaz continues to strengthen. Russian economic invest-
ment in the region increasingly grows, resulting in the Current Location Australia
Russians’ ever-strengthening influence over the Abkhaz. Current Population 350,000
Such is the influence of Russia over the Abkhaz that there Language Multiple Aboriginal Australian
are fears the Abkhaz may be fully assimilated into Russian languages
culture and that the Abkhaz language will become extinct. Interesting Fact The ancestors of the Aboriginal Aus-
These fears have been heightened by a number of Abkhaz tralians arrived in Australia between
politicians citing Abkhazia’s increased integration within 40,000 and 60,000 years ago.
the Russian Federation as their ultimate goal (Minority
Rights Group International 2015).
Overview
Other issues that may destabilize Abkhaz society in the
future include the issue of allowing large numbers of internally Aboriginal Australians are the indigenous people of Aus-
displaced Georgians to return to Abkhazia and the debate over tralia, and their homeland extends across the whole of
whether these returnees should be allowed Georgian-lan- the continent. In the past, Aboriginal Australians were
guage education. The issue of Abkhazia’s independence also often referred to as Aborigines. However, this term in now
remains contentious, and it is unclear what relationship Abk- deemed offensive because it is seen as lumping people from
hazia will enjoy with the Georgians in the future. This future diverse backgrounds into a single group, and it also harks
relationship has been publicly discussed in Georgia, with back to Australia’s colonial history. Aboriginal Australians
Georgia envisioning various forms of independence for Abk- speak many Aboriginal Australian languages, including
hazia that range from limited independence to confederate dialects belonging to thirty-one language families. Most of
status together with constitutional guarantees. However, these these languages are mutually unintelligible. The majority
options do not satisfy Abkhaz desires for full independence. of Aboriginal Australians are Christians, especially Prot-
On a positive note, Russian tourism in Abkhazia means estant, though many maintain the traditional Dreamtime
that the Abkhaz restaurant scene is enjoying a boom. There belief system.
is a burgeoning Abkhaz café culture, and Abkhaz cultural
and arts events are flourishing. While there are fears that
Russian tourists may abandon Abkhazia in the near future, Population, Diaspora, and Migration
non-Russian travel companies now offer trips to Abkhazia, The total Aboriginal Australian population is estimated to
and Abkhaz wines and beers have become increasingly consist of around 350,000 people belonging to three hun-
popular abroad. dred tribal groups (Minahan 2012). These tribal groups
are spread across the country, though the highest concen-
See also: Armenian; Avar; Evenk; Mansi; Ossetian; Udmurt trations of Aboriginal Australians exist in the northeast
Further Reading of Australia, especially in the states of Queensland and
Abkhaz World. 2009–2018. “Abkhazian Cuisine.” http://​abkhaz​ the Northern Territories. In southeast Australia, many
world.com/aw/abkhazians/culture/654-abkhazian​-cuisine. Aboriginal Australian populations have seen a decline in
Beacháin, Donnacha Ó. 2011. “Abkhaz.” In Ethnic Groups of numbers or have disappeared completely (Minority Rights
Europe: An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 2–4. Santa
Group International 2015). Most Aboriginal Australians
Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
del Valle, Maria José. 2015. “Abkhazia: A New El Dorado on the live in urban slums on the edge of large cities or in rural
Black Sea Coast?” Financial Times, January 30. https://www.ft​ towns, but they also have very high numbers in the most
.com/content/2f1a1965-a8eb-3f7f-a0e8-87ecff49e2ed. remote northern and central areas of the Australian Out-
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Georgia: Abkhaz.” back. In northern Queensland, a few Aboriginal Australian
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, June communities live on reserves under their limited control.
19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/abkhaz.
Over the last forty years, the Aboriginal Australian pop-
Pender, Kieran. 2017. “Sukhumi in the Spotlight: Hope amid the
Ruins of a Pro-Russian Breakaway State.” The Guardian, Sep- ulation has steadily increased as a result of higher birth
tember 29. https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2017​/sep​/29​ rates, reduced infant mortality, and the fact that more
/sukhumi​-spotlight-hope-ruins-russia-abkhazia​-georgia. people within Australia identify as indigenous in official
counts.
 Aboriginal Australian  5

Geography and Environment but by the end of the nineteenth century, the Tasmanian
Australia is the largest country in Oceania and the world’s Aboriginals had vanished. By 1901, the Aboriginal Aus-
sixth-largest country by total area. The island country is tralian population had reduced to ninety-five thousand
surrounded by the Indian and Pacific Oceans and is sep- people, with most having died from disease and through
arated from the rest of Asia by the Arafura and Timor the loss of their land. Indeed, so rapid was the reduction
Seas. The Coral Sea lies off the Queensland coast, and the in the Aboriginal Australian population of southeast Aus-
Tasman Sea separates Australia from New Zealand. The tralia that many commentators feared they would ulti-
countries surrounding Australia are Papua New Guinea, mately become extinct. During the period 1900–1930, the
Indonesia, and East Timor to the north; the Solomon Aboriginal Australian population decreased again, mostly
Islands and Vanuatu to the northeast; and New Zealand to through violence by Europeans, to just thirty thousand,
the southeast. with most Aboriginal Australians residing in Australia’s
Australia’s vastness means it is home to a varied array of north and in the Outback (Minahan 2012).
landscapes, ranging from tropical rainforests in the north- Because it believed the Aboriginal Australians would
east; to mountains in the southeast, southwest, and east; eventually die out, the Australian government sought to
to the central dry desert. Australia contains the world’s smooth the extinction of the country’s indigenous pop-
oldest and least fertile soils, with the country’s desert, or ulation through policies that dispersed the people across
semiarid land (commonly called the Outback), making up the nation or through assimilation policies that saw health,
the largest portion of land. Australia’s annual rainfall over education, and other services extended into remote areas.
continental areas averages less than 500 mm, making Aus- As part of this drive to ease the passing of the Aboriginal
tralia the world’s driest inhabited continent. However, Aus- Australians, tens of thousands of Aboriginal children were
tralia also has one of the lowest population densities in the separated from their families and brought up by foster par-
world, with a large proportion of the country’s population ents or on mission stations. As a result of this upbringing,
inhabiting the temperate southeast coast. many children grew up without knowledge of Aboriginal
languages and traditions.
By the 1940s, Aboriginal rights groups established
History and Politics their own organizations, such as the Australian Aborig-
The ancestors of the Aboriginal Australians migrated from ines’ League and the Aborigines Progressive Association,
Southeast Asia between forty thousand and sixty thousand to advocate for an improved status, improved access to
years ago. It is not known whether the early Aboriginal services, and greater employment opportunities for Abo-
Australians traveled en masse or in several small waves of riginal Australians. During World War II, Aboriginal Aus-
migrations. Initially, the migrants spread out across Aus- tralians saw an improvement in their standing because
tralia before settling in small tribal groups. Around five they worked alongside white Australians, received better
thousand years ago, the early Aboriginal Australians devel- wages, and shared accommodations and canteen facilities
oped a nomadic hunter-gatherer lifestyle that revolved with whites. Nevertheless, Aboriginal Australians lacked
around environmental knowledge, traditional rituals, and legal or political status, as they did not have the vote and
reverence for the land. were denied citizenship until the 1960s. Additionally, they
Aboriginal Australians lived in virtual isolation until were excluded from censuses, and due to assimilation
1788, when the first Europeans arrived. At this time, the policies, they were essentially denied their own distinct
Aboriginal Australian population measured between three identity. Displaced from their lands, many faced limited
hundred thousand and one million people split between education with few opportunities for employment, living
650 groups, each having their own languages, land, social in impoverishment and facing rampant discrimination.
structure, and politics. During the first one hundred years During this period, many Aboriginal Australians were
of European colonization, the Aboriginal Australians were forced to live in segregated settlements run by the Aus-
forced from much of their land, experienced violence, and tralian government, and they earned an income from low-
fell ill with European diseases that led to depopulation and paid seasonal employment, usually on cattle stations.
the extinction of many tribal groups. For example, when Soon the growing population of urban mixed-race Abo-
the Europeans arrived on Australia, there were four thou- riginal Australians began an Aboriginal Australian renais-
sand Aboriginal Australians on the island of Tasmania, sance. Although federal and state governments continued
6  Aboriginal Australian

instance, the Freedom Ride (1965) saw students from

the University of Sydney’s Student Action for Aborigines
organization demonstrate in several New South Wales
towns notorious for their anti-Aboriginal stance, which
included the segregation of Aboriginals from other towns-
folk. The following year, Aboriginal stockmen at Gurindji
went on strike against what they considered exploita-
tion by the multinational Vestey Corporation. The strike
focused attention on Aboriginal lives and also marked the
beginning of the Aboriginal land rights movement.
Aboriginal Australians gained more political power in
the 1970s. An Aboriginal tent embassy was established
outside Parliament House in the Australian capital of
Canberra, and the Labor government elected in 1972 cre-
ated both a National Aboriginal Consultative Committee
(NACC) and the Department of Aboriginal Affairs, though
neither body accomplished a great deal (Minority Rights
Group International 2015). Throughout the 1970s, a prolif-
eration of Aboriginal rights institutions, such as Aboriginal
Legal Services, also arose. Another important development
was the Aboriginal Land Rights Act (1976), which gave
over former reserve land in the Northern Territory to be
held in trust by Aboriginal land councils called the Central
Aboriginal Australian elder Uncle Max Eulo performs a smoking and Northern Land Councils. The act provided the basis
ceremony in White Bay, Australia. For thousands of years, Abo- for some degree of long-term land security for Aboriginal
riginal Australians have used smoking ceremonies to cleanse people in the Northern Territory. Other states, particu-
places and people of bad spirits and to promote well-being. larly in South Australia, followed suit in enacting similar
(Pominoz/Dreamstime.com) legislation. For example, in Pitjantjatjara, located in the
Central Australian desert, Aboriginal people gained own-
to implement assimilation policies as late as 1951, strate- ership of much of their land. However, conservative states,
gies varied between political bodies. In the 1960s, Aborigi- particularly Queensland, were reluctant to give rights to
nal Australians were counted in censuses for the first time, Aboriginal people, as, prior to its repeal, Aboriginal people
many discriminatory laws were repealed, and they became in Queensland were prohibited to live or visit the reserves
entitled to state benefits. They also gained the right to and were forced to work for below minimum wages by the
vote. During this period, greater attention was also paid Aboriginal and Islanders Act (1971).
to Aboriginal Australians’ health and education policies In 1980, the Aboriginal Development Commission was
because the health and life expectancy of Aboriginal Aus- established to unify various government-sponsored bod-
tralians was significantly worse than that of other Austral- ies involved with land acquisition and business. The com-
ians. However, Aboriginal Australians continued to receive mission gave Aboriginal leaders the power to act without
very low wages and inadequate housing, especially in rural direct government interference. Around the same time,
areas. In Queensland and other parts of Australia, Aborig- however, relations within the National Aboriginal Confer-
inal stockmen received low wages, with the money often ence (a national forum established to represent indigenous
held in funds controlled by the government. For this rea- Australians) worsened, and due to pressure from state gov-
son, Aboriginal Australians, with the backing of Australian ernments and the Australian Mining Industry Council, the
trade unions, have mounted the “stolen wages” campaign federal government denied the demands from organiza-
to seek remuneration of these withheld wages. tions that focused on Aboriginal land rights.
In the 1960s, Aboriginal Australians gained better access In 1988, when Australia celebrated its bicentennial,
to education and support from parts of white society. For around thirty thousand Aboriginal activists and supporters
 Aboriginal Australian  7

marched through Sydney to protest against Aboriginal dis- did not offer compensation to the one hundred thousand
placement and marginalization. In response, the govern- families affected (Minahan 2012). Also in 1999, Aboriginal
ment promised to negotiate a treaty, but it did not deliver leaders took their case for equality to the United Nations
on this promise. That same year, the Aboriginal and Torres Human Rights Commission. The Australian government
Strait Islanders’ Commission (ATSIC) replaced the Depart- refuses to accept the United Nations’ findings that amend-
ment of Aboriginal Affairs. The ATSIC was intended to ments to native title acts are discriminatory and contrary
unite the many government and nongovernment Abo- to the International Convention on the Elimination of
riginal organizations and to improve Aboriginal political Racial Discrimination.
participation.
In 1992, the Mabo judgment was passed, giving Torres
Strait Islanders legal confirmation that they owned their Society, Culture, and Tradition
own land. The Mabo judgment saw the High Court of Aus- Australian Aboriginal tribal structure remains intact in
tralia recognize the native title rights of Eddie Mabo over rural areas, but the structure, along with clan ties, have
his traditional island land. The High Court overturned weakened considerably in urban areas.
the previous concept of terra nullius (Latin for “nobody’s The various Aboriginal Australian groups share a sin-
land”), a principle that stated that Australia was empty gle version of their origins and prehistory and engage in
of inhabitants before Europeans first settled it. Since the a rich oral culture. At the heart of this oral tradition are
Mabo decision, a number of Aboriginal communities have the spiritual values based on a belief in the Dreamtime
obtained legal recognition of their native title rights over (or the Dreaming), a mythical time of creation. Aboriginal
their traditional territories. The Mabo judgment was highly Australians see all aspects of life as part of a complex net-
significant because it resulted in the establishment of tri- work of interrelationships that can be traced back to their
bunals in every Australian state to determine the eligibility ancestors’ connection to the surrounding environment.
of native title claims. The year after the Mabo judgment, For Aboriginal Australians, all aspects of human existence
the Federal Native Title Act was passed, which provided are interwoven in a mythic structure and connected to the
a national system for recognizing and protecting native creative force of Dreamtime. Moreover, Aboriginal Aus-
titles. This act met resistance, especially in Western Aus- tralians believe that as their ancestors wandered the land,
tralia, where the conservative state government considered they left tracks across the landscape that, in time, became
the act as potentially restricting mining companies from the features visible against the backdrop of the Outback.
operating in much of the state. Ultimately, new agreements Associated with their belief in the Dreamtime is Walk-
between Aboriginal peoples and mining companies were about, the rite of passage experienced by Aboriginal Aus-
forged. In 2006, in Perth, the Federal Court of Australia tralian boys at age thirteen. The practice involves the boys
recognized native land title, which was the first time native living in the wild for six months by retracing the extremely
title was recognized over an entire metropolitan area. This long walks that they believe were taken by their ancestors.
move was warmly received by the local Noongar commu- The aim of Walkabout is to make the boys sufficiently
nity and by Aboriginal Australians elsewhere. mature to survive independently. To outsiders, the routes
In 1999, the Australian government issued an apology taken by the youngsters during Walkabout may seem like
for the former policy of removing Aboriginal children random wanderings, but they are in fact based on tribal
from their families as part of assimilation policies, though understandings and demonstrate the intimate knowledge
the apology avoided using the terms apology or sorry and of the landscape possessed by Aboriginal Australians as

The Wik-Mungkan Naming Ceremony

The Wik-Mungkan aboriginal tribe believe each Wik-Mungkan clan is concomitant with clan ancestors called pui-
waiya from whom the Wik-Mungkan believe they are reincarnated. When a Wik-Mungkan child is being born, his
or her name is decided by a unique method of divination. The midwife delivering the baby shouts out the names of
the baby’s puiwaiya in turn. The name that is shouted at the moment the placenta detaches from the mother is taken
as the child’s name. Once the name is decided, the baby is considered bonded to the relative after whom it is named.
8  Aboriginal Australian

well as their understanding of tribal history and the places Native Americans, have been rejected by Australian gov-
considered sacred by their people. ernments on the grounds that doing so would encourage
Some anthropologists consider Walkabout as a form of separatism. In rural areas in particular, Aboriginal housing
pilgrimage because the practice is in essence a ritualized conditions can be very bad, and people may have inade-
transcendent expedition. According to Aboriginal beliefs, quate access to water, health care, and educational facilities.
when Dreamtime concluded, these ancestors morphed Aboriginal life expectancy is around a decade lower than
into the landscape, becoming mountains and hills. Thus, that of other Australians, and Aboriginal infant mortal-
for many thousands of years, Aboriginal Australians have ity rates are much higher than those of other Australians.
lived lives inextricably linked to the land, which they Aboriginal Australians suffer from high levels of diabetes
believe to be a living entity. For this reason, an important and renal disease, and they also suffer from diseases such
element of Walkabout is to repeat these ancestral trails. as trachoma and leprosy that are largely absent from other
Aboriginal Australians believe ancestral spirits inhabit Australian communities. Malnutrition is not uncommon
the spiritual world, but they control the natural world and among Aboriginal Australians, and alcoholism is wide-
are placated through the performance of many rituals spread among Aboriginal communities in both cities and
and customs by the living. Aboriginal Australians believe rural areas (Minority Rights Group International 2015).
that at death the spirit leaves the living world and passes Aboriginal education levels are below the Australian
back into Dreamtime, returning to its place of birth to be national average, with disproportionately fewer Aboriginal
reborn. Postmortem rituals help this process of rebirth high school and university graduates.
and ensure a satisfactory return. Generally speaking, Abo-
riginal Australians feel that a body should be placed within
the broader natural environment after death, where factors Threats to Survival
such as the weather and temperature, as well as animals, Aboriginal Australians fare worse than other Australi-
can help the course of decomposition. Such exposure leads ans in almost all regards. Aboriginal housing conditions
to the bleaching of the corpse’s bones, which are subse- are inadequate, and in rural areas, there is less access to
quently readied for burial. water, health care, and education. The number of Aborig-
High-platform exposure of the corpse is a traditional inal Australians in prison and the number of deaths in
method of excarnation or defleshing practiced by Aborig- custody per capita is far higher than the rest of the Aus-
inal Australians, who call the practice primary burial. The tralian population. This situation has been worsened by
custom involves the ritualized placing of a corpse in an the disproportionate targeting of Aboriginal Australians
elevated position, such as on a platform lodged in a tree for arrest and detention, sometimes for minor infractions
or on a scaffold, where it is covered in leaves and branches such as drunkenness. According to the Australian Insti-
but otherwise left exposed to the elements and scavenging tute of Criminology, between 2000 and 2010, Aboriginal
creatures. The corpse is left exposed until the flesh disin- Australian imprisonment rates increased by 51.5 percent.
tegrates and leaves the bone, a process that usually takes Additionally, while Aboriginal Australians make up only
several months to complete. High-platform exposure is approximately 3 percent of Australia’s total population,
usually reserved for the disposal of high-status adults, Aboriginal Australians comprise 27 percent of Australia’s
especially eminent men. While the practice is not as com- prison population. Similarly, in the Northern Territory,
mon as it once was, high-platform exposure of the corpse Aboriginal youths make up 98 percent of detained juve-
does take place within several indigenous communities in niles, and young Aboriginal Australians are twenty-four
Australia, being particularly associated with Queensland, times more likely to be in prison than other Australians
Central Australia, the Northern Territory, and the north- within their age group. There is also continuing concern
east of the country. The practice has also been documented over Aboriginal deaths in custody (Minority Rights Group
as occurring in New South Wales, Victoria, and southeast International 2015).
Australia. Aboriginal Australians tend to suffer very high levels
of unemployment, especially in smaller towns and remote
communities in the Outback. Aboriginal communities
Health Care and Education have been demoralized by prejudice, lack of jobs, and an
Proposals by Aboriginal activists to provide Aboriginal unwillingness to work. Additionally, most Aboriginal Aus-
Australians with a special status, such as that given to tralians who are employed work in lower skilled jobs.
 Acehnese 9

Aboriginal Australians have experienced the worst belongs to the Aceh-Chamic language group. This is part
aspects of urbanization. They have suffered the loss of cul- of the Malayo-Polynesian branch of the Austronesian lan-
ture and traditions, have been introduced to alcohol and guage family and is more closely related to Malay than to
drugs, and have been left without adequate employment Javanese. The Acehnese national flag takes the form of a
and education. This history of forced migration to urban central white crescent moon and five-pointed star against
areas is still evident today, as young Aboriginal Australians a red field with black and white bands at the top and bot-
have high rates of alcoholism and drug addiction. Abo- tom of the field.
riginal Australians also endure worse health than non-­
Aboriginal Australians, with diabetes, maternal nutrition,
heart disease, and lifestyle-related health issues prevalent Population, Diaspora, and Migration
among Aboriginal communities. Aboriginal Australians Estimates of Acehnese population figures range greatly,
living in urban areas are often forced to choose between from 890,000 people to possibly as many as 3 million
homelessness and living in overcrowded poor-quality (Minority Rights Group International 2017). Other esti-
housing. In urban areas, Aboriginal Australians lack oppor- mates put the population at 3.6 million (Minahan 2012).
tunities to enjoy traditional Aboriginal lifestyles, including Acehnese nationalists, however, claim that there are 25
eating traditional foods and using indigenous medicines. million Acehnese spread throughout Indonesia (Minahan
Instead, urban Aboriginal Australians tend to take up less 2002). One of the reasons for the wide difference in Aceh-
healthy alternatives, such as processed foods and drinks. nese population figures is the practice of merantau, which
involves Acehnese males migrating from their homes in
See also: Martu; Torres Strait Islanders; Wurundjeri
search of work and life experience.
Further Reading The Acehnese are thought to make up around 50 per-
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
cent of the population of Aceh, but the percentage may be
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 1, A–C.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. higher, as there are reports that some non-Acehnese who
Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the had settled in Aceh as part of the government-sponsored
Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. transmigration scheme have left the region (Minority
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Australia: Abo- Rights Group International 2017).
riginal Peoples.” World Directory of Minorities and Indige- Most Acehnese live in the far northwest of the island of
nous Peoples, June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities​
Sumatra, in the west of Indonesia. The demographics of
/aboriginal-peoples.
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the many coastal Acehnese villages were changed dramatically
World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA: by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami, as the wave claimed
ABC-CLIO. the lives of the weakest swimmers—mainly children, the
elderly, and women—and forced survivors to leave their
ruined homes. In addition, many coastal villages were
destroyed by the tsunami.
The Acehnese have a very mixed Malay, Indian, and
ACEHNESE Arabic ancestry that reflects in the people’s physical
appearance; the Acehnese tend to resemble other Malay
Current Location Indonesia
people but have Indian or Arabic features. The Acehnese
Current Population 890,000–3.6 million
are also taller and paler skinned than other Indonesians
Language Acehnese (Minahan 2002).
Interesting Fact Some Acehnese women are banned
from wearing pants.
Geography and Environment
Overview Sumatra is located in the Indian Ocean, where it forms the
Acehnese is an ethnic group whose members mostly live westernmost island of the Malay Archipelago. The island
in Aceh, an independent region of Indonesia known offi- is mountainous and covered in dense tropical forest. Most
cially as the Special Autonomous District of Aceh. The people living on Sumatra do not live in the forest, however,
Acehnese are also known as the Achinese, Atchinese, and but rather on the island’s wide coastal plain. The capital
Atjehnese. The Acehnese language, also called Acehnese, and cultural heart of the Special Autonomous District
10 Acehnese

of Aceh is Banda Aceh. Aceh is rich in natural resources, colonial war in Dutch history. Even though the Dutch
including oil, natural gas, timber, and minerals. The area’s defeated the Acehnese, the people were never completely
timber resources have been exploited over the years, and quelled.
since the 1970s, Aceh has suffered from deforestation. The Japanese forces of World War II recognized the
Aceh has great biodiversity and is home to animals that unpacified nature of Achenese resistance and inspired an
include the Sumatran rhinoceros, orangutans, the Suma- Acehnese rebellion to coincide with the Japanese invasion
tran tiger, and the Sumatran elephant. of the area in 1942. The Japanese drove the Dutch out of
Aceh, but the Acehnese also rejected Japanese rule. When
the Japanese surrendered in 1945, many Acehnese joined
History and Politics anticolonialist forces against Dutch attempts to regain
The history of the Acehnese explains the distinctive cul- Aceh. The Acehnese initially rejected inclusion within a
tural characteristics that set them apart from the rest of unified Indonesia, but in 1949, they accepted the status of
Indonesia. The earliest Acehnese were most likely Malay an independent state with federal Indonesia. Opposition
migrants who settled in the Acehnese homeland in a from the more populous Javanese, who wished to remove
wave of migrants around three thousand years ago. The the autonomy of Indonesian member states, soon threat-
Acehnese developed their own distinctive language and ened Aceh’s autonomy. In addition, starting in 1950, the
culture and established Aceh as a powerful state that con- Acehnese became increasingly dissatisfied with Indone-
trolled parts of the Malay Peninsula. Aceh’s power was sian leaders, whom they considered un-Islamic and cor-
curbed in the seventh century when Hindus developed rupt (Minahan 2002). In February 1950, the Acehnese rose
Indianized communities on the Indonesian islands of up against the Indonesian rulers based in Java, but the
Java and Sumatra. During the twelfth or thirteenth cen- Indonesian army easily quashed the uprising, as Acehnese
turies, Muslim Arabs settled in Aceh, and Islam became fighters were poorly equipped. The rebellion restarted in
the dominant religion among the Acehnese. At the same 1953 under the command of the popular Muslim activist
time, Aceh developed into the Sultanate of Aceh. This was Daud Beureueh, under whose leadership Aceh declared
a powerful independent state that maintained close ties itself an independent state governed by Islamic law.
to the West while becoming increasingly influenced by The Javanese political and financial domination of
Islam—an increase that was cemented when Gujarati Aceh persisted despite Aceh’s autonomy, prompting a wave
Muslims from India moved to the area. By the sixteenth a militant Aceh nationalism to form during the 1960s.
century, the Aceh state had expanded to encompass Acehnese nationalists were further enraged when the
southern Thailand and the Malacca Straits region, and Indonesian government backed a scheme that saw peo-
during the seventeenth century, the state gained great ple resettled from overpopulated Java to other Indonesian
regional influence when it established a monopoly of the islands with smaller populations. Throughout the 1970s,
Sumatran pepper trade. Acehnese nationalists led by Tenku Tjhik di Tiro Muham-
In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, Aceh’s mad Hassan (known as Hassan di Tiro) fought govern-
wealth attracted the interest of Portuguese, Dutch, and Eng- ment forces in violent battles. Also during the 1970s,
lish explorers and traders. This foreign interest, together tension between the Acehnese and the Indonesian gov-
with an Acehnese civil war, weakened Aceh’s wealth and ernment worsened because the Indonesian government
power during the latter half of the seventeenth century. sanctioned the exploitation of Aceh’s natural resources
In 1819, the Acehnese established a formal treaty with the by multinational oil and gas companies, with most profits
British, who, along with the Dutch, recognized Aceh as a going to the Indonesian capital of Jakarta rather than to
foreign state. Britain and the Netherlands continued to Aceh, which remained one of Indonesia least developed
vie for influence over Aceh, and in 1871, an Anglo-Dutch regions (Minority Rights Group International 2017).
treaty recognized Dutch sovereignty over Aceh. In 1977, di Tiro declared Aceh independent, prompting
In 1873, Acehnese authorities entered into talks with the Indonesian government to murder leading members
American representatives stationed in Singapore. This led of the Free Aceh Movement while driving other members
to the Dutch bombing Aceh, with the resulting war last- into exile in Europe. Over the following decades, Indo-
ing until the outbreak of the World War I, when the ruling nesian security forces targeted Aceh, and the Acehnese
sultan was defeated and exiled. The war was the longest were repressed by the Indonesian military. The security
 Acehnese 11

operations weakened the Free Aceh Movement but also from Aceh. In December of that year, however, fighting
provoked strong anti-Indonesian feelings among many restarted, security forces returned, and many Acehnese
Acehnese. In 1986, the Indonesian government announced fled their homes to live in camps for displaced persons.
the end of the Acehnese nationalist movement, but in In 2001, Indonesia’s government extended some auton-
1989, fighting between the Acehnese nationalists and the omous powers to the Aceh, but these were primarily to
government resumed. The fighting was fierce, and it is be used for the application of Sharia law and the right
widely accepted that the security forces executed, raped, to receive direct foreign investments. This extra power
and tortured the Acehnese with impunity (Minahan 2002). was granted; however, military repression by Indonesian
Many other Acehnese were imprisoned or disappeared forces continued. In 2003, the government declared a state
for nonviolent protests or because they were related to of emergency to crush another uprising by the Acehnese
nationalists. nationalist movement.
In 1991, Achenese nationalists again called for inde- Life in Aceh dramatically changed following the tsu-
pendence. Then, in 1998, the resignation of Indonesian nami that struck Aceh in December 2004. Aceh was the
president General Suharto allowed the Acehnese to openly point on the earth’s surface nearest to the epicenter of the
express for the first time their fury at their abuse by the devastating Indian Ocean earthquake and suffered terribly
military. Mass graves of Acehnese victims were exhumed, from the ensuing tsunami. Much of Aceh’s coastal region,
and large protests took place calling for an independence where most Acehnese live, was devastated, with whole vil-
referendum. By this time, Muslim populations throughout lages washed away as well as the capital, Banda Aceh. In
Indonesia had come to sympathize with the Acehnese, and total, around 225,000 people were killed by the tsunami,
in September 1998, the army was made to apologize for and 500,000 people were left homeless (Minahan 2012). In
its treatment of the Acehnese and to withdraw some units the wake of the tsunami, Aceh needed massive assistance to

Fishermen sell their catch in Aceh, Indonesia. Many Acehnese coastal villages were destroyed by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami. (Mimi
Saputra/Dreamstime.com)
12 Acehnese

rebuild, so in return for assistance, in 2005, the Indonesian intolerance between January and October 2013 compared
government coerced the Free Aceh Movement into signing with 264 incidents in all of 2012. Females living in Aceh
a peace deal that greatly expanded Aceh’s autonomy status. are under particular constraints imposed by a number of
Significantly, as part of the peace deal, Aceh’s authorities criminal bylaws influenced by Sharia law that came into
were allowed to keep 70 percent of the wealth arising from being in July 2003. These bylaws restrict freedom of asso-
the exploitation of the area’s natural resources. ciation and expression, and while in theory they are meant
In the 2006 elections for governor and the 2007 pro- to be applied to both women and men, local activists say
vincial and district elections, the majority of the successful that the Sharia police apply them more often and more
candidates were supporters of the Acehnese nationalist stringently to women and girls (Harsono 2013).
movement. One law, seclusion, makes it a criminal offense for two
adults of the opposite sex to be in each other’s isolated
presence unless they are married or related by blood. The
Society, Culture, and Tradition law is very broadly worded, so it is interpreted in a num-
During the nineteenth century, the Acehnese were famous ber of ways by Aceh authorities. As a result of this range of
for growing peppers on plantations. Today, however, most interpretation, people of the opposite sex can be punished
Acehnese are rice growers. The Acehnese family system is for sitting, talking, or eating together in a quiet place. On
based on the division of male and female realms of chores occasion, Sharia police officials have forced females sus-
and tasks. Males are encouraged to participate in the cus- pected of violating the seclusion law to submit to a virgin-
tom of merantau; this involves an Acehnese male leaving ity test.
his birthplace to find his fortune while also acquiring Virginity testing is performed in different ways around
knowledge and experience of the world. Acehnese females the world. Usually, a female’s vagina is examined to see
are expected to stay at home and perform traditional fam- whether her hymen is intact. The most common form of
ily roles while also tending rice fields. In recent years, how- virginity testing is the two-finger test (TFT). During this
ever, the practice of merantau has resulted in increasing test, a doctor inserts fingers into a woman to conduct a
numbers of Acehnese men leaving their homeland and forensic examination to determine her degree of vagi-
failing to return because they have married and settled nal laxity. The doctor then delivers a medical opinion on
elsewhere. whether the woman has experienced sexual intercourse.
Acehnese descent is traced through both parents, but The TFT is also part of the mandatory health examinations
Acehnese society is increasingly patriarchal. The rise of administered to female law officers in Indonesia. This is
a male-dominated society that seems to go hand in hand in violation of provisions in the Universal Declaration of
with an increasing devotion to a strict version of Islam. Human Rights and the International Covenant on Civil
The Acehnese are famous throughout Indonesia for their and Political Rights (ICCPR) as well as a breach of the
devout adherence to Islam. The form of Islam followed by Indonesian constitution. Anyone found guilty of violating
the Acehnese does not include the elements of Hinduism the bylaw on seclusion faces three to nine lashes from a
and Buddhism found in the Islam practiced throughout rattan cane. Other punishments include forcing suspects
the rest of Indonesia. Instead, the Islam adhered to in Aceh to marry, expulsion from their village, and arbitrary fines
is much closer to the strict Islam practiced in parts of determined by local authorities without due process
the Middle East and the Indian subcontinent. The Aceh- (Human Rights Watch 2010).
nese people’s staunch following of Islam is the main force Aceh is the only one of thirty-four Indonesian provinces
behind the Acehnese nationalist movement’s call for an that officially implemented Sharia law. In 2014, Aceh’s
independent Acehnese state. Sharia law made international headlines when the female
In the recent past, Acehnese society held unveiled victim of a gang rape was sentenced to public caning for
women in high regard. In the last few years, however, a adultery. Eight men raped the victim after they discovered
growing wave of Islamic fundamentalism has seen Ace- her in the company of a married man. The Sharia police
henese society become increasingly intolerant of religions then apprehended the woman, who was sentenced to a
other than Islam. The rise in intolerance has been docu- caning as punished for being “bad.” This verdict was deter-
mented by Indonesia’s Setara Institute, which recorded mined because, according to Aceh societal rules, the rape
243 incidents of physical violence as a result of religious victim had committed adultery (Wahyuningroem 2014).
 Acholi 13

Another restrictive bylaw imposes public dress require- will be whether the new Acehnese autonomy will be able to
ments on Muslim women living in Aceh. Though the resist central government’s constitutional powers in regard
bylaws ostensibly apply to men and women, the majority to the exploitation of natural resources, especially logging,
of those enforced by the Sharia police are geared toward mining, and palm oil plantations.
women and the requirement of wearing Islamic attire. The
See also: Madurese
law says that a man must cover his body from the knee
Further Reading
to the navel, but a woman must cover her entire body,
Harsono, Andreas. 2013. “Human Rights Are Under Attack
with the exceptions of her hands, feet, and face. As part in Post-Tsunami Indonesia.” The Guardian, December 27.
of this law, the women are compelled to wear the jilbab https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2013​/dec​/27​
(Islamic head scarf). The law also prohibits clothing that /human-rights-are-under-attack-in-post-tsunami​-indo​nesia.
is transparent or tight enough to reveal the woman’s figure Human Rights Watch. 2010. “Indonesia: Local Sharia Laws
(Human Rights Watch 2010). Violate Rights in Aceh.” Human Rights Watch, December
1. https://www.hrw.org/news/2010/12/01/indonesia-local​
Other recently enacted Aceh bylaws have further
-sharia-laws-violate-rights-aceh.
restricted women’s rights. For instance, in 2012, the city Lamb, Kate. 2014. “Banda Aceh: Where Community Spirit Has
of Lhokseumawe banned women from straddling motor- Gone but Peace Has Lasted.” The Guardian, January 27.
cycles, meaning women could only ride sidesaddle. In the https://www.theguardian.com/cities/2014/jan/27/banda​
neighboring city of Bireuen, women were prohibited from -aceh-community-spirit-peace-indonesia-tsunami.
dancing, and in Meulaboh, a 2010 decree was enacted that Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 1, A–C.
forbade women from wearing pants.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the
Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Health Care and Education Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Indonesia: Aceh-
In the aftermath of the 2004 tsunami, more than five nese.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Groups.
hundred agencies worked together to reconstruct Aceh’s http://minorityrights.org/minorities/acehnese.
Wahyuningroem, Sri Lestari. 2014. “Indonesia Should Drop
amenities and infrastructure. Across Aceh, seventeen hun- ‘Good’ and ‘Bad’ Labels on Women.” The Conversation,
dred schools were built, and the area also has a new hospi- December 4. http://theconversation.com/indonesia-should​
tal (Lamb 2014). -drop-good-and-bad-labels-on-women-34878.

Threats to Survival
The devastation wrought by the 2004 tsunami will take
many years to repair, and it is reported that the recon-
struction of Aceh has been plagued by corruption and
ACHOLI
incompetence (Minority Rights Group International
Current Location Uganda; Sudan; South Sudan;
2017). However, the 2005 peace deal along with the elec-
Kenya
tions in 2006 and 2007 have significantly changed the
political structure of Aceh and life for the Acehnese. As Current Population 2 million
the Acehnese minority makes up at least half of the Aceh Language Acholi dialect
population, it seems the Acehnese may be able to exercise Interesting Fact Some Acholi have natural
effective control over their regional government. Also, in immunity to the Ebola virus.
theory, the Acehnese should benefit from the wealth cre-
ated by the exploitation of Aceh’s gas and oil resources.
It is, however, still too early to say whether life has per- Overview
manently improved for the Acehnese. The next few years The Acholi (also written as Acoli) are a Ugandan indige-
will determine the extent to which the central Indonesian nous ethnic group living in an area sometimes referred to
government will give real autonomy to the Acehnese over as Acholiland. The Acholi are classified as a western Nilotic
their homeland or whether the government will reverse people, and they speak the Acholi dialect, a Western Nilotic
its position, as it frequently has in the past. Another issue language that is also understood by other peoples living
14 Acholi

nearby. The name Acholi derives from the nineteenth-­ of the mountains lie in the rain shadow of the mountains
century term Shûli given to the people by Arab traders, and are covered by dry subdesert grassland, deciduous
which means people that speak Arabic mixed with another woodland, and semievergreen bush. The mountains sup-
language. Despite playing a pivotal role in Uganda’s turbu- port abundant wildlife, including colobus monkeys, blue
lent postindependence era, the Acholi remain Uganda’s monkeys, bushpigs, and bushbucks.
least developed and least assimilated ethnic group. Despite the presence of mountains, much of northern
Uganda is nonetheless flat lowland. The rainy seasons occur
from March to May and from September to November. The
Population, Diaspora, and Migration weather is extremely hot and dry the rest of the year.
The total Acholi population is around two million (Shoup
2011), with the largest Acholi community existing in north-
ern Uganda, where some 746,000 Acholi people reside in History and Politics
the districts Kitgum, Pader, and Gulu. The Acholi also live The origins of the Acholi are unclear, though the Acholi
in southern Sudan, northern Kenya, and South Sudan, the believe they probably came to Acholiland around three
latter being home to approximately 50,000 Acholi people hundred years ago as various different peoples from north-
(Johannes 2015). ern Africa. Around the seventeenth century, the various
Following the phasing out of camps for internally dis- peoples amalgamated to form the one single Acholi peo-
placed persons initiated during years of Ugandan con- ple. The Acholi, like many other Nilotic peoples, consider
flict, many Acholi families have been reluctant to entirely cattle to be extremely important both culturally and as a
abandon their camps and instead practice what the Acholi wealth indicator. Until the nineteenth century, the Acholi
refer to as “one foot in the camp, and one in the village” life- amassed large cattle herds. The size of the herds rapidly
styles. This is because families feel the camps will provide a reduced after European contact, however, because the cat-
degree of safety in the event conflict renews. Families also tle caught imported diseases. Another blow to the Acholi
wish to take advantage of the camps’ existing meager ser- during the nineteenth century occurred when Arab and
vices (UNHCR n.d.). Swahili slave traders from Zanzibar raided and destroyed
The Acholi are closely related to the Luo people of Acholi villages while also enslaving many Acholi people.
Kenya and the Shilluk people of Sudan. Today, there are Any Acholi that escaped enslavement fled from Acholiland
three distinct Acholi groups: the Patiko, who are related to avoid future capture, thereby causing the Acholi econ-
to the Luo; the Ateker speakers, who may have been the omy to dwindle.
earliest people to settle in Acholiland; and the Sudanic-­ Uganda was a British protectorate during the period
speaking Acholi. 1894 to 1962. While the British encouraged political and
economic development in the south of Uganda, the Acholi
and other northern ethnic groups supplied manual labor
Geography and Environment to the colony and made up a large section of the Ugandan
Uganda is bordered by South Sudan to the north, Kenya military. The Acholi continued to dominate the Ugandan
to the east, Tanzania and Rwanda to the south, and by the army until the country gained independence in 1962.
Democratic Republic of the Congo to the west. The capital, The Acholi suffered greatly under the dictatorship of
Kampala, is built on seven hills close to Lake Victoria. The Idi Amin (1971–1979) because they supported and served
lake forms part of Uganda’s border with Kenya and Tan- in the army of Uganda’s preceding ruler, President Milton
zania. Much of Uganda lies on a plateau that tapers from Obote (1964–1971). Obote had led Uganda to independ-
around five thousand feet in the south to around three ence from British colonial rule, and he had relied heavily
thousand feet in the north. Volcanic mountains and val- on the support of his fellow Luo speakers—the Acholi and
leys mark the edges of the plateau. To the north of the pla- the Langi—while in government. Following an attempt to
teau are the Imatong Mountains, which have an elevation reinstate Obote in 1974, Amin suspected Acholi leaders
of about six thousand feet and extend into southeastern and soldiers of disloyalty and massacred Acholi soldiers in
South Sudan. Deciduous forest, wooded grassland, and their barracks. Ultimately, 5,000 Acholi (and not just sol-
bamboo cover the plains and lower parts of the mountains diers) were killed in Amin’s reprisal attacks (Shoup 2011).
to the north and west. The areas to the east and southeast During the whole of Amin’s rule, over 300,000 people died,
 Acholi 15

many of them Acholi (Minority Rights Group Interna- (Minority Rights Group International 2017). In actuality,
tional 2017). both the LRA and the national army attacked the Acholi
Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, a series of droughts living in the camps. Camp dwellers also faced food short-
severely tested the Acholi’s ability to continue cattle farm- ages and extremely high rates of HIV/AIDS, malaria,
ing. In 1986, the Acholi again became important in Ugan- oral thrush, and diarrhea. Indeed, a 2005 report by the
dan politics. A spirit medium named Alice Auma founded Ugandan Ministry of Health in partnership with the UN
a religious faction known as the Holy Spirit Movement World Health Organization, the UN Children’s Fund, the
after apparently becoming possessed by a spirit called UN World Food Programme, the UN Population Fund, the
Lakwena; she changed her name to Alice Lakwena. The International Rescue Committee, and the UK Department
movement was connected to the defeat of Acholi general for International Development concluded that 1,000 camp
Tito Okelo, who became president of Uganda for a short dwellers died each week (IRIN 2005). In addition to the
time after a coup. Okelo was ousted, and his Acholi soldiers people dying in the camps, the fighting between the LRA
sought safety from reprisals in traditional Acholi areas of and the Ugandan authorities displaced some 1.6 million
Uganda. However, southern Ugandans overran the Acholi people, 1.3 million of whom hailed from Acholi areas
homeland, which led to a series of bloody local conflicts. (IRIN 2005).
In the meantime, Yoweri Museveni’s National Resistance During the fighting, the LRA received financial and
Army (NRA) seized power in Uganda, prompting Lakwena military support from the government of neighboring
to begin a march to Kampala. Marchers included Acholi Sudan. When the Comprehensive Peace Agreement was
people as well as members of other Ugandan ethnic groups signed in Sudan in 2005, thereby ending civil war in Sudan
who wished to air their grievances against the govern- and establishing a government of South Sudan in areas
ment. The march culminated in a battle outside Kampala once inhabited by the LRA, the LRA lost much of its back-
that resulted in the Ugandan army defeating the marchers. ing. Later that year, the International Criminal Court in
Subsequently, Lakwena claimed that her spirit guide had The Hague issued arrest warrants for Kony and other LRA
left her, and she sought refuge in Kenya, where she died. commanders, thus pressuring the LRA to cease fighting.
Despite Lakwena’s defeat, insurgency in the Acholi In 2006, a series of meetings were held in South Sudan
region has continued in various guises ever since. For between the Ugandan government and the LRA, while at
instance, after the Holy Spirit Movement came the infa- the same time, some members of the LRA fled into the
mous cultlike militia Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA) led by Democratic Republic of Congo. The Ugandan Amnesty Act
Joseph Kony, an Acholi, and the nephew of Lakwena. Like (2000) provided a legal framework for allowing the LRA
Lakwena, Kony also claimed to be possessed with spirits to acknowledge their crimes to their victims and subject
that directed his actions, and he stated that he wished themselves to Ugandan justice. The act also encouraged
to rule Acholiland as a theocracy in accordance with the guerrillas to renounce their crimes and aim for reconcil-
Bible’s Ten Commandments. iation. The Acholi believe that the deep social rifts caused
Over the years, the LRA kidnapped an estimated by the killings had to be met with efforts at reconcilia-
­twenty-five thousand children from their villages, forc- tion rather than retribution because many LRA fighters
ing them to become sex slaves, servants, and child sol- were themselves Acholi people who had been abducted
diers, which the guerrilla group used to commit atrocities and so were themselves victims of the conflict. In 2007,
against civilians (Minority Rights Group International continuing peace talks between the LRA and Ugandan
2017). Atrocities carried out by Kony’s guerrillas included government saw increasing numbers of Acholi heading
child rape, hacking civilians to death with machetes, and to cities such as Kampala despite having no money or
burning people alive inside their huts. Many commenta- job prospects. As a result of this migration, most of the
tors believe Kony to be clinically insane, as it is claimed homeless people on Ugandan city streets were Acholi. At
that he considers his actions part of a mission to purify the the same time, tens of thousands of Acholi remained in
Acholi people and to allow a religious movement involving camps for internally displaced persons within Acholiland,
black magic to flourish in Acholi areas (Howden 2008). where they continued to be attacked by the LRA. In 2011,
In response to the LRA, Museveni’s government forced U.S. president Barack Obama ordered special operations
1.4–1.9 million Acholi civilians into squalid camps under troops to enter Uganda to hunt down Kony and the rest
the pretense that the Ugandan army would protect them of the LRA.
16 Acholi

In April 2017, the Ugandan army withdrew troops from groups and also involves discussion and a confession of
the Central African Republic, where they had been hunt- wrongdoing.
ing for Kony, thereby effectively ending the hunt for Kony
and other members of the LRA. That same month, the U.S.
military also stopped hunting for Kony after intelligence Health Care and Education
reports that Kony’s forces had dwindled to only one hun- Decades of war have greatly affected the provision of
dred members (Baddorf 2017). health care and education in Acholi areas. During years of
conflict, the Ugandan health service managed to provide a
degree of health care because the medical staff was deter-
Society, Culture, and Tradition mined to provide the best service possible, and organiza-
Traditional Acholi homes are round, peaked wooden huts tions based outside of Uganda acted in a way that made
that feature a mud sleeping platform, a sunken fireplace, the Acholi feel that they had not been abandoned. How-
and a central supporting column that acts as a chimney ever, despite the dedication of health service providers, a
inside. The walls of Acholi huts are usually covered in mud 2006 survey by international agencies reported that about
and painted with geometric designs in red, gray, and white. fifty thousand Acholi died each year in internal displace-
Traditionally, the Acholi keep cattle, goats, chickens, and ment camps. The survey also estimated that around thirty
sheep while also growing food crops, including millet, sor- thousand Acholi died in the camps in the first half of 2006,
ghum, beans, and sesame. To strengthen their food stocks, with over eleven thousand of these being children under
the Acholi also hunt animals using spears, nets, and dogs. the age of five. The camps had the worst infant mortality
Prior to the introduction of Islam and Christianity to rates anywhere in the world at 172 per 1,000 live births
Acholi areas during the late nineteenth century, the Acholi in northern Uganda. The maternal mortality ratio was 700
followed their own religion, which focused on ancestral per 100,000 live births in Acholi areas. This was far higher
spirits and appeasing evil. Today, the Acholi have embraced than the Ugandan national figure of 506 per 100,000
Islam and Christianity, but they have not forgotten their (Otunnu 2006).
indigenous beliefs, especially the belief that justice, recon- In the wake of the conflict, the Acholi’s access to health
ciliation, and forgiveness should be meted out by a tradi- care was almost nonexistent. Malnutrition was chronic
tional chief (rwodi) and are the best ways to achieve social and widespread, with 41 percent of children aged less than
unity. Since the early years of the twentieth century, the role five years having seriously stunted growth. Sanitation in
of the traditional Acholi chief has been supplanted by colo- the camps was dire; 85 percent of the camp population in
nially appointed chiefs (rwodi kalam). Nevertheless, the Gulu district did not have access to latrines, while in the
legitimacy of the traditional chiefs has never waned. The camps at Orom and Lugoro, there was one latrine shared
1995 Ugandan constitution, which permitted traditional by over four thousand people. Access to water was also
and cultural leaders to operate in Uganda, has resulted in a very difficult; many camps had twenty-five hundred to
revival and celebration of Uganda’s culture and traditions. three thousand people sharing one water source.
Today, the Belgian government supports the reinstatement In addition to suffering physical hardship, 85 percent
of Acholi rwodi and sees that a lawi rwodi (head chief) is of camp dwellers suffered from severe depression brought
elected by the other rwodi. on by humiliation and abuse. Suicide among mothers was
A belief in the power of the rwodi to provide mediation particularly high in the camps, as mothers felt despair at
was central to the Amnesty Act. The unique contribution their inability to provide for their children and because
of the rwodi comes about through the ceremonial media- rape and sexual exploitation by Ugandan army soldiers
tion process known as mato opu, which many Acholi feel occurred with impunity. Indeed, it has been suggested that
is the best way to bring about true resolution. The mato in Acholi areas HIV/AIDS were used as a weapon of mass
opu ceremony is clan and family focused and involves destruction, for HIV-positive Ugandan army soldiers were
wrongdoers acknowledging and taking responsibility for deliberately deployed to Acholi areas to infect Acholi girls
their transgressions and offering compensation to victims. and women. As a result of this policy, Acholi areas went
It ends with the victims’ families sharing a symbolic drink from having a very low HIV/AIDS rate to a rate of 30 per-
made from calabash. Another Acholi ritual, gomo tong (the cent, which was much higher than the Ugandan national
bending of spears), represents the end of conflict between rate of 5 percent (Otunnu 2006).
 Adivasi 17

In the aftermath of the conflict, the major factors See also: BaTwa; Karamojong
affecting health care in northern Uganda include a lack Further Reading
of health workers, poorly trained staff and staff nonat- Baddorf, Zack. 2017. “Uganda Ends Its Hunt for Joseph Kony
tendance, frequent shortages of medicines and a lack of Empty-Handed.” New York Times, April 20. https://www​.ny​
medical equipment, and generally poor infrastructure. times.com/2017/04/20/world/africa/uganda-joseph​-kony​
-lra.html.
In addition, poor water supplies and sanitation in many
Howden, Daniel. 2008. “The Deadly Cult of Joseph Kony.” The
internally displaced persons camps and Acholi villages Independent, November 8. https://www​.inde​pendent​.co​.uk​
have fueled prolonged outbreaks of hepatitis E. Acholi /news​ /world/africa/the-deadly-cult-of-joseph​ -kony​ -100​
areas also frequently experience outbreaks of Ebola. 1084.html.
Some traditional healers seem to have a natural immu- IRIN. 2005. “1,000 Displaced Die Every Week in War-Torn
nity to Ebola and are referred to by the Acholi as the la North—Report.” IRIN News, August 29. http://www.irinnews​
.org​/news/2005/08/29/1000-displaced-die-every-week-war​
pidi (babysitters) of gemo (an epidemic of illness). These
-torn​-north-report.
naturally immune Acholi caregivers take care of Acholi Johannes, Eliza Mary. 2015. “Acholi.” In Native Peoples of the
people suffering from Ebola and wash, dress, and bury the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contempo-
corpses of Ebola victims. rary Issues, edited by Steven Danver, 11–12. Vol. 1. London:
In the 1970s, the Acholi were the second most educated Routledge.
Ugandan ethnic group. Since the 1970s, however, education Lamwaka, Caroline. 2016. The Raging Storm: A Reporter’s Inside
Account of the Northern Uganda War 1986–2005. Kampala,
in Acholi regions has declined. The decline began during
Uganda: Fountain Publishers.
the rule of Amin and continued at an accelerated rate dur- Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Uganda: Acholi.”
ing years of conflict in Acholi areas. Since 1986, hundreds World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples.
of Acholi schools have been destroyed in fighting, and http://minorityrights.org/minorities/acholi.
pupils have been displaced. Those schools that do operate Otunnu, Olara A. 2006. “Northern Uganda: Profile of a Gen-
often see lessons taught in tents or unfinished buildings ocide.” The Children and Armed Conflict Unit, January 8.
https://www1.essex.ac.uk/armedcon/story_id/000290.html.
amid overcrowding and in unsanitary conditions in places
Shoup, John A. 2011. “Acholi.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and the
where disease is rife. It is also the case that many schools Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup, 1–2.
lack textbooks, desks, chairs, and so on. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
In the present Ugandan education system, pupils United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). n.d.
undergo seven years of primary education, four years of A Time Between: Moving On from Internal Displacement in
lower secondary education, and two years of upper sec- Northern Uganda. http://www.unhcr.org/4baa0fd86.pdf.
ondary school as well as three to five years of postsec-
ondary education. Although some primary education is
compulsory, many families cannot afford to pay for school
uniforms and other items, such as writing tools, and thus
they do not abide by these laws. In addition, girls often ADIVASI
drop out of school to help out in the home or to marry.
State schools are usually run by the Church of Uganda and Current Location India
are built on land owned by the church. Current Population 84 million
Language Various
Interesting Fact The Adivasis are India’s poorest
Threats to Survival people.
The many years of war have devastated the lives and
livelihoods of the Acholi. In recent years, there has been
noticeable progress with the gradual phasing out of Acholi Overview
refugee camps and the increasing numbers of Acholi fam- The term Adivasis is a name used to refer to the numerous
ilies returning to their home villages. While the peace indigenous peoples of India. Adivasi translates as “original
holds, the Acholi can enjoy a degree of security. However, inhabitant” and derives from the Hindi word adi, meaning
many Acholi are concerned that the peace is fragile and “of earliest times” or “from the beginning” and vasi, which
may unravel, leaving them in danger again. means “inhabitant” or “resident.” The term was invented
18 Adivasi

in the 1930s to describe the political movement that had Bangladesh to the east. Sri Lanka is located some forty
created a sense of common identity among India’s indig- miles from India’s southeast coast across the Palk Strait
enous peoples. Adivasis are officially known as scheduled and Gulf of Mannar. India, together with Bangladesh and
tribes. However, many indigenous Indians prefer the name much of Pakistan, forms a subcontinent that is separated
Adivasi, which has political connotations. Additionally, from the rest of Asia by the northern Himalayas and
scheduled tribes is a legal term that varies with location; adjoining mountain ranges to the west and east. In terms
therefore, some groups who might be considered indige- of area, India is the world’s seventh-largest country.
nous are sometimes excluded by the term scheduled tribe. Many of the areas in which Adivasis live contain India’s
Adivasis are not culturally homogeneous, as they speak richest mineral deposits. Consequently, mining and envi-
over one hundred languages. However, there are many ronmental issues associated with mineral extraction and
similarities in the Adivasi way of life and the way they industrialization affect the Adivasis. The trend toward
are treated by Indian society in general. Adivasi religious nationalization in India since the 1970s has led to estab-
beliefs contain many aspects of Hinduism. There are some lishing industrial sites close to sources of raw material,
Adivasi Christians. thus regularly displacing Adivasis.
Over 95 percent of Adivasis live in rural areas, but less
than 10 percent are nomadic hunter-gatherers. Instead,
Population, Diaspora, and Migration over half of Adivasis rely on forest produce for their liveli-
According to the official Indian census of 2001, Adivasis hood, especially the leaves of tendu (Diospyros melanoxy-
comprise 8 percent of India’s total population, a percent- lon), which are used to make local cigarettes called bidi (or
age that includes over eighty-four million people. How- beedi). Consequently, some forested areas in which Adiva-
ever, unofficial figures suggest the Adivasis represent a far sis live suffer from deforestation. Since the period of British
higher percentage of India’s population. There are believed rule over India, there have been laws regulating the own-
to be over two hundred distinct Adivasi peoples. ership and use of the forests. Today, most of India’s forest
Adivasis live across India but tend to stick to mountain- land has been nationalized, essentially meaning swathes
ous or hilly areas, away from flat fertile plains. According of forest are contracted to private enterprises. As a result,
to the 2001 census, the largest Adivasi concentrations are the Adivasis are increasingly denied their land rights, and
found in Chhattisgarh (38 percent), Jharkhand (26 per- they can be fined or imprisoned for taking forest produce
cent), Madhya Pradesh (20 percent), Orissa (22 percent), that they have traditionally owned. The official reason for
Andhra Pradesh (6 percent), Gujarat (15 percent), Rajast- such state intervention is to stop deforestation throughout
han (12 percent), Maharashtra (9 percent), and Bihar (0.9 India. While there exist many reasons for India’s deforesta-
percent) (Minority Rights Group International 2015). The tion (including increased demand for firewood as fuel and
greatest general concentrations of Adivasis live in India’s logging, both commercial and illegal), the problem is often
far northeast as well as in an area sometimes referred to blamed on the Adivasis’ shifting cultivation. Dam con-
as the central tribal belt, which extends from Gujarat to struction is another serious environmental threat to the
West Bengal. As the Indian subcontinent’s earliest inhab- Adivasis. The dams are used to produce irrigation water
itants, the Adivasis once lived in much larger areas than and hydroelectricity, but they displace Adivasi communi-
they currently do. ties and alienate the Adivasis from their lands and natural
The patriarchal attitudes of modern India have increas- resources.
ingly eroded some of the gender equality traditionally
evident among Adivasi groups. Moreover, patriarchal
inheritance has resulted in a growing preference for sons History and Politics
among Adivasis, leading to an imbalance in the ratio of The Adivasis are the Indian subcontinent’s earliest inhabit-
Adivasi females to males. ants. However, little is known of Adivasi history. It is likely,
though, that many Adivasis were forced to move to moun-
tainous or hilly areas around three thousand years ago,
Geography and Environment following invasions by Indo-Aryan tribes. Over time, the
India is bordered by Pakistan in the northwest; by Nepal, Adivasis did not become integrated into the Hindu caste
China, and Bhutan to the north; and by Myanmar and society, though there were many points of contact between
 Adivasi 19

Hindus and the Adivasis. As a result of this contact, the Scheduled Tribes (Recognition of Forest Rights Bill) 2005,
Adivasi religious beliefs derive from aspects of Hinduism. little has been done to secure Adivasi land rights.
The Adivasis traded with villages located on plains and Adivasis have reserved seats in the Indian parliament
sometimes paid tribute to Hindu rulers. At the same time, and state legislatures. In the two houses of the Indian par-
Adivasi rulers sometimes ruled over non-Adivasis, while liament, the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha, 7 percent
some Adivasis settled permanently in villages and thereby of seats are reserved for Adivasis, and a similar number
entered India’s caste system. is reserved in the state assemblies in proportion to the
From the late eighteenth century, the unifying effect of percentage of Adivasis in a state’s population. However,
British political rule over India represented the first time because Adivasi voters are always a minority, except in
government was able to affect Adivasi society. British rule the northeast states where they form a majority, legisla-
brought money, government representatives, and financi- tion favoring Adivasis is easy to block. Additionally, India’s
ers to indigenous areas, and thus started the encroachment political system hampers the organization of Adivasis into
of outsiders on Adivasi land. From the mid-nineteenth separate parties, as it favors political representation by
century, the Adivasis staged revolts across eastern India in major parties.
response to the arrival of outsiders. These rebellions forced In northeast India, there have been a few isolated
the authorities to address the issues of the Adivasis’ vul- attempts to establish Adivasi political parties, the most
nerability to malign outside influences and to pass laws to noticeable occurring in eastern and southern Bihar,
protect Adivasi lands from interlopers. These laws (some where the Jharkhand movement—an Adivasi regional-
of which exist still) prevented the sale of Adivasi lands to ist m­ ovement—has operated since independence. The
non-Adivasis and aimed to restore land already appro- movement is rooted in the Santhal peoples of eastern
priated by outsiders. In actuality, these laws tended to be Bihar and western Bengal, the location of one of the first
disregarded, and unscrupulous dealers and moneylenders Adivasi rebellions against British rule. This area contains
managed to circumvent the laws when they were enacted. some of India’s richest mineral deposits. As a result, min-
Such problems still face modern Adivasis. ing, industrialization, and deforestation have strengthened
Over time, Christian missionaries began to work in Adi- the political awareness and resentment of local Adivasis.
vasi areas, particularly in northeast India, and managed to The Jharkhand movement has been behind several bandh
convert many Adivasis. The missionaries also introduced (strikes) and mass demonstrations and also tried, unsuc-
the Adivasis to Western-style education and increased cessfully, to establish a parallel government. India’s cen-
their political awareness. However, the Adivasis did not tral and state governments have both refused to create a
play a large role in the path to Indian independence. Jharkhand state, though the Jharkhand region does expe-
Indeed, only Adivasis living in India demanded autonomy. rience a degree of self-rule.
Under India’s 1950 constitution, the Adivasis, along with Some Adivasis have been influenced to call for higher
peoples dubbed “untouchable” by the caste system, were wages and payments for forest produce by Maoist left-
subject to special protective measures, with most indig- wing groups commonly called Naxalites. The Naxalite
enous peoples classified as scheduled tribes. In 1951, the movement, which began as part of student rebellion in
first amendment to the Indian constitution allowed for Bengal during the late 1960s and 1970s. later spread to the
states to make special provisions for the advancement of states of Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, and Andhra Pradesh. The
socially and educationally undeveloped citizens, includ- spread of the Naxalite movement meant Adivasis were vic-
ing scheduled tribes. India’s central government includes tims of pressure from both Naxalites and the government’s
a special commission for scheduled tribes and scheduled anti-Naxalites campaigns.
castes that publishes an annual report on these groups.
Included in the reports are accounts of illegal actions that
are committed against Adivasis, and recommendations are Society, Culture, and Tradition
given on how to improve their situation. Most Adivasis survive through subsistence farming and
Typically, Indian governments do have Adivasi minis- working as migrant laborers. Modern Adivasi economic
ters specifically charged with looking after Adivasi con- activities also include pastoralism, weaving, and metal-
cerns. However, despite the establishment of a Ministry of work. Adivasi subsistence farming involves either working
Tribal Affairs (1999) and legislative action in the form of on settled plots or the practice of rotational horticulture
20 Adivasi

(jhum), which allows fields to lie fallow for a few years. The higher education (Minority Rights Group International
advent of a modern and industrialized India has resulted 2015). There is little if any education provided in any of the
in the loss of traditional Adivasi forests, which in turn has languages the Adivasis speak. Consequently, the number of
reduced the number of Adivasi hunter-gather populations. Adivasis speaking these languages has decreased because
At the same time, some Adivasis have learned new farming they are educated in languages other than their own, result-
techniques that have improved their food security. ing in language loss. This in turn means that Adivasis are
Traditionally, Adivasis hold more egalitarian attitudes increasingly unable to communicate with each other.
than many mainstream Indians, as many Adivasi groups
permit women significant freedoms. Adivasi groups also
do not have a caste hierarchy (Raman 2009). Many groups Threats to Survival
assign women specific roles within their households, but Adivasis face discrimination, mistreatment, and violence
many other groups allow for women to become priests from mainstream Indians and represent the lowest posi-
and community leaders. Several Adivasi groups also allow tion of virtually all socioeconomic indicators. Government
women to inherit or have female lines of descent either programs aim to integrate the Adivasis into mainstream
through the eldest or the youngest daughter. Polyandry society rather than allowing the Adivasis to maintain their
occurs in some Adivasi communities. traditional lifestyle. While the most populous Adivasi tribal
groups and the Adivasi languages with the most speakers
will survive, the destruction of the Adivasi environment,
Health Care and Education natural resources, and economic opportunities represent
Adivasi traditions mean many Adivasis seek spiritual heal- grave threats to smaller Adivasi groups, who may face
ing rather than medical assistance. Additionally, Adivasis cultural extinction. In theory, the Adivasis should benefit
have practiced herbal medicine and naturopathy since from positive discrimination, but the impact of quota sys-
ancient times. Today, however, rich urbanized Indians tems on Adivasis is negligible.
seek out these forms of healing because they see them as The introduction of the Panchayat Raj (Extension to the
optimal treatments. Consequently, Adivasis are being sys- Scheduled Areas) Act of 1996 was intended as a legisla-
tematically denied the resources needed to practice herbal tive means of giving rural Adivasis some self-rule through
medicine, as these are appropriated by corporations that the establishment of village political bodies. This legisla-
use up herbal resources and medicinal plants. Most Adi- tion has helped Adivasis react to local issues and organize
vasis in India are malnourished, and they have very lim- themselves locally. However, the act needs better imple-
ited or no access to hospital care. Additionally, the social mentation to help Adivasis protect their economic inter-
stigma attached to dealing with Adivasis means healthcare ests, resources, and cultural identity. Moreover, the Indian
services never reach some Adivasi communities. However, authorities have not been particularly supportive of Adi-
the fact that some Adivasis have managed to access mod- vasi demands for the redistribution of their land rights
ern medicine has resulted in lower Adivasi mortality rates. and the rights of Adivasi farmers and laborers (Minority
As a result of barriers to health care, many Adivasis Rights Group International 2015). Indeed, the Adivasi dis-
are chronically ill. Common ailments experienced by the tricts of West Bengal-Birbhum, Bankura, and Purulia are
Adivasis include skin diseases, uterus problems, tuber- among the most impoverished parts in India, despite the
culosis, kidney deficiencies, and communicable diseases, left-orientated government in power there since 1977.
including malaria, filaria, tuberculosis, leprosy, skin infec- The creation of Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, and
tions, sexually transmitted diseases, HIV, typhoid, cholera, Uttaranchal under the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) gov-
diarrheal diseases, hepatitis, and viral fevers. Alcohol is a ernment has helped the Adivasis somewhat improve their
major contributing factor to many conditions from which sense of identity. Only time will tell which reforms the gov-
the Adivasis suffer. ernments of these states will implement to protect Adivasi
Many Adivasis have benefited from constitutional meas- interests. Essentially, the state of Jharkhand was created to
ures that reserve for them places in education, the civil ser- give the Adivasi community its right to political organiza-
vice, and nationalized industries. However, only around tion in the guise of a distinct state.
68 percent of Adivasi children reach high school, so most One of the main threats to the Adivasi economy and
are unable to make use of the places reserved for them in society is their gradual displacement from their traditional
 Aeta 21

land. For the past hundred years, the Adivasis have been AETA
denied land rights and displaced from the land, but few
Adivasis have received compensation. Those that have been
compensated have received only extremely small amounts. Current Location Philippines
This paucity of compensation is due to legal obstacles cre- Current Population 35,000
ated to deny Adivasis compensation. For example, com- Language Ambala; Bataan; Mag-anchi;
pensation is typically paid for individually owned land, but Mag-indi
Adivasi land is usually communally owned or is held in an Interesting Fact The Aetas likely arrived in their
ancestor’s name. homeland between 20,000 and
One initiative that has been beneficial was introduced 30,000 years ago.
by the current Indian government: the Scheduled Tribes
(Recognition of Forest Rights) Bill of 2005. The bill rec-
ognizes scheduled tribes as legitimate participants in for-
Overview
est management and intends to secure Adivasi ownership The Aetas (also called the Agta, Ita, Ayta, or Negritos)
rights over minor forest produce, grazing rights, habitat are a group of indigenous peoples of the Philippines.
and habitation for tribes, and the community rights to The Aetas speak languages that include Ambala, Bataan,
traditional forest knowledge. However, the bill’s long-term Mag-anchi, and Mag-indi, which belong to the Sambal
impact is not yet known. division of Philippine languages. Most Aetas hold ani-
To help the Adivasis further, the Indian government mistic religious beliefs, though some have recently con-
needs to take seriously Adivasi grievances over their verted to Christianity, especially Roman Catholicism.
displacement and poverty. There have been recent cases In the past, the Aetas were commonly referred to in
where police have fired on unarmed Adivasis protesting anthropological writing as the Negritos (small blacks) on
against powerful corporations. They have been bullied and account of their dark skin and black kinky hair. However,
harassed by police, forest wardens, and other officials, and recent genetic studies have concluded that the Aetas are
many have been arrested and even imprisoned, despite as distant from African gene pools as the rest of the Phil-
committing minor offenses. This has led to Adivasis trying ippines’ population.
to bribe officials or fleeing to jungles to escape persecution.
The shootings, arrests, and general mistreatment of
Adivasis have exposed the inadequacies in the Indian legal Population, Diaspora, and Migration
system while also causing great distrust on the part of the The Aeta population is estimated at around thirty-five
Adivasis against the Indian authorities. It is likely that thousand (Pennoyer 2005). However, this estimate is taken
official brutality will cause more Adivasis to participate in from the number of Aeta families that had to be relocated
violence as espoused by the Naxalite movement (Minority after the massive volcanic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in
Rights Group International 2015). 1991 that resulted in the relocation of thousands of Aetas.
Before the eruption, the Aetas lived in the mountains and
See also: Gujarati; Hindi; Onge; Oraon; Sikh
forests on and around Mount Pinatubo, as the Aetas have
Further Reading long considered the surroundings of the volcano their
Choksi, Nishaant. 2011. “Adivasi Movement Media (India).” In
home. Today, the Aetas live in small villages and resettle-
Encyclopedia of Social Movement Media, edited by John D. H.
Downing, 4–6. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications. ment areas located in the mountains and coastal foothills
Indigenous Women’s Network, INDIA. n.d. “Situation of Indig- of the Philippines’ Zambales, Bataan, Pampanga, and Tar-
enous Peoples and Rights to Health.” https://www​.ohchr​ lac provinces. Traditionally, the Aetas live in small mobile
.org/Documents/Issues/IPeoples/EMRIP/Health​/Indi​genous​ groups comprising one to five families that practice slash-
Women​NetworkIndia.pdf. and-burn farming known locally as kaingin.
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “India: Adivasis.”
After the eruption of Mount Pinatubo, relief organiza-
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, June
19. https://minorityrights.org/minorities/adivasis-2. tions and governmental agencies relocated many Aeta fam-
Raman, Sita Anantha. 2009. Women in India: A Social and Cul- ilies to resettlement villages in surrounding regions. The
tural History. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. large-scale deforestation experienced by the Philippines
has also resulted in the relocation of Aeta communities.
22 Aeta

These communities have also experienced population Lingayen Gulf in the north to the Bataan Peninsula and
reduction as a result of the loss of their forest resources. south to the entrance to Manila Bay. The Zambales Moun-
The loss of their traditional forest habitat has also led to tains are rich in minerals, and their slopes are densely for-
the loss of elements of Aeta culture. For example, far fewer ested. In 1991, Mount Pinatubo, located in the Zambales
Aeta men now know how to use a bow and arrow com- Mountains, erupted for the first time in six hundred years.
pared to the 1970s, and basketball has become the favorite The eruption killed 300 people, left 1.3 million people dis-
pastime of Aeta boys (West 2009). placed, and destroyed 98,600 cubic hectares of farmland
as well as $80 million worth of infrastructure (Pennoyer
2005). As a result of the eruption, the Aetas were left
Geography and Environment homeless and landless. In later years, Aeta land has suf-
Traditionally, the Aetas lived on the islands of Luzon, Pala- fered lahars, floods of mud and ash that leave farmland
wan, and Mindanao (or the Southern Philippines) and else- unusable.
where in the Philippines. They tend to live in mountainous In the second half of the twentieth century, Aeta areas
areas that are cooler than the lowland tropical areas of the experienced increasing levels of deforestation at the hands
Philippines and experience most of their rainfall between of slash-and-burn farmers and logging companies. The
May and October. Mountainous areas inhabited by the deforestation resulted in the loss of Aeta hunter-gatherer
Aetas include the Sierra Madre Mountains on Luzon’s grounds. In the 1960s, the forests of the Sierra Madre
eastern coast and the Zambales Mountains in the south- Mountains were home to dense forests containing enough
western part of northern Luzon in Pinatubo province. The wild food and other resources to support several thou-
Zambales Mountains stretch northwest–southeast, from sand Aetas. It is estimated that around 97 percent of the

An Aeta boy holds his brother in Capas, Philippines. The exact Aeta population is unknown because thousands of Aeta families had to
be relocated following the volcanic eruption of Mount Pinatubo in 1991. (Namhwi Kim/Dreamstime.com)
 Aeta 23

Philippines’ forests have been cleared, including those cov- U.S. base at Subic Bay, train U.S. soldiers in jungle warfare,
ering the Sierra Madre range (West 2009). tracking, and survival techniques.
The Aetas regard the period of 1965–1979 as the time
when the wholesale loss of their ancestral lands began and
History and Politics outside politics started to intrude on their daily lives. The
The origins of the Aeta are unknown. One popular anthro- Aetas consider the 1980s as the peasant phase of their his-
pological theory suggests that the Aeta are the descendants tory, as they had all but totally lost the connection to their
of the Philippines’ original inhabitants, who arrived on the hunter-gatherer past and instead existed as poorly paid
island of Luzon from Borneo when the two separate islands laborers working for lowlanders. The 1990s saw two events
formed a single landmass between twenty thousand and that greatly impacted the Aetas. First, the Philippines took
thirty thousand years ago or from mainland Asia via land over the running of the U.S. military bases that had con-
bridges around thirty thousand years ago. The early Aetas tinued to operate in Aeta areas following the Vietnam War.
survived by hunting and fishing along coasts and rivers The Aetas had been employed on the bases as guards, but
and in forests. When Austronesian farmers settled in Aeta when the United States’ lease on the bases expired, they
areas around 3000 BCE, the Aetas were gradually forced to removed all base personnel. Later, some enterprising Aetas
relocate to more isolated, higher altitude areas. The arrival earned money by teaching indigenous jungle survival
of the Austronesians also caused many Aeta languages methods to tourists.
to be supplanted by Austronesian languages. The Austro- It was, however, the eruption of Mount Pinatubo that
nesian immigration also caused the Aetas to adopt basic had the greatest effect on the Aetas. In March, April, and
slash-and-burn agriculture, which supplemented their May 1991, a sequence of volcanic activity, including earth-
hunter-gatherer diet. quakes, explosions, and ash clouds, occurred on Mount
During the sixteenth century, Spanish colonists in the Pinatubo that caused the Aetas to steadily move to coastal
Philippines tried to make the Aetas live in settled highland towns. When the volcano’s eruptions began in June, vol-
reservations, where they could convert the Aetas to Roman canic ash fell on the coastal towns, and lava ran down the
Catholicism. However, the Aetas were largely able to shrug sides of the volcano and surrounding mountain slopes.
off these attempts to curtail their traditional lifestyles and The lava blocked local drainage systems, thereby causing
maintained their interactions with the Spanish on their mud and heated rocks to flow across settlements and culti-
own terms (West 2009). Over time, two types of Aeta com- vated land. Though most people survived the disaster, they
munities developed: the nonconquestados, who remained lost their homes, animals, and crops.
hostile to any contact with outsiders and subsequently In 1992, Aeta resettlement areas were created in the
moved further inland to avoid the Spanish, Malays, and provinces surrounding Mount Pinatubo, but by this time
others, and the conquestados, who entered into friendly many Aetas, who had been forced to live in tented camps,
relations with lowlanders and the colonists with whom had died of disease and from a lack of sanitation. In time,
they traded. the Aeta LAKAS organization (the Lubos na Alyansa ng
Once the United States took over the administration of mga Katutubong Aeta ng Sambales or Negrito People’s Alli-
the Philippines in the early twentieth century, the Aetas ance of Zambales) acquired property in Zambales near
became more greatly influenced by outsiders. In particu- a resettlement center, where 150 Aeta families were each
lar, Atea areas experienced an influx of lowland peasants given land on which to grow crops, including sweet pota-
who went on to form influential bodies such as the local toes, mangoes, and cashews. In 2001, some of the Philip-
police and paramilitary organizations, both of which dis- pines’ indigenous peoples, including some Aetas, received
rupted Aeta lives. In response to the rush of immigrants to Certificates of Ancestral Domain Title, but the granting of
their land, the nonconquestados fought back against the land has been slow; by 2006, only forty-four such certifi-
migrants, but the conquestados worked for the migrants cates had been awarded (Minority Rights Group Interna-
as laborers and so became increasingly assimilated into tional 2015).
settler society. Despite resistance to the settlers from some Land that has been recognized by the certificates can
Aetas, the Aetas remained a largely peaceful people. Dur- still be taken by development projects. Mining and other
ing the Vietnam War, however, the U.S. military made resource extraction projects can move forward if the organ-
many Aeta men from Pastolan village, located close to the ization obtains a certificate of Free, Prior and Informed
24 Aeta

Consent (FPIC) from the indigenous peoples on whose outsiders, including illegal loggers and miners operating on
land the development would occur. Recently, many indig- the mountain and U.S. Air Force maneuvers in the vicinity.
enous groups, including the Aetas, have claimed that they Aeta spirit mediums suggested that the U.S. government
have repeatedly been deceived and intimidated by compa- and military make an animal sacrifice to appease the vol-
nies wishing to receive a FPIC. Some indigenous commu- cano and prevent further eruptions (Pennoyer 2005).
nities even claim members of their population have been
assassinated for a FPIC. The most recent assassination of an
Aeta activist occurred in 2006, but there are multiple claims
Health Care and Education
of indigenous leaders being murdered, with their killings
linked to the defense of their ancestral lands (Minority Since the 1980s, the Aetas have experienced health prob-
Rights Group International 2015). In 2006, new guide- lems, including alcoholism, low birth weights, high mor-
lines regarding FPICs were published, but it is unknown tality rates, and diseases linked to poverty, to the extent
whether the new rules will bring about an improvement that their entire survival was threatened (West 2009).
in the situation. Recent development projects, including Traditionally, the Aetas believe ill health and disease can
mining, the creation of the Subic-Clark-Tarlac Expressway, be cured through such healing rituals as the manganito
and various ecotourism projects, have caused Aetas to flee (a type of possession séance). The Aetas believe the soul
the area around Mount Pinatubo. (kaelwa) is a separate entity that lives within the human
body. They attribute any disturbance to the body, such as
disease, to a weakening of the kaelwa. They also believe
the kaelwa continues to exist after death; the deceased
Society, Culture, and Tradition proceeds to the summit of Mount Pinatubo, where it lives
Traditional Aeta culture revolves around hunting, fishing, with all other dead Aetas. The Aetas believe that the dead
and foraging for food. Recently, the Malay practice of elect- can bring about illness in the living. This is one of the rea-
ing a village chief has been imposed on the Aetas. Local sons that they traditionally migrated between settlements,
governments try to ensure the chief, usually an older male, for doing so meant that the dead were unable to locate the
is respected by his community. The chief receives no pay living and so bring about sickness in the living.
for fulfilling the role, and while the role has some social In the past, Aeta women were less educated than Aeta
importance, the chief has little real power. men and worked more hours, causing them to suffer from
A small but growing number of Aetas have recently worse health and nutrition. Improvements in Aeta gender
converted to Roman Catholicism. However, the Aetas have equality has resulted in a better understanding of equality
largely maintained their own beliefs, which focus on a rights and improved the health of Aeta women to a degree
dominant Creator-God (called Magbabaya or Apo Namal- (Miclat-Teves 2015). The Aetas have also suffered from a
yari, among other names) as well as numerous lesser gods, lack of access to education, which meant they were often
spirits, ancestral beings, and supernatural entities. The forced to work as low-paid laborers.
Aetas’ polytheistic beliefs include reverence for the gods of The Aetas’ resettlement following the eruption of
the sky, winds, hunting, and forests, while lesser deities are Mount Pinatubo has provided them with greater access to
associated with specific trees and villages. The Aetas view a variety of social services. Partly due to a literacy program
forests as ambivalent entities, as they can bring forth life implemented by the Sisters of the Franciscan Missionar-
and provide food but can also be the scene of misfortune. ies of Mary, in 2000, thirty Aetas finished high school and
Aetas call benevolent spirits the anito, and evil spirits are four completed college (Pennoyer 2005). Theoretically,
known as the kamana. Before setting out on a hunting or under the Indigenous Peoples Rights Act (1997), all indig-
fishing expedition, it is traditional for the Aetas to perform enous peoples in the Philippines have the right to educa-
a dance during which they make an offering to the kamana tion in their mother tongue. However, this right is often
and other angry spirits. not implemented. The Philippines’ Institute for Indigenous
The Aetas consider Mount Pinatubo the home of their Peoples’ Education has created some schools aimed at
Creator-God and therefore as an extremely sacred location. teaching indigenous culture and traditions, but the teach-
Furthermore, many Aetas believe the volcano’s catastrophic ing of indigenous languages is not part of the state’s cur-
eruption of 1991 was caused by the sacrilegious actions of riculum. Privately run indigenous schools do occasionally
 Afar 25

teach indigenous languages, but they are often hindered AFAR

by Department of Education authorities (Minority Rights
Group International 2015). Nonetheless, in recent years, Current Location Ethiopia; Djibouti; Eritrea
most Aeta children have come to attend school and study Current Population 1.5 million–3.5 million
the same curriculum as other Filipino children. However, Language Afar
many Aeta village schools lack teaching materials. Interesting Fact The Afar dip a bridegroom’s hand
To preserve the Aeta culture as much as possible follow- in sheep’s blood and then place the
ing the eruption of Mount Pinatubo, LAKAS established hand on the man’s face for good
a School of Indigenous Knowledge and Traditions of the luck.
Ayta Tribe. The University of the Philippines also includes
an Aeta Studies Center that aims to preserve Aeta culture.
Overview
Recently, the Aeta functional literacy rate has improved,
and there has been an increasing realization among Aetas The Afar are an ancient Semitic people living in Ethiopia,
in the importance of education as a gateway to earn- Djibouti, and Eritrea, countries located in the Horn of
ing higher wages and subsequently gaining an improved Africa. The Afar used to be known as the Danakil. Afar
standard of living as well as greater self-esteem. Further- people speak the Afar language, which is part of the East-
more, Aeta women have become more active in making ern Cushitic branch of the Afroasiatic family of languages.
their daughters attend school (Miclat-Teves 2015). As the Afar are nomadic, their language is also spoken
outside of their homeland areas in places to which they
travel. Together with the Saho language, Afar constitutes
Threats to Survival the Saho-Afar dialect cluster. The cultural center and de
The Aetas way of life was profoundly changed by the erup- facto capital for the Afar in general is Asayita, in Ethiopia.
tion of Mount Pinatubo. Those Aetas that survived the nat- The most important location for Eritrean Afar is Assab,
ural disaster lost their homes, fields, and animals. At the and the Djibouti Afar consider Tajoura their most signif-
same time, however, the disaster has enabled some Aetas to icant site.
gain access to services that they might not otherwise have
been able to reach. The disaster also galvanized some Aetas
to form organizations aimed at safeguarding the Aeta cul- Population, Diaspora, and Migration
ture; however, many elements of the traditional Aeta way It is difficult to give exact population figures for the Afar
of life have greatly diminished, and assimilation contin- because many Afar are nomadic and therefore travel
ues to present a threat to the Aetas. The Aetas that have around a great deal. Estimates suggest, however, that there
received title to their ancestral lands also report having to are between 1.5 million (Abbink 2005) and 3.5 million
face harassment and even threats of death from outsiders. (Dankalia.org n.d.) Afar people in total living in Ethiopia,
Djibouti, and Eritrea. Most Afar live in Ethiopia, while the
See also: Batak; Bicol; Igorot
Afar living in Djibouti and Eritrea make up a significant
Further Reading minority in those countries.
Miclat-Teves, Aurea, ed. 2015. The Aetas Land and Life. Que-
zon City, Philippines: Peoples Development Institute. http://​
www.peoplesdevelopmentinstitute.org/wp-content/uploads​ Geography and Environment
/2015/08/16.-The-Aetas-Land-and-Life.pdf.
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Philippines: Indig- The Afar homeland lies in the Afar Triangle (also known
enous People.” World Directory of Minorities and Indige- as the Afar Depression and formerly known as the Danakil
nous Peoples, June 19. https://minorityrights.org/minorities​ Depression), which is located in the Great Rift Valley that
/indigenous-peoples-6. reaches across northeastern Ethiopia, northern Djibouti,
Pennoyer, F. Douglas. 2005. “Ayta.” In Encyclopedia of the World’s
and southeastern Eritrea. The Afar homeland has no offi-
Minorities, edited by Carl Skutsch, 161–163. New York:
Routledge. cial status in either Djibouti or Eritrea, but in Ethiopia, the
West, Barbara A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and area is one of the country’s official states.
Oceania. New York: Facts on File. The Afar Triangle is mainly desert scrubland with shal-
low salty lakes and long chains of volcanoes. The Awash
26 Afar

River Valley is located in the southern part of the area, have no choice but to let the extreme heat govern every
where the river flows into lakes in the north of the region aspect of their lives: the heat dictates when the Afar work
along the Ethiopian-Djibouti border rather than into the and sleep, how quickly they move, and even how fast they
sea. Much of the Afar Triangle lies below sea level. In par- talk, as they need to conserve water bodily and are often
ticular, the crater lake, Lake Assal, lies 509 feet below sea thirsty.
level, making the lake the lowest point on land in Africa An advantage of living near Lake Assal in the extremely
and also the third-lowest point on Earth, after the Sea of hot climate is that the lake’s lack of outflow combined with
Galilee and the Dead Sea. The area around Lake Assal is high temperatures means the lake water evaporates. Con-
one of the hottest places on Earth, with summer temper- sequently, the lake’s salinity level is ten times saltier than
atures in excess of fifty degrees centigrade. The Afar liv- seawater, and the lake is the second most saline lake in the
ing around Lake Assal are very poor and unable to afford world. The lake’s retreating water has left behind a stretch
air-conditioning and such like. For this reason, the Afar of crystal white salt that has proved to be an economic

Semitic People
Semitic people, also known as Semites, are an ethnic, cultural, or racial group that speaks a Semitic language, that
is, a language from the branch of the Afroasiatic language family that originated in the Middle East. Semitic lan-
guages are spoken by hundreds of millions of people across much of Western Asia, North Africa, and the Horn of
Africa as well as in expatriate communities in North America, Europe, the Caucasus, and Central Asia. The term
Semitic derives from the Hebrew name of one of the sons of the biblical Noah, Shem, as noted in the Book of
Genesis.

An Afar girl milks a goat near the village of Indoburi, Ethiopia. Most Afar are pastoralists who herd goats, camels, and cattle across a
harsh desert environment. (Sjors737/Dreamstime.com)
 Afar 27

lifeline for the Afar, who for centuries have dug the salt and Christians regrouped, however, and with the help of the
sold it to Ethiopia and nowadays, increasingly, to tourists. Portuguese army fought back, making the Afar and their
The area in which the Afar live sits at the meeting point allies, the Saho, retreat into the desert. Newly ensconced in
of three of the earth’s tectonic plates—a divergent plate their desert homeland, the Afar avoided contact with out-
boundary known as the Afar Triple Junction that divides siders for centuries.
the Nubian, Somalian, and Arabian plates. Where these At the end of the nineteenth century, Italy established
tectonic plates meet the landscape is characterized by a colony in the region populated by the Afar, though the
fractures, fissures, and volcanoes. The only other country Italian colonists tended not to venture into the desert on
in the world with similar seismic conditions is Iceland. account of the area being so inhospitable. Ethiopia, fear-
The Afar Triple Junction is regarded as an example of con- ing Europeans would expand their colony into Ethiopian
tinental rifting leading to spreading of the seafloor, with land, invaded and won Afar land. Ultimately, Afar land was
this activity producing an oceanic basin. The Afar Triple divided between three colonial forces: Italy, Ethiopia, and
Junction stretches 4,039 miles, from the Afar Triangle to France. The Afar refused to recognize the international
Mozambique. The Afar are aware that one day an earth- borders imposed by colonial powers, however, and drove
quake could occur in their homeland, thereby creating a their animals across international boundaries. The geog-
new ocean that will wash away the salt plains and sub- raphy of the Afar Triangle allowed the area to stay outside
merge their homes. of colonial control until World War II, though Europeans
crossed the depression in 1928.
Over time, the French colonial government came to
History and Politics favor the Afar over the more troublesome Issa people,
That people have lived in the Afar homeland since time who wished to unite their land with Somalia. The rela-
immemorial is demonstrated by the fact that fossil finds tive benevolence shown to the Afar by the French led to
such as “Lucy” (a collection of fossilized bones that once the Afar voting to retain their ties with France in a 1967
made up the skeleton of a hominid from the Australo- referendum, thereby rejecting independence for their
pithecus afarensis species of human) dating from around region. The Afar living in Italian-controlled Eritrea were
3.2 million years ago have been discovered in the area. the first Afar to experience modern Western education,
Other hominid remains found nearby are between 3.5 mil- and this education equipped them to become the lead-
lion and 3.8 million years old. Indeed, the Afar homeland ers of the Afar national movement that developed in the
is thought by some archaeologists to be the birthplace of early 1950s. Over the next twenty years, Afar nationalism
the original humans some 4.4 million years ago. According gained support, but it only became truly popular after the
to the Afar, they are descended from Ham, who is noted in Ethiopian revolution in 1974. By the end of the 1970s, Afar
the Bible as being the son of Noah. sultans had acquired a merely ceremonial function as tra-
Many thousands of years ago, the Afar migrated from ditional Afar social hierarchies began to disappear. Also
southern Arabia to the Afar Triangle, where they mixed around this time, the Afar were disgusted when Ethiopia’s
with the area’s indigenous peoples to create a distinct new Marxist government tried to carry out Marxist land
nomadic, tribal society. The hot, dry environment in which reform that aimed to divide Afar land and give some of
the Afar lived discouraged other peoples from trying to the land to people from outside of the Afar region. Afar
conquer Afar territory, though at various times the Afar protests against the land reforms were met with violence
did live under the Ethiopian Empire. by the government, leading many Afar to flee to French-
During the seventh century, Arab sailors converted the owned territory, where the Afar refugees formed the Afar
Afar living on the African coast to Islam, and by the twelfth Liberation Front (ALF).
century, Afar living in the African interior had also con- Ethiopia’s Marxist government was ousted in 1991,
verted to Islam. The influence of Islam meant that by the allowing for the creation of an autonomous Afar Region
end of the twelfth century, Afar society was divided into within the newly democratic nation, though in actuality
individual sultanates that eventually united to form a pow- the region has limited autonomy that is not sufficient to
erful Afar confederacy. In the sixteenth century, Ahmad satisfy some Afar nationalists. In late 1991, a major Afar
ibn Ghazi, an Afar military commander, launched a jihad uprising in Djibouti ended in many Afar deaths and the
against Christian Ethiopians, whom they defeated. The formation of the Djibouti Afar nationalist group, the Front
28 Afar

for the Restoration of Unity and Democracy (FRUD). The when warfare is likely. Afar society is divided into two dis-
group launched guerrilla attacks against the Djibouti gov- tinct classes, the Asaimara (Red Men) and the Adoimara
ernment and received military and political assistance (White Men), which denote landowning titled nobility and
from the Afar living in Eritrea and Ethiopia. Demands for lower-class tenants, respectively.
an independent Afar state increased in 1993 when the Dji- Afar society is also divided into age sets in which peo-
bouti government launched an offensive against the Afar, ple of roughly the same age are subject to a chief who
capturing areas held by FRUD. At around the same time, settles disagreements among them. Apart from this, Afar
Eritrea gained independence from Ethiopia, a move that legal procedures consist of rules for adultery compensa-
the Afar denounced as a further division of traditional tion that involve fines being awarded to the husband of an
Afar land. adulterous wife. Revenge for murder is also permitted, and,
The fighting between the Djibouti government and traditionally, an Afar man could not marry until he had
FRUD rebels continued until multiparty democracy took killed another man (Minahan 2002). This is likely because
hold in the country. In 1994, FRUD split into various the Afar value bravery and strength and consider killing
factions over the question of how far the group should enemies to be a prestigious activity.
cooperate with the Djibouti government. In 1997, the The Afar are ostensibly Muslim, but they adhere to
remaining FRUD rebels resumed armed fighting against minimal levels of religious practice. Islam is followed
the Djibouti government, leading to several FRUD leaders most closely by the Afar living in coastal areas. The more
being arrested in Ethiopia and subsequently sent back to nomadic Afar living in the interior of the Afar homeland
Djibouti, where they faced charges of inciting violence. A hold Islam in the highest regard, but they are fairly relaxed
year later, a border war broke out between Ethiopia and about religion. The desert-dwelling Afar hold their own
Eritrea. Much of the fighting took place on Afar land, rituals that have been influenced by regional indigenous
causing many Afar to become displaced. The war even- religion. Vestiges of earlier religious activity can be seen
tually ended in the mid-2000s after the Afar called for a in the Afar belief in sacred groves and special trees, rain
cease-fire, though armed forces continued to patrol border sacrifices that the Afar perform on the Ethiopian volcano
areas, which severely curtailed Afar nationalist activities Mount Ayalu, in various forms of fortune-telling, and in
in the area. the use of traditional folk medicine. Although they are
At the start of the twenty-first century, the Afar remain nominally Muslim and therefore allowed multiple wives,
under the control of three national governments, and they the Afar are monogamous.
are also ideologically divided between those Afar that wish An aspect of Afar culture that is often remarked upon
to cooperate with their national governments and those is the people’s distinctive asdago hairstyle that is styled
that would like to see the creation of an independent Afar by applying butter. The butter gives Afar hair an ashen
state. appearance, but it also moisturizes the hair and protects it
from the sun. Another defining feature of Afar appearance
is the long jile (or gile) dagger that is worn by most Afar
Society, Culture, and Tradition men. Many Afar men also carry semiautomatic rifles.
The Afar are mainly pastoralists who drive their livestock
(goats, camels, and cattle) across a harsh desert environ-
ment. But there are some exceptions to this; Afar fisher- Health Care and Education
men can be found in coastal areas of the Afar homeland, The Afar have fewer hospitals or schools than almost any
and Afar agriculturalists can be found in desert oasis areas. other area of Ethiopia. This is one of the reasons that the
In recent years, however, environmental crises, such as lack Afar die younger than other Ethiopian peoples. Only about
of water, have led the Afar variously to migrate, to become 5 percent of the Afar population have access to adequate
migrant laborers, or to become traders, especially salt health care, and according to the World Health Organi-
traders. zation (WHO), only two hospitals serve the entire Afar
The Afar are a proud, highly individualistic people and population. There are virtually no Afar immunization pro-
are much feared by outsiders. Afar communities are organ- grams (IRIN 2017). The Afar homeland lacks such basic
ized in patrilineal kin groups, with cooperation between infrastructure as electricity, transport, and communica-
larger units, such as subtribes or tribes, occurring only tions, thereby hindering the delivery of health services and
 Agul 29

the ability of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to means that Afar areas could produce a form of geothermal
become established in Afar areas. heat in the future that would provide energy for countries
One of the small number of NGOs to operate in Afar such as Djibouti. In addition, engineers could harness the
areas is Medicins Sans Frontiers (MSF, sometimes called steam and hot water reservoirs located under Afar land to
Doctors without Borders in English), which began help- generate electricity. In the long run, this geothermal elec-
ing the Afar living in the extremely remote Teru area in tricity could be used to develop infrastructure in Afar areas.
April 2013 in response to a nutritional emergency. Teru
See also: Copts
is subject to huge sandstorms, extremely high summer
Further Reading
temperatures, and violent rainstorms that cause flooding
Abbink, Jon. 2005. “Afar.” In Encyclopedia of the World’s Minor-
that renders roads unusable. Such conditions make it very ities, edited by Carl Skutsch, 11–13. Vol. 1, A–F. New York:
difficult for NGOs to provide health care to the Afar. The Routledge.
nomadic lifestyles of some Afar mean that even when they Bridge, Sarah. 2014. “The Ethiopian Tribes Who Use Butter to
do obtain health care, they have to leave a locale in search Style Their Hair: Incredible Photos Reveal the Elaborate
of water or pasture for their livestock before they finish a Curled Creations of the Afar People, and the Hamer Who
Mix Ghee with Red Ochre to Spectacular Effect.” Daily
course of treatment or medical program.
Mail.com, February 13. http://www.dailymail.co.uk/femail​
MSF’s intervention in the Afar homeland managed to /article-2555821/The-Ethiopian-tribes-use-BUTTER-style​
reach Afar people who would otherwise be completely -hair-Incredible-photos-reveal-elaborate-curled-styles-Afar​
deprived of health care. The most prevalent health issue -people-Hamer-mix-ghee-red-ochre-spectacular-effect​
for the Afar living in this area was severe acute malnutri- .html.
tion accompanied by complications such as pneumonia Brown, Vicky, and Thomas Page. 2016. “The Afar: The Toughest
People on Earth?” CNN: Inside Africa, April 6. http://edition​
and tuberculosis.
.cnn.com/2016/04/06/africa/djibouti-afar-geology/index​
In general, the Afar do not receive formal education, .html.
with only 1 percent of finishing primary school (IRIN Dankalia.org. n.d. “Eritrean Afar People.” http://dankalia.org​
2017). Afar illiteracy is around 8 percent (Minahan 2002). /about/eritrean-afar-people.
That said, those Afar that are educated have formed elites IRIN. 2017. “Focus on the Afar People.” http://www.irinnews.org​
and become teachers, spokespeople, and administrators. /report/31943/ethiopia-focus-afar-people.
Lewis, I. M. 2017. Ethnographic Survey of Africa: Peoples of the
The Djibouti Afar are the most educated, as they retain
Horn of Africa (Somali, Afar and Saho): North Eastern Africa,
some links to France. Indeed, many Djibouti Afar travel to Part 1. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
France to enter into higher education. Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 1, A–C.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing.
Threats to Survival MSF USA. 2013. “Isolated and Malnourished: Treating Patients
in Afar Ethiopia.” Medecins Sans Frontiers, September 24.
Much of the Afar homeland is in the midst of major cli-
https://www.doctorswithoutborders.org/what-we-do/news​
matic and geological change. Climate change is affecting -stories/news/isolated-and-malnourished-treating-patients​
Afar nomads because the areas in which they live do not -afar-ethiopia.
receive enough rain to produce grass on which to feed their
animals. This means that the animals die, and the nomads
then suffer from malnutrition and ill health. Drinking
water is at a premium, and as the populations in Afar areas
increase, national governments will find it increasingly AGUL
difficult to deliver drinking water to Afar families. Afar
families that receive incomes from salt trading will most
Current Location Dagestan (Russian Federation)
likely be unable to pay private firms for water, as the price
of salt is falling. Current Population 40,000–100,000
On the positive side, the Afar Triangle’s seismic activ- Language Agul dialects
ity may be able to provide a sustainable future for the Afar Interesting Fact The Aguls have lived in Dagestan
nomads. The seismic activity creates fissures in which lava since before the start of recorded
collects, heating the earth and surrounding water. This history.
30 Agul

Overview Golden Horde overran the Aguls’ mountain homeland, as

The Aguls (also called the Aghuls, Aqulik, Aigul, or Shui, did the forces of Tamerlane, the Turco-Mongol conqueror.
among other names) are an indigenous Caucasian people During the fifteenth century, the Ottomans extended their
of Dagestan. They refer to themselves as the agiul shui. The empire into Agul land. Following the increased influence of
Aguls speak regional Agul dialects, including Agul, Kere, Arabs and Ottomans, the various Agul tribes adopted the
and Koshan, which belong to the Lezgian-Samur group of social systems, culture, and religion of Islam. Before this,
Caucasian languages. They are Sunni Muslims. the Aguls had either adhered to their traditional animist
religion or followed Zoroastrianism, Judaism, or Christi-
anity. By the nineteenth century, all Aguls were Muslim.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration At the start of the sixteenth century, the Persian Safavid
Population estimates for the Aguls place the figure at dynasty established its rule over Dagestan, which would
between forty thousand and one hundred thousand peo- continue intermittently until the early nineteenth century.
ple (Minahan 2016). The Agul homeland is located in In the seventeenth century, the Aguls living in the Agul-
Agul Rayon (county) of the Dagestan Republic, situated dere region founded a politically unified enclave that was
in southern European Russia. The region is divided into subsequently absorbed by the Lak-controlled Gazikumukh
eight subdivisions and is home to nineteen Agul villages khanate. Other Agul groups were usually allowed self-rule
located in four Agul valleys. The region’s largest town is as long as they paid taxes to feudal overlords belonging
Tpig, which is also the capital and cultural center. Many to other ethnic groups. Because of the scattered, isolated
Aguls also live in Dagestan’s Derbent region. nature of the Aguls’ villages, they did not develop their own
Until recently, Agul communities identified with one ethnic identity or political unity. Consequently, the Aguls
of the four Agul subgroups—the Aguldere, Kurakhdere, did not develop as a distinct nation.
Khushandere, and Khypukdere—living in the four Agul In 1813, Persia (modern Iran) ceded many parts of
valleys rather than as members of a united Agul ethnicity. Dagestan, including the Agul homeland, to Imperial Rus-
sia under the terms of the Treaty of Gulistan. From 1817
to 1864, the Aguls joined the Caucasian War, a conflict
Geography and Environment arising from Imperial Russia’s subjugation of the Greater
The Agul homeland, sometimes called Agulistan, is located Caucasus and the area’s multitude of Caucasian tribes.
in the high mountains of southeast Dagestan. The area is Russian rule over the Agul homeland was confirmed with
almost inaccessible, as it is cut off from the world by four the defeat of Imam Shamyl, who called for all Dagestanis
precipitous spurs of the Caucasus Mountains (the Agul- to rise up against the Christian Russians. Following their
dere, Gushandere, Magudere, and Khyukdere) and two riv- defeat by Russia, many Aguls fled to Turkey or were exiled
ers (the Tshirakh-Tshay and Kurakh-Tshay). The climate by authorities.
of the Agul homeland is harsh. Winters are particularly The Russian Revolution (1917) brought great conflict and
severe because they feature frequent snowstorms. disorder to Agulistan. Initially, the Aguls, classified officially
Prior to the construction of the Tpig-Kasumkent high- by Russian officialdom as Lezgins, were allowed delegates
way, the Agul homeland was almost completely isolated. in an all-Muslim regional government. In 1920, however,
The area’s mountainous terrain hinders communication this government was defeated by Russia, and all Aguls came
between Agul communities; contact occurs mostly in under Soviet control. The Soviets established the Mountain
spring and autumn, when narrow mountain paths are navi- Autonomous Republic, where Arabic was the language of
gable. Traditionally, the Lezgins who live to the south of the education and administration. Many highland Dagestanis,
Aguls are the Aguls’ point of contact with the outside world. including the Aguls, opposed the new republic. In 1921, the
Mountain Autonomous Republic was superseded by the
Dagestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. Then, in
History and Politics 1925, the Soviets launched an antireligious initiative that
The history of the Aguls predates recorded history. Their saw mosques destroyed and members of the clergy exiled
geographic isolation did not prevent their invasion and or murdered. At the same time, Azeri was installed as the
domination by stronger groups, including the Arabs that republic’s official language. In 1928, Lezgin, Azeri, Avar, and
conquered them in 728. In the thirteenth and fourteenth Dargin were all made official languages of Dagestan, and the
centuries, the Mongol (later Turkic) khanate called the Aguls were incorporated into the Lezgin ethnicity.
 Agul 31

Though the Aguls’ weak sense of national identity identity. However, since the 1990s, remote mountainous
allowed the Soviets to assimilate them into the larger areas of Dagestan have become the scene of clashes between
Lezgin culture to a degree, the Soviets’ treatment of the Russian forces and Islamist militants, and ethnic tension is
Aguls later fermented a sense of Agul nationalism. The evident. This tension sometimes arises because local inter-
Aguls were resistant to the Russification of their culture pretations of Islamic laws, together with tribal codes, take
and resentful of Soviet attempts to merge them with the precedence over Russian law. For example, in 2016, Russia
Lezgins. Soviet attempts to move the Aguls to kolkhoz (col- investigated claims that tens of thousands of girls, some as
lectivized farms) only intensified Agul bitterness. However, young as three months, inhabiting Dagestan’s most remote
in 1936, the Soviets removed the Aguls’ geographic isola- mountain areas underwent female genital cutting (FGC)
tion with the completion of the Tpig-Kasumkent highway, as both an initiation ceremony and as a way to curb their
a move that had an almost immediate impact on the Aguls. sexuality. One Muslim cleric proclaimed the practice a Dag-
For example, in 1935, Agul land was without a single kolk- estani Muslim tradition, a claim supported by an Ortho-
hoz, as most Aguls lived on their traditional lands. By 1937, dox Christian leader, who stated that traditional practices
however, 89 percent of the entire Agul population had should continue without state interference (Horner 2016).
been collectivized on twenty such farms on Agul land (The As of 2016, there was no Russian law banning female geni-
Red Book of the Peoples of the Russian Empire n.d.). tal cutting specifically, but the practice is considered illegal
Despite this change in their location, the Aguls were able under article 111 of Russia’s criminal code.
to continue their traditional occupations of herding sheep Though some Aguls now live and work in urban areas,
and cattle, though the loss of arable farmland meant some highland Aguls traditionally rear sheep and goats, and Aguls
Agul men had to spend winters working in Dagestan’s Der- living at lower altitudes keep cattle. The Lezgins are the main
bent region and in Azerbaijan. The road also boosted the buyers of Agul produce, which includes cheese and wool.
development of the region’s state healthcare and education
systems. A hospital opened in Tpig, and in 1952, Agul chil-
dren were able to attend primary and secondary schools. Health Care and Education
However, as the Aguls lacked a literary language of their After the fall of the Soviet Union, health care remained free
own, the children were initially taught in Lezgi and then in Dagestan. However, the service is chronically under-
in Russian. The Russian language soon came to dominate funded. At the same time, Dagestan has experienced sig-
Agul life, with business conducted in Russian and libraries nificant increases in infant and maternal mortality rates,
stocked with Russian books. incidents of contagious diseases, and decreases in fertility.
During the 1950s and 1960s Dagestan became increas- Recently, organizations both within the Russian Feder-
ingly industrialized. This caused some mountain dwellers, ation and internationally have striven to improve health
including some Aguls, to move to towns. This resulted in care in former Soviet states, including Dagestan. However,
some Aguls losing touch with their newfound ethnic iden- the organizations have to contend with official corruption
tity and the natural environment. The growing urbaniza- while ensuring the professionalism of staff to win the trust
tion and industrialization changed the material culture of of the republic’s indigenous peoples.
the urban Aguls, who opted for products manufactured in The Aguls are among the least educated people in both
factories. the Russian Federation and Europe. This is due to a com-
In 1998, a wave of ethnic violence struck Dagestan and bination of their geographic isolation and their intense
led to discussion of Dagestan’s cessation from the Russian resentment of Russian attempts to influence their educa-
Federation. Since then, ethnic violence and religious radical- tion (Minahan 2000).
ism within Dagestan have generated greater Agul national-
ism. As part of this intensified nationalism, the Aguls seek an
independent state or autonomy as part of a federal Dagestan. Threats to Survival
Since the end of the Soviet era, the increasingly unified
Agul culture has undergone a revival that has reinforced
Society, Culture, and Tradition Agul ethnic identity. The cultural resurgence has led in
The geographic isolation of the many Agul communities turn to calls for an independent Agul homeland, Agulistan.
means that it is only recently that the Aguls have come to Since the late 1990s, militant Islamic insurgents and sep-
share an ethnic identity. Islam in an integral part of this aratists allegedly linked with Wahhabism (fundamentalist
32 Ahwazi

ultraconservative Islam) have started to gain influence in Iran. The Ahwazi speak a dialect called Mesopotamian
Dagestan. Consequently, Dagestan’s mountain valleys are Gelet Arabic as well as Farsi (Persian). Most Ahwazi are
a location for counterterrorism operations, and bombings Shia Muslims, though a Ahwazi Sunni minority exists in
and gunfights regularly occur between militants and the Iran’s coastal areas.
police. There are also numerous tales of Dagestanis being
tortured and kidnapped.
Cultural threats to the Aguls include younger urban Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Aguls’ reluctance to continue the people’s traditional way The Ahwazi population consists of between four mil-
of life. Simultaneously, second and third generation urban lion and five million people divided into thirty tribal
Aguls have mostly assimilated with larger ethnic groups groups. Most Ahwazi live in southern Iran’s Khuzestan
living in Dagestan’s towns. Lezgin nationalists’ claims that Province, bordering Iraq, and 40 percent live in cities.
the Aguls are not a separate nation but are in fact Lezgins The Ahwazi consider themselves a separate Arab nation
is another threat. (Minahan 2016).
See also: Avar; Azeri; Lak; Lezgin
Further Reading Geography and Environment
Ash, Lucy. 2011. “Dagestan—The Most Dangerous Place in
Europe.” BBC News Magazine, November 24. https://www​ The Ahwazi homeland, Arabistan (or al-Ahwaz), extends
.bbc​.com/news/magazine-15824831. across a lowland region along the northern coast of the
Horner, Rachel. 2016. “Russia Orders Inquiry into Claims of Persian Gulf. Arabistan forms the provinces of Khuzestan,
FGM in Dagestan.” The Guardian, November 5. https://​ Bushehr, Fars, and Hormozgan. Khuzestan is Iran’s leading
www​.theguardian.com/society/2016/nov/05/russia-orders​
producer of wheat as well as its second-largest producer of
-inquiry​-into-claims-of-fgm-in-dagestan.
Minahan, James B. 2000. One Europe, Many Nations: A Histor- maize and rice. Additionally, the region produces almost half
ical Dictionary of European National Groups. Westport, CT: of Iran’s sugar and is famed throughout Iran for its dates.
Greenwood Press. Khuzestan Province is affected by a combination of con-
Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth- nected environmental issues. Climate change resulting from
nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa pollution is damaging the province’s Horolazim and Shade-
Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
gan wetlands and the Karun, Karkheh, and Jarrahi Rivers.
The Red Book of the Peoples of the Russian Empire. n.d. “The
Aguls.” https://www.eki.ee/books/redbook/aguls.shtml. In turn, the province’s critical water resources are becoming
depleted and contain extremely high levels of toxic waste.
Khuzestan Province is oil-rich, but its land is also tradition-
ally very fertile and home to farming. However, the drying
out of the land is ruining local agriculture, and farmland
and wetlands are being appropriated for oil extraction. The
AHWAZI
destruction of farmland and wetlands has resulted in the
Current Location Iran province experiencing numerous dust storms. The area’s
Current Population 4 million–5 million
lack of moisture has created arid plains that have turned to
dust. This dust is then transported away by winds.
Language Mesopotamian Gelet Arabic; Farsi
State authorities claim that pesticide use and pollution
Interesting Fact In 1980, Ahwazi separatists backed by
from sugarcane production are major sources of water con-
Iraq took twenty-six hostages at Iran’s
tamination in Khuzestan. The environmental issues have
London embassy. Following a six-day
siege, British special forces stormed
also damaged the area’s biodiversity. The area’s marshlands
the embassy. Two hostages and five were important to the winter migration of birds living in
captors were killed. the Mesopotamian Marshes. Now, however, thousands of
migratory birds are threatened by toxic waste entering
the region’s water (Tehran Bureau 2015). Local wetlands
Overview have also been damaged by dam construction that has left
The Ahwazi (also called the Ahvazi, Arabistani, Iranian waterbeds desiccated and exacerbated the issue of increas-
Arabs, or Khuzestan Arabs) are an Arab minority living ing soil salinity.
 Ahwazi 33

Khuzestan’s loss of water has worsened from Turkey of Ahwazis crossed into Iraq, and some were given land.
building dams across the Euphrates and Tigris that have However, the Ahwazi were no longer welcome under Iraq’s
reduced the amount of water flowing into Iraq and Syria. Shiite-dominated government that rose to power after
Additionally, the province’s Shadegan wetland continues to U.S.-led forces invaded in 2003 to oust Hussein.
suffer from severe damage caused by huge deposits of soot The Iran-Iraq War devastated Khuzestan and led to
resulting from the torching of Kuwait’s oil wells by Saddam Ahwazi nationalist groups gaining widespread backing
Hussein’s retreating forces in 1991. from Ahwazi both in Iran and living in exile. The Awazi
continue to campaign for the creation of an independ-
ent Ahwazi state called the Republic of Arabistan, the al-­
History and Politics Ahwazi Republic, or something similar. However, Ahwazi
The ancient Khuzestan Province has been inhabited since nationalists have failed to make much impact because the
at least the seventh century CE, when Arab invaders over- movement remains fragmented between multiple rival
ran the region. The Arabs renamed the area Arabistan, and organizations.
it formed the eastern boundary of the Arab Empire, a reli-
giopolitical state ruled by a succession of caliphs inspired
by the Prophet Mohammed. The Arabs established an Society, Culture, and Tradition
extensive irrigation network that supported the area’s large In the past, the Ahwazi earned a living from farming, fish-
settled population. During the thirteenth century, however, ing, and hunting in coastal marsh areas. Now, most Ahwazi
the Mongols invaded the area, killing many of its inhabit- are destitute and forced to migrate to cities, where they live
ants, razing settlements, and destroying the irrigation sys- in poverty and earn a meager income as unskilled workers
tem. Following the destruction of the irrigation network, in the petroleum industry.
much of the region turned to desert. Traditionally, Ahwazis have been overwhelmingly Shi-
In the 1500s, Persians conquered Khuzestan Province. ite Muslims. In recent times, however, a significant num-
Persian rule saw a continual decline of the region that per- ber of Ahwazis have converted to Sunni Islam. According
sisted well into the nineteenth century. By this time, Khuz- to Ahwazi activists, this conversion is largely occurring
estan was one of the Middle East’s poorest, least developed for political reasons because many Ahwazis support the
areas. At the start of the twentieth century, Ahwazi land Sunni rebels fighting in the Syrian Civil War. At the same
was nominally part of Persian territory, though the time, Sunni Muslims worldwide have taken up the Ahwazi
­Bakhtiyari-controlled eastern parts of Khuzestan. In 1908, cause.
however, oil was discovered in the province, which led to
the rapid urbanization of Ahwazi land. This development
resulted in revolts among the Ahwazi, who declared their Health Care and Education
region independent in 1923. Despite Khuzestan’s natural resource wealth, the Ahwazi
In the aftermath of Sheikh Khazal’s 1924 separatist living in the province suffer poor living conditions. The
rebellion, western Khuzestan was dissolved by the Reza Ahwazi inhabit deprived areas on the outskirts of large cit-
Shah in 1925 along with other autonomous areas of Persia. ies that lack basic facilities.
In response, Sheikh Khazal instigated a rebellion that was Khuzestan’s horrendous pollution together with an
quickly quelled by the new Pahlavi dynasty. In 1936, all of often untreated water supply has resulted in the Ahwazi
Khuzestan was renamed Khuzistan. Over the subsequent having one of Iran’s lowest life expectancy rates. The
decades of Pahlavi rule, Khuzestan remained relatively people suffer from some of the world’s highest levels of
calm and acquired a reputation as an important economic chronic respiratory diseases. Ahwazi cancer rates are also
and defensive area. In 1979, the Iranian Revolution saw the far higher than Iranian or global averages. Official statis-
Ahwazi suffer great repression, and Khuzestan witnessed tics show that the number of cancer diagnoses in Khuz-
many local rebellions. estan is rising sharply—by almost 500 percent from 1996
Following the Iranian Revolution, Iraqi dictator Saddam to 2013. The cancers mainly result from the area’s terrible
Hussein attempted to annex Khuzestan. This move trig- air and water pollution. Despite the high cancer rates, the
gered the Iran-Iraq War (1980–1989) in which a million Ahwazi have access to only one specialist cancer hospital,
people were killed (Coles 2013). During the war, thousands the underequipped Shafa Hospital (UNPO 2018).
34 Aimaq

The Ahwazi’s inability to experience primary education tear gas and live ammunition against Ahwazis protesting
in the dialect of their mother language is a continuing in the city of Muhammarah against government injustice
source of resentment and frustration. and the lack of clean drinking water. The crackdown left
one protester dead and dozens wounded (UNPO 2018).
Similar protests have occurred in the city of Abadan,
Threats to Survival where Ahwazis demonstrated over their deplorable living
Iran is a party to the International Covenant on Civil and conditions. The lack of safe drinking water is a huge prob-
Political Rights, and as such, it is obliged to respect the lem for Ahwazi communities as they endure summer tem-
Ahwazi’s rights to freedom of expression and peaceful peratures of over 120 degrees Fahrenheit. Many Ahwazi
assembly as well as their right to enjoy their own culture believe the lack of clean water is caused by Iranian author-
and to use their own language. The International Cove- ities damming and diverting major rivers. The lack of
nant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights guarantees water has caused widespread desertification across Khuz-
the Ahwazi similar rights to enjoy their cultural life free estan, which has worsened the people’s living conditions.
from discrimination. However, the Ahwazi claim that the According to Ahwazi activists, without an adequate sup-
Iranian government systematically discriminates against ply of clean downstream water, much of what remains of
their people, especially in relation to employment, hous- the Ahwaz agrarian economy will collapse. This will likely
ing, politics, and the exercise of their cultural and linguis- have dire consequences both in Iran and internationally, as
tic rights. Khuzestan is Iran’s primary source of food crops.
The current Syrian Civil War is influencing life in Khuz-
See also: Bakhtiyari; Baluch; Kurd; Lur; Marsh Arab
estan. While there has been unrest in Khuzestan for years,
Further Reading
now a number of Ahwazis consider themselves to be part
Coles, Isabel. 2013. “Insight: Iran’s Arab Minority Drawn into
of a larger conflict between Shiite Iran and the Sunni Arab Middle East Unrest.” Reuters, August 15. https://​www​.reuters​
states throughout the Gulf, with both sides supporting .com/article/us-iran-arabs-insight​ / insight​ - irans​ - arab​
opposite sides in Syria. Although most Ahwazis are Shiites, -minority-drawn-into-middle-east​-unrest​-​idUSBRE​97​E0​
many sympathize with Syria’s Sunni-majority rebels fight- O620130815.
ing Iran-backed Syrian president Bashar al-Assad. The Human Rights Watch. 2015. “Iran: Sweeping Arrests of Ahwazi
Arab Activists.” Human Rights Watch, April 29. https://www​
Ahwazi who support the Syrian rebels do so because they
.hrw.org/news/2015/04/29/iran-sweeping-arrests-ahwazi​
feel their land is occupied by Iran, just as the Syrian rebels -arab-activists.
feel that they exist under a dictatorial regime serving Iran. Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
According to Ahwazi activists, if President Bashar falls, so nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa Bar-
too will Iran. Therefore, it is in the Ahwazi’s interests to bara, CA: Greenwood.
support the rebels. Tehran Bureau. 2015. “How Iran’s Khuzestan Went from Wet-
land to Wasteland.” The Guardian, April 16. https://www​
Events in Syria are endangering Khuzestan’s stability.
.theguardian.com/world/iran-blog/2015/apr/16/iran-estan​
Ahwazi militant groups claim to have sabotaged oil pipe- -environment-wetlands-dust-pollution.
lines, thereby targeting Iran’s economy in revenge for the Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO).
authorities’ mistreatment of their people and for Iran’s 2018. “Ahwazi: Iranian Government Responds with Violence
actions in Syria and Iraq. Ahwazi militants have threatened to Calls for Better Environmental Protection and Water.”
to intensify their activities by coordinating with Kurdish UNPO, July 4. http://unpo.org/article/20936.
and Baluch activists in Iran. Detained activists risk being
tortured and held in solitary confinement by Iran’s Intelli-
gence Ministry at undisclosed detention centers (Human
Rights Watch 2015). The use of Khuzestan for sectarian AIMAQ
and nationalist schemes has given Iranian authorities a
justification for repressing the region. Iranian authorities Current Location Afghanistan
also claim that Ahwazi separatists are urged on by Britain, Current Population 1.5 million–2 million
Israel, and Saudi Arabia as part of a foreign plot to control Language Aimaq
Iran’s natural resources. Interesting Fact Modern Aimaq people claim to be
The Iranian government’s treatment of the Ahwazi has the descendants of Genghis Khan’s
intensified in recent times. In 2018, Iranian forces used soldiers.
 Aimaq 35

Overview scrubland to prevail, while other areas feature forests of

The Aimaq are a nomadic or seminomadic Persian peo- oak, juniper, and hornbeam trees. In contrast, other areas
ple living in Afghanistan, Pakistan, Tajikistan, and Iran. receive less rainfall and so have little vegetation.
The Aimaq are also known as the Aimak, Aymak, Eimak,
or Chehar Eimak (meaning “four tribes”) and are one of
History and Politics
the fourteen ethnic groups officially recognized by Afghan
authorities. The name Aimaq originally derived from the The Aimaq are thought to have settled around oases in the
Mongol word for “tribe”; in modern Persian, the name Khorasan region, having been driven from their original
means “tribal people.” homeland by invaders. The time of the Aimaq’s arrival is
The Aimaq people speak the Aimaq language. This is unknown. The Aimaq then became nomads, dividing their
a dialect of Persian that is very similar to the Dari and society into small nomadic tribal groups that drove their
Khorasani dialects of Afghanistan and Iran. The term herds across Afghanistan and Iran in accordance with the
Aimaq is used by the Aimaq’s neighbors to distinguish the seasons. Around 600 CE, invading Arabs converted the
Aimaq from settled peoples living in Aimaq areas, such as Aimaq to Islam, but scattered Aimaq groups remained;
the Tajiks, Uzbeks, and Hazara. The Aimaq flag takes the therefore, some areas of Khorosan retained indigenous
form of a tricolor with horizontal bands of yellow, red, and beliefs. In the 1300s, the Mongols of Genghis Khan con-
purple. quered areas inhabited by the Aimaq, who were either
Most Aimaq people are Sunni Muslim, though some are killed or assimilated into Mongol hordes. The Mongols
Shia Muslims. dubbed the defeated people eimak, which in Mongol trans-
lates as “tribe.” The Aimaq remained under Mongol control
for many centuries, and over time, the Aimaq mixed with
Population, Diaspora, and Migration the Mongols and also with Turkic peoples, resulting in the
In 2015, the total global Aimaq population was estimated absorption of Turkic words into the Aimaq dialect and
to be between 1.5 million and 2 million people (Minahan changes to the Aimaq’s physical features.
2016). The Aimaq population consists of four tribal groups During the sixteenth century, some Aimaq tribes (the
that are subdivided into 250 subtribes. The Aimaq have Aimaq-Hazara, Jamshidi, Taimani, and Firukuhi) estab-
retained their tribal social structure because they live far lished a confederacy of tribal groups to be better protected
from any centers of government. They traditionally live in from invaders. Today, the descendants of these tribes are
the historic region of Khorosan, a vast land covering what still influential in Aimaq tribal matters.
is now northeastern Iran, southern Turkmenistan, and In 1717, the Ghilzai Afghans, a Pashtun group, seized
northern Afghanistan. The turbulent history of Khorosan Khorosan and incorporated the area within the Afghan
means that it is inhabited by a number of different eth- Hotaki dynasty. Although the Aimaq had to pay tributes
nic groups as well as the Aimaq, including the Kurds and to their Afghan leaders, they remained in their tradi-
Balochs. Nomadic Aimaq travel throughout Afghanistan tional lands and continued to follow their nomadic life-
and Iran. There are also small numbers of Aimaq people style. Then, in 1747, the traditional Aimaq territory was
in Tajikistan and Pakistan. In Afghanistan, the Aimaq are divided between the Pashtun Durrani Empire and the
concentrated in eastern Khorosan. This historic region Persian Empire. In the nineteenth century, British and
comprises the West Central Highlands of western Afghan- Russian explorers entered Aimaq areas, but they mostly
istan as well as the provinces of Herat, Ghor, and Baghlan. left the Aimaq to their own devices. The advent of the Per-
sian Qajar dynasty in what is now Iran led to the fall of
western Khorosan to Persia and meant that the redrawn
Geography and Environment international border divided Aimaq territory. Meanwhile,
The geography of the traditional Aimaq area of Khoro- competition between the British and Russians for control
san is varied and includes mountains ranges, such as the of Afghanistan culminated in the Anglo-Afghan Wars.
Elburz Mountains; limestone, igneous, and metamorphic Although Afghanistan stayed neutral during World War
rock peaks, including Kūh-e Hazār Masjed; salt desert; I, a number of Aimaq obeyed the command of the Turk-
and marshland. There are also many oases. The climate is ish sultan (then the nominal head of Muslims worldwide)
harsh—cool during the summer and colder still in win- to commit jihad (holy war) against Allied troops, in par-
ter. Some areas receive enough rainfall for grasslands and ticular the British who were the subject of a number of
36 Aimaq

attacks by some Aimaq. On the whole, however, the Aimaq products derived from their animals, which include sheep,
refrained from participating in mainstream politics. cattle, and goats. The Aimaq are also excellent horse riders
In the early twentieth century, Afghanistan became and use these skills to corral their animals. They also ride
unstable both politically and socially, resulting in Aimaq horses as transport.
areas being overrun with bandits, mercenaries, and war-
lords, who threatened tribal groups such as the Aimaq as
well as their herds. In response to these threats, the ear- Health Care and Education
lier Aimaq protective confederacy was resurrected. Then, The Aimaq have little access to health care. In Afghanistan,
in 1929, Aimaq tribes living in northwestern Afghanistan in 2013, it was documented that there are 0.27 physicians
rebelled against their Pashtun rulers. The rebellion was and 0.5 hospital beds per 1,000 people, and this situation
quashed, however, and the rebels were severely punished is likely worse in the remote areas inhabited by nomadic
for their insurrection. The harsh treatment of the rebels Aimaq people (CIA 2015). The most prevalent diseases
by the Pashtuns led to the Aimaq’s continuing hatred of that affect people in Afghanistan are bacterial diarrhea,
the Pashtuns. In the 1950s and 1960s, many Aimaq tribes typhoid fever, hepatitis A, malaria, and rabies. There is
suffered the loss of their herds due to severe drought, while little data available on Aimaq education, but it is known
other Aimaq groups were forced to settle in areas near that 38.2 percent of Afghans over age fifteen can read and
water supplies. write; 52 percent of Afghan men are literate and 24 percent
Aimaq settlement continued in the 1970s and 1980s, of the women (CIA 2015).
with Aimaq settlements becoming established in small
villages or in cities such as Herat (the third-largest city in
Afghanistan), where the Aimaq earned money as carpet Threats to Survival
weavers. During the 1990s, there were intermittent Aimaq Climate change is affecting water supplies in Aimaq areas.
rebellions, and an Aimaq nationalist movement began to Villagers in Afghanistan’s highland areas report that
grow. In the early years of the twenty-first century, the warmer temperatures are melting mountain snow earlier
Aimaq nationalist movement gained a degree of support, in the year, meaning meltwater flows freely at a time of year
with some Aimaq demanding the formation of an autono- when it is of less use to farmers. Afghanistan has received
mous Khorosan state that would be known as the State of international aid for fifteen years, with much of the aid
Khorosan or Aimaqistan. The proposed flag of the State of aimed at improving agriculture. However, some commen-
Khorosan would be the same as the Aimaq flag but with tators argue that international aid has gone toward such
the name of the nation written in black Persian script in programs as cash-for-work schemes that only offer short-
its center. term gains (Rasmussen 2017).
In general, research on Afghanistan is limited to small-
scale anthropological studies, but these studies link global
Society, Culture, and Tradition warming to security issues. For instance, according to the
Aimaq society is structured around the model of the patri- UN Environment Programme (UNEP), around 80 percent
archal nuclear family. Despite this, in contrast to other of the conflict in Afghanistan is related to environmen-
rural Afghan communities, Aimaq women are respected tal resources such as water and food supplies and land
and treated with high esteem, allowed to participate in rights. Often, issues surrounding people’s access to water,
group discussions even when outsiders are present, and food, and land arise from environmental changes, includ-
have some say over whom they marry. Aimaq homes are ing global warming. In addition, both the World Food
similar to Mongolian yurts; they are made from wool and Programme and the National Environmental Protection
are easy to disassemble and move to new grazing areas or Agency (NEPA) claim that the biggest climate-related
if conflict erupts. hazards to people living in Afghanistan are drought and
The main employment for the Aimaq is carpet weav- the floods that result from irregular snowmelt and rainfall
ing and, to a lesser extent, farming. Even though carpet (Rasmussen 2017).
weaving is the main source of income, Aimaq culture still In addition to environmental issues, Afghan politics
considers material wealth to be indicated by the number may also have an impact on the future of the Aimaq.
of animals a farmer owns. Nomadic Aimaq live off the Despite the overthrow of the Taliban in 2001, Afghanistan
 Ainu 37

remains one of the world’s poorest countries and is still in Hokkaido in the Pacific Ocean. The Ainu refer to the areas
a state of political, social, and economic change. The cur- in which they live as Ainu-Moshiri, which translates as “the
rent of Afghan constitution aims to protect all minorities, earth where the Ainu live.” The Ainu do not resemble other
including the Aimaq, but there is a lack of information on Japanese people, as they tend to have light skin, a stout
how well this policy is being implemented. As the Aimaq physique, deep-set round eyes, and thick wavy hair. The
are a fairly small population with no real land base, there Ainu national flag comprises a dark blue field displaying
has not been a concerted campaign from the Aimaq for the red and white Ainu national symbol. The flag of the
self-rule or administrative power. Additionally, the tribal Ainu nationalist movement bears the same symbol on a
structure of Aimaq society coupled with their nomadic or light blue field.
seminomadic traditions means that the Aimaq have not
established settled powerbases that would allow them to
become politically significant. The Aimaq’s nomadism also Population, Migration, and Diaspora
inhibits their ability to communicate any concerns about It is impossible to say with certainty how many Ainu exist.
their future to the outside world. A long history of oppression and discrimination means
that many Ainu hide their heritage, and as most modern
See also: Kurd; Pashtun; Uzbek
Ainu have mixed ancestry, many class themselves as Japa-
Further Reading
nese or some other ethnicity.
Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). 2015. The World Factbook
2016–17. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency. The Japanese began to document Ainu population fig-
Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Cen- ures during the nineteenth century. In 1807, a census put
tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. the Ainu population at 26,256, but by 1931, the figure had
Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth- decreased to 15,969 (Ainu Museum 2017). In 2002, it was
nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa Bar- estimated that the total Ainu population of East Asia was
bara, CA: Greenwood.
around 37,000, with 27,000 Ainu living in Japan and 10,000
Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Afghanistan:
Aimaq.” http://minorityrights.org/minorities/aimaq. in Russian territories (Minahan 2002). However, the most
Rasmussen, Sune Engel. 2017. “How Climate Change Is a ‘Death recent Japanese government surveys list the Ainu pop-
Sentence’ in Afghanistan’s Highlands.” The Guardian, August ulation in Hokkaido at 16,786 and only 210 living in the
28. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/aug/28/how​ rest of Japan (Hassett 2017). While official counts of Ainu
-climate-change-is-death-sentence-afghanistan-highlands​ population figures are always open to question because of
-global-warming.
the high levels of intermarriage, adoption, and social dis-
crimination experienced by the Ainu, a 1999 survey puts
the Ainu population of Hokkaida at 23,767. In contrast,
in 2003, Ainu activists suggested the population might be
four times this, with the actual Ainu population number-
AINU ing some 10,000 in the Kanto region geographical area of
Current Location Hokkaido (Japan); Kuril Islands;
Honshu in which the Tokyo metropolitan area is located
Sakhalin (Russia) (Bogdanowicz 2003).
Current Population 16,786–300,000
Language Ainu; Japanese Geography and Environment
Interesting Fact Ainu women are known to breastfeed
Hokkaido is seismically active, and the center of the
bear cubs.
island is mountainous with several active volcanoes and
volcanic plateaus. The island has experienced numerous
earthquakes. In 1993, an earthquake caused a tsunami that
Overview killed 202 islanders. Hokkaido is characterized by wide-
The Ainu (sometimes written as Aynu, meaning “people” open spaces, as it contains 20 percent of Japan’s land area
or “humans”) live on the Japanese island of Hokkaido but only 5 percent of the country’s population. There are
(called Mosir by the Aniu) as well as the Kuril Islands and many areas of wilderness interspersed with forests, lakes,
Sakhalin, Russian territories lying off the northern coast of springs, and fields of mountain wildflowers. The Kuril
38 Ainu

Islands are part of the Pacific Ocean’s “Ring of Fire,” a vast (shittapi) that is fashioned from a deer antler. Cereals are
area where frequent earthquakes and volcanic eruptions rarely harvested by cutting; rather, grains are collected by
occur. Indeed, the Kuril Islands are summits of volca- hand. Ainu women also collect wild plants for food. These
noes created by the subduction of the Pacific Plate under plants include garlic, angelica, roses, nuts, and fungi.
the Okhotsk Plate. The volcano chain to which the Kuril
Islands belong experiences frequent seismic activity. In
2006, an earthquake originating from the volcano chain History and Politics
resulted in tsunami waves reaching the California coast. The Ainu language did not include written documentation
The islands’ climate consists of lengthy, cold winters and as a method of recording events, so little is known of Ainu
brief, foggy summers. Annual precipitation on the islands history. One theory about Ainu origins suggests that they
is around forty inches, most of which falls as snow. There descend from the Jomon-jin, hunter-gathers who popu-
are a wide range of landscapes on the Kuril Islands, includ- lated Japan during the Jōmon period (14,500 BCE–300 CE).
ing beaches, rivers, forests, grasslands, alpine tundra, lakes, Another theory suggests that the Ainu are the descendants
and peat bogs, and the soil is fairly productive due to the of the original inhabitants of the areas in which they live;
islands’ deposits of seabird guano and volcanic ash. according to Ainu folklore, the ancestors of the Ainu lived on
Sakhalin is Russia’s largest island with an area of 27,989 the islands of Japan four thousand years ago. The Ainu col-
square miles. The island is mountainous, and its vegetation onized Sakhalin during the eleventh and twelfth centuries,
ranges from tundra in the north to dense deciduous forest where they entered into battle with another indigenous group,
in the south. the Nivkh (called Kugi by the Ainu). Since the thirteenth cen-
Ainu villages are traditionally located close to the sea tury, the Ainu have faced waves of colonialism that started
or by rivers rich in fish. Ainu men catch trout and salmon when the Japanese colonized Ainu land in northern Honshu.
using spears called marek, or they us a method called tesh, In 1456, the Ainu rebelled against the encroaching Japanese,
in which salmon swimming upstream are caught by dam- and the ensuing conflict led to the decimation of the Ainu.
ming a river. The Ainu use longboats to fish for swordfish, Japanese settlers brought with them infectious diseases that
tuna, dolphins, whales, and seals at sea. also contributed to a decline in the Ainu population.
Ainu men hunt on land from late autumn to early sum- In the sixteenth century, the Japanese extended their
mer, for this is when animals, which include bears, deer, colonization by inhabiting southwestern Hokkaido. Dur-
foxes, and rabbits, can be easily spotted among fields of ing the early seventeenth century, the Japanese began to
wilted plants. The Ainu traditionally hunted using arrow develop the Ainu land they inhabited. Simultaneously,
tips dipped in surku, a poison obtained from ingredients Europeans began to arrive. First the Dutch colonized the
that included aconite root and tobacco. Each Ainu fam- Kuril Islands and then the Russian fur traders settled
ily had its own surku recipe that had been handed down on Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. The Russians brutally
through generations. suppressed the Ainu, and by the mid-eighteenth century,
Ainu women grow crops that include millet, wheat, and the Russian fur traders had slaughtered almost all the
beans. Only recently have the Ainu begun to grow vege- fur-bearing seals on Ainu land.
tables, including potatoes, radishes, leeks, turnips, and The Ainu attempted to repel settlers several times. One
pumpkins. To prepare the land for cultivation, Ainu women of the chief reasons the Ainu failed to discourage coloni-
traditionally use a sickle (toytayokpe) and a digging tool alists was their inability to establish social and political

Human-Animal Breastfeeding
The suckling of human infants by animals is a recurring theme in classical mythology. The legendary founders of
Rome, Romulus and Remus, are said to have been suckled by a she-wolf; the Greek god Zeus was reputed to have been
suckled by his foster mother, Amalthea, who is often depicted as a goat; and a deer is said to have suckled Heracles’s
son Telephus. Anthropologists have noted indigenous peoples sometimes suckle animals as a sign of affection. For
instance, the Onge living in the Andaman Islands are known to love their pet dogs dearly and to breastfeed their
puppies as though they are children.
 Ainu 39

networks within their society. This lack of sociopolitical identity for the Ainu as Japanese subjects. In 1871, the
cohesion meant that the Ainu did not sign formal accords, Japanese government established the Census Registration
thereby leaving the Japanese free to incorporate Ainu land Act (1871), which integrated the Ainu people into the gen-
within their own territories. eral Japanese populace by registering all Ainu people and
The signing of the Meiji Restoration in 1868 was a very forcing them to adopt Japanese last names. Meanwhile, the
important event in the history of the Ainu. In an attempt government banned the Ainu language and customs, mak-
to deter the threat from Russia, the Japanese Meiji govern- ing it illegal for Ainu men to wear piercings and for women
ment annexed the island of Ezo (later renamed Hokkaido) to sport traditional tattoos. (When Ainu women reached
and redistributed the land among Japanese settlers. The twelve or sixteen years of age, they received tattoos as a
government considered the appropriation of the island sign of marriageability.) Though the Census Registration
vital to asserting Japan’s power in the region, and the island Act registered the Ainu as Japanese, the Ainu were not con-
could serve as a buffer zone between Japan and Russia. In sidered equal to the Japanese under this law.
addition, Hokkaido was rich with natural resources that In 1873, the Japanese government designated all of
offered employment opportunities to settlers. Hokkaido as “ownerless lands.” In 1877, the Hokkaido
Once the Japanese government took over Hokkaido, it Colonization Commission nationalized all Ainu territory,
set about assimilating the Ainu. The first aim of the gov- including that on which Ainu dwellings sat. Then, in 1875,
ernment’s assimilation policies was to create a new legal the Treaty of St Petersburg, which aimed to define Russian

The skeletal remains of 12 Ainu exhumed 80 years ago for research purposes are buried on July 17, 2016, in Hokkaido, Japan. To the Ainu
it is very important that a person is born of the earth and returns to it upon death. (The Asahi Shimbun via Getty Images)
40 Ainu

and Japanese territories, drew a border right through Ainu men sued the government. Shigeru Kayano subsequently
areas of Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands. This border change became a politician to highlight what he considered the
meant that Ainu living on the islands were forced to move government’s anti-Ainu discrimination, and he also began
to Hokkaido. The Ainu were further assimilated into Japa- to educate the Ainu community and the Japanese public
nese society in 1898 when the Ainu were conscripted into about Ainu culture. This desire to revive Ainu culture fore-
the Japanese military. shadowed a surge of Ainu nationalism during the 1980s
Another important event in Ainu history came in 1899, and 1990s. For example, in 1991 and 1998, Ainu national-
when the Law for the Protection of the Primitive Peoples ists unsuccessfully laid claim to the Kuril Islands.
of Hokkaido was passed. This law designated the Ainu an In the late 1990s, the Japanese authorities’ attitude
inferior race and kyu-dojin, meaning “former aborigine.” toward the Ainu changed. For instance, in 1996, the Nib-
This classification was intended to make the Ainu assim- utani Dam was completed, and the Japanese government
ilate into Japanese society, but the term former aborigine agreed that the Ainu could use the dam’s lake for traditional
proved a constant reminder to the Ainu of their history folk ceremonies, such as Chipusanke, a rite for launching
as former occupants of Hokkaido (Godefroy 2012). As a new canoes, and Asircep nomi, a salmon hunting festival.
result of policies such as these, many Ainu people became Then, in 1997, the Japanese government passed a law fash-
ashamed of their heritage while also suffering prejudice— ioned by a team composed of the Ainu representatives, the
issues that still exist today. Hokkaido administration, the Japanese government, and
During the 1960s, an Ainu nationalist movement overseas human rights and indigenous peoples’ groups.
began to stir. It was at this time that the Japanese govern- The law declared that Japan would henceforth be a multi-
ment authorized an industrial development close to Ainu cultural nation. Moreover, the new law superseded the Law
lands on Hokkaido. The development would be supplied for the Protection of the Primitive Peoples of Hokkaido,
with water from the newly constructed Nibutani Dam thereby signaling that the Japanese government intended
located on the Saru River. This river is considered sacred to protect the Ainu while promoting Ainu culture.
by the Ainu on account of its being a spawning ground In 2007, Japan supported the United Nations Declara-
for salmon, which are considered by the Ainu to be both tion on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. A year later, on the
divine and an important food source. Despite controversy eve of a G8 summit in Hokkaido, the Japanese government
surrounding the dam’s construction, the Japanese govern- recognized the Ainu as an indigenous people for the first
ment argued that the dam was necessary, and it proceeded time and vowed to improve Ainu rights. Ainu rights were
to acquire land that had been provided for the Ainu under strengthened further by the election of Hokkaido-based
a series of protective laws. Two local landowners, Shigeru Yukio Hatoyama as Japanese prime minister. Hatoyama
Kayano and Tadashi Kaizawa, refused to sell their land, but joined the Ainu Seisaku no Arikata ni Kansuru Yushiki-sha
the Japanese government implemented orders to take the Kondan-kai—an advisory panel of Ainu experts charged
men’s lands. Building work began on the dam, and the two with helping Ainu communities. Most recently, in 2012,

Shigeru Kayano
Shigeru Kayano (1926–2006) was the first Ainu person to become a member of Japan’s national legislature, the Diet.
A runner-up in the Social Democratic Party of Japan’s proportional representation portion of the ballot in the 1992
Upper House election, Kayano won a Diet seat in 1994. Kayano worked for the enactment of the Ainu Culture Law
before retiring from politics after one term.
Kayano published many books about Ainu culture. His collection of Ainu folktales, Uepekere Shutaisei, won the
1971 Kikuchi Kan Prize. He also worked toward the founding of the Nibutani Ainu Culture Museum. In 1983, he
founded Hokkaido’s first language school from his own funds as part of his commitment to propagating and protect-
ing the Ainu language. As part of this language preservation drive, Kayano compiled Shigeru Kayano’s Ainu Language
Dictionary (1996), a survey of the Ainu language used in the Saru River basin. In 1989, Kayano won the Yoshikawa
Eiji Prize for Literature. Kayano obtained his doctorate for a thesis that researched Ainu folklore, and he served as an
instructor at the Nibutani Ainu Language School.
 Ainu 41

the first official Ainu political party, Ainu Minzoku-tō, was of marriageable age moved into a tunpu (a room annexed
launched, and it fielded its first parliamentary candidate. to the family home). The parents then choose their daugh-
ter’s husband from the men that visit the tunpu. To pro-
pose to a woman, an Ainu man visits the woman’s home,
Society, Culture, and Traditions eats half a bowl of rice handed to him by his intended, and
The Ainu are animists that believe spirits known as kamuy then returns the bowl to the woman. The woman signals
inhabit all things. There are numerous Ainu gods, but one acceptance or refusal by either eating the rest of the rice or
of the most important is Kim-un Kamuy (the god of bears leaving it uneaten.
and the mountains). While the Ainu believe all animals
are the earthly manifestations of gods, the bear is consid-
ered the chief god. The Ainu believe that many gods guard Health Care and Education
humankind while also providing food. These gods are not The Japanese government’s historically negative attitude to
always benevolent, however, and humans may argue with the Ainu has resulted in the Ainu being poorly educated
the gods if they feel the gods have acted harshly. Moreo- in comparison to other Japanese people. In 1872, Ainu
ver, some gods are thought malicious, bringing disaster children living in Hokkaido were made to attend Japanese
and disease. In general, however, the Ainu feel gods assist schools as part of the government’s assimilationist pol-
humankind, so humans must serve the gods in a mutu- icies. Then, in the 1880s and 1890s, foreign missionaries
ally beneficial relationship. The Ainu gods disguise them- established a number of private schools for Ainu children.
selves as men, animals, plants, and objects, and they reside These were officially recognized under the 1899 Hokkaido
among the Ainu, to whom they send such foods as salmon Former Primitives Protection Law and the 1901 Regula-
and deer. tions for the Education of Former Aboriginal Children.
As a sign of gratitude to the gods, the Ainu perform cer- The schools proved a success in that over 90 percent of all
emonies that involve offerings of wine, dried salmon, and Ainu children were attending elementary school by 1910.
inaw (a sacred stick) made to the gods. There are various However, in 1937, the Ainu schools were abolished, forc-
Ainu ceremonies throughout the year, including rites to ing Ainu children to attend Japanese elementary schools
remember ancestors, to celebrate the building of homes, and thereby depriving Ainu children of the opportunity to
and to launch the year’s first salmon fishing. The most learn their own language. As a result of the schools shut-
common Ainu rituals are the “sending spirits back” rites, ting, the Ainu language essentially became extinct.
in which the gods are treated and then sent back to heaven Today, the academic performance of Ainu children is
after having dwelt among the Ainu. below the Japanese national average. In 1999, just over
The most important of these ceremonies is Iyomante 95 percent of Ainu middle school graduates went on to
(also known as kumaokuri, meaning “sending off the high school, compared to 97 percent of the Ainus’ neigh-
bear”), which occurs in January or February. The ceremony bors. And while 16.1 percent of Ainu children went to
is intended to send back bear cub spirits, and it involves college, 34.5 percent of their neighbors gained a college
a bear cub raised as an Ainu child being sacrificed to the education.
gods. One of the most mentioned elements of Iyomante Indigenous education for Ainu children is assured by
is that Ainu women have been known to breastfeed bear the 1994 Convention on the Rights of the Child, the 1997
cubs to prepare for Iyomante (Brunner 2007). Though the Law for the Promotion of the Ainu Culture, and the Dis-
Ainu women felt affection for the cubs they suckled, the semination of and Advocacy for the Traditions of the Ainu
women breastfed the cubs to help them grow big enough and the Ainu Culture (sometimes referred to as the New
to sacrifice. Ainu Law). The Japanese government also supports the
Ainu families are nuclear, and when children marry, promotion of Ainu culture and heritage in schools via pro-
they leave home to live separately. There are traditionally grams that aim to encourage and maintain a sense of Ainu
various types of Ainu marriage. A child can be promised in identity among Ainu children (USJP.org 2005).
an arranged marriage that occurs once the betrothed child Customarily, female (occasionally male) Ainu shamans
reaches marriageable age (seventeen or eighteen years for use a wide variety of psychoactive plants to treat a range
boys and fifteen or sixteen years for girls). Alternatively, of conditions. The Ainu belief in kamuy shapes Ainu med-
Ainu marriages based on mutual consent see a daughter icine, as the Ainu think diseases, like all natural things,
42 Ajar

possess a spiritual link to a plane beyond the earthly realm. and Practice, edited by Michele Langfield, William Logan,
Traditionally, the most revered and feared disease kamuy and Mairead Nic Craith, 208–225. London: Routledge.
was payoka kamuy, the god of smallpox. Hassett, Michael. 2017. “How Many Japanese Are a Bit of Some-
thing Else?” Japan Times, April 5. https://www.japantimes​.co​
.jp/community/2017/04/05/issues/many-japanese-bit​-some​
Threats to Survival thing-else/#.WcUdAkyZOCQ.
Lewallen, Ann-Elise, and Kelly Dietz. 2013. “Japan.” IWGIA.
While discrimination against the Ainu still exists, there is The Indigenous World. http://www.iwgia.org/images/stories​
a sense that the Ainu are increasingly proud of their herit- /sections/regions/asia/documents/IW2013/Japan.pdf.
age and embracing their identity. A band, the Ainu Rebels, Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
which features young Ainu playing a mix of hip-hop Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Volume 1,
and traditional Ainu music, exemplifies this newfound A–C. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Okado, Mitsuharu Vincent. 2012, January. “The Plight of Ainu,
pride. In addition, the Ainu Museum was established in
Indigenous People of Japan.” Journal of Indigenous Social
1976 as the Shiraoi Foundation for the Preservation of Development 1 (1). http://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu​
Ainu Culture. In 1984, the Ainu Folk Museum was added /bitstream/handle/10125/21976/v1i1_02okada.pdf.
to this facility to exhibit Ainu cultural traditions and to USJP.org. 2005. “Japanese Education in the 21st Century.” http://​
allow academic research on the Ainu. Later, in 1990, the www.usjp.org/jpeducation_en/jpEdAinuBuraku_en.html​
museum was reopened as the Ainu Museum Foundation. #mozTocId244200.
Walker, Brett L. 2001. The Conquest of Ainu Lands: Ecology and
The museum houses around five thousand Ainu artifacts,
Culture in Japanese Expansion, 1590–1800. Berkeley, CA:
and museum staff demonstrate traditional Ainu cere- University of California Press.
monies, folk dances, and crafts, including weaving and Yoshida, Kunihiko. 2014. “Property Law Policy for the Indige-
embroidery. In 1984, Ainu folk dances were designated nous Ainu People and the Unresolved Issue of Reparations in
important intangible cultural properties by the Japanese Japan.” In Multicultural Challenges and Sustainable Democ-
government. racy in Europe and East Asia, edited by Nam-Kook Kim,
59–81. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
Despite efforts to preserve and promote Ainu ways,
aspects of Ainu life are severely threatened. For example,
today there are fewer than fifteen native speakers of the
Ainu language, all of whom are senior citizens. Thus, Ainu
is considered a critically endangered language. Further-
more, while the Ainu language once had three dialects— AJAR
Hokkaido, Sakhalin, and Kuril—only the Hokkaido dialect
survives today. Current Location Georgia; Turkey
Current Population Unknown
See also: Ryūkyūans
Language Ajar (Garuli/Lazuri); Georgian
Further Reading
Interesting Fact The Ajar population has not been
Ainu Museum. 2017. “Ainu People.” http://www.ainu-museum​
.or.jp/en/study/eng01.html. counted in a Soviet or Georgian cen-
Bogdanowicz, Tomek. 2003. “Where Are the Ainu Now?” Japan sus since 1926.
Times, March 2. https://www.japantimes.co.jp​/com​munity​
/2003/03/02/general/where-are-the-ainu-now/​#.Wc​UfrEy​ Overview
ZOCR.
Brunner, Bernd. 2007. Bears: A Brief History. New Haven, CT: The Ajars (also called the Ajarians, Adzhars, Laz, or Zan,
Yale University Press. among other names) are a Muslim people living in the
Godefroy, Noémi. 2012. “The Ainu Assimilation Policies dur- autonomous republic of Ajaria in the former Soviet state
ing the Meiji Period and the Acculturation of Hokkaido’s of Georgia as well as in adjacent parts of Turkey. The Ajars
Indigenous People.” http://www.popjap.fr/blog/wp-content​ speak the Ajar language, which includes many borrowings
/uploads/2012/01/Godefroy_Ainu_assimilation_policies​
from Turkish. In Georgia, the language is called Garuli,
.pdf.
Hasegawa, Yuuki. 2010. “The Rights Movement and Cultural while in Turkey, it is called Lazuri. The Ajars in both Geor-
Revitalization: The Case of the Ainu in Japan.” In Cultural gia and Turkey use standard Georgian as their written lan-
Diversity, Heritage and Human Rights: Intersections in Theory guage. The Ajars call themselves the Ach’areli or Ajareli.
 Ajar 43

Population, Diaspora, and Migration and therefore the destination of Jason and the Argonauts.
It is difficult to give accurate population figures for the From the fourth to the sixth centuries BCE, the Greeks col-
Ajars because they have not been counted in a Soviet or onized the region’s coast and then, in the first century BCE,
Georgian census since 1926. In 2002, however, it is believed it became an intrinsic part of the Greek Pontic Empire
the Ajar population in Georgia numbered around 115,261 founded by the Persian Mithridatic dynasty. In 62 BCE,
(Radio Free Europe 2013). The Ajar population is divided the Romans overran the region, which they named Iberia.
into the Ajars that live in the south and east of Ajaria, the Under Roman rule, the region became a thriving Latinized
Laz who inhabit the Black Sea coast in Turkey, and the area. Then, in the fourth century CE, Iberia adopted Chris-
Kabuletians who reside in the north and west of Ajaria. tianity as its religion. During this time, the Christian Ajars
were part of the Roman kingdom of Lazica.
Following the fall of the Roman Empire, the Ajar home-
Geography and Environment land was fought over by the Byzantines and Persians before
The Ajar homeland, Ajaria—also spelled Adjara, Adzhariya, the Persians took the region, thereby introducing the Ajars
or Adžarija—is an autonomous republic in southwest to Islam. Later, the Ajars became part of the Christian
Georgia that is located adjacent to the Black Sea and Geor- Armenian kingdom. Then, in the ninth century, Ajaria was
gia’s border with Turkey. Ajaria is mountainous except incorporated into the kingdom of Georgia. In the eleventh
for a narrow coastal strip. Two mountain ranges running century, Ajaria was overrun by the Seljuks followed in the
east–west, the Ajar-Imeretinsky in the north and the thirteenth century by the Mongols and Sunni Muslim
Shavshetsky in the south, rise from the coastal lowlands of leader Tamerlane’s forces in the fourteenth century. In the
the Black Sea to reach heights of over 9,200 feet. Between fifteenth century, Ajaria was won by the Ottoman Turks.
these mountains is the Ajaristskali River valley, which is Despite all these incursions into their homeland, the
enclosed at its eastern end by the Arsiyan Mountains. Ajars remained relatively independent because invading
The coastal lowlands have a humid subtropical climate. forces tended not to enter the high mountains where the
The climate becomes cooler with altitude, and above six Ajars lived. This situation changed under the Turks, how-
thousand feet it is cold, with snow lasting for six months ever, for the Turks changed the name of the people to the
on mountain peaks. The lowlands are home to subtropical Laz, and over the course of the next two centuries, the Ajars
vegetation, but coniferous forests, scrub, and alpine mead- took on Ottoman Islamic culture and religion. The Ajar
ows dominate the mountains. The republic’s subtropical homeland also became an important administrative area
crops (avocados, tea, eucalyptus, bamboo, and citrus fruits) of Lazistan, that is, the Ottoman sanjak (district), with the
are the mainstay of the republic’s economy. In higher alti- Laz- and Lazuri-speaking people living on the Black Sea’s
tudes, tobacco is grown. Livestock are also raised at higher southeast shore. The northern section of Lazistan, called
elevations. The republic’s capital and largest city, Batumi, is Ajaria or Ajaristan by the Ottomans, was awarded to Rus-
the terminus of a pipeline that stretches from Baku, Azer- sia following the Congress of Berlin in the aftermath of the
baijan. Ajaria is linked with the rest of Georgia by a road Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), which saw the Ottoman
over the Goderdzi Pass in the Arsiyan Mountains and by Empire fight unsuccessfully against an Eastern Orthodox
the Transcaucasian Railway. coalition led by the Russian Empire and its allies.
Since the 1980s, the Black Sea has become increasingly Despite numerous rebellions against them, the Russians
polluted, mostly as the result of inadequate sewage treat- turned Batumi into a major Black Sea port and also devel-
ment. In Batumi, some untreated wastewater is released oped Ajaria’s subtropical agriculture. Toward the end of the
into the sea, and much of Ajaria’s surface water contains nineteenth century and into the twentieth century, Ajar-
health-endangering bacteria that contributes to a high rate ia’s ports became increasingly important and expanded as
of intestinal diseases in Georgia. waves of Slav and Georgian migrants headed to the area.
The ports also became linked more closely with the out-
side as railways and pipelines connected Ajaria to centers
History and Politics of industry in the Caucasus regions. In 1905, the devoutly
In ancient times, Ajaria flourished as the region of Colchis, Muslim Ajaras revolted in resentment at the perks they felt
which in Greek mythology was home to the Golden Fleece were enjoyed by Christians in the area, a resentment that
44 Ajar

was intensified by the Ajars’ pro-Turkish sympathies in the period, the Soviets continued to question the loyalties of
run-up to the start of World War I in 1914. When the war the Ajars, and Stalin considered deporting all Ajars from
began, Ajaria became part of the front line, and the Ajars their homeland, only to have the outbreak of World War II
rebelled in support of a Turkish incursions into the region. thwart his plans. The plans were only abandoned following
When the Russians defeated the invading Turks, the Ajars Stalin’s death in 1953. After Stalin’s death, the Ajars enjoyed
suffered widespread retribution for backing the Turks. a modest cultural revival that intensified in the face of fur-
The Russian Revolution of 1917 threw Ajaria into con- ther attempts to assimilate them into Soviet Georgia dur-
fusion when the local government collapsed. The lack ing the 1960s and 1970s.
of civil authority allowed marauding Russian troops to In the 1980s, the relaxation of Soviet ways allowed the
roam Ajaria at will while fighting against Ajar, Armenian, Ajars to press for their greater autonomy. In response, the
and Georgian nationalist rebels. The lack of order contin- Georgian government unveiled plans to increase the use
ued until Turkey took control of Ajaria in 1918 with the of Georgian within the republic, a move the Ajars saw as
cooperation of Ajar nationalists. In 1918, egged on by the intended to repress them further. In contrast, in Turkey, a
Turks, the Ajar nationalists declared the independence of law prohibiting the use of languages other than Turkish
the Ajar state, which they named the Southwestern Cau- was lifted. Subsequently, the Laz region of Turkey that bor-
casus Republic. However, the new republic claimed some dered Ajaria reintroduced the Ajar language. In time, the
­Muslim-majority districts that were already incorporated two regions established close cultural and linguistic ties.
into the new republics of Georgia and Armenia. At the end In 1992, the new independent republic of Georgia was
of 1918, British troops entered Ajaria and vowed to protect declared following the downfall of the Soviet Union the
the new republic until its fate could be determined by the year before. The new Georgian republic was nationalistic
Paris Peace Conference. After coming under pressure from and did little to prevent ethnic tension from growing within
Georgia and Armenia, Britain disbanded the Ajar national the republic. Ever since the establishment of the Georgian
assembly (the Showra) in 1919 before withdrawing all Brit- government, some Georgian nationalists have regarded the
ish personnel from the region. Following the evacuation Ajars as a threat to Christian Georgia, an attitude that gov-
on British troops, Georgian forces overran Batumi along erns the Ajars’ relations with Georgian authorities.
with northern Ajaria, and Armenia invaded the south of Under Aslan Abashidze (the leader of the Ajarian
the republic and incorporated it into Armenia. Autonomous Republic from 1991 to 2004), Ajaria acquired
Following the victory of the Red Army in the Russian a reputation for fascistic rule and human rights abuses
Civil War, the army turned on Georgia. In the ensuing (Minority Rights Group International 2015). Abashidze’s
panic, the Ajars declared their homeland independent regime was toppled during the Rose Revolution, a
again and sought military assistance from Turkey. Turkish pro-Western peaceful revolution that occurred in Georgia
forces entered the Ajar homeland but then tried to annex in 2003. Ethnic and religious issues played no role in this
the area for Turkey, but pressure from the Soviets forced revolution, and following the ousting of Abashidze, his post
Turkey to relinquish its hold on much of the region. In was abolished with the possibility that Ajaria’s autonomy
1922, the Soviets declared the founding of the autonomous might be abolished. The abolition of Ajar autonomy was
Soviet republic of Ajaristan, which was then incorporated rejected, however, most likely because such a move might
into Soviet Georgia. This move prompted the Georgians to scare ethnic minorities in Abkhazia and South Ossetia into
question Ajar autonomy on the basis that they considered insurrection against Georgia.
the Ajars ethnic Georgians. Following the Rose Revolution, the Georgian parliament
Despite their reservations, the Georgians were fairly passed laws allowing the Ajarian assembly power over local
benevolent to the Ajars initially, only suppressing Ajar affairs. Legislation also states that the leader of the regional
cultural and religious practices after a failed Ajar rebel- government should be nominated by the Georgian presi-
lion. In the 1920s, the Ajars rebelled many times against dent, who retains the power to dissolve the assembly and
the Soviet repression of their religious traditions as well government as well as to overrule local authorities if the
as the collectivization of their farms. Having crushed the Constitution of Georgia is contravened. Despite a level of
revolts, Joseph Stalin ordered the deportation of many mistrust from some quarters, the Ajar homeland has func-
Ajars to Central Asia. Then, in 1930, Soviet ethnographers tioned as being independent from Georgia in all but for-
reclassified the Ajars as ethnic Georgians. Following this eign and monetary policies since 1992. Ajaria is the only
 Ajar 45

part of Georgia not to have suffered violent conflict, some- four. The school year runs from September to June, though
thing the Georgian authorities are mindful of in that they schools may close for extended periods in winter or dur-
strive not to inflame Ajar nationalism. ing the harvest. When children reach fifteen years of age,
they may sit for their arasruli sashulo ganaltebis motsmoba
certificate. At around age eighteen, students may take their
Society, Culture, and Tradition sashualo ganatlebis atestasi (general education diploma),
Most Ajars live in fishing or farming communities in rural which allows them to enter tertiary education. Students
areas. Traditionally, the Ajars are aligned culturally and can also embark on vocational programs or two-year pro-
linguistically with Turkey rather than Georgia, though fessional training courses that can lead to tertiary educa-
many Ajars have family members living in both countries. tion. Georgia has many state higher education institutions
The Ajars speak the Ajar language, which is called as well as many private institutes that all offer undergrad-
Garuli in Georgia and Lazuri in Turkey. The Ajars in both uate and postgraduate degrees.
Georgia and Turkey use standard Georgian as their lit- In Georgia, it is usually the case that education is
erary language. The Ajar language is a Gurian language funded by local government budgets directly financed by
(i.e., it originates in Guria, the western region of Georgia) the Georgian Ministry of Education and Science. However,
and includes many words borrowed from Turkish despite Ajaria has its own Ministries of Education that governs
being a subdialect of Georgian. The Ajar language is spo- the education system within its territory. According to
ken in two main dialects, Zan and Laz. the Georgian Ministry of Education and Science, in 2006,
Islam is very important to the Ajars and is the main there were 1,197 preschools across the country that taught
division between the Ajars and the Georgians. Most Ajars 77,922 children. The number of children in urban pre-
are devout Muslims that follow the Hanafi school of Sunni schools was on average three times higher than in rural
Islam. The Ajars have retained their religion despite its areas. Similarly, children in Georgia tend to go to primary
suppression under the Russians and Soviets and inde- school earlier in urban areas than in rural areas (UNESCO
pendent Georgia’s strong emphasis on Christianity. Ajaria and IBE 2010–2011).
has its own separate muftiate that is headed by the region’s
chief mufti.
Threats to Survival
The Ajars are wealthier than other peoples within Geor-
Health Care and Education gia as a result of their access to Black Sea ports. The
In Georgia, the average life expectancy has increased Georgian government, while trying not to inflame Ajar
to 73.1 years, which is 1.9 years higher than the average nationalism, does urge international trade to use ports
for the Commonwealth of Independent States. The coun- elsewhere so that the government can collect port fees.
try’s life expectancy at birth has also improved (though The government needs to be careful when doing this,
the rate is higher than that found in the WHO European however, so as not to cause resentment on the part of the
Region in general), and premature death from the four Ajars, who might then call for greater autonomy within
main noncommunicable diseases for people aged 30 to 69 Georgia or even their total independence. Another issue
years have reduced. Georgia also has high levels of child facing the Ajars is that some Orthodox Christian Geor-
immunization against measles and rubella. The Georgian gians suspect Ajar Islamic traditions are incompatible
government has executed a series of health reforms, which with Georgian identity. On the whole, however, the Ajar
include establishing a state-based health insurance pro- Islamic identity is no stronger than other ethnic iden-
gram to provide people with universal access to health care tities within Georgia, though researchers have noted
and introducing health promotion programs, such as pro- a slight resurgence of Islam in isolated Ajar highland
grams to reduce tobacco use. Nevertheless, Georgia faces communities.
significant health issues, including high rates of maternal See also: Abkhaz
mortality, cancers, cardiovascular diseases, and tobacco
Further Reading
smoking among males (WHO 2017). Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
In Georgia, education is compulsory between ages six Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 1, A–C.
and fourteen years, though children can go to school at age Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
46 Aka

Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Georgia: Ajarians.” other estimates suggest there are up to forty thousand
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, June Aka (Bahuchet 1999). Another population estimate sug-
19. https://minorityrights.org/minorities/ajarians. gests there are approximately eight thousand to twenty
Radio Free Europe. 2013. “Who Are Georgia’s Muslims?” Radio
Free Europe: Caucasus Report, August 29. https://www.rferl​
thousand Aka living in the Central African Republic alone
.org/a/georgia-muslim-population/25090162.html. (Minority Rights Group International 2015).
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organi- The Aka live in semicircular camps that are home to
zation (UNESCO) and International Bureau of Education around thirty people and consist of huts made from leaves
(IBE). 2010–2011. World Data on Education: Georgia. http://​ and twigs. The Aka move camp every two months on aver-
www.ibe.unesco.org/fileadmin/user_upload/Publications​ age. These moves are very localized, however, because all
/WDE/2010/pdf-versions/Georgia.pdf.
World Health Organization (WHO). 2017. “Georgia: High-
Aka nomadic hunting and foraging takes place in a small
lights on Health and Well-Being.” http://www.euro.who​ area, with each Aka community having its own domain
.int/__data/assets/pdf_file/0004/351697/WHO_GEORGIA​ within which it carries out all activity. Each Aka person
_HIGHLIGHTS_EN.pdf. may also access the domain where his or her parents or
female ancestors’ descendants reside.

Geography and Environment

The Aka live in the southwest of the Central African
AKA Republic and the north of the Republic of Congo in an area
between the Oubangui and Sangha Rivers. This area meas-
Current Location Central African Republic; Republic of
Congo ures approximately 62,137 square miles. The southern part
of the Aka homeland is low lying and features swamps and
Current Population 5,000–20,000
forests. It is home to the Oubangui and Likouala Rivers.
Language Diaka
The northern half of the Aka homeland has a humid tropi-
Interesting Fact The Aka are true pygmies and so do
cal climate, and the south of the region has a subequatorial
not grow taller than four feet eleven
climate. Dense, humid forests characterize the northern
inches.
half of the Aka homeland. The area’s average annual rain-
fall is around sixty-seven inches.
Overview
The Aka (also called the BaAka, Bi-Aka, Gba-Aka, Yakwe,
and Yakpa, among other names) are a pygmy people indig- History and Politics
enous to the Central African Republic and the Republic of The Aka are among the oldest peoples on earth. It is
Congo. The Aka speak their own language, Diaka, which believed that they are descended from humans who lived
is not spoken by any other people. The Aka also speak the on the fringes of Africa’s rainforests around twenty-five
Bantu languages of their neighbors. The Aka follow their thousand years ago. This long history is evinced by a
own cosmology and hold animist spiritual beliefs. record of an ancient Egyptian expedition to Central Africa
dating from 2300 BCE that notes the explorers brought
a pygmy dancer back to Egypt. Other ancient Egyptian
Population, Diaspora, and Migration records refer to all pygmies as Aka. Modern medical tests
The Aka have no national identification and do not have also attest to the Aka’s place in prehistory. Geneticists have
any official status within the countries they inhabit (Bahu- discovered that, like the Mbuti, Efe, and Khoisan, the Aka
chet 1999). This is part of the reason that there is no cen- have the Y-chromosome haplogroup B and mitochondrial
sus data available for them. Another reason is that the DNA haplogroup L1. In human mitochondrial genetics,
Aka are nomadic and frequently move, meaning they are L is the mitochondrial DNA macro-haplogroup (mtDNA)
not included in censuses. The lack of official census data that forms the basis of the human mtDNA phylogenetic
causes population estimates for the Aka to vary greatly. tree and represents the ancestral mitochondrial lineage of
For example, while one estimate suggests the total Aka all modern humans. For this reason, this mtDNA has been
population is around five thousand people (Shoup 2011), dubbed “Mitochondrial Eve” by human geneticists. That
 Aka 47

the Aka have this genetic makeup means they are one of part of the United Nation’s Intangible Cultural Heritage
the oldest peoples in the world. of Humanity.
In the seventeenth century, the Aka began to trade ivory Another aspect of public rituals is the reading of fire
to other African peoples, who subsequently sold the ivory as a form of divination. A diviner scrutinizes flames to
to Europe. Then, in 1880, Europeans began to visit the Aka determine the cause of misfortune. A distinct public Aka
and enlist their help to hunt elephants to bolster supplies ritual is held to celebrate honey collecting. This ritual,
of ivory for the European ivory market. Elephant hunting mobandi, is held once per season before rain destroys
on this scale was new to the Aka and caused changes in the flowers of the mbaso tree. During the ritual, the Aka
Aka society—the previously democratic Aka society saw hit themselves with branches of the tree. The Aka believe
elephant hunters earn money and become celebrities that hitting themselves is a purifying act that transfers
among their fellow Aka. Europeans also exerted control the evil (kose) that resides within every individual to the
over the forests in which the Aka lived, dividing the forests branches, ensuring that evil will no longer live within
into zones from which they exploited the area’s reserves of their community. In addition to these large-scale ceremo-
natural rubber. nies, the Aka hold smaller private rituals to mark the end
Elephant hunting allowed the Aka to continue their of mourning periods, before every hunt, and when build-
nomadic lifestyle in the face of the European colonization ing a new camp.
of Africa, and so the Aka escaped any attempts to make
them work as forced laborers. Similarly, throughout mod-
ern times, the Aka have resisted sporadic attempts by Health Care and Education
authorities to force them to live in settled communities. Most Aka do not have access to medical facilities, and
any medical centers the Aka can use tend to be poorly
equipped. An increasing number of Aka suffer from health
Society, Culture, and Tradition issues, including alcoholism, malaria, and respiratory tract
Traditionally, the Aka are nomadic, forest-dwelling infections. Rates of HIV/AIDS are also increasing. Part of
­hunter-gatherers. The people earn a living through hunting the reason for this increase is that during times of con-
and gathering with locals and from traders buying meat and flicts, enemy fighters rape and sexually assault pygmy
other foraged foods from them. The Aka have also estab- women and girls, thereby transmitting sexually transmit-
lished trade links with their Bantu neighbors, with whom ted diseases (Cheung 2003). The Aka are extremely fer-
they trade ivory, furs, and rubber in exchange for items such tile. On average, each Aka female produces five children,
as metal tools that the Aka cannot find in the forests. usually with four years between each birth. However, the
The Aka belief system considers the forests in which the infant mortality rate among the Aka is also high at around
people live to be part of the spirit world. The Aka believe 20 percent (Bahuchet 1999).
that the souls of the dead mediate between Ezengi, the The Aka do not have access to schools and have
active spirit of the forest, and the Creator-God, Bembe. The extremely low literacy levels. Attempts by Christian mis-
Aka regard the forest spirits as responsible for permitting sionaries to enroll Aka children in missionary schools tend
the people to collect foods and other items from the for- to fail because Aka families frequently move around the
est and guide animals toward the Aka so that they can be forests, and so children do not maintain their schooling. As
killed. In times of difficulty or war, the Aka perform ritual the Aka are illiterate and also innumerate, they are often
dances to appease the gods and thereby ensure the survival taken advantage of in business situations by outsiders who
of their people. are willing to exploit their lack of education (Bahuchet
The Aka perform two types of rituals: public rituals 1999).
involving the entire Aka community and private rituals
that are held for more personal reasons. Most often, the
Aka hold public rituals to ensure the fertility of the for- Threats to Survival
est, to predict the future, and to appease the spirits of the The Aka face numerous threats to their physical and cul-
forest. The large-scale rituals involve dancing and poly- tural survival. On the one hand, the animals the Aka hunt
phonic singing that is accompanied by drumming and for food are becoming more scarce because deforesta-
clapping. In 2003, the Aka style of music was listed as tion is destroying the animals’ natural habitats. Illegal
48 Akan

logging is a huge problem for the Aka; even when logging Only time will tell how far into the future the Aka society
is state-controlled and forest conservation measures are and culture can prevail.
in place, the Aka still face the issue of losing their forest
See also: Baka; Mbuti; Mongol
homes and food supplies. In addition, road construction
Further Reading
through forests means that outsiders can come to hunt the
Bahuchet, Serge. 1999. “Aka Pygmies.” In The Cambridge Ency-
animals previously hunted by the Aka, thereby reducing clopedia of Hunters and Gatherers, edited by Richard B. Lee
Aka food stocks further. and Richard Daly, 190–195. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Uni-
In addition to affecting the Aka’s food resources, the versity Press.
loss of forest also affects the Aka’s culture and society. Cheung, Priscilla. 2003. “Congolese Pygmies Say They Are Being
This issue was highlighted in a 2007 report by the Forest Hunted by Cannibals.” The Independent, May 22. .
Griswold, Eliza. 2004. “The Truth behind the Cannibals of
Peoples Programme that noted in the Dzanga Protected
Congo.” The Independent, March 26. http://www.independ
Area Complex, where authorities permit the Aka to hunt ent​.co.uk/news/world/africa/the-truth-behind-the-cannibals​
and pursue their traditional lifestyle, younger Aka are los- -of-congo-5355387.html.
ing their forest knowledge. The loss of forest knowledge Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Central African
is occurring because development has increased close Republic: Aka.” World Directory of Minorities and Indige-
to forests, attracting younger Aka to the more developed nous Peoples, June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities​
/aka.
areas. They then opt not to follow traditional Aka ways
Shoup, John A. 2011. “Aka.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and the
and are increasingly adopting sedentary lifestyles. While Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup,
efforts to make all Aka abandon nomadism and live in 11–12. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
settled villages have failed, increasing numbers of Aka are
unquestionably living stationary lives in settlements that
have poor sanitation and substandard housing (Bahuchet
1999).
In a similar vein, the introduction of coffee farming in
Aka areas sees many young Aka working on farms rather
AKAN
than hunting and foraging for food. However, the Aka often Current Location Ghana; Côte d’Ivoire
face ingrained anti-Aka discrimination from other peoples
Current Population 18,642,748
that results in the Aka earning less than other people for
Language Twi; multiple dialects; English; French
the same work. The growth of another industry in the Aka
Interesting Fact Akan families are headed by the old-
homeland, tourism, is also affecting the Aka, as the peo-
est female relative, who acts as the
ple are losing touch with their heritage by adapting their
head of the household.
customs and rituals to tourist-friendly versions of their
traditional ways.
While the Aka are renowned for their hunting prow- Overview
ess, they also face being hunted by their fellow humans. The Akan are an ethnic group indigenous to Ghana and
For many years the Aka, like the Efe and Mbuti, have been Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast) in West Africa. The language
targets for Les Effaceurs (the Erasers), who, according to most commonly spoken by the Akan is Twi. The people also
UN investigators, are a cannibalistic rebel group that roves speak numerous dialects that vary geographically. These
Central African countries, killing and eating pygmies in dialects include Akuapem, Fante, Akyem, and Asante. The
the belief that by ingesting the pygmies they will absorb Akan in Ghana also speak English, and the Akan in Côte
the pygmies’ hunting abilities. d’Ivoire also speak French. Traditionally, the Akan follow
The Aka lack political representation, but this may be their own religion, but nowadays most Akan are Christian.
because they fail to recognize that outside forces are mak-
ing their future especially precarious. Indeed, all may not
be lost for the Aka. Over the centuries, the Aka have forged Population, Diaspora, and Migration
relationships with neighboring peoples yet have managed The Akan population of Ghana numbers 8,562,748, mean-
to maintain their own language, keep alive their musical ing the people make up 46 percent of the country’s total
traditions, and follow their indigenous spiritual beliefs. population, with most Akan living in the south and center
 Akan 49

of the country. The most significant of the Ghana’s Akan Côte d’Ivoire at some point between the second millen-
subgroups are the Ashanti, who make up 30.1 percent of nium BCE and 700 CE. This was a time when yam and
the total Akan population in Ghana. Other Ghanaian Akan palm oil production became established in West Africa’s
groups include the Ahanta, Akyem, Buaho, Fante, Sefwi, forest areas.
and Wasa (Badru 2011). The largest Akan groups after the The first large Akan settlements were Begho and Bono
Ashanti are the Ashanti, Akuapem, Fante, and Bono-Brong. Manso. Begho, which was established in the eleventh or
Together, these tribes make up 44 percent of all Ghanaians twelfth century, served as a market town and was home
(Abidogun 2015). to Akan politicians and royalty. Bono Manso, which was
In Côte d’Ivoire, Akan groups make up 42 percent of founded around 1289, was also a trading post for the
the country’s total population of around 24 million people trans-Saharan gold and kola trades. The Ashanti overran
(Abidogun 2015), or 10,080,000 people. The largest Akan Bono Manso in the eighteenth century.
groups in Côte d’Ivoire are the Agni (the same as Ghana’s The first Akan subgroups to interact with Europe-
Aowin people) and the Baule (who are descended from the ans were the Fante and Denkyira, who met Portuguese
Ashanti). Other Akan groups in Côte d’Ivoire include the explorers in 1471. Europeans dubbed Akan areas the “Gold
Abron (the same as Ghana’s Bono-Brong), the Ebrie, and Coast,” and after the Portuguese, this region witnessed a
the Nzema (Abidogun 2015). Though there are many Akan rapid succession of European settlers, including the British
subgroups, the people consider themselves one nation, by 1553, the Dutch by 1595 and the Swedish by 1640.
known by the name Akanman. By the start of the 1600s, the Akan were highly influen-
tial in the trans-Saharan trade in gold, kola, and slaves. The
Ahanta, Ashanti, and Denkyira dominated trade, politics,
Geography and Environment and the economy of forest regions, while the Fante were
Ghana is located in West Africa, where it is bordered by prevalent in trading with Europeans along the coast. In
Côte d’Ivoire in the west, Burkina Faso to the north, Togo addition, the Ahanta, Ashanti, Denkyira, and Fante traded
to the east, and the Gulf of Guinea and Atlantic Ocean to slaves for gold with the Europeans. The slaves were either
the south. The Akan are scattered across Ghana in an area taken by the Akan along trans-Saharan trade routes to the
that stretches from Ghana’s Asante region, to the Brong slave port of Zanzara or used by the Akan to clear forests
Ahafo region, to the eastern and central regions, and then to allow farming and mining.
to isolated parts of the Volta River. Most Akan live in the By the 1800s, the Ashanti were trading prisoners of
south and central areas of the country. In Côte d’Ivoire, the war to Europeans in return for guns, a move that allowed
Akan are concentrated in the southeast. Grasslands, shrub the Ashanti to conquer swathes of land from other peo-
land, and forests dominate Ghana’s landscape, with south- ples, including other Akan subgroups, and had managed
ern Ghana being a major location for mining of industrial to establish numerous city-states. During the nineteenth
minerals and timber. century, the Ashanti continued to expand their territory,
Almost all Akan are forest dwellers, except for a few and they founded a confederacy of states that reached
outlying subgroups that live in the savannah, hills, and val- across most of Ghana at its zenith. Part of the reason for
leys of the Volta River. Côte d’Ivoire is located in western the Ashanti’s success was that new crops, such as maize,
sub-Saharan Africa, where it is bordered by Liberia and cocoyams, and cassava, had been introduced to West
Guinea to the west, Mali and Burkina Faso to the north, Africa from the Americas and soon became staple Akan
the Gulf of Guinea (the northeasternmost part of the trop- crops. As Ashanti agriculture grew so did their need for
ical Atlantic Ocean) to the south, and Ghana to the east. A labor, which they mainly acquired by taking war captives
great deal of Côte d’Ivoire is covered by farmland, most of and trading slaves from Europeans. Ultimately, the con-
which is arable. Water pollution is a growing issue in Côte quered peoples were absorbed into Ashanti society and
d’Ivoire. paid tributes to Ashanti authorities. The Ashanti faced
armed resistance from other Akan subgroups, includ-
ing the Baule, who ultimately settled in Côte d’Ivoire,
History and Politics and the Aowin, who undermined the Ashanti by taking
Both archeological data and the Akan’s oral history agree in refugees from Ashanti military incursions, arresting
that the people first inhabited the forests of Ghana and Ashanti people that wandered on their land, and using
50 Akan

the prisoners as a form of defense when attacked by the dominated by the oldest female relative, who runs the
Ashanti. household. As Akan descent is matrilineal, family prop-
The Fante also stayed separate from the Ashanti by ask- erty follows the female line. But paternal descent is not
ing the British for protection. In 1843, a British governor neglected, as it determines membership of the ntoro, com-
was assigned to the Gold Coast and Sierra Leone. In 1873, munities sharing the same taboos, etiquette, and purifica-
when the Ashanti invaded Fante land on the Gold Coast, tion ceremonies.
the land was a British protectorate where British soldiers Though most Akan are Christians, the people’s tradi-
were stationed. The following year, the British razed the tional religion involves an intricate system of ancestor wor-
Ashanti capital of Kumasi, an act that marked the start ship and beliefs in oracles and superstitions. Worshippers
of the decline of the Ashanti Empire. The Ashanti held off believe that their ancestors are in contact with the supreme
the British for many years, but in 1902, the British claimed Akan god, Odonmankoma. The people also believe in
Ashanti land as a colony, thereby ending independent numerous lesser deities, including Toturobonsu (the giver
Ashanti’s power. of rain) and Omaowia (the bringer of sunshine). They also
During the colonial and postcolonial era, the Ashanti consider spirit entities to exist in inanimate objects, such
administrated their land under indirect British rule. This as the Nyaamedua (blackening stools) under which reli-
situation allowed other Akan groups that had been over- gious offerings such as foods and eggs are placed.
powered by the Ashanti to rediscover their authority The Akan consider baby names and baby-naming
and shore up their internal politics and social structure, ceremonies extremely important culturally. From a phil-
though at the same time, all Akan tribal leaders operated osophical perspective, the Akan view names as a kind of
under indirect British rule. In contrast, the Akan sub- spiritual identification as well as a mark of respect for a
group living in Côte d’Ivoire found that their people were baby’s ancestors. Baby-naming ceremonies are also impor-
becoming increasingly assimilated under French colonial tant to the Akan, as the rituals mark the moment a baby’s
rule. Indeed, the Baule and Agni were disbanded in all but existence is officially acknowledged. Names in general are
name under French colonial assimilation policies (Abido- very important to them, as they reveal the circumstances
gun 2015). Nonetheless, Agni leaders attempted to declare of a person’s birth.
their own state within Côte d’Ivoire in 1969. Part of the way in which the Akan kept alive their tra-
ditions is through ensuring that all community members
engage in raising children collectively. Akan life centers on
Society, Culture, and Tradition small, close-knit agricultural villages, and it is customary
Traditionally, the Akan have an elaborate system of gov- for villagers to take part in baby-naming ceremonies, as
ernance, at the top of which is the Asantehene (king), who they feel this helps to make sure that babies are bonded
is considered the epitome of power and authority and to the villagers for life. Members of the Akan take part
acts under the aegis of the people’s ancestors. Today, the in many communal ceremonies and rituals throughout
Asantehene is a symbolic figure who participates in tra- their lives. The first of these is the baby-naming ceremony,
ditional rituals and ceremonial occasions. Several chiefs which is presided over by tribal elders.
whose positions are hereditary help the king. The queen An Akan baby is kept indoors for the first week of its life
mother is another important Akan figure; she keeps order because the Akan believe this is the time when babies are
within the royal court so as to ensure supporters surround most at risk from physical and supernatural harm. To pro-
the king. tect the child during this period, neither the mother nor
Traditional Akan society consists of exogamous matri- child receives any visitors. Exactly eight days after the child
lineal clans that trace their descent from a female ancestor. is born, the baby’s naming ceremony is held. The ceremony
Akan clans are hierarchical and split into localized mat- is often referred to as abadinto or dzinto (outdooring cer-
rilineages that form the Akan’s basic society and political emony) because the ceremony marks the first time a baby
units. leaves the house in which it was born. Ghana has an infant
The majority of Akan live in compact villages that are mortality rate that sees around forty-eight babies out of
divided into wards occupied by the matrilineages and fur- every one thousand die before the age of one year (Wil-
ther split into compounds of extended families. Extended liams 2017), so it is not unusual for a baby to not survive
families are the norm in Akan society, with families long enough to experience a baby-naming ceremony.
 Akan 51

Many Ghanaians believe babies are Ohoho (visitors) Ghanaian baby may end up with up to ten names in total.
from the spiritual realm and view infant deaths as babies However, babies may still not share a name within a family,
deciding to return to that world at any time during the first unless, perhaps, two or more babies happened to be born
seven days of life on earth. While the baby is regarded as a on the same day of the week. The exact form of an Akan
visitor, it is also regarded as a stranger and so is not given baby-naming ceremony varies from location to location,
a name. Because Ghana’s infant death rate is high, it is also but such ceremonies are always joyous, richly symbolic rit-
normal for friends, family, and villagers to consider a baby uals that aim to instill moral teachings.
that has died before its official naming to not have existed.
Thus, babies that die before their eighth day of life are not
mourned. Once a baby reaches its eighth day, the Akan Health Care and Education
consider him or her to have left behind the spiritual realm Life expectancy at birth for men in Ghana is 55.4 years and
and committed fully to life on earth. Thus, baby-naming 59.6 years for women. The major causes of child mortal-
ceremonies are of the utmost importance to the Akan, as ity are malaria, diarrhea, and upper respiratory infection,
they symbolize that a baby has decided to be among the while the major causes of death in adults are HIV infection,
living. hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and road traffic accidents.
During a naming ceremony, a baby receives three or four The occurrence of noncommunicable diseases, including
names. The first of these names, kra den, reflects the day of diabetes, asthma, and hypertension, is rising across Ghana
the week on which the baby was born. Therefore, there are because people are not only living longer but they have
seven possible first names for Akan babies, with male and higher rates of alcoholism, tobacco use, poor eating hab-
female versions available. It is unusual for an Akan baby to its, lack of exercise, and increasing stress levels. In general,
be born with light-colored skin, so any baby that appears low literacy levels, poor sanitation, inadequate nutrition,
white-skinned is usually named Akwasi (if it is a boy) or alcohol dependency, sedentary lives, and poor diets are all
Akosu (if the baby is a girl), even if the baby was born on contributing to Ghana’s high mortality rates.
a day that was not a Sunday. The reason for this tradition Recently, Ghanaians have enjoyed improved access to
harks back to colonial times, when Ghanaians would come basic medicines, but there is a proliferation of counterfeit
into contact with pale-skinned Europeans (mostly British medicines throughout the country that put people at risk.
and Portuguese) during Sunday church services. There are however significant problems facing Ghana’s
The baby’s father chooses the second name, or den pa. health services. For instance, each medical doctor in
This name is a formal name that reflects the baby’s clan or Ghana treats an average of ten thousand people. Ghana’s
a person that the father admires. Though the den pa is the health workers are disproportionately located in the south
equivalent of a Western family name, an Akan father may of Ghana and in cities. The Greater Accra and Ashanti
choose different den pa names for each of his children. regions, where around 33.1 percent of the country’s total
An Akan baby’s third name reveals his or her birth order population live, have access to over 60 percent of Ghana’s
in relation to his or her siblings. In the case of twins, the total number of doctors and nurses (WHO 2009).
second twin to be delivered is considered the elder of the Akan stories, history, and languages are taught in
two, as he or she is thought to have been mature enough to Ghana’s schools, which are free to attend. The Ghanaian
assist the firstborn twin in leaving the womb. A baby may government demands that education is taught in mother
also receive a name that reveals that he or she was born tongues. Akan children at school in Ghana also learn Eng-
under special circumstances. For instance, a baby born lish. In Ghana, almost 623,500 children of primary school
during wartime is called Bekõe if it is a boy or Bedíákàõ age are not enrolled in primary school, and one out of four
if it is a girl. A premature baby receives the unisex name children aged four to five years are not enrolled in pre-
Nyaméama, a baby born on a farm receives the fourth school. Additionally, according to the 2010 national census,
name Afúom, and a baby that is born after his or her father 20 percent of Ghana’s children with physical disabilities do
has died is named Antó. not go to school. It is often the case that school classes in
Many Akan have recently converted to Christianity. Ghana are overcrowded, lack books and trained teachers,
Babies of religious converts receive a Christian name and have deficient water and sanitation facilities. The poor
as well as the three or four traditional Akan names. As quality of Ghana’s education is reflected in pupils’ results.
a result of combining Christian and Akan traditions, a According to the 2011 National Education Assessment,
52 Akha

only 16 percent of sixth grade students are considered pro- on the border of China and Myanmar but now live in
ficient in math, and only 35 percent are proficient in Eng- Thailand, Vietnam, and Laos. The Akha speak the Akha
lish (UNICEF n.d.). language, which is part of the Loloish (Yi) branch of the
Tibeto-Burman family. Most Akha follow the people’s tra-
ditional religion, though there are a growing number of
Threats to Survival Christians and Buddhists.
The future of the Akan looks assured. In postcolonial
Ghana and Côte d’Ivoire, they are socially, politically, and
economically influential. On the whole, the people have Population, Diaspora, and Migration
safeguarded their culture and tradition. The Akan exist in Usually, the Akha population is estimated to number
a democratic society, which, although it has experienced around 500,000 people (Minahan 2014). However, census
some bloody military coups, is today akin to the United figures for the Akha are often unreliable. Consequently,
States’ presidential system. population estimates for the Akha can range from as low
See also: Ewe as 400,000 to as high as 2.3 million. Traditionally, the
Akha live in villages intermingled with villages housing
Further Reading
other ethnic groups in the highlands of northern Thai-
Abidogun, Jamaine. 2015. “Akan.” In Native Peoples of the World:
An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary land, southwest China, western Myanmar, northwest Viet-
Issues, edited by Steven Danver, 12–15. London: Routledge. nam, and western Laos. Recently, however, the Akha have
Badru, Pade. 2011. “Akans.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and the started to migrate to lowland urban areas, where they live
Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup, 7–10. among Tai speakers.
Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
UNICEF. n.d. “Reaching Out to Those Missing Out on School.”
https://www.unicef.org/ghana/education.html.
Geography and Environment
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA: Northern Thailand is characterized by many mountain
ABC-CLIO. ranges that continue on from Myanmar’s Shan Hills to
World Health Organization (WHO). 2009. WHO Country Coop- Laos. Like most of Thailand, northern Thailand has a trop-
eration Strategy 2008–2011: Ghana. Brazzaville, Republic of ical savanna climate, but its relatively high altitude and
the Congo: WHO Regional Office for Africa. http://apps.who​
latitude mean the region experiences more pronounced
.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/136005/ccs_ghana.pdf;​jses
sionid=038CAD0FC9B097F4F3FED4575B6F4A7C. seasonal temperature variations, including cool winters.
Thai authorities have recently implemented a number
of environmental policies, including forest conservation
plans, that have alienated indigenous peoples such as the
Akha from their traditional lands. In particular, the 2014
Return Forest Policy has sought to appropriate land that
AKHA authorities deem to have suffered human encroachment
Current Location China; Thailand; Myanmar; but which the forests’ indigenous inhabitants consider
Vietnam; Laos their territory. The policy therefore casts the indigenous
Current Population 500,000 inhabitants as trespassers on protected forest land. In
Language Akha some cases, this policy has resulted in indigenous peo-
ples, including the Akha, having their lands confiscated,
Interesting Fact The Akha are famous for their
lavish headwear, which consists
and the forest dwellers are also threatened with fines or
of beads, fur, silk, aluminum, and imprisonment.
silver coins.

History and Politics

Overview According to Akha tradition, the people’s ancestors orig-
The Akha (also called the Hani, Edaw, Kaw, Ko, and Woni, inated along Tibet’s borders before heading south across
among many other names) are a people who originated many mountains and rivers. However, many researchers
 Akha 53

believe the Akha actually originated farther to the south- increased and had a long-lasting legacy, as the Akha came
east, on the border of what is now China’s Yunnan province to view their traditional religion and customs as wicked
and northern Myanmar, and they migrated from there to and uncivilized. The missionaries’ mistreatment of the
form the kingdom of Nanzhao in southern China. Akha frequently went unpunished because the Akha lived
The Nanzhao kingdom began circa 649 as a small king- in such inaccessible areas.
dom around Yunnan province’s Lake Erhai. In 737, six By the 1860s, Akha villages in present-day Myanmar’s
small kingdoms were united to create a new Nanzhao state Shan State came under the authority of the Shan prince of
with the help of China’s Tang dynasty. In 750, however, the Kentung. By the start of the twentieth century, the migra-
Nanzhao people revolted against the Tang. The following tion of Akha clans meant that Akha villages stretched into
year, the Tang deployed an army to the area to reaffirm Han north Thailand, though development in the area soon cur-
Chinese control. Another Tang army was sent to the area in tailed further Akha migration. Development also meant
754, but this army proved unsuccessful as well. The victo- that, in time, local authorities forcibly relocated Akha com-
rious Nanzhao rapidly enlarged their territory to include munities to less fertile land while their lands were cleared
most of Yunnan province, areas of what is today Myanmar, for the timber industry or opium production. Meanwhile,
and the northern areas of present-day Laos and Thailand. in China, the Akha were classified as members of the Hani
Later, the Nanzhao extended their territory northward into ethnic group, though the Akha rejected this classification
Sichuan in China. The Nanzhao kingdom began to decline because they regarded themselves as a separate nation.
in the ninth century, with the kingdom ultimately being Toward the end of the twentieth century, the rise of cap-
destroyed by civil unrest. italism together with rapid modernization brought great
The majority of the Nanzhao/Akha subsequently change to the Akha, threatening the people’s traditional
became subjects of the Bai (or Dali, Great Li) kingdom culture. Today, however, ecotourism has helped some
that was founded in 937. In the thirteenth century, this Akha communities become self-supporting, as the peo-
kingdom fell to Mongol invaders and was included in the ple are able to sell tourist souvenirs and charge for events.
new Mongol province of Yunnan. Soon, stronger ethnic Nonetheless, the majority of the Akha live in uncertain
groups came to dominate Akha land and drove the Akha conditions without help from local authorities or outside
to live in more remote highland areas. The immigration of organizations.
peoples who were not Tibeto-Burman into the Akha area
prompted waves of Akha migration that continued into
the twentieth century. Migrant Akha came to live as sub- Society, Culture, and Tradition
sistence farmers in inaccessible highland areas, where they The Akha are bound by a complex set of beliefs, traditions,
resided throughout the sixteenth and seventeenth centu- and social conventions. According to Akha philosophies,
ries, free from outside interference. every human action or thought must be measured and
Some researchers also believe the Akha were once considered in relation to the individual’s needs as well as
members of the Lolo people that ruled Yunnan’s Baoshan the auspiciousness of a particular day, the mood of the
and Tengchong Plain regions before troops belonging to spirits and ancestors, the people’s traditional calendar, and
the Chinese Ming dynasty invaded the area in 1644. When the position of their village’s gates, which the Akha con-
the Chinese overran Akha clans to the north, new waves sider the boundary between themselves and the spirits of
of Akha migration began, with people heading south and the jungle. This philosophy, called zang (meaning “way,”
east. This migration continued until the nineteenth cen- “religion,” or “customs”), is the unifying element of Akha
tury. The scattered Akha communities were often abused culture and society, as it influences the people’s ceremo-
by their more powerful neighbors (Minahan 2014). nies, worldview, and practices associated with farming,
During the 1840s and 1850s, Christian missionaries hunting, and traditional healing. The Akha also tend to
began to enter highland Akha villages, where they forci- believe in shamanism and ancestor worship. Although
bly converted the Akha to Christianity. Missionaries also zang unites the Akha, as more and more Akha move to
abducted Akha children by placing them in orphanages lowland urban areas, an increasing number of Akha have
without the consent of their living parents and forced adopted Buddhism and Christianity in line with their low-
Akha children to toil as laborers. At the start of the twen- land neighbors. Since Akha oral history revolves around
tieth century, the missionaries’ actions against the Akha conflict, the people are resolutely nonviolent.
54 Akha

Akha women wearing traditional dress in Laos. The Akha are known for unique headwear incorporating such items as white beads,
aluminum balls, monkey fur, silver coins, and colorful silk thread. (Digital Press/Dreamstime.com)

Rice is the staple food of the Akha and is usually grown be instigated by a husband or wife. Akha society does not
by using slash-and-burn farming methods. But since the have an organized class system. Instead, their society is
early twentieth century, cotton and opium have become based on kinship and alliances through marriage.
the Akha’s main cash crops. The Akha language is part of the Loloish branch of the
The Akha are known for their distinctive dress. While Sino-Tibetan language group. Linguists believe Akha is
most Akha clothing is black, the Akha sport unique head- a dialect of the Hani language. This is especially true in
wear covered in white beads, aluminum balls, monkey fur, China, where the Akha are usually regarded as members
silver coins, and colorful silk threads. Some Akha women of the Hani ethnic group.
wear hats made from colorful bands that perch upon their
heads like top hats. Akha women also wear leggings that
are black with multicolored horizontal stripes underneath Health Care and Education
short black skirts and a white pouch around their middles. In Thailand, the Akha face numerous health risks. Many
The Akha are also famed for their cloth dying and embroi- of these dangers are due to the people’s inability to access
dery. Akha embroidery patterns are applied to men’s and health care because of language barriers. There is a des-
women’s jackets, with individual motifs indicating the perate need for healthcare programs to reduce the Akha’s
wearer’s membership in Akha subgroups. susceptibility to illness and disease. Recent data shows
The Akha practice patrilineal descent. Typically, the that only 30 percent of children under the age of one year
last syllable of a father’s name becomes the first syllable have received the combined measles, mumps, and rubella
of his child’s name. The Akha allow polygyny, and they are (MMR) vaccine, and only 40 percent have received the fifth
permitted to choose their own life spouses. Divorce can dose of the diphtheria, tetanus, and pertussis/polio vaccine
 Akha 55

(DTP/OPV); 66 percent have tooth decay. Almost all Akha teachers consider teaching in highland areas as inferior
babies are born at home, and only half of all Akha women work (Heering 2013). These schools teach a national cur-
in Thailand receive antenatal care during pregnancy. Over riculum, so Akha children are not taught about the history
64 percent were assisted during birth by an untrained mid- of their people. Lessons are taught in the Thai language
wife (Apidechkul et al. 2016). rather than Akha dialects; therefore, the children do not
In general, the Akha are among the poorest people in learn in a language they know. The children also learn
Thailand, lacking not only health care but educational about Buddhism, which is not part of their traditional cul-
opportunities as well. The Akha have much lower rates of ture. Consequently, the children are increasingly assimi-
school attendance than other residents of Thailand, possi- lated into the dominant Thai culture and, at the same time,
bly because their schools are poorly equipped and under- become further removed from their own ethnicity. As a
staffed. Mother tongue education for the Akha is almost result of this assimilation, some Akha have noticed that
nonexistent in Thai state schools. Consequently, illiteracy younger Akha no longer respect their elders, leading to
is high among the Akha, and the illiteracy rates rise with disharmony in families, which are the cornerstone of Akha
age. For example, 56 percent of Akha women aged thirteen society (Heering 2013).
to forty-four years of age are illiterate, compared with 92
percent of women aged forty-five to sixty. Twenty percent
of the women in this age group are also unable to commu- Threats to Survival
nicate at all in Thai. Around 78 percent of Akha men in The Akha living in Thailand, Myanmar, and Laos have con-
Thailand are illiterate. For Akha men and women aged over tinuing difficulties in becoming citizens of the countries in
sixty years, 100 percent are illiterate, and 74 percent can- which they reside. Since 2000, there has been a move within
not communicate in Thai (Apidechkul et al. 2016). Recent Thailand to register indigenous highland people, including
data also reveals that 55 percent of the Akha in Thailand the Akha, who have not yet received citizenship. However,
have received no formal education at all, 31 percent have this citizenship drive has only been partly successful, for as
received only primary school education, 38 percent cannot of 2016, around one hundred thousand indigenous people
speak Thai, and 60 percent cannot read Thai. Additionally, remain without citizenship (Minority Rights Group Inter-
90 percent of all Akha in Thailand are unable to converse national 2018). This lack of citizenship was partly due to
in Thai (Heering 2013). the people’s lack of language knowledge and understand-
Today, mainstream Thai education consists of two ing of their rights as well officials’ ignorance of the regis-
grades: Pratom (primary grades) and Mattayom (second- tration process. Without citizenship, indigenous people are
ary grades). These are divided into lower primary (first to unable to access state resources, including health care and
fourth grade), upper primary (fifth to sixth grade), lower education.
secondary (seventh to ninth grade), and upper secondary In Thailand, Myanmar, and Laos, the Akha are often
(tenth to twelfth grade). Since 2000, it has been compul- prevented from owning land and farms. They also face
sory for children in Thailand to study through nine grades. restrictions on their freedom of movement, which in turn
Students are expected to attend school regularly, and pupils exacerbates issues of land rights. Women and girls without
in rural areas participate in distance learning via video citizenship are also more likely to fall prey to trafficking.
lessons from urban schools. However, some commenta- Additionally, in Thailand, the Akha’s traditional slash-and-
tors see this approach as a form of assimilation because burn farming method has been under threat since the
the schooling promotes Buddhism and Thai culture while 1980s, when Thai authorities banned logging.
distorting history by ignoring the history of ethnic groups, The increase in tourism to the Akha’s traditional high-
many of whom are animists. land territory in northern Thailand has had an ambiguous
In the case of the hill tribes, education’s role was both impact on the people. While tourism provides the Akha
cultural and political. Additionally, as Mattayoms are not with income, it has intruded on the people’s culture and
found in Thai villages, Akha children that reach second- everyday lives, for the Akha do not control the tours that
ary grades must leave their villages to be educated in visit their villages nor do they have a say over how their
urban areas. The children live in dormitories and only culture is portrayed to tourists. Akha customs are often
return to their villages on the weekends. The villages’ marketed as spectacles. Additionally, Akha society is in
primary schools are staffed by Thai interns because Thai danger of disintegration, as the younger generation is
56 Akie

increasingly assimilated through education that distances thousand Akie inhabiting their traditional clan lands south-
them from their heritage. east of Olduvai Gorge (Marianne Hovind Bakken, cited by
BBC n.d.). Until recently, the Akie married their daughters
See also: Dai; Hani; Mosuo; Pumi
to Maasai pastoralists in return for cattle. However, this cus-
Further Reading
tom has resulted in an imbalance between men and women
Apidechkul, T., P. Wongnuch, S. Sittisarn, and T. Ruanjai. 2016.
“Health Situation of Akha Hill Tribe in Chiang Rai Province.” in the Akie community, as there are too few potential Akie
Thailand Journal of Public Health and Development 14 (1): brides for Akie men. Men had to wait until later in life for
77–97. Akie girls to come of age and become marriageable. For this
Formoso, Bernard. 2005. “Hani.” In Encyclopedia of the World’s reason, the practice is now prohibited.
Minorities, edited by Carl Skutsch, 546–547. New York:
Routledge.
Heering, Paul. 2013. Coping with Modernity: Northern Thailand’s Geography and Environment
Akha New Wayfaring in the City of Chiang Mai. Master’s the-
sis. University of Utrecht, the Netherlands. https://dspace​ While they are well known for their hunting prowess, the
.library.uu.nl/handle/1874/282015. Akie are most renowned for their wild honey gathering.
Kislenko, Arne. 2004. Culture and Customs of Thailand. West- It is usually the Akie men who gather the honey from the
port, CT: Greenwood Press. hives of wild bees. They spend a great deal of time (from
Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Cen-
a few days to a month or more) gathering honey, but they
tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Thailand: High- view the honey they gather as a hugely calorific reward for
land Indigenous People.” World Directory of Minorities and doing very little work. Akie men adore eating honey, and
Indigenous Peoples. https://minorityrights.org/minorities​ while hunting, they will often get distracted by looking for
/highland-ethnic-groups. beehives. The men also look out and listen for the greater
honeyguide bird (Indicator indicator), for this bird guides
the Akie men to wile beehives. Once an Akie man has
spotted a greater honeyguide bird, he will call to the bird,
which then chirps at him continuously as it hops between
AKIE the trees, leading the way to a nearby beehive. The bird will
periodically stop to allow the Akie man to catch up with it.
Current Location Tanzania
The man then harvests the honey, and the greater honey-
Current Population 5,268
guide feasts on leftover honeycomb, bee larvae, and bees-
Language Akie (a Kalenjin dialect) wax. Scientists refer to this type of symbiotic relationship
Interesting Fact Akie men work with local birds to as mutualistic interaction.
find honey. Wild beehives are often located in baobab trees. To reach
a beehive, an Akie man climbs up a tree by driving sharp
Overview sticks into the trunk to use as rungs. When he reaches the
The Akie are an ancient, indigenous people living in north- beehive, he uses a strap made from kudu hide as a support
ern Tanzania. The Akie speak their own language, Akie, before pacifying the bees with smoke made by setting fire
which is a Kalenjin dialect, and they are also fluent in to old birds’ nests, grass, and kindling. The smoke calms
Maasai. Indeed, for many Akie, Maasai is their primary the bees, allowing the man to harvest the  honeycomb.
language, which has led to Akie being considered a criti- Once the honeycomb has been retrieved, the Akie man
cally endangered language. The Akie call themselves Akie, that took the honey rebuilds the entrance of the beehive,
with the singular of Akie being aki-antee. Other Tanzani- thereby encouraging the bees to reestablish their hive. The
ans refer to the Akie as dorobo (or Iltorobo), a derogatory Akie store honey in bags made of kudu skin and then take
term meaning “poor people without cattle.” it back to their village, where it is eaten, made into tea and
beer, or sold for profit.

Population, Diaspora, and Migration

Exact population figures for the Akie are not known, but History and Politics
estimates put the total number of Akie to be at around 5,268 The exact origins of the Akie are unknown. The Akie
people (IWGIA 2012), with between two thousand and three speak a language of the same name, a Kalenjin dialect that
 Akie 57

belongs to the Nilotic language group, which suggests that settled villages that are encircled by spiky acacia fences.
the Akie originated from locations close to the Nile River or Men leave their families while they hunt and gather honey
on migratory routes from the Nile. Another suggestion for and then return home. Having adapted to a more settled
their origin is that the Akie people and language are closely lifestyle, the Akie have become increasingly reliant on food
connected to the Okiek, an indigenous group of Kenyan crops such as maize. However, these food crops frequently
hunter-gatherers who also speak a Kalenjin dialect. Some fail and rarely produce a harvest that is sufficiently boun-
academics theorize that the Akie may have moved south tiful to live on all year round. For this reason, the Akie
from Kenya as a group of nomadic pastoralists, and after maintain their indigenous knowledge of local roots, leaves,
a period of hardship, they decided to abandon nomadic fruits, and tubers that they eat when the crops fail.
pastoralism in favor of returning to a hunter-gather exist- It is legal for Tanzanians to hunt in Tanzania from July
ence. Indeed, the Akie have been described as some of the to March as long as the hunting is performed with a reg-
last hunter-gatherers living in the Africa’s savannah areas istered, licensed rifle or gun (tourists are only permitted
(BBC n.d.). to hunt from July to November). However, guns and gun
According to Akie oral tradition, different clans lived in licenses are expensive, so most Akie hunt with a bow and
clearly defined lands. Each clan paid homage to a specific arrow made in a traditional method. When they hunt for
ancestral spirit. The land and the natural resources were food, the Akie target big game and tend to hunt in pairs,
shared by smaller family units within the clan. This meant leaving home soon after dawn to visit animals’ water holes
that, in effect, every family had exclusive rights to specific and well-known game areas. The men may also dress in
resources—especially to trees and the wild honey found camouflage clothing so that they blend in with their sur-
within the trees. To a lesser degree, this system of resource roundings. The Akie traditionally wear garments made
ownership still exists today. from simple brown fabric, but they have increasingly
adopted red cloth, as worn by the Maasai.
When hunting, the Akie men carry with them a bow
Society, Culture, and Tradition and two or three arrows tipped with poison. The Akie take
Akie men collect honey from the hives that are in baobab great care when shaping their arrows, which are made
trees, and to obtain the honey, Akie men leave their homes from very hard wood. The arrows have sharp detacha-
for extended lengths of time. The honey forms a significant ble heads, often fashioned from old car parts, which are
part of the Akie people’s diets. While they are away from dipped into a poison made from a type of desert rose.
home searching for honey, the men live in basic shelters The rose does not grow prolifically, so Akie hunters will
that protect them from wild animals, which they also hunt often travel long distances to purchase it from neighboring
while on their travels. Though individual families own tribes. The arrows’ flights are made from vulture feathers
their own honey reserves, the Akie consider wild animals and are attached to the arrows with giraffe sinew and tree
to be free for everyone to hunt. resin. The Akie make their bows from timber that is cut
In times past, the Akie traveled freely across the Maa- into a triangle shape before being whittled down. On aver-
sai steppe region. Now, however, there is huge demand for age, it takes around three days of continuous work to make
land, and the land’s resources have been greatly affected by an Akie bow. The bow strings are made from giraffe sinew
this. For instance non-Akie farmers cultivate vast spaces, that is sometimes bound together with kudu skin, which
and the Akie are unwelcome on the land. Hunting com- provides extra strength.
panies have been awarded land rights, and together with When Akie men locate fresh animal tracks, one man
increased poaching, wildlife populations have been signif- is responsible for following the tracks, and the other man
icantly reduced. Additionally, competition exists between looks ahead for the animal that made the tracks while
the Akie and the Maasai for land and water reserves. The also keeping alert for dangerous animals, such as buffalo
Akie accuse the Maasai of increasingly encroaching deep or lion, that might attack the men as they hunt. Once an
into Akie territory and allowing their cattle to pollute arrow has struck prey, the poison takes one to six hours
water supplies. to kill the animal. During this time, the men track the
In the past, Akie families migrated to other areas, wounded animal, taking care not to scare it into hiding.
depending on the season, and sometimes formed semi- Once an animal has been shot, the hunters blow horns to
permanent villages with other families. Today, with their tell other Akie hunters to arrive at the scene. Akie horns
land diminishing in size, Akie family groups live in more are made from warthog antlers, and their noise is reputed
58 Akie

to scare the Maasai—something that the Akie find funny. and villages. During the ritual, three sticks are cut from a
There is a code for Akie horn blowing. One blast of the tree and sharpened at one end. The other end of the stick
horn means the horn blower requires help or there is dan- is burned, and the embers are allowed to fall to the floor.
ger. Two blasts means that an Akie hunter has killed a large All the while, a person walks around the area that needs
animal, so there is food to be had. defending and repeats a mantra of incantations. Once
If an especially large animal is hit, the Akie hunters will the person has repeated all the necessary incantations,
send for their wives and children and feast on the animal onlookers avert their eyes while the stick is pushed into
as soon as it has died, though some pieces of meat will also the ground.
be cut from the animal’s carcass and dried to be eaten later.
The rest of the animal is not wasted. The animal’s bones
are split open, and the marrow and fat are collected so Health Care and Education
that these substances can be used for cooking. Meanwhile, Despite recent improvements, the delivery of social ser-
the beast’s sinews, tendons, ligaments, and skin are used vices in Tanzania is poor, especially in relation to health
to make hunting apparatus and equipment for gathering care and education. Access to specialist medical services
honey. In addition to hunting with a bow and arrow, the is almost unheard of, and hunter-gatherers such as the
Akie also construct small traps with which to snare small Akie, who live in remote rural locations, depend on hos-
mammals and birds. pitals, health centers, and mobile clinics run by nongov-
Though the Tanzanian government has become toler- ernmental organizations (NGOs), faith-based groups, and
ant of the Akie using bows and arrows to hunt for food, other organizations. The most frequently reported dis-
Akie hunters could previously be fined or even go to eases among Tanzanian hunter-gatherers are malaria and
prison for hunting in this way. Despite the threat of penal- pneumonia.
ties and imprisonment, many Akie men still hunt in their In recent years, Tanzania has made significant pro-
traditional manner to supplement their modest maize gress in its education provision. However, it is estimated
crops and limited livestock reserves. The Akie acquire a that national illiteracy rates are around 30 percent (20.4
little money by selling their wild honey if a honey har- percent for men and 36 percent for women; IWGIA 2012).
vest yield is exceptionally abundant. Hunting companies It is thought that illiteracy rates among Tanzania’s hunter-­
also employ some Akie men, as the men have inherently gatherers are far higher than the national average. Very few
expert tracking skills. However, in general, the Akie peo- Akie go to school. There are many reasons for this, includ-
ple rarely have enough money to purchase food and so ing the Akie not being able to access schools because they
depend on their crops, livestock, hunting, and honey live in remote areas and the costs involved in education.
reserves for food. Though primary education in Tanzania is free, expenses
The Akie believe in a god, Torroeita, who is seen as both such as buying uniforms and lunches run too high for
a mother and father figure. The Akie also pay homage to the Akie to afford them. Also, the Akie may be reluctant
an ancestral father figure called tiamisi. Little is known to send their children to school for fear that the children
about the rites celebrating ancestors, as information on will come to look down upon their traditional way of life.
these ceremonies is kept closely guarded, as is informa- Education among the Akie may increase soon, however, as
tion about Akie initiation rites for girls and boys. All such the Akie are starting to realize that non-Akie authorities,
events take place far away from Akie villages, but it has farmers, and businesses are taking advantage of their low
been suggested that the rites are held jointly with neigh- level of formal education to cheat them in relation to land
boring Maasai communities. At the same time, however, rights and business transactions.
some researchers report that the Akie are wary of allowing
the Maasai to watch their ceremonies, thereby revealing
that the Akie relationship with the Maasai is both respect- Threats to Survival
ful and distrustful. Climate change is affecting the Akie by impacting the local
Among neighboring tribes, the Akie have a reputation wild bee populations, which is turn effects honey produc-
for using magic, mostly in the form of protection spells. tion. Climate change is also increasing the frequency of
One well-known Akie magic ritual takes the form of a drought in Akie areas, which is reducing Akie harvests and
protective spell that the Akie use to safeguard their camps killing the wild animals that they eat.
 Alawi 59

While the Akie are proud of their culture, other Tanza- Indigenous Organizations in South Africa and Tanzania.” In
nians often regard the Akie as primitive and embarrassing. Handbook of Research on Social, Cultural, and Educational
To a certain extent, young Akie are also threatening the Considerations of Indigenous Knowledge in Developing Coun-
tries, edited by Patrick Ngulube, 181–201. Hershey, PA: IGI
survival of their indigenous culture by assimilating into Global.
Maasai culture: embracing the lifestyle of the Maasai, using
the Maasai language, and adopting Maasai dress. Gener-
ally, though, the Akie strive to maintain their identity and
preserve their hunter-gatherer ways while also embracing
change. Many Akie feel this combination of heritage pres-
ervation and progress can be achieved only if they are able
ALAWI
to own their traditional lands. However, this is increasingly Current Location Syria; Turkey; Lebanon
difficult as neighboring peoples and hunting companies Current Population 2.2 million
encroach on Akie territory. Encroachment by outsiders is
Language North Levantine Arabic
also taking away land that the Akie use to grow food, while (Lebanese-Syrian Arabic)
forest clearance is damaging wildlife reserves.
Interesting Fact The notorious Syrian president
In 2007, Tanzania signed the United Nations Declara- Bashar al-Assad is an Alawi.
tion on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. However, the
country’s government does not recognize the rights of its
indigenous peoples, and they are not included in national Overview
legislation. This lack of consideration is leading to an The Alawis are a Syrian ethnoreligious indigenous group.
increasingly fractious relationship between the Akie and They are also called the Alawites, and until the twentieth
the Tanzanian authorities. To try to safeguard their ways century, they were referred to in general as the Nusayris
of life, many indigenous Tanzanian peoples, including the (after the mountains from which they hail). The Alawi
Akie, have formed the Pastoralists and Hunter-Gatherers adopted their name in recent years. Their alternative name,
Katiba Initiative, which is overseen by the International Alawite, translates as “those who adhere to the teachings of
Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA). While such Ali.” Nowadays the term Nusayri is considered derogatory
initiatives are gaining momentum, it remains to be seen by the Alawis, but it is still used to refer to the Alawis by
whether they will achieve their objective of Tanzanian many Syrian Sunni Muslims.
constitutional reform in favor of local ethnic peoples or in Alawis follow a syncretic sect of Shia Islam. Though the
acquiring land rights for indigenous tribes. Alawis revere Ali, the cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet
Mohammed, their beliefs include elements of other faiths,
See also: Hadza; Maasai; Swahili
including Christianity. The Alawis in Syria speak a dialect
Further Reading called North Levantine Arabic (or Lebanese-Syrian Ara-
BBC Two. n.d. “Akie.” Tribe. http://www.bbc.co.uk/tribe/tribes​
bic), which is derived from the Ugaritic language. Due
/akie/index.shtml.
Heine, Bernd, Christa König, and Karsten Legère. 2016. “React­ to the foreign occupations of Syria, this dialect contains
ing to Language Endangerment: The Akie of North-Central many borrowings from other languages, notably Turkish
Tanzania.” In Endangered Languages and Languages in Dan- and French.
ger: Issues of Documentation, Policy and Language Rights,
edited by Luna Filipović and Martin Pütz, 303–334. Amster-
dam, the Netherlands: John Benjamins Publishing Company. Population, Diaspora, and Migration
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA).
2012. “Country Technical Notes on Indigenous Peoples’ There are around 2.1 million Alawis (Minority Rights
Issues: The United Republic of Tanzania.” https://www​.ifad​ Group International 2018), meaning the people make up
.org/documents/10180/ce1a82cf-9a25-4405-b71e​-e3e44394​ roughly 10 percent of Syria’s total population (Balanche
d003. 2015). The Alawi homeland is the Nusayri Mountain range
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA). n.d.
(or the Syrian Coastal Mountain Range) in the coastal part
“Indigenous peoples in Tanzania.” International Work Group
for Indigenous Affairs. https://www.iwgia.org/en/tanzania. of northwest Syria. Most Alawis live on Syria’s Mediterra-
Lwoga, Edda Tandi, Patrick Ngulube, and Christine Stilwell. nean coast, but there are also sizeable Alawi communi-
2017. “Indigenous Knowledge Management Practices in ties on the inland plains of Homs and Hama as well as in
60 Alawi

Aleppo and the Syrian capital of Damascus. In rural areas, CE and forced the people to convert to Islam. Following
the Alawis make up around 60 percent of the population their conversion, Alawis living in coastal regions practiced
(Minahan 2002). While most Alawis live in Syria, there Islam outwardly while continuing to practice their pre-­
are also Alawi minority populations in Turkey and Leba- Christian/pre-Islamic faith in secret.
non. Population figures for Alawis living in Lebanon are In 632, conflict split the Islamic world following the
unknown. Population figures for Alawis living in Turkey death of the Prophet Mohammed. Like the Shiites, the
are usually given as being around the 500,000 mark. In Alawi backed the Prophet’s nephew and son-in-law Ali as
Turkey, Alawis are especially associated with the town of successor. Unlike the Shiites, however, the Alawi consid-
Antakya, near the ancient city of Antioch in Hatay Prov- ered Ali a god and combined worship of him with Islamic
ince (Heneghan and Cutler 2012). and pre-Islamic rituals. This religious difference led the
Since the 1980s, the Alawi population in Syria has Sunni Muslim majority to oppress the Alawi, who subse-
declined in line with that of other Syrian minorities. In quently fled into the mountains of Syria’s Latakia region.
2011, the non-Sunni population of Syria shrank to about 20 Here the Alawi came into close contact with the unortho-
percent, compared to 30 percent in 1980 (Balanche 2015). dox Ismaili Muslim sect.
Over time, the Alawis faced severe repression for their
syncretic beliefs. As a result of this subjugation, in the
Geography and Environment eleventh century, the Alawi welcomed the Christian take-
The Alawi homeland stretches from a wide plain on Syr- over of Latakia by Christian crusaders, under whose rule
ia’s Mediterranean coastline to the Nusayri Mountains the Alawis prospered. The Muslim military and political
located in western Syria. The homeland then extends into leader Saladin retook Latakia in 1189, and so the Alawis
the southern Turkish province of Hatay and northern Leb- faced persecution once again. They suffered renewed
anon. The area is mountainous and mostly covered in pine oppression when Latakia was conquered by the Mongols
forests. in 1260 and had only just started to recover when they
The western slopes of the Nusayri Mountains receive were conquered again, this time by the Ottoman Empire,
moist winds from the Mediterranean Sea and are more fer- in 1516. The Ottomans did not consider the Alawis Mus-
tile and therefore more densely populated than the eastern lim, and so the Ottomans allowed the Alawis to keep some
slopes. The Orontes River flows north alongside the moun- of their independence, creating their own laws and oper-
tain range via the Ghab valley (a trench on the mountains’ ating outside of Muslim society. At the same time, how-
eastern verge) before flowing into the Mediterranean Sea. ever, the Alawis were subject to special taxes and social
There is a large strike-slip fault to the south, separating limitations as well as harassment by local Sunni Muslim
the An-Nusayriyah Mountains from the coastal Lebanon groups.
Mountains and the Anti-Lebanon Mountains of Lebanon. In the mid-1700s, the Ottomans revoked the Alawis’
This flat geographical feature is commonly known as the independence and imposed harsh restrictions on them
Homs Gap. under the direct rule of Turkish officials. Consequently,
for several centuries, the Alawis lived as Syria’s most
persecuted and oppressed minority group. Indeed, by
History and Politics the mid-nineteenth century, most Alawis existed as
The Alawis trace their heritage back to the Canaanites, indentured servants or laborers on tenant farms. The
from before the time of Alexander the Great. They believe mistreatment of the Alawis led to the rise of Alawi
their high incidence of fair hair and light-colored eyes nationalism in the 1880s under the guise of anti-Turkish
results from the occupation of Phoenician city-states by demonstrations.
the ancient Greeks during the third century BCE. For thou- During World War I, Allied forces entered Latakia.
sands of years, the Alawis lived in their isolated moun- The Allies promised an end to Alawi mistreatment and
tainous homeland, where they avoided intermarriage encouraged Alawi nationalism as a way to disrupt Turk-
with other peoples, something that allowed the Alawis to ish rule in the region. When France took over Latakia in
maintain their distinct appearance and indigenous beliefs, 1917, Alawi leaders asked for the promised Alawi self-rule.
even when those around them were converting to Chris- When this failed to materialize, the Alawis rebelled in 1919
tianity. Muslim Arabs overran the Alawi homeland in 635 and launched a wave of attacks on French outposts. The
 Alawi 61

insurrection lasted until France brought in military rein- ensconced in Damascus. Other Syrians favored the new
forcements, who overwhelmed the Alawi rebels. In 1921, regime when they witnessed improvements to the coun-
the French divided Syria into a number of autonomous try’s schools, favorable land reforms, economic progress, a
states following a League of Nations mandate. Suppos- powerful military, and fervent opposition to Israel.
edly, this move was intended to prevent the Sunni Mus- After al-Assad came to power, the Alawis gained priv-
lim majority population from persecuting minorities, ileged status. The new president surrounded himself
including the Alawis. The following year, an Alawi state, with Alawis, whom he placed in key state security roles.
the Republic of the Alaouites, was declared, which existed Subsequently, a Sunni organization, the Muslim Brother-
under French protection. hood, targeted Alawis throughout the 1970s, only for the
In 1924, the Alawi administration voted for the state’s al-­Assad regime to annihilate the movement in a 1982
total secession from Syria. Under pressure from other massacre. The Alawis retained their privileged status when
minorities, however, France turned Syria into a unitary al-Assad’s son, Bashar, assumed the Syrian presidency
republic free from minority-dominated states. None- following his father’s death in 2000. Though the Alawis
theless, the Alawis, who by this time both loathed and continued to dominate in the new regime, there were also
feared Sunni Muslims, became vehemently pro-French. dissenting Alawis voicing opposition to the government
Under French rule, the Alawis had benefited from (Minority Rights Group International 2018).
improvements to their education, social services, and
health care. In gratitude to the French, many Alawi men
enlisted in the French colonial army. In 1936, however, Society, Culture, and Tradition
a French-Syrian pact unified the Syrian state, thereby The Alawis identify as Muslim, but most Muslims consider
ending all Alawi autonomy. The Alawis soon came to them to be a heretical sect. In particular, the Alawi belief
be dominated by the Sunnis, prompting an Alawi rebel- that Ali is a deity or God (in human form) provokes con-
lion in 1939 that ousted all Syrian authorities from the tempt from some orthodox Sunni Muslims because they
Alawi homeland and saw Latakia declare independence. feel this challenges the fundamental Islamic belief that
In response to this declaration, France sent troops into there is only one manifestation of God. Some academics
the region and revived the Alawi Republic of Latakia. argue that this is, however, a misinterpretation of Alawi
During World War II, however, France ignored Alawi philosophies, and in actuality, the Alawis believe Ali is
protests and ceded Latakia back to Syria. After the war, an entity (rather than a corporeal being) through which
the Alawis unsuccessfully sought French backing for an believers can reach God. The Alawis refute many Islamic
independent Alawi state. conventions surrounding food and dress and do not
In the postwar years, the Alawis faced mass unemploy- worship at sacred buildings. (In the past, Sunnis made
ment and severe oppression. In response to this situation, the Alawis build mosques, but these were ultimately
many Alawi men joined the Syrian army to earn money abandoned.)
and escape persecution. In 1954, the secular Ba’ath Party Traditionally, many Alawi practices are performed in
overthrew the Syrian government and gained many sup- secret, in line with the Shia’s concept of taqiyya, which is
porters among the Alawis, especially those involved in the the practice of hiding beliefs so as to avoid harassment.
Syrian military. The Alawis continued to be despised by Alawis also include elements of Christianity in their wor-
most Syrians, and recognizing this, the Ba’ath Party offered ship. They celebrate Epiphany, Easter, and Christmas and
the Alawis equality in exchange for their loyalty. The Alawis use ceremonial wine in their rituals. Alawis also mark
came to dominate the Syrian military, and in 1970, they led Iranian traditions, including Persian New Year, and Alawi
a coup that installed Alawi heavyweight Hafiz al-Assad as traditions are thought to include some elements of Zoroas-
Syrian president. trianism, the ancient pre-Islamic religion of Iran.
After the coup, Alawi life considerably improved, with While Alawis are socially liberal and do not advocate
the government awarding the country’s Alawi-dominated that women cover their hair as a sign of modesty, Alawi
military a significant proportion of national spending. women are not allowed to worship actively. This is because
Alawi military officers within the Ba’ath Party transformed Alawis believe women, like animals and inanimate objects,
Syria into a police state, a situation backed by many peo- lack souls. Alawis also feel that the souls of sinful men
ple living in rural Syria who felt overlooked by politicians reincarnate as women (Minahan 2002).
62 Albanian

Health Care and Education quarter of fighting-age Alawi men had been killed in the
Syria’s healthcare and education systems have been severely Syrian Civil War.
compromised by the ongoing civil war. People from all See also: Assyrian; Druze; Kurd; Maronites; Yazidi
communities are dying from treatable illnesses and inju- Further Reading
ries, and medical facilities often lack basic supplies. Balanche, Fabrice. 2015. “The Alawi Community and the Syria
Recently, Syria’s education system has come to promote Crisis.” Middle East Institute, May 14. https://www.mei.edu​
Sunni Islam as the nation’s orthodox faith. The relative /publications/alawi-community-and-syria-crisis.
decline of the Alawi population in recent years has largely Heneghan, Tom, and David Cutler. 2012. “Syria’s Alawites, a
Secretive and Persecuted Sect.” Reuters, February 2. https://
been accredited to women’s improved access to education www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-alawites​-sect​/syrias​-ala​
(Balanche 2015). wites​-a-secretive-and-persecuted-sect​-idUSTRE​8110​Q720​
12​0202.
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
Threats to Survival Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 1. West-
Due to their close identification with the regime of Syr- port, CT: Greenwood Press.
ia’s President al-Assad, the Alawi face violence no matter Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Syria: Alawis.”
an Alawi individual’s actual support for the regime. There World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples,
March. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/alawis.
have been several instances of antiregime armed groups
executing Alawi civilians in retaliation for government
attacks on Sunni areas. For instance, in 2013, antigovern-
ment groups murdered at least 190 Alawi civilians, includ-
ing women and children, living in a collection of Alawi
villages in Al Hiffa. ALBANIAN
In 2015, the jihadist organization Jabhat al-Nusra
Current Location Albania; Kosovo
(sometimes described as al-Qaeda in Syria or al-Qaeda in
the Levant and now called Jabhat Fateh Al-Sham), which Current Population 3.9 million
is fighting Syrian government forces, called on fighters to Language Albanian
target Alawi settlements in retaliation for Russian attacks Interesting Fact Under communism, Albania became
on Sunni civilians. Jabhat al-Nusra was responsible for the world’s first officially atheist
attacks on the mainly Alawi village of Ishtabraq in Idlib state.
Governorate, during which fleeing civilians were mur-
dered and Alawi shrines destroyed. Similarly, in May 2015, Overview
the Islamic State (IS) perpetrated public executions of Albanians live in Europe’s Balkan Peninsula, especially in
Alawi (and Shia) men accused of assisting the Syrian gov- the country of Albania. Albanians speak dialects of the
ernment after they overran the city of Deir Ez-Zour. Addi- Albanian language, which belongs to the Indo-European
tionally, Alawis have been abducted by antigovernment language family. Many Albanians living in Albania identify
factions and used as collateral during prisoner exchanges. as Roman Catholic, while those living in Macedonia and
Foreign commentators have contributed to sectarian Kosovo tend to be Muslim. The name Albania may derive
denunciations against the Alawis. For example, in June from the people’s earlier name of Albanoi, which in turn
2013, a prominent Egyptian Islamic theologian, Yusuf derives from the Latin word albus, meaning “white.”
al-Qaradawi, vilified the Alawis while calling on Sunni
Muslims to fight against the Syrian government (Minority
Rights Group International 2018). Population, Diaspora, and Migration
While Alawi leaders have distanced themselves from Albanians comprise roughly 95 percent of the approx-
the actions of the al-Assad regime and stressed the sim- imately 3.5 million inhabitants of Albania. The rest of
ilarities between Alawi beliefs and those of other Islamic Albania’s population is made up of Greeks, Vlachs, Roma,
Syrian sects, many Alawis have fought for the government. Macedonians, Serbs, and Bulgarians. Unusually for Europe,
As a result of the fighting, the Alawis have suffered a high most of Albanian society is rural, with recent figures
casualty rate. By 2016, it is estimated that as many as a suggesting that less than half of Albanians live in urban
 Albanian 63

areas. However, the Albanian capital city of Tirana boasts Albania’s longest river, the Drin, is a crucial water
the greatest concentration of Albanians. Large Albanian source for people in Albania, Kosovo, Macedonia, and
communities live elsewhere in the Balkans. For example, Montenegro. In Albania, the Drin provides water for irri-
roughly 90 percent of the population of Kosovo is Alba- gation, fishing, and electricity. However, the Drin’s dams
nian (around 1.8 million people), a quarter of the popu- have become a source of tension between Albania and its
lation of Macedonia is Albanian (some 500,000 people), neighbors. This tension is expected to intensify as global
and Montenegro is home to 55,000 Albanians (Neofotistos warming increases, for the Balkans will likely experience
2011). An Albanian diaspora exists across Europe, particu- warmer temperatures all year as well as greatly reduced
larly in Greece, Italy, Germany, Switzerland, and Turkey, as annual precipitation. At the same time, the threat of floods
well as in Egypt and the United States. will increase when mountain ice melts earlier in the year
Throughout Albania’s communist era, strict laws pro- and combines with spells of heavy rains. In 2012, four-
hibited the use of contraception while also restricting teen thousand people in Albania ad to flee when floods
abortion. Consequently, Albania’s population increased destroyed their homes and crops.
from 1.2 million in 1945 to 2.9 million people in 1985. Poor waste disposal in Albania is partly due to the coun-
From the end of World War II through to the end of try’s substandard infrastructure, but it is also due to the
communism in 1989, Albania’s annual rate of population rise of organizations linked to the illegal transportation
increase averaged around 2.5, which was the highest in of waste from Italy. Albania’s cities suffer from serious air
Europe. Albania’s most recent census in 2001 reveals that pollution caused by a high volume of traffic, with most cars
Albania’s population has declined since 1989, most likely being older polluting models. Albania’s aging industrial
because large numbers of Albanians migrated to Western facilities, especially steel-producing factories, also contrib-
Europe in the 1990s. Recently, Albania has been found to ute to the country’s air pollution (Feuersenger 2012).
have Europe’s youngest population: in the mid-1990s, the
average age of Albanians was twenty-six years, with more
than a third of the country’s population under age fifteen History and Politics
(Neofotistos 2011). The Albanians are likely descended from the Illyrians,
who are thought to have inhabited Albanian land by the
seventh century BCE. The first written reference to the
Geography and Environment Albanians appears in a document from the second cen-
Albania is largely a mountainous country located in tury CE, in which the astronomer Ptolemy of Alexandria
Southeast Europe. It is located in the western section of refers to the “Albanoi” Illyrian tribe and their hometown
the Balkan Peninsula on the Strait of Otranto (that con- of “Albanopolis.”
nects the Adriatic Sea with the Ionian Sea and separates In the seventh century BCE, the Greeks colonized what
Italy from Albania). Albania is bordered by Montenegro to is now Albania. Then, in the second century BCE, the
the northwest, Kosovo to the northeast, Macedonia to the Romans conquered the area. In the fourth century CE, the
east, and Greece to the southeast and south. The Adriatic area became part of the Byzantine Empire. While Alba-
Sea borders Albania to the west, and the Ionian Sea is to nia came under Byzantine administrative rule, Albanians
the southwest. Italy lies to the west of Albania across the remained Rome’s ecclesiastical jurisdiction. After the Great
Strait of Otranto. Schism (1054) that saw the Roman Catholic Church lose
The main environmental issues facing Albania are its power over the Eastern Orthodox Church, north Alba-
water and air pollution, land degradation, soil erosion, loss nia became Roman Catholic, and the south became Greek
of biodiversity, and problems with waste management. Orthodox. The area that is now Albania also experienced
Rapid urban growth and increasing demand for natural invasions by groups that include the Huns, the western
resources have caused the land to become depleted and branch of the Goths called the Visigoths and the eastern
degraded. As Albania contains few raw materials with branch called the Ostrogoths, the Slavs, and the Normans.
which to generate energy, Albania uses its plentiful water From 1334 to 1347, Albania was incorporated into the
resources to produce hydroelectricity. Albanian authorities Greater Serbian Empire.
have constructed huge dams that meet almost all of Alba- Toward the start of the fifteenth century, the Venetians
nia’s energy requirements. settled in what is now north Albania as well as along the
64 Albanian

Montenegrin coast. A peace treaty between the Venetians was recognized after the London Conference (1912–1913).
and Ottomans resulted in Albania becoming a Turkish A meeting of Great Britain, France, Germany, Austria-­
province in 1478. Under the Ottomans, Albanians were Hungary, Russia, and Italy convened due to the successes
classified as Muslim. Before this time, most Albanians had of the Balkan League armies against the Ottomans during
been Greek Orthodox. This change resulted in Albanian the First Balkan War.
children being taught in Turkish rather than in Albanian In the early 1920s, Albania experienced an era of open-
because education in the Ottoman Empire was influenced ness and political freedom that saw liberal politics enjoy
by religious affiliation with Muslims taught in Turkish. popularity. In 1924, a popular revolt forced the Albanian
Over time, Ottoman rule resulted in Islam spreading chieftain Ahmed Bey Zogu (the leader of conservative tribal
throughout Albania. landowners linked to Albania’s feudal past) to flee to Yugo-
From the mid-1700s, a Shiite dervish movement, the slavia. That same year, a Westernized, American-­educated
Bektashi, gained great popularity among Albanians. Bek- Orthodox bishop, Fan S. Noli, became Albania’s prime
tashi religious buildings (tekkes) proliferated throughout minister. Noli aimed to build a modern Albanian democ-
Albania, and the Bektashi shrine in the Albanian town of racy that would be shaped by radical land reforms. How-
Krujë, which was dedicated to the thirteenth-century der- ever, Noli’s government lost popular support, and within
vish warrior-saint Sari Saltik, became a site of veneration. six months, Noli was overthrown by a ­Yugoslav-backed
The decline of the Ottoman Empire in the late nine- armed assault led by Zogu. Zogu became Albanian pres-
teenth and early twentieth centuries allowed Albanian ident in 1925 and then King Zog I (1928–1939) in 1928.
nationalism to awaken at the same time a modern Alba- During this time, Albania became unstable, politically and
nian identity developed. The weakening of Ottoman power socially. In need of foreign aid and the funds with which
caused Albanian intellectuals to fear that Albanian land to stabilize Albania, Zog signed several accords with Italy
would be partitioned between Greece and Serbia. In 1878, that provided financial relief. However, the financial help
to protect Albanian interests, the first Albanian national- resulted in little improvement in Albania’s economy.
ist organization was founded, the Albanian League (or the In 1940, Albania was used as an Italian military base to
League of Prizren, officially the League for the Defense of invade Greece, but the Italians were soon repelled back to
the Rights of the Albanian Nation). The group intended to Albania. After Nazi Germany defeated Greece and Yugo-
strengthen Albanian identity by promoting and protecting slavia, the regions of Kosovo and Çamëria (a part of the
the Albanian language, with the long-term aim of Alba- Epirus region centered around the Thíamis River) were
nian independence. In 1881, however, the Ottoman army incorporated into Albania. This situation lasted until 1944,
was deployed by the Ottoman government to crush the when the Nazi Germans who had come to occupy Albania
Albanian League in retaliation for the league’s demands following Italy’s surrender withdrew from Albania. Fol-
for autonomy. However, there were attempts to achieve lowing Nazi Germany’s withdrawal, Kosovo was reincor-
Albanian cultural recognition within the Ottoman Empire porated into the Serbian part of Yugoslavia, while Çamëria
that continued long after that. became part of Greece.
In 1908, when the Young Turks (a nationalist party com- During this time, various communist groups that had
prising Ottoman exiles, students, army officers, and so on) developed in Albania under Zog had merged to form the
rose to prominence in Turkey, Albanians received some Albanian Communist Party, which later started to operate
temporary linguistic rights and discussed the implemen- as a resistance force. In 1944, the communists headed by
tation of further democratic reforms for Albania. However, Enver Hoxha seized control of Albania. Albania existed as
the reforms were never carried out by the new Turkish an isolated socialist republic until Hoxha died in 1985.
government. Rather, Albanians became caught up in a new Since 1989, Albania has become democratic. In 1992,
armed conflict, for Albania was still part of the Ottoman the Democratic Party of Albania (PDS) won the parlia-
Empire when the First Balkan War began in October 1912. mentary elections, with the party’s leader, Sali Berisha,
Ultimately, this war marked the end of Ottoman rule in becoming Albania’s first noncommunist president. The
the Balkans. new Albanian government set out economic and dem-
In November 1912, an Albanian national assembly ocratic programs, but the country’s inexperience with
was organized, with Ismail Kemal made president of an capitalism led to a proliferation of pyramid schemes that
interim Albanian government. Albanian independence collapsed in 1997, causing many Albanians to lose their
 Albanian 65

life savings. Subsequently, Albania descended into anar- state. Today, many Albanians in Albania are Roman Catho-
chy, with around two thousand people killed in rioting lic, while Albanians in Macedonia and Kosovo tend to be
after thousands of weapons were stolen from government Muslim. The communists also suppressed Albania’s rich
armories (Neofotistos 2011). In response, President Beri- folk culture. Surviving Albanian folklore revolves around
sha declared a state of emergency. vampires, witchcraft beliefs, and creatures, including the
In 1997, the United Nations Security Council endorsed multiheaded female dragon kulshedra and the semihuman
the deployment of a multinational protection force to winged warrior dragùa.
Albania to restore order and provide humanitarian aid. The In the 1950s, Albania’s communist rulers tried to elimi-
presence of the multinational force enabled parliamentary nate clan rule. Before this time, it was traditional for Alba-
elections to be held. The elections saw a decisive victory nians to live in large households consisting of extended
for the Socialist Party of Albania (PSS), which oversaw the families made up of nuclear families. Landownership was
reestablishment of law and order. clan based. One of the two main ethnic Albanian divi-
Today, Albania is a member of the United Nations, the sions, the Ghegs, live in northern Albania as autonomous
Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe herders belonging to patrilineal clans. Traditionally, the
(OSCE), the World Trade Organization (WTO), and the Ghegs lived by the concept of kanun, a code of customary
North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). In 2009, laws encompassing all of aspects life, including marriage,
Albania applied to join the European Union (EU). At pres- honor, landownership, and disputes. Kanun is transmit-
ent, Albania is an official “candidate” for EU membership ted through the generations by way of proverbs and say-
with any decision on the country’s membership depend- ings. There are numerous versions of the kanun. The most
ent on Albania demonstrating improvements in areas that widely practiced kanun is named after a fifteenth-century
include the judicial system and anticorruption measures. Albanian nobleman, Lekë Dukagjin. This kanun is followed
Albania has a tense relationship with Greece. Greece by Albanians living in northern Albania, parts of Kosovo,
claimed ownership of southern Albania before World War Serbia, Montenegro, Macedonia, and elsewhere.
II as well as in its aftermath, arguing that the region’s inhab- The other main ethnic Albanian subgroup, the Tosks,
itants were ethnically Greek. In 1987, Greece renounced inhabit Albania’s southern lowlands. Traditionally, the
these territorial claims, and, in 1988, Albania and Greece Tosks are tenant farmers who live within a semifeudal
signed a cross border trade agreement. Nevertheless, system under a Muslim landowning nobility (beys). After
mutual recriminations continued until the mid-1990s. 1946, however, Albania’s communist rulers redistributed
In addition, before Kosovo was declared independent Tosk land. Later, all Tosk land was nationalized and the
from Serbia in 2008, Serbia made attempts to control the Tosks forced to live in cooperatives. Since the end of com-
Albanian population that lived in Kosovo, thus straining munism, the privatization of Tosk land has begun.
Kosovo’s relationship with Albania. The northern Kosovan The Albanian language is written in Latin script. There
district of Mitrovica continues to be a matter of dispute are two main mutually understandable Albanian dialects:
between Serbia and Albania. The relationship between Gheg (spoken in northern Albania) and Tosk (spoken in
Albania and Macedonia is also strained. This tension is southern Albania). In 1952, Tosk was made the base for
mainly because Albania supports calls for greater cultural the standardized Albanian literary language. However,
and political autonomy by Albanians living in Macedonia. Gheg is spoken throughout Kosovo and Macedonia. Alba-
nia has a rich oral tradition comprising epic songs, poems,
and ballads. Typically, the songs feature such themes as
Society, Culture, and Tradition warfare, loss, and honor (besa). Albania also has a long
Until the end of World War II, 70 percent of Albanians in tradition of embroidery, silver and gold work, pottery, and
Albania were Muslim, with most following Sunni Islam woodwork.
and the rest adhering to Bektashi. Around 20 percent of
Albanians were Eastern Orthodox and 10 percent Roman
Catholic. From 1944, many Albanian religious leaders Health Care and Education
were imprisoned or executed, and all religious groups Over the past twenty years, life expectancy in Albania has
were persecuted. Under communist rule, the practice of increased to the present expectancies of seventy-three
religion was illegal, and Albania was decreed an atheist years for males and seventy-five years for females. Over
66 Albanian

Women lead oxen along a road in the Albanian countryside. Albania is one of Europe’s poorest nations: according to 2005 figures, 18 per-
cent of Albanians lived on less than $2 (U.S.) per day. (Malik5/Dreamstime.com)

the same period, noncommunicable diseases became more In Albania, basic education lasts from the ages of six
prevalent in Albania than infectious diseases. In Albania, years through to fourteen years. This period of education is
noncommunicable diseases such as cardiovascular dis- divided into two cycles of four years and culminates in the
eases and cancers account for roughly 88 percent of all awarding of a Dëftesë Lirimi (Leaving Certificate), which
deaths. Over the past twenty years, Albania has also expe- allows a pupil to enter secondary school. Secondary school
rienced a steady decrease in the maternal mortality ratio, consists of the ninth through twelfth grades. The Dëftesë
with almost all births in Albania attended by a trained Pjekurie (Maturity Certificate) is awarded to pupils at the
health worker. Albania still has high rates of malnutrition, end of secondary school. Almost all children in Albania
however, though rates of childhood stunting have declined are enrolled in education. However, the system is under-
while child obesity has risen. funded, meaning the system struggles to provide quality
Albania has a shortage of medics, with far fewer doctors teaching.
working in remote areas. Recently, the number of hospitals
and hospital beds has decreased, yet the bed occupancy
rate remains low. Since 2013, there has been a significant Threats to Survival
improvement in the availability of health technology, There are no immediate threats to the Albanians. That said,
including the provision of computed tomography, radio- Albania is one of Europe’s poorest nations: according to
therapy, and mammography units. The childhood immu- 2005 figures, 18 percent of Albanians lived on less than $2
nization coverage is very high at 99 percent (Burazeri (U.S.) a day. Traditionally, Albanians living in rural and
et al. 2014). northern mountainous locations are poorer than urban
 Aleut 67

Albanians and those living in the country’s southern low- Aleut population at 16,978 (Minority Rights Group Inter-
lands. Albania continues to have sporadically tense rela- national 2017). Many Aleuts also live on Native reserves on
tionships with neighboring countries. the Alaskan mainland.
Subgroups of the Aleuts include the Chugachmiut that
See also: Greek; Macedonian
inhabit Prince William Sound, the Qikertarmiut that live
Further Reading
on Kodiak Island, and the Unegkurmiut that are indige-
Burazeri, Genc, Arjan Bregu, Gentiana Qirjako, Enver Roshi,
Kreshnik Petrela, Mariana Bukli, and Peter Achterberg. 2014. nous to the lower Kenai Peninsula.
National Health Report: Health Status of the Albanian Popu-
lation. Tirana, Albania: Institute of Public Health. http://ishp​
.gov.al/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/Health-report-English​ Geography and Environment
-version.pdf. The Aleutian Islands are an archipelago of over three hun-
Feuersenger, Wiebke. 2012. “Albania Struggles with Environ-
dred volcanic islands that stretch from Alaska to Asia, sep-
mental Challenges.” DW, October 30. https://www.dw.com​
/en/albania-environment-challenges/a-16343222. arating the Bering Sea in the north from the Pacific Ocean
Neofotistos, Vasiliki. 2011.“Albanian.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe: in the south. The islands cover a total area of 6,821 square
An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 8–13. Santa Bar- miles, with almost all the islands being part of the state
bara, CA: ABC-CLIO. of Alaska, including the Komandor (Commander) Islands
near the Kamchatka Peninsula of Russia, which are geo-
graphically also part of the Aleutians.
The Aleutian Islands form part of the chain of volca-
noes commonly referred to as the “Ring of Fire.” Most of
ALEUT the Aleutian Islands display evidence of volcanic origin,
and some Aleutian volcanoes remain active, including
Current Location United States
Shishaldin Volcano on Unimak Island. The shores of the
Current Population 16,978 Aleutian Islands are rocky and heavily eroded, making
Language English; Aleutian them difficult for boats to land upon. In many places, land
Interesting Fact The name Alaska derives from the rises abruptly from the coast to form steep mountains. The
Aleut alaschka (or alaeksu), meaning islands’ climate is generally cold and damp and character-
“mainland.” ized by frequent strong winds, heavy precipitation (mostly
in the form of rain), and fog.
Overview There are few trees on the islands, though there are
Aleuts, also known as the Unangan or Unanga (usually grasses, sedges, and flowering plants. The islands provide
translated as “original people” or simply “the people”), habitat for millions of seabirds (including auklets, puf-
are indigenous inhabitants of Alaska’s Aleutian Islands. fins, and fulmars) as well as marine animals such as sea
The Aleuts speak English, although a few hundred Aleuts otters, sea lions, and seals. By protecting the habitats of
also speak their native Eskimo-Aleut language, Aleutian. these animals, the Aleuts have also managed to preserve
The origins of the name Aleut are unknown, though there their traditional way of life, which focuses on fishing and
are suggestions that it derives either from an Aleut word hunting. The Aleuts depend on the sea for their way of life,
meaning “island” or the Russian word for “bald rock.” Most so when the oil tanker Exxon Valdez spilled oil in Alaskan
Aleuts are Russian Orthodox Christians, but in recent waters in 1989, the event dealt a severe blow to the Aleut
years, there has been an increase in the number of Aleuts economy.
belonging to evangelical Protestant groups. Christian Today, some Aleuts have also gained employment
Aleuts often hold pre-Christian beliefs that they maintain through rearing blue foxes for the fur industry.
alongside their Christianity.

History and Politics

Population, Diaspora, and Migration Many anthropologists believe the first humans to travel
The Aleut population has never been large because the from Asia to the Americas used the Aleutian Islands as a
islands lack resources. The most recent figures put the path from one location to another, with the first settlers
68 Aleut

Ilarion Merculieff
Ilarion Merculieff has served his people, the Aleuts of the Pribilof Islands, for over forty years. He was the first Alaska
Native commissioner of the Alaska Department of Commerce and Economic Development and was the cofounder
of the Indigenous Peoples’ Council for Marine Mammals, the Alaska Forum on the Environment, the International
Bering Sea Forum, and the Alaska Oceans Network. Merculieff has chaired the indigenous knowledge sessions of the
Global Summit of Indigenous Peoples on Climate Change and given keynote addresses at prestigious events, includ-
ing the National Academy of Sciences Annual Meeting, the White House Conference on the Oceans, and the World
Congress of Ethnobiology. He has also lectured on traditional knowledge and indigenous wisdom at the University of
Montana, the University of Colorado, Seattle University, the University of Alaska Anchorage, the University of Alaska,
and Oregon State University while also appearing on various television and radio media. Merculieff has received
numerous awards on account of his activism, including the Environmental Excellence Award for lifetime achievement
from the Alaska Forum on the Environment, the Alaska Native Writers on the Environment Award, and the Wisdom
Fellowship Award from the Sacred Fire Foundation.
Merculieff is coauthor of Stop Talking: Indigenous Ways of Teaching and Learning, and in 2016, he published his
third book, Wisdomkeeper: One Man’s Journey to Honor the Untold Story of the Unangan (Aleut) People. Merculieff
also led the largest subsistence rights march in Alaskan history while serving as the director of the Department of
Public Policy and Advocacy in the Rural Alaska Community Action Program (2000–2003). The march was instru-
mental in safeguarding Alaska Native subsistence rights to salmon fishing in Alaska’s rivers. Merculieff ’s most recent
activism reflects his cultural role as Kuuyux, a traditional messenger for the Aleuts.

on the islands being people from Asia who landed there periodic conflict with the Aleuts. Russian fur hunters
around seven thousand years ago. The first settlers became found an abundant supply of animals to kill on the Aleu-
proficient hunters, fishers, and weavers and made their tian Islands, particularly otters, the population of which
own canoes and weapons. rapidly decreased once the Russians arrived on the islands.
At the start of the eighteenth century, the Aleut popu- Russian colonies became cemented on the Aleutian
lation was estimated to be around twenty-five thousand, Islands once Russian authorities introduced policies that
with Aleuts living in fishing villages scattered across the provided higher social status, professional training, and
archipelago. In 1741, Russia sent two explorers, Vitas Ber- schooling to the children produced by Russian-Aleut
ing and Aleksei Chirikov, to separately explore the north marriages. Then, in 1760, Russia undertook an extensive
Pacific. The two exploration groups suffered many mis- census of the islands and granted Russian citizenship to
haps, including a shipwreck and the death of Bering, who the Aleuts. In 1793, a party of Russian Orthodox monks
died on an uninhabited island in the Komandor Island and priests landed on the Aleutian Islands and proceeded
group. Some of the sailors who survived the expeditions to convert the Aleuts to Christianity. Progress was slow,
did reach Russia’s Kamchatka Peninsula and reported that and all but one of the Russian priests died while on the
the Aleutian Islands had abundant fur-producing animals. islands; however, the Aleuts did gradually convert. The
The Russians, particularly Siberians, had a great liking for surviving priest, who came to be known as St Herman of
fur, so once they heard these reports, Russian fur hunters Alaska, went to live on Spruce Island and often defended
flocked to the Aleutian Islands, migrating eastward across the Aleuts against the might of the Russian traders.
the archipelago in stages until they neared Alaska. In 1784, many hundreds of disgruntled Aleuts marched
Eventually, the islands came under the control of the in protest to where the Russians were staying on the Aleu-
Russian-American Company (Rossiysko-amerikanskaya tian Islands, only to be met by gunfire from the Russians.
Kompaniya), a state-owned Russian-chartered company The Aleuts marched again, and this time the Russians took
and trading monopoly that established colonies in North as hostages forty Aleut women and children, leading the
America (mainly in Alaska and California) during the Aleuts to surrender. The Russians executed some of the
nineteenth century. The company established colonies rebellion’s leaders, while other Aleuts fled their land, allow-
on the Aleutian Islands, which brought the company into ing it to be controlled by the Russians as homesteads or
 Aleut 69

trade posts. By the end of the eighteenth century, conflict, insufficient food, heating, or medical supplies, and this led
lack of food resources, and the spread of European dis- to the death of the youngest and oldest evacuees. Surviving
eases imported by settlers had decimated the Aleut popu- Aleut evacuees were made to stay in the camps until the
lation so that only a few hundred Aleuts survived. end of the war. When they returned to their villages, many
Over time, Russian fur hunters had overhunted the of these surviving Aleuts discovered that their homes had
fur-bearing creatures of the Aleutian Islands. Once the been destroyed and their possessions stolen by U.S. per-
animal populations had decreased, the hunters decided sonnel (Waldman 2006). Some Aleuts still harbor resent-
to leave the islands, thereby allowing the Aleuts to return ment for what they consider the United States’ botched
home and recommence their traditional Aleut lifestyle. evacuation and ill treatment (Dickrell n.d.).
The Aleut population began to grow again after the Rus-
sian hunters left the islands, but it never reached its pre-
colonial figures. Society, Culture, and Tradition
Around the same time as the hunters left the islands, Aleut culture combines contemporary Alaskan culture
Russia also lost interest in Alaska. The United States with Aleut traditions. Many modern Aleuts live in desig-
bought Alaska from the Russians in 1867, which led to a nated Aleut reservations, some of which are on the Alas-
rash of new development on the islands, including a Meth- kan mainland. The villages are organized into regional
odist mission and orphanage and docking facilities. Then, corporations that manage the money and territory granted
in 1924, American citizenship was granted to all indige- to them under the 1971 Alaska Native Claims Settlement
nous peoples in the United States, including the Aleuts. Act. Traditional Aleut homes (barabaras) are large com-
As citizens of the United States, the Aleuts gained greater munal buildings constructed around a pit from driftwood
access to state services and local government. or whalebones with mud walls. The homes keep inhab-
During World War II, the Japanese overran some of the itants safe, warm, and dry at all times. Many Aleuts still
outer Aleutian Islands, including the island of Attu, whose build barabaras, as they offer excellent protection against
Aleut inhabitants were captured and transported to Japan. the high winds that often blow across the Aleutian Islands.
The invading Japanese were subsequently removed by U.S. The Aleuts fish, hunt, and forage foods, and many
and Canadian troops. Once the Japanese were removed Aleuts also find employment in the fishing industry, either
from the islands, the islands were used as refueling points as fishermen or in fish canneries. Traditionally, the Aleuts
for Canadian aircraft flying to Russia to participate in the relied on seals, sea lions, and fish for food and other items.
war effort. Post–World War II, the U.S. government con- They ate the seal meat, and burning the animals’ fat in
ducted underground nuclear tests on Amchitka Island stone lamps provided the people with heat and light. Seal
from 1965 to 1971, despite Aleut protests against the intestines were used to make waterproof clothes, and seal
experiments. whiskers were used as ornaments.
Since 2002, the Aleuts have commemorated the events Carving and weaving are other popular Aleut pas-
of World War II each year on Dutch Harbor Remembrance times. The style of Aleut carving varies across the Aleutian
Day. This day remembers one of the key events in recent Islands and is much prized by collectors. Weaving has been
Aleut history, the bombing of Dutch Harbor, the U.S. an Aleut tradition since time immemorial, with modern
military base in Alaska. On June 3, 1942, Japanese air- Aleuts tending to produce woven mats and baskets.
craft began to bomb the military base at Dutch Harbor. Traditionally, the Aleuts have used body modifications
The attack continued the next day, with bombs falling on such as piercings as well as body art, including tattoos, to
the military base as well as the hospital in Unalaska. U.S. symbolize their achievements and spiritual beliefs. For
authorities decided that they needed to evacuate the Aleuts example, the Aleuts believed that tattooing appeased the
from the Aleutian Islands, but the plans were ill conceived souls of the animals they hunted and fished while also
and did not consider the age or health of the people being warding off evil.
evacuated.
The United States made 881 Aleut residents of eight
villages leave their homes and stay in poorly equipped Health Care and Education
makeshift camps (mostly disused canneries) in southeast The first hospital on the Aleutian Islands was built in the Aleut
Alaska. The living conditions in the camps were poor, with capital of Unalaska in 1933. The Aleutian Pribilof Islands
70 Altai

Association (APIA), which was established in 1986, is the fed- ALTAI

erally recognized tribal organization of the Aleuts and helps
the Aleuts access health care, education, and employment. The Current Location Altai Republic (Russian Federation);
APIA was formed by the merger of two earlier organizations: Russia; China
the Aleut League and the Aleutian Planning Commission. Current Population 74,238
APIA contracts with all levels of government as well Language Altai
as the private sector to provide the Aleut with a range of Interesting Fact The Altai homeland has been inhab-
services, including health care and education. Through the ited since the third millennium BCE.
APIA, Aleuts receive primary and emergency health care,
patients with chronic conditions receive home monitor-
Overview
ing, and there are specialty clinics that provide dental care,
orthopedics, female and reproductive health care, and The Altai (also spelled Altay and sometimes called the Oirot,
advice on illnesses such as diabetes. Teleut, Tele, Telengit, Mountain Kalmyk, White Kalmyk, or
The first public school opened in Unalaska in 1883. Black Tatar) are a Turkic people that predominantly live in
Today, the Aleutian Region School District (ARSD) serves the Russian Federation’s Altai Republic located in Central
three communities in the Aleutian Islands: Nikolski, Atka, Asia. The Altai speak the Turkic Altai language, which is
and Adak. The ARSD also maintains contact with Russian spoken in two dialects. Most Altai are officially Orthodox
Aleuts living on the Kommander Islands. Aleut students Christians, though the Alatai also maintain pre-Christian
are able to go on to higher education at colleges, universi- shamanist beliefs. Recently, some Altai have joined Baptist
ties, or technical training centers. The Aleuts use technol- groups.
ogy and online educational resources widely.

Population, Diaspora, and Migration

Threats to Survival According to the 2010 national census, 74,238 Altai live
in the Russian Federation (Minority Rights Group Inter-
Though English is the dominant language among the
national 2015). The Altai mainly live in rural parts of the
Aleuts, there is a move toward reviving the Aleutian lan-
Altai Republic, previously called the Gorno-Altai Autono-
guage. At present, the language is only spoken by a few
mous Oblast, situated in Russia’s Altai Krai. Some Altai live
hundred Aleuts, and so it is in danger of extinction. Thus a
in areas of Siberia bordering the Altai Republic or along
revival is necessary to ensure the language continues. The
the republic’s border with Kazakhstan, China, and Mongo-
Aleuts’ reliance on the sea for their livelihood means that
lia. As a result of mass immigration following the fall of the
their economy and culture are at continued risk from envi-
Soviet Union, the Altai now make up only around 31 per-
ronmental catastrophes.
cent of the population of their own republic, which makes
See also: Haida them a minority in their own homeland (West 2009).
Further Reading
Alaska Humanities Forum. 2017. “Chapter 2–5: Aleuts.” http://​
www.akhistorycourse.org/alaskas-cultures/alaskas-heritage​ Geography and Environment
/chapter-2-5-aleuts.
The Altai Republic, which was called Gorno-Altay (1948–
Dickrell, Jeff. n.d. “World War II in the Aleutians.” City of Unal-
aska, Alaska. http://www.ci.unalaska.ak.us/community/page​ 1991) and Oirot (1922–1948), is located in Southern
/world-war-ii-aleutians. Russia’s West Siberia region. To the south, the republic is
Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An Ency- surrounded by Mongolia and China. The Altai Republic
clopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. contains a vast network of mountains, high plateaus, deep
Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “United States of valleys, and broad basins. The highest point in the republic
America: Inuit and Alaska Natives.” World Directory of
is Mount Belukha, which reaches a height of 14,783 feet.
Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. http://minorityrights​
.org/minorities/inuit-and-alaska-natives. The republic’s mountain slopes are covered in dense conif-
Waldman, Carl. 2006. Encyclopedia of Native American Tribes. erous forests, while the basins contain steppe grasslands.
3rd ed. New York: InfoBase Publishing. Grains such as oats as well as vegetables are grown in the
republic’s valleys. On pastureland and mountain slopes,
 Altai 71

people raise cattle, sheep, goats, horses, and yaks. Some China via the Ukok Plateau, a UNESCO World Heritage
trees are felled for timber. site consisting of pristine grassland in southwest Siberia
The defining feature of the Altai homeland is the Altai that the Altai consider sacred. In response to the proposal,
Mountains. The mountains form a complex mountain sys- the Altai government recognized the plateau’s sacred sta-
tem that stretches into the Gobi Desert and West Siberian tus with the aim of obstructing industrial activities in
Plain, having traveled through China, Mongolia, Russia, the area. Nonetheless, such activity remains an ongoing
and Kazakhstan. issue because plans to develop the pipeline through the
The mountains’ climate is influenced by Asiatic anticy- plateau continue to be discussed (Minority Rights Group
clones, resulting in long, ferociously cold winters that can International 2015).
see temperatures plummet to −26°F—or even −76°F in the
Chu steppes situated on the border of the Altai Mountains
and Mongolia. Glaciers can be found on the Altai Moun- History and Politics
tains’ highest peaks, and some parts of the mountains that The details of the Altai’s history are unclear. It is known,
stretch into northern Siberia have areas of permafrost (soil however, that the Altai are descended from the nomadic
that is below freezing for two or more years in a row). In Pazyryk tribe of mixed Caucasian and Mongol herit-
contrast to the coldness of the Altai winters, summers can age that established an advanced civilization in the Altai
be hot, with daytime temperatures reaching as high as Mountains between 600 and 300 BCE. The first docu-
104°F on the lower slopes. At higher altitudes, however, the mented reference to the Altai appears in historical records
summers are shorter and cooler than at lower levels. Pre- of the fifth century CE, in which the Altai are described as
cipitation in the mountains varies with elevations; some the western Mongol and Turkic tribes living in the Altai
parts receive eighty inches of precipitation annually. region.
The Altai Mountains contain four distinct vegetation The early Altai lived in nomadic tribal groups that
zones: mountain subdesert, mountain steppe, mountain survived by hunting and trapping wild animals as well
forest, and the alpine regions. The mountain subdesert as herding cattle, sheep, and goats. Between the sixth and
occurs on lower slopes and in basins. The term subdesert eighth centuries, the various Altai tribes mixed with other
reflects that some parts of the mountains experience hot Turkic peoples found in the Altai Mountains, including
temperatures in the summer with little rainfall. The sub- the Uyghurs, Oghuz, and Kipchak. During the thirteenth
desert vegetation is sparse and comprises xerophytic century, the growing Mongol Empire expanded into the
(drought-tolerant) and halophytic (salt-tolerant) plants. Altai region. Subsequently, the Altai lived under nominal
The mountain steppe vegetation zone exists up to around Mongol rule for over two hundred years, during which
6,600 feet and comprises various grasses and shrubs. The time the Altai absorbed many aspects of Mongol life. Circa
mountain forest zone covers much of the Altai Mountains’ 1399, a powerful tribal Western Mongol-Turkic federation
terrain. The forests mostly contain coniferous tree species, called the Alliance of the Four Oirats was formed. In the
including larches, firs, pines, birch, and aspen. The moun- sixteenth century, the alliance annexed the Altai region
tains’ alpine vegetation consists of shrubs that give way before expanding across Central Asia. While under Oirat
to meadows that are used for summer pasture as well as rule, between the fifteenth and eighteenth centuries, a dis-
mosses. The mountains’ wildlife varies with vegetation. tinct common Altai identity began to form. When the fed-
For example, mammals such as bears and lynx live in the eration was defeated by the Chinese in 1758, the fighting
mountains’ coniferous forests, while mountain goats and greatly reduced the Altai population.
snow leopards can be found in alpine areas. The main nat- In the sixteenth century, the Cossacks spearheaded Rus-
ural resources found in the Altai Republic are various bod- sia’s eastward expansion into the Altai region. By the end of
ies of freshwater in the form of rivers and glaciers as well the century, the Russians collected a fur tax from northern
as gold, silver, iron, and lithium. Altai tribes. In time, the Russians came to control the Altai
In the 1980s, the proposed building of a hydroelectric fur trade, enabling the Russians to extend their authority
dam in the Katun Valley led to a wave of Altai nationalism. over the Altai to include Altai tribes living in the south-
Similarly, in 2012, a row developed between the Russian ern mountains. In 1756, the southern Altai tribes accepted
federal government and the Altai Republic’s authori- Russian protection against advancing Chinese forces. The
ties after the proposed construction of a gas pipeline to Russians then founded a civil government in the region
72 Altai

that allowed them to collect more fur taxes. In general, During World War II, the Soviets accused Altai com-
however, the Russians allowed the Altai tribes to govern munist leaders of being pro-Japanese and used this as a
themselves under the rule of their traditional leaders. pretext to execute many Altai political and cultural leaders;
Russian rule was detrimental to the Altai (whom the others were sent to forced labor camps. In 1948, the Sovi-
Russians called the Oirot or Oyrot), for soon the Altai ets decided the name Oirot was antirevolutionary and pro-
caught European diseases from the Russians and started to hibited its use. The Soviets even changed the name of the
abuse Russian vodka. At the start of the nineteenth century, Altai province from Oirot to Mountain Altai Autonomous
many nomadic Altai tribes adopted settled lifestyles under Oblast. Despite the privations of life under the Soviets, in
pressure to do so from the Russians. Later, a Russian Ortho- time, Altai health and education greatly improved. Con-
dox mission was established to convert the Altai. However, sequently, by the mid-1960s, the long decline of the Altai
the majority of Altai had to be converted by force. Then, had started to reverse. When the Soviet Union collapsed in
in the 1840s, the Russian missionaries devised a written 1991, there was a low-level outbreak of Altai nationalism.
Altai language based on the southern Altai Teleut dialect While the Altai were unable to win independence, they
and written using the Cyrillic alphabet. Around the same were able to upgrade the status of the Altai region to that
time as the Russian Orthodox missionaries converted the of a republic in the new Russian Federation.
Altai, Mongolian Buddhist lamas also targeted the Altai for
conversion. While the lamas managed to convert few Altai,
elements of Buddhism influenced the Altai anti-Russian Society, Culture, and Tradition
religious movement of Burkhanism (or Ak Jang). Traditionally at least seminomadic, today, the Altai live
In 1904, Burkhanism broke out among the Altai who in villages and towns for much of the year. Modern Altai
had fallen under the influence of Mongolian lamas. The breed cattle and grow subsistence crops. They also mine,
messianic religion originated when an Altai, Chot Chelpan, hunt, and make metal items, including hunting equipment,
claimed to have had a vision of a white horse that declared tools, and artworks.
the return of the Oirat khan, who intended to free and unite Altai society comprises two cultural and linguistic
the Altai before reviving the Oirat federation. The nation- divisions as well as several tribal and clan groups that
alistic sentiments of Burkhanism struck a chord with the broadly divide into the northern and southern Altai. The
downtrodden Altai, who resented increasing Russian coloni- differences between the two Altai groups include physical
zation. In response to the spread of Burkhanism throughout differences; the southern Altai resemble the Mongols, and
the Altai tribes during the 1900s, many Altai faced violent the northern Altai resemble Turkic peoples. Under Russian
repression from Russian mobs. When the Russians com- imperial rule, the Altai were regarded as numerous differ-
pleted the building of the Trans-Siberian Railway, which ent ethnic groups before being consolidated as a distinct
connects European Russia with Vladivostok on the Pacific people under the Soviets. Before the 1920s, the Altai did
coast, the Altai resentment of the Russians intensified. not consider themselves an ethnic group, nor did they
In 1917, the Russian Revolution swept through the Altai share a common name for their people.
homeland. The revolution unified the Altai for the first time Over the centuries, the Altai have managed to main-
as the tribes united to stop local Bolsheviks from assuming tain their traditional culture. Many Altai are Orthodox
authority. Thus allied to the anti-Bolshevik White Army, Christians as the result of Orthodox missionary activity.
the Altai took part in some of the fiercest battles of the Nonetheless, many Altai continue to hold traditional Altai
ensuing Russian Civil War. The White Army was defeated shamanistic beliefs or adhere to Burkhanism. Although a
in 1920, but the Altai warded off the advancing Soviets shamanistic religion, Burkhanism is heavily influenced by
until 1922. As retribution for backing the White Army, Christianity. That the religion is also influenced by Bud-
the Soviets designated much of the Altai steppes a Rus- dhism is evinced by the fact that Burkhan is the Mongo-
sian settlement area. The Soviets also limited Altai living lian word for Buddha. Despite being banned by the Soviets,
in the newly established Oirat autonomous province. The Burkhanism has undergone a recent revival in Altai areas.
Altai were made to adopt settled lives and to collectivize While the religion is not followed widely, it does have a
their herds. As a result of these lifestyle changes, the Altai lasting influence on the Altai, for followers of Burkhanism
became apathetic, their population began to decrease, and are not permitted to own cats or smoke tobacco, rules
alcohol abuse became a major social problem. followed by most Altai, including Christian Altai. Altai
 Ambonese 73

shepherds living in the most remote areas worship fire and Threats to Survival
milk. Since the 1990s, some Altai have converted to Baptist The Altai face no immediate threats to their survival. The
evangelical groups. people have managed to maintain their culture despite suf-
The Altai speak two dialects belonging to the north- fering colonization and repression. Increasing tourism to
ern Turkic language group. The dialects are not mutually the Altai Republic has helped to revive the local economy,
understandable and are sometimes regarded as sepa- which was previously entirely reliant on federal subsidies.
rate languages. The northern dialect, Telut or Telengut, is Traditionally, however, Altai authorities are highly corrupt
closely related to the language of the Uyghurs, while the (Minahan 2002) to a shocking degree. Russian authori-
southern dialect, Oirot or Oyrot, belongs to the Kipchak ties also fear that the Altai harbor secessionist tendencies
Turkic languages. The Altai use Oirot as their written lan- caused by long-standing grievances from their treatment
guage. The Oirot vocabulary is influenced by Mongolian, under the Soviets. Such tendencies may in time see the
Arabic, and Persian. Altai try to form a breakaway state.

See also: Buryat; Crimean Tatar; Mongol

Health Care and Education Further Reading
In theory, Russian citizens are entitled to free universal Bobina, I., and E. Sevryukova. 2016. “Rural Population Health in
health care. In practice, however, Russian citizens take out Altai Krai: The Case of Krasnoshchyokovsky District.” Food
compulsory private medical insurance. Many areas of the and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. http://
agris.fao.org/agris-search/search.do?recordID= ​ U A2017​
Russian Federation, especially rural areas, lack health care,
600026.
and in areas where healthcare facilities exist, they are often Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
in very poor condition. Medical equipment is often out- Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 1, A–C.
dated and broken, facilities lack medicines and beds, and Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
there is a shortage of medical specialists. The shortage of Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East and Cen-
medical specialists is exacerbated by the fact that medics tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Russian Federa-
are often poorly paid.
tion: Altai.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous
There is little written about Altai health or medical care, Peoples, June 19. https://minorityrights.org/minorities/altai.
though as a rural people living in remote mountains, it is West, Barbara A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and
likely that they face several barriers to health care, includ- Oceania. New York: Facts on File.
ing a lack of health infrastructure. It is reported that the
main causes of death among the Altai are diseases of the
cardiovascular system, cancer, traumas, and intoxication
(Bobina and Sevryukova 2016).
Disease-carrying tick species are prevalent in for-
est steppe zones of western Siberia, including taiga ticks
AMBONESE
(Ixodes persulcatus) and meadow ticks (Dermacentor retic- Current Location Indonesia; Netherlands
ulatus). The ticks live on ground-foraging birds and most
Current Population 1.5 million
mammals that then transmit different tick-borne infec-
Language Ambronese Malay; Bahasa
tions to humans. Similarly, marmots living in the Altai
Indonesian
Republic are often skinned for their fur, which serves as
Interesting Fact Since the 1950s, Ambonese exiles in
a cheap substitute for sable. The marmots are, however,
the Netherlands have lived in former
known carriers of bubonic plague, so hunters are at risk
Nazi concentration camps.
of contracting the deadly disease. The mineral and hot
springs found in the Altai Republic are reputed to have
healing powers and are popular destinations for both tour- Overview
ists and locals. The Ambonese, also called the South Moluccans, the Mel-
The Altai Republic has many secondary schools and ayu, Ambon, or Siwa-Rima, are an indigenous people of
colleges as well as a university, the Gorno-Altaisk State Indonesia. The Ambonese have a mixed Malay, Dutch, Por-
University. tuguese, African, and Melanesian heritage.
74 Ambonese

The Ambonese speak a Malayo-Polynesian language Ambon wood found on the island of Seram is highly prized
called Ambonese Malay (or Malayu Ambong) as well as for ornamental woodworking. Few mammals are indige-
Bahasa Indonesian (standard Indonesian). Ambonese nous to the islands, though indigenous birds include the
Malay includes many Dutch, Portuguese, African, and racquet-tailed kingfisher, the crimson lory, and the crim-
ancient Malay words. The two languages are not mutu- son brush-tongued parrot. Ambon Bay is home to many
ally intelligible, so while the Ambronese can understand varieties of fish, and the eastern end of the bay contains
standard Indonesian, people who speak standard Indone- marine gardens.
sian do not necessarily understand Ambonese Malay. Most
Ambonese are Protestant, though some Ambonese are
Roman Catholic, Sunni Muslim, or followers of indigenous History and Politics
animist religions. A Papuan people called the Afuros originally inhabited
The national flag of the Ambonese is red with three the islands in the Banda Sea. Over time, the Afuros were
stripes (black, white, and green) at its hoist. either expelled by early Malay settlers who came to live in
Banda coastal areas or they assimilated into Malay culture.
The islands became known for producing valuable spices,
Population, Diaspora, and Migration and in the fifteenth century, Muslim spice traders settled
There are around 1.5 million Ambonese living on Indo- in port cities on the islands, which led to the islanders con-
nesia’s southern Maluku Islands (Minahan 2012). Many verting to Islam. Eventually, the islands came under the
Ambonese believe that their ancestors originated from control of the Islamic sultanate of Ternate.
West Seram (an administrative area of Maluku) and tra- Around 1511, the Portuguese explorer Ferdinand
ditionally divide into two groups: the Patasiwa and the Magellan led an expedition to the islands, and he and his
Patalima. sailors returned to Europe with tales of the islands’ abun-
There are also fifty thousand Ambonese living in the dant spices, particularly cloves, nutmeg, and mace. Later,
Netherlands. This emigrant population results from a in the sixteenth century, European spice traders also
time in the 1950s when some Ambonese went into exile began to settle on the islands, and as a result, the islands
in the Netherlands (Minahan 2012). Second genera- became known in the West as the Spice Islands. After Por-
tion Ambonese born in the Netherlands are increasingly tuguese traders established trading stations on the islands,
assimilated into Dutch culture, though they do retain an a lengthy war (1550–1587) broke out between the Portu-
emotional attachment and loyalty to the southern Maluku guese and the sultanate. When the Portuguese eventually
Islands. Many young Ambonese based in the Netherlands defeated the sultanate, they essentially had a monopoly on
consider themselves to be integrated into Dutch society, the spice trade.
but they also celebrate their Ambonese heritage. During the war, Portuguese missionaries were driven
out of the islands in the north, but they stayed on the
islands in the south. Toward the beginning of the seven-
Geography and the Environment teenth century, the Dutch came to the region and won
The Ambonese inhabit the southern Maluku Islands control of the islands in 1605. Later, in 1660, the Dutch
located in the Banda Sea region of eastern Indonesia. The annexed the southern islands. Under early Dutch con-
Ambonese are named after their islands’ capital city and trol, most Ambonese converted from Islam to Protestant
cultural center, Ambon. The Maluku Islands consist of over Christianity. As a result of this conversion, the Ambonese
one thousand islands spread across the Banda and Ceram became a favorite of the Dutch colonial authorities and
Seas. The Ambonese refer to the Maluku Islands as the were given respected roles in the colonial administration
Moluccas. The islands are volcanic in origin, and though and armed forces. Indeed, when the Dutch colonial army
none of the islands’ volcanoes are active, the islands are was established in 1830, the members were almost all
subject to earthquakes. The islands are also dotted with hot Ambonese or from some other Moluccan peoples.
springs and solfataras, natural volcanic steam vents that Over time, the Ambonese absorbed Dutch and Euro-
release sulfur gases and hot water vapor. pean culture and became more prosperous and well edu-
The islands have a tropical climate with ample rainfall. cated than neighboring peoples. This created a cultural rift
The islands are covered in dense forests, and hard, knotty between the Ambonese and their Muslim neighbors. At the
 Ambonese 75

same time, the islands became a major center of clove pro- independent and appealed to the Dutch government and
duction. The Dutch were dissatisfied with the Ambonese the United Nations for support.
as spice plantation workers, so they imported slaves from The United Nations was prevented from assisting the
Africa to work on clove farms. Slavery was abolished in Ambonese when their intervention was blocked by Islamic
1860, prompting many freed slaves to remain on the UN members, and the Dutch refused to be drawn into
islands, where they became assimilated into Ambonese another war in Indonesia. Thus, the Ambonese were effec-
society. tively abandoned as a largely non-Muslim people isolated
The Ambonese links to the Dutch made them fiercely among many millions of Indonesian Muslims. In late 1950,
loyal to the Dutch colonial authorities. At the start of the Indonesian military invaded Ambonese areas, which
the nineteenth century, Ambonese nationalists sought led to fierce fighting and the collapse of independent South
to establish an Ambonese Christian state aligned to the Maluku islands. The Dutch sensed an impending human-
Netherlands. In 1920, Ambonese students formed the itarian disaster and belatedly entered the fray by evacu-
first Ambonese nationalist organization: the Ambonese ating twelve thousand Ambonese from South Maluku.
Union. Despite growing Ambonese nationalism, in 1927, Meanwhile, twenty-three thousand Ambonese fled into
the southern Maluku Islands were unified with the north- neighboring Portuguese Timor and Dutch New Guinea
ern islands when a separate Moluccan government was (Minahan 2002). Back in the Netherlands, the Dutch
established. This unification resulted in widespread reli- housed the evacuated Ambonese in former Nazi concen-
gious conflict in the region, a situation made worse by an tration camps.
increase in Muslim Indonesian nationalism in the north In 1956, the Indonesian government began a policy of
of the region. transmigration whereby people living in overpopulated
In 1942, the Japanese forces of World War II overran the areas were moved to areas with fewer people. Between
port of Ambon. The capture of Ambon led to Ambonese 1954 and 1988, over sixty thousand mostly Muslim Indo-
guerillas attacking the Japanese until the invaders surren- nesians from Java and Bali were moved to the Maluku
dered in 1945. After the war ended, Indonesian nation- Islands under the transmigration initiative (Minahan
alists laid claim to all the islands previously owned by 2002).
the Dutch. Christian Ambonese were strongly opposed In 1956, Ambonese insurrection revived against the
to Muslim rule and joined with the Dutch military in Indonesian government, but with most Ambonese mil-
the area to fight against the Indonesian nationalists. The itary leaders encamped in the Netherlands, the rebellion
resulting conflict lasted from 1945 to 1949. In 1949, peace collapsed in 1958. In 1966, Indonesian authorities executed
was negotiated that allowed for the creation of an inde- the former president of South Maluku as a warning to
pendent Indonesia as a federation of autonomous states. Ambonese nationalists. Nevertheless, they set up a govern-
The Ambonese joined the federation on the understand- ment in exile that same year. Meanwhile, exiled Ambonese
ing that they could leave without recrimination if they felt living in the Netherlands refused to be absorbed into gen-
that their interests were best served by existing outside of eral Dutch society and strove for the reinstatement of an
the confederacy. independent Ambonese state. As a result of this desire for
Soon after the federation was established, the Indone- independence, in 1973, young Ambonese born in Europe
sian government began to centralize authority and became established the South Moluccan Liberation Front (SMLF).
focused on benefiting people living on the central island Then, in 1975, Ambonese militants attacked the Indone-
of Java. Many island peoples protested against the pref- sian embassy in the Netherlands and hijacked a Dutch
erable treatment enjoyed by the people on Java and in train, taking many hostages in a move designed to get the
1950 the Ambonese sought to leave the Indonesian fed- Dutch government to bring about an Ambonese state. In
eration of states. The Indonesian government retaliated 1977, Ambonese radicals struck again when they took over
against the Ambonese for voicing their desire to secede a hundred Dutch elementary school pupils hostage. In
by imposing direct rule on the islands inhabited by the 1978, the Dutch government voted that the South Moluc-
Ambonese. In response to this move. the Ambonese army can issue was closed.
rebelled against the direct rule and forced the Indonesian In 1988, a number of small-scale rebellions against the
authorities from the southern islands. Then, on April 25, Indonesian authorities occurred in Ambonese areas, but
1950, the Ambonese declared the South Maluku islands the government ignored these until demonstrators on the
76 Ambonese

island of Saparua raised the prohibited flag of the Republic Ambonese culture is greatly influenced by the European
of the South Moluccas. The demonstrators were arrested, colonial heritage under which the Ambonese thrived. At
incarcerated, and tortured (Minahan 2002). In 1990, thou- the same time, Ambonese culture has absorbed many of the
sands of Ambonese living in the Netherlands demon- traditions and customs of their neighbors. In essence, the
strated in favor of independence. Many hundreds of the Ambonese culture is a mixture of Dutch and Melanesian.
demonstrators were still living in the Nazi concentration The Ambonese used to practice the system of Pela
camps, having refused the offer of housing from the Dutch Gandung, which involved pacts being forged between vil-
government, as they felt accepting the housing would sug- lages of different faiths. Indonesians liked to claim this
gest their desire for an independent South Maluku had was a model for the nationwide pursuit of religious accept-
lessened. ance. In truth, this religious tolerance was more a prod-
The Indonesian government’s transmigration policy uct of enforcement by the army and government than the
greatly changed the demography of Ambonese areas, as tolerance of the people, but it seemed to work. Today, the
the population of Ambonese settlements went from being Ambonese consider religion to be interlinked to their cul-
predominantly Christian to mainly Muslim. As a result of ture as well as the Ambonese nationalist movement.
this change, Muslim islanders came to dominate both local Ambonese culture and society once revolved around
government and the economy. The rise to prominence of churches, known as baileos, but most of these buildings
the imported Muslim islanders irked the Ambonese and were destroyed by the Indonesian military; locals were for-
caused Ambonese nationalism to revive in the 1980s. bidden from reconstructing them. The Ambonese consider
Then, on April 25, 1992, the Government of the Repub- the deforestation of the Manusela National Park in central
lic of the Moluccas in Exile was established, and in 1994, Seram as the most serious threat to Ambonese culture.
this government, along with other Ambonese nationalist According to Ambonese myth, the Ambonese people orig-
organizations, formed a working group with nationalists inated in the forest, and thus they consider the site sacred
in neighboring East Timor and West Papua. The coalition and an essential element of their culture.
aimed to coordinate responses to violence perpetrated by Typically, Ambonese houses are built on high wooden
the Indonesian government against ethnic and religious poles. Traditional Ambonese villages are built close
groups. together along main roads or in groups of houses known
In 1998, the brutally repressive regime of Indonesian as soa. The head of a soa performs the daily administra-
president Suharto was ousted. This regime change cre- tion of a village. When a collection of soa forms, the larger
ated a power vacuum that allowed ethnic and religious settlement is known as a negari, which in turn is headed
tensions to come to the fore, reaching Ambonese areas in by a leader called a raja. The raja is appointed according
1998. In 1999, a seemingly minor skirmish between two to his ancestry rather than being elected. Other impor-
Muslim youths and a Christian bus driver culminated in tant Ambonese figures include an expert in the land and
ethnic violence. A year later, Muslim activists living in the Ambonese culture called a tuan tanah, a war expert called
Indonesian capital of Jakarta claimed that the Ambonese a kapitan, and a forest expert known as the kewang. The
wished to expel Muslim transmigrants from Ambonese customary laws (adat) of Ambonese settlements vary
areas and called for jihad against Christian Ambonese. depending on how the village was formed.
The religious violence ultimately killed many thousands of Many Ambonese are farmers who practice slash-and-
people (both Christian and Muslim) and left one hundred burn techniques. The main Ambonese crops are sago (pith
thousand people as displaced refugees (Minahan 2012). extracted from palm trees), rice, coffee, potato, tobacco,
Today, some Ambonese leaders call for the creation of two banana, mango, durian, and cloves. The Ambonese also
South Maluku provinces so that Muslims and Christians hunt wild animals, including boars, deer, and cassowary.
can use separate hospitals, schools, and other amenities.

Health Care and Education

Society, Culture, and Tradition Healthcare data for the Ambonese is incomplete, so mor-
Ambonese society displays a great variety of ethnicities tality rates, proportional mortality, and incidence rates
because the people result from intermarriage among cannot be analyzed. Overall, however, the available health-
Dutch, Portuguese, Malay, Javanese, and African peoples. care data does not suggest the Ambonese experience
 Amhara 77

excessive mortality rates. But it is known that there is a strong interest in the indigenous languages of the Maluku
shortage of medical staff in Ambonese areas. This short- Islands and performing academic research around the
age is exacerbated by the area’s uncertain security, which languages. Meanwhile, in the Netherlands, the Moluc-
has resulted in physicians fleeing Maluku. Occasionally, can Historic Museum in Utrecht includes an educational
military medical teams are seconded through the area’s unit, Pusat Edukasi Maluku/Landelijk Steunpunt Educatie
ministry of health to provide health facilities. Civil unrest Molukkers, which prepares material for educational pro-
in Ambonese areas can also result in warehouses con- grams throughout the country. The museum also produces
taining medical supplies being attacked. It has also been radio programs, news journals, books, and papers about
documented that some Ambonese settlements fail to meet indigenous Moluccans. There are also local Moluccan
minimum standards in water quantity, sanitation facilities, radio broadcasts in the Dutch cities of Amsterdam and
and shelter (Bradt 2000). Wierden.
In February 2017, Indonesian president Joko Widodo
See also: Acehnese; Madurese
emphasized the importance of developing health and edu-
cation services in Ambonese areas. In particular, Widodo Further Reading
BaliTouring.com. n.d. “Maluku Archipelago.” Indonesia. https://​
highlighted the need to provide nutrition and schooling
www.balitouring.com/culture/ambon.htm.
to meet international standards. As part of this move, the Bradt, David A. 2000, August 18. “Health Situation Report Devel-
Indonesian president announced the distribution of the oped in Conjunction with United Nations Resource Centre
Smart Indonesia Card (KIP) education subsidy to 1,265 in Ambon: July 30–August 14.” www.who.int/disasters/repo​
school students in Ambon. The value of the KIP ranges /5853.doc.
from 450,000 rupiah per elementary school pupil, 750,000 Head, Jonathan. 1999. “Ambon’s Troubled History.” BBC, June 1.
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/events/indonesia/special_report​
rupiah per junior high school student, and 1 million rupiah
/292830.stm.
per senior high school student (Salim 2017). Hulsbosch, Marianne. 2014. Pointy Shoes and Pith Helmets: Dress
and Identity Construction in Ambon from 1850 to 1942. Lei-
den, the Netherlands: Brill.
Threats to Survival Khoon Choy, Lee. 1999. A Fragile Nation: The Indonesian Crisis.
Ambonese areas have been at the center of repeated Singapore: World Scientific.
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
outbreaks of religious and ethnic violence. Muslims and
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 1, A–C.
Christians have established separate communes guarded Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
by militias, and some soldiers have taken sides, thereby Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the
alienating the Ambonese further. The issues affecting Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
the Ambonese are deep-seated and complex, and there Salim, Agus. 2017. “Health, Education Are Foundations to
is every likelihood that violence may flare up again in Meet Global Competition: President Jokowi.” AntaraNews.
com, February 8. http://www.antaranews.com/en/news​
Ambonese areas. Christian Ambonese feel their religion
/109308/health-education-are-foundations-to-meet-global​
is vulnerable to attack in predominantly Muslim Indo- -competition-president-jokowi.
nesia and cite as evidence the destruction of more than
five hundred churches by Muslim activists in the space of
five years during the 1990s (Head 1999). The Ambonese
believe they receive inadequate protection from the gov-
ernment and that continuing Muslim immigration into
Ambon will leave them a helpless minority if religious AMHARA
tensions revive.
Current Location Ethiopia
On the upside, there has been an upsurge of interest
in the Ambonese heritage and language among second- Current Population 18 million
and third-generation indigenous peoples of the Maluku Language Amharic
Islands. Indigenous peoples organize language classes in Interesting Fact According to Amhara tradition, the
their mother tongues, and there is a trend for poets and first Amhara king transported the
performance artists to perform in these languages. At the Ark of the Covenant from Jerusalem
same time, universities around the world are showing a to Ethiopia.
78 Amhara

Overview Wollo, disseminating their language and culture wherever

The Amhara are a large Ethiopian ethnic group composed they went and incorporating non-Amhara peoples into
of various peoples who speak the Amharic language. This their own population.
is a Semitic language influenced by Sidama and Cushitic According to Amhara oral history, Menelik I, who was
languages and related to Tigre and Tigrinya. The Amhara the son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, estab-
are Orthodox Christians. lished the first Ethiopian kingdom. The line of Amhara
kings continued uninterrupted for two thousand years.
Menelik allegedly moved the Ark of the Covenant from
Population, Diaspora, and Migration Jerusalem to Ethiopia, where it has remained a promi-
There are an estimated 18 million Amhara people. The nent feature in Amhara religious beliefs. The first notable
Amhara make up around 30 percent of Ethiopia’s popula- kingdom was the Kingdom of Axum that existed from the
tion (Shaw 2011). Most Amhara live in the Amhara Region first to the ninth centuries. Axum was located in Tigray
of Ethiopia’s central highlands, though there are Amhara and dominated trade relations between Ethiopia and Ara-
communities stretching westward toward Ethiopia’s bor- bia. Axum is also significant because the Axum language,
der with Sudan. Ge’ez, formed the basis of the Amhara language and writ-
The Amhara are an overwhelmingly rural people, with ing system. In the fourth century, the people of Axum
more than 90 percent of the population being sedentary converted to Orthodox Christianity, and the religion ulti-
farmers living in villages (Shaw 2011). mately spread throughout the realm. Religion remains the
mainstay of Amhara life, while Ge’ez continues to be the
ecclesiastical language.
Geography and Environment When Axum declined in the ninth century, Arab cul-
The Amhara Region lies in Ethiopia’s central highlands. ture began to influence the Amhara. Islam spread along
Sudan lies to the west and northwest of the Amhara trade routes, creating isolated Christian enclaves whose
Region, and the Ethiopian regions of Tigray and Afar are only outside contact came from traveling Orthodox Chris-
to the north the east, respectively. Benishangul-Gumuz is tians and members of the Coptic Church in Alexandria,
located to the west and southwest, and Oromia lies to the Egypt. In the sixteenth century Ahmad Gran, an imam and
south. Amhara Region includes the areas of Wollo, Gonder, general of the Adal Sultanate, led an invasion of Ethiopia’s
Gojjam, and north Shoa. Christian kingdoms as part of an Arab religious war on
The region is home to Ethiopia’s largest inland body Christianity. The Arab invasion saw Christians massacred,
of water, Lake Tana, the source of the Blue Nile River. The churches destroyed, and rulers exiled. Only Christians liv-
region also contains the Semien Mountains National Park, ing at the highest altitudes remained unbeaten until the
a World Heritage Site, which includes the highest point in Portuguese intervened in the conflict, which allowed the
Ethiopia, Ras Dashan. The Amhara Region receives most Amhara culture and Christian beliefs to survive.
of Ethiopia’s annual rainfall and is the country’s most fer- In the nineteenth century, the Amhara extended their
tile and hospitable area. As a result, many of the people political power as regions fell under their control. At the same
that live in Amhara are farmers, with coffee, millet, and time, the Amhara fought off outsiders, including the Egyptian
corn being the most prevalent crops. Ottomans and Sudanese Mahdists, who invaded Amhara
Most of the Amhara Region is mountainous and cov- land from the north. The Amhara also held off would-be
ered in forests. Endemic animal species include wolves, European colonists, including the French, British, and Ital-
ibex, and baboons. ians, who managed to take control of Ethiopia’s coastal areas.
Italy was able to take control of Eritrea and invaded Tigray,
but it was unable to overcome the forces of Melenik II at the
History and Politics Battle of Adowa (1896). Italy’s defeat in this battle marked
The Amhara are most likely descended from migrants the end of Italy’s colonial expansion. Ultimately, the Amhara
from southern Arabia who intermarried with Cushitic areas remained free of colonization by Europeans.
people living in the Wollo area of the Amhara Region The twentieth-century emperor Haile Selassie, who
many millennia ago. Here the people developed the was an Amhara, dominated Ethiopian history. Selassie set
Amharic language. The early Amhara spread out from Ethiopia on a path of centralization and modernization
 Amhara 79

that involved the assimilation of non-Amhara peoples. The Tigray people dominate current Ethiopian poli-
Amharic became the country’s dominant language, and tics. In response to their loss of political sway, the Amhara
Amhara culture was promoted above all other indigenous increasingly have to form their own political factions to
Ethiopian cultures. Non-Amhara Ethiopians resented promote the issues that affect them most.
these assimilationist policies, which resulted in sporadic
outbreaks of ethnic violence. In 1975, Selassie was over-
thrown, and a socialist military regime known colloquially Society, Culture, and Tradition
as the Derg came to power, thereby ending two thousand The Orthodox Christian Church is central to Amhara life.
years of Ethiopian monarchy. The Amhara spent many centuries living in isolation, and
The Derg proved a murderous regime that ruthlessly this has resulted in the creation of their own distinctive
quelled any civil unrest. To compound matters, in the form of Christianity that is heavily influenced by Judaism.
1980s, Ethiopia was hit by famine that killed many people Every Amhara village has its own church, and churches
and caused the Ethiopian economy to deteriorate. Various are recurring features of the Amhara Region landscape.
ethnic factions bent on gaining self-rule came to the fore in Churches carved into cliff faces and hillsides are con-
defiance of authorities and in response to the overpromo- sidered sites of pilgrimage. The most important of these
tion of Amhara culture. Chief among these ethnic groups pilgrimage sites is the medieval church of Lalibela, which
was the Tigray People Liberation Front (TPLF), which had according to Amhara folklore was constructed by angels.
many supporters in the Tigray region. Anti-Derg fighting The Amhara celebrate several religious feast days. On
finally caused the downfall of the Derg in 1991. In the these holy days, a replica of the Ark of the Covenant, known
wake of the removal of the Derg, the new federal govern- as a Tabot, which is present on every Ethiopian Christian
ment created many ethnic states, including Amhara State. altar, is carried as part of a procession led by priests and

Amhara people belonging to the Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church celebrate the Epiphany festival of Timkat in Gondar, Ethiopia.
Timkat commemorates Jesus’s baptism in the Jordan River. (Barbarico/Dreamstime.com)
80 Amhara

accompanied by music and dance. The processions are In 2008, there were 4,177 schools (both primary and
intended to evoke Old Testament images. The Tabot is also secondary) in Amhara State. Of these schools, 4,056 were
a feature of the annual Ethiopian Orthodox Epiphany festi- for children in the primary school grades one through
val of Timkat (meaning “baptism”). Typically, Timkat is cel- eight, 97 taught pupils in grades nine and ten, and 24
ebrated on January 19 to remember Jesus’s baptism in the were for students in grades eleven and twelve. Grades
Jordan River. The festival is famous for its ritual reenact- nine through twelve are considered secondary education.
ments of baptism and the procession of the Tabot, which In Amhara State, the average student–teacher ratio is one
symbolizes Jesus traveling to the river to be baptized. Very teacher for every sixty-six pupils at the primary level and
early in the morning of Timkat, the Divine Liturgy is cele- one teacher for every fifty-seven students at the secondary
brated by a nearby stream. Then the stream is blessed, and level (Eshetu 2015).
the people participating in the baptism are sprinkled with
the newly blessed water. Later, the clergy, wearing robes
and carrying colorful umbrellas, dance and sing; elders Threats to Survival
march bearing weapons; and the children play games. Drought, famine, and political turmoil have all threatened
The Amhara are a rural people who practice sedentary the Amhara in recent years. The people’s reliance on sub-
subsistence farming. They were the first African people sistence agriculture means that drought conditions affect-
to use plows and oxen to toil the land, and their farming ing agriculture can cause starvation among the Amhara.
methods have changed little over the years. The main The Ethiopian government’s land use policy offers more
Amhara crops are millet, corn, and teff, which form their protection to foreign investors than it does to local people.
staple diet. Coffee is grown widely in the Ethiopian high- This means that semipastoralist and agricultural commu-
lands and is produced as a cash crop. The Amhara also nities such as the Amhara can access only small plots of
raise animals, including goats, cattle, donkeys, and sheep. farmland. International commentators estimate that from
Amhara men raise the largest animals, and the children November 2015 to August 2016, Ethiopian security agents
are responsible for raising small animals. Women are in killed some five hundred people from the Amhara and
charge of the housework. Oromo population groups as authorities cracked down on
their protests against social ostracism and the appropria-
tion of indigenous lands.
Health Care and Education The Amhara people denounce the discrimination they
In west Amhara State alone, there are 454 government-run feel they suffer at the hands of the current Ethiopian
healthcare centers. Of these centers, 8 are hospitals, and government. The Amhara claim their ancestral lands at
250 are health centers in urban areas. The rest of the Welkait, Tsegede, Tselemt, Setit, Tach Armachiho, Raya,
healthcare facilities are located in rural districts. However, Qobo, and Metekel have been snatched away by the gov-
healthcare facilities in remote areas are often in need of ernment and reallocated to a development company
improvement, as they can be poorly equipped and unhy- owned by a billionaire sheikh (Kabajuni 2016). Inspired by
gienic. Prescription drugs are also sometimes unavailable protests by the Oromo people, the Amhara have begun to
(Derebe et al. 2017). demonstrate against their treatment by the government. In
The Amhara believe the heart and stomach are par- August 2016, many Amhara protesters were killed by secu-
ticularly important organs and that divine will ensure the rity forces, and many more injured in the city of Bahir Dar
body’s organs work in harmony. They fear that a number and other towns across the north of the Amhara Region.
of metaphysical agents can prevent the body from working Human rights violations against the Amhara by the
harmoniously: excess repetition of everyday activities, the Ethiopian government have occurred against the back-
absorption of corrosive substances through ingestion or ground of a highly restrictive political situation. Civil
inhalation, poison administered by enemies, and various rights activists have difficulty accessing the worst hit areas
types of magic. Traditional Amhara healers each have their and risk detention and intimidation for their efforts. At the
own specific realm of expertise, including bone setting, same time, journalists face harassment and intimidation
removing teeth and other body parts, removing causal for trying to investigate the Amhara claims of mistreat-
agents from the body through purging, creating emetics, ment. The Ethiopian government ignores international
and so on. outcry over their treatment of the Amhara and refuse to
 Annang 81

launch an independent inquiry into the use of excessive of 750 villages across eight local government areas. The
force by the government agents to quell demonstrations. Annang consider the village of Afaha Obong as their place
of origin and cultural headquarters, for that is where the
See also: Copts; Oromo
people’s supreme deity, Awasi-Ibom, is thought to dwell
Further Reading
(Essien and Umotong 2013).
Debere, Mulatu Melese, Melashu Balew Shiferaw, and Muluken
Assefa Ayalew. 2017. “Low Satisfaction of Clients for the
Health Service Provision in West Amhara Region, Ethiopia.”
PLoS One 12 (6). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles​ Geography and Environment
/PMC5493333. The Cross Rivers region is located in the Niger Delta of
Eshetu, Getnet. 2015. Factors Affecting Instructional Leaders Per- southern Nigeria. The area is bordered by Nigeria’s Benue
ception towards Educational Media Utilization in Classroom
State to the north, by Ebonyi and Abia States to the west, by
Teaching. Hamburg, Germany: Anchor Academic Publishing.
Kabajuni, Agnes. 2016. “The Agony of Silence: Ethiopia’s Recent Akwa-Ibom State and the Atlantic Ocean to the south, and
Human Rights Violations against Amhara and Oromo Peo- by the Cameroon Republic to the east. Annangland has flat
ples.” Minority Rights Group International: Blogs and Pod- terrain covered by vegetation that is generally low grow-
casts, September 28. http://minorityrights.org/2016/09/28​ ing except for palms. Annangland has a tropical climate,
/agony-silence-ethiopias-recent-human-rights-violations​ with a wet season lasting from March to October and a
-amhara-oromo-indigenous-peoples.
dry season from November to February, during which the
Shaw, Geri. 2011. “Amhara.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and the
Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup, Harmattan wind blows from the northeast.
13–15. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Stacey, Margaret. 1988. The Sociology of Health and Healing: A
Textbook. London: Routledge. History and Politics
Very little is known of Annang history. It is believed that, like
other Ibibio peoples, the Annang have inhabited the Cross
River area for a long time. Over the course of history, the
Annang have shied away from establishing states but rather
ANNANG have developed independent villages. After the arrival of
the Europeans in the fifteenth century, the Igbo moved
Current Location Nigeria the Ibibio people, including the Annang, farther south and
Current Population 800,000 east, where the Annang cultivated cassava, yams, and taro.
After the demise of the transatlantic slave trade, the Annang
Language Annang
began to produce palm oil as their main cash crop.
Interesting Fact Annang society idealizes plump
In 1929, women throughout southern Nigeria com-
women, so women enter a period of
seclusion during which they deliber- plained about the British colonial authorities’ attempts to
ately put on weight. control trade, as most trade was undertaken by women.
Nigeria gained independence in the 1960s, and military
rule was declared in 1966. This resulted in southern Nige-
Overview ria declaring itself an independent state called Biafra. This
The Annang (also written as Anang) are a people indig- move led to a civil war that ended in 1970 and resulted in
enous to Nigeria and belonging to the western branch of the deaths of up to two million people (Shoup 2011). The
the Ibibio people. The Annang speak the Annang language, Annang, along with other peoples caught up in the war,
which belongs to the Kwa language group. suffered many casualties and deaths. After the civil war,
the area formally known as Biafra was reintegrated into
Nigeria.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
There are around eight hundred thousand Annang peo-
ple living in Nigeria (Shoup 2011). The Annang live in the Society, Culture, and Tradition
Cross Rivers region of southern Nigeria in an area some- Annang society is patriarchal with lineage passed through
times referred to as Annangland. Annangland consists family groups called an ufok. Several ufok make up an
82 Annang

extended family unit called an ekpuk, and many ekpuk was a virgin while also enhancing the erotic appeal of a
make up an idung (village). Annang political power is girl’s genitalia. A woman who underwent circumcision
shared by elders and elected village officials. Other impor- was thought to be particularly virtuous and exempt from
tant figures in Annang society are leaders of ekpo societies infertility, which was thought to afflict the lives of uncir-
that oversee village ceremonies. In common with other cumcised women. It should be noted, however, that today
Ibibio peoples, Annang society includes many secret soci- some Nigerians view Mbobi as barbaric and skip this step.
eties called ekpo that are connected to the people’s tradi- That said, females who do not undergo Mbobi tend to feel
tional religion, which involves ancestor worship. During a degree of public shame and so most submit to the pro-
ceremonies, ekpo members parade while wearing masks cess, believing that the physical pain is preferable to social
that represent the spirits of Annang ancestors as well as stigma.
dangerous idiok and beautiful mfon spirits that are only After a female has been circumcised, she is ready to
visible to ekpo members. enter the fattening room, which is usually an out-of-the-
Annang women are allowed to rise to prominence, and way room in her father’s compound. Her initiation into the
several have achieved high political office. Indeed, some process is marked by her being bathed by a group of men-
historians believe that before European Christian mission- opausal or elderly women usually consisting of her aunts
aries arrived in Nigeria, women held even greater sway and other villagers, though not the girl’s mother. Once the
over Annang society. In addition, women known as Abia girl has entered seclusion, only her closest female friends
Idiong serve as female chief priests in the Idiong divin- may visit her, and men, including her fiancé, are forbidden
ity cult as well as healers. Firstborn females (Adiaha) are to see her until the ritual is complete. To alert strangers
also considered important and command respect in their that an mbobo is present, a miniature bamboo bed, small
families. pots, and bird nests are placed on the road just outside the
Women are at the center of an important Annang tradi- village. The bamboo bed is a reference to the deliberately
tion. Like other indigenous peoples of Nigeria, the Annang uncomfortable bamboo bed on which a girl undergoing
maintain a secular rite of passage called fattening room fattening room seclusion is expected to sleep; it is believed
seclusion. Nigerian culture values plump women, as they that sleeping on the knobby bamboo will soften the girl’s
are seen as the embodiment of alluring fertile, feminine muscles as she sleeps.
beauty. For this reason, it is traditional for tribes such as Inside the fattening room, a girl is fed six meals per day,
the Annang to make prospective brides and first daugh- which usually consists of rice, yams, cassava, beans, plan-
ters undergo a process of deliberate fattening in prepa- tains, fish, and meat, plus traditional meals such as ayan
ration for marriage that is sponsored by the girls’ parents ekpan (grated cocoyam), ekpan kukwo (cocoyam cooked
or fiancés. Girls who undergo this process are known as with spinach and shellfish or meat), and gari (a mix of
mbobo, meaning “fattening room girl.” dried cassava and water). In addition to these foods, the
To be a mbobo, a girl should be an unmarried virgin. females also eat traditional herbal medicines that aid
Girls who undergo deliberate fattening tend to be puber- digestion. The aim of the massive food consumption is to
tal, though it has been known for girls as young as seven achieve a well-rounded figure, so to ensure the result is
to experience the ritual fattening. This deliberate fatten- achieved, the girls are encouraged to sleep a lot and for-
ing is achieved by placing girls in special fattening rooms, bidden from exercising. The girls may also have their faces
called Nkuho in the Efik language, where they are fed painted with white chalk and have palm leaf fibers tied
­carbohydrate-rich foods and discouraged from exercis- around the neck, ankles, and wrists. These accessories are
ing. In the early days of the tradition, a female would be adjusted as the they grow fatter.
secluded for six to twelve months, depending on how long Fattening room seclusion is a very expensive ritual to
her family could afford to keep her well fed and whether sponsor, but many parents nonetheless ignore the financial
or not she had a waiting suitor. Today, however, seclusion costs to put their daughters through the ritual; otherwise,
usually lasts for around three weeks, though the specifics the parents will feel socially inadequate. It is also a Nige-
of the seclusion vary between tribes. rian belief that women who do not experience fattening
Traditionally, females who wished to enter the Nkuho room seclusion will be sickly and unproductive. Fattening
had to undergo Mbobi, a form of ritual female circumci- room seclusion can be seen as a twofold survival strategy.
sion whose name means “coming of the small breasts.” This On the one hand, fatter women have reserves of nutri-
circumcision was thought to determine whether a female ents for themselves and their children, meaning they can
 Annang 83

survive when food is scarce. On the other hand, heavier time-consuming experience that could lead to future
women help to ensure tribal survival, as, in theory, they health problems.
menstruate at an earlier age and so can procreate earlier
and produce more children.
Today, many Nigerian females liken going into seclu- Health Care and Education
sion as akin to staying in a spa. In addition to being fed Nigeria has too few nurses, midwives, and doctors to effec-
lots of food, they are also treated to grooming rituals that tively deliver essential health care—around 1.95 health-
include massages. However, unlike a spa holiday, seclusion care providers per 1,000 people (WHO 2018). Nigeria
also includes lessons and training in everyday tasks, such struggles to distribute these healthcare providers equita-
as cooking, housework, and childcare, as well as education bly, so health workers tend to be concentrated in southern
in intimate erotic massage and training in how to please cities. Despite that, Cross River State in southern Nigeria
a husband sexually. Females undergoing fattening room has some of the worst child and infant mortality rates in
seclusion also learn how to become upstanding members the country. Thousands of women and their children die
of their community, how to put up with their in-laws, and every year, often due to health issues that would be pre-
how to perform traditional dances such as Ekombi, a wed- ventable and treatable in areas that were better served.
ding dance that a girl is expected to perform on the day According to 2011 figures, every year, 250 out of every
she emerges from her seclusion. Despite the alternately 1,000 children in Cross River State die before the age of
lonely, intimidating, and intrusive nature of seclusion, five years, while 2,000 out of every 100,000 women die in
many mbobo consider seclusion a welcome respite from childbirth. In 2011, the technology firm IBM joined with
the hardships of tribal life, in which they are expected to the Cross River State government to roll out the Hope and
work on family farms, carry heavy loads to market, trans- Comfort projects. The Hope project provides free health
port water, and do the housework. care to pregnant women and children aged less than five
Once a girl has completed seclusion, her family sends years, with the aim of alleviating infant and maternal mor-
out invitations to friends and family for a party to cele- tality rates. In the past, pregnant women in rural southern
brate the girl’s coming out. If a girl has a suitor waiting for Nigeria sought medical aid from traditional birth attend-
her, then this party doubles as an extravagant wedding ants who were equipped with informal knowledge of mid-
at which traditional dishes such as ekpan kukwo, atama wifery. In contrast, the Hope program provides pregnant
leaves (an aromatic herb), and soup made from afang (a women with access to health care, from regular checkups
pungent dark-green leafy vegetable) are served. For the to free medication. The Hope program also allows them to
wedding ceremony, the freshly fattened woman dresses in give birth at a state healthcare facility. Even though Cross
traditional bright clothing, and her hair is decorated with River State’s population consists of mostly rural commu-
beads and combs. As part of the service, a short proces- nities, residents are still able to have access to advanced
sion takes place during which similarly dressed young medical facilities. Running alongside the Hope project is
girls escort the bride while onlookers sing, dance, and the Comfort project, which provides financial assistance to
cheer loudly. The bride then settles upon an elaborately people living in poverty and supports access to education
decorated wooden throne fitted with a canopy, and the (PR Newswire 2011).
accompanying young girls surround the bride-to-be with Many primary schools in Cross River State suffer from
the equipment she will need to be a house-proud wife, an acute lack of infrastructure. The teachers do not receive
including cooking pots, crockery, and tablecloths. Another regular pay, and, disheartened, they do not necessarily feel
part of the wedding ceremony is a performance of a tra- as committed to teaching. Some primary schools do not
ditional dance called Abang, meaning “pot,” the name of have enough classrooms or furniture for the number of
which refers to the fattening rite through which the bride pupils, so lessons are sometimes conducted in the shades
has passed, for the woman is now round like a pot. After of trees. Some children even carry tree branches and desks
the wedding, a merry feast is held during which the newly- from their homes to school each day. There is also a short-
weds are given presents and blessed. age of instructional materials such as books. In addition,
Fattening room seclusion faces an uncertain future. many primary schools, particularly those located in the
Western ideas about healthy eating and obesity mean countryside, have no first-aid kits, trained first aiders, or
that some Nigerians, especially those in major cities, are healthcare facilities. At the same time, the schools are also
starting to view deliberate fattening as an expensive and far from hospitals and healthcare centers, which means
84 Anuak

pupils are put at risk if they have an accident or become ill people living in East Africa, especially in Ethiopia and
(Chikadibia Domike and Ogar Odey 2014). South Sudan. The Anuak speak the Dha-anywaa language.
The majority of Anuak are evangelical Christians, though
they retain some pre-Christian beliefs. The Anuak call
Threats to Survival themselves the Anyuua.
Perhaps the greatest threat to Annang survival is the peo-
ple’s limited access to health care, high infant mortality
rates, and high death rates for women in labor. Social and
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
political instability arising from friction between Nigeria’s Recent estimates put the Anuak population at between
Igbo and Hausa peoples may also erupt and engulf the 650,000 and 900,000 people. According to the 2007 Ethio-
Annang. pian national census, there were over 89,000 Anuak living
in southwest Ethiopia’s Gambela forest region. The remain-
See also: Edo; Hausa; Igbo; Tiv der of the Anuak live in South Sudan. The Anuak tend to
Further Reading live along riverbanks, with most residing in Ethiopia’s
Chikadibia Domike, Grace, and Edward Ogar Odey. 2014. “An Abobo, Dimma, and Gog woredas (third-level administra-
Evaluation of the Major Implementation Problems of Pri- tive divisions). In addition to the Anuak, Gambela prov-
mary School Curriculum in Cross River State, Nigeria.” Amer-
ince is also home to the Nuer, Majangir, Opo, and Komo
ican Journal of Educational Research 2 (6): 397–401.
Essien, Ephraim Stephen, and Iniobong Daniel Umotong. 2013. peoples. The Anuaks and the Nuer are the region’s two
“Annang Philosophy: Foundations and Outline.” British Jour- most populous groups and have an ongoing feud over the
nal of Arts and Social Sciences 13 (2). http://www.bjournal.co​ region’s land and resources. Some displaced Anuak live in
.uk/paper/BJASS_13_2/BJASS_13_02_01.pdf. Kenya, the United States, and Canada.
IBM. 2011, April 6. “IBM Helps Bring Smarter Healthcare to
Nigeria’s Cross River State.” IBM Newsroom. https://​news​
room​ . ibm.com/2011-04-06-IBM-Helps-Bring-Smarter​
Geography and Environment
-Health​care​-to-Nigerias-Cross-River-State,1.
Shoup, John A. 2011. Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle The Anuak homeland, Anuakland, encompasses Ethio-
East: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. pia’s Gambela region, which is located between the Baro
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the and Akobo Rivers, and the eastern districts of Jonglei
World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA: State in South Sudan. Ethiopia’s southwestern Gambela
ABC-CLIO.
National Regional State borders the Benishangul-Gumuz
World Health Organization (WHO). 2018. “Nigeria.” Global
Health Workforce Alliance. http://www.who.int/workforce​ and Oromiya regions to the north; the Southern Nations,
alliance/countries/nga/en/. Nationalities and Peoples’ Regional State (SNNPRS), and
the Sudan Republic to the south; Oromiya and SNNPRS to
the east; and the Sudan Republic to the west.
Anuakland is a region characterized by fertile river
valleys that are home to large mango forests that grow
on riverbanks. Gambela is a sparsely populated, scrubby,
ANUAK swampy region. The climate is predominantly lowland
kolla, that is, a hot, dry climatic zone that nonetheless
Current Location Ethiopia; Sudan
receives enough rainfall to farm without the need for irri-
Current Population 650,000–900,000 gation, interspersed with weyna dega—midaltitude areas
Language Dha-anywaa that have a warm, wet climate. Traditional Anuak land in
Interesting Fact International commentators believe Gambela is located atop gold and oil reserves.
the Anuak are victims of genocide Riverside farming is common among the Anuak, espe-
and crimes against humanity. cially among those living along the Baro, Gilo, and Akobo
Rivers. Staple Anuak crops include maize and sorghum.
Overview Many Anuak also fish, as this provides both food and an
The Anuak (also spelled Anyuak or called the Anywaa, alternative source of income. The Anuak also eat wild food
Anya, Agnwak, or Dho, among other names) are a Nilotic foraged from untouched bushland and forests.
 Anuak 85

Like others in the Gambela region, the Anuak reside also lead to food shortages, which contributes to malnutri-
on the banks of the region’s many rivers, including the tion among people who are already very poor and highly
Baro, Akobo, Gilo, and Alwero. These rivers flow through- vulnerable to food shortages (Wakuma Abaya et al. 2009).
out the year, but excess rain makes the land susceptible
to annual flooding. Devastation from flooding is a wide-
spread natural disaster in Gambela. Recently, large riv- History and Politics
ers, which include the Baro, Akobo, Gilo, Alwero, Jikow, The origins of the Anuak date back to the first millennium
Gnandera, and Koikoye, have overflowed just about every BCE and can be traced to the Gezira, an area of fertile land
year, except in 2002. Consequently, the floods caused thou- located between the Blue and White Nile Rivers south of
sands of people to become displaced. Additionally, crops modern-day Khartoum, in Sudan. From there, the Anuak
were destroyed, and properties were ruined and damaged. migrated east to the Baro, Pibor, and Akobo river valleys,
Other problems associated with floods in Gambela include where, in around 1500 CE, they established the Anuak
deaths, drownings of animals and humans, communica- Kingdom. From the eighteenth century, the Anuak suf-
ble diseases, malnutrition, and interruptions to services, fered slave and cattle raids by both Arab and Christian
including health care, due to damaged infrastructure. raiders emanating from the Ethiopian highlands. Histori-
Most people in Gambela attribute a recent increase in the cally, the Anuak traveled widely when hunting or searching
frequency and magnitude of the annual flooding to recent for beads and other goods to use in marriage dowries, but
land use changes in Gambela, especially unplanned settle- many traveling Anuak disappeared. Abyssinians (ancestral
ment caused by population increases. Ethiopians) also captured Anuak men to use as slaves to
Prior to 1984, Gambela was sparsely populated by a fetch water, food, and heavy goods, and Anuak girls were
few indigenous peoples. From 1983 to 1996, however, often kidnapped and forced to act as concubines.
several thousands of people were relocated to Gambela. Between 1898 and 1902, the Anuak Kingdom was
The immigration resulted in the clearance of more than divided between British Sudan to the west and Ethiopia
140,000 hectares of natural forest. Large-scale farming to the east. Under British rule, slavery was abolished in the
also increased to meet the food needs of the growing pop- Gambela region. However, slavery was restored to Gambela
ulation. Both factors resulted in increased surface runoff when the region was ceded to Ethiopia following World
and high sediment yields that reduced the water capacity War II. Subsequently, slavery was officially abolished in
of regional rivers. the region. Nevertheless, fellow Ethiopians continued to
Climate change may be another factor contributing to abduct and enslave the Anuak until the late twentieth cen-
the increase in Gambela’s flooding. In recent years, it has tury (Kopel 2016).
become harder to predict seasonal rainfall in Gambela, At the end of 1979, the Ethiopian government seized
and the rainfall each year has increased to higher amounts. Anuak land, tried to draft the Anuak into the national
Scientific findings also show increases in rainfall in neigh- army, and also forced the Anuak to work as laborers on
boring regions. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate collectivized farms. This treatment caused many Anuak to
Change projection suggests there will be an increase in flee into the bush to try to reach Sudan. However, many
rain and surface runoff across East Africa, including in of the escapees were shot by authorities and imprisoned.
Ethiopia. During the 1980s, Ethiopian president Mengistu Haile
Diarrhea and malaria are the two main diseases suffered Mariam (known commonly as Mengistu) forced around
by flood victims. The problem of diarrhea is heightened sixty thousand peasants from the Ethiopian highlands and
when floods cause people to have to move to overcrowded elsewhere to resettle in the Gambela region. At the same
temporary resettlement camps that lack sufficient water time, a wave of Nuer immigrants arrived in Gambela as
and sanitation. When the displaced people return to their people fled Sudan’s civil war and settled on Anuak land. As
villages after the flooding, diarrhea often breaks out again a result of this migration, tensions arose among the vari-
because the people start to reuse springs, shallow wells, ous peoples as competition for land and water resources
and boreholes contaminated by floodwater. Malaria epi- intensified. The competition for water and land as well as
demics are another common occurrence following floods social unrest led to the Anuak population being reduced
because floods increase the number of mosquito breeding by half within a generation (Minority Rights Group Inter-
sites. The destruction of crops and farmlands by floods can national 2018).
86 Anuak

In 2003, the Ethiopian government offered a Malaysian (The International Human Rights Law Clinic, with the
company a concession for oil exploration in Gambela. In Anuak Justice Council 2007). The Gambela region is one of
response to this move, armed Anuak militias launched the least developed areas of Ethiopia in terms of resources
multiple attacks against civilian Ethiopian highlanders. and infrastructure. There is a lack of adequate health
The government reacted by subjecting Gambela to a brutal services and too few health professionals. For instance,
military campaign that saw the Ethiopian security forces the region has only a single hospital that serves 247,000
kill around four hundred Anuak civilians. In 2004, Ethio- people, while the Harari region has five hospitals cater-
pian soldiers rampaged through Gambela, killing, raping, ing to 196,000 inhabitants. Gambela has poor health care
and displacing many more Anuak (Minahan 2016). because it has been neglected by the central government,
In South Sudan, ethnic conflicts with Nuer migrants is prone to ethnic conflict, and is geographically remote
have ravaged fertile Anuak land that lies atop newly dis- with a harsh climate. Additionally, Gambela lacks basic
covered oil. In 2011, violence caused thousands of Anuak facilities, including continual electricity and communi-
to flee following South Sudan’s independence. The follow- cation and safe water supplies, which means it does not
ing year, new land confiscations began in Ethiopia, result- attract healthcare professionals, of which there are too few
ing in another wave of violence between the Anuak and in Ethiopia.
outsiders. A lack of safe water is a major problem in Gambela.
Many people do not have access to latrines, so people def-
ecate and urinate in the open. Gambela residents then use
Society, Culture, and Tradition water from unsanitary rivers for drinking, cooking, bath-
Traditionally, the Anuak are an agricultural people, though ing, and washing clothes. Researchers have discovered that
they also hunt, fish, and forage for food. Most Anuak fam- people living in the region often lack knowledge about the
ilies typically keep some cattle, sheep, or goats. Staple health effects of these unhygienic practices. Another prob-
Anuak foods include sorghum flour, fish, meat, and wild lem in Gambela is that even though the area is prone to
birds. flooding, the local health service (such as it is) lacks flood
The Anuak are a Nilotic people whose ethnic identity contingency plans. Health professionals in the region have
focuses on their historic kingdom. The closely related not had flood hazard management training nor been told
Majangir, Päri, and Jur peoples are also regarded as eth- how to prepare for floods (Wakuma Abaya et al. 2009).
nic Anuak. The Anuak’s history of slave and cattle raids Anuak territory has a poor educational infrastructure.
as well as incursions by neighboring peoples has caused This situation has been worsened by the fact that govern-
the Anuak to be suspicious of outsiders. Additionally, the ment offensives against the Anuak have often targeted
Anuak prefer to live in tight-knit, self-contained villages, educated Anuak men, thereby leaving the Anuak with too
and they shun away from communication with the out- few teachers. School buildings along with medical facili-
side world. Anuak villages are led by headmen, who can be ties have also been targeted for destruction by government
removed from the village leadership by the villagers if their forces (The International Human Rights Law Clinic, with
behavior or judgment is considered poor or undemocratic. the Anuak Justice Council 2007).
Most Anuak are evangelical Christians, though they
maintain elements of their traditional animist religion,
including worship of the Anuak king and belief in an Threats to Survival
omnipotent spirit called Gwok. The Anuak also venerate Many commentators believe the Anuak are suffering an
trees; Anuak villages usually contain a tree that the villag- ongoing genocide that may lead to their eventual exter-
ers consider sacred. The Anuak’s language, Dha-anywaa, is mination. Ethiopia’s government has disarmed most of
a Northern Luo language belonging to the Nilo-Saharan Anuak, including Anuak police officers. The government
language family. has also perpetrated the mass murder of the Anuak, pre-
vented the investigation of the killings, and blamed the
Anuak for regional misfortunes, creating pretexts for fur-
Health Care and Education ther murder of Anuak individuals.
In recent years the Ethiopian government has left the According to a report by Genocide Watch (an interna-
Anuak with pitiful healthcare and educational systems tional body that predicts, prevents, and punishes forms
 Anutan 87

of mass atrocity), in 2003, high-ranking Ethiopian politi- independent Anuak Kingdom. Only time will tell whether
cians and military officers discussed the ethnic cleansing this aim is achievable.
of the Anuak (Kopel 2016). Subsequent acts by the Ethi-
See also: Afar; Amhara; Mursi; Oromo; Shilluk
opian army are consistent with such as plan, as in recent
Further Reading
years, the Anuak have been the victims of extrajudicial
Cultural Survival. 1984. “The Anuak—A Threatened Cul-
killings, beatings, torture, destruction of property, rape, ture.” Cultural Survival Quarterly Magazine (June). https://​
and sexual slavery by the Ethiopian army. As a result of www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival​
these acts, 50 percent of the Anuak population has become -quarterly/anuak-threatened-culture.
displaced (Kopel 2016). International commentators have The International Human Rights Law Clinic, with the Anuak
noted that the pattern of rape described by the Anuak rape Justice Council. 2007. “The Anuak of Gambella, Ethiopia.”
https://www2.ohchr.org/english/bodies/cerd/docs/ngos​
victims seems designed to cause pregnancies that would
/ihrlc.pdf.
result in non-Anuak children. Therefore, it seems rape is Kopel, David B. 2016. “International Law Sources on Gun Con-
being deliberately used to destroy the Anuak ethnicity, a trol and Human Rights.” In Guns and Contemporary Society:
situation that constitutes a form of genocide under inter- The Past, Present and Future of Firearms and Firearm Pol-
national law. icy, edited by Glenn H. Utter, 277–326. Vol. 2, Cultural Issues
Some Anuak also claim that, in recent times, members Related to Firearms in the United States. Santa Barbara, CA:
Praeger.
of their communities have been killed by the Ethiopian
Marima, Tendai. 2018. “Ethiopia’s Anuak refugees Are Wary of
military to remove them from their oil-rich land. For Returning Home.” Mail and Guardian, July 11. https://mg.co​
example, in 2006, the army rampaged through numerous .za/article/2018-07-11-ethiopias-anuak-refugees-are-wary​
Anuak villages on both sides of the Ethiopia-Sudan bor- -of-returning-home.
der, murdering, looting, and raping villagers. The atrocity Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
led to Human Rights Watch accusing the Ethiopian gov- nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa Bar-
bara, CA: Greenwood.
ernment of human rights abuses that might constitute
Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Ethiopia: Anuak.”
crimes against humanity. The Ethiopian government has World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, Janu-
been accused by some commentators of using the Nai- ary. https://minorityrights.org/minorities/anuak.
robi Protocol (2004), a comprehensive, legally binding Wakuma Abaya, Samson, N. Mandere, and G. Ewald. 2009.
regional agreement on small arms and light weapons, as “Floods and Health in Gambella Region, Ethiopia: A Qualita-
a pretext to render the Anuak defenseless against human tive Assessment of the Strengths and Weaknesses of Coping
Mechanisms.” Global Health Action 2. doi:10.3402/gha.v2i0​
rights abuses by bringing about the Anuak’s disarmament
.2019.
(Kopel 2016).
Tensions continue to exist between the Anuak and the
Nuer, resulting in regular outbreaks of violence that leave
civilians dead and displaced. The tension between the two
peoples has worsened as Nuer refugees from South Suda-
nese Civil War cross into Ethiopia. ANUTAN
Today, the Anuak continue to be denigrated and mar-
Current Location Solomon Islands
ginalized as former slaves. Recent investment projects,
Current Population 300
such as sugar cane production schemes, have led to the
Anuak losing tracts of their ancestral lands to foreign cor- Language English
porations. The loss of ancestral lands has intensified the Interesting Fact Anutans adopt each other’s children,
tension over land rights as well as ethnic identity between following a philosophy that views
the Nuers and the Anuak. The Anuak have also lost land children as communal entities.
to other Ethiopians, particularly the Nuer, who have been
relocated to Gambela by Ethiopian authorities, and to the Overview
South Sudanese Nuer refugees. The Anutans are the indigenous people of the Pacific
The plight of the Anuak has caused Anuak mili- island of Anuta. Anuta’s geographical location means that
tants to believe that the Anuak cannot survive as part of the Anutan people have remained fairly isolated and have
South Sudan or Ethiopia, and so they work to restore the been able to preserve their indigenous culture and many
88 Anutan

traditions, including hand-carving canoes and commu- The manioc can survive under these conditions for several
nal fishing methods. Anutans speaks the Anuta language, years. Maa pits are located across Anuta and proved to be
known locally as te taranga paka-Anuta. an invaluable resource when, in 2003, the island was hit
by Cyclone Zoe. The storm destroyed most of the island’s
crops, but the manioc kept in the maa pits was sufficient to
Population, Diaspora, and Migration feed the Anuta population.
Anuta is one of the smallest permanently inhabited The hilltops are also home to breadfruit trees, palm
islands in Polynesia. The Anutan island’s population trees, and turmeric. Anutuns prize turmeric, as the island-
numbers around three hundred people (Cameron 2015). ers grow the tuber as both a spice to use in their cooking
Though this is a tiny population, the island is also very and as a source of dye employed in rituals. Also scattered
small, and as such, Anuta has one of the highest popu- across the island are banana and papaya trees as well as
lation densities in the world. The Anutans are one of the sugar cane. The fruits from the trees are important because
Polynesian Outlier communities of Melanesia (a subre- they add variety to the Anutan diet.
gion of Oceania stretching from New Guinea island in Away from the hilltop fields, Anutans also grow coconut
the Pacific Ocean across the Arafura Sea and eastward palms in the sandy soil of the island’s beaches. Coconut is
to Fiji). very important to Anutans, for they drink the coconut
water and eat the flesh. Anutans typically shred coconut
flesh and obtain cream from it. They also drink and eat out
Geography and Environment of the coconut shells, using them as cups and bowls, with
Anuta is a small, volcanic island ringed by coral reef. It is the husk used as a sort of hand towel and as kindling. Anu-
one of the multitude of islands that make up the Micro- tans use the leaves of the coconut palms to thatch roofs,
nesian nation of the Solomon Islands, a chain of islands cover canoes, and weave carpets, baskets, and fans.
and atolls to the southeast of Papua New Guinea. Anuta Though the land provides Anutans with a many foods,
is sometimes called te fatu sekeseke (meaning “slippery islanders obtain most of their protein from the fish that
stone”) because the island is very hard to locate on account live in the ocean. Anutans employ a variety of fishing
of its being so small (0.5 miles across) and situated 70 techniques to catch fish. For instance, the islanders catch
miles from the nearest populated island—factors that fish close to the shore by using a communal fish driving
mean the island can be “slid” past easily. method that sees islanders work together to trap fish in
The natural environment of Anuta provides Anutans the shallows of the reef system, by snorkeling, and by using
with food and drink. The islanders grow an abundance of nets during low tide. To catch bigger fish, such as shark,
crops, fish live in the surrounding ocean, and the island- tuna, wahoo, bonito, sailfish, and marlin, Anutan men will
ers gather high-quality water from a natural spring. The often go on oceangoing canoe trips.
Anutan diet principally consists of fruit, vegetables, and The fishermen of Anuta understand both ocean waves
fish. They grow their own vegetables in the volcanic soil and the reef system surrounding their island. This knowl-
of their hilltop gardens. Anutans rarely leave a field fallow edge means the Anutans are among the few groups of
but rotate crops to avoid soil depletion. That said, farming people in the world that can use traditional navigation
on Anuta is some of the most intense of any in the Pacific techniques and canoes to take long sea journeys. In fact,
because the fields have to feed such a dense island pop- Anutans use the stars to navigate their canoes under the
ulation. Staple crops include manioc, bananas, and taro. night skies. Anutans also navigate using clouds, wave
The latter is the most prized, as it is difficult to grow and directions, and sea swells.
healthy plants need to be nurtured. Conversely, manioc is When the fishermen catch a shark, they will sever the
a robust crop that can withstand harsh conditions (both fins and then dry them. The men will then either sell
heavy rain and drought). the fins to passing cargo ships or travel to Honiara to sell
Anutans worry about food shortages due to severe the fish. Anutan men in general will leave Anuta to find
weather or other natural disasters. To this end, the island- paid work abroad, often outside of the Solomon Islands.
ers often bury cooked manioc in a maa pit. This is a deep, This time overseas can range from a couple months to
airtight hole dug into the ground into which manioc several years. Sometimes men who find work abroad send
wrapped in banana leaves is placed and left to ferment. money and goods to their families living on Anuta, and
 Anutan 89

men who return to live on the island might bring back dif- the chief ’s knee. The chief will then place his hand under
ferent manufactured products from wherever they were. the islander’s chin, lift the person’s face, and then press his
nose against the islander’s nose. This is a variation of the
traditional Polynesian nose kiss greeting called a pikita.
History and Politics Christianity has replaced some of the traditional beliefs
The first recorded sighting of Anuta came in 1791. At pres- and customs on Anuta, but many traditional practices still
ent, the only guaranteed contact Anutans have with the exist. One of the reasons that Christianity has gained such
outside world is a cargo ship that sails from Honiara, the as strong foothold on Anuta is that the Christian belief in
capital of the Solomon Islands, on a round trip of the out- charity and helping others is very similar to the traditional
lier islands. The ship’s voyage cannot be depended upon Anutan belief in the concept of aropa, which is a philoso-
because its course and schedule are dependent on the tur- phy grounded in benevolence, love, and friendliness. The
bulent and changeable weather patterns that occur across concept of aropa influences the way Anutans interact with
the South Pacific Ocean. Despite the island’s geographical each other. Aropa is demonstrated by the giving and shar-
isolation, young Anutan men come and go from the island, ing of items, including food and land. The land on Anuta is
traveling on cargo ships that can be persuaded to pass divided among the island’s family units so that each fam-
near the island or on the boats of occasional visitors. The ily is able to grow sufficient food to feed themselves and
coming and going of young Anutan men means there is a their community. Another aspect of aropa is sharing tasks
steady flow of material goods to and from Anuta. among the people.
Aropa even extends to child-rearing, for the Anutans
adopt each other’s children. The Anutans do this because
Society, Culture, and Tradition they see children as communal entities and believe that it is
Anglican missionaries arrived on Anuta by cargo ship in important that everyone who wants a child has one to care
1916, bringing Christianity with them, which still plays an for. Therefore, if a childless couple wishes to have a child,
essential part in Anutan life. Indeed, Anutans go to church they may ask a relative or friend if they can adopt their
services twice daily, being summoned to worship by the next child. In such instances, both of the child’s parents
sounding of conch shells. Once inside the church, the con- must agree, but refusals rarely occur. While this attitude
gregation segregates so that men sit on the right side of the toward adoption may seem strange to Westerners, Anutans
church while women sit on the left. According to interviews have been known to merely shrug when questioned about
by the BBC television program Tribe, no one on Anuta the practice. Anutans do not consider adoption a big deal
knows why the men sit separately from the women—it but rather as a fairly common occurrence (Cordey 2008).
happens for no other reason than that it has always been The philosophy of aropa also extends to visitors to the
that way. Anutans believe the church safeguards the island island, who will find that food is freely shared with them.
and its people by warding off sickness, droughts, and other On Anuta, meals tend to be prepared by women, and dif-
natural disasters. Christianity is strong on Anuta, but the ferent families on the island will use the same ingredi-
Anutan way of life is governed by long-standing tradition. ents. This demonstrates the democratic sharing aspect of
While belief in the Christian God has replaced the tra- aropa, but they will prepare the ingredients in different
ditional role of island chiefs in most ways, island chiefs and ways. Anutan meals are usually communal events served
their close family members are still considered responsi- in the huts in which families live. Anutans sit on the floor
ble for the island’s spiritual well-being. For instance, chiefs to eat dishes such as fish and puddings made from gluti-
are highly esteemed on Anuta, and there are taboos that nous ingredients, like taro or manioc (a starchy tuber also
exist about proper etiquette in their presence. The Anutans known as cassava), which are served wrapped in leaves
consider the head to be sacred but the feet to be unclean. taken from forest trees.
For this reason, physical height is an important aspect of On Anuta, all islanders are considered related to each
Anutan rituals. When someone enters a chief ’s hut, the other philosophically and practically, as the island’s pop-
person entering the hut must crawl toward the chief. This ulation is so small. Individuals are regarded as related to
is because standing up, and therefore being taller than members of other families not just genetically but also
the chief, is considered very impolite. When meeting a through certain modes of behavior. The reality of living
chief, an islander will also press his or her nose against in a population as small as that on Anuta is that simple
90 Apache

models of family relationships cannot be applied. Island- BBC Two. 2014. “Anuta.” Tribe, September 24. http://www.bbc.co​
ers may regard non–blood relatives as honorary relatives. .uk/tribe/tribes/anuta/index.shtml.
Though they are genetically related, the Anutans consider Cameron, Steffani. 2015. “The Amazing People of Anuta: A
Sustainable Life.” Life at Home (blog), January 21. https://​
the honorary relative just as much a part of the family www.builddirect.com/blog/the-amazing-people-of-anuta​
as blood relatives. This is an important facet of Anuta -a-sustainable-life.
social structure, as it means that a visitor to Anuta may be Connell, John. 2013. Islands at Risk?: Environments, Economies
adopted into an island family and made to feel that they and Contemporary Change. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar
belong. Indeed, it is not unusual for visitors to Anuta to be Publishing Limited.
adopted into an island family and never leave. This con- Cordey, Huw. 2008. “Harmony Thrives in Pacific Isolation.” BBC
News, July 26. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from​
sideration for others is fed by the Anutan philosophy of _our_own_correspondent/7525252.stm.
aropa and was remarked upon by explorer Bruce Parry in Feinberg, Richard. 1979. “Kindred and Alliance on Anuta Island.”
the BBC television program Tribe when he stayed on the Journal of the Polynesian Society 88 (3): 327–348.
island and lived among the Anutans. Feinberg, Richard. 1991. “A Long-Distance Voyage in Contem-
porary Polynesia.” Journal of the Polynesian Society 100 (1):
25–44.
Health Care and Education Feinberg, Richard. 1996. “Spirit Encounters on a Polynesian
Outlier.” In Spirits in Culture, History, and Mind, edited by
One of the main consequences of islanders traveling over-
Jeannette Marie Mageo and Alan Howard, 98–120. New York:
seas is that intergenerational disputes over health care Routledge.
often arise because those Anutans who have lived abroad Feinberg, Richard. 1998. Oral Traditions of Anuta: A Polynesian
tend to become used to Western medical care. When these Outlier in the Solomon Islands. Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Anutans return to the island, where no modern medi- Press.
cal facilities exist, the lack of medical facilities can come Hollan, Douglas W., and C. Jason Throop, eds. 2011. The Anthro-
pology of Empathy: Experiencing the Lives of Others in Pacific
as a shock. In the late 1990s, Anutan chiefs declined the
Societies. New York: Berghahn Book.
opportunity to have Western medicines on the island. The Punnett, Neil, and Alison Rae. 2003. The New Wider World:
chiefs believed Western medication would signify a lack Teacher Resource Guide. 2nd ed. Cheltenham, UK: Nelson
of faith in God and the church. It has also been theorized Thornes.
that some older Anutans believe that allowing medicines
on the island will bring new diseases to the island.

Threats to Survival APACHE

While young Anutans enjoy island life, they do not tend to
share the views of island elders in regard to issues such as Current Location United States
health care. However, since Anuta is one of the remotest Current Population 75,000–96,833
places on earth, island mind-sets can be slow to change. Language English; Apache
At present, the island’s community is well balanced, in Interesting Fact Apache culture is traditionally
tune with its surrounding environment, and has enough matrilineal. After marriage, the
resources to sustain its population. A belief in aropa means husband goes to live with his wife’s
people help each other and do not exploit the island’s extended family.
resources. As long as this balance between society and
the environment continues, the future of the Antans looks Overview
assured. However, outbreaks of disease, natural disasters,
The Apache name is used for numerous related Native
climate change, and the intrusion of outsiders may well
American groups that mainly live in New Mexico and
threaten the islanders’ survival.
Arizona as well as in other parts of the United States. The
See also: Aleut; Marshallese; Moriori; Nauruan; Samoans; word Apache derives from the Zuni word ápachu, meaning
Tongan; Tuvaluan “enemy.” The Apache do not call themselves by this name
Further Reading but rather self-identify as the Inde or Tinde, meaning
BBC. 2007. “Anuta.” Tribe. DVD. “people.”
 Apache 91

The Apache speak English as a first language, and 27.3 known for its desert Basin and Range region, which fea-
percent also speak the Apache language (Minority Rights tures landscape shaped by prehistoric volcanic activity.
Group International 2017). Apache is a Southern Athabas- The landscape is characterized by plants such as the cactus,
kan language and is divided into a number of dialects. while parts of the Colorado Plateau are home to pine trees.
According to anthropologists, the Apache are related to the The Arizona climate is hot in summer and mild in winter.
Athabaskan-speaking peoples of Canada and Alaska. The Colorado Plateau is nicknamed “Red Rock Country”
The majority of Apache are Christian, with many because it contains brightly colored sedimentary rock. One
belonging to the Native American Church. A minority of of the most famous geological features in the world, the
belong to Christian sects or follow shamanistic indigenous Grand Canyon, is located in the Colorado Plateau. Other
religions. distinctive natural features found in Arizona include Ante-
lope Canyon, Meteor Crater, the Painted Desert, and the
Petrified Forest.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration The landscape of New Mexico ranges from wide red
The Apache population number is unknown. Some esti- deserts to mesas and snow-capped mountains, such as the
mates suggest the figure is around 75,000 people (Minahan Sangre de Cristo Mountains and the southernmost Rocky
2013), while other estimates state the Apache population Mountains that run north–south along the Rio Grande.
measures 96,833 (Minority Rights Group International Although New Mexico is often thought of as arid, large
2017). Most Apache live in Arizona and New Mexico. There areas of the state are heavily forested. New Mexico contains
are also smaller Apache populations in California, Okla- many plants, including the creosote bush, mesquite, cacti
homa, Colorado, and Texas as well as in cities in the west and yucca, the ponderosa pine, aspen, cottonwood, spruce,
and southwest of the United States. and fir. Native birds include the greater roadrunner that
The Apache group is divided into six regional groups: is the state bird of New Mexico as well as the wild turkey.
the Kiowa Apache (or Gataka), the Jicarilla, the Lipan, the The state is also home to a multitude of animals, including
Mescalero, the Chiracahua, and the Western Apache. bears, cougars, coyotes, porcupines, skunks, wolves, bison,
These groups break down further into thirteen bands; five and chipmunks, plus numerous other birds, reptiles, and
of these bands live in Arizona, another five live in New rodents.
Mexico, and three inhabit Oklahoma. The once nomadic
Apache now live settled lives on reservations, in perma-
nent homes, or on farms. The twelve thousand Apache that History and Politics
live on reservations are regarded as the heart of their tribe Linguistic similarities between the Apache and Navajo
by their fellow Apache (Minahan 2013). have led anthropologists to believe that the two peoples
were a united ethnic group. This group migrated to the
southwestern United States at some point between the
Geography and Environment eleventh and fifteenth centuries. Once in the southwestern
Much of Arizona is privately owned, but the remainder United States, the migrant group broke up and established
of the land is public forest, parkland, state trust land, or scattered communities across much of what is now Mexico.
home to Native American reservations. Arizona is well The Apache lacked a central authority and instead divided

The Ponderosa Pine

The ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) is a species of pine tree native to the western United States and Canada. The
tree is the most widely distributed pine species in North America, growing from British Columbia southward and
eastward through 16 western U.S. states. The tree usually grows in mountainous areas, such as the Black Hills of South
Dakota, the Rocky Mountains, the Cascade Range of the Sierra Nevada, Arizona’s Mogollon Rim and Mogollon Pla-
teau, and on peaks in New Mexico, though it can also be found on riverbanks and in the low-level valleys of British
Columbia. The ponderosa pine has also been introduced successfully to parts of Europe.
92 Apache

into multiple nomadic bands. These nomadic groups were warriors led to renewed fighting between the Apache and
small, enabling each member to recognize the kinship ties the U.S. military.
that bound the individual band members together. Early The final Apache war ended in 1886 when Geronimo, of
Apache were tent dwellers. They hunted bison and other the Chiricahua Apache, and his few surviving warriors sur-
animals and used dogs to pull food and possessions on a rendered. Geronimo had fought for thirty years to protect
type of frame called a travois. his tribe’s homeland, but the Apache could not continue
The Apache soon established trade with the Pueblo peo- to fight because of a lack of men and sheer exhaustion.
ples, but the arrival of Spanish colonialists disrupted the General Nelson Miles accepted Geronimo’s surrender, and
trading. Having made contact with the Spanish, the Apache Geronimo became the last Native American warrior to for-
acquired horses from the colonists. The horses allowed the mally surrender to U.S. forces. This surrender marked the
Apache to be more mobile and enabled them to make quick end of the Indian Wars in the southwest United States. After
getaways after raiding the settlements of other peoples. In the war, the American authorities resettled most Apache
1598, conflict between the Spanish and the Apache broke on reservations, but the Chiricahua, to whom Geronimo
out after Mexico became a Spanish territory. At the same belonged, were forced out of their homeland in the South-
time, other tribes had also acquired horses, meaning the west and held as prisoners of war for twenty-seven years.
Apache had lost their advantage when it came to raiding. Eventually, in 1913, the prisoners of war that had survived
In response to these changes, the Apache decided to stop were allowed to resettle on reservations in Oklahoma and
living on the plains, and by the mid-eighteenth century, New Mexico. Those Apache that settled on reservations
most Apache had moved to the mountainous Southwest of found that the land on which the reservations were estab-
the United States. On the whole, the Apache tried to stay lished was infertile, leaving the reservation dwellers una-
on friendly terms with the Spanish; however, they had no ble to grow food. Increasingly poverty-stricken, the Apache
hesitation about retaliating when provoked, so the Spanish eventually became dependent on government handouts to
found them hard to subdue. survive.
Periodic fighting between the Apache and the Span- Since World War II, the government’s attitude toward
ish continued into the nineteenth century. Then, in 1821, the Apache has changed, allowing Apache culture to
the new Mexican government claimed Apache land as revive. At the same time, the Apache have become increas-
their own. The Apache mounted fierce resistance to try ingly assimilated into mainstream American life. In 1989,
to avoid Mexican authority and in the process gained a some young Apache, angered by past injustices to their
fearsome reputation as rebel fighters. The fierce fighting people, formed the Apache Survival Coalition (ASC). The
qualities of the Apache were not able to stop the Mexi- aim of the ASC was to address such issues as the proposed
can authorities from agreeing to give Apache land to the scheme to transfer nuclear waste to storage on the Mes-
United States without the Apache’s consent by drawing calero Reservation and to construct a huge telescope on
up agreements  with the United States between 1848 the sacred Apache site of Dzil Nchaa Si An, also known as
and 1853. Mount Graham, which is reputed to be home to the Gaahn,
The Apache tried to stay on friendly terms with the spirits that provide assistance to the Apache and guide
Americans who began to settle on their land, but once gold them through life.
was discovered in California in 1848, American fortune
hunters began to encroach on Apache territory and plun-
dered Apache land. Soon the cordial relationship between Society, Culture, and Tradition
the Apache and the Americans collapsed, and fierce con- The once nomadic Apache now follow settled lifestyles.
flict broke out between the Apache and the U.S. authori- Those Apache that live in permanent homes outside of
ties that lasted for almost twenty-five years. By 1873, most reservations tend to work in agriculture, tourism, or tribal
Apache fighters had surrendered, and the Apache agreed enterprises. Their fellow tribe members esteem the Apache
to live on reservations. But a number of Apache warriors that live on reservations, for they are seen as responsible
refused to abandon their traditional nomadic lifestyle to for keeping the people’s traditions and rituals alive. The
join settled communities, which they regarded as a form profusion of tribal groups means that the Apache hold
of confinement. This refusal to conform by some Apache dear traditions and rituals because these ceremonies
 Apache 93

bind together the various groups and also strengthen the Like all other Apache ceremonies, the Putting on Moc-
Apache cultural heritage. casins ceremony was instigated by their gods, or Holy Peo-
One such important Apache tradition is the cradle- ple, with Isanaklesh performing the first such ceremony
board ceremony, or bizane ts’al, that occurs a few days for her son, Child of Water, when he began to walk. For this
after the birth of an Apache baby. This is the first of many reason, only women imbued with the diye of Isanaklesh
religious and cultural rites that an Apache will experience may perform the ceremony for a baby girl. As the woman
over the course of his or her life. Before a cradleboard cer- presiding over the ceremony has the diye of Isanaklesh, she
emony occurs, preparations for the ceremony take place, is referred to as Isanaklesh for the duration of the ritual.
including the collection of materials needed to make the When the moccasin ceremony is performed for a baby boy,
cradleboard, such as soft buckskin or canvas. Prayers are a man officiates over the ceremony. In this case, the man is
also said to ensure the baby lives a long and healthy life. referred to as Tobasichine (Child of Water), in reference to
The Apache consider the construction of the cradleboard Isanaklesh’s son.
to be an event of great spiritual significance and see the Whether for a boy or girl, the moccasin ceremony is held
saying of prayers while gathering the materials as a way very early in the morning, preferably at the new moon, as
to amass diye, a force brought forward and encouraged on this is a time of renewal. The person officiating the cere-
behalf of the newborn baby. The Apache think it is best mony daubs all the people present for the ceremony with
that the cradleboard be constructed by the fourth day of pollen, then when the dawn arrives, the man or woman in
the baby’s life. charge of the ceremony lifts the baby four times toward the
If the new baby is a girl, the cradleboard’s canopy is sun rising in the east. The officiating person then outlines
decorated with depictions of the moon. The back of the footprints on white buckskin using cattail pollen, and the
cradleboard will also be perforated to allow the divine baby is then helped to walk on the pollen footprint. Those
Life Giver to view the child and confer upon him or her people watching the ceremony say a prayer for every step
the blessings of the Creator. The cradleboard will also be that the baby takes until the baby has managed to toddle
decorated with turquoise stones and beading, and a bag of four steps four times. Once the baby has completed these
pollen will be attached to it. steps, he or she is then helped to walk in a circle around the
Once the preparations for the cradleboard ceremony buckskin in the direction of the sun. All the while, onlook-
are complete, the ceremony is held. During a cradleboard ers sing, pray, and bless the baby. Next, everyone present
ceremony, pollen is placed on the baby’s nose and eyes, blesses the baby with pollen, and the baby’s moccasins are
and prayers are offered to the north, the east, the south, blessed with pollen as well. When they have been marked
and the west. The cradleboard is shown and offered to with pollen, the moccasins are then lifted to the skies four
the four directions and then is lifted into the air three times and placed on the baby’s feet. By reenacting the orig-
times in the direction of the east. For the fourth lifting of inal Putting on Moccasins ceremony, as experienced by
the cradleboard in the direction of the east, the baby is Child of Water, the cultural memory of Isanaklesh’s actions
wrapped in a blanket and strapped into the cradleboard continues, and the child that undergoes the ceremony
before it is lifted eastward. This procedure is followed receives the supernatural power and guidance on his or
to ensure that the baby is safe throughout its first few her forebears.
months of life. When an Apache child is a little older, he or she expe-
As the Apache people see life as a path along which riences the first hair cutting ceremony, which traditionally
they must progress, another very important ceremony takes place in the spring. This ceremony, like many other
celebrates the first time that an Apache child puts on Apache ceremonies, affirms the place of the individual
­moccasins—commonly called Putting on Moccasins. This within Apache society and demonstrates their interde-
ceremony is also sometimes referred to as the First Steps pendence on the natural environment. Like the Putting
Ceremony because it commemorates the first time a child on Moccasins ceremony, the first hair cutting ceremony
steps out along the path of life. The Apache consider this also sees the child marked with cattail pollen as a bless-
ceremony to be a significant event in a child’s life. Putting ing. Meanwhile, those watching the ceremony offer up
on Moccasins is thought to safeguard a baby and offer it prayers to the four directions to ensure that the child will
guidance as it grows up. be blessed with longevity and happiness.
94 Apache

Once the child has been marked with pollen, the hair with malnutrition, poverty, and despondency. Through
is divided into sections, and pieces of grama grass (a per- the years, they have had high rates of contagious diseases,
ennial grass native to North America) is set against its such as tuberculosis. Once the first Jicarilla Apache became
length in the hope that, like the grass, the hair will grow infected with tuberculosis, the disease spread quickly. This
long and straight. Once the child’s hair has been cut, the was especially true after 1903, when schools became estab-
shorn lengths are gathered together and left in a tree that is lished on their land, as this allowed the tuberculosis bacte-
in bloom. All the while this is happening, spectators bless ria to spread quickly throughout the entire community. By
the child and pray that he or she will be as fruitful as the 1914, 90 percent of the Jicarilla suffered from tuberculosis,
flowering tree. and their population had fallen to fewer than six hundred
Another ceremonial life event marked by an Apache people (Griffin-Pierce 2000). Tuberculosis is still an issue
ritual is a child’s first eating of solid food. When the time among the Apache, as is HIV/AIDS as well as other infec-
comes for a baby to switch to solid food, he or she is fed tious diseases. Additionally, suicides and accidents related
a special meal of traditional Apache foods that reflect the to drug and alcohol abuse are extremely high among Native
people’s reliance on the local landscape, particularly mes- Americans in general and are two of the biggest causes of
cal, a fibrous plant considered sacred by the Mescalero death within their communities (Minority Rights Group
Apache; yucca; chokeberry; sumac; and mesquite, a tree International 2017).
whose pods can be made into flour. Other health issues are related to the environment. For
Isanaklesh Gotal, commonly called “the Feast,” is an example, reservations have been misused to dump toxic
eight-day initiation ceremony for Mescalero Apache girls and nuclear waste. Pollution from landfill sites, lead poi-
living in New Mexico when they experience their first soning, and water pollution from industry located near
menstrual period. The ceremony is named after Isanak- reservations also cause cancers in Native communities.
lesh, the Mescalero Apache Earth Mother goddess. Isan- The Arizona Telemedicine Project was initiated in 1973
aklesh Gotal means “Ceremonial Sing for Isanaklesh,” to provide health services to rural Hopi, Navajo, Papago,
for Gotal translates as “ceremonial sing.” The word Gotal San Carlos Apache, and White Mountain Apache reserva-
therefore suggests both the celebratory aspect of the ritual tion communities. The project saw telecommunications
and also the need to bring to the fore the supernatural technology used to provide training for healthcare provid-
power, or diye, needed to literally transform a pubertal ers and consultants to patients located in areas that do not
girl into the goddess Isanaklesh. The Mescalero Apache have good access to health care. Though the project has
believe that during the ceremony a girl temporarily been effective, there are major issues with its use among
becomes the goddess, and so she is treated as such for the communities. The biggest hindrance to its widespread
duration of the ceremony. For example, the girl is dressed adoption in rural areas is infrastructural.
in the manner of the goddess, with decorated moccasins, Native reservations, including Apache lands, are often
beaded jewelry, and a deerskin dress. The first four days geographically remote and many hours away from urban
of the ceremony are notable for their wealth of rituals hospitals. Thus, Native Americans have to travel far to
and activities, including the singing of songs, the saying see a doctor. Geographic isolation and low-income living
of sacred tales, and the showing of illustrations that are conditions often result in a lack of technological infra-
intended to stress to both the girl and the girl’s family and structure, so many reservations lack regular telephone
friends the importance of the ceremony. Once a girl has or Internet access, which limits their access to telemed-
experienced the ceremony, she is considered a repository icine. Another factor affecting Native American access
of Mescalero Apache ways and is charged with continuing to health care is the reluctance to embrace modern ways
the people’s traditions. and change in general. This resistance to modernization
can be a barrier to the acceptance of telehealth tech-
nology. The limited medical options available to Native
Health Care and Education Americans are a particular problem, especially for those
Since the end of the nineteenth century through most who have chronic conditions that require specialized
of the twentieth century, the Apache have suffered many treatment, such as cancer, kidney disease, and diabetes
devastating health issues, most of which are associated (Kruse et al. 2016).
 Armenian 95

Native Americans have the lowest high school and uni- Pritzker, Barry. 2000. A Native American Encyclopedia: History,
versity graduation rates of all ethnic groups in the United Culture, and Peoples. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
States. These rates have slightly improved in recent years Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA:
with the introduction of programs such as bicultural edu- ABC-CLIO.
cation and Native-run schools under the Indian Education
Act of the early 1970s. Improvements have been slight,
however. One reason for this is a shortage of qualified
Native teachers. The Tribally Controlled Community Col-
lege Assistant Act of 1978 saw some success in establishing
Native-run colleges and providing financial assistance to
ARMENIAN
Native students, but it saw dramatic cuts to funding in the Current Location Armenia; United States; Russia;
1980s and 1990s. Europe; elsewhere
Current Population 8 million–10 million
Threats to Survival Language Armenian; local languages
The Apache face many problems but most especially soci- Interesting Fact Armenians were the first national
oeconomic issues that include high crime rates, a higher group to have Christianity as their
than average number of tribe members in prison or on state religion. King Tiridates III was
baptized in 303 CE.
parole or probation, and alcoholism (Minahan 2013).
Other issues facing the Apache are standard to other
Native Americans, namely substandard housing and high Overview
incidence of communicable disease. Despite attempts to Armenians are a scattered ethnic group originally from
assimilate the Apache, the people tend to maintain their Eastern Anatolia and the Transcaucasian region where the
culture. As an example, approximately 70 percent of the independent state of Armenia has been established since
Jicarilla Apache still practice their indigenous religion, the 1990s. Armenians refer to themselves as the Hayq (sin-
which is rich in mythology and involves numerous divine gular: Hay) and to their homeland as Hayastan.
beings (Pritzker 2000). At the same time, some Apache Around half of all Armenians speak their native lan-
peoples, including the Jicarilla Apache, are seeing a revival guage, Armenian (or Hayeren), which is a unique language
in traditional crafts, such as basketry and pottery, which belonging to the Indo-European language family. Arme-
reflect a new pride in their culture. nians living outside of Armenia also speak the languages
See also: Comanche; Hopi; Lakota; Zuni of the countries in which they reside, particularly English,
Further Reading
French, Russian, Spanish, Arabic, and Turkish. Armenians
Griffin-Pierce, Trudy. 2000. Native Peoples of the Southwest. born in the United States tend to speak Armenian more
Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. than other members of the Armenian diaspora.
Kruse, Clemens Scott, Shelby Bouffard, Michael Dougherty, and Most Armenians are Christians; many are Orthodox,
Jenna Stewart Parro. 2016. “Telemedicine Use in Rural Native but others are Catholic, Protestant, or Evangelicals. There
American Communities in the Era of the ACA: A Systematic are also a small number of Jewish Armenians, and some
Literature Review.” Journal of Medical Systems 40 (6): 145.
doi:10.1007/s10916-016-0503-8.
Armenians are atheist.
Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An Ency-
clopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “United States of Population, Diaspora, and Migration
America: Native Americans.” World Directory of Minorities There are thought to be between 8 million and 10 mil-
and Indigenous Peoples. http://minorityrights.org​/mino​ lion Armenians spread around the world. Of this num-
rities​/native-americans.
Norris, Tina, Paula L. Vines, and Elizabeth M. Hoeffel. 2012.
ber, approximately 3 million Armenians live in Armenia,
“The American Indian and Alaska Native Population: 2010.” 1.4 million live in Russia, 1.1 million live in the United
2010 Census Briefs (January). https://www.census.gov/prod​ States, 700,000 reside in Turkey, and 500,000 live in France
/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-10.pdf. or Georgia. There are also Armenian communities in
96 Armenian

Argentina, Azerbaijan (including the self-declared Repub- Geography and Environment

lic of Nagorno-Karabakh), various Middle East and Central Armenia is a mountainous landlocked country located
Asian countries, Greece, Cyprus, Poland, Brazil, Belgium, in Transcaucasia, a region to the south of the Caucasus
Canada, Ethiopia, Egypt, Australia, and elsewhere (Kalpa- Mountains that forms the northwestern extremity of
kian 2011). Armenian’s make up around 98 percent of the Asia. To the north and east of Armenia are Georgia and
population of Armenia, where they live alongside Kurds, Azerbaijan, and to the southeast and west are Iran and
Azeris, and Russians (Haarman 2015). Turkey. To the southwest of Armenia lies Nakhichevan, an
In the past, Armenian populations have existed in exclave and autonomous republic of Azerbaijan. Modern
India, the Netherlands, Indonesia, and across the Ottoman Armenia comprises only a small portion of ancient Arme-
Empire. Before the breakup of the Soviet Union, Armenians nia, which at its height stretched from the Black Sea to
were the largest minority residing in Georgia. Since then, the Caspian Sea and from the Mediterranean Sea to Lake
the number of Armenians living in Georgia has declined, Urmia in Iran.
but they are still Georgia’s second-largest ethnic minority Mountains, extinct volcanoes, lava plateaus, deep river
population. There is a large Armenian community in the valleys, and waterfalls characterize Armenia’s landscape.
Georgian capital of Tbilisi as well as in Abkhazia. Several The country is home to five altitudinal vegetation zones—
rural Armenian communities can be found in the south- semidesert, steppe, forest, alpine meadow, and high-­
ern region of Javakheti that borders Armenia. altitude tundra—that each have their own flora and fauna.
In Iraq, Armenians mostly live in Baghdad, Mosul, Armenia experiences seismic activity, including earth-
Basra, and Kirkuk, though the advance of the Islamic State quakes, and in December 1988, an earthquake destroyed
(IS) means many Armenians have migrated from these cit- the northwestern Armenian town of Spitak while also
ies to Iraqi Kurdistan. In Syria, Armenians mainly live in badly damaging Armenia’s second most populous city,
Aleppo, Damascus (mostly in the Hay al-Arman district), Gyumri. The earthquake killed around twenty-five thou-
and the Jazira. In Azerbaijan, around a third of the coun- sand people.
try’s Armenian population resides in the disputed territory Armenia’s climate is generally dry and continental
of Nagorno-Karabakh, but there are also large Armenian because the country is located in the northern part of a
communities in industrial areas such as Baku and Sum- subtropical zone. The country’s rivers tend to be short, tur-
qayit. In Turkey, most Armenians live in districts on the bulent, and featuring many rapids and waterfalls, as they
Asiatic side of the capital of Istanbul. Smaller communities cover considerable drops in altitude along their course.
can also be found elsewhere in Turkey in Malatya, Arapgir, For this reason, some of the rivers have great potential as
and Diyarbakir. sources of hydroelectricity. Armenia is also home to many
Population data for Armenians can be unreliable. For springs and wells. In spring, Armenia receives water from
example, figures for Armenians living in Azerbaijan are snowmelt, and the autumns are often rainy. Many of Arme-
difficult to substantiate because the issue of Azerbaijan’s nia’s various soil types were formed from volcanic residue
Armenian population is a highly politicized issue. There and contain high amounts of potash, nitrogen, and phos-
is also no reliable data for the Armenian population of phates. Despite the often rich soil, farming can be difficult
the conflict-hit enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh. Anecdo- in Armenia, as the soil is frequently stony.
tal figures are often cited when describing the Armenian
population of Azerbaijan, and these are almost always
exaggerated. Additionally, most Armenians living in Azer- History and Politics
baijan are wives married to Azerbaijani or Russian men Armenians probably originated in Transcaucasia, where
(Minority Rights Group International 2015). Other var- Eastern Europe meets Southwest Asia. The early ancestors
iations in Armenian population figures may stem from of the Armenians most likely migrated to Armenia around
issues such as those in Turkey, where Armenian parents thirty-five hundred years ago. The earliest reference to
have difficulty in registering their children as Armenian the Armenians came in a Hittite document dating from
(Minority Rights Group International 2015), or from peo- the second millennium BCE that refers to the kingdom
ple identifying as another ethnicity so as to avoid anti-­ of Hayasa. The ancient Greek historians Herodotus and
Armenian discrimination. Eudoxus of Rhodes also mention the Armenians, whom
 Armenian 97

they associated with the Phrygians, who came to Asia not permit the Armenians to have their own church.
Minor from Thrace. Therefore, the Armenian Orthodox Church lost its auton-
The Armenians became powerful by overcoming other omy and was incorporated within the Russian Orthodox
peoples, including the Romans, Greeks, and Persians. In Church.
the first century BCE, the Armenian kingdom grew rap- Armenian nationalism grew in the nineteenth cen-
idly due to the dynamism of its rulers. Then, in 69 BCE, tury, much to the displeasure of Russia and Turkey. For
the Armenians embarked on a series of wars against the instance, the Russians launched pogroms in retaliation for
Romans and the Parthians. The Armenians did not prevail the founding of the Dashnaktsuthiun (Alliance) Party, and
and instead became vassals of both the Roman Empire and the Turks carried out several massacres against the Arme-
the Parthian realm. Later, Armenia was divided into two nians. The establishment of other nationalist parties, such
regions: the first was ruled by the Byzantine Empire, and as the Armenagan (National Democratic), the Hunchak
groups affiliated with Persia ruled the other. In the fifth (Social-Democratic and Nationalist), the Ramgavar (Lib-
century CE, Armenia enjoyed a brief spell of independ- eral Nationalist), and the Tashnak (Socialist and National-
ence before becoming an annex of the Byzantine Empire ist) Parties, exacerbated the situation.
in the sixth century. By the sixth century, most Armenians Antagonism between the Armenians and Turkey wors-
had become Christians through the work of Syrian mis- ened at the start of World War I when Turkey sided with
sionaries, and Bishop Mesrop Mashtots devised an Arme- Germany and Austria and created a front line against Rus-
nian alphabet into which he could transcribe the Bible. The sia in Transcaucasia. Turkish nationalists drew up a plan
Armenians mostly belonged to the Armenian Orthodox to massacre Armenians living on Turkish land. Then, in
Church, but the Western Christian Church scorned the May 1915, Turkish authorities instructed that all Arme-
church’s miaphysite teachings, which the Western Church nians be deported from eastern Armenia. Consequently,
considered heretical. As a result of this philosophical around three million Armenians were affected by the
dispute, the Armenian Church is more closely related to Turkish government’s command—around one million of
Christian groups in Syria and Egypt than those in Europe. these Armenians were massacred, one million died while
In the seventh century, Arab invaders spread through- being transported, and one million survived but were
out Armenia, but they were unable to convert the people exiled. This episode is sometimes referred to as the Arme-
to Islam. Starting in the ninth century, the Armenians nian genocide, but the Turkish government’s stance is that
regained control of their homeland under the auspices of their actions were not genocidal. Some Turks also argue
the Bagradit dynasty, which ruled until the eleventh century, that the Armenian deaths do not count as genocide, as the
when the Seljuk Turks brought down the Bagradit dynasty deaths occurred during the people’s relocation and were
and drove many Armenians into exile. Armenian refugees not systematically orchestrated. Other Turks argue that the
landed in southern Anatolia, where they established the Armenian deaths were justified because Armenia was an
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia (1080–1375). Ultimately, enemy of Turkey at the time.
the Seljuk Turks conquered Cilicia, and the Ottoman Turks The Armenians’ large-scale displacement from their
overran the rest of Armenia, creating a new wave of Arme- homeland resulted in Armenians migrating to Europe
nian migration to the Crimean Peninsula, Russia, Roma- (mostly France and the United Kingdom), Syria, and
nia, and Poland. Then, in the sixteenth century, the Safavid the United States throughout the 1920s. It is during this
dynasty conquered eastern Armenia, and the new rulers time that much of the modern Armenian diaspora was
ordered the expulsion of the remaining Armenians to the established.
fringes of the empire and the Isfahan region of modern The political turmoil caused by the Russian Revolution
Iran. From Iran, many Armenians migrated again to India, allowed the Armenians to declare their autonomy. For a
Indonesia, Australia, and Singapore. short while, Armenia was incorporated within the Tran-
During the nineteenth century, Russia began to exert scaucasian Federal Republic, along with Georgia and Azer-
influence over the Caucasus. Eventually, eastern Armenia baijan, but this was dismantled in 1918. That same year,
became part of Russia, while the Turks maintained their Armenia was proclaimed the Republic of Erivan, but this
hold on the west of Armenia. Though both the Russians only lasted until 1922, when the Red Army set about retak-
and Armenians were both Christian, the Russians would ing former Russian territory in the Caucasus, resulting in
98 Armenian

Armenians visit the Armenian Genocide memorial complex in the Armenian capital, Yerevan. In 1915, Turkish authorities ordered all
Armenians be deported from eastern Armenia. Around three million Armenians were affected by the Turkish government’s ­command—
either massacred, died while being transported, or survived but were exiled. This episode is sometimes called the Armenian Genocide.
(Artur Tngryan/Dreamstime.com)

Armenia becoming part of South Transcaucasia. Arme- diaspora, which called on Turkey to be ostracized from
nia became part of the Soviet Union (as the Armenian the West on account of what they considered Turkey’s past
Soviet Socialist Republic, 1936–1991), which resulted in genocidal actions. The blockade also pitted Turkey and its
Armenian church attendance reducing dramatically at the allies in the Organization of the Islamic Conference (an
behest of the Soviets, who favored atheism. intergovernmental Muslim organization) against more
After the downfall of the Soviet Union, Armenia than twenty countries, including France and Russia, that
became an independent country consisting of much of recognized the past Turkish treatment of the Armenians
the Armenians’ original homeland. However, an Azeri elite as genocide.
that was installed by the Soviet Union ruled Armenia, and Activity by the Armenian diaspora resulted in the
Azerbaijan refused to relinquish former Armenian lands United States pressuring Turkey and Armenia to sign an
back to Armenia. This refusal led to war that resulted in agreement to reestablish diplomatic links and reopen their
the land being forcibly returned to Armenia. At the same shared border in 2009. The pact was met by protests in
time, Turkey decided to support the Azeris by imposing Armenia because Armenians felt the treaty did not fully
a blockade on landlocked Armenia. The Turkish blockade address the 1915 massacre of Armenians by the Turks. By
roused the political interest of the worldwide Armenian 2010, the pact had weakened because the United States
 Armenian 99

and Sweden passed resolutions recognizing the Turk-

ish Ottoman massacre of Armenians as genocide. This Hrant Dink
move prompted the Turkish prime minister, Recep Tayyip Hrant Dink (1954–2007) was a Turkish Armenian
Erdoğan, to threaten to deport one hundred thousand journalist who acted as a spokesman for the ethnic
Armenian migrants from Turkey in retaliation for con- Armenian community in Turkey and who cam-
demnation surrounding his country’s past actions (Minor- paigned for ethnic Armenian independence. In
ity Rights Group International 2015). 1996, Dink founded the bilingual Turkish Armenian
newspaper Agos, for which he served as editor. The
newspaper gave a voice to Armenian communities
Society, Culture, and Tradition within Turkey. Throughout the 2000s, Dink was
Prior to 1915, Armenians worked as farmers, pastoral- charged with various offenses by Turkish authori-
ists, carpet makers, weavers, coppersmiths, meat pre- ties on numerous occasions, especially after making
servers, and ironsmiths. However, all these occupations comments about what he considered Turkey’s gen-
have disappeared, except for in Armenia, Georgia, and ocide of the Armenians that the Turkish govern-
Nagorno-Karabakh. Though some Armenian farmers ment interpreted as insults to Turkey. In 2006, Dink
operate in California, they tend to be corporate farmers. received a six-month suspended sentence for insult-
Modern Armenians usually live in cities, where they work ing Turkishness after writing an article that called
in retail and professional occupations and as factory work- for Armenians to consider the life offered by an inde-
ers, restaurateurs, car mechanics, shoe repairers, metal- pendent Armenia. As well as the numerous criminal
workers, and photographers. charges brought against him, Dink also received
The dominant church in Armenian is the native Grego- constant death threats for attempting to reconcile
rian Apostolic Church (or Armenian Orthodox Church). Armenians and Turks. In 2007, Dink was shot in the
This is a Jacobite miaphysite (meaning it is named after head, possibly by a Turkish ultranationalist, and died
Jacob Baradeus of Edessa and teaches that Jesus Christ’s in front of the Agos office. The assassination caused
divine nature and human nature are united). Armenia’s an international uproar, and his funeral turned into
Roman Catholic community includes the Uniate Armenian a public demonstration when around one hundred
Church, while the Protestant Armenians tend to be seen as thousand people marched in protest of the killing.
independent members of Protestant denominations in the The Hrant Dink Foundation was established in
United States. A small number of Jewish Armenians live in 2007 to continue Hrant’s work in areas that include
the Armenian capital of Yerevan. In the past, there were a developing cultural relations between the Turks
number of Muslim Armenians living in Turkey, Georgia, and Armenians, supporting the democratization of
Abkhazia, and Russia, but these either no longer identify Turkey, and writing histories devoid of nationalism.
as Armenian or they have become assimilated into Tur- The foundation does this by publishing books and
key society. Armenia’s previous inclusion within the Soviet organizing summer schools and literary festivals,
Union means there are also a number of atheist Armenians. among other initiatives.
Christianity is still a huge influence on Armenian art and You can learn more about Dink at https://​
literature. In addition to the Bible, most Armenian homes hrantdink.org/en.
contain a copy of the Lamentations of St. Gregory of Nareg.
Armenian music is heavily indebted to the composer Kom-
itas (1865–1935), who composed religious tunes and wrote
music for the Divine Liturgy. Meanwhile, the most famous
Armenian poet, Sayat Nova (1712–1795), wrote and per- and tertiary medical care to all citizens. Today, however,
formed poetry before being ordained as a priest. health care in Armenia is generally poor. This is especially
true of rural areas and urban areas other than large cities
and the capital of Yerevan.
Health Care and Education Most public healthcare facilities are funded by both
As a post-Soviet state, Armenia inherited a centralized formal payments (fees for medical services) and informal
healthcare system that provides free primary, secondary, payments (gratuities paid to doctors in cash). This system
100 Armenian

puts quality health care out of reach of many people in Previously, Dink had been imprisoned for the crime of
Armenia and especially marginalized groups such as peo- denigrating Turkish identity, an element of the Turkish
ple with mental health patients, HIV/AIDS sufferers, and penal code often used to prevent talk of the 1915 Arme-
those needing palliative care. Often, doctors in rural areas nian genocide.
are less qualified than their city counterparts, and rural In Georgia, Armenians are some of the country’s poor-
medical facilities are poorly equipped, lack specialist prac- est inhabitants. Districts with the largest Armenian com-
titioners, and do not have the means to transport patients munities are characterized by extreme poverty and decline.
to hospitals elsewhere. The Armenian health service also These areas are poorly connected to the rest of Georgia, and
sees patients suffer discrimination; patients’ right to access the country’s government has made little effort to improve
health care is routinely violated, for there is a widespread the situation. In addition, moves to reorganize regional
stigma attached to HIV/AIDS sufferers that results in police forces that are predominantly staffed by Armeni-
their being denied health care, even in specialist hospi- ans are a source of conflict. In Javakheti and Tbilisi, there
tals providing treatment for these conditions (Zopunyan are continuing disputes over the affiliation of churches to
et al. 2013). either Armenian or Georgian religious denominations.
In Armenia, primary and secondary education is free, Armenians in Georgia are also sorely underrepresented in
and primary and lower secondary schooling are compul- Georgian politics.
sory. Secondary school is divided into two phases: lower In Azerbaijan, contacts between Armenians in
secondary school, consisting of grades five to nine, and Nagorno-Karabakh and Azeris is limited to infrequent
upper secondary school, consisting of grades ten to twelve. reciprocal visits by social activists, though in recent years,
In Turkey, Armenian schools exist, but they often receive Armenian visits to Azerbaijan have decreased in frequency
threats via email, letter, and phone. Additionally, Turk- because Azerbaijani authorities are reluctant to guaran-
ish authorities try to restrict the use of Hayeren in these tee security for protecting Armenians. The Azerbaijani
schools. Armenians living in Iraqi Kurdistan are provided government discourages Azerbaijani nongovernmental
with mother tongue education in Hayeren, and there are organizations (NGOs) from contacting Armenians. Hate
at least two Armenian schools in the region. In Syria, state speech against Armenians is a mainstay of officially sanc-
schools provide Muslim and Christian pupils (such as tioned Azerbaijani media. Peace initiatives are vilified, and
Armenians) with separate religious classes. people involved in the initiatives are assaulted. In 2005, the
Committee for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination
(a body of human rights experts charged with implement-
Threats to Survival ing the United Nations Convention on the Elimination of
As a widely scattered people, the Armenians face various All Forms of Racial Discrimination) reported concerns
threats to their survival. Armenians in Turkey have their over discrimination directed at Armenians in Azerbaijan
own schools, residential homes, and media. However, that was causing some Armenians to conceal their ethnic
Armenians in Turkey have difficulty in registering their identity.
children as Armenian, and Armenian schools, businesses, In Iraq, Armenians face the same issues as other Chris-
and religious institutions have all received threatening tian groups. Violence, harassment, and economic decline
emails and letters, which has led to Armenians asking for have forced Armenians to leave Iraq, and Armenian Chris-
focused police protection. In some instances, Armenians tians have also been targeted by the Islamic State (IS).
have been told to pay for their own protection (Minority Following the advance of IS, many Armenian villages in
Rights Group International 2015). Northern Iraq faced attack, leading to the village of Haw-
The cultural impact of Armenians in Turkey is resk, west of Dohuk, founding its own military defense
neglected. For example, in eastern Turkey, ancient Arme- force.
nian churches have been allowed to fall into ruin despite Some Armenian refugees from Iraq have permanently
their spiritual and architectural importance, and the resettled, while others wait for the situation in Iraq to
Armenian origins of Seljuk Turk architecture is ignored. improve. Many Armenians who have left Iraq have found
Turkey’s failure to protect Armenians was highlighted in refuge in Armenia or among the Armenian diaspora. In
2007 when Armenian rights campaigner Hrant Dink was particular, displaced Armenians from Iraq have settled in
murdered in broad daylight on the steps of his own office. comparatively safer Iraqi Kurdistan, where Armenians are
 Aruban 101

recognized as an ethnic group, provided with education in Arubans are Roman Catholic. There are also some Protes-
the Armenian language, and have five churches and a seat tant Arubans as well as a small number of Muslim, Jewish,
in parliament. and Hindu Arubans.
Despite the ongoing conflict in Syria, Christians and
Armenians are widely tolerated. The Armenians are pro-
vided with Christian religious education, and state hol- Population, Diaspora, and Migration
idays include Christmas as well as the Orthodox and The Aruban population is estimated at around 106,000
Western Easter. people (Minahan 2013). In addition to those living on
Aruba, there are many Arubans living in the United States,
See also: Assyrian; Azeri; Kurd
the Netherlands, and in other Caribbean nations. Many
Further Reading
foreigners live among the Arubans on Aruba. These immi-
Haarman, Harald. 2015. “Armenians.” In Native Peoples of the
World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contempo- grants to Aruba mainly originated from other Dutch Car-
rary Issues, edited by Steven Danver, 261–264. Abingdon, UK: ibbean islands, the Netherlands, Colombia, Venezuela, and
Routledge. the Dominican Republic. In 2005, there were ninety-two
Kalpakian, Jack Vahram. 2011. “Armenians.” In Ethnic Groups of different nationalities living on Aruba (Minahan 2013).
Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John
A. Shoup, 26–30. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Turkey: Armeni- Geography and Environment
ans.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples,
June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/armenians-3. Aruba is an island located southwest of the Lesser Antilles
Zopunyan, Violeta, Suren Krmoya, and Ryan Quinn. 2013. in the Caribbean Sea. Aruba is 20 miles long and 6 miles
“Identifying the Gaps: Armenian Health Care Legislation wide at its widest point. The island comprises igneous
and Human Rights in Patient Care Protections.” Health and rocks overlain by limestone deposits. The highest point on
Human Rights Journal 15 (2) (December). https://www​
Aruba is Mount Jamanota, which rises to 620 feet above
.hhrjournal.org/2013/12/identifying-the-gaps-armenian​
-health-care-legislation-and-human-rights-in-patient-care​ sea level. There are also some isolated steep hills, includ-
-protections. ing Hooiberg (the “Haystack”), which reaches 560 feet in
height. Aruba is ringed by white beaches and coral reefs.
Aruba’s soil is barren, and the island has hardly any nat-
ural irrigation. Most of the island’s drinking water comes
from desalinating seawater because the island experiences
little rainfall. Aruba’s temperature is generally around
ARUBAN
81°F, though the heat is tempered by northeast trade
winds. Aruba only suffers from occasional hurricanes.
Current Location Aruba
The island’s lack of surface water and precipitation means
Current Population 106,000
Aruba’s natural vegetation consists of cacti and drought-­
Language Papiamento (or Papiamentu); Dutch;
resistant shrubs and trees.
Spanish; English
Aruba’s main environmental issues stem from the tour-
Interesting Fact The Dutch were allowed to own the ists that flock to the island. One particular concern is the
Aruban homeland in return for giv-
environmental difficulty of disposing of waste produced
ing the colony of New ­Amsterdam—
by the tourists, especially litter that accumulates on Aru-
later called New York—to the
English.
ba’s beaches and in the mondi (arid woods). The Aruban
government is working on ways to make the island’s waste
management sustainable. In June 2016, the Parliament of
Overview Aruba passed a law banning single-use plastic bags. Many
The Arubans (also called the Orubans) are an ethnic group Aruban restaurants have also switched to plastic-free
living on the Caribbean island of Aruba. Arubans are bilin- drinking straws, plates, and containers. The ban on plastics
gual, for they speak the creole language Papiamento (or was partly introduced because sea turtles and other sea
Papiamentu) as well as Dutch, the two official languages of life were frequently injured or killed from becoming stuck
Aruba. Many Arubans also speak English or Spanish. Most in, or ingesting, plastics floating in the sea in the form of
102 Aruban

bags and drinking straws. Another damaging consequence intermarried. Consequently, by the start of the nineteenth
of Aruba’s tourism industry is careless anchoring, which century, a distinct Aruban nationality had arisen that had
occurs when boats drop anchor in such a way that their its own language and culture.
metal chains lie atop coral reefs. The chains damage the During the Napoleonic Wars (1803–1815), Aruba was
reefs and, in turn, the aquatic ecosystem. occupied first by the French and then by the British. Aruba
In 2010, the Aruban government committed to becom- was returned to Dutch rule in 1816 after France’s defeat.
ing independent from imported oil. The government also In 1824, gold was discovered on Aruba, which drew many
aims to get half of the island’s energy from renewable foreign fortune hunters to the island. Gold became the
energy resources (wind, sea, and solar) by 2025. At the basis of the Aruban economy until gold production on
moment, many of Aruba’s state-owned buildings are cov- the island stopped in 1913. The end of the gold industry
ered in solar panels to produce solar energy. The south worsened the Aruban economy that was already in decline
side of Aruba is home to the Vader Piet Wind Farm, following the abolition of slavery in Dutch areas in 1863.
which produces around 20 percent of Aruba’s energy With the Aruban economy experiencing a deep depres-
needs (Rojer 2018). Aruba also has many electric vehicle sion, many of the island’s European inhabitants returned
charging stations available to encourage the use of elec- to Europe. In so doing, they left behind an Aruban pop-
tric cars. ulation comprising people with Arawak, European, and
African heritage.
The start of serious petroleum production in Venezuela
History and Politics during the early 1920s brought new prosperity to Aruba.
Aruba has long been home to indigenous Caquieto Indi- In 1924, the Lagos Oil and Transport Company founded
ans from the South American Arawak tribe. When the first its first oil refinery in Aruba. Then, in 1929, Standard Oil
European navigator, Alonso de Ojeda of Spain, visited the constructed a second refinery there, and in 1930, Lagos
island in 1499, the Arawak were already well established became part of the American oil giant Exxon. The refin-
there. Once the Europeans settled on the island, it became eries revived the Aruban economy. At the same time, they
a haven for smuggling and piracy. Unlike on other Carib- also attracted a wave of migrant oil workers to Aruba. In
bean islands, the Arawak were not exterminated by the the face of the massive immigration, Aruba nationalism
Europeans. arose, and the Aruban culture evolved.
At the start of the sixteenth century, Spain established In 1933, the Arubans petitioned the Dutch government
a base on Aruba. However, other European nations also for Arubans to be given separate status and for Aruba to be
laid claim to Aruba, and so the island became the focus of made independent. During World War II, Aruba became
a land dispute. In 1634, the Dutch overran Aruba. Dutch part of the self-ruling Netherland Antilles while Germany
authority over the island was confirmed by other Euro- occupied the Netherlands. World War II brought great
pean countries as compensation for the Dutch giving New prosperity to the Arubans because they increased oil pro-
Amsterdam (later to become New York) to the English. duction to meet the energy needs of the Allies. In 1951,
With their ownership of the island confirmed, the Dutch Aruba and other Dutch islands in the Caribbean were
incorporated Aruba into the Dutch colony of Curaçao awarded further autonomy as part of the Netherlands
along with five other islands. In the beginning, Aruba was Antilles, which formed a confederacy under loose Dutch
under the authority of the Dutch colonial governor Peter control. From the start, however, the Arubans resented
Stuyvesant, who left New Amsterdam for the Dutch Carib- being ruled from the rival island of Curaçao.
bean islands. The Dutch allowed islanders to continue to In the 1960s, tourism began to take off on Aruba and so
use Spanish as their language, and they established a vast brought further wealth to the Arubans. In the mid-1980s,
cattle ranch on the islands that was staffed by Arawaks. As tourism overtook the oil industry as the most important
Aruba was unfit for plantation farming, very few African source of income to the Arubans.
slaves were imported to the islands. Today, the Arubans regard themselves as a distinct eth-
In the eighteenth century, the Aruban population began nicity and as such demand greater independence. To this
to grow, with a handful of Dutch landowners dominating end, the Arubans support many proindependence and
the Arawak as well as the few Africans living on the island. proautonomy parties. In 1977, an independence referen-
The Arawak, Dutch, and African islanders mixed freely and dum was held in which the majority of islanders voted
 Aruban 103

in favor of independence. However, the Aruban govern- held in Aruba for the past eighteen years. One competi-
ment was replaced as a consequence of holding the vote, tion winner sat atop the pole for over eighty-seven hours
and Aruban independence failed to materialize. In 1986, (Williams 2015).
Aruba separated from the Netherlands Antilles to form a
distinct nation as part of the Dutch nation. Recently, sup-
port for full Aruban independence has since decreased, as Health Care and Education
Arubans have become more prosperous through tourism. Aruba’s health insurance system provides all islanders
The Arubans are self-ruling, but they are also protected with universal coverage. Arubans have access to primary,
by being part of the Dutch nation. Arubans also enjoy the secondary, and tertiary health care. Most primary health
benefits of ties to the European Union through their links care is provided by family doctors who can refer patients
to the Netherlands. to the Dr. Horacio Oduber General Hospital. This hospi-
tal is equipped with 288 beds. Increasingly, the hospital is
having to meet higher demand for its services, mostly due
Society, Culture, and Tradition to Aruba’s aging population and the rise in noncommu-
Aruban culture is influenced by the Arawak, Spanish, nicable diseases, particularly diseases of the circulatory
Dutch, and African cultures from whom the Arubans are system and neoplasms (abdominal growths characteristic
descended. The influence of the Dutch is apparent in the of cancer). In recent years, there have been cases of dengue
island’s architecture, national holidays, and cuisine. virus, the mosquito-transmitted chikungunya virus, and
In addition to speaking Dutch, the Arubans also speak the Zika virus on Aruba (PAHO 2017). Two health issues
Papiamento (or Papiamentu), a creole patois based on a of increasing concern to Arubans are obesity and diabetes.
Spanish creole that today combines elements of Arawak, In 2008, Aruba’s national plan for the Fight against Over-
Portuguese, and Dutch with Spanish. Around a quarter of weight, Obesity, and Other Related Health Issues (2009–
the Papiamento vocabulary is of Dutch origin, and Dutch 2018) was launched. Around 6 percent of all Aruban
is the language of Aruban education and administration. deaths are related to diabetes, of which the Arubans’ poor
Papiamento is the language of Aruban daily life. Since eating habits are the main cause. Increasingly, Arubans eat
2003, Papiamento has been an official language of Aruba refined and sugary foods and have a tendency to perform
and is officially recognized as a separate language. Papia- little physical activity.
mento’s grammar and syntax have been adapted and sim- In 2010, Aruban adults had a literacy rate of 99.4 per-
plified by Arubans, and as a result of these modifications, cent (99.5 percent for women and 99.3 percent for men).
the Papiamento spoken by Arubans is not intelligible to There was a 99 percent enrollment rate in Aruban primary
Spanish speakers. schools, with 94.8 percent of Aruban children completing
Most Arubans are Roman Catholic, though a minor- primary school. Seven out of ten adolescents went to sec-
ity of Arubans belong to Protestant sects. Traditionally, ondary school. More female Arubans go on to tertiary edu-
Arubans are greatly influenced by Catholicism. However, cation than do males (PAHO 2017).
the growth of tourism and secular Dutch life on Aruba
in the later twentieth century has weakened the Catholic
Threats to Survival
influence considerably.
The Arawak influence on Aruban culture is seen in the There are no threats to the Arubans. The people enjoy a
Arubans’ love of dance, especially calypso, soca, meren- high standard of living, and all islanders are enrolled in a
gue, and the energetic and risqué socarengue. The Dutch social security program as well as being covered by health
influence over Aruban leisure activities is evident in the insurance. In Aruba, primary and secondary education is
Dutch sport of paalzitten (“pole sitting”) being particu- free, and the island’s pension scheme guarantees a mini-
larly popular in Aruba. Paalzitten owes its origins to the mum income for elderly islanders based on their length
habit of Dutch boats resting on poles that lined canals of residency.
and onto which Dutch barges moored. The sport sees four See also: Ambonese; Dayak; Madurese; Papuan
competitors vie to see who can sit atop wooden poles for Further Reading
the longest time, with bathroom breaks being the only Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An Ency-
permitted interruption. A paalzitten competition has been clopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
104 Asháninka

Pan American Health Organization (PAHO). 2017. “Aruba: Over- Geography and Environment
all Context.” Health in the Americas. https://www.paho.org​
/salud-en-las-americas-2017. Most Peruvian land is covered by dense forests located
Rojer, Megan. 2018. “Keep Our Island Happy: Environmental to the east of the Andes. The Peruvian Amazon is one of
Awareness from ARUBA—PT. I.” Visit Aruba Blog, June 1. the world’s most biologically diverse areas and is home
https://www.visitaruba.com/blog/about-aruba/keep-our​ to numerous bird and animal species as well as species
-island-happy-environmental-awareness-from-aruba-pt-i. of butterfly and orchid. In Brazil, the Asháninka live in an
Snover, Dorette. 2011. “Aruba and Bonaire.” In Food Cultures of
area that stretches from the Andean watersheds of Peru to
the World Encyclopedia: The Americas, edited by Ken Albala,
7–13. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Brazil’s upper Juruá region to the right bank of the Envira
Williams, Victoria. 2015. Weird Sports and Wacky Games around River.
the World: From Buzkashi to Zorbing. Santa Barbara, CA: Several environmental issues affect the Asháninka. For
Greenwood. instance, as a result of the Peruvian government’s poli-
cies, there has been a significant increase in oil activities
in the Amazon rainforest. The Camisea Natural Gas Pro-
ject (a huge energy development that extracts natural gas
and natural gas liquids from the Amazon), a growth in the
ASHÁNINKA number of concessions granted by the government for
logging in areas belonging to indigenous people, and the
Current Location Peru; Brazil lack of indigenous land titles has caused irreversible envi-
Current Population 40,000 ronmental damage to the Asháninka homeland and led
Language Asháninka; Spanish; Portuguese to many conflicts between the Asháninka, settlers, inter-
national corporations, and the Peruvian authorities. Many
Interesting Fact The Asháninka believe there is so
much evil in the world that one day nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have become
it will be destroyed to create a new involved in Asháninka protests against the environmental
world. issues they face. This upsurge in support for the Asháninka
reflects the recent union of indigenous peoples’ rights
activism and global environmentalism.
Overview
Together, the Asháninka and NGOs have secured the
The Asháninka (also called the Asháninca or Antis) are establishment of a new protected area, the Otishi National
an Amazonian ethnic group. Most Asháninka live in Peru, Park between the Ene, Tambo, and Urubamba Rivers,
though some live in Brazil. The Asháninka speak their along with two indigenous communal reserves. The park
own Arawakan language called Asháninka. They also protects part of the Vilcabamba mountain range, thereby
speak Spanish and a little Portuguese. Most Asháninka safeguarding local wildlife and geological formations.
adhere to the people’s traditional religious beliefs, though However, the Asháninka still face issues surrounding
a growing number are adopting Christianity. Christian environmental exploitation. For example, in 2014, four
Asháninka are Roman Catholic or belong to Protestant Asháninka, including a protester against the logging
evangelical sects introduced to the Asháninka by North industry, were murdered by illegal loggers (Minority
American or European missionaries. Sometimes the Rights Group International 2015).
Asháninka are called the Campa or Kapmpa. This is a
Spanish adaptation of an Incan name for the Asháninka.
However, the Asháninka regard these names as deroga- History and Politics
tory because they mean “dirty” or “disheveled” in the Que- In prehistoric times, the Asháninka lived in isolation as
chua language. scattered bands inhabiting the rainforests located in the
upper Amazonian region, especially the forests of Junín,
Pasco, Huánuco, and part of Ucayali. The Incas called the
Population, Diaspora, and Migration Asháninka the Anti or Thampa and named the Incan prov-
Most of the roughly forty thousand Asháninka live in the ince of Antisuyu after the Asháninka. The early Asháninka
rainforests of east Peru, though a small number live in the had a fearsome reputation as skilled warriors and were
Brazilian state of Acre (Minahan 2013). known to fight anyone that encroached on their land. The
 Asháninka 105

Ruth Buendía
Ruth Buendía (b. 1977) is an Asháninka activist who united the Asháninkas against the construction of large dams
that would have displaced their communities. In 2010, the governments of Brazil and Peru signed an agreement that
called for building hydroelectric dams on the Amazon River. The dams’ construction would have resulted in the flood-
ing of indigenous ancestral lands. Among the peoples living in the proposed construction site of the Pakitzapango
Dam on the Ene River were the Asháninkas.
Buendía had initially joined the Asháninka Center of the Ene River (CARE) to reconnect with her Asháninka
heritage. As a volunteer, she helped the Asháninkas obtain documentation to access public services. In 2005, Buendía
became the first woman president of CARE. When Buendía became aware of the proposed dam construction, she
contacted Asháninka communities to raise awareness about how the dam would flood their land, and she organized
united Asháninka opposition to the dam. Buendía also traveled to Washington, DC, to present a report on the impact
of Peruvian energy development on the Asháninkas to the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights. In 2010,
Buendía’s advocacy led the Peruvian Ministry of Energy to reject a request that would have advanced the construction
of the dam.
Buendía subsequently worked to establish Asháninka land rights and to formulate a management plan for the
Asháninka Communal Reserve that would protect Asháninka land from development while also allowing Asháninka
communities to use the land for sustainable economic enterprises. In 2014, Buendía received the Goldman Environ-
mental Prize for her work against the Pakitzapango Dam. That same year, Buendía was named among the 100 Global
Thinkers by Foreign Policy Magazine.

Asháninka practiced slash-and-burn agriculture, with exploited an Asháninka village, the village was destroyed.
their staple foods being yucca roots and sweet potatoes, As a result of these actions, it is thought that around 80 per-
though Asháninka women would forage wild fruits and cent of the Asháninka died between 1840 and the end of
vegetables from the rainforest. Asháninka men hunted and the rubber boom in 1913. Following the rubber boom, log-
fished using bows and spears. gers moved into the Asháninka region in search of the rain-
In the 1500s, early Spanish explorers noted the brav- forest’s hardwood trees. The loggers treated the Asháninka
ery and independent spirit of the Asháninka. In 1595, the in much the same way as the rubber tappers. Since the
Spanish tried to take control of Asháninka river valleys 1950s, the extent of Asháninka territory has been reduced,
by constructing small forts where they garrisoned Span- and Asháninka villages have been systematically destroyed.
ish and indigenous troops. Initially, the Spanish incursion In the 1960s, the Asháninka became involved in the
had little impact on the Asháninka. However, over time, Marxist Movimiento de Izquierda Revolucionaria (MIR,
the number of skirmishes between the Asháninka and the Revolutionary Left Movement). The advent of the MIR
Spanish increased. In 1742, a regional tribal revolt drove split Asháninka communities, with some Asháninka join-
the Spanish from the area. The rebellion lasted until mis- ing the MIR guerilla forces. The armed conflict between the
sionaries and settlers left the region in 1752. Consequently, MIR and the Peruvian government was short because the
the Asháninka and nearby groups had complete control of Peruvian military employed extreme violence to quash
their lands. This control lasted for the next century. the  rebels, including bombing Asháninka villages with
The Asháninka were able to live in isolation until 1839 napalm and torturing and executing Asháninka rebels
and the start of the rubber boom in the Amazon Basin. The (Pimenta 2018). During the 1970s and 1980s, Asháninka
rubber boom led to Asháninka land being invaded by var- territory was appropriated for the production of sugar and
ious groups of rubber tappers. The invasion of Asháninka palm oil, for cattle ranching and gold prospecting, and for
land was made all the worse by many Asháninka being logging. The usurpation of Asháninka land was accom-
taken as slaves by the rubber tappers and given the dif- panied by a new wave of colonists. Additionally, around
ficult task of finding and trapping rubber. Additionally, seven hundred thousand hectares of Asháninka forest was
rubber tappers often kidnapped Asháninka women from destroyed to grow coca or to build airstrips for its illegal
their homesteads or villages. Once the rubber tappers had transportation. In the face of such land loss, in the 1970s,
106 Asháninka

Asháninka leaders formed ethnic federations to tackle the the Asháninka worship a hero, Avireri, whom they believe
problems. The land loss also resulted in many Asháninka transforms humans into animals, plants, rivers, and
seeking refuge deep in the rainforest jungle while oth- mountains. These beliefs revolve around many invisible
ers migrated to Brazil, where they established a small beings in which the Asháninka believe as well as liv-
Asháninka community. ing things that the Asháninka can see. For instance, the
During the 1980s and 1990s, a near civil war in Peru Asháninka consider the many dangerous insects that live
between the Shining Path communist revolutionary in the Asháninka homeland, such as red ants and wasps, to
forces and the Peruvian military created havoc among the be evil men who have been transformed. The Asháninka
Asháninka. It is thought that six thousand Asháninka died also consider the sun and moon to be good spirits. The
in attacks and violence, around ten thousand became dis- Asháninka regard shamans called sheripiári to act as
placed when their traditional Asháninka hunting and fish- intermediaries between such supernatural beings and
ing activities were disrupted, and five thousand Asháninka humankind. Central to all Asháninka beliefs is a belief in
were forced to join the Shining Path. In fact, thirty to the apocalypse. The Asháninka believe the world is filled
forth Asháninka communities actually vanished during with so much evil that one day it will be destroyed, leav-
this period, and some Asháninka died after contracting ing in its wake a new world without violence, disease, or
malaria and other diseases that loggers and colonists death.
brought to the region. These diseases continue to threaten
the Asháninka (Minahan 2013).
The Asháninka gained legal title to some of their Health Care and Education
ancestral lands in the 2000s, which then became part of Peru spends less than 3 percent of its gross domestic prod-
the newly established Otishi National Park. The majority uct (GDP) on public health care, and in recent years, it has
of the Asháninka refugees have since come back to their defunded the healthcare system following an economic
homelands, where they are involved in projects to protect slump. Despite having one of the highest levels of income
Asháninka territory and strengthen Asháninka culture. per capita in South America, Peru spends far less on health
care than other countries in the region that have similar
economies (Hufstader 2018). The Asháninka have limited
Society, Culture, and Tradition access to health care. Some Asháninka areas have no hos-
The relative isolation in which the Asháninka live means pitals and instead are home to health outposts that lack
they have been able to maintain many of their traditional equipment and medicines. When the Asháninka need hos-
culture. Asháninka village society is communal in nature, pital treatment, they have to travel to a hospital, such as
with activities such as hunting and fishing performed the one in Satipo. The travel costs money that they can ill
together as a group. The Asháninka also trade with other afford. When the Asháninka do reach a hospital, they often
indigenous groups that live in the area. experience poor service, even if they have state-sponsored
According to the Asháninka, their people have always health insurance. NGOs have noted that Asháninka women
used canoes (pitotsi), houses (pãkotsi), and swidden gar- are left especially vulnerable by the lack of health care, for
dens (owãtsi), where they grow manioc (kaniri). Asháninka there are no means to detect, diagnose, or treat cancers,
homes, which are constructed on stilts, are covered with such as cervical cancer. If the Asháninka are diagnosed
straw and lack exterior and interior walls. Some Asháninka with cancer, they have to travel to the Peruvian capital of
homes built on riverbanks are clad in zinc sheeting. Unlike Lima for treatment.
many indigenous peoples living on the South American In 1988, the Intercultural Bilingual Education Teacher
lowlands, the Asháninka have always worn clothes. The Training Programme (FORMBIAP) was initiated to
traditional Ashaninka garment, the kitharentsi, is a cotton encourage alternative ways of teaching Peruvian ethnic
tunic that serves as an important element of Ashaninka groups while recognizing the rights of indigenous peoples
ethnicity. The word kitharentsi refers to the garment, the and promoting the country’s multiculturalism. As part of
fabric from which the tunic is made, and the loom on FORMBIAP, programs were established to teach local, cul-
which the fabric is woven. tural, and ancestral knowledge. Additionally, Asháninka
Asháninka culture is shaped by the people’s shaman- elders formed part of the bilingual education teams along-
istic hierarchical cosmology. Instead of a Creator-God, side trained teachers.
 Asiri 107

Threats to Survival Population, Diaspora, and Migration

The majority of Asháninka have returned to their home- The Asiri population is estimated at between 2.3 million
land, where they are involved in programs aimed at and 2.7 million people (Minahan 2016). Most Asiri live in
protecting their people. Nonetheless, they continue to the Asir region of southwest Saudi Arabia. There are also
face threats from oil companies that exploit the natural sizeable Asiri populations living in the Saudi capital of
resources found on Asháninka land, drug traffickers that Riyadh, the Nejd region of central Saudi Arabia, and in the
appropriate Asháninka territory, settlers seeking farm- western Saudi Arabian region of Hejaz.
land, illegal loggers, and road construction projects. Other
threats include diseases and alcoholism combined with Geography and Environment
poor health care and Christian missionaries that threaten
The Asiri homeland of Asir is located in southwest Saudi
Asháninka culture by converting them from their tradi-
Arabia on the Red Sea, to the north of Yemen. The Asiri
tional shamanistic beliefs.
homeland mainly consists of a maritime plain, at the back
See also: Aymara; Nahua; Quechua; Shipibo-Conibo of which lies a highland plateau and high mountains. The
Further Reading Asir region receives more rainfall than the rest of Saudi
Hufstader, Chris. 2018. “For Rural Indigenous Women in Peru, Arabia and is home to the country’s highest peaks; Mount
Health Care Is Inadequate and Hard to Reach.” Oxfam, Sawdah, near the regional capital of Abha, reaches around
September 17. https://www.oxfamamerica.org/explore​
9,843 feet. The region also contains the upper valleys of the
/stories/for-rural-indigenous-women-in-peru-health-care​
-is-inadequate-and-hard-to-reach. wadis Bīshah and Tathlīth. For hundreds of years, the pla-
Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An Ency- teau and mountains kept the Asiri geographically isolated.
clopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. The area is the most mountainous part of the Arabian
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Peru: Asháninka.” Peninsula. Consequently, the area receives enough rain
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, June to allow farming to occur (a rarity in Saudi Arabia). The
19. https://minorityrights.org/minorities/ashaninka.
rainfall means Asir is the most fertile part of Saudi Arabia.
Pimenta, José. 2018. “Ashaninka.” Povos Indigenas No Brasil,
March 26. https://pib.socioambiental.org/en/Povo:​Asha​ Crops grown locally on steeply terraced mountainsides
ninka. include wheat, coffee, cotton, indigo, ginger, vegetables,
and palms. Inhabitants of the Asir region also raise cat-
tle, sheep, goats, and camels. The Asir Mountains contain
deposits of nickel, copper, and zinc that have yet to be fully
exploited.
ASIRI Though data is sparse, Asir’s average annual rainfall in
highland areas is likely between twelve and twenty inches.
Current Location Saudi Arabia
This rain comes during two seasons, primarily in March
Current Population 2.3 million–2.7 million
and April. The summertime also sees rainfall. Extreme
Language Himyaritic (Southern Arabian);
temperatures in Asir are common, with the diurnal tem-
Arabic
perature range in the Asir highlands being the greatest in
Interesting Fact Four of the alleged 9/11 hijackers
the world. For example, mornings can be very cold and
were Asiri.
extremely foggy, with low visibility, but by the afternoon,
temperatures can be over 85°F. As a result of this tempera-
Overview ture range and local rainfall, Asir has more natural vegeta-
The Asiri (also called the Asir, Aseeri, ‘Asaryah, Idrisi, tion than any other part of Saudi Arabia.
Idrissi or Himyari) are an ancient people of Saudi Arabia. Sheltered parts of Asir contain dense coniferous for-
The Asiri speak the Himyaritic (or Southern Arabian) lan- ests, though exposed ridges are arid. The verdant land-
guage. Most Asiri also speak Arabic as spoken in the Saudi scape of the Asiri homeland, together with the wet weather
capital, Riyadh. The Asiris are overwhelmingly Sunni Mus- and mountains, means the area is a holiday destination
lim. The name Asiri means “inaccessible” in Himyaritic. for Saudis tired of desert. The holiday resorts in Asir are
However, the Asiri are sometimes called the Idrisi, after a well connected with the rest of Saudi Arabia by air and a
dynasty that previously ruled over them. road network that reaches across the region’s valleys and
108 Asiri

mountains. Additionally, Asir has an integrated infrastruc- behalf of the Ottomans, drove the Wahhabis out of Asir.
ture providing transport, water, electricity, and communi- The Egyptians stayed in Asir until 1840, when they were
cations. However, the tourist industry in Asir is vulnerable replaced by Ottoman Turk forces. Subsequently, the Turks
to seasonal fluctuations; resources are underutilized in the ruled the Asiri, though they were allowed to live under
low season, and the high season sees the region become the direct control of their own emirs. The Turks intro-
overcrowded with an excessive use of natural resources. duced coffee growing to the Asiri, and Asir soon became
the main coffee producer for the Ottoman Empire. In
1872, the Turks took direct rule of Asir. Then, in the
History and Politics 1880s, the Idrissi dynasty came to power under nominal
The Asiri homeland has been inhabited for millennia Turkish rule.
because it is the most fertile place on the Arabian Penin- In 1906, the Idrissi led an Asiri revolt against the Turks.
sula. The Asiri are descended from the Himyarite kingdom By 1910, the Asiri had come to control most of Asir, but
of Yemen that settled in the region around 250 BCE and the Turks (assisted by the Hejazis) defeated the rebels.
developed a farming society. Around the second century Asir remained a Turkish region until the start of World
CE, the highly cultured Sabean civilization evolved in the War I, by which time the Asiri had begun to live almost
area. Today, the Sabeans are identified as the inhabitants exclusively in highland areas of the region. When the war
of the biblical realm of Sheba. The Himyarite kingdom erupted, Turkish troops were withdrawn from Asir to fight
conquered the Sabeans around 280. Under Roman rule, elsewhere, considerably weakening Turkish control over
the Asir homeland became part of Arabia Felix (meaning Asir. The Asiri also fought against the Turks as allies of the
“Happy Arabia”), a comparatively fertile region of south- British. After encouragement from the British, the Idrissi
west and south Arabia (in present-day Asir and Yemen). leaders declared Asir’s independence in 1917.
The Romans named the region Arabia Felix to reflect the From 1917 to 1920, the Asiri fought off threats from
area’s pleasant climate and wealth of agricultural products the Yemenis and Wahhabi Saudi forces from Nejd. Feeling
and spices. The Roman emperor Augustus (r. 27 BCE–14 threatened, the Asiri appealed to the British for help, but
CE) sent an expedition to Arabia Felix with disastrous the British refused to intervene. When the Idrissi emir died
results: a local guide’s treachery caused the troops to travel in 1923, a civil war began that saw the Saudis take control
a circuitous route through waterless regions, so when they of Asir, though many Asiri rebels continued to fight a guer-
finally reached southern Arabia, they were weak from rilla war from mountain strongholds. In 1933, a full-scale
thirst, heat exhaustion, and disease and, therefore, unable Asiri rebellion started. However, the Saudis, with backing
to make commercial or political gains. When Roman rule from U.S. oil companies, defeated the Asiri and their Yem-
ended over Arabia Felix, the Asiri established their own eni allies. Consequently, Asir was made part of the Saudi
independent state. kingdom.
During the sixth century, the Asir region was Christian- From the 1930s, Asir remained an isolated agricultural
ized. However, in 523 CE, the Christian region was attacked area enjoyed by the Saudi elite for its pleasant climate and
by Yūsuf Asʾar Yathʾar, a Jewish Yathʾars attacked byir greenery. In the 1950s, the region became more developed
region was Christianized. Howistians living on Yemen’s but was not considered an important part of Saudi Arabia
northern border with Arabia. When the region was over- until the 1960s. The oil boom of the 1970s saw the Asiri
run by Muslim invaders around 600 CE, the Asiri became benefit materially, but they always remained apart from
part of the Muslim empire and converted to Islam. When Saudi culture, resisting radical Wahhabism and retain-
the Muslim’s relocated their center from nearby Hejaz to ing their own language. During the 1980s, the Asir coast
Syria in the eighth century, the Arabian Peninsula was became a Saudi tourist destination. However, Saudi rules
divided into many sovereign states. The Asiri, protected on mixed-sex swimming and drinking alcohol meant
from outside influences by the mountains of their home- that an international tourist industry failed to evolve. In
land, became known as a prosperous nation of farmers the late 1980s, the discovery of mineral deposits added
and herders. to Asiri prosperity. Soon after, though, a downturn in the
At the start of the nineteenth century, ultraconserva- Saudi economy impacted the Asiri, resulting in a surge in
tive Muslim Wahhabis from the Nejd Desert conquered Asiri nationalism and general anti-Saudi feelings among
Asir. In 1818–1819, however, the Egyptian army, acting on the people. In the 1990s, the Saudi economy became
 Asiri 109

The USS Cole

In October 2000, the naval destroyer the USS Cole was attacked by suicide bombers in a boat laden with explosives
while being refueled in the Yemeni port of Aden. The attack was attributed to al-Qaeda and foreshadowed the Septem-
ber 11 attacks less than a year later. The explosion killed seventeen U.S. sailors and injured thirty-nine others. In 2007,
a U.S. federal judge ruled that the Sudanese government was liable for the bombing. In January 2019, the U.S. military
announced that a suspect in the USS Cole bombing had been killed by a precision strike in Yemen on January 1.

unpredictable and caused the Asiri to feel they were being pre-Islamic beliefs, including beliefs in spirits. The Asiri
neglected by the Saudis. also tend to consider wells, oases, and mountains sacred.
While most Asiri do not support Wahhabism, some do
support the movement because it condemns Saudi Ara-
bia’s indebtedness to the West, the United States’ hold on Health Care and Education
Arab oil, and is antiroyal. These things appeal to some The Asiri have their own Himyaritic-language healthcare
Asiri, who regard these beliefs as being anti-Saud. Anti-­ services and schools. Up-to-date information on Asiri
American feelings among the Asiri have manifested in ter- health care is hard to find. However, it is known that in
rorist attacks. For instance, the Asiri were implicated in the the recent past, the Asir healthcare system was centralized,
attack on the USS Cole in 2000, and four alleged hijackers for the central administration authority in the regional
involved in the 9/11 attacks of 2001 were Asiri. Sensitive to capital of Abha supervised and controlled all areas of
Asiri involvement in the atrocities, Asiri authorities have health services. In the 1980s, Asir had eleven health dis-
banned journalists from the region. Since 2010, militant tricts, though these districts had little control over their
Asiri groups have sought to renew the independent Asir services (Al-Khuzayem et al. 1997). Today, Saudis have
state. access to thousands of hospitals and clinics. Saudi Arabia’s
healthcare services comprise two tiers. The first consists
of primary healthcare centers and clinics that offer pre-
Society, Culture, and Tradition ventive, prenatal, and emergency services. There are also
The Asiri consist of many tribal groups that together form mobile clinics serving isolated rural areas with vaccination
the Asir Confederation. This tribal confederacy is some- scheme and basic health care. Almost all children in Saudi
times called the Idrissi, after the former Asiri dynasty. Arabia are vaccinated against common diseases. The sec-
Today, Asiri culture, which developed in isolation, remains ond tier of Saudi health care comprises advanced urban
tribal. The Asiri retain their own language, Himyaritic (or hospitals and specialized treatment centers.
Southern Arabian), which is not mutually intelligible with When Saudi Arabia was established in 1932, very few
the form of Arabic spoken across Saudi Arabia because people were able to access education, as it was limited
it contains many borrowings from pre-Arabic languages. to the children of wealthy families living in urban areas.
The language, which is the language of Asiri daily life, con- Today, Saudi Arabia’s education system includes thirty
sists of three dialects—Coastal, Najraan, and Biishah—the thousand schools, many further education institutions,
regionality of which reflects the historic distribution of and over fifty public and private universities. Education
the Asiri. Since the 1990s, the dialect spoken by the Asiri is free and open to all Saudi citizens, and it consists of
has become a focus of Asiri nationalism. At the same time, kindergarten followed by six years of primary school and
most Asiri also speak Arabic as spoken in the Saudi capital three years of both intermediate and high school. After
of Riyadh. intermediate school, pupils have a choice of moving on to
Almost all Asiri are Sunni Muslim of the Shafi’i school. high school or not. Saudi Arabia’s student-teacher ratio of
This sect of Islam is far less strict than the dominant Wah- 12.5 to 1 is one of the lowest in the world. At the moment,
habi Islam of central Saudi Arabia. Most Asiri view Wah- around one million students are enrolled in further or
habism as alien and puritanical (Minahan 2002). While higher education at Saudi institutions. Additionally, over
adhering to Sunni Islam, many Asiri continue to hold half of these students are female. Female students can
110 Assyrian

study at all major universities in Saudi Arabia as well as Overview

at all-female colleges or universities (The Embassy of the The Assyrians are a Middle Eastern ethnoreligious group
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia n.d.). also known as the Syriacs, Chaldeans, or Arameans, the
latter being a term preferred by some members of the
Threats to Survival community. The Assyrians speak several Modern Aramaic
languages as well as Arabic, Persian, and the languages of
The Asiri feel distant from the rest of the population of
the countries they inhabit. Although Assyrians are closely
Saudi Arabia, a feeling exacerbated by their geographi-
related to other speakers of Semitic languages, such as the
cal remoteness. This geographical isolation has, however,
Jews and Arabs, Assyrians are a distinct people. Assyrians
enabled the Asiri to retain their own language, customs,
traditionally follow Syrian Christian religions. The people
and pre-Islamic beliefs. If Saudi Arabia ever broke up, the
claim to be descended from the people of Assyria, one of
break would most likely occur along tribal lines. In such
the oldest civilizations in the world, dating back to ancient
an event, the Asiri would probably stay loyal to political
Mesopotamia.
bodies other than Saudi Arabia. Asiri nationalists continue
to call for the revival of an independent Asiri state to be
called Imārāt ‘Asīr (the Emirate of Asir). Population, Diaspora, and Migration
See also: Ahwazi; Bedouin Assyrian population estimates vary depending on the
criteria used to measure the population. Also, conflicts
Further Reading
in the Middle East have caused the Assyrians to scatter
Al-Khuzayem, Abdul Aziz M., Ahmed A. Mahfouz, Abdalla I.
Shehata, and Reda A. G. Al-Erian. 1997. “Health Services throughout the region, often in disorderly fashion, thereby
Delivery in Asir, Saudi Arabia: Regional Experience of Inte- making it difficult to count population numbers. Another
gration.” Eastern Mediterranean Health Journal 3 (2). http://​ difficulty when calculating Assyrian population figures it
www.emro.who.int/emhj-volume-3-1997/volume-3-issue​ that some Middle Eastern peoples, such as the Maronites,
-2/article4.html. who use Aramaic in their liturgy, now self-identify as Ara-
The Embassy of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. n.d. “About
mean rather than as Arab, thereby blurring the boundaries
Saudi Arabia: Education.” https://www.saudiembassy.net​
/education. between ethnoreligious groups. Confusion over Assyrian
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: population numbers have been intensified by the founding
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 1, A–C. of the country of Syria, with some people identifying as
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Assyrian when they are in fact Syrian. This confusion has
Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth- been intensified by the creation of many national Assyr-
nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa Bar-
ian churches, including the Syrian Orthodox Church, the
bara, CA: Greenwood.
Som, Ahmad Puad Mat, and Amer Hani Al-Kassem. 2013. Chaldean Catholic Church, the Syriac Catholic Church,
“Domestic Tourism Development in Asir Region, Saudi Ara- the Assyrian Church of the East, and the Ancient Church
bia.” Journal of Tourism and Hospitality. https://​www​.omics​ of the East. Depending on what criteria is used to classify
online.org/open-access/domestic-tourism​-develop​ment-in​ Assyrians, other Assyrian churches may also be included,
-asir-region-saudi-arabia-2167-0269.S5​-001.pdf. such as the Maronite Catholic Church and the Antiochian
Orthodox Church.
It has, however, been suggested there are between
350,000 to 1 million Assyrians globally (Laing-Marshall
2004), while another estimate proposes a worldwide Assyr-
ASSYRIAN ian population of 3 million people, of whom 1 million are
in Iraq, 400,000 in both Syria and Lebanon, and 100,000 in
Current Location Iraq; Syria; Lebanon
the United States (Kalpakian 2011). There are also signif-
Current Population 3 million icant Assyrian communities elsewhere in the Middle East
Language Modern Aramaic; Arabic; Persian; (Iran and Jordan), in Asia (Armenia, Turkey, and Russia),
Turkish; Armenian; Russian; French; and Europe (the Netherlands and Sweden). There are also
English many Assyrians living in Canada.
Interesting Fact One-third of all Assyrians died Two districts of the Iraqi province of Nineveh have
during World War I. Assyrian majority populations. In the United States,
 Assyrian 111

Assyrians tend to live in Turlock, California; Detroit, Mich- History and Politics
igan; and Chicago, Illinois. Assyrians have lived in the Middle East for millennia. The
earliest Assyrians lived in Mesopotamia, where they spoke
Syriac, and modern Assyrians consider themselves the
Geography and Environment
descendants of these ancient Mesopotamians. The Assyr-
The Assyrian homeland of Assyria is a geographic and cul- ians had converted to Christianity by the second century,
tural region covering areas of present-day northern Iraq, and ever since, they have considered themselves a reli-
southeastern Turkey, northwestern Iran, and northeastern gious rather than ethnic group. By the start of the fifth cen-
Syria. The area with the highest Assyrian population con- tury, the early Assyrians had established an independent
centration is sometimes referred to as the “Assyrian Trian- church. They followed the teachings of Nestorius, the arch-
gle,” an area that comprises the Nineveh Plains, the south bishop of Constantinople, regarding the nature of Christ;
of the mountainous Hakkari region that stretches into both therefore, the Assyrian church was not part of the Roman
Turkey and Iraq, and the Barwari region of Iraqi Kurdistan. church. Because of the Assyrian adherence to the teach-
It is in this Assyrian Triangle that some Assyrian groups ings of Nestorius, they are sometimes called the Nestori-
hope to establish an independent Assyrian nation-state. ans, though the Assyrians reject this name.
Assyria’s lowest-lying land is in the south, near the From the third to the tenth centuries, the Assyrians lived
Nineveh Plains close to Mosul, and it rises to over six thou- under the rule of others, namely the Parthians, Romans,
sand feet in the north. Lowland areas comprise plains, Sasanians, and Muslims. Despite being governed by other
meadow grasslands, scrubland, and rolling hills. The groups, the Assyrians flourished, becoming renowned sci-
Nineveh Plains are relatively flat and fertile and are located entists, scholars, and theologians. During the fourteenth
on the foothills of forested mountains. The region’s main century, however, an invasion by the Mongolians forced
rivers are the Tigris and Euphrates. Parts of these rivers the Assyrians to flee to the Kurdistan Mountains located
flow through riparian forests, the waters of which could in what is now northeastern Turkey and northwestern
facilitate future irrigation. Iran, where the Assyrians lived a fairly isolated, tranquil
Assyria has a mostly Mediterranean climate, though existence. Surrounding the Assyrians were various com-
parts of the southwest are semiarid. The area’s spring is munities, including the Kurds, with whom the Assyri-
fairly mild and damp, the summer is very hot, the fall is ans remained on friendly terms in general. After several
warm and dry, and the winter is cold and wet. As the cli- hundred years had passed, some Assyrians descended the
mate is relatively wet, Assyria is home to many tree spe- mountains to establish settlements on the plains to the
cies, including firs, oaks, willows, olive trees, and pistachio east and west of the highlands. The triangle of land around
trees. Dry areas in the south of Assyria are mostly steppe the Kurdistan Mountains formed by northeastern Turkey,
and home to palm trees, date palms, and white worm- northern Iraq, and northwest Iran remained the Assyrian
wood. Animals in Assyria include types of bears, boars, homeland until the twentieth century.
jackals, porcupines, foxes, otters, hyenas, and turtles. Birds In the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, relations
species include sparrows, nightjars, crows, robins and between the Assyrians and their neighbors soured, and
herons. in the decades prior to World War I, the Kurdish and

Hatra
Hatra is a ruined city, possibly built by Assyrians, comprising a network of sun god temples. As a religious and trading
center of the Parthian empire, Hatra flourished during the first and second centuries BCE. Thanks to the city’s impen-
etrable walls, Hatra survived numerous invasions before being destroyed in 241 CE. The remains of the city, especially
the temples that blend Hellenistic and Roman architecture with Eastern decoration, make Hatra an important archae-
ological site. As such, in 1985, Hatra was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The city became famous after it was
featured in the horror film The Exorcist (1973). In 2015, video emerged of the Islamic State smashing statues around
Hatra, and there were reports that parts of Hatra had been bulldozed.
112 Assyrian

Turkish-Kurdish authorities massacred Assyrians many In recent years, the Assyrians have found themselves
times. It was also during this time that the Assyrians caught up in conflicts between national authorities and
developed good relations with Western countries, which population groups. For example, during the 1980s, many
led some educated Assyrians to begin to harbor national- Assyrians were massacred when the Iraqi government
ist beliefs. European interest in the Middle East’s Christian attacked the Kurds. Launched in 1988, Iraq’s genocidal
communities heightened local rivalries in the region, and Anfal campaign was part of its Arabization policy that
during the 1840s, religious tensions came to the fore. By lasted until 2003. The campaign resulted in the death or
the start of the twentieth century, Sunni Muslim persecu- disappearance of approximately one hundred thousand
tion of the Assyrians was widespread. people. Most of these victims were Kurds, but the casual-
At the start of World War I, most Assyrians belonged ties also included many thousands of people from other
to the Turkish Ottoman Empire that joined the fighting minorities, including Assyrians. In addition to massacres
as an Axis power alongside Germany, Austria-Hungary, and kidnappings, the Arabization policy forced minori-
and Bulgaria. However, the majority of Assyrians sided ties to change their ethnic identity. Thus, for the 1987 and
with the Allies (Britain, France, Russia, Italy, and the 1997 Iraqi censuses, all Assyrians were made to choose
United States). As a result of their cooperating with the between an Arab or Kurdish identity. Anyone who insisted
Allies, the Assyrians were expelled first from land owned on maintaining their Assyrian identity was either removed
by the Ottomans and then from Iran. In 1915, Russian from the census or randomly registered as Arab or Kurd.
forces urged the Assyrians in Hakkari to revolt against In 2001, an Iraqi decree declared that every Iraqi should
the Ottomans. The Assyrians rebelled, but the collapse change their ethnic identity to Arab. At the same time,
of Tsarist Russia in 1917 meant the Russians failed to hundreds of thousands of Kurds and Assyrians were for-
support the Assyrian rebellion, forcing the rebels to seek cibly displaced.
refuge with the British. The British established refu- As both an ethnic and religious minority, Assyrians were
gee camps in Iraq for the Assyrians, and Assyrian men targeted twofold during the civil war that ripped through
served the British as auxiliary personnel guarding Brit- Iraq in 2003. As a result of this, they formed a dispropor-
ish installations. In total, around one-third of the Assyr- tionate number of the millions of Iraqis displaced by the
ians died during World War I through a combination conflict. The Assyrians suffered bombings, kidnappings,
of factors, including deaths from combat, disease, and torture, executions, and harassment that saw Assyrian
exposure. churches, businesses, and homes attacked as well as forced
During the war, the Assyrians were led to believe that religious conversions. They were also kidnapped or killed
they would be granted independence or an official home- as punishment for working for foreign companies or for
land after the war’s conclusion. In reality, however, the holding professional jobs, such as working in the civil ser-
Assyrians received nothing. Left without independence, vice and in medical professions. In 2005, members of the
most Assyrians stayed in Iraq, though some were allowed Christian political party, the Assyrian Democratic Move-
to return to Iran; others reentered Turkey illegally. Fol- ment, who were posting flyers for forthcoming regional
lowing the war, Assyrians enjoyed uneasy relationships elections, were murdered when gunmen opened fire on
with the national governments of the countries in which them in Mosul. Similarly, in 2008, an Assyrian Orthodox
they lived. Since the disbanding of the Ottoman Empire, priest was shot dead by militants in central Baghdad.
Turkey has attempted to assimilate the Assyrians into a In 2007 and 2008, Assyrian calls for autonomy inten-
homogenous Turkish society, much to the Assyrians’ dis- sified with calls for self-rule in Iraq’s Nineveh region. The
may. Iraq also wishes to create a homogenous society but, Assyrians realized such separation might expose them
nonetheless, recognizes Assyrian ethnicity and grants the to further violence, but their call was supported by the
people some privileges. That said, the efforts of authorities regional Kurdish government, most likely because Assyr-
to preserve Assyrian culture are not far reaching, and Iraqi ian self-rule would strengthen Kurdish claims for a Kurd-
authorities rapidly quash calls for Assyrian independence. ish state.
In Iran, Assyrians are recognized as a religious minority, In October 2010, an attack by militants associated
but living in a country that is strictly Muslim and that with al-Qaeda in Iraq on the Our Lady of Salvation Syr-
represses dissidents has left many young Iranian Assyrians iac Catholic Church in Baghdad shocked Assyrians world-
feeling disaffected. wide. The attack killed at least fifty-six people, left another
 Assyrian 113

seventy-eight wounded, and prompted more than one

thousand Assyrians to leave Baghdad (Minority Rights Rosie Malek-Yonan
Group International 2017). More recently, the emergence Rosie Malek-Yonan is an Assyrian American activ-
of the Islamic State (IS) has also had a devastating effect ist, actress, composer, author, and documentary
on the Assyrians. filmmaker and an advocate of issues concerning
Many times, the Assyrians have attempted to gain more the Assyrians, in particular highlighting Assyrian
recognition from Middle Eastern authorities. Some Assyr- history and the plight of Assyrians living in the
ians also advocate nationalist activities or call for Assyrian Middle East. Malek-Yonan has been interviewed on
secession to create an Assyrian state. This is particularly various international television and radio programs,
the case in northern Iraq, where Assyrians have united providing her assessment of the current situation of
with Kurds to call for independence. As Assyrian auton- the Assyrians in the Middle East. Her articles on the
omy has not come to pass, many Assyrians continue to Assyrians are published globally, and she has lec-
emigrate from their traditional territory. Large numbers of tured at the University of Berkeley and the Univer-
Assyrians have settled elsewhere in the Middle East, espe- sity of California, among others.
cially in Lebanon and Syria, and there is an increasingly In 2006, Malek-Yonan testified before a congres-
significant Assyrian diaspora. In recent years, Assyrian sional committee of the 109th Congress on religious
communities have sprung up across Europe, particularly freedom regarding the genocide, massacres, and
in Sweden, the Netherlands, Australia, and North America. persecution of Assyrians in Iraq. Malek-Yonan’s
Members of the diaspora are keen to preserve Assyrian documentary film My Assyrian Nation on the Edge is
culture and religious beliefs while calling for better rights based on her congressional testimony. The film was
for Assyrians still living in the Middle East. The growth screened at the Australian Parliament. Also in 2006,
of Assyrian nationalism includes various Syriac-speaking Malek-Yonan was named Woman of the Year at the
peoples, including Chaldeans, Maronites, Syrian Catholics, 73rd Annual Assyrian Convention in Chicago.
and Syrian Orthodox Christians who identify as Assyrian. In 2008, Malek-Yonan spoke on the Assyrian gen-
Assyrian nationalists maintain that these various groups ocide at the United Kingdom’s House of Lords. The
share a particular ancestry and language and aim to pro- same year, she received an Excellence in Arts and
mote Assyrian identity within the Middle East. Entertainment award from the Iranian American
Political Action Committee (IAPAC), and in 2009,
she was named Assyrian Woman of the Year at the
Society, Culture, and Tradition Assyrian Universal Alliance 26th World Conference
The Assyrian society and culture are disparate, but at the in Australia. Malek-Yonan is an ambassador for the
same time, they are linked through the fact that the people humanitarian organization Assyrians without Bor-
speak dialects that stem from the same language. While ders and is a founding member of the Assyrian Cul-
there are Middle Eastern Muslims and Jews that speak tural and Arts Society.
Aramaic, they do not identify as Assyrian. You can read more about Malek-Yonan at https://
Like other Middle Eastern Christians, the Assyrians rosiemalek-yonan.com and follow her on Twitter at
celebrate Christian holidays such as Christmas, Easter, and @RosieMalekYonan.
All Saints’ Day, though the various churches to which the
Assyrians belong mark the occasions on different days.
A uniquely Assyrian celebration is the three-day feast of
Nineveh that commemorates the fasting of the biblical Job. affairs; marriage ceremonies include a ritual of washing
Another feast, the Bride of the Ascension, marks Assyrian of the groom, placing pins in the groom’s coat to ward off
resistance to the Turco-Mongol conqueror Tamerlane. Kha evil, and giving the newlyweds a colorful blanket and a tree
B-Nisan, the Assyrian New Year, starts on April 1 and is cel- from which hang pomegranates, apples, and quinces. The
ebrated by processions and much partying, though Turkey blanket symbolizes the home, and the tree of fruit denotes
has banned these New Year celebrations. affluence. Another common aspect is the giving of a bride
Assyrian birth, marriage, and death rituals vary, but price, with the amount payable determined by much bar-
there are similarities. For instance, betrothals are complex tering between intermediaries.
114 Assyrian

Assyrians maintain these ancient traditions despite homes in the town with the Arabic letter N (for “Nazarene”)
increasing modernization and the difficult circumstances and appropriated Assyrian property and possessions. In
in which they often find themselves living. In particular, August 2014, IS advanced to take control of all Assyrian
Assyrians take marriage customs very seriously because areas in the Nineveh Plains, including Iraq’s largest Chris-
they consider marriage a permanent union of two families. tian town, Qaraqosh, which was home to fifty thousand
As a result of this serious attitude to marriage, many Assyr- people. IS’s progression caused a second wave of displace-
ian marriage customs have been enacted for generations, ment, with around two hundred thousand Iraqi Christians
though among expat Assyrian communities, marriage cus- fleeing toward the KRG region. IS rebels robbed the fleeing
toms have become more relaxed. In the main, Assyrians Assyrians as they escaped, taking their money, cars, jew-
view demonstrations of affection between betrothed cou- elry, and identification documents. In addition, IS fighters
ples as improper and even couples that have been married and the residents of nearby villages looted the homes and
for a long time are scorned for public displays of affection. farms left behind by the fleeing Assyrians (Minority Rights
Assyrian parents considered it their main duty to Group International 2017).
find suitable marriage partners for their children. The In addition to suffering mass displacement, forced
chief responsibility for arranging marriages lies with the religious conversion, robbery, and the appropriation of
father, who is seen as head of his household and, accord- their property, Assyrians have also witnessed the delib-
ing to Assyrian tradition, has complete authority over his erate obliteration of their historical, cultural, and reli-
wife, who is expected to obey and respect her husband gious heritage. Starting in 2014, IS destroyed Assyrian
unquestioningly. Until very recently, tradition dictated churches, crypts, and historical sites, many of which were
that fathers had absolute authority over their wives and several thousand years old. Sites destroyed included the
children, and though this stance has softened a little, ­seventh-century Church of St. Ahudemmeh in Tikrit, one
fathers still tend to select husbands for their daughters of the oldest Syriac Christian churches in the world; the
and arrange all marriage formalities. The social rank of a historical Assyrian city of Hatra; and the ancient Assyrian
potential bride is thoroughly investigated by a boy’s fam- capital of Nimrud. IS also destroyed many Assyrian arti-
ily before any decisions are taken about whether a couple facts housed in the Mosul Museum.
should marry. Traditionally, the boy’s family select a wife As a result of IS’s activity, many Assyrians have left their
from the same clan or tribal division. However, marriage homeland; therefore, the Assyrian population in Iraq and
between closely related couples, such as first and seconds Syria is shrinking. Assyrians who remain in these coun-
cousins, is forbidden. tries live in constant fear. This is especially true of Assyr-
ians living in Baghdad, where bombings and kidnappings
frequently occur and anti-Christian feelings see Assyrians
Health Care and Education attacked by Shia militias. The security situation in the
There is limited data on Assyrian access to health care and Kurdistan region is better for Assyrians, but the people
education, but given the people’s displacement and the liv- report that their political activities are repressed by Kurd-
ing conditions in Iraq and Syria, it likely that the Assyrians ish authorities. Assyrians and other minority groups face
have very limited access to either. pressure to support the two dominant Kurdish parties, and
illegal construction by Kurds on Assyrian-owned land is
widespread.
Threats to Survival In recent years, a number of Assyrian groups, most
The advance of the Islamic State (IS) is having a devastat- notably those living outside of the Middle East, have
ing impact on the Assyrians. When IS overran the city of called for the creation of a semiautonomous “safe zone”
Mosul in 2014, hundreds of Assyrian families fled toward for minority groups in the Nineveh Plains. Additionally,
the Nineveh Plains and other areas controlled by the Kurd- some Assyrian groups are campaigning for any safe zone
istan Regional Government (KRG). Those Assyrians that to be protected by international forces, as they distrust
remained in Mosul were forced to either convert to Islam both the Iraqi government and the KRG. Assyrians calling
or pay jizya (a tribute imposed on non-Muslims); other- for the international protection of a safe zone also ask that
wise, they faced execution. By July 2014, almost all Assyr- minority groups be afforded the right to manage their own
ian Christian families had left Mosul. IS marked Assyrian security.
 Avar 115

See also: Kurd; Lur; Mandean; Maronites; Shabak; Yazidi Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Further Reading According to the 2002 Russian national census, there
Kalpakian, Jack Vahram. 2011. “Assyrians.” In Ethnic Groups of are 814,473 Avars living in the Russian Federation, with
Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John
A. Shoup, 30–33. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
758,438 of these living in Dagestan. This means that Avars
Laing-Marshal, Andrea. 2004. “Assyrians.” In Encyclopedia of make up 29 percent of the Dagestan population and are,
the World’s Minorities, edited by Carl Skutsch, 149–150. New therefore, the biggest ethnic group in Dagestan (Reynolds
York: Routledge. 2011). In Dagestan, the Avars live alongside a multitude of
Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Iraq: Assyrians.” other ethnic groups, including the Akhvakhs, Karatins, and
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, Tindals. Indeed, the people from these ethnic groups have
November. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/assyrians-2.
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
lived alongside the Avars for so long that depending on the
World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA: situation, they will identify as Avar. For this reason, Avar
ABC-CLIO. population figures often include people from other ethnic
groups of Dagestan. The close relationship between the
Avars and other ethnic groups means that people belong-
ing to these other ethnic groups tend to speak Avar as well
as their own indigenous language. Small Avar communities
AVAR can also be found in Georgia and Azerbaijan, with some
isolated Avar groups living in Turkey and the Middle East.
Current Location Russian Federation Until recently, Avars mainly lived in river valleys that
Current Population 814,473 afforded them many trading opportunities. However,
Language Avar; Russian in recent years, the population spread of the Avars has
Interesting Fact Russian freestyle wrestler Abdul- changed. Dagestan is the poorest and least developed
rashid Sadulaev, who won a gold state of the Russian Federation. Recently, however, the
medal at the 2016 Olympic Games, region’s population has grown rapidly, having increased
is an Avar. from 601,000 in 1989 to 815,000 in 2002 (the latest date
available; Reynolds 2011). Therefore, while the general
trend sees the overall population of the Russian Federa-
Overview
tion decrease, Dagestan is seeing an increase in its popula-
The Avars are an indigenous mountain people inhabiting tion. This increase is in line with the general increase in the
the central western area of the Russian Federation’s Repub- population of the North Caucuses. As a result of Dagest-
lic of Dagestan. The Avar people speak the Avar language, an’s growing population, the region has experienced rapid
which belongs to the Avar-Ando-Tsez subgroup of the urbanization; more than 40 percent of Avars now live in
Nakh-Dagestan or Northeast Caucasian language group. urban areas (Reynolds 2011).
Many Avars also speak Russian as a second language.
The Avars refer to themselves as the mamarlal. The name
Avar has been applied to the group only since the start of Geography and Environment
the twentieth century. There is some disagreement as to Dagestan is situated in the North Caucasus Mountains
whether the modern Avars are descended from the Dacian and is the southernmost part of the Russia Federation.
Avars that invaded Europe during the sixth century; Avar Dagestan is bordered by Azerbijhan, Georgia, and, on its
nationalists and some historians support this claim, but eastern side, by the Caspian Sea. Traditionally, Avars live in
the claim is nonetheless controversial. The ethnic groups villages located in the valleys of the Avar-Koisu and Andi-
among whom the Avars live refer to them by a variety of Koisu Rivers and the rivers’ associated tributaries. Avar
names. The Avars regard themselves as the preeminent villages are ancient and tend to be located approximately
ethnic group in Dagestan because they have a long history 6,500 feet above sea level.
of leading the various groups in military campaigns and In mountain areas, winters are harsh, but summers are
because they are Dagestan’s largest ethnic group. The Avars hot and dry across Dagestan. Dagestan is rich in oil, nat-
sometimes refer to their homeland as Avaristan, though ural gas, and coal reserves as well as many other miner-
this name is not officially recognized. als. The geography of Dagestan, mountainous with many
116 Avar

valleys and almost two thousand rivers (many of which which varied from feudal to democratic. During the six-
cannot be crossed easily), has made it difficult for inhabit- teenth century, however, a number of high-ranking Avars
ants of Dagestan to communicate with the outside world. who claimed to be descended from previous Arab rulers
At the same time, the remoteness of the Avar villages kept established the Avar Khanate. This was a Muslim state
them inaccessible to outsiders until the start of the twen- that came to dominate upper Dagestan, both politically
tieth century. and socially. In the seventeenth century, the Avar Khunate
established Avar customary law, that is, the general rules
that form an intrinsic part of social behavior. The Avars
History and Politics advocated the study of Islam and became internationally
The first reference to the Avars appears in the writings of renowned experts in Islamic law and science.
Pliny the Elder in the first century CE, when the Avar home- In 1727, the Russians made their first official claim over
land was called Serir. During the fourth and fifth centuries, the Avars when the Avar Khanate became a Russian pro-
the Avars were documented as a nomadic horse-riding tectorate. The relationship between the Avar Khanate and
people who held great power in the steppes region of Cen- Russia was turbulent, however, as Russia sought to dest-
tral Asia. More powerful groups displaced the Avars over abilize the region in the 1820s. This attempt was met by
the course of the next century, and in the sixth century, the a religion-influenced military resistance led by Avars that
Avars moved west, all the while increasing the size of their bonded them together with other mountain people. In
army by absorbing the indigenous peoples of the areas into 1829, several powerful Avars called upon their neighbors
which they moved. It was at this time that the Avars moved to observe Islamic practices more stringently and to unite
into parts of Russia north of the Black Sea, where many against Russia in a religious struggle, later dubbed the
Avars established settlements. Great Caucasian War. The fighting continued until 1859,
Meanwhile, the Avars also conquered the Uygurs, with when the Avars and other mountain peoples capitulated to
whom they formed a confederacy around the basin of Russia. Despite surrendering, the Avar leader Sheik Shamil
the Volga River. During the sixth century, this confeder- became the most famous Avars of all time, having gained a
acy was virtually destroyed by the Turks. The surviving reputation for defending Islam against the might of Russia.
members of the Avar-Uygur confederacy adopted the The 1917 Russian Revolution gave the Avars a taste of
name Avar but split into two groups. One of these groups independence. Around this time, an Avar scholar named
moved west to Dacia, in Romania. The Dacian Avars Najmuddin Hotsatli tried to establish an Avar imamate (a
became Europe’s greatest military force of the era, for they region headed by an imam). This attempt was unsuccess-
invaded Byzantine land, extended their reach into terri- ful, however, because the Bolsheviks overpowered Hotsat-
tory inhabited by the Bulgars and Slavs, and controlled li’s forces in the 1920s and added Dagestan to the Russian
the Hungarian Plain. However, by the ninth century, the Soviet Federative Socialist Republic as an independent
Dacian Avars had disappeared, having suffered defeats by Soviet socialist republic. In 1928, the Bolsheviks banned
Charlemagne. Meanwhile, the other group of Avars from the writing of Arabic in Dagestan and made the Avars
the Avar-­Uygur confederacy remained in Eastern Europe, write in Latin script instead. Then, a decade later, Soviet
where they became the ancestors of the modern Avars authorities forced the Avars to adopt the Cyrillic alphabet,
(Minahan 2000). which the Avars still use today.
Historical artifacts suggest Christianity was widespread In the post-Soviet era, the Avar saw their traditional pol-
in Dagestan before the arrival of Islam during the sev- itical dominance begin to wane. In the 1990s, various eth-
enth century, when the Arab-Muslim army of the Arab nic groups of Dagestan started to vie for dominance, and
caliphate invaded southern Dagestan. The Avars united this change in the balance of power of Dagestan resulted in
with the Khazars to resist the invaders and Islam, but by the rise of ethnic nationalist movements. Ethnic violence
the eleventh century, Islam had spread among the Avars. increased in the country, and some Avars called for the cre-
Christianity retained a foothold among the Avars until the ation of an independent Avar state—or at least for Avars to
sixteenth century, but, in general, the Avars were predomi- have greater autonomy within the Russian Federation. The
nantly Muslim by the fourteenth century. Avar nationalist movement led to the formation of groups
Throughout much of their history, the Avars have been such as the Avar National Movement, which was estab-
divided among many social groups, the structures of lished in 1990 (becoming defunct in 2000) to counteract
 Avar 117

the influence of the parallel Kumyk national movement, become chair of the State Council after twenty-three years
Tenglik. The People’s Front Imam Shamil was also formed, of Dargin control of Dagestan. In recent times, the polit-
with the aim of creating a united Avar nation. ical rivalries of Dagestan have resulted in a worsening of
In 1993, clashes over disputed land in the Caucasus everyday security in the country. This was exemplified in
Mountains erupted between the Avars, Laks, and Chechens. 2005, when eight political assassinations occurred within
Then, in 1994, Azerbaijani troops fought with Avars inside a six-month period.
the Azerbaijan border after the Avars smuggled weapons
into the country. The Avars were reportedly aligned with
Avar nationalist groups who were operating on both sides Society, Culture, and Tradition
of the Russia-Azerbaijan border. A year later, the Azerbai- Traditionally, the Avar economy is based around agricul-
jani press accused Russia of aiding Avar separatist groups ture and livestock farming. Avar farmland can be divided
living in northern Azerbaijan. into three types of farming zones. In the foothills, rain-
On the whole, however, over the course of history, the water is used to irrigate fields of wheat, barley, and corn.
Avars have been monumental in protecting the delicately Sheep are also raised in this zone. The second zone, the
balanced system of power sharing among the various cul- upper foothills, is where wheat, barley, lentils, linen, and
tural groups that live in Dagestan. This system has been hemp are grown. Here the Avar use water mills to produce
successful in restricting the number of local rivalries, such flour. In the highest zone of the mountains, animal hus-
as the one between the Avars and Turkic lowlanders. The bandry is to the fore, though there are also some fields of
Avars rejected three post-Soviet referenda in Dagestan barley and rye.
that would have led to Dagestan having a president. The Avars are intensely Sunni Muslim, with most Avars
Avars played an important role in blocking the selection adhering to the Shafi branch of the religion. During the
of a president, as awarding the title of president to an indi- Soviet era, the Avars were under pressure to renounce their
vidual from one of Dagestan’s many ethnic groups would religious beliefs, but since the 1990s, Islam has undergone
have given one ethnic group more power than the others. a major revival in Avar areas. At the same time, many of the
Instead of an individual president, Dagestan’s 1993 con- most isolated Avars living in the remotest villages retain
stitution provides for a collective presidency known as the vestiges of indigenous pagan religious beliefs that over the
State Council. This body comprises fourteen members, one years have merged with elements of Islam.
from each of Dagestan’s fourteen official titular nationali- One consequence of the cultural influence of Islam in
ties, including the Avars. Originally, it was intended that Dagestan is that female genital cutting (FGC) has occurred
members of Dagestan’s various ethnic groups chair the in Dagestan for several decades. There is evidence that the
State Council on a rotating basis. However, the position of Avars practiced the custom from the 1970s to 1990s, and
council chair was abolished in 1998, with de facto control the practice is thought to continue. When FGC does occur
over the council chair being given to an ethnic Dargin. In in Dagestan, girls are normally cut before they reach three
return, an ethnic Kumyk prime minister was selected and years of age. The procedure is performed in the home by
an Avar as parliamentary speaker to round out the coun- close female relatives, who typically use household items,
cil and mitigate Dargin influence. Dagestan’s constitution such as kitchen knives or scissors, to prick, pierce, or cau-
went through a revision in 2003 that would allow for pres- terize a girl’s genitalia. Another form of FGC in which the
idential elections, but this amendment was negated when clitoris and labia minora are removed is also performed in
Russian president Vladimir Putin abolished the direct Dagestan. Such procedures are performed in the belief that
election of heads of federation states. they will protect female sexual purity and make a woman
The Avars and Dargins continued to vie for political a faithful wife.
influence in 2005 and 2006. During the summer of 2005,
the Avar mayor of Khasavyurt, Dagestan’s second-­largest
town, led demonstrations against the Dargin chair of Health Care and Education
the State Council. The same mayor also led the North- Under Soviet control, the Avars were entitled to free health
ern Alliance, which was mainly composed of Avars who care, with doctors, hospitals, and dispensaries distributed
opposed the Dargin political elite. In early 2006, the Dag- to even the remotest outposts of the Soviet Union. In the
estan State Council voted in favor of an Avar candidate to years immediately after the fall of the Soviet Union, health
118 Aymara

care remained free, but it became chronically underfunded. While the Avar language is flourishing, Avar life is
At the same time, there were significant increases in infant changing. For instance, the Avars are reportedly among
and maternal mortality rates and incidents of contagious those Dagestani ethnic groups heavily influenced by the
diseases and decreases in fertility. In addition, the life expec- spread of Wahhabism. This is a form of extremely conserv-
tancy of men fell from sixty-four to fifty-seven for the period ative Islam, and in Avar villages under Wahabi influence,
1990 to 1994, with alcohol-related deaths increasing by 60 it is reported that sharia law has been imposed on villag-
percent and infectious and parasitic diseases increasing by ers, with women having to wear veils and girls forbidden
100 percent (University of California, San Francisco 2012). to attend school. The situation has been likened to that in
In the recent past, many organizations both within the the villages of Karamakhi and Chabanmakhi prior to the
Russian Federation and internationally have worked to outbreak of the Second Chechen War (Lokshina 2009).
improve health care in former Soviet states. In Dagestan, Meanwhile, Dagestan is close to neighboring Chechnya,
such organizations are trying to fight corruption, ensure and violence in the form of bombings, assassinations, and
the professionalism of staff, and help the indigenous peo- antiterrorist operations spill over into Avar areas. Along
ples to trust Dagestani medical staff. Of particular concern with other ethnic groups in Dagestan, the Avars are also
is Dagestan’s extremely high infant mortality rate. Several involved in rivalries and gangs as factions vie for political
autonomous republics, including Dagestan, consistently and economic supremacy in the republic.
record the highest infant mortality rates in the Russian
See also: Abkhaz; Azeri; Chechen; Ingush; Karelian; Lak;
Federation. These autonomous republics are socially and
Lezgin; Udmurt; Uyghur
economically underdevelopment and generally have sub-
Further Reading
standard health care and poor hygiene standards, both at
Lokshina, Tanya. 2009. “Dagestan: A ‘Wahhabi’ Village.” Human
home and in hospital. Environmental degradation also Rights Watch, June 9. https://www.hrw.org/news/2009/06/09​
impacts the health of mothers and babies (University of /dagestan-wahhabi-village.
California, San Francisco 2012). Minahan, James B. 2000. One Europe, Many Nations: A Histor-
Avar children are taught in the Avar language until ical Dictionary of European National Groups. Westport, CT:
they reach third grade. According to reports, girls living in Greenwood Press.
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
villages in which Wahhabism (ultraconservative Islam) is
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 1, A–C.
prevalent do not go to school, while boys study at Koranic Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
schools, where they study Islam. In such areas, wealthier Minority Rights Group International. n.d. “Russian Federation:
families are said to send their sons to boarding schools or Avars.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peo-
to relatives in the cities such as Makhachkala, Buinaksk, ples. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/avars.
and Kaspiisk. If village boys are able to show they have cer- Reynolds, Michael A. 2011. “Avars.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe:
An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 28–31. Santa Bar-
tificates proving they have attended nine years of school-
bara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
ing, city schools will reluctantly accept them in the sixth University of California, San Francisco. 2012. “Health and Health
year and help them to catch up. Families do not send their Care in Russia and the Former Soviet Union.” http://meded​
daughters away to study, however, as daughters are needed .ucsf.edu/gh/health-and-health-care-russia-and-former​
to help around the home (Lokshina 2009). -soviet-union.

Threats to Survival
Unlike many of Russia’s ethnic groups, there is no danger of
the Avars assimilating into general Russian culture. While AYMARA
Dagestan’s indigenous languages (including Avar) are in
danger of being overtaken by Russian in urban areas, in
Current Location Bolivia; Peru; Chile; Argentina
Avar villages, there is no immediate risk of the Avar lan-
Current Population 2.6 million
guage becoming extinct. Many magazines, television and
radio programs, and newspapers are produced in Avar, and Language Aymara; Spanish; Quechua
there is also an Avar language theater in the Dagestan capi- Interesting Fact Evo Morales, the current president of
tal of Makhachkala. Bolivia, is an Aymara.
 Aymara 119

Overview parts of the body are deprived of an adequate oxygen sup-

The Aymara are a South American ethnic group that pri- ply at the tissue level.
marily lives in Bolivia and Peru but also in Chile and Argen-
tina. The majority of Aymara speak the Aymara language
History and Politics
as their main language, though many also speak Spanish.
Some Aymara also speak Quechua as a third language. The The Aymara probably appeared on the Altiplano during
Aymara are ostensibly Roman Catholic, but they maintain the twelfth century, after the downfall of the Tiahuanaco
traditional Aymara religious practices. civilization. It is likely that the early Aymara migrated to
the Altiplano from the south of South America. However,
some researchers believe the Aymara may have inhabited
Population, Diaspora, and Migration areas of the Altiplano for over two thousand years, hav-
The Aymara population is estimated at around 2.6 million ing developed from the Tiahuanaco in the region of Lake
people. Most Aymara live on the high Altiplano, a desolate Titicaca.
plateau in the central Andes of Bolivia and Peru (Mina- From 1483 to 1523, the Aymara lived under Incan invad-
han 2013). Smaller Aymara communities exist in Chile and ers called the Huayna Capac, who afforded the Aymara
Argentina. Much of modern Aymara society and culture a degree of autonomy. Also under the Huayna Capac,
is most evident in working-class suburbs surrounding the Aymara groups such as the Uru, Canchi, and Lupaca lived
Bolivian capital of La Paz. Most of Peru’s Aymara live in as separate entities rather than as part of larger Aymara
the southern Andean region of Puno. The Aymara tend to society. Under the Incas, the Aymara incorporated many
live in small towns, villages, and rural communities. Rural- Incan religious and linguistic elements into their own
to-urban migration has negatively impacted the Aymara’s religion and language. Later, the Aymara united with the
traditional extended family structure. Incas to overrun other indigenous peoples. Between 1524
and 1533, the Spanish conquistadors arrived. The Spanish
classified all related cultural groups as Aymara and dubbed
Geography and Environment the Aymara homeland Upper Peru. In 1570, the Spanish
The Altiplano is located in the central Andes, where it viceroy announced that forced labor was needed to work
occupies parts of northern Chile and Argentina, western in Altiplano silver mines (the silver mine at Potosi was the
Bolivia, and southern Peru. The Altiplano begins northwest world’s richest silver mine). Millions of Aymara died while
of Lake Titicaca in southern Peru and stretches approxi- working for the Spanish as forced laborers, and others died
mately 600 miles southeast to the southwest tip of Bolivia. from European diseases. Together, the forced labor and
The region’s dominant vegetation is grass and shrubs, and disease decimated the Aymara population.
the region’s wildlife includes alpacas and llamas, both of During the 1780s, a young Aymara named Tupac Katari
which are now bred for their wool and as pack animals. led an Aymara revolt against the Spanish. Katari raised a
The south of the Altiplano is much drier than the north, rebel army of forty thousand soldiers and, in 1781, laid
which receives enough rainfall to grow crops without irri- siege to La Paz. The siege lasted for 184 days and resulted
gation. Temperatures around Lake Titicaca are moderate, in twenty thousand, only breaking when the Spanish sent
meaning locals can grow corn and wheat to an elevation in additional troops from Buenos Aires and Lima (Mina-
of 12,800 feet. han 2013). Later the same year, Katari besieged La Paz once
The south of the Altiplano is far more inhospitable than more but was again repelled by the Spanish. Ultimately,
the north and contains important reserves of minerals Katari was betrayed by his own people and detained by
such as copper, silver, tungsten, and tin. The Altiplano is the Spanish, who tortured and executed Katari by pulling
noted for its hypoxic air (thin air containing little oxygen) him into four pieces while he was still alive. In time, Katari
caused by the region’s very high elevation. People living in became an Aymara folk hero.
the Andes counter having less oxygen in their breath by At the start of the nineteenth century, unrest under
having higher hemoglobin concentrations in their blood, Spanish rule resulted in several wars of independence
as this allows their red blood cells to ferry oxygen through during which the Aymara were often forced to fight or had
the blood system more efficiently. This in turn counteracts their food reserves stolen by soldiers. Once various South
the effects of hypoxia, a condition in which the body or American countries gained independence, the Aymara
120 Aymara

were still often caught up in conflict. For example, between Soon a distinct Aymara urban culture developed that
1879 and 1983, the war between Bolivia and Chile resulted blended Aymara cultural elements with urban life. Addi-
in some Aymara land being transferred to Chile. Toward the tionally, urban Aymara, influenced by radical political fac-
end of the nineteenth century, the price of precious metals tions in other South American nations, demanded greater
increased, meaning more Aymara were employed in local political autonomy.
mining industries and able to earn a modest income. How- In the 1970s and 1980s, South American governments
ever, the employment offered to the Aymara often entailed tried to suppress the growing of coca, from which cocaine
dangerous mining work, and the Aymara endured atrocious can be produced. The coca leaf is important in Aymara
living standards while at home (Minahan 2013). At this culture (traditionally Aymara workers chew the leaf as an
time, most Aymara lived as subsistence farmers or moved to appetite suppressant and mild stimulant), and its suppres-
cities in search of better living conditions, only to find they sion led to violence and Aymara unemployment.
were unable to access education, employment, or politics. In the 1990s, governments under which the Aymara
In the 1950s, universal suffrage (the right of most adults lived began to focus attention on indigenous communi-
to vote in political elections) was introduced, and the ties. As part of this focus, authorities developed bilingual
Aymara were able to participate in some aspects of politics. education programs, better health care, and rural develop-
Around the same time, sweeping land reforms occurred in ment initiatives. These improvements reinvigorated rural
the Andes, and many mines were nationalized. As a result and urban Aymara communities. Evo Morales, an Aymara
of these changes, many Aymara moved to cities, including coca farmer, was elected as Bolivia’s president in 2005,
La Paz, Cusco, and elsewhere in the Andean Highlands. and a new Bolivian constitution was implemented that

Aymara women in Coroico, Bolivia. Traditionally, Aymara women wear the Chola costume consisting of a bowler hat, a carrying cloth
called an aguayo, a heavy pollera skirt, boots, and jewelry. (Ulf Huebner/Dreamstime.com)
 Aymara 121

gave improved rights to the country’s indigenous peoples, the Aymara include high rates of HIV, a high prevalence
including the Aymara. of cryptosporidium in otherwise healthy Aymara children,
and infection by Fasciola hepatica (fluke worms).
Some Aymara parents reject bilingual schooling, pro-
Society, Culture, and Tradition testing the need for their children to receive a better
Aymara culture blends precolonial customs with Spanish Spanish-language education to advance and to confront
elements. In Peru and Bolivia, Aymara women have worn discrimination by non-Aymara. Many Aymara also pre-
bowler hats since the 1920s. According to Aymara folklore, fer their children to speak Spanish rather than Aymara,
this tradition came about when a shipment of bowler hats and the topic has become the focus of vociferous debates
arrived in Bolivia via Peru for use by European railroad among authorities, local nongovernmental organizations
workers. When the hats were found to be too small, they (NGOs), and indigenous intellectuals (Minority Rights
were given to local indigenous peoples. The women also Group International 2015).
wear the Chola costume that originated in La Paz, which
has become a Bolivian icon. The outfit consists of a bowler
hat, a carrying cloth called an aguayo, a heavy pollera skirt, Threats to Survival
boots, and jewelry. Advances made for and by the Aymara include politi-
The Aymara language, originally called jaqi aru (“the cal representation, constitutional reform, and bilingual
language of the people”), remains the dominant language education. Evo Morales, the current Bolivian president,
of the Bolivian and Peruvian areas of the Altiplano. The is an Aymara, and he frequently raises the subject of
majority of Aymara speak Aymara as their main language, his indigenous heritage, something that may help end
though many also speak Spanish. Some Aymara also speak anti-Aymara discrimination. In Bolivia, recent land
Quechua, which was the language of the Incas. In the Peru- reform laws have also led to land being redistributed to
vian countryside, most Aymara men speak Aymara as well indigenous communities, including the Aymara. A major
as Spanish, but many Aymara women, who seldom leave aspect of Aymara politics in general is protest against
their villages, are monolingual in Aymara (Minority Rights international corporations, with Bolivia’s Aymara activ-
Group International 2015). ist groups backing the government’s efforts to national-
Aymara religious beliefs combine precolonial beliefs ize the country’s gas fields. While most Aymara support
with Christianity, which was imposed on the Aymara under Morales, some prefer the idea of establishing an inde-
Spanish rule. Though the Spanish prohibited the Aymara pendent Aymara state that could be home to a unified
religion and converted the people to Catholicism, the con- Aymara nation.
version was only superficial. Today, the Aymara believe in A major environmental concern for the Aymara is the
spirits, witches, fortune-tellers, magicians, and medicine severe pollution of Lake Titicaca, which straddles the
men, though they also believe in the Christian concept Peru-Bolivia border. Untreated wastewater from neighbor-
of the afterlife. The Aymara attend Catholic mass, baptize ing urban areas enters the lake, and studies have shown
their children in the Christian tradition, and uphold Catho- that high levels of mercury, cadmium, zinc, and copper
lic saint days. However, the Aymara also proffer offerings to contaminate the lake’s water and fish (Minority Rights
the Andean deity Pachamama (Earth Mother) and believe Group International 2015).
spirits inhabit the mountains, sky, and weather phenome- The situation for the Aymara in Peru is less hopeful than
non such as lightning. The Aymara in Peru also believe in that of the Bolivian Aymara. While Peru’s Aymara have rep-
the Quechua concept of pachakuti, a turning over of time resentatives in the multicultural state institution Instituto
(pacha) that will see a precolonial order currently living Nacional de Desarrollo de los Pueblos Andinos, Amazónicas
below ground return (kuti) to power. This belief influences y Afro-Peruanos (INDEPA), this body has not achieved any
both Quechua and Aymara activist groups. major legislative or constitutional changes in the Aymara’s
favor (Minority Rights Group International 2015). In Peru,
indigenous organizations continue to demand collective
Health Care and Education land rights, but the government has failed to act on these
Since the 1990s, the Aymara have had access to both health demands. Additionally, the Peruvian government remains
care and bilingual education. Major health concerns for slow to act in regard to land title claims and is generally in
122 Azeri

favor of extractive industries that may procure and pollute Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Aymara land. The Azeri population is believed to comprise between
See also: Quechua 27 million and 35 million people (Minahan 2014). These
Further Reading population figures are approximate because Iranian
Galvan, Javier A. 2011. Culture and Customs of Bolivia. Santa authorities do not provide population data for some eth-
Barbara, CA: Greenwood. nic groups. The Azeris are the most populous ethnic group
Kolb, Charles C. 2005. “Aymara.” In Encyclopedia of the World’s in Azerbaijan. In neighboring Georgia, they are the larg-
Minorities, edited by Carl Skutsch, 159–161. New York: est ethnic minority and the only minority group to have
Routledge.
Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An Ency-
increased its proportional population share since 1989,
clopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. though in absolute terms, the Azeri population of Georgia
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Peru: Aymara.” has reduced slightly.
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, In Georgia, Azeris are concentrated in rural communi-
June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/aymara-and​ ties in the southeast region of Kvemo Kartli that borders
-highland-quechua. Azerbaijan. There are also large Azeri communities in
the Georgian capital of Tbilisi, the city of Rustavi, and in
the Lagodekhi region of Kakheti (Minority Rights Group
International 2015). In Iran, Azeris make up about 16 per-
cent of Iran’s population and tend to live in the country’s
AZERI Azerbaijan region, close to the Iranian capital of Tehran
(Minority Rights Group International 2017). There is an
Current Location Azerbaijan; Iran; Georgia
international Azeri diaspora, with Azeri communities
Current Population 27 million–35 million
found in the United States, Turkey, Russia, Central Asia,
Language Azeri and across Europe.
Interesting Fact Many Azeris are cultural Muslims
but do not practice any religion.
Geography and Environment
Overview Azerbaijan lies in eastern Transcaucasia, on the outermost
Azeris, also called Azerbaijanis or Azerbaijani Turks, are a areas of the Caucasus Mountains’ southern flanks. It is bor-
Turkic people who predominantly live in the Republic of dered to the north by Russia, to the east by the Caspian
Azerbaijan. There are also Azeris living in the northwest Sea, to the south by Iran, to the west by Armenia, and to
Iranian region of Azerbaijan and in the Republic of Geor- the northwest by Georgia. The Nakhchivan Autonomous
gia. Azeris speak the Azeri language, which is spoken in Republic, the landlocked exclave of Azerbaijan, is located
two dialects: North Azerbaijani and South Azerbaijani. The southwest of Azerbaijan, where it is bounded by Armenia,
Azeri language is Turkic and belongs to the Western Oghuz Iran, and Turkey. Azerbaijan also includes the enclave of
language group. The majority of Azeris are Shia Muslims, Nagorno-Karabakh. Azerbaijan has a wide variety of ter-
though some are Sunni Muslims, Christians, or Baha’is. rain as a result of the country’s varying relief and drainage
After years of Soviet rule, many Azeris identify as cultural patterns, climatic variations, and changes of altitude. In
Muslims, but they do not actually practice any religion. lowland areas, steppe and semidesert landscapes prevail,

Baha’i: One of the World’s Youngest Religions

The Baha’i faith is a monotheistic religion that was founded in 1863 by the Persian nobleman Bahá’u’lláh. Baha’i
developed in Iran, and elsewhere in the Middle East, before spreading around the world. Baha’i teaches that religion
is gradually revealed through the manifestations of God that have taken the forms of such founders of major world
religions as Buddha, Jesus, and Mohammed. Baha’i stresses the unity of humankind to ensure the success of all eth-
nicities, faiths, and classes.
 Azeri 123

An Azeri man wears the national Azeri costume in Baku, Azerbaijan. Azeris living in Azerbaijan and Iran retain strong cultural links,
with some working together to create a unified Azeri state. (Tatsiana Hendzel/Dreamstime.com)

and beech, oak, and pine forests cover mountain slopes. At region’s earliest people were Caucasians living in settled,
higher altitudes, alpine meadows dominate. organized villages where they practiced irrigated farming.
The Iranian region of Azerbaijan comprises the extreme At some point, migrants invaded the region while jour-
northwest portion of Ira, where it is bounded to the north neying through the southern Caucasus Mountains con-
by the Aras River that divides the Republic of Azerbaijan necting Asia and Europe. An ancient Persian people called
from Armenia. To the east are the regions of Gīlān and the Medes settled in the region in the eighth century BCE,
the Caspian Sea, to the west lie Iraq and Turkey, and to and the area was included in several successive Persian
the south are the regions of Zanjān and Kordestān. The empires. Some researchers believe Zarathustra (or Zoro-
region’s landscape features plateaus, lakes, rivers, streams, asta), the originator of the pre-Islamic Persian religion
and gorges. Much of the region experiences heavy rain- Zoroastrianism, was born in the Azeri homeland between
fall that enables unirrigated farming to occur. However, 660 and 583 BCE.
the region’s climate varies from hot, dry summers to cold, In the fourth century CE, Christianity became the
snowy winters. Copper, arsenic, kaolin, coal, salt, lead, region’s official religion, with most inhabitants remain-
and stone are all mined within the region. The Azerbaijan ing Christian until the eighth century. However, Persians
region has a road network linking it to Iran’s major cities, ruled the Azeri homeland until 164 CE after Muslim
and an oil pipeline running between the city of Tabrīz and Arabs invaded the area. Under Muslim rule, many Azeris
the national capital of Tehran. converted to Islam. In the eleventh century, Seljuk Turks
conquered the region, which they ruled until the Mongols
invaded in 1225.
History and Politics In 1551, the Persian Safavid dynasty took over all Azeri
Numerous archeological artifacts evince that the Azeri land and imposed Shia Islam as the region’s religion.
homeland has been inhabited since prehistoric times. The Before this, most Azeris had been Sunni Muslims. Conflict
124 Azeri

between the Shia Safavids and the Sunni Ottoman Empire Soviet state declared by communist Azeris belonging to
was the defining feature of Azeri history for several centu- the Tudeh Party (an Iranian communist faction) and local
ries. When Safavid influence waned in the eighteenth cen- nationalist groups. The new state was short-lived however,
tury, the Ottomans started to vie with the Russian Empire for it collapsed in 1946 following Western pressure and the
for control of the Azeri homeland. signing of a new oil deal between the Soviets and Iran.
By the start of the nineteenth century, most of the Azeri In the 1950s, widespread radio coverage made it almost
homeland was divided into independent states. Between impossible for the Soviets to prevent contact between
1805 and 1813, the growing Russian Empire annexed Russian Azeris and those in Iran. Though the Azeris suf-
these states one by one. The 1813 Treaty of Gulistan real- fered some repression, they dominated Iran’s bazaars and
ized Russian authority over Azerbaijan and divided the so prospered financially. Southern Azeris also held many
Azeri homeland between Russian and Persian territories positions in the Iranian military, in education, and in the
located on either side of the Araks River. This partition arts. The Soviets soon relaxed their rigorous approach to
resulted in the Azeri community developing two differ- international communication, and Iran became more
ent cultures, and as an entity, Azeri culture was not suffi- modernized. The two events together resulted in a renewed
ciently strong and cohesive to withstand outside political interest in Azeri culture, religion, and cross border Azeri
and cultural influences. By the end of the century, nation- contact. In 1979, the Iranian Revolution resulted in Azeri
alist Russian Azeris worried about outside influences on demonstrations against the new strict Islamic national
Azeri culture founded new proindependence Azeri polit- regime. Then, in 1983, Iranian authorities disbanded all
ical parties. Soon after, large petroleum deposits were Azeri political parties, which was followed by the banning
developed on Azeri land. By the start of the twentieth of Azeri religious and cultural bodies, the leaders of which
century, oil fields around the city of Baku (now the cap- were imprisoned. All but one Azeri-language publication
ital of Azerbaijan) produced over half of the world’s oil was also prohibited. Meanwhile, a wave of Azeri nation-
(Minahan 2014). alism spread throughout Soviet Azeri communities, pro-
In 1918, in the wake of the Russian Empire’s downfall voking civil unrest between the Azeris and Armenians, the
after the Russian Revolution, northern Azeris declared latter being the majority population in the Soviet Azeri
their independence and established the Azerbaijan Dem- state.
ocratic Republic. However, in 1920, the new Soviet gov- The end of the Soviet Union saw the creation of the
ernment invaded the republic to take control of the Baku independent Republic of Azerbaijan. The years following
oil fields. The Soviets blockaded the border between Iran the state’s creation were marked by hostilities with Arme-
and Soviet Azerbaijan, and all contact between the two nia and the enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh, which had a
sections of the Azeri nation ended. Subsequently, south- large Armenian population despite being located within
ern Azeris became closer to Iran in terms of culture and Azerbaijan. In 1994, the conflict ended with Armenia con-
religion, something that curbed their nationalist desires. trolling parts of Azerbaijan, including Nagorno-Karabakh,
Southern Azeri nationalism also moderated as southern and the out-migration of many ethnic minority groups
Azeris came to hold positions in the Persian government. from both Armenia and Azerbaijan. In 1999, Azeri students
On the other side of the blockade, Soviet modernization in Iran began to riot under the influence of independent
allowed the Azeris to develop, though they also experi- Azerbaijan. To avoid persecution after the demonstrations,
enced religious and political repression. many Azeri religious, cultural, and political figures fled
During World War II, the Azeri oil fields proved vital northward to Azerbaijan. However, Iran’s religious con-
to the Soviet war efforts, and 680,000 Azeris (men and servatism had spread to Azerbaijan, resulting in the Aze-
women) were conscripted into the Soviet military (Mina- ris being targeted as a religious minority and Azerbaijani
han 2014). Approximately 250,000 Azeris died in the Azeri women being condemned for being too liberated.
fighting, with 130 named Heroes of the Soviet Union (the There were also calls for the formation of an Islamic gov-
highest Soviet distinction awarded for heroic service to the ernment to oversee Azerbaijan. The majority of Azerbaija-
Soviet state and society). In the course of the war, the Soviet nis, however, followed a less strict form of Shia Islam and
army occupied Iranian Azerbaijan on the understanding wished to maintain the country’s secular government as
that it would leave after the war’s end. However, once peace well as the modernization the country had experienced
was restored, the army remained in Iran to support a new since the end of Soviet control.
 Azeri 125

In recent years, Azeris in Azerbaijan have seen their Health Care and Education
country forge closer ties with the West, especially the Health care in Azerbaijan is provided by public and private
European Union and the United States, and with Turkey. healthcare institutions and regulated through the Minis-
In general, Azerbaijani Azeris enjoy fairly affluent lives in try of Healthcare. Many people in Azerbaijan profess little
mostly urban areas, and the country’s Azeri women enjoy faith in the country’s health care, though life expectancy
­Western-style sexual equality. Contrastingly, Azeris in Iran has improved greatly over the last twenty-five years—
have experienced less comfortable lives. In particular, Azeri from sixty years for men and sixty-six years for women in
women in Iran do not enjoy sexual equality because the 1990 to sixty-nine years for men and seventy-six years for
Islamic government considers gender equality contrary to women in 2015. Over the same period, deaths in childbirth
Islamic teaching (Minahan 2014). Though separated by an also dropped from sixty-four to twenty-five per one hun-
international border, Azeris in both Azerbaijan and Iran dred thousand live births, and child mortality for children
retain strong cultural and linguistic links, with some work- under the age of five years fell from twenty per one thou-
ing together to create a unified, independent Azeri state. sand children to seven.
Despite these improvements, many people in Azerbai-
jan distrust doctors and healthcare institutions, which
Society, Culture, and Tradition
they consider corrupt and rife with malpractice. One of
In Azerbaijan, the West has a strong influence on Azeri cul- the perceived reasons for medical corruption in Azerbai-
ture, but this is not the case in Iran. Unlike many Islamic jan is that medics are poorly paid and so prone to bribery.
societies, however, religion is not the defining feature of In 2018, the Azerbaijani government introduced compul-
Azeri cultural identity, though several religions influence sory health insurance in an attempt to improve health care
the Azeris. while also eliminating bribes (Kazimova 2016).
The Jafari Shia Islamic sect is the most prevalent reli- All citizens of Azerbaijan are entitled to nine years of
gion among Azeris in Azerbaijan, but decades of atheist free general education between the ages of six and fifteen
Soviet rule and a mix of Western secularism and Christian years. The Azeri language is prohibited from schools in
attitudes have tempered the religiosity of northern Azeris. Iran. In Georgia, Azeris rely on Azeri teaching materials
A minority living on the border of Azerbaijan and Iran and imported from Azerbaijan. However, the Georgian Minis-
around Lake Urmia are Sunni Muslims. Remnants of early try of Education has implemented programs with the assis-
Azeri Zoroastrianism are evident in the people’s reverence tance of the Organization for Security and Co-­Operation
for fire. in Europe (OSCE) for the creation of Georgian-language
In general, Azeri culture has developed from Persian, textbooks for Azeri-language speakers.
Turkish, and Western influences. Music, dance, art, food,
and architecture are all important to Azeri culture, with
the people’s food, music, architecture, and entertainment Threats to Survival
combining Western and Eastern elements. The people’s Azeris in Azerbaijan enjoy a fairly stable, comfortable
most important celebration, Novruz Bayram, is an annual existence. In Iran, the Azeris are one of the least troubled
holiday that serves as both a New Year celebration and a of the country’s minorities. This is mostly because the
spring festival. Preparations for Novruz Bayram begin a Azeris are Shia Muslim, like the Iran regime, and because
month before the festival. On each Tuesday of the prepa- their large population lives in the vicinity of Iran’s center
rations, the people celebrate one of the four elements— of power in Tehran. Azeris do, however, experience dis-
earth, water, wind, and fire—and clean their homes, plant crimination. For example, in 2015, Azeris protested over
trees, sew new clothes, and make desserts such as sheker- a statewide broadcast of a children’s television program
bura (sweet, nut-filled pastry) and pakhlava (made from that ridiculed Azeris. Language rights for the Azeris in
filo pastry and honey). On these Tuesdays, Azeri children Iran is a major issue; in 2016, Azeri activists were arrested
jump over small bonfires and light candles as a way of on espionage charges when they gathered to celebrate
harking back to the people’s earlier Zoroastrian beliefs. On International Mother Language Day, and in June 2017,
the eve of Novruz Bayram, Azeris play traditional games, Azeris were arrested and beaten when they protested for
tell each other’s fortunes, and sing folk songs, while Azeri an end to the ban on teaching the Azeri language in Ira-
men wrestle as a show of strength. nian schools.
126 Azeri

In Georgia, one of the main concerns for the Azeris See also: Armenian; Avar; Bakhtiyari; Lezgin; Lur; Qash-
is that they are underrepresented in central government qai; Talysh
(3 seats out of 150). In recent years, the Azeris’ lack of Further Reading
political influence and, thus, their inability to effect land Kazimova, Gulnur. 2016. “Azerbaijan’s Flawed Healthcare Sys-
privatization has led to Azeri resentment and social ten- tem.” Institute for War and Peace Reporting, October 19.
sion. Journalists covering this civil unrest are alleged to https://iwpr.net/global-voices/azerbaijans-flawed​-health​
care-system.
have faced police intimidation (Minority Rights Group
Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East and Cen-
International 2015). Another problem facing Azeris in tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Georgia is that they have one of the lowest Georgian-­ Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Georgia: Azeris.”
language proficiencies of any minority group in the coun- World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, June
try. However, this may change in time because, in 2006, 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/azeris.
mainstream Georgian news outlets began to broadcast in Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Iran: Azeris.” World
Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, December.
Azeri.
http://minorityrights.org/minorities/azeris-2.
 B

BAGANDA Baganda live in the Kingdom of Buganda Kingdom in

southern Uganda. The Baganda are Uganda’s most pop-
Current Location Uganda ulous ethnic group comprising around 17 percent of
Current Population 4.1 million–5.9 million Uganda’s population (Shoup 2011). Smaller communities
Language Ganda (Luganda) of Baganda live in Kenya, Rwanda, and the Democratic
Interesting Fact The Baganda are divided between fif-
Republic of Congo.
ty-six clans headed by a single king.

Overview Geography and Environment

The Baganda (also called the Ganda, Gandan, Bugan- Buganda lies on a fertile lowland on the northern shore
dan, Bagandan, or Waganda) are a Bantu people living in Lake Victoria in south-central Uganda. The Kingdom of
Uganda. The Baganda speak a language called Ganda or Buganda corresponds to the Central region of modern
Luganda. This language belongs to the interlacustrine fam- Uganda that includes the Ugandan capital city of Kampala.
ily of the Bantu group, meaning it originated between the Uganda is bordered by South Sudan to the north, Kenya to
Great Lakes of east central Africa. Most Baganda are Chris- the east, Tanzania and Rwanda to the south, and the Dem-
tian, being either Catholic or Protestant. There is also a ocratic Republic of the Congo to the west. Lake Victoria
sizeable number of Muslim Baganda while about the same forms part of Uganda’s border with Kenya and Tanzania.
number of Baganda practice their traditional animist reli- Most of Uganda lies on a plateau that descends gen-
gion, Balubaale. The singular term for a Baganda person is tly from the south to the north. The edges of the plateau
a Muganda. Baganda (or Waganda) is the plural. are defined by mountains and valleys. Lake Victoria (also
referred to as Victoria Nyanza) is the largest lake in Africa
and the main reservoir of the Nile River. Most of the lake
Population, Diaspora, and Migration lies in Tanzania and Uganda. The shores of Lake Victoria
The Baganda population is estimated to comprise between tend to be deeply indented, with the northern shore being
4.1 million and 5.9 million people (Minahan 2016). The especially indented, flat, and bare. The lake contains many
Baganda population is divided between fifty-six clans archipelagos and reefs that tend to be located just below
all of which are headed by a single Kabaka (king). The the surface of the lake. Lake Victoria contains hundreds

127
128 Baganda

of fish species, with tilapia being the most important area already to move. Here the Baganda flourished and
economically. vied for dominance with other lake kingdoms, especially
People in Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya rely on the the Bunyoro. Initially, the Kingdom of Buganda was prob-
fish industry based around Lake Victoria. However, pollu- ably a tributary of the Bunyoro. In the sixteenth century,
tion and overfishing affects the lake increasingly. A fish- however, Buganda expanded through creating trade links
ing boom in the 1980s and 1990s led people to flock to that saw the Baganda trade dried fish, bark cloth, sor-
Lake Victoria to claim a part in the fishing boom. While ghum, salt, iron, and bananas. In time, bananas formed
in the 1970s, there were around fifty thousand fishermen the basis of the Baganda diet and economic base. As the
and twelve thousand fishing boats operating on Lake Vic- Baganda’s flourished, their population grew, giving them
toria. Today, however, over two hundred thousand people an advantage over Bunyoro. Eventually, by 1640 or 1650,
fish on the lake from sixty thousand boats with more than the Baganda had become independent of the Bunyoro.
two thousand new boats joining the lake’s fishing industry Baganda kings (Kabaka) expanded their realm through
each year (Weston 2015). The amount of lake fish caught the conquest of other peoples, a system of expansion that
has also increased tenfold since the 1970s because trawlers continued into the nineteenth century. Over the years, the
and boats with outboard motors have replaced the less effi- Baganda established a sophisticated form of governance
cient canoes used by fishers previously. Even if fish stocks controlled by a katikiro (similar to a prime minister) as
remain stable, some parts of Lake Victoria are experienc- well as an oral constitution. Advisors to the Kabaka came
ing a steep decline in fish numbers. Areas of the lake also from all Baganda clans to ensure social unity while the
suffer heavy pollution as thousands of tons of sewage and people paid into a taxation system to have a war kitty avail-
industrial waste flow into the lake annually. Agricultural able to fight the Baganda’s main rivals, the Bunyoro.
runoff from the intensive farming that occurs on the lake’s According to Baganda legend, the first Kabaka, Kintu,
shores saturates the lake with nutrients, which in turn unified all the Baganda clans and was given the honorific
cause massive amounts of green algae to form that sub- title of Sasabataka (meaning Head of the Clan Heads). By
sequently deplete the lake water’s oxygen levels. Deforest- the time European travelers first encountered the Baganda
ation, caused partly by the fishing industry using felled in 1862, they were surprised to find Buganda was a strong,
trees to smoke fish, allows soil nutrients to flow to into the highly organized kingdom that controlled a region con-
lake faster. The shallow waters near the lake’s shores, which taining Lake Victoria, Lake Edward, Lake Albert, and
are where Nile perch breed, are hit particularly hard by this Lake Kygoa. When British explorer Henry Morton Stanley
pollution to the extent that some parts of the lake are una- (1841–1904) visited the court of Kabaka Mutesa I for the
ble to support life. first time in 1875, he noted that the king could easily raise
There are ominous signs that this combination of over- an army of 150,000 men as well as a fleet of 325 canoes,
fishing and pollution will cause the lake’s fish stocks to each of which was powered by a crew of thirty men (Shoup
reduce irreversibly. As large fish such as Nile perch disap- 2011). As Buganda became the focus of increasing inter-
pear from the lake, fishers are willing increasingly to catch est to outsides, Mutesa I converted to Islam and installed
smaller fish. Subsequently, hundreds of smaller species of Islamic scholars as well as Arab and Swahili merchants in
the lake’s fish are now extinct. his court. Despite his religious conversion, however, the
The governments of Uganda, Tanzania, and Kenya king also allowed Catholic and Protestant missionaries
have implemented measures to try to halt the damage. to operate within his kingdom. During the period 1877–
For instance, the size of mesh used to make fishing nets is 1879, missionaries began to operate en masse in Buganda
regulated now, trawling is banned, and there are limits on with the outcome that most Baganda converted to Christi-
what size of fish fishers are permitted to catch. anity. Mutesa I died in 1884, and ever since then, his burial
place, Kasubi, has become a shrine to the Kabaka with all
Baganda kings buried there.
History and Politics In 1886, Mutesa I’s son and heir, Mwanga, was power-
Circa 1000 CE, the Baganda migrated from Central Africa less to stop a civil war from erupting following a Muslim
to the environs of Lake Victoria, where they established uprising as the kingdom’s Muslim, Catholic, and Protestant
the Kingdom of Burganda. In settling around the lake, the inhabitants fought each other. By 1889, the Muslims had
Baganda forced Nilotic and Cushitic peoples living in the forced all Christian missionaries to leave the kingdom. In
 Baganda 129

1890, however, the British persuaded Mwanga to agree a of Baganda farming and other projects, and preserving
treaty that gave the kingdom’s Protestants the upper hand. Baganda ancestral shrines.
Then in 1894, the Baganda, along with the Bunyoro, Kitara,
and Ankole, were unified as part of the British protectorate
of Uganda. Society, Culture, and Tradition
The British worked with the Baganda system of organ- The Baganda are farmers who grow a number of subsist-
ization, and in 1900, the Buganda Agreement was agreed. ence crops as well as commercial crops, including coffee,
This agreement transformed Buganda a province in the tea, sugarcane, and cotton, which was introduced to the
Protectorate of Uganda and regrouped the kingdom into Baganda by the British. Coffee trees once grew wild in
multiple counties, each of which was headed by a chief. parts of Uganda, but commercial coffee was introduced to
The agreement also allowed the Baganda some control of the Baganda during the twentieth century as part of Brit-
neighboring territories, something that fostered resent- ish farming policies. Most Baganda commercial crops are
ment toward the Baganda on the part of other local peoples. grown in areas of Baganda land with the mildest climate.
In 1955, a second Buganda Agreement was endorsed The coffee is often sold abroad alongside baskets woven by
between Britain and the king of Buganda that made the expert Baganda weavers. In addition to being renowned
king the region’s constitutional monarch and his council weavers, the Baganda are famous for constructing huge
(Lukiko) act as an elected body. Ultimately, the movement wooden thatched buildings, including the home of the
to end British colonial power over Uganda was spear- Kabaka that rises to fifteen feet in height.
headed by the Young Baganda Association, which regarded Around 60 percent of the Baganda are Christian, and
the Kabaka as an instrument of British imperialism (Lutz 20 percent are Sunni Muslim. The rest of the Baganda fol-
2015). Ironically, when Uganda gained independence in low the traditional Baganda religion. This religion focuses
1962, Kabaka Mutesa II became Uganda’s first president. on numerous gods and spirits associated with places and
The presidency lasted until 1966, when Mutesa II was objects such as trees. Each of the gods and spirits has its
ousted by the serving prime minister, Milton Obote. Fol- own customs and priesthoods. The Kabaka is considered
lowing Mutesa II’s dismissal, the Baganda rioted, but the godlike and rules with divine authority. Kabaka succession
demonstrations did not bring about Mutesa II’s reinstal- is matrilineal, whereas Baganda society is patrilineal. This
lation. Instead, in 1967, the new government abolished system means that all Baganda clans are able to provide
all of Uganda’s traditional kingdoms. In 1971, a military the next monarch for succession passes to a male from
coup resulted in the overthrow of Obote by Idi Amin Dada among the relatives of the polygamous Kabaka’s princi-
(commonly called Idi Amin, ca. 1923–2003). This was the ple wife. The Kabaka’s court is staffed by Baganda who are
start of an infamous reign of terror that killed as many as able to prove they have military prowess or administrative
three hundred thousand people (Shoup 2011). In 1979, know-how, because such skills mean the people could rise
Idi Amin was forced to flee in exile by an invading army to positions of influence or wealth in the long run.
from Tanzania after the economic and intellectual life of The Baganda language, Ganda or Luganda, is an Eastern
Uganda had been destroyed. Obote returned and became Lacustrine Bantu language belonging to the Nyoro-Ganda
president again in 1980. However, Obote was driven from language group. The language is spoken in four major dia-
office by Tito Okello (1914–1996), a member of the Acholi. lects corresponding to the traditional districts of the King-
In 1986, a coup forced Okello from office allowing Yow- dom of Buganda. The language is used in some primary
eri Museveni became the new president. In 1993, in an schools within the kingdom before children start to learn
attempt to improve relations between Uganda’s main eth- English, which is Uganda’s main official language.
nic groups, Museveni restored the country’s traditional
kingdoms including the Kingdom of Buganda. The Kab-
aka, Ronald Mutebi II, who was living in exile in Britain, Health Care and Education
returned to Uganda where he was living in exile in Brit- Malaria, HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, respiratory conditions,
ain, returned to Uganda where he was crowned the new diarrheal diseases, and epidemic-prone and vaccine-­
Kabaka in front of some twenty thousand Baganda (Shoup preventable diseases are Uganda’s main causes of ill health
2011). Ronald Mutebi II’s official duties include ensuring and death. Uganda also faces environment issues that can
the continuation of Baganda culture, the development have a negative impact on health including unplanned
130 Baka

urban settlements, deforestation, industrialization, and Further Reading

the draining of swamps that contribute to increased rates Lutz, Jason. 2015. “Baganda.” In Native Peoples of the World: An
of disease. The Ugandan national average for latrine cov- Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues,
edited by Steven Danver, 18. Vol. 1. London: Routledge.
erage is 77 percent. However, 35 percent of these latrines Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
are low quality, which, together with Ugandans’ generally nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa Bar-
poor levels of hand-washing, is a factor in causing disease bara, CA: Greenwood.
outbreaks. The use of certain fuels in poorly ventilated Shoup, John A. 2011. “Ganda.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and
cooking facilities leads to indoor air pollution that often the Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup,
results in respiratory infections, especially among women 106–108. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Weston, Mark. 2015. “Troubled Waters: Why Africa’s Larg-
and children. Indoor air pollution caused by use of these est Lake Is in Grave Danger.” Slate, March 27. https://slate​
fuels  is said to cause around 9,263 deaths in Uganda .com/news-and-politics/2015/03/lake-victoria-is-in-grave​
each year. -danger-africas-largest-lake-is-threatened-by-pollution-and​
Around 75 percent of Ugandans live within three miles -overfishing.html.
of a healthcare facility, including village community clin- World Health Organization (WHO). n.d. WHO Country Coop-
ics. Once of the main challenges to Uganda’s healthcare eration Strategy 2016–2020: Uganda. Kololo, Uganda: World
Health Organization.
system is a lack of resources to recruit and retain health
staff. This issue is especially acute in remote areas. Other
problems include difficulties in delivering healthcare
information and managing medical supplies. The emer-
gence of antimicrobial resistance due to the incorrect
use of medicines and the supply of counterfeit drugs are BAKA
also major health issues in Uganda. Increasingly, conflict
in the neighboring nations of South Sudan, Burundi, and Current Location Cameroon; Gabon; Central African
Republic; Republic of Congo
the Democratic Republic of the Congo results in social
instability, the displacement of people, and an influx of Current Population 8,000–30,000
refugees to Uganda that place a drain on available health Language Baka
care. Uganda is also prone to such naturally occurring haz- Interesting Fact Half of all Baka children die before
ards as droughts, flooding, and landslides that can led to their fifth birthdays.
Ugandans becoming displaced, thereby stretching health
services further (WHO n.d.). Overview
The Baganda have a long history of accessing education. The Bakas (or Baaka, also known as the Bayaka, Bebayaka,
As a result of this educational heritage, a sizeable Baganda Bebayaga, or Bibaya) are an indigenous hunter-gatherer
middle class has developed. Today, the Baganda are highly people living in the central African rainforests of Came-
educated and dominate Uganda’s skilled professions, gov- roon, Gabon, Central African Republic, and the Republic
ernment positions, and commercial farms. of Congo. The Bakas are noted for their diminutive stature
and are classed as a pygmy people. Although some Bakas
Threats to Survival consider the term pygmy disrespectful, at the same time,
other Bakas have reclaimed the word pygmy. The Bakas
Most Baganda show little interest in seeing the Kingdom of
speak their own language, which belongs to the Ubangian
Buganda split from Uganda. At the same time, however, the
language family. The Bakas are ethnically close to the Aka
Baganda call for greater control over the kingdom. These
people, but the Baka language is not related to the Aka lan-
demands for autonomy are the basis of much disagree-
guage because that belongs to the Bantu language family.
ment between the Baganda and the Ugandan government.
The tension between the Baganda and Ugandan authori-
ties mean that some Baganda do back calls for the creation Population, Diaspora, and Migration
of a Baganda republic called Obwakabaka Bwa Buganda or
It is extremely difficult to give exact population figures
Buganda Bita (the Kingdom of Buganda).
for the Bakas because the Bakas are nomadic and so hard
See also: Acholi; Swahili to count accurately. Consequently, while Minority Rights
 Baka 131

Watch estimates the Baka population to be between eight the natural laws of the forest. The myth tells that a young
thousand and twenty thousand people (Minority Rights Baka man called Zéngélé (who is now regarded as the first
Group International 2018), Paulin suggests the Baka popu- of the Bantus) felt hungry, so he killed more monkeys than
lation of Cameroon numbers some thirty thousand people. he needed, thereby depleting forest food stocks that were
The Bakas divide their time between the rainforests and there for everyone to enjoy. Komba, the supreme Baka god,
villages such as Yandoumbe in Central African Republic. was so surprised and displeased by Zéngélé’s killing of the
At the Dzanga-Sangha Special Reserve in southwestern monkeys that he transformed Zéngélé into a fool. Komba
Central African Republic, two thousand to three thousand did this so that all forest dwellers realized that the animals
Baka people live in huts made from mud and wood. Tra- of the forest were there for everyone to hunt equally. The
ditionally nomadic or seminomadic, the Bakas are slowly mythology of other pygmy peoples of the area describe
becoming more sedentary as they are forced to leave their the Bakas as being the first people to inhabit the region
forest habitat because of factors including deforestation and also note that it was only after the emergence of the
that deprives the people of the resources essential for their Bantu that the Bakas were forced to move inward toward
survival. the heart of the rainforest.
Because the Bakas do not keep records and have little
knowledge of their ancestry beyond living generations,
Geography and Environment there is some disagreement as to whether or not the Bakas
The rainforests of central Africa lie within the Congo River were indeed the first people to inhabit the Congo basin. In
basin and are the second largest tropical forest on Earth, addition, it has been suggested that the Bakas are not truly
measuring some five hundred million hectares. The Congo rooted in their land but rather master their surroundings
basin stretches across six countries: Cameroon, Central
African Republic, Democratic Republic of the Congo, the
Republic of the Congo, Equatorial Guinea, and Gabon. The
area consists of rivers, damp forests, savanna grasslands,
swamps, and floodplains that teem with many thousands
of plants and animals including lowland and mountain
gorillas, chimpanzees, bonobos, elephants, fish, birds,
and buffalo. Much of the wildlife in endangered because
animal habitats are being destroyed by deforestation and
because poachers are killing the animals.
Humans have inhabited the Congo basin for more than
fifty thousand years, and the land provides food, water, and
shelter to over seventy-five million people, including 150
distinct ethnic groups. Of these ethnic groups, the Bakas
are one of the most well-known hunter-gatherers. The
lives of the Bakas are intimately entwined with the forest
because the Bakas have an encyclopedic knowledge of the
land including the plants and animals that live there, and
the people know how to obtain food and medicines from
their surroundings.

History and Politics

The Bakas have lived in the rainforests of central Africa for
many thousands of years. According to Baka mythology,
A Baka woman in the Central African Republic prepares flour
the Bakas were the first people to live in the area of Africa by pounding grain in a mortar. The Baka attitude toward food
inhabited by the Bakas and Bantu. Indeed, a Baka creation is based on notions of collective food gathering and food distri-
myth states that the Bantu were Bakas who did not heed bution. (Sergey Uryadnikov/Dreamstime.com)
132 Baka

and subdue the natural world to make it productive for than they would by working individually and then share it
humans. This argument is one of the reasons that non- out among their family and friends. If a man catches an
Baka farmers consider the Bakas in a bad light—believing animal while hunting, then the resulting meat is typically
the Bakas to be nomadic vagabonds who wander too much divided only among his extended family. If a hunter shares
and live an existence that is too free and easy. Nonethe- his meat with people to whom he is not related, then he will
less, historically the Bakas have tended to settle in small expect to be given something in return to make up the debt.
groups and live seminomadic or nomadic existences based However, as the Bakas become displaced and food becomes
on their comprehensive knowledge of their environment’s scarcer through forest depletion, the Bakas are increasingly
natural resources. Today Baka culture and religion are still turning to cash crops. Also, because the Bantu operate a
strongly connected to the people’s forest habitat, some- cash economy, the Bakas are starting to follow suit. In addi-
thing that is at the heart of another Baka creation myth tion, 80 percent of Bakas who have moved from the forests
that tells that the Bakas are descended from a man called now work for cash, and 83 percent of Bakas pay for services
Chimpanzee. This man acted in an out-of-control manner and goods with cash rather than by swapping items or ser-
and one day kidnapped Komba’s daughter. Komba was so vices (Awuh and Spijkers 2017).
irate at the abduction that he exiled Chimpanzee to live The introduction of a cash economy is leading to
among the forest animals. This story reflects the close rela- friction within Baka communities. Similarly, the social
tionship that the Bakas have with the forest animals and cohesion of the Bakas is also threatened by the fact that
the oneness the Bakas feel with their environment. those Baka people who move out the forest are seen as
For as long as any Bakas can remember, the Bantu not upholding Baka group activities such as the Jengi
ethnic group of neighboring Democratic Republic of the ritual. Jengi is an omnipresent forest spirit worshipped
Congo has enslaved the Baka people. Because this enslave- by the Bakas and is said to punish sinners while keeping
ment has continued for so long, the Bakas consider the the faithful safe from the inherent dangers of the forest.
enslavement inescapable. Today the enslavement contin- Every Baka man is expected to take part in an initiation
ues, with some Bakas referring to the Bantu as their owners ritual, also called Jengi. According to tradition, each Baka
(Schulman 2016). However, the nature of the enslavement man must take part in a Jengi ritual three or four times per
is changing gradually so that outright ownership of the year. During the rituals, groups of men dress in leaves and
Bakas by the Bantu is slowly disappearing. Nonetheless, grasses to personify forest spirits. Women then sing and
the Bantu’s history of enslaving the Bakas has given the dance to embolden the spirits, and the men enter into a
Bantu an attitude of dominance and entitlement toward trancelike dance that embodies Jengi. It is important that
the Bakas. Nowadays, the Bantu make the Bakas work for Jengi is considered to be present because the Bakas will not
them on plantations and hunt animals for the Bantu to eat. be able to enter the forest safely without Jengi’s permission.
The Bakas are either not paid for this work or are paid a Despite the fact that the Jengi ritual helps cement com-
pittance, and they receive beatings if their work is consid- munity togetherness and is said to protect the Bakas who
ered not good enough. Instead of payment, many Bantu enter the forest, in modern times, fewer and fewer Baka
give Bakas alcohol, cigarettes, and manioc leaves. men are taking part in the ritual. The two main reasons
for the increasingly infrequency of the Jengi ritual is that
men who do not live in the forest are too busy working for
Society, Culture, and Tradition the Bantu to participate, and that Bakas living outside of
Both Baka men and women hunt every day, usually using the forest are starting to convert to Christianity. That said,
traditional nets and spears. The staple food of the Bakas is many Bakas still adhere to their people’s traditional beliefs
a forest antelope called the blue duiker. Each day, the Bakas and, in addition to Jengi, also worship the supreme being,
hold a hunting ceremony during which they summon up Komba, and a comical spirit called Emboamboa.
Bobe’e, a leaf-cloaked forest spirit, whom the Bakas ask Living in isolated, scattered communities and consid-
for permission to hunt the following day. Traditionally, the ered outcasts by neighboring peoples because of their short
Bakas’ attitude to food is based on notions of collective food stature and itinerant lifestyle, the Bakas do not tend to
gathering and food distribution. Baka women search for mix socially with other peoples and so have retained their
edible plants and insects while men hunt animals and look ancient forms of cultural expression. The most famous of
for honey. By working together, the people gather more food these is Baka music that features polyphonic vocals and
 Baka 133

sees a number of melodies sung simultaneously. Tradition- ranging from poaching to illegal logging. Poachers use
ally, Baka women sing the song while the men dance. The guns and traps to hunt forest animals, including the
only musical accompaniment to the singing and dancing is blue duikers and monkeys that the Bakas need for food.
percussion consisting of drums, rattles, and pieces of iron Because the poachers use mechanized methods of hunt-
struck against one another. ing, they kill more animals than the Bakas, meaning that
the forests are becoming depleted of their wildlife and
the Bakas face food shortages. Another reason that the
Health Care and Education Bakas can no longer depend on the forest for their food
The Bakas have little access to health care or education. is that protected conservation areas have been created by
This is evinced by the fact that Central African Republic organizations such as the World Wide Fund for Nature
is ranked 188th out of 188 countries in the 2015 Human (WWF). The creation of these protected areas means that
Development Index (HDI). This is a composite statistic of the Bakas find it more difficult to hunt in the parts of the
life expectancy, education, and per capita income indica- forest with the best game and fruit reserves. In recent
tors that ranks countries in terms of their human devel- years, the WWF has begun to work with both the Bakas
opment. According to the 2015 index, the average life and government officials to find solutions to this issue.
expectancy at birth for people born in the Central African To achieve a workable solution, the WWF has negotiated
Republic is 51.5 years, and of those years, and average of with authorities to give the Bakas access to certain parks
4.2 years will be spent in education. As an isolated indig- as part of the parks’ management plans. This access allows
enous group without adequate access to health care or the Bakas to reach wild fruits, tubers, and medicinal
schooling, the figures can be expected to be even worse plants as well as access sacred places. Some Bakas remain
for the Bakas. Certain diseases (tuberculosis and hepati- unhappy with this limited access to parts of their tradi-
tis B) are endemic among the Bakas. Another extremely tional homelands, however, and believe that a solution
widespread health issue for the Bakas is jiggers. This is a can only come about through policy reforms that protect
parasite that lives in soil and sand, burrowing into people’s the fundamental rights of the Bakas. Critics also point
feet. If the parasite is not extracted from the body, it causes out that more should be done in general to safeguard the
infection leading to deformity and ultimately can leave rights of Bakas in Cameroon, because the Cameroonian
people crippled. Meanwhile, virtually every Baka child government has signed a United Nations agreement on
tests positive for malaria. Indeed, local healthcare provid- indigenous rights.
ers estimate that around half of all Baka children do not Young Bakas realize the threat to their traditional way
live to see their fifth birthdays. of life but feel there is little they can do about it. At the
The Bakas have a fatalistic attitude to modern medicine. same time, many young Bakas find their traditional life-
This attitude is influenced by the people’s beliefs in sorcery style increasingly unappealing because they see the Baka
and witchcraft that deters them from seeking mainstream life as difficult; they recognize that hunting for animals
medical treatment at far off clinics. This fatalism also stops that are becoming rarer will mean it is harder to find food,
the Bakas from sticking with drug regimens if they do seek and they also see that there is little well-paid employment
modern medical help. Instead of modern health care, the within Baka villages. The young Bakas find the idea of
Bakas turn to traditional forest medicine. Realizing the working in virtual servitude for the Bantu equally unap-
Bakas have little access to medicine should they wish to pealing. To alleviate their despair, young Baka are increas-
make use of it, several nongovernmental organizations ingly turning to alcohol dependency, glue sniffing, and
(NGOs) such as the German organization Action Medeor taking tramadol, a powerful synthetic opiate available in
sometimes supply Baka people with drugs, but this does urban areas.
not overcome the Bakas’ lack of medical training or ability
See also: Aka; BaTwa
to diagnose health issues.
Further Reading
Awuh, H. E., and F. E. Spijkers. 2017. “Football for Solidarity:
Bridging Gaps between the Baka and the Bantu in East Cam-
Threats to Survival
eroon.” In Place, Diversity and Solidarity, edited by Stijn Oost-
The Bakas are under great threat from outside forces erlynck, Nick Schuermans, and Maarten Loopmans, 127–145.
and disease. In their forest home, the Bakas face threats London: Routledge.
134 Bakhtiyari

Chimtom, Ngala Killian. 2007. “Ancient Baka Culture in Cam- legs”) and the Haft-Lang (meaning “seven legs”). These
eroon under Threat.” DW.com, July 12. http://www.dw​ two groups are further divided into smaller tribal groups.
.com/en/ancient-baka-culture-in-cameroon-under-threat​ The Chahar-Lang consists of twenty-four subtribes, and
/a-16088853.
Giles-Vernick, Tamara, and James L. A. Webb Jr., eds. 2013. Global
the Haft-Lang is composed of fifty-five subtribes (Shoup
Health in Africa: Historical Perspectives on Disease Control. 2011). The mainly symbolic Bakhtiyari Confederation
Athens: Ohio University Press. consists of a diverse range of ethnic groups including the
Lueong, Glory M. 2017. The Forest People without a Forest: Devel- Bakhtiyari, Lurs, Turkmen, and Arab peoples, which live in
opment Paradoxes, Belonging and Participation of the Baka in roughly the same territory, speak a Luri dialect of Persian,
East Cameroon. New York: Berghahn Books. and acknowledge the leadership of the khans (chiefs) and
Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Aka.” World Direc-
tory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, March. https://​
the ilkhani (the confederation’s highest authority).
minorityrights.org/minorities/aka.
Paulin, Pacale. 2006. “Les Pygmees Baka Du Gabon: Approche
Sociolinguistique.” In Actes du Colloque International des Geography and Environment
Etudiants Chercheurs en Didactique des Langues et en Lin- The Bakhtiyari inhabit the rugged Bakhtiyari Mountains that
guistique, Autour des Langues et du Langage: Perspective form part of southwestern Iran’s Zagros Mountains. The
Pluridisciplinaire, July 4–7, 2006, 307–314. Grenoble, France:
Presses Universitaires de Grenoble.
area inhabited by the Bakhtiyari stretches from west of Isfa-
Schulman, Susan. 2016. “Life for the Baka Pygmies of Cen- han to the foothills of the eastern Khuzistan Valley. Zagros
tral African Republic.” The Guardian, May 5. https://www​ Mountains extend from northwest to southeast, from Iran’s
.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/may/04/life​ border with eastern Turkey to northern Iraq and the Strait
-for-the-baka-pygmies-of-central-african-republic. of Hormuz. The range is around 990 miles long and over 150
miles wide. The mountains lie mostly in Iran and form the
extreme western boundary of the Iranian plateau.
The highest point in the Zagros range is Mount Dena,
which rises to an altitude of 14,465 feet and is located in the
BAKHTIYARI middle of the mountain range. The mountains are home to
fertile plains, powerful rivers, and ravines. This landscape
Current Location Iran make the mountains a daunting natural barrier that have cre-
Current Population 800,000 ated a boundary between different cultures throughout his-
Language Lur-i-Buzurg (Greater Lur); Persian tory, including the early Mesopotamian and Median peoples,
Interesting Fact Bakhtiyari transhumance activities the Parthian and Roman Empires, and the Persian and Otto-
have been the subject of two docu- man Empires. Significant reserves of petroleum are located
mentaries, including the critically around the mountain range’s southwestern foothills, and the
acclaimed People of the Wind (1976). discovery of oil in 1996 resulted in the significant urbaniza-
tion of larger Bakhtiyari villages and cities such as Isfahan.
Overview A number of Bakhtiyari practice transhumance whereby
The Bakhtiyari (also written Bakhtiari or similar) are a they travel with their animals (sheep, goats, horse, and cat-
nomadic Iranian tribe sometimes classified as a subgroup tle) in a yearly cycle. In summer, these Bakhtiyari migrate to
of the Lurs. The Bakhtiyari speak the Lur-i-Buzurg (Greater high-altitude grazing pasture in the Zagros Mountains before
Lur) dialect of the Luri language and include some Kurd- returning to lowland plains and sheltered mountain valleys
ish elements. Many Bakhtiyari men also speak Persian. The in winter. These annual migrations cover in excess of 150
Bakhtiyari are Shi’ite Muslims who follow Islamic conven- miles and take four weeks each way to complete (Kolb 2005).
tions and traditions. In recent years, these annual journeys have become easier
through the building of roads and bridges in Bakhtiyari areas.

Population, Diaspora, and Migration

The Bakhtiyari population measures around eight hundred History and Politics
thousand people (Shoup 2011). The Bakhtiyari are divided In common with other Lur peoples, the Bakhtiyari are prob-
into two main subgroups, the Chahar-Lang (meaning “four ably of Kurdish origin, having migrated to their homeland
 Bakhtiyari 135

between the ninth and twelfth centuries. During the reign Haft-Lang holds the title of ilkhani (paramount Bakhti-
of Shah Isma’il I (r. 1501–1524), the founder of Iran’s Safa- yari leader), and the head of the Chahar-Lang serves as his
vid dynasty, the Bakhtiyari began to follow Twelver Shi’ite ilbeg (deputy). These positions are rotated every two years.
Islam. After the downfall of the Safavid dynasty in 1722, Every Haft-Lang and Chahar-Lang clan is led by a kalantar
Bakhtiyari tribal chiefs were involved in various political who works under the authority of the ilkhani and ilbeg.
maneuverings and led Bakhtiyari armies in operations Some Bakhtiyari are resolutely nomadic and practice
both for and against the state. During the rule of the Qajar transhumance annually. Other Bakhtiyari are sedentary
dynasty (1779–1925), the Bakhtiyari had a very strained farmers, growing cereal crops including wheat and raising
relationship with their rulers. For example, in 1909, Bakh- livestock. Nomadic Bakhtiyari acquire goods and foods
tiyari tribesmen headed by the Haft-Lang ilkhani, Sardar while they travel by bartering with villagers as they pass
Asad, captured Tehran to help unseat Mohammad Ali through their settlements.
Shah Qajar. Despite military operations against the Bakh- Bakhtiyari society is patriarchal, patrilocal, and pat-
tiyari, the Qajar were never able to conquer the Bakhtiyari rilineal with a focus on extended families. Nonetheless,
fully and bring the Bakhtiyari under state control. Bakhtiyari women enjoy a greater degree of freedom than
In the 1920s and 1930s, moves were under the rule of many Muslim women in Iran. This is partly because Bakh-
Iran’s Reza Shah (1924–1941) to force the Bakhtiyari and tiyari are considered important to the Bakhtiyari econ-
other pastoral nomads to adopt a settled lifestyle. The omy; they are accomplished weavers of pile carpets who
Bakhtiyari briefly moved into settlements, but as soon as are renowned for their use of color and bold patterns fea-
the Shah lost power, the Bakhtiyari returned to their tradi- turing florals and geometric patterns. In addition, in recent
tional nomadic ways. years, one of the most famous Bakhtiyari was a woman for
After the Iranian Revolution in 1979, the Bakhtiyari Soraya Esfandiary-Bakhtyari who became queen of Iran
found that their traditional tribal society was interrupted when she married Muhammad Reza Shah in 1951.
with the role of the kalantar supplanted by fundamentalist In addition to weaving, the Bakhtiyari have a rich
Islamic mullahs (an honorific lord). Since the Iranian Rev- oral tradition consisting of poems, stories, and proverbs,
olution, the Bakhtiyari have played a only a minor role in many of which have been translated into English. Bakh-
Iranian politics. tiyari traditional dress is notable for the distinctive, very
wide-­legged, black shalwar-gosad (trousers) worn over
zir-shalwar (long underpants) worn by Bakhtiyari men.
Society, Culture, and Tradition A white fabric sash or leather belt holds up the trousers.
Bakhtiyari tribal subgroups are led by khans who settle Bakhtiyari men also wear a woolen jacket called a coga,
disputes within groups and represent this people to the which features a piano-stripe pattern. The typical outfit
outside world, including dealing national government. sported by Bakhtiyari women consists of long underpants
When khans are absent, their wives deputize for them in worn over a tombun-zanuna (long skirt) that is made of
settling disputes with the wives’ decision being final. A around ten yards of fabric and gathered at the waist. This
noble family vested with hereditary political power heads skirt is accompanied by a jowa (knee-length tunic). Bakh-
each Bakhtiyari clan group (moieties) and maintains tiyari women often wear a small cap called a lacak that is
extensive territory and animal herds. The leader of the attached to a face-framing veil. The women wear their hair

Bakhtiyari Rugs
Most Bakhtiyari rugs are woven by Bakhtiyari tribes in west central Iran. The carpets are based on a cotton warp with
a wool weft taken from the herds of the Bakhtiyari tribe that make the carpets. The best Bakhtiyari rugs (those with
the highest knot density) are called Bibibaff. The prices of Bakhtiyari carpets vary, as those with the highest knot den-
sity are usually the most expensive. Prices are also influenced by the pattern, size, and dyes used on the rugs. Older
Bakhtiyari rugs are highly collectible. The patterns employed on Bakhtiyari rugs usually feature floral motifs, though
lattice designs are also used. The rugs’ colors vary among tribes but tend to include shades of white, red, and brown.
136 Balawar

parted in the middle with two plaits hanging down and the valleys of the Karakoram Range of the Himalaya
joined under the chin. Mountains located in the disputed territory of Kashmir.
Other names for the Balawars include the Balawaris,
Bolors, Baltistanis, Balts, Gilgits, or Sbatlis. The name Bal-
Health Care and Education awar derives from the Persian word bala, meaning high.
There is little information available on Bakhtiyari health The Balawars speak many regional languages, includ-
care. Bakhtiyari in more urban areas tend to be more edu- ing Balti, an ancient form of spoken Tibetan written in
cated than those living in rural areas. Bakhtiyari khans are a Perso-Arabic; Urdu, which is the official language of
usually very well educated, having attended university in Pakistan; and Shina, which is spoken in multiple regional
Iran or overseas. dialects. Some Balawars also speak English because they
attend English-speaking schools. Most Balawars are Mus-
lim, with many belonging to minority Muslim sects. A
Threats to Survival Balawar minority is Buddhist or maintains pre-Islamic
There is little current information on the status of the traditions.
Bakhtiyari. It may be the case, however, that as Shi’i Mus- The Balawars’ long campaign to win equal rights with
lims living in Iran, the Bakhtiyari face little religious the other peoples of Pakistan as well as some degree of
discrimination. Also, because there are many nomadic self-determination has dismantled many of the cultural
Bakhtiyari existing on the periphery of Iranian society and barriers that one existed between the various Balwar com-
lacking militant nationalist or political organizations, the munities. Over time, the communities adopted many com-
country’s authorities may not consider the Bakhtiyari as mon cultural traits to form a new regional culture. By the
a threat to their authority and so leave the Bakhtiyari be. 1970s, the name Balawar was generally accepted across
See also: Kurd; Lur; Qashqai; Turkmen the region as the name for all peoples living in the Bala-
war homeland. Today, growing support for greater Balawar
Further Reading
Kolb, Charles C. 2005. “Bakhtyari.” In Encyclopedia of the World’s autonomy, or even perhaps the Balawars’ independence
Minorities, edited by Carl Skutsch, 176–177. New York: from Pakistan, means the name Balawar is in common
Routledge. usage, with their homeland referred to generally as Bala-
Shoup, John A. 2011. “Bakhtyari.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and waristan. Most people living in the Gilgit-Baltistan region
the Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup, consider themselves members of a unified group despite
36–37. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
some continuing cultural, religious, and linguistic differ-
Volgelsang-Eastwood, Gillian. 2013. “Bakhtiari Dress.” In Ency-
clopedia of National Dress: Traditional Clothing around the ence among the Balawars.
World, edited by Jill Condra, 346–347. Vol. 1. Santa Barbara,
CA: ABC-CLIO.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
The estimated one million Balawars live in Gilgit-­Baltistan,
the northernmost territory governed by Pakistan (Mina-
han 2014). There are also Balawar communities in cen-
BALAWAR tral  and  southern Pakistan, particularly in the cities
of  Karachi and Rawalpindi, and in Indian-controlled
Current Location Pakistan
Ladakh.
Current Population 1 million
The Balawar population comprises several groups. The
Language Balawar; Urdu; Balti; Shina; English
largest of these groups are the Balts who live in parts of
Interesting Fact The Balawars’ mountainous home- Kashmir governed by both Pakistan and Indian. The larg-
land is sometimes called Tibet-i- est Balawar group in Gilgit is the Shina (also called the
Khurd, or “Little Tibet.”
Gilgits).
The Balawar’s high birth rate, together with their
Overview homeland’s high taxes and system of small landholdings,
The term Balawar (meaning “highlander”) is used collec- force many Balawar men to migrate southward in search
tively to refer to various small groups of people inhabiting of work. In the south, the men face ethnic and religious
 Balawar 137

discrimination, which adds to the Balawars’ growing the Kashmir frontier. The wildlife includes breeds of sheep,
resentment of Pakistani rule. ibex, and goats as well as endangered brown bears, lynx,
and snow leopards. The Khunjerab National Park in Paki-
stan and China’s neighboring Taxkorgan (Tash Kurghan)
Geography and Environment Nature Reserve serve as sanctuaries for high-mountain
The Balawar homeland, sometimes called Balawaristan, wildlife.
occupies an extremely mountainous area of the Karako- Save for the Gilgit-Skardu Road, which is in a state of
ram Range of the Himalaya Mountains. Balawaristan disrepair, Balawar areas have poor transport links; dirt
forms the Gilgit-Balistan region, the northernmost terri- tracks tend to connect mountain valleys and villages
tory administered by Pakistan. The region borders Azad across the Balawar homeland.
Kashmir to the south and the province of Khyber Pakh-
tunkhwa to the west. To the north lies the Wakhan Corri-
dor of Afghanistan. The Xinjiang region of China lies to the History and Politics
east and northeast, and the Indian-administered state of The inhabitants of the Karakoram Range were first doc-
Jammu and Kashmir lies to the southeast. Gilgit-Balistan, umented in an eighth-century Chinese chronicle. At this
seated on the high Ladakh Plateau, is drained by the Indus time, most of the region’s inhabitants were Buddhist and
River and tributaries including the Shyok River. The region lived in high, inaccessible valleys. The people remained
contains the Karakoram Range’s highest peaks, including Buddhist until the fifteenth century, when most of the
K2 (Mount Godwin Austen), which at 28,251 feet is the region’s inhabitants converted to Islam brought to the area
world’s second highest mountain; Gasherbrum I, which by invaders from Kashmir. Usually, the region was run
reaches an altitude of 26,470 feet; and Broad Peak I, which as a group of small principalities ruled by figures called
is 26,401 feet high. The region also contains many glaciers, maqpons. The region was unified under Ali She Khan
including the Siachen Glacier. Anchan (r. 1590–1625) and briefly expanded its territory
The climate of the Karakoram Range is mainly semiarid to include Ladakh, western Tibet, and Chitral. At some
and strongly continental. The range’s slopes to the north point, the Muslim Balts destroyed almost all the region’s
are quite dry, whereas the southern slopes face the moist Buddhist lamaseries and shrines. Later, the Balts were
monsoon winds off the Indian Ocean. Lower and mid- overrun by Ladakhis, though they ultimately lost power
dle slopes experience small amounts of rain and snow. In after their kingdom was divided between multiple heirs. In
areas over sixteen thousand feet, precipitation always falls the seventeenth century, the Tibetans invaded the region,
as snow. The mountains are characterized by rarefied air, forcing the Ladakhis to ask the Mongols for military help
intensive solar radiation, strong winds, and great diur- in exchange for paying an annual tribute.
nal temperature ranges. The extreme conditions found in In 1840, most of the region was occupied by the Dogra
high-elevation snowfields create Büsserschnee, snow for- rulers of Jammu as part of their subjugation of Kashmir.
mations that take the form of long, thin blades of closely The Treaty of Amritsar (1846) gave the British nominal
spaced hardened snow or ice that point toward the sun. control of the region, though the region remained under
Anabatic (upward-moving) winds cause extensive aeolian the administration of Kashmir’s Dogra rajas. The rule of
erosion in the mountains. Mountain oases are found atop the Dogras saw the Balawars forced to work as forced lab-
rocky outcrops. The oases are watered by intricate chan- orers and pay high taxes as a form of tribute. At the end of
nels of melted glacier water. the nineteenth century, the British took control of Bala-
The mountains’ arid, rocky lower slopes support some waristan under lease agreements with the rulers of Jammu
grazing land. The Karakoram Mountains have upper and and Kashmir. In 1899, Gilgit became a special agency, and
lower tree lines; the upper limit is defined by the cold, in 1901, the Dogra raja of Jammu and Kashmir leased to
whereas the lower limit results from aridity. The tree cover the region to Britain. Save for in minor garrison towns,
between these lines is sparse. Trees found at lower lev- British authority was ignored, and Balawar life continued
els include willow, poplar, and oleander that grow along uninterrupted as it had for centuries.
watercourses. Juniper trees grow among seasonal, high-­ In 1947, at a time when the British were preparing to
altitude snowfields. Much of the mountains’ wildlife has grant independence to India and Pakistan, both countries
been overhunted by local people and soldiers stationed on laid claim to the Balawar homeland. India based its claim
138 Balawar

on the tribute sent from the region to the Mogul emper- were arrested after demanding that the people of Gilgit-­
ors during the seventh century, and Pakistan claimed Baltistan have the same voting rights as Kashmiris. The
the region as it was inhabited by fellow Muslims. Shortly situation was further inflamed when the Pakistani police
before the partition of British India, the British gave con- opened fire on Balawar protesters, killing twelve. Later,
trol of Gilgit to the Hindu Maharaja Hari Singh of Kash- eight hundred protesters were arrested, and the region was
mir despite the Muslim peoples of Balawaristan wanting placed under curfew (Minahan 2002). While a vocal Bala-
to join Muslim Pakistan. When the maharaja announced war minority called for the people’s independence as well
that Kashmir would be part of Hindu India, the outraged as their separation from Pakistan, moderate Balwars asked
Muslim-majority Balawars rebelled. The Balawar rebels that Pakistan grant them self-rule under a United Nations
asked for help from Pakistan, who refused, so the Balawars resolution of August 13, 1948.
formed a provisional government that favored its annexa- In 2009, the Balawar homeland became a provincelike
tion by Pakistan. region and was granted limited self-rule. However, Paki-
The rebellion continued until 1949, when a cease-fire stan’s promises of democracy and development have failed
left the region divided: both Gilgit, which formed much to come to fruition in the main, leaving the Balawars frus-
of the Balawar homeland, and part of Ladakh came under trated and wary of government meddling in their affairs.
Pakistani rule, whereas Indian kept control of most of The Balawars believe their problems should be a matter
the territory of Jammu and Kashmir. The Balawaristan of international discussion that should be considered as
region was then officially separated from Pakistani Kash- distinct from the continuing Indian-­Pakistani conflict
mir to form the Northern Areas, which were administered over Kashmir. The Balawaristan National Front (BNF), a
directly by Pakistan’s central government as a disputed ter- Balawar nationalist party, continues to call for the crea-
ritory, though local rulers maintained their power as they tion of an independent state called the Republic of Bal-
had under the British. Consequently, little changed for the awaristan or the Republic of Gilgit-Baltistan, comprising
Balawars. the areas of Gilgit-Baltistan, parts of Kohistan and Chi-
In 1978, the completion of the Karakorum Highway tral that are currently part of Pakistan’s Province Khyber
brought rapid change to the previously remote Balawar Pakhtunkhwa, and Indian-controlled Ladakh. The BNF
valleys, including the government-sponsored resettlement aims for the establishment of a separate homeland for the
of Punjabi Sunni Muslims and Pashtuns. Encouraged by inhabitants of these areas through peaceful means (Bodla
the success of the 1979 Iranian Revolution, Shia religious 2014).
leaders became active politically. This in turn caused Bal-
awar nationalism to arise as tensions grew between Paki-
stan’s Sunni Muslim government and Balawar Shia Muslim Society, Culture, and Tradition
minorities. In 1988, a Shia Balawar rebellion occurred Traditionally, the Balawars comprise many varied linguis-
that was quashed violently when Pushtun soldiers were tic, cultural, and religious groups. This cultural diversity
allowed to rampage through the region, lynching, looting, is due in part to the Balawars living in numerous iso-
raping, and murdering people indiscriminately in crimes lated valleys that are separated by some of world’s highest
that are as yet unpunished (Minahan 2002). mountains.
Left in a political and legal limbo with no constitution Most high valley Balawar communities are agrarian
or rights and little say in how their region was governed, and share cultural ties that stretch from Tibet to Iran.
in 1994, Balawar leaders demanded the formation of a Many Balawars are Muslims. Some Balawars belong to the
separate Karakorum province as well as the end of the Ismaili or Twelver sects, but there is a large Sunni Muslim
Pakistani practice of withholding Balawar civil and polit- majority. Some Balawars are Buddhist and maintain the
ical rights, particularly the people’s right to democratic pre-Islamic traditions of Tibet and Ladakh.
representation. Over time, the various small, isolated Bal- The Balwars speak numerous languages. One of these,
awar groups united in their opposition to Pakistani rule. Balti, is likely an ancient form of oral Tibetan that over the
In particular, improved transport infrastructure allowed centuries has come to include elements of Persian, Arabic,
the people to undergo cultural exchanges that developed and Urdu, thereby reflecting that the Balawar homeland
into a regional culture. In 1996, however, Balawar leaders lies at the frontier of the Islamic and Buddhist worlds.
 Baluch 139

Health Care and Education BALUCH

For the most part, the Balawars live in poverty (Minahan
2014). The Pakistani government has declared its intention Current Location Pakistan; Afghanistan; Iran
to develop services including health care and education Current Population 8 million–15 million
across the Balawar homeland. However, the government Language Baluchi; Brahui; Farsi, Sindhi;
has a history of not delivering on its promises to the Bal- Punjabi
awars. The lack of health services in the region is one of Interesting Fact Some Baluch claim they are
the reasons that tourism has failed to take off in the Bala- de­scended from Nimrod, the grand-
wars’ beautiful homeland. Government-run schools in the son of the biblical figure Noah.
region teach in Urdu. Some English-language schools also
operate in Balawar areas. There are many educated but Overview
unemployed Balawars. The Baluch (also known as the Baloch, Balooch, Balochi,
Baluchis, or Kur Galli) are a cross-border minority ethnic
group living in an area of southern Asia sometimes referred
Threats to Survival to as Baluchistan (or Balochistan). Baluch nationalists
Over time, the Balawars have become increasingly uni- refer to an area called Greater Baluchistan that stretches
fied. Younger Balawars wish to revive traditional, pre-­ from the Arabian Sea to central Afghanistan and Iran.
Islamic Balawar customs and traditions that have been The Baluch practice Sunni Islam; most follow the Hanafi
overwhelmed by dominant Islamic culture. At the same School, but some Baluch are Shia Muslim or Zikri Muslim.
time, Balawar nationalists aim to strengthen cultural ties There are also a small number of Christian Baluch.
between the Balawars, Tibetans, and Ladakhis to prevent The Baluch speak a language called Baluchi. This lan-
the total Islamization of their culture and tradition. Many guage belongs to the Indo-Iranian language family and is
Balawars despair at the militarization imposed on them by related to Kurdish and Farsi (Iranian). Some Baluch also
Pakistan as well as Pakistanis’ anti-Balawar feelings; there speak Brahui and are therefore known as Brahuis or Bra-
are reports of Pakistanis deriding the Balawars for wearing hui Baluchis. Many Baluchs also speak Farsi, Sindhi, and
their traditional woolen clothes and speaking their regional Punjabi.
languages. It will be impossible for Gilgit-­Baltistan to devel-
opment economically unless the necessary infrastructure
and services are introduced. However, despite the Pakistani Population, Diaspora, and Migration
government’s vow to develop the Balawars’ schools, health
It is difficult to give exact population figures for the Baluch
care, agriculture, and tourism, Pakistan is indifferent at best
because there are many subgroups, such as the Makrani
to Balawar needs. At the same time, much of the Balawar
(western Baluchis) in Pakistan and southwestern Afghan-
homeland remains under the strict control of the Pakistani
istan, the Sulemani (eastern Baluchis) in Iran, and the
army. Time will tell whether the Balawars will be able to
Brahuis in the central Kalat Plateau of Pakistani Baluch-
gain independence and form their own republic.
istan. In addition, Baluch nationalists claim that the gov-
See also: Baluch; Hazara; Kalasha; Kashmiri; Pashtun; ernments of the countries in which they live deliberately
Tibetan underestimate their numbers. Estimates of the total Baluch
Further Reading population vary from around eight million people (Minor-
Bodla, Sohaib. 2014. “Making a Nation in High Mountains: Bal- ity Rights Group International 2017a) to 10–15 million.
awars and Balawaristan Nationalism in Ghizer District of This figure includes the 2.5–3 million Brahuis (Minahan
Gilgit Balistan.” Ethnoscripts 16 (1): 125–139. 2014). According to 2006 figures, 8.2 million Baluch live
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
in Pakistan (Minority Rights Group International 2017b),
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 1, A–C.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. and there are an estimated 597,000 Baluch in Afghanistan,
Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the where they make up 2 percent of the country’s total pop-
Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ulation (Minority Rights Group International 2017a). The
rest of the Baluch population inhabits Iran, with smaller
140 Baluch

Baluch communities existing in Saudi Arabia, Turkmeni- of Karachi to Gwadar. The federal government advanced
stan, and India. In Afghanistan, the Baluch live on pasto- none of these recommendations, however.
ral lands in the southwest and south in Helmand, Nimruz,
Kandahar, and Faryab Provinces. In Pakistan, Baluch live
in a province known as Baluchistan. In Iran, the Baluch History and Politics
form the majority of the population in the provinces of There is a great deal of controversy surrounding the origins
Baluchistan and Seistan. of the Baluch. One theory as to the heritage of the Baluch
is that between 1700 BCE and 1200 BCE, the Indo-Iranian
Aryan people invaded Baluchistan, thereby ousting most
Geography and Environment of the formerly dominant Dravidian peoples, who subse-
Baluchistan comprises arid desert and mountainous land quently moved to southern India. Many invading Aryans
in southwestern Asia. The area is sometimes described as moved on, but some remained in the region now known
resembling a lunar landscape because the area does not as Baluchistan. According to Baluch folklore, however, the
receive monsoon rainfalls. Traditionally, the Baluch use an Baluch migrated northward from the Syrian city of Aleppo
irrigation system known as qanats to survive in the harsh, in search of pasture and fresh water during the Arab con-
dry environment of Baluchistan as well as underground quests of the region in the ninth century. According to
tunnels that transport water from upland areas to palm Baluch legend, the people traveled along the southern
groves located on flat plains. shores of the Caspian Sea. In the fourteenth century, they
Many Baluch complaints stem from their economic settled in what is today Iranian and Pakistani Baluchistan.
deprivation. Baluchistan has many natural resources that Some Baluch people claim that they are descended from
have been exploited by successive governments—and Nimrod, the grandson of the biblical Noah. It is known,
without financial compensation or even acknowledgment however, that during the seventh century, Muslim Arabs
of these contributions to the national economy. Natural occupied Baluchistan and converted the local people to
gas was discovered in the Sui area of Pakistani Baluchistan Islam. In the eleventh and twelfth centuries, Seljuk Turks
in 1953 and in the Pirkoh region of Pakistani Baluchistan invaded Baluch areas pushed the Baluch to migrate to arid
in 1982. Baluchistan’s natural gas deposits provide energy areas, where they formed tribal groups. Then in the thir-
for the running of industries, factories, businesses, and teenth century, Baluch refugees fleeing the Mongol Empire
houses throughout Pakistan, but Baluch nationalists claim moved eastward and took up nomadic farming and fishing
that their people do not received fair recompense for the along the Arabian Sea. The invading Mongols perpetrated
exploitation of their environment. The Baluch also believe many atrocities against the Baluchs, and stories of Mongol
that their homeland has been taken over by foreigners who violence are passed down from generation to generation
have benefited more in terms of political and financial among modern Baluch. In addition, the Brahuis com-
gain than have the Baluch from this resource exploitation. plain bitterly that the Mongols forced from them from
Promising the Baluch will prosper, the Pakistani govern- fertile land.
ment of President Pervez Musharraf has plans to construct The Baluch have experienced extensive internal con-
a deep-sea port at Gwadar, creating roads with Afghanistan flict and bitter feuds, meaning that traditionally they have
and Central Asia. However, the Baluch disagree because been unable to present a united political front. A notable
they see the development as indicators of future exploita- period of Baluch accord occurred throughout the 1700s,
tion of their territory. during which time successive rulers of the Baluch terri-
To investigate the grievances of Baluch leaders, in tory of Kalat were able to establish and hold political unity
2004, former Pakistani Prime Minister Chaudhary Shu- throughout most of Baluchistan. The Khanate of Kalat has
jaat Hussain established a special Pakistani Parliamentary served as a symbol of Baluch nationalism since then. Prior
Committee that presented a number of recommendations to the independence of India, it seemed likely that the Bal-
dealing with Baluch claims of exploitation. For instance, uch might be permitted self-rule under the leadership of
the committee suggested the federal government pay the Khan of Kalat.
all arrears on gas royalties, invest in projects to alleviate At the start of the nineteenth century, British explorers
Baluch unemployment, and move the head office of the entered Baluchistan and made contact with tribal lead-
Gwadar Port Authority (GPA) from the Pakistani capital ers. After the Anglo-Afghan War of 1839, Baluchistan was
 Baluch 141

occupied under the pretense of preventing Russia from particular, Pakistan and Iran joined forces to quell a major
being able to reach the Indian Ocean via ports located in Baluch rebellion in the mid-1970s, using such brutal
Baluchistan. During the late nineteenth century, the British means to dispel the rebels that ten thousand Baluchs died
divided Baluchistan into distinct areas: a northern region (Minahan 2012).
that was a British protectorate, Kalat state, and tribal zones. Recent Baluchi history in Pakistan is notable for a vio-
Under British rule, the Baluch enjoyed considerable inde- lent rebellion against the Pakistani government that lasted
pendence. For example, the Baluch customary tribal law from 1973 to 1974. The rebellion followed an increase in
was managed by tribal councils under the authority of the power of the country’s centralized government despite
the Frontier Crimes Regulation (FCR, a special set of laws many pledges of decentralization established in the Paki-
of Pakistan enacted by the British Empire to prosecute stani Constitution of 1973. The constitution included guar-
crimes in British India). Nonetheless, well into the twenti- antees of ethnic minority rights, the affirmation of ethnic
eth century, the Baluch carried out a number of low-level groups’ separate legal status, and the right to enjoy their
rebellions as nationalist groups began to form with the aim own language and culture. However, Pakistan’s govern-
of establishing a single, independent, unified Baluchistan. ment under President Zulfikar Ali Bhutto ignored these
A serious rebellion occurred in British Baluchistan during guarantees, and the government extended its control
World War I as the Baluchs tried to capitalize on the fact over the provinces. Crisis erupted in 1973, when Bhu-
that many British troops were away fighting in Europe. tto dismissed the coalition government of Baluchistan,
In the 1930s, the Shah of Iran quelled a number of claiming that authorities were encouraging a secessionist
revolts by Iranian Baluch. By 1935, all Baluch resistance movement and smuggling. Baluch opposition leaders were
to Iranian rule in western Baluchistan had been defeated. arrested and thrown in jail. In 1976, the traditional Bal-
In the early to mid-1940s, rapid population growth among uch sardari (tribal chief) system was removed. By 1974,
non-Baluchs in Baluch areas forced many Baluchs to the conflict grew stronger, with fifty-five thousand Baluchs
migrate to the underpopulated southwestern Afghanistan. fighting around seventy thousand government troops.
In 1947, India was partitioned, and British Baluchistan It is estimated that over five thousand rebels died in the
became part of newly created Pakistan. However, the Bal- fighting, along with three thousand government troops
uchs, led by the Khan of Kalat, refused to belong to either (Minority Rights Group International 2017b). Many heads
India or Pakistan. As a result of this refusal to accede, of Baluch livestock were killed too, and food supplies to
the day before Indian and Pakistani independence, the civilians were interrupted in rebel-held areas, thereby
Khan declared Baluchistan an independent state. In 1948, causing food shortages in Baluch communities. Eventually
however, the Khan retracted his declaration after intense an amnesty was called, leading to some Baluch rebels sur-
political pressure from the British, Pakistani, Iranian, and rendering while others fled to Afghanistan, taking refuge
Afghan governments, thereby rendering free Baluchistan in government-run camps. Baluch insurrection continued
part of Pakistan. In 1958, Baluch unrest spread throughout sporadically until 1977, when the Bhutto government was
the region headed by the Khan and Baluch tribal leaders. ousted by a military coup.
The disorder continued into the 1960s and 1970s, leading In 1979, Russia invaded Afghanistan, prompting a
to harsh military rule being imposed on Baluchistan. In flow of Afghan refugees into Pakistani Baluchistan. The

Zikri Muslims: A Persecuted Minority

Around eight hundred thousand members of the Zikri Muslim sect live across Pakistan’s Balochistan and Sindh
provinces. Following Pakistan’s creation, Zikris were subjected to forced conversions and attacks by Sunni Muslims.
Under Pakistan’s military regime (1977–1988), Sunnis sought to have the Zikris declared un-Islamic. During the
1990s, there was a campaign against Zikri pilgrimages. Demonstrators called for the destruction of the Zikri shrines,
and Zikris were harassed. In 2014, Zikris suffered attacks, and in 2015, pro–Islamic State graffiti in Pakistan sparked
fears that Zikris would be targeted by militants. Recently, Zikris have been killed while praying, causing many Zikris
to leave Balochistan.
142 Baluch

majority of the refugees were Pashtun, and this led to an for religion, deference to secular authorities, and conduct
increase in tension between rival ethnic groups in the area. during conflict.
Civil unrest followed as small, local communities merged In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Baluch
to form regional cultures. As part of this societal change, academics started to translate Baluch oral tradition into
traditional Baluch tribal leaders, known as sadars, began to written Urdu and Persian. Since Pakistan gained inde-
be replaced by younger, better-educated, dynamic leaders pendence, and as a rise in modern Baluch nationalism has
who blamed the older sadars both for divisions within Bal- occurred, Baluch scholars have begun to use Nastaliq (a
uch society and the Baluchs’ lack of political and economic Baluch script adapted from Arabic) to record Baluch oral
development. In the late twentieth and early twenty-first history.
centuries, Baluchistan has witnessed serious civil unrest,
much of which has been blamed on regional bandits and
drug traffickers. The Baluch remain one of the poorest peo- Health Care and Education
ples in Pakistan, Iran, and Afghanistan, so Baluch activists The Baluch do not have adequate access to health care or
continue to fight for Baluch rights to improve living condi- even to clean drinking water. In August 2017, an initia-
tions for their people. In Pakistan, the Baluch enjoy some tive was announced aimed at improving healthcare ser-
autonomy, but in Iran the Baluch are afforded very little in vices in public hospitals in Quetta, Pakistan. As part of
the way of rights. the program, the UN Refugee Agency announced a health
project costing $350,000 that would benefit two hundred
thousand patients in Baluchistan, mainly Baluch living in
Society, Culture, and Tradition Afghan and Pakistan. The project is funded by the govern-
Traditionally, the Baluchs are nomads, and today the Bal- ments of Denmark and Japan. The project, implemented
uchs survive mainly through nomadic herding, smug- through the Refugee Affected and Hosting Areas (RAHA)
gling, and relying on government aid programs. A few organization, will supply medical equipment (includ-
Baluch communities survive by farming on dry land ing thirty-six thousand trollies and wheelchairs) and IT
using irrigated farming techniques. Baluch agricultural equipment while also renovating sanitation facilities at
activities follow a strict division of labor between women public hospitals. It is expected that around 72,000 mothers
and men. Men are responsible for plowing and planting and 81,600 newborns will have access to improved health-
fields, whereas women work in groups to thresh harvested care services, including the first ever pediatric intensive
crops. In accordance with their traditional nomadism, care unit in Baluchistan. Other improvements will bene-
individuals do not own Baluch lands; rather, land belongs fit 1,200 cardiology patients and 144,000 trauma patients,
to the whole tribe. In addition to farming, there are also and 59,760 children will benefit from the building of a new
a few Baluch men who work as fishermen. The Baluchs medical complex in Quetta (UNHCR 2017).
hold on to the traditional skills that have made them rel- Baluchistan is one of the poorest regions of South Asia
atively self-sufficient, able to construct their own homes despite being rich in natural resources. Baluchs tend to be
and fashion the tools necessary for day-to-day life. For the least-educated people in the countries in which they
example, Baluchs weave rugs to use in their homes but live. Indeed, the literacy rate for Baluch men is around 10
also to sell. percent, whereas only 1–2 percent of Baluch women are
Baluch society is based on customs that are adhered to literate (Badalkhan 2003). Although the Baluchs have low
in accordance with traditional tribal law. These customs literacy rates, their culture has a rich oral literary tradition
are very important to the Baluch because following the filled with folktales, poems, legends, riddles, and proverbs.
customs has allowed the Baluchs to retain a culture iden-
tity that has changed very little since the seventh century.
Today, Baluch society remains patriarchal and dominated Threats to Survival
by elaborate systems of kinship, clans, and tribal rela- The Baluch are proud of their ethnic identity and have a
tions. Another key element of Baluch life is an adherence history of rebelling against central governments when
to an ancient oral code of conduct, baluchmyar, which is their autonomy is threatened. There has been a strong Bal-
passed down from fathers to sons. This code of behavior uch pull for independence with a view to establishing an
governs hospitality etiquette, generosity to others, respect independent Baluchistan, but in general these demands
 Baluch 143

have faded through sustained repression in Pakistan, Iran, twelve suspected members of the Baluch armed rebel
and Afghanistan. groups, were reported killed during the period January
The threats to the Baluch existence vary between 11–13, 2006. It is also widely reported that Pakistani law
countries. For example, Baluchs are included in the 2004 enforcement agencies have executed detainees extrajudi-
Afghan constitution as one of the named national ethnic cially. The Pakistani military government claims that their
minorities. As such, the Baluch have the same rights as any actions are prompted by both the Baluch and Pakhtun shel-
Afghan citizen. However, a lack of information regarding tering al-Qaeda militants in the area of south Waziristan.
the situation of Baluch in post-Taliban Afghanistan makes Both the ethnic groups vigorously deny the claim.
it difficult to determine what the future holds for the group Many media reports claim that over the last ten years,
within the country. It is clear that the challenge of rebuild- thousands of Baluch have disappeared in Pakistani Bal-
ing Afghanistan must not exclude the needs of minority uchistan, allegedly having been kidnapped by govern-
groups such as the Baluch, who might easily become iso- ment security forces. Often the mutilated corpses of the
lated within the new Afghanistan. abducted Baluch are found days later as victims of what
Meanwhile in Iran, the Baluchs are seriously margin- has come to be called the “Kill and Dump” policy of Paki-
alized as both an ethnic minority regarded as lower class stan. The Pakistani military–led operation began in early
criminals and as Sunni Muslims in a country that has Shia 2005, aimed at eradicating rebellious Baluch groups who
Islam as its official religion. Seistan is Iran’s poorest prov- wish to claim more of the province’s natural resources for
ince, and for the Baluch living in the area, drug smuggling their people. According to Pakistan’s Federal Ministry of
is one of the only viable income sources. As a result of their Human Rights, at least 936 dead bodies have been discov-
reputation for drug smuggling, Baluch males in Iran are ered in Baluchistan since 2011. The majority of the corpses
often arrested and sentenced to death on drug charges, have been found dumped in the regions of Quetta, Qalat,
having received convictions without access to counsel or Khuzdar, and Makran—areas where Baluch nationalism
due process. Iran’s implementation of the death penalty is particularly strong. The Pakistan government denies
in such cases is illegal under international law. In 2016, any involvement in the killings and blames the deaths on
reports of Iran’s treatment of the Baluchs appeared in the infighting among Baluch groups (BBC 2016).
international media because the entire male population of The plight of the Baluch in Pakistan has been described
the Baluch village of Roushanabad, in southeastern Tehran, as an invisible war. Many Baluch despair at the failures of
was executed on drug charges. The disproportionate num- the international community to protest at the injustices
ber of Baluch executed in Iran has even been remarked they face and wonder why their struggle is not a cause
upon by Iran’s vice president for women and family affairs, célèbre for Western activists.
who declared that Baluch children are potential drug traf- See also: Aimaq; Hazara; Kalasha; Kurd; Pashtun; Turk-
fickers because they receive no government help and so men; Uzbek
will enter the illegal trade to provide money for their fam-
Further Reading
ilies (Panah 2016). Badalkhan, Sabir. 2003. “Balochistan: Oral Tradition.” In South
The Baluch living in Pakistan are reportedly facing vio- Asian Folklore: An Encyclopedia: Afghanistan, Bangladesh,
lence from the state. The Musharraf government deploys India, Nepal, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, edited by Margaret A.
heavy-handed tactics against the Baluch under the pretext Mills, Peter J. Claus, and Sarah Diamond, 42–45. New York:
of the contributing to the international war on terror. This Routledge.
BBC. 2016. “Balochistan War: Pakistan Accused over 1,000
heavy-handedness has resulted in misery in Baluchistan.
Dumped Bodies.” BBC, December 28. http://www.bbc.co.uk​
Minority Rights Group International reports that since /news/world-asia-38454483.
December 2005, the Pakistani military has launched oper- Minahan, James B. 2012. “Baluch.” In Ethnic Groups of South
ations using fighter jets and helicopter gunships to attack Asia and the Pacific: An Encyclopedia, edited by James
the suspected hideouts of militants in Kolhu and Dera B. Minahan, 24–26. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Bugti, respectively. The Human Rights Commission of Minahan, James B. 2014. “Baluchi.” In Ethnic Groups of North,
East, and Central Asia: An Encyclopedia, edited by James B.
Pakistan (HRCP) claims that up to fifty-three people were
Minahan, 25–29. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
killed, with another 132 injured in military operations in Minority Rights Group International. 2017a. “Afghanistan: Bal-
Dera Bugti in the period from the end of December 2005 uchis.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peo-
to January 8, 2006. A further eighteen people, including ples. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/baluchis.
144 Bamileke

Minority Rights Group International. 2017b. “Pakistan: Bal- Bamileke, academics estimate that there are between 3.5
uchis.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peo- and 8 million Bamileke people (Shoup 2011) spread across
ples. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/baluchis-2. ninety-four fondoms, or chiefdoms (Ngwainmbi 2009).
Panah, Hamid Yazdan. 2016. “Human Rights in Balochistan: A
Case Study in Failure and Invisibility.” HuffPost, March 25.
The Bamileke tend to live in small groups encircled by
https://www.huffpost.com/entry/human-rights-in-balochist​ farms, though in areas suffering from overpopulation, the
_b_9541436. Bamileke may find it near impossible to find land that is
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). free to farm. The Bamileke have made a particular use of
2017. “UNHCR’s Health Project to Benefit 200,000 Patients in land between Nkongsamba (a city in western Cameroon)
Balochistan.” UN Refugee Agency, August 7. http://unhcrpk​ and Douala (Cameroon’s commercial center and largest
.org/unhcrs-health-project-to-benefit-200000-patients-in​
-balochistan.
city) and have established a number of successful busi-
nesses in Douala.

Geography and Environment

A well-known Bamileke landmark is Mount Bamboutous,
BAMILEKE which extends southwestward to Nkam region of Cam-
eroon. Another notable Bamileke landmark is the High
Current Location Cameroon
Lands of Dschang-Bana-Bangante, a cold region that
Current Population 8 million
divides Bamileke land from north to east. These landmarks
Language Various Bantu dialects; French; reveal the hilly nature of the land on which the Bamileke
English; West Coast Pidgin
live. This land is generally fertile and receives enough water
Interesting Fact The Bamileke pay homage to the to grow a wide variety of crops including yams, bananas,
skulls of their dead relatives.
plantains, beans, maize, and cassava. Cassava is an espe-
cially important crop because when food crop harvests are
Overview threatened by environmental factors, the Bamileke eat cas-
The Bamileke are an indigenous people mainly living in sava while they wait for other crops to grow. Arabica coffee
the Bamileke region of western Cameroon. The Bamileke is also grown in the region and is the Bamileke’s traditional
are part of the Semi-Bantu (or Grassfields Bantu) ethnic source of income. However, a fall in coffee prices means
group, and they speak several languages belonging to the that fewer and fewer Bamileke are growing coffee as a crop
Bantu branch of the Niger-Congo language family, includ- and are instead turning to farming livestock such as pigs,
ing Fe’fe, Yemba, Kwa, and Ngoma. Today, many Bamileke goats, and chickens. The Bamileke regard women as able
also speak French, English, and West Coast Pidgin (the lin- to increase the productivity of the soil so they are held
gua franca spoken on the West African coast). responsible for planting and harvesting crops. Men are
The name Bamileke was given to the people by German tasked with clearing land and hunting while also engaging
colonialists; the Bamileke only refer to themselves as such in trade and craft activities.
when speaking to non-Bamileke people. When talking The Bamileke use many different soil-conservation
with fellow tribe members, the Bamileke refer to them- techniques to maintain the health of their soil. These
selves by the name of the individual chiefdom to which include the addition of manure and green fertilizers to soil
they belong. Alternatively, Bamileke people may refer to and the use of hedges and ridges to prevent water erosion
themselves as “grasslanders.” of the soil. Hedges also act as a way to define land bound-
aries, particularly which land belongs to a community in
general and which land belongs to individual households.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration Another soil-preservation technique employed by the
The Bamileke originated in Egypt and gradually moved Bamileke is agroforestry. This practice helps maintain the
across Africa to their present location in provinces of high- stability of slopes in the hilly areas in which the Bamileke
land and grassland areas of western Cameroon. live. Traditionally, the Bamileke are experienced foresters
Population size varies between individual chiefdoms, and typically grow crops underneath coffee trees, the roots
and although there is no official census data on the of which help to stabilize the soil. By choosing carefully
 Bamileke 145

which crops they grow in the shade of coffee trees, the gained control of Bamileke lands as part of its German
Bamileke secure the soil of their sloping land. Cameroon colony (a colony comprising part of modern
Cameroon, northern Gabon, Congo, western Central
African Republic, southwestern Chad, and eastern Nige-
History and Politics ria). The German colonialists used the term Bamileke to
The origins of the Bamileke are uncertain. One theory describe the people who lived on that land because it was
suggests that the Bamileke may have originated from an an easy way to classify the peoples of the various chief-
area to the north of Bamileke known as Mbam, currently doms within their colony. After Germany’s defeat in World
inhabited by the Tikar ethnic groups. During the seven- War I, German Cameroon was divided between Brit-
teenth century, Fulani traders traveled south into Came- ain and France, with most Bamileke areas of Cameroon
roon, forcing many Bamileke living in the southern part given to the French. An anticolonial movement developed
of the grasslands to move. Those Bamileke who remained under French control, and in 1955, a nationalist organiza-
chose to live under the control of the invaders. Others tion known as the Union des Populations du Cameroon
traveled through the area now occupied by the Bamum (UPC) was established. France outlawed the UPC and
ethnic group. Here, the Bamileke stayed and intermarried attacked its supporters, including the Bamileke. Such was
with other ethnic groups. Eventually, most Bamileke set the violence with which the UPC was met that some his-
up home in scattered settlements in the south of Bamum torians refer to the treatment as the Bamileke Genocide
land. Another more accepted theory states that the Bamil- (Shoup 2011). The exact number of people killed during
eke originated in ancient Egypt. The Bamileke are said to this episode is unknown, but the Bamileke claim it to be
have left Egypt during the ninth century and then, accord- the first contemporary African genocide. The UPC move-
ing to Bamileke folklore, journeyed across Africa by way ment continued until 1960, by which time its leaders had
of magic and levitation across rivers and ravines to their been killed.
present homeland during the eleventh century. During In 1961, Cameroon became an independent country,
the fourteenth century, the Bamileke adopted the fondom with the British areas of Cameroon (known as British
social structure that they use still today, with the first fon Cameroon) opting to unite with French Cameroon rather
being Bafoussam, headed by Prince Yendé. Following the than become part of Nigeria. Following independence,
establishing of Bafoussam, Prince Yendé’s sister established the Bamileke have flourished and become well-known for
her own fon, and other fons ensued, thereby forming a their entrepreneurialism.
pattern that saw many fons created. In addition, after the
creation of these early fons, Bamileke oral tradition tells
that five more waves of people joined the Bamileke and Society, Culture, and Tradition
adopted their identity. It is believed that the Bamileke who Though the Bamileke live in individual groups, these
live in the southern and western fringes of Bamileke land groups share an ancestry and therefore the same history,
are the descendants of the people who lived in Bamileke culture, and language. Authority among the Bamileke
areas before the Bamileke arrived and who have now been is invested in a village chief called the fon (or fo), who is
absorbed into the Bamileke. supported by a council of village elders. The village elders
The grasslands of Cameroon have been part of wide- who assisted his predecessor elect the fon to his position.
spread trade routes for much of history. The people living However, the fon is typically an elder member of a village’s
in these regions were able to connect from the seaport most powerful family. The fon is recognized as the owner
of Douala with trans-Saharan traders, such as the Fulani of all the land that belongs to his village, and Bamileke
and Hausa. European history refers to trading at Douala people will seek their fon’s affirmation before fertilizing
between Cameroon grasslanders and Dutch and Portu- the land. This is because the Bamileke believe the fon
guese traders in the early seventeenth century. (Univer- shares an occult link to their ancestors, so he must approve
sity of Iowa Museum of Art n.d.). During the latter half anything that enriches the ancestors’ descendants. The
of the nineteenth century, with the coming of European fon is also regarded as the dispenser of supreme justice
colonialism to Cameroon, Bamileke traders and crafts- among his people. To this end, the fon commands a kwifon
men left their homes and migrated to other parts of Africa (police association affiliated to his court) that dispenses
and beyond. By the late nineteenth century, Germany had his sanctions.
146 Bamileke

Despite being divided into numerous separate fondoms, and so may cause problems for a family. If a Bamileke
the Bamileke are united by a common culture. The Bamil- man’s skull is not preserved, then a member of his family
eke do not share their problems with the outside world but will undergo a ceremony during which drinks are poured
rather prefer to keep discuss financial and family matters onto the ground. The soil that gathers at the spot where the
internally. This desire for privacy is sometimes regarded as drink hits the ground comes to represent the skull. Homage
suspiciously secretive by other Cameroonians. Such suspi- is also paid to female skulls, though there is little evidence
cions are strengthened by one of the most oft-mentioned of how this respect is shown. Besides ancestral skulls, the
aspects of Bamileke life: famla, a sort of zombie witchcraft Bamileke put special store on musical instruments such as
or occult group. Famla groups are often affiliated with a xylophones, flutes, and drums as well as statues that they
type of financial savings association common throughout believe to hold special, magical powers. Typically, the eld-
Bamileke areas known as njangi. In modern-day Came- est male of family line keeps the musical instruments and
roon the financial success and natural entrepreneurialism statues in a secret location within his home.
of the Bamileke is often credited to the Bamileke’s famla The Bamileke are patrilineal, and children are regarded
activities (Geschiere 1997). Indeed, such is the success of as belonging to the fon of their father. Property is passed
the njangi schemes that some are said to contain billions down through families, and each family has a single heir,
of CFA francs (currencies used in west and central Africa usually a son. In the past, Bamileke men would marry sev-
that are guaranteed by the French treasury), with so much eral women and could be wed to many hundreds at once.
funds circulating in the njangi that they threaten the cash Today, Bamileke men may still marry many women and
flow of authorized banks. However, a Bamileke person typically will pay a bride price to the woman’s family. The
does not have to belong to be a famla to join a njangi, and Bamileke’s strict inheritance laws mean that though only
there are word-of-mouth accounts of people unwittingly one son will inherit, all of a man’s sons may claim a share
entering into famla societies by becoming financially of their father’s wealth. This system is enacted to preserve
involved with a famla member through a njangi. Successful families’ group unity. Any Bamileke woman, irrespective
Bamileke businessmen are often linked to famla behavior, of her marital status, is expected to produce offspring.
something that does not seem to worry them even though Any woman who does not produce a child is considered
such accusations suggest a businessman’s wealth has oth- bewitched and will take folk remedies prepared by local
erworldly connections. Young Bamileke often complain doctors to reverse her childlessness.
that there is little point in trying to attack famla activity or In common with neighboring tribal groups, including
njangi associations, and that the only way for a Bamileke to the Banoun, Babanki, and Kom, the Bamileke do not con-
avoid entering into famla or njangi is to leave Cameroon. sider death to be a natural occurrence but rather a mystical
Although some Bamileke have converted to Christi- event. Regardless of a person’s age at death, their family
anity and Islam, on the whole, the Bamilike believe in a must find a reason for the death, so they consult a doctor
supreme creator god called Si (or Nsi). However, because Si as to why the person died. Each of the deceased’s family
is a distant, divine figure, the Bamileke typically pay hom- members is also made to swear an oath on a totem, vow-
age to their ancestors, who the Bamileke feel have a more ing that he or she did not kill the deceased. If someone
direct connection to their everyday concerns. The Bamil- is found to have lied, then it is believed the liar will be
eke believe that ancestral spirits exist in the skulls (tu) of trapped by the totem. When the deceased is buried, all the
their deceased ancestors. Thus, skulls are given to the eld- family members must gather together to undergo a ritual
est living male in each family, where they are recognized during which drink is poured on the ground, and all the
by the family as belonging to their kin. When a Bamileke material that forms where the drink fell is regarded as the
family decides to move home, a diviner initially purifies skull of the deceased.
the new dwelling before a new house is built to hold the The Bamileke are skilled artisans who are particularly
ancestral skulls. The Bamileke believe it is important to known for their woodwork and carving of horn and ivory.
honor their ancestors because the ancestors can help in Bamileke craftsmen are most noted for their masks, in
times of ill health or send messages through dreams. particular their spectacular elephant masks that are worn
Not every ancestral skull is in the possession of a family, by men on important occasions such as funerals. Ele-
but the spirits of these unclaimed skulls are not forgotten. phant masks symbolize the power of the fon and his abil-
Rather, these spirits are considered to have no residence ity to protect his people. An elephant mask is shaped like
 Bashkir 147

a large-eared elephant, made from dark blue fabric, and Geschiere, Peter. 1997. The Modernity of Witchcraft: Politics
covered in beadwork and shells. The front of the mask is and the Occult in Postcolonial Africa. Translated by Peter
long, to represent an elephant’s trunk. When a man wears Geschiere and Janet Roitman. Charlottesville: University of
Virginia Press.
an elephant mask, he also wears a feather headdress and Johnson-Hanks, Jennifer. 2003. “Education, Ethnicity and Repro-
long dark blue tunic. ductive Practice in Cameroon.” Population 58 (2): 153–179.
http://www.cairn-int.info/load_pdf.php?ID_ARTICLE=E​
_POPU_302_0171.
Health Care and Education Ngwainmbi, Emmanuel Kombem. 2009. “Bamileke.” In Encyclo-
During the 1970s, when Cameroon’s coffee industry was pedia of African Religion, edited by Molefi Kete Asante and
booming, the country’s authorities invested heavily in Ama Mazama, 102. Vol. 1. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Shoup, John A. 2011. Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle
infrastructure including health care and education. Tradi- East: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
tionally, Bamileke medical practitioners include herbalists, Tchwara, Paul. 1996. “Evolution of Traditional Techniques of Soil
diviners, spirit mediums, and religious figures, with most Conservation in the Bamileke Region, West Cameroon.” In
healers combining divination methods with herbal medi- Sustaining the Soil: Indigenous Soil and Water Conservation
cine. In the past, herbalists had a lower social status than in Africa, edited by Chris Reij, Ian Scoones, and Camilla Toul-
diviners, spirit mediums, and religious specialists, but this min, 228–235. Abingdon, UK: Earthscan.
University of Iowa Museum of Art. n.d. “Bamileke.” Art &
situation is gradually reversing. Modern Bamileke also Life  in Africa. https://africa.uima.uiowa.edu/peoples/show​
seek medical help from private clinics and public hospitals. /Bamileke.
There are varying degrees of education among the
Bamileke, and it is the case that the more highly educated
a Bamileke woman is, the higher the bride price her family
may ask of her fiancé. Educated Bamileke girls are over-
whelmingly Catholic, whereas women who have never
been to school are Muslim in the main (Johnson-Hanks BASHKIR
2003). This is most likely because European missionaries
established many schools in Bamileke areas, and Mus- Current Location Republic of Bashkortostan (Russian
Federation)
lim Bamileke parents tend to be unwilling to allow their
daughters to attend predominantly Catholic schools. In Current Population 1.8 million
addition, most schools are located in wealthier areas, Language Russian; Bashkir; Tatar
which are where Christian Bamileke live. Interesting Fact The Bashkirs are a minority
population in their own republic.

Threats to Survival Overview

The Bamileke face several threats to their survival. The The Bashkirs are a Turkic people living mainly in the Rus-
Bamileke in some areas face population growth, but in sian Federation’s Republic of Bashkortostan (also called
other areas the Bamileke are changing their farming Bashkortostan or Bashkiriya). The Bashkirs speak the
techniques. Both these changes will most likely make Bashkir language, a Turkic language belonging to the Kip-
land-ownership issues increasingly complex—something chak branch. Bashkirs also speak Russian because Russian
that may lead to unrest among the people. However, the is an official language of the Republic of Bashkortostan
Bamileke have proven over time that their traditional alongside the Bashkir language. Many Bashkirs also speak
methods of soil conservation and adaptable approach to Tatar. Most Bashkirs are Sunni Muslims, though there is
farming mean they may well find a solution to any prob- also a minority of Orthodox Christian Bashkirs. The Bash-
lems that may arise. kirs call themselves the bašqortlar (singular bašqort).
See also: Chewa; Hutu and Tutsi; Tsonga
Further Reading Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Eshelby, Kate. 2015. “Cameroon: Exploring the Ancient King-
doms.” New African Magazine, March 7. http://​new​african​ The total Bashkir population is estimated at around 1.8 mil-
magazine.com/cameroon-exploring-ancient​-king​doms. lion people (Svanberg 2011). According to a 2002 national
148 Bashkir

census, there were 1,673,389 Bashkirs living in the Russian and senior citizens on each Bashkir worker increased
Federation (Minority Rights Group International 2015). In (Goble 2017).
a 2010 census, Bashkirs formed 29.5 percent of the Bash-
kortostan’s population, a slight decrease from 2002. Ethnic
Russians made up 36.1 percent, whereas the percentage of Geography and Environment
the Bashkortostan population that was Tatar had increased The Republic of Bashkortostan is a federal subject of Rus-
slightly to 25.4 percent (Goble 2017). sia located between the Volga River and the southern Ural
Most Bashkirs live in Bashkortostan, though there are Mountains. Bashkortostan shares borders with Perm Krai;
significant numbers of Bashkirs residing in Russia’s Che- the Sverdlovsk, Chelyabinsk, and Orenburg Oblasts; the
lyabinsk and Orenburg Oblasts as well as in the Republic Republic of Tatarstan; and the Udmurt Republic.
of Tatarstan. Outside of the Russian Federation, there are The highest point in Bashkortostan is Mount Yaman-
large Bashkir communities in countries including Kazakh- tau, which is also the highest peak in the southern Urals.
stan, Belarus, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Kyrgyzstan. From here, elevation decreases southward and westward
Few Bashkirs live outside of former Soviet states, and any as heavily forested mountains give way to steppe grassland
Bashkirs who have migrated beyond these states tend to intermingled with deciduous forests and the floodplains of
have moved recently. the Belaya River. The Belaya River is the largest tributary
At present, the Bashkirs are experiencing a major pop- of the Kama River and is Bashkortostan’s main waterway.
ulation crisis. In 2016, the percentage of the number of Bashkortostan experiences extreme temperatures, from
births decreased twice as fast in Bashkortostan as it did as low as −49°F in winter to a maximum of 97°F in sum-
in Russia. In addition, over five thousand Bashkirs emi- mer. In spring and summer, the south of Bashkortostan is
grated from Bashkortostan, and the burden of children prone to hot, drought-producing sukhovey winds. Rainfall

A Bashkir couple wear their national costumes at a festival in Birsk, Bashkortostan, Russia. Bashkir culture has experienced a revival
since the collapse of the Soviet Union. (Galina Bondarenko/Dreamstime.com)
 Bashkir 149

in Bashkortostan varies with altitude, with mountainous policies. In 1932, oil was discovered in Bashkortostan,
areas receiving the most rain. resulting in a surge of industrialization on Bashkir land.
Bashkortostan is highly industrialized with chemical, Consequently, many outsiders entered the republic in
fuel, and energy products all exported. search of work on the new oil fields. Soon minerals were
also found on Bashkir land, resulting in further industrial
growth, and the Bashkir homeland began to enjoy a degree
History and Politics of prosperity. The Bashkirs enjoyed few benefits from this
The early history of the Bashkirs is not known. How- industrialization, however, and between 1932 and 1933,
ever, the Bashkirs are mentioned in medieval chronicles famine again killed many Bashkirs. A great many Bashkirs
including those of the Franciscan friar William of Rubruk, also died during Stalinist purges and during World War II.
who traveled through the Bashkir homeland in the mid-­ As a result of these events, the Bashkir population did not
thirteenth century. Following the division of the Mongol return to its pre–Russian Revolution level until the 1980s
Golden Horde khanate in the fourteenth century, the Bash- (Svanberg 2005).
kirs became part of the Kazan and Siberian khanates. After Over time, Bashkir nationalism grew, particularly
Russian czar Ivan IV (commonly called Ivan the Terrible, toward the end of the Soviet era. In October 1990, the
1530–1584) took control of Kazan in 1552, the Bashkirs Bashkirs declared the founding of their sovereign repub-
became subjects of the Russian principality of Muscovy. lic, and in early 1992 Bashkir leaders renamed the state
Many Bashkirs were resistant to Muscovite domination Bashkortostan.
and rebelled against their new rulers. Indeed, the Bash-
kirs were not entirely conquered until 1773–1775, when
Pugachev’s Rebellion (a series of popular uprising across Society, Culture, and Tradition
the Russian Empire following Catherine II’s seizure of Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, there has been a
power in 1762) was quashed. In 1788, Catherine II ordered revival of Bashkir culture, religion, and language. At the
the founding of the Orenburg muftiate, a state-controlled same time, the Bashkir political and cultural elite have
religious administration with jurisdiction over Islamic been trying to decide what should make up the Bashkirs’
activity in Siberia, the Volga-Ural region, and parts of national culture. Choosing official languages has proved
Central Asia, including the Kazakh steppe. Following its an especially difficult issue because questions arose sur-
creation, the muftiate was based in Ufa, the capital of Bash- rounding what should be the republic’s official language;
kortostan, leading to the city becoming the religious center most Bashkirs are at least bilingual, with the Bashkir lan-
of Muslim Russia until the 1990s. guage a minority language in its own homeland.
Under Russian rule, many Tatars and ethnic Russians Most Bashkirs are Sunni Muslims belonging to the
began to move to Bashkortostan. In addition, during this Hanafi School. Before the Bashkirs converted to Islam
time the Bashkirs were recruited to serve in the Russian starting in the tenth century, they were followers of Ten-
military and were hit by such high taxation that Bashkir griism, a shamanistic Central Asian religion. The religious
animal herders were forced to live settled lives. By the start revival experienced in Bashkortostan in the post-Soviet
of the twentieth century, most Bashkirs continued to live era has seen many hundreds of mosques built in Bashkor-
as peasants and herders in rural areas. tostan. The Bashkirs also celebrate Muslim holidays, festi-
During the 1917 Russian Revolution,a strong M­ uslim-led, vals, and pilgrimages. At the same time, however, Bashkir
nationalist movement existed among the Bashkirs. In 1918, society is still fairly secular, so though religion is central to
a Tatar-Bashkir SSR (Soviet Socialist Republic, an ethnically Bashkortostan’s national culture, it plays only a small role
based quasi-state) was declared, but the Bashkirs continued in the republic’s daily religious and political life. There is a
to call for their own republic. The following year, the Bash- small Bashkir Orthodox Christian community called the
kir ASSR (Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic, or Bash- Nagaibäks, which lives in the Chelyabinsk Oblast.
kiria) was established, though this was controlled by Russia, The Bashkirs are well known for their beekeeping.
with the Bashkirs having little authority. For centuries, the Bashkirs have cared for wild bees, and
In 1921, many Bashkirs died of starvation during a fam- apiculture is of huge cultural significance to the people.
ine. Because most Bashkirs were pastoralists and farm- Bashkir honey is exported abroad, and many Bashkirs
ers, they were greatly affected by Soviet collectivization keep bees as a hobby. The Bashkirs are also famous for
150 Basque

their horse breeding. There are two types of Bashkir horse, own republic. At the same time, nationalist Tatar organi-
a small mountain horse and a taller, lighter-step horse. zations have suggested that the Bashkirs are not a distinct
Both varieties of Bashkir horse have good stamina and are people and that parts of Bashkortostan should be incor-
used for riding as well as draft horses used for farmwork porated within Tatarstan. Some Bashkirs also feel Tatars
and pulling troikas. have a generally negative and dismissive attitude toward
the Bashkirs (Goble 2017).
At present, Bashkirs are becoming increasingly nation-
Health Care and Education alistic and assertive in defense of their rights, and extrem-
Typically, urban Bashkirs have access to hospitals, though ist Russian nationalist organizations within Bashkortostan
the health care in the hospitals is generally poor. In rural are mobilizing to defend their people and attack others.
areas, Bashkirs may live far from medical facilities. Bash- Time will tell whether the Tatars will side with the Bash-
kirs frequently depend on traditional, herbal medicine. kirs. If the Tatars do support the Bashkirs, the unity would
The Bashkortostan education system is collapsing, espe- make Turkic Muslims the majority population in Bashkor-
cially in rural areas (Goble 2017). Bashkirs do not learn the tostan while also expanding Tatarstan’s regional influence.
Bashkir language at school despite Bashkir being an offi- Alternatively, if Tatars within Bashkortostan do not align
cial language of the republic. Consequently, Russian and with the Baskirs, this may weaken Tatar influence over
Tatar children in Bashkortostan do not learn Bashkir. The Bashkortostan and encourage Russians living within the
lack of Bashkir language lessons means the status of Bash- republic to press for greater political power.
kir as the republic’s co-official language is endangered.
See also: Chuvash; Crimean Tatar
Further Reading
Threats to Survival Goble, Paul. 2017. “Caught between Russians and Tatars: Can
the Bashkirs Save Bashkortostan?” Eurasia Daily Monitor 14
The Bashkirs are a minority population in their own (62). https://jamestown.org/program/caught-russians-tatars​
republic, outnumbered by ethnic Russians and with a pop- -can-bashkirs-save-bashkortostan.
ulation equaled by ethnic Tatars. This situation has led to Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Russian Federation:
increased Bashkirs nationalism, including the creation of a Bashkirs.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peo-
ples, June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/bashkirs.
nationalist organization called Saving the Nation Together.
Svanberg, Ingvar. 2005. “Bashkirs.” In Encyclopedia of the World’s
In 2017, over fifty former Bashkir senior officials and activ- Minorities, edited by Carl Skutsch, 188–189. New York:
ists met in Ufa to establish a Congress of the Bashkir Peo- Routledge.
ple of the Republic of Bashkortostan. The congress aimed Svanberg, Ingvar. 2011. “Bashkirs.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe:
to highlight issues facing the Bashkirs and to mobilize the An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 35–38. Santa Bar-
Bashkirs, either with Russian help or independently. bara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
A simmering tension exists between the Bashkirs and
Tatars. The formation of the Bashkir congress suggests
that the traditionally placid Bashkirs are willing to become
more assertive in their dealings with the Tatars and with
Russia. The Bashkirs are under threat from various Rus- BASQUE
sian economic, educational, and employment policies, and
Current Population 2.3 million
since 2011, many Bashkirs feel their economy has wors-
Current Location Spain; France
ened. They feel the stability of the region is threatened,
with Bashkortostan shifting from being a donor region Language Euskara; Spanish; French
to one dependent on Russian subsidies. In addition, offi- Interesting Fact The Basque language, Euskara, is
cials neglect to acknowledge how high unemployment Europe’s oldest living language.
is in Bashkortostan, where wages are 26 percent lower
than the Russian average (Goble 2017). As a result of this Overview
employment situation, many Bashkirs have no choice The Basques, who call themselves Euskaldunak, are the
but to migrate in search of employment, a demographic inhabitants of an area of northeastern Spain and south-
trend that worsens the Bashkirs’ minority status in their western France known as the Basque Country, or Euskal
 Basque 151

Herria. The Basque language, also known as Euskara, is last Ice Age before separating and creating isolated Basque
unrelated to Spanish, French, or any other Romance lan- settlements. These earliest Basques seem to have separated
guage and is Europe’s oldest living language. from neighboring groups because of the Basque area’s
geography. This geography allowed the Basques to stay
separate because the land was hard to conquer, and it also
Population, Diaspora, and Migration meant that subsequent migration patterns that shaped the
The so-called Basque country consists of four areas on the genetic makeup elsewhere in Europe failed to material-
Spanish side of the Pyrenees (Vizcaya, Navarra, Guipuz- ize in Basque areas. That the Basques kept separate from
coa, and Alava) and three areas on the French side of the subsequent migrations during the Bronze Age can be seen
Pyrenees (Labourd, Basse-Navarre, and Soule). Basques in that fact that although pastoralists from the Russian
call this area Euskal Herria. There are around 2.3 mil- Steppes traveled west en masse to central and northern
lion Basque people in total, with 1.6 million Basques in Europe, they did not reach Basque areas. This has been
Spain and 740,000 Basques in France (Minahan 2002). proven by that fact that though many French and Span-
Many Basques have migrated from the Basque Country, ish people include this eastern genetic input, the Basques
with around five hundred thousand having settled in the do not.
United States, Canada (particularly in New Brunswick and Historians are not sure how the Basque people sur-
Quebec), South America, South Africa, and Australia. The vived over time. One theory is that the Romans were
national flag of the Basques takes the form of a red square uninterested in incorporating the Basques into their
displaying a white cross, backed by a green saltire. The Empire because Basque lands were inhospitably moun-
flag is known as Icurrina and plays an important part in tainous, or it could be that the Basques managed to
Basque identity. resist capture by the Romans. It could also be that the
Romans lived close to, but separate from, the Basques.
Whatever the case, the Basques thrived after the collapse
Geography and Environment of the Roman Empire and the conquest of the Iberian
The Basque Country straddles the border between Spain Peninsula by the Moors in 711 CE. The Muslim occupa-
and France that runs to the Bay of Biscay at the western tion of Iberia lasted for more than seven hundred years,
end of the Pyrenees Mountains. The area also includes the and although many modern Spanish people show evi-
Cantabrian Mountains. To the south of the Basque Coun- dence of North African and sub-Saharan ancestry, this
try lies the Ebro River and its many tributaries that criss- is largely absent from the Basques, thereby suggesting
cross an area famed for its orchards. The cultural capital that the Moors did not integrate with the Basques. In
of the Basque Country is Guernica, the Nazi bombing of the ninth century, the Basques gained importance via
which during World War II inspired a famous painting of the wealthy Kingdom of Navarre. During this time, the
the same name by Pablo Picasso. Basque language was known as Lingua Navarrorum in
Latin and was used mainly by peasants. The peasants
ensured that Basque continued to be spoken and even
History and Politics extended the areas in which the language was known.
The Basques originated between 3,500 and 5,500 years For example, Basque whalers took Basque pidgins with
ago, after farming was introduced to southwest Europe. them as far as Iceland and to Inuit communities in New-
The earliest Basques were most likely Iberian farmers who foundland, Canada.
came to Iberia as migrant groups from central and north- Navarre remained stable and prosperous until the
ern Europe. The migrant groups had previously left their thirteenth century, when the Kingdom of Leon and Cas-
original homeland in the Near East (i.e., the Arabian Pen- tile sought to create a unified Iberian Peninsula. The
insula, Cyprus, Egypt, Iraq, Iran, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, Kingdom of Leon and Castile conquered the southern
Palestinian territories, Syria, and Turkey) before sweeping part of Navarre in 1512, but the northern half of Navarre
across Europe about seven thousand years ago. remained apart for more than a century, becoming
Once the Iberian farmers created settlements, they known as the Kingdom of Lower Navarre (or Navarre-
mixed with local hunter-gatherers, who were themselves Béarn). This kingdom provided sanctuary for southern
descended from people who lived in Europe during the refugees escaping the Spanish Inquisition. However, in
152 Basque

1589, Henry III of Lower Navarre became King of France had previously enjoyed. As a result of this suppression,
after winning the French Wars of Religion, and his son, the Basques faced the erosion of their identity, and the
Louis XIII of France, merged Lower Navarre into the area in which the Basque language was spoken shrank
Kingdom of France in 1620. This merger laid the founda- considerably.
tions for the current political divide that exists between At the start of the twentieth century, Basque national-
North Basque Country (French) and South Basque Coun- ism began to emerge that focused on the use of the Basque
try (Spanish). language. At this time, the Basque Country was extremely
The Northern Basque Country retained its individuality poor after number of civil wars had broken out between
for a time, but when the French monarchy fell during the various factions and families. As a result of this poverty
French Revolution of 1789, it resulted in the beginning of and infighting, many Basques migrated to America. At
centralized French national policies that favored cultural around the same time, the Basque Country’s beautifully
and linguistic assimilation as well as the use of a stand- rugged landscape began to be destroyed by a burgeoning
ard French language over regional dialects. In time, dia- coal industry.
lects were forbidden in French schools, and non-Basque Many Basques were killed or imprisoned during the
populations moved into areas that once had been mainly Spanish Civil War (1936–1939), and the ensuing forty-
Basque. The North Basque Country has never gained rec- year-long dictatorship of General Franco was particularly
ognition for itself as a separate French département that unpleasant to minorities. During the dictatorship, Basques
would protect the Basque language, and very quickly living in the Southern Basque Country were imprisoned,
Basque families ceased to speak it. and the Spanish authorities brought in assimilationist pol-
In the South Basque Country, Navarre kept its status icies such as banning the Basque language, which aimed
as a kingdom, but it fell under the control of the Span- to reverse the gains made by the Basques earlier in the
ish Crown. Initially, Spain did not act aggressively toward century. It was only after Franco’s death in 1975 that the
the minorities within the Kingdom of Navarre. However, Basque language began to revive.
there was a push to create a more unified society, and in Today, Southern Basques have an autonomous commu-
doing so, authorities started denouncing and imprisoning nity of the Basque Country. In Navarre, political, linguistic,
Basque speakers. The rise of the Spanish Inquisition also and cultural matters are highly complex, and the ques-
resulted in many Basques being tortured and killed. The tion of Basque nationality and self-rule arises frequently.
so-called Basque Witch Trials (1609–1610) were especially Meanwhile, Northern Basques have campaigned for the
vicious, with authorities in France and Spain trying to creation of a separate Basque within France but these
root out and burn Basque “witches” for heresy against the demands have not been met by the French administration.
Catholic Church (Garaio Mendizabal 2015). Today, the French Basque Country is officially part of the
Over the subsequent centuries, Basques in both France French department of Pyrénées Atlantiques, centered on
and Spain fought to defend Basque language and culture. the mountainous province of Béarn. However, a growing
On the French side of the border, many Basques were number of French Basque mayors support the creation of
deported from Northern Basque Country. On the Span- a separate Basque department within France, with a cur-
ish side, Southern Basques were prevented from trying rent percentage of 63.87 percent in support (marie-info
to regain the independence that the Kingdom of Navarre .com 2005).

Picasso’s Guernica
Guernica, probably Pablo Picasso’s most famous work, is a powerful political statement that was painted in reaction
to the bombing of Guernica during the Spanish Civil War. On its completion, Guernica toured the world, thereby
bringing the Spanish Civil War to international attention. Interpretations of Guernica vary widely and contradict
one another. For instance, the painting’s rampaging bull is variously viewed as Picasso’s ego or as being symbolic of
Fascism. Picasso said it symbolized brutality and darkness, with the painting’s horse figure representing Guernica’s
inhabitants.
 Basque 153

Society, Culture, and Tradition include txangurro (spider crab), kokotchas (the flesh found
Nearly all Basques are Roman Catholic. Basque society under a hake’s jaw), and the gateau Basque (Basque cake),
values women, and though it should not be considered a which is made from eggs, flour, sugar, and rum. Other clas-
matriarchal society, traditionally a great deal of respon- sic Basque recipes include the sauces pil-pil (made with
sibility is placed on the role of the wife (etxekoandre) or cod gelatin); a green sauce made from parsley, garlic, and
homemaker as well as on the institution of the family itself. onion; red salsa vizcaína (made from dried red peppers);
The Basques use a number of phrases when greeting and a black sauce made with squid ink. Gazpacho, a cold
each other. Basques have specific greetings for each time of soup consisting of tomatoes, peppers, cucumbers, and olive
day—Egun on (Good morning), arratsalde on (Good after- oil that is popular across Spain, is also a Basque favorite.
noon), Gabon (Good evening)—as well as a greeting used Another type of social get-together enjoyed by Basques is
at midday (Eguerdion). On being introduced to someone, a the txikiteo. This involves group of friends going for a lei-
Basque person will often say, “Urte askotarako.” This trans- surely walk and stopping at bars for pintxos (tapas dishes)
lates as “For many years” and is the Basque equivalent of washed down by small glasses of wine called txikitos.
saying “Pleased to meet you.” The phrase is also used after Friends will also often meet at a sagardotegi (ciderhouse),
congratulations to express the wish that someone’s happi- where they eat cod omelets, fried cod with green peppers,
ness lasts many years. grilled steak, and Idiazabal cheese served with walnuts.
Basque people typically dress in modern Western styles. When at a sagardotegi, Basques drink apple cider served
The one uniquely Basque item of clothing is the flat, wide, fresh from the barrel. In a traditional sagardotegi, each
black beret worn by Basque men. person will pay for a glass, which they may fill with cider
Basque people often join organizations—everything an unlimited number of times. Then at intervals, the word
from formal business cooperatives to cuadrillas (groups of txotx (the word refers to a Basque cider barrel) is shouted
friends who spend their leisure time in each other com- out within the sagardotegi. When they hear this, those who
pany). According to 2006 figures, there were 6,533 sports have paid for a glass leave their seats and head to the back
clubs in the Basque Country, 2,428 political or socioeco- of the sagardotegi, where the barrels are located. The cider
nomic organizations, and 5,035 cultural societies (Zallo barrels are large and have a small tap in the lid at a reach-
and Ayuso 2009). able height. When everyone is assembled, the owner of the
On the whole, Basques are very sociable and enjoy sagardotegi (or the first person to reach the barrels) reaches
interacting with other people. Basques take food and hos- up and undoes the barrel tap. The cider is not carbonated,
pitality seriously, with traditional Basque recipes being so the angle of the barrel and force of the liquid makes the
simple enough to highlight the high quality of their ingre- cider shoot from the barrel when the tap is undone. All the
dients. Basques often invite family and friends to enjoy a drinkers then catch the cider in their glasses. The shooting
long dinner accompanied by lots of red or rosé wine from action also adds bubbles to the cider. When everyone has
Rioja or Navarre, txakoli (a semisparkling, very dry white cider in his or her glass, the people drink in unison, all the
wine with high acidity and low alcohol content produced while cheering loudly.
in the Basque Country), or still apple cider. The Basques Another extremely important aspect of Basque culture
are famous for their cuisine, much of which is based on is the ball game pelota. According to Basque folklore, the
seafood. A Basque specialty, ttoro, is fish stew containing boulders of the Pyrenees were used as pelotas by the jenti-
mussels, crayfish, eels, and cod heads. Other specialties lak, giants who had rejected Christianity. However, the doc-
umented history of pelota reaches back to Ancient Greece,

The Pamplona Bull Run

The Pamplona Bull Run is part of the San Fermín Festival held every July in Pamplona, the second-largest city in the
greater Basque cultural region. The bull run is four hundred years old, dating to when wild bulls were driven into
town. The bull run sees people running in front of charging bulls along Pamplona’s cobbled streets and only lasts
around three minutes. A high barrier protects spectators and property along the route, though runners can suffer
injuries and even death.
154 Basque

as is evinced by the fact that the Greek poet Homer refers to Country having the third highest standard of living based
the game is his work The Odyssey. In the Basque region, the on income, health and infrastructure out of all Spain’s
game has been documented since the thirteenth century. autonomous communities. Resources for the disabled
Historians believe the game may have adopted elements include health care, subsidies for medications, mobility
from both Aztec ball games brought to the Basque area by services and transportation, and residential services with
returning conquistadors and the French game jeu de palme. support.
The Basque region was unique in Europe in that although Fifty percent of Basques of working age experienced
the rest of the continent saw jeu de palme succeeded by secondary or tertiary education compared with Spain’s
lawn tennis, in the Basque region, jeu de palme courts were national average of 30 percent. Lessons in the public school
transformed into pelota courts. The popularity of pelota system are carried out mainly in Euskara. In addition to
grew considerably through the nineteenth century. Indeed, the public schools, there is also a network of privately run
such was the popularity of the game during this period schools managed by parents that are known as ikastolas.
that tournament-winning pelota players were the highest Teaching in ikastolas is also in Euskara. Ikastolas were
paid sportsmen of the era. The first official professional borne of a popular movement created during the Franco
pelota championship was held in the 1925, leading to an dictatorship of Spain, during which Euskara was banned.
increasing number of tournaments being established. The An annual Basque tradition sees individual areas of the
first amateur pelota world championships took place in San Basque Country hold their own Euskara Day (Euskararen
Sebastián, Spain, in 1952 and take place every four years. eguna) outdoor celebrations. Profits from these festivities
In the past, pelota was played on grass meadows called are given to a specific ikastola. Another important Basque
pilota-soros in isolated farms and villages. Today, village event is the Korrika, an all-day and all-night relay race
pelota is sometimes played on plazas libres, or free squares, organized by AEK, an organization that promotes literacy
that were originally bare earth but now tend to be paved in Euskara. During the race, a runner carries for one kilo-
areas. More commonly, however, pelota is played on a meter a baton with a pro-Euskara message, which is then
court called a fronton. passed to the next runner.
Pelota matches are played to different numbers of
points depending on which version of the game is being
played. More recently, invented forms of the game, some- Threats to Survival
times called indirect games, require various amounts of For the Basques, the future of their people is inextrica-
points to be scored to record a win. For instance, in Pelota bly linked to the health of the Basque language. Although
a Mano, the aim is to reach twenty-two points, whereas in concerted efforts have been made to ensure the survival
remonte and cesta punta, forty points need to be reached, of the Basque language, the future of the language is far
and forty-five are needed to win Pelota a Pala. However, in from rosy. As of 2015, around 23 percent of the entire
the oldest styles of pelota, which are sometime classified population of the Basque Country speak Euskara (Garaio
as direct pelota games, the scoring system is very similar Mendizabal 2015), so whether or not the language (and by
to that used in lawn tennis, proceeding as follows: 15-0, association the Basque identity) survives depends on the
15 all, 15-30, and 30 all. If both teams become level on 40 Basque people actually keeping their language alive.
points each, a dos is declared just as deuce is called in ten- See also: Breton; Catalan; Galician; Occitan
nis. However, rather than proceed on to an advantage point
Further Reading
as in tennis, when a dos occurs in pelota, the first team to
Garaio Mendizabal, Beñat. 2015. “Basque: Past, Present, and
reach 40 points goes back from 40 to 30 points, and then Future.” Unravel, November 13. https://unravellingmag.com​
both teams stay at 30 points all. The match then continues /articles/basque.
until one of the teams scores two consecutive points with Marie-info.com. 2005. “64% des Maires Basques Favorables à
which to end the match. Un Département Pays Basque.” Marie-info.com, Novem-
ber 2. http://www.maire-info.com/territoires/departements​
/64​-des-maires-basques-favorables-un-departement-pays​
-basque-article-6264.
Health Care and Education
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
The Basque Health Service is called Osakidetza. Basques Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 1, A–C.
have adequate access to health care with the Basque Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
 Bassa 155

Williams, Victoria. 2015. Weird Sports and Wacky Games around the largest ethnic group after the Kpelle. Large numbers of
the World: From Buzkashi to Zorbing. Santa Barbara, CA: Bassa people also live in Sierra Leone, Nigeria, and Came-
Greenwood. roon. Smaller Bassa communities exist in the Democratic
Williams, Victoria. 2017. “Basque.” In Etiquette and Taboos
around the World: A Geographic Encyclopedia of Social and
Republic of Congo, where they are known as the Bassa
Cultural Customs, edited by Ken Taylor and Victoria Wil- Mpoku, and in Togo, where the Bassa are referred to as the
liams, 29–32. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood. Basari.
Zallo, Ramón, and Mikel Ayuso. 2009, January. The Basque
Country: Insight into Its Culture, History, Society and Insti-
tutions. Eusko Jaurlaritzaren Argitalpen Zerbitzu Nagu- Geography and Environment
sia Servicio Central de Publicaciones del Gobierno Vasco
Donostia-San Sebastián 1. San Sebastian, Spain. https://
Liberia is bordered by the Atlantic Ocean to the southwest,
www.euskadi.eus​/gobierno-vasco/contenidos/informacion​ by Sierra Leone to the west, by Guinea to the north, and
/ezagutu​_eh/es​_eza_eh/adjuntos/eza_en.pdf. by Côte d’Ivoire to the east. The landscape consists of flat
to rolling coastal plains with mangroves and swamps. In
the northwest of the country, rolling plateaus give way to
low mountains. The hills of Liberia are covered in tropi-
cal rainforests, and elephant grass and semideciduous
BASSA forests cover the north of the country. The country’s cli-
mate is equatorial, so it is hot all year round with heavy
Current Location West Africa rainfall from May to October and a short break from the
Current Population 350,000 rain occurring from mid-July to August. During the winter
Language Western Kru; Vah (November to March), dry, dusty harmattan winds blow
Interesting Fact A printing press with the Bassa inland.
alphabet was invented by a graduate Liberia is the most densely forested country in West
of Syracuse University. Africa and hosts around 40 percent of the intact tropical
forest belonging to West Africa’s Upper Guinea Ecoregion.
Overview The biodiversity of the Liberian forest is rich in common
The Bassa people (also known as the Gboboh, Adbassa, or and endangered species, including at least two thousand
Bambog-Mbog) are an indigenous group living in an area flowering plants, one thousand insect species, six hundred
of West Africa sometimes referred to as Bassa-ri (Land of types of birds, seventy-four species of reptiles and amphib-
the Bassa). The name Bassa seems to stem from a com- ians, and 150 mammal species including elephants, chim-
bination of baah (meaning “father”) and sooh (meaning panzees, and leopards (Torto 2014). However, this great
“stone”). An important Bassa king was called Baah Sooh, biodiversity is under threat from humans. Endangered
and his subjects became known as Baah Sooh Nyome species such as elephants, pygmy hippopotamus, leopards,
(Father Stone’s People). Over time, the name Baah Sooh and various species of monkey are hunted as bushmeat
Nyome was adapted to Bassa. The Bassa speak a West- in Liberia. The meat is exported to Sierra Leone and Côte
ern Kru language belonging to the Atlantic branch of the d’Ivoire despite a cross-border ban on the sale of wild ani-
Niger-Congo phylum. The Bassa have their own writing mals. Bushmeat is also widely eaten in Liberia as a source
system, called Vah. of protein.
Slash-and-burn farming is another environmental
issue affecting Liberian forests. Somewhat ironically, Libe-
Population, Diaspora, and Migration ria’s years of civil war helped protect the country’s forests
According to the last census of the Bassa, taken in 1991, because conflict brought about the total breakdown of
there are 350,000 Bassa people (Shoup 2011). The Bassa infrastructure and trade routes, meaning the demand for
live mainly in Liberia in the counties of Grand Bassa, timber was quieted. One of the consequences of Liberia’s
Rivercess, Margibi, and Montserrado. Many Bassa also increasing political stability is that there has been a rapid
live in the Liberian capital, Monrovia. In Liberia, the Bassa expansion of oil palm plantations and logging businesses,
make up around 11 percent of the total Liberian popula- meaning that these forests are being cleared once more. To
tion (Minority Rights Group International 2017) and form help safeguard the country’s forests, in 2014, Norway struck
156 Bassa

a deal with Liberia whereby Liberia would stop all logging ethnic identity because Liberians’ ethnicity was seen as an
in exchange for $150 million in development aid. Also in indicator of which side they supported in the war. At the
2014, Liberia’s Lower House of Representatives endorsed end of the war, Taylor became president of Liberia, but not
the National Wildlife Conservation and Protected Areas before 150,000 Liberians had died (Shoup 2011).
Management Act to protect Liberia’s environment. During Taylor’s presidency, Liberia was considered by
other countries as a pariah state due to its use of blood
diamonds and the exporting of timber to fund the Revolu-
History and Politics tionary United Front in the Sierra Leone Civil War, during
The Bassa have Kemetic origins, meaning that they are which tens of thousands of Sierra Leonean civilians had
descended from the people of Ancient Egypt. During the been killed or maimed by having their limbs removed by
sixth century, the Ad-Bassa Empire migrated from Egypt machetes. In June 2003, the Special Court for Sierra Leone
to the area now referred to as Bassa-ri. Some of the peo- indicted Taylor for crimes against humanity. The follow-
ple settled as ironworkers and farmers growing sorghum, ing month, rebels launched an assault on Monrovia. Under
yams, and rice, and some went to live in the area’s rainfor- pressure both internationally and from the Women of
ests. Meanwhile, other people continued their migration, Liberia Mass Action for Peace movement, Taylor resigned
heading farther west before settling in the areas in which in August 2003 and fled to Nigeria.
they live today. After a while, the westernmost Bassa set-
tled, and a distinct Bassa language and identity began to
evolve. Society, Culture, and Tradition
During the fifteenth century, various European mer- Traditionally, Bassa society is based around several chief-
chants had difficultly pronouncing the name by which the doms that are closely related through lineage, with each
Bassa were known at this time, Baah Sooh Nyome, dur- chiefdom divided into many smaller clans. Bassa patri-
ing trade negotiations. Over time, the people came to be archs and elder are known as Mbog.
known as the Bassa. In 1822, the return of slaves to Africa The Bassa are farmers growing plantains, cassava, and
from the United States and the founding of modern Libe- yams in the main.
ria severely impacted the lives of the Bassa and other local The traditional Bassa way of conveying nonverbal
nonslave communities. The Liberian capital, Monrovia, messages is called Vah (meaning “to throw a sign”). This
became a base for the newly arrived slaves, prompting messaging system was invented around 500 BCE (Olukoju
the Bassa to build a number of settlements along Libe- 2006) and allowed the Bassa to convey messages by leaving
ria’s Atlantic coast. The arrival of the Americo-Liberians bite marks in leaves or scratches on tree bark that were then
also meant that the Bassa and other Kru speakers had to left at strategic places; the messages would be understood
encounter and interact with the Americo-Liberians as they by the person reading the marks. According to Bassa oral
moved into areas inhabited by the Bassa and others. Over tradition, an enslaved Bassa man named Dinah took the
the years, the Americo-Liberians came to dominate Libe- Bassa nonverbal message system to the Americas. Once in
rian politics, but in 1980, the downfall of President William the Americas, the system was passed down through gen-
R. Tolbert Jr. resulted in the Americo-Liberians losing their erations of Bassa. This traditional communication system
position of power over Liberia. In April 1980, soldiers of was later studied and codified by Dr. Thomas Narvin Flo
the Armed Forces of Liberia led by Samuel Doe launched Lewis, a graduate of Syracuse University teaching in Libe-
a violent coup d’état that resulted in the death of Tolbert ria, who in 1910 invented a Bassa script, called Ehni Ka
Jr.; Doe then became leader of Liberia. Doe belonged to Se Fa. Lewis also had an Ehni Ka Se Fa alphabet printing
the Kru-speaking Krahn ethnic group, whereas the Gio press made and began to print Vah manuscripts in 1920 as
and Mano peoples who are closely related to the Bassa part of a Vah language revival.
supported Doe’s opponent, Charles Taylor. Political insta- Although many Bassa have converted to Islam and Chris-
bility ensued in Liberia as Taylor led a rebellion against tianity, a number of Bassa people retain their ethnic reli-
Doe. Ultimately, this led to the onset of the First Liberian gious beliefs. For many Bassa, everyday life revolves around
Civil War (1989–1997). The lengthy, violent civil war killed a blend of indigenous beliefs blended with Judeo-Christian
thousands of civilians and forced many others to flee their philosophies, with decisions made after consulting oracles,
homelands. The civil war also brought to the fore issues of supernatural entities, and the Bible. The Bassa see death as
 Bassa 157

a transitional stage because they consider the dead to have by introducing immunization programs, providing family
moved on to another world from where they can help the planning and sexual health education, nutrition advice,
living. For this reason, the Bassa feel it necessary to pay improvements to water supplies and sanitation, malaria
homage to their ancestors to keep society stable and allow prevention and treatment, prevention of mother-to-baby
the sick to be healed. The Bible was translated into Vah in HIV transmission, and pediatric HIV care and treatment.
1922, 1939, and 1969 (Ngwainmbi 2009). The Bassa con- Liberia’s history of conflict and poverty has led to low
sider their elders as creator figures while also seeing them levels of education within the country. In Liberia, there are
as the greatest members of their society because they are anecdotal accounts of low literacy rates, poorly equipped
the oldest members. The Bassa often use proverbs when in classrooms, and university graduates with poor writing
conversation, and one of the most oft used is “The elders skills. As early as the 1960s, Liberia’s school system was
can always find the crab’s heart” (Ngwainmbi 2009). This known to have structural weakness, inefficient manage-
proverb suggests that the life experiences of older Bassa ment, underpaid and untrained teachers, and a general
have allowed them to become wise enough to find the lack of building maintenance. This is still the case today,
heart on the most difficult of animals. In addition, the but these problems have been exacerbated by years of civil
proverb tells that the elders are able to solve any problem war that devastated Liberia’s infrastructure while killing or
through a combination of wisdom, patience, and indige­ displacing many of the country’s citizens, including teach-
nous knowledge. In Bassa culture, the idea of village elders ers and pupils.
as the wisest and greatest members of society coexists with During the civil war, children were left homeless and
the Christian concept of God as righteous and benevolent uneducated. Indeed, many Liberian children were forced
yet willing to punish sinners. To this end, the Bassa will to become child soldiers rather than go to school. By the
often make sacrifices to supernatural beings to ensure the end of the war, 24 percent of community schools had been
protection and benevolence of metaphysical beings. destroyed along with 30 percent of public schools. Of those
schools that survived, 16 percent had lost basic educational
equipment and furniture to looting. In addition, many
Health Care and Education trained teachers had left the country to escape the fight-
The Bassa living in rural parts of Liberia face a lack of health ing, thereby increasing the students-to-trained-teacher
facilities. This lack of healthcare access affects the general ratio in the postwar years. Despite this lack of teachers,
Bassa population, and it has been blamed in particular for data on Liberia’s adult literacy shows a steady increase in
increasing rates of maternal deaths. Data released by the literacy rates from 32 percent of the population in 1984
Liberia Demography Health Survey (LDHS) in June 2017 to 61 percent in 2010. Part of the reason for this increase
indicated that the maternal death rate in Liberia increased is that since the war, the Liberian government, together
from 994 to 1,072 per 100,000 live births during the period with its international partners, has invested in a program
2007–2013, though during the same period, the neonatal of constructing schools and community colleges, training
death rate had decreased from 32 to 26 per 1,000 live births teachers, and delivering educational resources. As result
(Liberia News Agency 2017). In rural parts of Liberia, deaths of this investment in education, between the 2005–2006
among women and babies are often caused by the fact that and 2008–2009 school years, public school enrolment rose
pregnant women are forced to walk for hours over long by 48 percent, with a 33 percent increase in enrolment by
distances to access healthcare facilities. The government females. Other factors increasing education rates in Libe-
of Liberia aims to work in collaboration with international ria include the Education Act of 2001, which made pri-
partners to build health centers across the county. Improve- mary education compulsory, and the abolition of school
ments to health care in Bassa areas are being implemented fees in 2006 (Siaplay and Werker 2013).
in part by the U.S. Agency for International Development
(USAID), which funds the Maternal and Child Survival
Program (MCSP)/Restoration of Health Services project. Threats to Survival
The MCSP is a global USAID body providing health care Since the ousting of Charles Taylor, Liberia seems to
in high-priority countries with the aim of ending within have recovered politically, and the country is beginning
one generation preventable child and maternal deaths. to thrive through international economic aid and invest-
The MCSP supports the health of mothers and children ment. In 2003, a peace deal was signed securing peace in
158 Batak

Liberia, and the same year the United Nations Mission in Overview
Liberia began arriving as a peace-monitoring presence. The Bataks are an indigenous people living on the Phil-
Then in October 2004, an interim government took power. ippines’ island of Palawan. The Bataks speak the Batak or
The 2005 Liberian election were considered to be fairest Binatak language as well as Tagbanwa and Cuyunon. The
in Liberian history and saw Ellen Johnson Sirleaf elected Bataks maintain spiritual shamanistic beliefs. The name
as the first female president in Africa. Once she was inau- Batak is an old Cuyunon term meaning “mountain people.”
gurated, Sirleaf requested the extradition of Taylor from
Nigeria, bringing him to trial in The Hague. In 2006, the
Liberian government established a Truth and Reconcilia- Population, Diaspora, and Migration
tion Commission to address the causes and crimes of the In 1990, an official census estimated the Batak population
civil war. Lasting Liberian peace, together with the imple- to comprise slightly more than two thousand people. Today,
mentation of safeguards to protect the environment and the population has plummeted, though the extent of the
programs aimed at improving health and education in exact reduction is unknown. According to some, the Batak
Liberia, suggest the Bassa people’s future may be assured. population numbers around four hundred (Eder 1999),
See also: Mende whereas others suggest the figure is less than three hun-
dred (Survival International 2019) as the Bataks assimilate
Further Reading
Liberia News Agency. 2017. “Liberia: Grand Bassa Health Dis- with the rest of society and intermarry with neighboring
tricts Meet on Maternal, Newborn Health.” Liberia News Tagbanwas and Cuyunons. Indeed, in 2005, it was reported
Agency, June 10. http://allafrica.com/stories/201706110183​ that only 155 Bataks had two Batak parents, meaning the
.html. “pure” Batak population had fallen by 57 percent in the
Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Liberia.” World space of thirty-three years (Novellino 2010).
Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. http://​
In the past, most Bataks followed a seminomadic life-
minorityrights.org/country/liberia.
Ngwainmbi, Emmanuel Kombem. 2009. “Bassa.” In Encyclopedia style that saw the Bataks forage food from nearby for-
of African Religion, edited by Molefi Kete Asante and Ama ests and rivers. Today, as their home territory becomes
Mazama, 108–110. Vol. 1. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. increasingly settled by outsiders from elsewhere in the
Olukoju, Ayodeji. 2006. Culture and Customs of Liberia. West- Philippines, many Bataks live in small settlements near
port, CT: Greenwood Press. the coastal villages of Tinitian, Babuyan, and Malcampo,
Shoup, John A. 2011. “Bassa.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and
far from their ancestral lands. Traditionally, the Bataks live
the Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup,
42–44. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. as eight groups, each associated with a river or watershed.
Siplay, Mounir, and Eric Werker. 2013, November. “International At the end of the nineteenth century, each Batak river val-
Growth Centre: Working Paper: What Role for the Private ley was home to between twenty and fifty households that
Sector in Liberia’s Public Education Policy?” https://www​ lived in temporary forest or riverine encampments. By
.theigc.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/02/Siaplay-Werker​ the start of the 1980s, however, Batak communities var-
-2013-Working-Paper.pdf.
ied in size from three to twenty-four households located
Torto, Obaka. 2014. “Liberia Takes Another Leap Forward in
Biodiversity Conservation.” BirdLife International Africa, in fixed settlements. The fixed settlements were not pop-
December 9. http://www.birdlife.org/africa/news/liberia​ ulated permanently, however, because the Bataks would
-takes-another-leap-forward-biodiversity-conservation. make foraging trips to the Palawan interior or would travel
downstream to work for lowland employers (Eder 1999).
The Bataks do not tend to have large families, and most
households are small, comprising an average of 3.5 people
(Eder 1999).
BATAK
Current Location Philippines Geography and Environment
Current Population 300–400
The Bataks inhabit the forested river valleys found in the
Language Batak (Binatak); Tagbanwa; Cuyunon interior of the east coast of northcentral Palawan Island.
Interesting Fact The Bataks are reputed to be the Palawan is long and narrow in shape and home to a central
Philippines’ oldest indigenous tribe. mountain chain. The island’s wet season lasts from June to
 Batak 159

December, and its dry season lasts from January to May. leaving the tribe on the brink of starvation (Survival Inter-
The dry season is especially noticeable on Palawan’s east- national 2019). Consequently, the Bataks had little choice
ern side, which is one of the driest areas of the Philippines. but to collect and sell more forest products. This resulted in
The Bataks’ traditional lands in the island’s interior receive the overall depletion of the forest resources on which the
greater rainfall than the coast; nevertheless, they are the Bataks depended.
location of molave forests—that is, vegetation that grows
in relatively dry areas that experience monsoons. Molave
forests are not as dense or species rich as rainforests, but History and Politics
they still contain many types of trees, shrubs, and vines Some researchers believe the Bataks are the oldest tribe
that provide the Bataks with seeds, fruits, and tubers to eat. of the Philippines, having crossed land bridges to their
As a forest people, the Bataks depend for their survival homeland over fifty thousand years ago. However, the early
on a varied mix of hunter-gathering, farming, and fishing. history of the Bataks is unknown. Nonetheless, the Bataks’
Traditionally, however, the Filippo government considers physical appearance (dark skin, wiry hair, and small bod-
forests as public lands, with peoples living in the forests ies) leads many commentators to conclude that the Bat-
regarded as squatters (Eder 1999). Recently, the Bataks aks are descended from the Aeta (or Negrito) peoples who
have faced threats by government conservation plans, such now live in the northern part of the Philippines on the
as a ban on shifting cultivation and the declaration of pro- island of Luzon.
tected areas within Batak ancestral lands. Land seizure and For many hundreds of years, the Bataks traded forest
logging also threaten the Bataks’ environment. In 1994, products with coastal peoples living in the Philippines’
local authorities banned the Bataks’ traditional farming Sulu Archipelago from whom they acquired manufactured
methods, so the Bataks’ rice yields decreased dramatically, goods. In 1521, Spanish survivors of explorer Ferdinand

Traditional Batak dancers perform in Bolon Simanindo Batak Museum Village in North Sumatra, Indonesia. Bataks use dance to nego-
tiate with the spirits and ensure bountiful harvests. (Tayfun Sertan Yaman/Dreamstime.com)
160 Batak

Magellan’s expedition to the Spice Islands made contact for indigenous peoples who wanted to exploit forest
with the Bataks. However, Palawan Island remained largely resources such as rattan. Authorities also tried to turn the
unaffected by outside influence throughout the Philip- Bataks and other indigenous groups away from shifting
pines’ era of Spanish colonialism (1521–1898) as well as cultivation and toward more sustainable forms of farm-
into the American period of Philippines’ history (1898– ing. There were moves to educate and train Batak women
1946). The earliest report of the Bataks, dating from 1907, to farm silkworms. In practice, however, such schemes are
describes the Bataks as isolated and living undisturbed. In generally more concerned with environmental conserva-
the early 1900s, however, migration by lowland Filipinos tion than supporting the Bataks’ need for a livelihood,
began leading to the increased separation of the Bataks hamper the Bataks’ ability to find forest foods, and leave
from their natural environment and land resources as well the Bataks vulnerable to outside entities and bureaucracy
as their increasing assimilation into mainstream society. over which they have no say (Novellino 2010). In the late
In the 1930s, the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes (part 1980s and 1990s, the Bataks began to engage more with
of the Department of the Interior that investigated the governmental agencies and nongovernmental organiza-
Philippines’ pagan and Muslim tribes) created a number tions (NGOs).
of Batak reservations along the coastal plain that made
up part of the Batak territory. Following World War II,
mass migration to this area by lowland Filipino settlers Society, Culture, and Tradition
forced out many Bataks. The opening of the first road on The Bataks survive through foraging for foods such as wild
Batak land in 1956 hastened migration to Batak areas. It pigs, fish, and fruits in the forest; the sale of forest products
was around this time that demand for nonforest timber (mainly rattan, resin, honey); shifting cultivation (espe-
products (NTFPs) increased. The demand led to some cially the growing of rice, sweet potatoes, and cassava);
Bataks learning new ways with which to harvest products and working for low wages from employment by Fili-
such as Agathis resin, which is used to make varnishes pino farmers. When working for lowland farmers, Batak
and linoleum. The increased demand for and produc- men will hire themselves out for several days at a time to
tion of such products resulted in the Bataks becoming work picking coconuts, clearing weeds, or harvesting cof-
more commercially minded and more greatly involved in fee. Some Bataks also earn cash by leading guided tourist
trade. In the 1960s, traditional Batak coastal areas were tours. In addition to selling forest products, the Bataks also
settled, and towns were created there. At the same time, swap the products to obtain rice and clothes. The Bataks
official concessions were awarded to politicians and legal are famous for their traditional weaving of baskets and
and illegal businesses for the harvesting of NTFPs (par- mats, which they sometimes sell to tourists. When they are
ticularly Agathis resin and rattan). Over the next twenty young, Batak women learn to weave baskets from forest
years, many Batak areas suffered serious deforestation by materials such as rattan and bamboo.
both settlers and logging companies. Consequently, some Batak descent is bilateral, and their marriages are
Batak areas lost all their forest resources, forcing the Bat- monogamous. Traditionally, the Bataks will divorce and
aks to move farther inland to find resin to harvest. The remarry, with Batak elders adjudicating on marital dis-
Bataks who harvested resin farther inland then entered putes. During the early years of a marriage, a Batak couple
into unofficial deals with logging company employees to will usually live with the wife’s parents before joining the
have their resin transported to the coast. The incursion husband’s kin. The low Batak population means young Bat-
onto Batak land by farmer-settlers and logging compa- aks often have to marry outside their tribes. Small groups
nies also forced some Bataks to migrate farther into the of Batak households will tend to pool their resources,
Palawan interior, meaning the Bataks had to leave behind including food, though all households are expected to be
some of their coastal resources and lose access to some able to be self-reliant and survive by themselves if need be.
services and employment opportunities. In the 1990s, This belief reflects the Bataks’ strongly egalitarian, inde-
the Filipino government enacted measures intended to pendent nature. Typically, older Batak men become dom-
safeguard both the environment and indigenous lands inant through their kinship ties, but although their views
and resources. These measures included community- are respected, their opinions are not binding. Each Batak
centric forest management schemes and concessions settlement is part of a lowland Filipino community whose
 Batak 161

leader serves on the lowest rung of the Philippines’ gov- measles, and tuberculosis. The Batak population is slow
ernment administration. Each Batak community also has to grow, with high infant mortality rates and low birth
its own elected leader who represents the community to rates. Bataks living in the remotest areas of the Palawan
the outside world. interior lack access to social services such as health care
The Bataks believe the human realm is governed by and schools. Consequently, many Bataks have no access to
spirits and supernatural beings that divide into two groups: education. However, recently, several organizations have
the evil panya’en and the diwata, who are unpredictable moved to helping the Bataks safeguard their language by
but have the potential to be kind. The Bataks believe these developing a mother tongue curriculum in schools that
beings are visible only to shamans and inhabit specific Batak children do attend (Ethnic Groups Philippines 2018).
rocks, trees, and waterways. According to Batak beliefs, the
panya’en jealously guard all forest and riverine resources
that the Bataks may use, having entered into an ancestral Threats to Survival
agreement with the panya’en. However, the agreement The future of the Bataks is severely endangered. Over time,
allows the Bataks to use only those resources they need to settlers have settled among the Bataks, resulting in drastic
survive, so any waste or excessive consumption of forest of changes in the Batak community. Much of the Bataks’ tra­
forest resources or the cruelty to forest animals will cause ditional culture has been lost as the Bataks assimilate with
the panya’en to punish the Bataks with illness or death. the dominant settler population. Intermarriage with settlers
For example, if a Batak honey collector accidentally spills and neighboring peoples further weakens the Bataks’ popu-
honey or wastes honeycomb, the panya’en called Ungaw lation and culture. The growing demand for forest resources
will be so angered that he will send away all the bees, has pushed some Bataks to live deeper in the Palawan inte­
meaning that the Batak will be unable to collect honey. In rior and in remote areas, where they are unable to access
such cases, the Bataks believe that only through their col- social services including health care and education. As a
lective good behavior will the bees return to the forest. The result of poverty, diseases, high infant mortality, and low
Bataks believe only individual mediums called babalians birth rates, the Batak population is falling dangerously low.
can intercede on their behalf with the panya’en by enter- In addition, the Bataks’ survival is threatened by con-
ing into trances that allow them to contact the diwata, who servation schemes that effect the Bataks ability to use
may try to help the Bataks free themselves from the ire of the  resources found on their ancestral lands. Land loss
the panya’en. and deforestation caused by logging exacerbates the
Dance is important to the Bataks. For example, Batak situation.
babalians will negotiate with the spirits through perform- See also: Bicol; Igorot
ing ceremonial dance and music. Before such a dance, food
Further Reading
and animal sacrifices are placed on an altar as an offering Eder, James F. 1999. “The Batak of Palwan Island, the Philip-
to the spirit. During the pre-planting ritual called Tarek pines.” In The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gath-
Festival, the babalian will perform the dance to the spirit erers, sect. I.VI.4, edited by Richard B. Lee and Richard Daly,
of a field to ensure a bountiful harvest. The annual Tarek 294–298. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Festival is held every third week of January in Palawan and Ethnic Groups Philippines. 2018. “Who Are the Batak Peo-
ple?” Ethnic Groups Philippines, September 9. http://www​
sees the Bataks publicly perform their traditional dances.
.ethnicgroupsphilippines.com/2018/09/09/who-are-the​
During the festival, the Batak also display their traditional -batak-people.
woven homewares and clothing. Novellino, Dario. 2010. “From Indigenous Customary Practices
Like other languages spoken on Palawan, the Batak lan- to Policy Interventions: The Ecolocal and Sociocultural
guage is related to the central Visayan group of Philippines Underpinnings of the NTFP Trade on Palawan Island, the
languages. Philippines.” In Wild Product Governance: Finding Policies
That Work for Non-Timber Forest Product, edited by Sarah A.
Laird, Rebecca J. McLain, and Rachel P. Wynberg, 183–197.
London: Earthscan.
Health Care and Education Survival International. 2019. “The Batak.” https://www​.sur​
The Bataks tend to suffer from severe undernourishment. vivalinternational.org/tribes/batak.
This leaves them vulnerable to diseases such as malaria,
162 BaTwa

BATWA Geography and Environment

The BaTwa homeland stretches across varied terrain.
Current Location Rwanda; Uganda; Burundi; Traditionally, the BaTwa have lived in forests, but with
Democratic Republic of Congo
increasing amounts of forest being cleared to make way for
Current Population 80,000 farmland and grazing pasture, much of the BaTwa’s natu-
Language Kirundi; Kinyarwanda ral habitat has been lost. Therefore, today many BaTwa also
Interesting Fact The BaTwa are thought to have live in swamp areas and deserts. Some BaTwa also reside
existed for 25,000 years. in the high mountains and on plains around Lake Kivu on
the border between the Democratic Republic of Congo
Overview and Rwanda. The bed of Lake Kivu sits on a rift valley that
The BaTwa (also written as Batwa or referred to as the is being pulled apart gradually, causing localized volcanic
Twa) are an African pygmy people. In common with other activity. In addition, the lake experiences a rare phenome-
pygmy peoples, the BaTwa are dominated by neighboring non called limnic eruptions. This is a rare type of natural
Bantu and Cushitic communities and speak their lan- disaster that sees dissolved gas suddenly erupt from deep
guages. In particular, most BaTwa speak Kirundi and Kin- within the lake waters, forming a cloud that suffocates
yarwanda, which are the languages of the Hutu and Tutsi humans and animals. Limnic eruptions can also cause
peoples. A small number of BaTwa follow an apostolic lake tsunamis because the rising gas causes lake water
form of Christianity that combines Christian philosophies to rapidly displace. In the case of Lake Kivu, the gaseous
with indigenous (mainly Bantu) beliefs. chemical composition of the eruption is methane mixed
with carbon dioxide because the lake water interacts with
volcanic activity.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
In 2000, the total BaTwa population was estimated to
measure around eighty thousand people (Shoup 2011). The History and Politics
BaTwa are most often associated with Rwanda. In 2004, a The BaTwa are considered one of the oldest groups of
Rwandan national socioeconomic survey conducted by humans on earth because researchers believe the BaTwa
the country’s Ministry of Finance’s statistics department are linked to the Tshitolian civilization that existed around
and others put the BaTwa population at approximately twenty-five thousand years ago. The earliest BaTwa lived
thirty-three thousand (Minority Rights Group Interna- across an expanse of territory before the expansion of
tional 2018). Researchers may struggle to gather BaTwa Bantu peoples that occurred from the second millennium
population figures for several reasons. First, in Rwanda the BCE through to the first few centuries CE. The BaTwa lived
country’s postwar reparations frameworks do not recog- alongside the Bantu, and as hunter-gathers, they were able
nize the BaTwa population. Second, it is quite difficult to to provide the Bantu with honey and meat in return for
differentiate between the BaTwa and other pygmy peoples Bantu tools and farmed produce.
because the BaTwa share the same language and religious During the colonization of Africa, BaTwa society began
beliefs as these other groups. The BaTwa are also spread to dissolve. This was partly due to their hunter-gatherer
across a vast geographical area because their homeland skills being needed less frequently by other peoples, and
stretches from the savanna grasslands of Uganda, the Lakes partly because their traditional forest habitats were being
Region of Central Africa southward to Rwanda, the Dem- destroyed. Deforestation caused the BaTwa to move to
ocratic Republic of Congo, and Burundi. In addition, some the outskirts of villages, where they found work perform-
BaTwa also live in in scattered communities in Namibia, ing menial jobs often under abusive conditions. After the
Botswana, Angola, and Zambia. In Rwanda and Burundi, decolonization of Africa, the BaTwa were largely ignored,
the BaTwa make up only 1 percent of the national popula- meaning that today they experience very poor living
tion (Shoup 2011). The total BaTwa population of Rwanda conditions. Missionaries did not seek out the BaTwa, so
inhabits around six hundred households, none of which today only around 7 percent of the BaTwa are Christian
follow the BaTwa tradition of living in forests. Instead, the (Shoup 2011).
BaTwa are dispersed widely across the country in small As farming and pastoralism by Hutus and Tutsis
communities. intruded onto BaTwa land and caused the clearing of
 BaTwa 163

BaTwa ancestral forests, the BaTwa were increasingly BaTwa people at all. In April 2006, the secretary general of
forced to abandon their traditional way of life and exist the Rwandan Ministry of Justice clarified the government’s
on the edge of society. Although while some BaTwa sur- opinion, claiming that highlighting individual ethnicities
vived by making and selling pottery, by the 1970s, farm- might lead to ethnic violence, as it had in the past between
ing and forest conservation schemes had started to leave the Hutus and Tutsis. Then, in 2007, CAURWA was made
many BaTwa landless. Often the BaTwa were not consulted to change its name to the Community of Rwandese Potters
or compensated for their loss of land (Minority Rights (COPORWA) because the Rwandan government refused to
Group International 2018). In the late 1980s, all BaTwa renew the organization’s charity license unless it removed
who lived in the forests of Rwanda were evicted from Vol- the word indigenous from its title. After this name change,
canoes National Park, the Nyungwe Forest Reserve, and which BaTwa activists viewed as a major setback for
the Gishwati Forest. Without their lands, BaTwa poverty BaTwa rights, there was a surge in reports of anti-BaTwa
grew because the people could not follow their traditional discrimination. In particular, COPORWA noted growing
hunter-gatherer lifestyles. At the same time, non-BaTwa discrimination in rural Rwandan schools.
Rwandans treated the BaTwa as social outcasts. In addi- In 2009, the Burundian government moved to give the
tion to losing their livelihoods, the BaTwa also lost much BaTwa some form of political representation. However, in
of their traditional forest knowledge. both Rwanda and Burundi, the BaTwa continue to lack
In 1994, Rwanda plunged into a genocidal war between representation in government, are not officially recognized
the Hutus and Tutsis. According to the United Nations as a people, and have no land rights.
Office of Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organiza- In 2010 and 2011, Rwandan authorities implemented
tion (UNPO), around ten thousand BaTwa people were the Bye Bye Nyakatsi program, which saw traditional
killed in the fighting. This number equated to 30 percent thatched roof houses replaced with metal-roofed homes.
of all Rwandan BaTwa. Many of these BaTwa died at the Although the government depicted the program as an
hand of the Interahamwe, a term that originally referred effort to provide all Rwandans with adequate housing,
to a Hutu paramilitary organization but later broadened commentators argued that the BaTwa were affected dis-
to mean any civilian groups killing Tutsis. In some areas, proportionately because they tend to employ traditional
Tutsis took part in the massacring of BaTwa communities building methods when constructing homes. In many
(Minority Rights Group International 2018). It is thought instances, this policy left the BaTwa without shelter.
that as well as the number of BaTwa killed in the fighting, In both 2011 and 2016, the United Nations Commit-
a further eight thousand BaTwa fled the fighting by relo- tee for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD)
cating to neighboring nations (Shoup 2011). Today, there raised concerns that the Rwandan government was not
remains a widespread Hutu perception that the BaTwa doing enough to the improve conditions for the BaTwa,
are sympathetic to Tutsis. This suspicion manifests as who continue to suffer prejudice in matters of education,
anti-BaTwa discrimination by the Hutus when it comes to employment, housing, and social services. The failure to
food distribution and the doling out of supplies in refugee replace the BaTwa’s ancestral lands confiscated from them,
camps. which prevented them from living their traditional life-
In the 2000s, several different organizations were styles, was also brought up. In 2017, the UN Committee
founded to support the BaTwa and other pygmy peoples. for the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
These organizations include the Pygmy Survival Alliance Women brought up the continuing ostracism of and har-
based in Seattle, Washington, and the Communauté des assment against BaTwa women and cited the government’s
Autochtones Rwandaises (CAURWA, Community of Indig- denial of BaTwa ethnicity as impinging on authorities’
enous People of Rwanda). The Rwandan government, efforts to address the women’s situation.
bent on denying the BaTwa their ethnicity, threatened to In February 2017, it was reported that a BaTwa man
remove all government help to the BaTwa and their organ- was caught hunting an antelope inside Uganda’s Bwindi
izations if the BaTwa continued to regard themselves as a Impenetrable National Park, which was a protected area
distinct ethnicity. To this end, in 2004, the Rwandan Justice that once belonged to BaTwa. He faced up to five years in
Ministry declined to grant legal status to CAURWA unless jail time. The BaTwa also face arrest and imprisonment
the organization ceased referring to the BaTwa as Rwan- if they enter the nearby Mgahinga Gorilla National Park,
da’s original inhabitants as well as stopped referring to the from which the BaTwa were also removed. BaTwa people
164 BaTwa

who have been jailed are often forced to labor on con- the nondiscrimination policies found in some schools in
struction sites and perform waste disposal. Such is the dis- the Rwandan capital of Kigali. Such is the lack of educa-
crimination faced by the BaTwa in Uganda that in 2013, tion among the BaTwa that UNPO estimates 91 percent
the BaTwa filed a petition before Uganda’s Constitutional of the BaTwa have received no form of formal education
Court seeking justice for the disruption of their ancestral (Shoup 2011).
land rights. The case is continuing.

Threats to Survival
Society, Culture, and Tradition The BaTwa are an extremely vulnerable people. They are
The BaTwa lack a distinct culture of their own because denounced by both Hutus and Tutsis, who consider the
they share the religious beliefs and languages of their BaTwa ignorant and uncivilized. This especially true of the
neighbors. In some instances, the Bantu incorporate the Impunyu BaTwa, who work mostly as domestic servants
BaTwa into their ceremonies. For example, the Kuba Bantu or laborers, or beg to survive. The Impunyu are denied the
people who live in Angola and the south of the Democratic right to hunt and forage in their ancestral lands, leaving
Republic of Congo include the BaTwa in their masked them destitute.
societies, with the BaTwa people symbolized by a special In Rwanda, many taboos surround eating near the
mask called a bwoon mask that has a bulging forehead and BaTwa or even using utensils used by the BaTwa. The
wide nose. BaTwa are socially and economically isolated in Rwanda
because other Rwandans will not sit near them, draw water
from wells at the same time as the BaTwa, or marry them.
Health Care and Education Thus, the BaTwa are exceptionally socially marginalized.
The BaTwa lack access to healthcare facilities. Though in The BaTwa are disadvantaged in terms of their access
general the Rwandan government has made great strides to education and health care, and they have no political
to combat poverty and inequality, especially in the areas representation. In addition, BaTwa culture is in danger
of accessing health and education, these improvements because the people speak the languages of their neighbors
have not reached BaTwa communities. For this reason, the and are losing their forest knowledge as their ancestral for-
BaTwa have higher infant mortality rates, shorter average ests are either cleared or denied to them. Another major
life spans, and higher rates of disease and malnutrition concern is the impact of violence on BaTwa women and
than neighboring peoples (Minority Rights Group Inter- girls. BaTwa females are frequently the victims of sexual
national 2018). violence and subjected to sexual harassment by Bantu men
The majority of BaTwa are illiterate, and those BaTwa (Shoup 2011).
who do go to school often abandon their studies in the face In 2011, a visit by the United Nations Independent
of unrelenting harassment from their classmates. This is Expert on Minority Issues, the United Nations Committee
particularly the case in rural Rwandan schools that lack for the Elimination of Racial Discrimination (CERD), and

Denis Mukwege
Nicknamed “Doctor Miracle,” Denis Mukwege is a Congolese gynecologist who has spent decades treating around
thirty thousand rape victims in the Democratic Republic of Congo. Mukwege founded Panzi Hospital in in the city
of Bukavu in the eastern Democratic Republic of Congo after treating a woman who had been raped and genitally
mutilated by armed men. The original hospital was made from tents. Today, Panzi Hospital has become a major health
facility staffed by 370 doctors, nurses, and support staff and serving four hundred thousand patients, including people
from neighboring countries. The hospital has also established a safe house where rape victims learn skills that allow
the women to become self-sufficient if they are rejected by their families. Mukwege was the joint winner of the 2018
Nobel Peace Prize and has been awarded many other international prizes, including the 2008 UN Human Rights
Prize. In 2009, Mukwege was named African of the Year.
 Bavarian 165

the Universal Periodic Review (UPR) highlighted grave (Minahan 2016). Bavarians consist of people descended
concerns over the Rwandan authorities’ treatment of the from the Swabians, Franks, and the Bavarians of old. Mass
BaTwa. Although the Rwandan government promoted immigration by refugees to Bavaria after World War II
reconciliation between ethnic groups after the Rwandan means many Bavarians are descended from refugees from
genocide by outlawing ethnic distinctions, commentators Czechoslovakia’s Sudetenland and East Europe.
noted in 2011 and 2016 that the government’s refusal rec-
ognize minority ethnicities and indigenous communities
has impacted negatively certain communities, includ- Geography and Environment
ing the BaTwa. Also, the government’s denial of ethnicity Bavaria occupies a mountainous area of Central Europe
contravenes international standards that see ethnicity crossed by the Danube River and its tributaries. Bavaria
recognized as the basis of self-identification while also (or Bayern in German) is Germany’s largest land (state),
undermining efforts to prevent inequality because doing consisting of the whole of southeast Germany. To the
so ignores communities’ specific needs. north, Bavaria is bordered by the states of Thuringia and
Saxony. To the east lies the Czech Republic, to the south
See also: Baka; Mbuti
and southeast is Austria, and to the west are the states of
Further Reading
Baden-Württemberg and Hessen.
Gilbert, Jérémie. 2014. Nomadic Peoples and Human Rights. Lon-
don: Routledge. The Bavarian landscape consists of high plateaus and
Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Rwanda: Twa.” mountains of medium height. Northern Bavaria is char-
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, Janu- acterized by basalt knolls and high plateaus, and in the
ary. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/twa-2. northwest are the wooded Spessart sandstone hills. The
Shoup, John A. 2011. “BaTwa.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and Main River, which flows into the Rhine River, drains the
the Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup,
northwest. East Bavaria is home to the Bavarian and Bohe-
44–46. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Skutsch, Carl, ed. 2005. Encyclopedia of the World’s Minorities. mian Forests. South of the Danube is a plateau upon which
Vol. 1, A–F. New York: Routledge. lies the Bavarian capital, Munich. Beyond this plateau are
the Bavarian Alps, which consist of wooded peaks reach-
ing altitudes of several thousand feet. In general, Bavaria
has a continental climate that is harsh for Central Europe.

BAVARIAN
History and Politics
Current Location Germany Bavaria’s earliest inhabitants were the Celts. Later, the Celts
Current Population 6.8 million came under pressure from numerous German tribes liv-
Language Bavarian; German ing in the north as well as the Romans living in the south.
Interesting Fact In 1933, the first Nazi concentra- When the Romans overran Bavaria, the Celts became Lat-
tion camp was created in Dachau, inized. The large Roman settlements founded in the south
Bavaria. of the region were the precursors of today’s Bavarian cit-
ies. In the fourth and fifth centuries CE, Roman authority
Overview began to wane. German tribes, including the Swarbians
The Bavarians are a people living in Germany. The Bavar- and Franks, crossed the Danube River to overrun Bavaria.
ians speak the High German Bavarian language as well as The various German tribes settled in separate areas, where
standard German. Unlike most Germans, the Bavarians they mixed with remaining Celts and Romans.
tend to be Roman Catholic, though there is also a minority In the sixth century, Bavaria (now named after the
of Bavarian Protestants. Bavarii tribe) became a tributary of the Franks. Then, in
787, Bavaria came under the rule of Charlemagne’s Frank-
ish empire. In the eighth century, the Bavarians converted
Population, Diaspora, and Migration to Christianity to become one of the five stem duchies of
The Bavarian population has been recorded as 6.8 mil- the Holy Roman Empire (i.e., a constituent duchy of the
lion. Most Bavarians live in the German state of Bavaria Kingdom of Germany that helped form the Holy Roman
166 Bavarian

Empire). From the ninth to the eleventh centuries, Bavarian German Empire. Bavarian troops did fight for the German
dukes frequently rebelled against the Holy Roman Empire Empire during World War I. After the war, revolution swept
in an effort to extend their territory. In 1180, Bavaria was through Germany, resulting in the ousting of the Bavar-
awarded to the Wittelsbach dynasty, which went on to rule ian king and the declaration of Bavaria as a republic. In
Bavaria until 1918. 1919, a communist coup occurred that saw the new regime
Bavaria’s central European location meant that it was declare Bavaria a Soviet state. However, German troops
frequently invaded. For this reason, the Bavarians allied soon deposed the new regime, and a new Bavarian govern-
themselves with neighboring Austria. This alliance made ment was installed.
Bavaria the most powerful of the southern German states. The Bavarians, who were naturally anti-Semitic as well
By the start of the 1500s, the multiple branches of Bavar- as anti-Prussian, proved a good audience for the National
ia’s ruling family had divided the state into three parts. Socialist Party (Nazi party) that attempted to supplant
This division weakened the state and saw neighboring the Bavarian government. One of those involved with the
states invade Bavaria as local nobles ignored the author- attempted coup, Adolf Hitler, wrote Mein Kampf while in
ity of the Bavarian dukes. Most Bavarians opposed the a Bavarian prison for his part in the failed coup. In the
sixteenth-century Protestant Reformation and fought for 1932 elections, however, the Nazis became the majority
the Catholics during the Thirty Years War (1618–1648; the party in all states save for Bavaria. Nonetheless, in 1933,
war started as a battle between the Catholic and Protestant the Nazis took control of Bavaria’s government. At the
states of the Holy Roman Empire but evolved to become same time, the Nazis deployed SS paramilitary troops to
a war less concerned with religion than about who would Bavaria on the pretense of keeping order. The Nazis soon
rule Europe). Throughout, the Bavarians remained fiercely closed all facets of Bavarian government and destroyed
Catholic. In the eighteenth century, Bavaria was again all political opponents. To begin with, the Bavarians were
beset by war. The War of Bavarian Succession (1778–1779) enthusiastic for World War II, which was sold to them as
saw Frederick II of Prussia prevent Austria from making an anticommunist campaign. However, Bavarian support
Bavaria part of Austria. At the start of the 1800s, Bavaria for the conflict soon waned once the Allies began to bomb
became allied to Napoleonic France and in return was Bavarian cities. Indeed, Bavaria was home to an under-
rewarded with land taken from Swabia and Franconia ground anti-Nazi party, the White Rose, the members of
regions of Germany. Then, in 1806, Napoleon made the which were beheaded in 1943. After the war, the Bavarians
Bavarian ruler, Maximilian I, king of Bavaria. tried to gain Allied support for an independent Bavaria.
By 1815, Bavaria had come to form the third largest Ultimately, however, Bavarians settled for autonomy
German state after Austria and Prussia through its partic- within a federal Germany. Left devastated by World War
ipation in the Congress of Vienna, a meeting of European II, which had seen many of its cities in tatters, Bavaria was
ambassadors to determine the fate of the territories that one of the poorest German states. Under postwar Amer-
were devastated by the Napoleonic conquests with the aim ican military occupation, however, Bavaria soon became
of constructing a new European order. In 1866, Bavaria an industrial powerhouse as communist East Germany.
was more closely allied to Austria than it was to the rest Consequently, by 1972, Bavaria had become the richest
of Germany, and it joined with Austria in fighting Prussia German state.
(a region on the Baltic Sea’s southeast coast). The Bavar- Germany’s reunification in the 1990s, together with its
ians were on the losing side, however, and in 1871, they subsequent membership of the European Union, revived
became part of the German Empire that was dominated by Bavarian nationalism. The separatist Bavaria Party cam-
the Prussians. This move ended Bavarian independence. paigns for Bavarian self-rule and the eventual creation of
Under Prussian dominance, a tide of German nationalism an independent Bavarian state. The concept of Bavarian
arose. Although this nationalism was evident in Bavaria, independence is growing in popularity among Bavarians.
it never replaced Bavarians’ own nationalist feelings. All In 2009, a poll showed 20 percent of Bavarians thought
the while, the Bavarians hated the Prussians and fiercely Bavarians would be better off it Bavaria was independent.
opposed Prussian dominance. Nonetheless, the Bavari- Another poll in 2014 revealed 83 percent of Bavarian felt
ans fought beside the Prussians in the Franco-Prussian Bavaria could survive as an independent state (Minahan
War (1870–1871), though at the same time, the Bavarians 2016). In 2017, a survey found 32 percent of respondents
refused any attempt to integrate them further into the in Bavaria backed Bavarian independence from Germany,
 Bavarian 167

with the southern region of Bavarian holding the strong- them every day. These clothes include the dirndl dress and
est secessionist sentiments among all German states (RT. knee-length leather breeches called lederhosen, and Haf-
com 2017). erlschuhe (traditional Bavarian shoes) that are still made
in the high Alps of the Allgäu.

Society, Culture, and Tradition

Bavarian culture is influenced by the culture of three Health Care and Education
groups: Bavarians (or Old Bavarians), who traditionally Germany provides a universal healthcare system paid
live in the south of Bavaria; the Swabians, who live in for by a combination of people’s statutory health insur-
western Bavaria; and the Franconians, who are descended ance (Gesetzliche Krankenversicherung or sickness funds,
from the ancient Franks and reside in northern Bavaria. Krankenkassen) and private health insurance (Private
The three groups have their own histories, but their cul- Krankenversicherung). In Germany, outpatient care is
tures come together to create the overriding culture of the mostly provided by self-employed doctors, dentists, and
Bavarians. The Bavarians are the most nationalistic of all other healthcare professionals. Most doctors and dentists
German peoples as a result of their separate history that have a statutory health insurance accreditation that allows
dates back thousands of years. For this reason, Bavarians them to treat anyone who has statutory health insurance.
remain highly nationalistic and regionalist. At the same However, most German hospitals treat all patients whether
time, though Swabians and Franconians also have their or not they have statutory or private health insurance. The
own histories, they are steadfastly Bavarian. Bavarian healthcare system is outstanding. Consequently,
The Bavarian language is a dialect of High German. It is Bavarian life expectancy is higher than the German
closely related to dialects spoken in adjacent parts of Aus- national average. On a national level, Bavaria has one of
tria. Indeed, only around 40 percent of Bavarian is under- the best rankings in the ratio of practicing physicians to
standable to speakers of standard German (Minahan population. The quality of the Bavarian healthcare system
2002). Bavarian breaks down into three dialects: North is so renowned that many people visit Bavaria from abroad
Bavarian, which is spoken in the area north of Regensburg for medical treatment. Nonetheless, Germany’s aging pop-
eastward to the Czech border; Central Bavarian, which is ulation means the health service will come under increas-
spoken in the Alps and by some Austrians; and Southern ing strain.
Bavarian, which is spoken in the Bavarian Alps, the Aus- There are more than six thousand schools in Bavaria
trian Tyrol, and elsewhere in Austria. Bavarian is also spo- covering all levels of education. The education system
ken by small numbers of people living in northern Italy in Germany is the responsibility of the states (länder).
and in Gottschee in Slovenia. Around 70 percent of Bavari- The federal German government plays only a minor
ans are Roman Catholic, whereas 26 percent are Protestant role in shaping citizens’ education. Education in Ger-
(Minahan 2002). This sets the Bavarians apart from the many can start with optional kindergarten, which is
rest of Germany, which is mainly Protestant. provided for children between the ages of one and six.
Bavaria is home to many deep-seated traditions and After that, school is compulsory. Because each land
customs. These include the world-famous Oktoberfest decides on its own policies, the school system has var-
(beer festival and funfair) in Munich and the Nuremberg iations throughout Germany. However, most Germans
Christmas Market. Smaller festivals and traditions include first attend Grundschule (primary school) from the age
the Viehscheid (cattle drive), during which cattle are of six to eleven years. There are five types of secondary
driven to their from high pastures to barns in lower valleys education in Germany. These include Gymnasium, which
in autumn, and the Drachenstich Festival (Slaying of the prepares pupils for higher education; Realschule, which
Dragon), during which the slaying of a dragon is enacted. is intended for intermediate pupils; and Hauptschule,
Other Bavarian traditions include Hornschlittenrennen (a which prepares pupils for vocational education. In addi-
traditional sledge race), springtime maypole celebrations, tion, there are two types of grade 10: 10b, which is the
and the annual Kötztinger Pfingstritt (Whitsun horseback higher level, and 10a, which is the lower level. Students
religious procession). who enroll in 10b can enter into the Realschule. Most of
Traditional Bavarian clothes are important to the Germany’s hundreds of higher education institutions
Bavarian national identity, though the people do not wear charge little or no tuition fees.
168 Bedouin

Threats to Survival live mainly in Egypt, Israel, Iraq, Syria, Yemen, Saudi Ara-
There are no threats to the Bavarians. Nevertheless, an bia, Oman, Jordan, Morocco, Sudan, Algeria, Tunisia, and
increasing number of Bavarians continue to call for the cre- Libya. This figure includes around four million Bedouins
ation of an independent Republic of Bavaria (or Republik living on the Arabian Peninsula and the Sinai Peninsula.
Bayern). The Bavarian independence movement is some- Exact figures for the Bedouin population are unavailable
times called Bayxit, a play on both the word Brexit (the because Bedouins are often not included in official popu-
name for the United Kingdom’s move to leave the Euro- lation statistics. It is, however, evident that in many coun-
pean Union) and Bayern, the German word for Bavaria. tries, the Bedouin make up only a small proportion of the
country in which they live or travel.
See also: Basque; Breton; Occitan; Walloon; Walser There are a number of Bedouin tribes. For instance, the
Further Reading Negev are traditionally pastoral nomadic Bedouins living
Minahan, James B. 2000. One Europe, Many Nations: A Histor- in Israel’s Negev region. There are around two hundred
ical Dictionary of European National Groups. Westport, CT: thousand Negev Bedouins, around half of whom live in
Greenwood Press.
government-planned townships and newly created vil-
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 1, A–C. lages recognized by the state. Other Negev Bedouins live
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. in villages not recognized by the state. Another notable
Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth- Bedouin tribe is the Annizah, who live in Saudi Arabia,
nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa Bar- Kuwait, Jordan, Iraq, Syria, Lebanon, United Arab Emir-
bara, CA: Greenwood. ates, Qatar, Oman, Bahrain, Iran, and the Middle East’s
RT.com. 2017. “Bayxit? One in Three Bavarians Wants Independ-
West Bank region.
ence from Berlin—Poll.” July 17. https://www.rt.com/news​
/396600-bavaria-independence-germany-poll. Through traditionally nomadic, today significant num-
bers of Bedouins live settled lives in urban areas. This is
mostly as a result of a reduction in Bedouin grazing land,
increases in the Bedouin population, and changes wrought
by the development of Middle East oil fields. Neverthe-
BEDOUIN less, many Bedouins are animal herders who migrate to
the desert in winter before returning to cultivate land in
Current Location Middle East; North Africa summer.
Current Population 20 million Traditional Bedouin migration routes stretch across
Language Arabic dialects Egypt, Israel, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia. The independence
Interesting Fact Bedouins have lived on the Sinai of Israel in 1948 and ensuing tension and conflict between
Peninsula for 7,000 years. Israel and neighboring countries has greatly limited
Bedouin nomadism because warfare makes it difficult for
Overview the Bedouins to cross international borders. Another con-
The Bedouins (also written as Beduin) are indigenous sequence of conflict and the state system is that Bedouins
nomadic desert people of the Middle East and North are now often forced to identify as citizens of one of the
Africa. In Arabic, the Bedouins are called the Badawi nations whose boundaries stand in the way of traditional
(meaning desert dweller; plural: Badw). The Bedouins Bedouin migration routes (Shelley 2015).
speak various Arabic dialects belonging to the Semitic lan-
guage group of the Afroasiatic language family originat-
Geography and Environment
ing in the Middle East. Most Bedouins are Sunni Muslims,
though their religious practices are not always orthodox. A The Middle East is a relatively large region located in in
Christian Bedouin minority lives in Jordan. southwest Asia and northeast Africa. The diverse region
stretches across thousands of miles from the Black Sea in
the north to the Arabian Sea in the south as well as from
Population, Diaspora, and Migration the Mediterranean Sea in the west to the mountains of
Around twenty million Bedouins live across the Middle Iran. Mountains and deserts divide the Middle East into
East and Southwest Asia. In the Middle East, Bedouins multiple geographically distinct zones. One such zone sees
 Bedouin 169

the Nile River flows northward through the Sahara Desert eat delivered in bulk. Often animals are cared for by settled
from Sudan and then through Egypt to the Mediterranean herders belong to wealthy Bedouin who pay shepherds to
Sea. This zone contains various water and food sources as care for their animals.
well as fertile soil deposited in annual floods. The south
of this zone contains a wide alluvial plain interrupted by
cataracts (areas where the river surface is broken by small, History and Politics
jutting boulders and rocks as well as many stony islets). The Bedouins originated as a multitude of tribes on the
The deserts around the Nile River are rich in minerals, Arabian Peninsula sometime before the seventh century.
especially gold. East of the Nile River, across the Eastern Throughout their history, the Bedouins have tended to
Desert and the Sinai Peninsula, lies the eastern Mediter- exist as separate tribal groups, although they did unite
ranean coastal plain (or Levant) comprising Israel, Leb- briefly under Prophet Mohammed and his successors
anon, and parts of Syria, Jordan, and Turkey. This zone during the seventh century. During this period, the Bed-
has a Mediterranean climate and plentiful rainfall that ouins began to follow Islam. In 642, mainly Muslim armies
allows farming to take place. To the north of the Levant conquered the Egypt and other parts of the Middle East.
lie the Taurus Mountains, which separate the Levant from Bedouin armies conquered the rest of North Africa in the
the Anatolian plateau. The Arabian Peninsula is located late seventh and eighth centuries, during which time they
southeast of the Levant. The peninsula contains extensive converted the residents of North Africa to Islam. In North
deserts, oases, and coastal regions situated along the Red Africa, the Bedouins lived in garrison towns from where
Sea, Arabian Sea, and Persian Gulf. This region contains Arab forces could set out to overrun other areas.
the countries of Bahrain, Kuwait, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Ara- Over the next few hundreds of years, the Bedouins
bia, the United Arab Emirates, and Yemen. The historical competed for control of trans-Saharan trade routes with
region of Mesopotamia lies east of the Levant and south Berber nomads, including the Tuareg. In addition, from
of the Taurus Mountains. This area encompasses eastern the eleventh to thirteenth centuries, Bedouin commu-
Syria, Iraq, and parts of southwestern Iran. The region is nities such as the Banu Hilal and Banu Sulaim migrated
fertile with vast areas under cultivation. Whereas northern from Egypt and Libya. In so doing, they transported Arab
Mesopotamia receives plentiful rainfall, southern Mes- languages, culture, philosophies, and customs to Algeria,
opotamia receives little rain, meaning farming relies on Tunisia, and Morocco.
irrigation. Mesopotamia contains few natural resources Over time, the Bedouin economy focused on trade and
apart from water, fertile soil, and oil. The zone includes the animal husbandry, with North African Bedouins rearing
southern end of the Tigris-Euphrates course that contains camels, horses, cattle, goats, and sheep. These Bedouins
a series of inhabited marshes. lived in tents and migrated seasonally in search of grazing
The Middle East’s climate varies from the warm sum- lands. In summer, they lived in camps near villages where
mers and cold winters experienced in Iran and Turkey to they could trade animal products for food and other goods.
hot summers and cool winters in northern Mesopotamia The nomadic pastoralists also transported goods between
and the Mediterranean coast. The Arabian Desert that cov- rural and urban areas. The Bedouins provided trade cara-
ers most of the Arabian Peninsula has a subtropical, hot vans passing through the desert oases in which they set-
desert climate similar to the climate of the Sahara Desert. tled with food, shelter, guides, and protection. Caravans
The Sahara experiences some of the world’s hottest tem- that refused to pay tolls to the Bedouin oases dwellers were
peratures. The Sahara experiences extremely low relative often liable to Bedouin raids.
humidity and rainfall due to the constantly high position Bedouins continued to have authority over trans-­
of the sun over the desert. The desert’s lack of cloud cover Saharan trade routes well into the nineteenth century.
and humidity means the Sahara experiences great varia- During the early twentieth century, however, French, Ital-
tions in temperature between day and night. ian, and British colonial authorities in the Middle East
Nomadic Bedouin animal herders migrate to desert and North Africa tried to make the Bedouins live within
areas during rainy winter seasons before returning to national boundaries by making Bedouin chiefs into land-
their cultivated land during dry summer months. Other lords. This move countered the Bedouins’ inherent disre-
Bedouin herders stay in one location all year, with water gard for boundaries, trade restrictions, and paying taxes.
trucked to their location and bales of grass for animals to Colonial authorities also inhibited Bedouin nomadism by
170 Bedouin

constructing railways and roads across Bedouin migration head covering), or a smaller white head covering held in
routes. The creation of these transport links also made it place using a length of black cord called an agall. Bedouin
less worthwhile for the Bedouins to raise camels. women tend to wear colorful, long dresses when indoors,
During the twentieth century, Italian colonists tried to but when they go out, they wear an abaya (a thin, long
snatch Bedouin land. However, this attempt to appropriate black coat). Outdoors, Bedouin women cover their hair
Bedouin land resulted in the Bedouins of Libya (most of by placing a black shawl called a tarha over their hair.
whom were united as members of a Sufi sect called the Traditionally, Bedouin women covered their faces with a
Sanusiya) resisting Italian rule and achieving independ- highly ornate burqa’ah (enveloping face veil), though this
ence in 1951. Despite this Bedouin success, on the whole, tradition is gradually dying out. Instead, today younger
the twentieth century saw the Bedouins lose control of Bedouin women tend to hide their faces behind their
desert areas as national boundaries were imposed, thereby tarha.
blocking nomadic trade and migration routes. Govern- The Bedouin are famous for their greeting etiquette.
ments also started to build wells that caused tension When Bedouin acquaintances meet, they will rub the
between desert communities because the wells interfered palms of their hands together before kissing the tips of
with historic tribal water rights. Increasing transport links their fingers. When close Bedouin friends meet, they
across the desert further diminished the need for camels, shake hands and then kiss each other on the cheek. Most
the traditional mainstay of many Bedouin communities. famously, when Bedouin family members great each other,
they shake hands, rub their noses together, and kiss each
other on the cheek.
Society, Culture, and Tradition A tradition of hospitality is deeply rooted in Bedouin
Historically a nomadic people, today some Bedouin are culture. In the past, this culture of hospitality was influ-
educated professionals living modern, Westernized lives enced by the fact that not allowing a stranger to stay in
as lawyers, doctors, and businesspeople. Traditionally, a Bedouin desert settlement could mean the difference
Bedouin society is patriarchal and polygamous, with a between the visitor living or dying due to the harsh desert
husband allowed to have more than one wife as long as he environment. Thus, the hostile desert environment led to
can provide equally for all his wives. Today, however, plu- the Bedouin’s belief in the total dependency of individu-
ral marriage occurs much less frequently than it once did. als on the hospitality of others. Theoretically, guests are
Instead, many Bedouins tend to divorce and marry again considered part of their host’s household because Bedouin
because divorce does not carry a social stigma in Bedouin believe that if fighting breaks out while a guest is present,
society. then the guest must be protected as if he or she is a mem-
The Bedouin people follow a rigorous code of honor ber of the host’s family.
that demands correct behavior on the part of all Bed-
ouins. This means that all Bedouins (including children)
must live by society’s myriad rules. Women are protected Health Care and Education
by the Bedouin code of honor. Under this etiquette code, a Previously, the Bedouin diet was based on bread, milk,
man must not touch any woman to whom he is not closely meat, fruits, and vegetables. Consequently, diabetes was
related. This preclusion extends to even the slightest of virtually never seen among the Bedouin. Today, low-fat
touches. For example, a man may not allow his fingertips Bedouin diets have been replaced by nutritionally poor
to brush against a woman’s hand when passing her some- junk foods. This poor diet, coupled with the fact that fewer
thing because any physical contact is thought to dishonor a Bedouin are nomadic and so walk less and do less energetic
woman. The Bedouin consider any loss of a woman’s honor work, means around 15 percent of settled Bedouins have a
(ird) a very serious matter. Some Bedouin tribes feel that body-mass index (BMI) of over thirty, and 35 percent have
if a woman loses her ird, then she brings dishonor not just BMIs between twenty-five and thirty. Obesity in the region
upon herself but also upon her entire family because ird is has led to an epidemic of diabetes among settled Bedouin.
held by families rather than by individuals. Traditionally, Bedouin communities are poor and illiter-
Bedouin men typically wear a long djellaba (a loose-­ ate. Consequently, many Bedouins are unaware of the dan-
fitting robe with full sleeves) together with a smagg (a gers of health issues including obesity and diabetes. Many
red-and-white draped head covering), aymemma (a white Bedouins also fear injections and see illness as something
 Bedouin 171

shameful, so they either ignore ill health or deny it exists resistance. It is estimated that many tens of thousands of
(Horton 2016). Negev Bedouins will be moved from villages that are not
To improve Bedouins’ access to health care, national recognized as legal by Israeli authorities. The villages are
plans have been created that unite the efforts of healthcare under threat of demolition. Although Israeli army officials
and education ministries, religious leaders, and civil society claim the plan will lead to the integration of Jews and Bed-
organizations. There are also insurance funds that provide ouins while also providing Bedouins with employment,
health care to Bedouins, and doctors and nurses perform education, and other services, Bedouins argue that they do
voluntary work in Bedouin village. The problem of supply- not wish to be relocated.
ing health care to the Bedouins goes hand in hand with To date, Israeli courts have ruled 100 percent in favor of
issues such as electricity supplies because without elec- the Israeli government in Bedouin land ownership cases.
tricity and refrigeration, immunization programs cannot The Bedouin land claims cover 5 percent of the Negev
be implemented safely. Some Bedouins’ unrecognized sta- desert, but under the Prawer Plan, the Bedouin would
tus means Bedouin communities are not allowed to build live in less than 1 percent of the desert. Israel maintains
without official permits. This lack of status can prevent that the Bedouin have never properly registered their
some Bedouin from accessing health care and lead to clin- lands—­neither in 1858 under Ottoman land laws, nor in
ics constructed illegally being demolished by authorities. 1921 during the British mandate of Palestine. Thus, Israeli
Increasingly, Bedouin have abandoned nomadism, set- authorities argue that this land belongs to the state. In
tling in villages so that their families can receive health 2011, an alternative to the Prawer Plan was proposed by the
care and their children can attend schools. In Israel, the Regional Council of Unrecognized Villages in the Negev
Negev Bedouin living in unrecognized villages, which (RCUV). This plan was backed by most Bedouin and would
Israel deem illegal, are denied essential services includ- see Bedouin villages given a fixed location that would allow
ing schools, health care, water, electricity, and transport the provision of modern services (Kestler-D’Amours 2013).
links. In Israel, five thousand Bedouin children do not go There are conflicted reports of whether the Prawer Plan
to school either because they lack schools or because they has been halted or is still being surreptitiously enacted.
live too far a walk from school and lack other means of Modern life placed great challenges and restrictions
transport. The dropout rate of Bedouin pupils is 40 per- upon the Bedouins. Nonetheless, for many Arabs, the
cent, and the Bedouin unemployed rate runs at 38 percent. Bedouins exemplify a romantic ideal of the noble, desert-­
Other issues affecting Bedouins accessing education in dwelling nomad and embody the purest symbol of Arab
Israel include poor quality teaching and the fact that the values.
lowest socioeconomic population the Israeli government See also: Ahwazi; Assyrian; Berber; Jews; Kurd; Marsh
considers Bedouin education a low priority (Bar’el 2017). Arab; Yazidi
Further Reading
Bar’el, Zvi. 2017. “Bedouin Education, Israel’s Shame.” Haaretz:
Threats to Survival
Opinion, September 6. https://www.haaretz.com/opinion/​
Traditional Bedouin culture has been impacted greatly by .premium-bedouin-education-israel-s-shame-1.5448520.
the modern state system. While some Bedouin struggle Benanav, Michael. 2016. “Shifting Sands of the Bedouin World.”
to maintain their traditional lifestyle, many now work as Geographical, May 24. https://geographical.co.uk/people​
wage laborers even though historically, Bedouin culture /cultures/item/1702-shifting-sands-of-the-bedouin-world.
Horton, Richard. 2016. “Offline: The Bedouin Predicament.”
disparages those who work for wages. Other Bedouin work
The Lancet 387 (10027): P1498. https://www.thelancet.com​
in the oil and tourist industries. The camel has lost its value /journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(16)30166-0/fulltext.
as a form of desert transport, so many Bedouin now drive Keough, Leyla. 2010. “Bedouin.” In Encyclopedia of Africa, edited
cars or fly to destinations. by Anthony Kwame Appiah and Henry Louis Gates Jr., 161–
Some Bedouin communities remain very poor. For 162. Vol. 1. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
example, Negev villages continue to have Israel’s worst Kestler-D’Amours, Jillian. 2013. “Israel’s Bedouin Battle Dis-
placement.” Al Jazeera, August 29. https://www.aljazeera.com​
rates of poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, and crime. In
/indepth/features/2013/08/2013828125945288209.html.
northern Israel, the Prawer Plan (a plan to relocate thou- Shelley, Fred M. 2015. The World’s Population: An Encyclopedia
sands of Bedouins from their ancestral villages and resettle of Critical Issues, Crises and Ever-Growing Countries. Santa
them in specially designed towns) is meeting with fierce Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
172 Beja

Williams, Victoria. 2017. “Bedouin.” In Etiquette and Taboos the Red Sea. The desert extends from Egypt in the north
around the World: A Geographic Encyclopedia of Social and to Eritrea in the south while also taking in parts of Sudan
Cultural Customs, edited by Ken Taylor and Victoria Wil- and Ethiopia. The Eastern Desert is sometimes called the
liams, 32–36. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood.
Red Sea Hills or the Arabian Desert because the desert is
bordered to the east by the Red Sea and the Arabian Pen-
insula. The main geographic features of the Eastern Desert
are the Red Sea coastline and the Eastern Desert mountain
BEJA range that runs parallel to the coast. The desert’s highest
peak is Egypt’s Shaiyb al-Banat, which is also the highest
Current Location Sudan; Egypt; Eritrea peak on mainland Egypt. The desert is home to the Wadi
Current Population 2.2 million Gamal National Park, the Gebel Elba peak, and the Wadi
Language Beja (Tu-Bedawiye); Arabic; Tigre Dib ring complex igneous rock formation.
Interesting Fact The traditional hairstyle worn by The Beja have been affected by various environmental
Beja men inspired the Afro hairdo. issues. For example, the construction of the Aswan Dam
(1964–1967) led some Nubians from Wadi Haifa to settle
Overview in the southwest of Beja territory, thereby increasing popu-
lation density and putting pressure on already scarce land
The Beja are an indigenous tribal group living between
resources. In addition, the Aswan Dam flooded important
the Nile River and the Red Sea in the countries of Sudan,
grazing land belonging to the Bisharin, a subgroup of the
Egypt, and Eritrea. Most Beja speak the Beja language (or
Beja, a move that caused the people great hardship. During
Tu-Bedawiye), an Afro-Asian language of the Hamitic/
the 1970s, the Beja experienced drought that caused many
Kushitic family. Many Beja also speak Arabic, and south-
Beja to abandon their traditional economic activity of
ern Beja tribes speak Tigre. The Beja subscribe to a form
camel rearing. Instead, the people began to breed smaller
of Islam that involves pre-Islamic rituals and philosophies.
animals or sought work in Port Sudan, where they worked
as dockers or laborers. Further droughts in the 1980s dev-
Population, Diaspora, and Migration astated Beja animal herds, with some Beja losing around
Exact Beja population figures are unknown, though it is 80 percent of their animal wealth (Minority Rights Group
believed there are around 2.2 million Beja people living International 2018).
in Sudan, Egypt, and Eritrea. The largest Beja population
is found in Sudan (Minority Rights Group International
History and Politics
2018). Beja subgroups include the Ababda, Atmaan,
Hadendowa, and Bishariyyn. Most Beja live in the Suda- The Beja have lived along the Red Sea coast for thousands
nese wilayat (states) of Red Sea (around the state’s cap- of years. At some point, the Beja were converted to Chris-
ital Port Sudan), River Nile, Al Qadarif, and Kassala. In tianity either by Egyptian Copts or Nubians. During the
Eritrea, the Beja live in the regions of Northern Red Sea, tenth century, the Arab Rabi’a tribe came to dominate the
Gash-Barka, and Anseba. Other Beja live in southeastern Beja because they intermarried with the Hadarib Beja
Egypt and Egypt’s Eastern Desert. In Sudan, most Beja live tribe, thereby taking advantage of Sudan’s matrilineal sys-
in shantytowns surrounding towns and cities. tem of succession. By the fourteenth century, most Beja
Today, many Beja groups self-identify as Arab and feel had converted to Islam, meaning Beja society went from
they are connected genealogically to such Arab tribes as being matrilineal to patrilineal and in line with Islamic
the Awlad Kahil and Juhaynah. In addition, the Ababda custom.
believe they are descended from Zubayr ibn al-’Awwam, a In 1820, the Beja were conquered by the Ottoman
companion of the Prophet Mohammed. Empire. Then, in 1881, Egypt’s mismanagement of Sudan
led to a general rebellion in the Sudan led by Sufi leader
Muhammad Ahmed, who was proclaimed Mahdi (messi-
Geography and Environment anic redeemer of Islam). The Beja, most particularly the
Traditionally, the Beja inhabit the Eastern Desert, the sec- Hadanduwa Beja group, enlisted in the Mahdi’s army that
tion of the Sahara Desert located east of the Nile River and defeated Egyptian and British near the Red Sea port of
 Beja 173

Suakin. Subsequently, British forces managed to defeat the with the Sudan government that supported a cease-fire
Mahdi’s army twice but were unable to relieve the ill-fated and the concept of wealth distribution and political power
British governor-general of Sudan, Charles Gordon, who sharing.
was besieged by the Mahdi’s forces in the Sudanese capital
Khartoum, where he died under uncertain circumstances.
The British defeat of the Mahdi’s forces did little to dent Society, Culture, and Tradition
Beja support for the Mahdi. After the Mahdi’s death, the The intermarriage of the Beja with Arab tribes resulted in
Beja supported the Mahdi’s successor, who conquered the people’s Sudanic customs, such as matrilocality (when
the  British at the 1891 Siege of Tukar. Nonetheless, dur- married couple live with or near the wife’s family), taboos
ing the period 1899–1956, Sudan was ruled by Egypt and surrounding milk, and using tents made from mats rather
Britain as a joint protectorate. During this time, the Beja than goat hair, mixing with Arab traditions. The Beja also
became less rebellious as they witnessed schools being began to speak Arabic. Today, the Beja speak their own lan-
built and infrastructure improving including rail connec- guage as well as Arabic, though the southern Bani ‘Amir
tions linking the Sudanese market town of Kassala with Beja tribe speak a Tigre language.
Port Sudan and Kassala with the Nile Valley. Some Beja are pastoral nomads known for their skill
Following Sudan’s independence in 1956, the Beja with animals. For example, the Bisharin Beja group is
enjoyed occasionally strained relations with the national famous for their ability to raise riding camels. Other Beja
government. In 1957, the Beja established the Beja Con- people are settled, subsistence farmers who grow crops
gress, a political movement consisting of several ethnic including sorghum and millet.
groups, most especially the Beja. The Beja Congress acted The Beja are usually considered Muslim but practice a
as a platform highlighting what members felt was the polit­ form of Islam involving pre-Islamic beliefs. Once aspect
ical and economic marginalization of the Beja and which of this form of Islam is Silif, which is associated with the
served as a focus for Beja opposition to the national gov- Islamic concept of khalifar that is concerned with humans’
ernment. In 1989, the Beja Congress joined the National relationship with every created thing and the conserva-
Democratic Alliance, a group of Sudanese political parties tion of natural resources. The Sufi saint, al-Shadhali, is
opposed to the government of Omar Hassan al-Bashir after entombed on land belonging to the Ababda Beja, and many
he seized power in a military coup. Then at the start of the Beja people celebrate the Islamic festival of Eid al-Adha by
1990s, the Sudanese government distributed the most fer- leaving the ears of sacrificed animals at the saint’s tomb.
tile Beja land located along the Gash River to non-Beja gov- Another notable Beja religious practice is the wearing of
ernment loyalists, a move that added to Beja complaints. In brightly colored amulets and charms made from straw,
1995, the Beja Congress started to act as an armed resist- ostrich feathers, and beads that are intended to ward off
ance movement that received assistance from Eritrea with evil spirits. Traditionally, these charms are given to newly-
the aim of redressing grievances rather than establishing weds to keep them safe.
an independent Beja state. In the late 1990s, the Sudanese The Beja have retained some aspects of matrilineal cul-
army began to attack Beja mosques and schools in an ture because the most important person in a Beja family
attempt to replace the Sufi Islam followed by some Beja is a mother’s brother. Nevertheless, Beja society is mostly
with Sunni Islam, as favored by the Sudanese government. patrilineal, in line with both Islamic and Christian beliefs.
In early 2005, the Sudanese military arrested over 150 The Beja consider rites of passage surrounding circumci-
members of the Beja Congress while crushing a Beja sion, marriage, and death very important.
protest in Port Sudan. One of the demonstrators’ com- Historically, one of the things outsiders noted about
plaints was their exclusion from the Comprehensive Peace Beja men was the men’s traditional fluffy hairstyle, called
Agreement (CPA), an accord intended to end the Second a tiffa or dirwa. This hairstyle led to British colonials refer-
Sudanese Civil War (1983–2005). Later in 2005, the Beja ring to the Beja as the “fuzzy-wuzzy” (a term now deemed
Congress united with a small rebel group of the Bedouin offensive), and it was taken as the model for the African
Rashaida people who also resented the Sudanese govern- American Afro hairdo during the 1960s. Beja men wore
ment. Ultimately, in 2006, the Beja Congress and Rashaida their hair long and full because they considered it a dis-
Free Lions (under the name the Eastern Front) signed a grace to cut their hair. However, this hairstyle largely fell
peace agreement, the Eastern Sudan Peace Agreement, out of fashion at the start of the twentieth century.
174 Berber

Health Care and Education Overview

Beja areas of Sudan are some of the country’s poorest, with The Berbers are pre-Arab inhabitants of North Africa
illiteracy rates running between 50 and 90 percent. Beja indigenous to the area that lies west of the Nile Valley.
leaders have long voiced their concerns that the Sudanese The Berbers refer to themselves as the Imazighens or
government neglects their people, deliberately creating a Amazighs. Indeed, the name Berber is considered derog-
shortage of public services such as schools and healthcare atory by many Berbers because the term stems from the
facilities (Minority Rights Group International 2018). Greek word barabaroi, used to denote people who did not
speak Greek. The Greek word stemmed from the Latin
barbar, from which the English language word barbarian
Threats to Survival derives. Arabs usually refer to the Berber as Shuh, a name
The Beja have faced many disruptions to their traditional that derives from the Arabic for someone who speaks bro-
way of life. For instance, many Beja now reside in slums ken Arabic.
outside urban centers rather than on their traditional The Berber languages form a branch of the Afro-Asiatic
lands, and they have lost their traditional livelihoods fol- language family. Many Berbers also speak Arabic, French,
lowing droughts that devastated their herds. Since the and English. The generic name for all Berber languages is
signing of the Eastern Sudan Peace Agreement, the Beja Tamazight. This consists of many closely related dialects,
have enjoyed greater political representation, though their including Riff, Kabyle, Siwa, and Zenaga. Berber is classi-
presence in politics is not assured, and they still suffer a fied as an official language in Morocco, following constitu-
degree of exclusion. At the same time, the Beja’s general tional reforms in 2011. This means that the language has to
cohesion means that unlike some neighboring ethnic be taught in all Moroccan schools.
groups, the Beja are able to tackle political exclusion by
speaking with a united voice.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
See also: Copts; Fur; Nubian
There are many scattered Berber tribes living in coun-
Further Reading tries, including Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, Mauritania, and
Adepoju, Oluwatoyin Vincent. 2009. “Beja.” In Encyclopedia
Libya. As a result of colonization, there are also significant
of African Religion, edited by Molefi Kete Asante and Ama
Mazama, 117–118. Vol. 1. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Berber communities living in France, Belgium, the Neth-
Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Sudan: Beja.” World erlands, and Canada. In Morocco, nearly one-third of the
Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. http://​ population is of Berber descent. It is difficult to give exact
minorityrights.org/minorities/beja. population figures for the Berbers because of the number
Shoup, John A. 2011. “Beja.” In Ethnic Groups of African and of different ways in which people can be counted as Berber.
the Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup,
However, there may be around twenty-five million Berbers
49–51. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
in total, with fifteen million Berbers living in Morocco; six
million in Algeria; one million each in Libya, Mali, and
Niger; thirty thousand in Egypt; one hundred thousand in
Tunisia; and ten thousand in Mauritania (Ennaji 2005).

BERBER
Geography and Environment
Current Location North Africa The North African countries of Morocco, Algeria, and
Current Population 25 million Tunisia are sometimes referred to as the Atlas Lands
Language Tamazight; Arabic; English; French because the Atlas Mountains dominate their northern
Interesting Fact Parts of Star Wars (1977) were areas, though each country, particularly Algeria, also
filmed around the Berber village of includes parts of the Sahara. To the east, in Libya, only the
Chenini. The village is located in the northwestern and northeastern parts of the country do not
district of Tataouine, after which contain desert areas. The Sahara dominates North Africa
Luke Skywalker’s home planet is and makes a formidable barrier to the movement of peo-
named. ple. Libya is also home to the Surt Desert. In times gone by,
 Berber 175

North Africa was home to evergreen forest, scrubland, and

animals such as elephants, zebras, and ostriches. Movement on the Road ’96
Other notable geographical features of North Africa The Berber village of Imider is located by a large sil-
include the Mediterranean coast and major rivers such as ver mine that the villagers believe has polluted their
the Majardah and the Chelif. water and caused their land to deteriorate, destroy-
ing farmland and livelihoods. In particular, the mine
has had a profound negative impact on the Berber’s
History and Politics traditional underground water system called khet-
The origins of the Berbers are unknown. A romanticized, tarat. The villagers formed Movement on the Road
early twentieth-century theory of Berber origins, known ’96, (named after a similar protest that occurred in
as the Berber Myth, suggests that the Berbers were a lost 1996) to protest against their reduced access to safe
European tribe, possibly related to the Basques. This the- water and to call for an end to the pollution. The
ory is controversial because it seems to suggest the Berbers movement formed a camp and closed a pipeline sup-
are in some way a European people suppressed by Arabs. plying water to the mine by staging regular marches
Recent DNA testing by anthropologists suggests that the and assemblies (agraw). It also allowed journalists
Berbers share ancestry with Middle Eastern and Arab and academics to spend time at the camp. The activ-
peoples. ists face arrest and imprisonment, yet they have
Archaeologists believe that the earliest Berbers inhabited apparently received no response to their campaign
North Africa’s Mediterranean coast during the late Pale- from the Moroccan government or the mining com-
olithic period and gave rise to the Caspian society. Rock pany in charge of the mine. Since the pipeline was
paintings dating from 7000 BCE suggest that by this time, shut, campaigners claim agricultural production has
the Berbers were living in Saharan Africa. Meanwhile, Ber- increased, and the water in the khettarat has risen.
bers who were in contact with Carthage and Egypt organ- For this reason, the activists do not leave their camp
ized themselves into states or kingdoms such as Numidia, en masse, as they need to keep the pipeline closed.
Massyles, and Mauritania (not the ­modern-day African Despite the threat of becoming displaced because
country of the same name). The rulers of Numidia became of the environmental impact on their water and
embroiled in wars with the Romans, and eventually Numidia land, the Imider villagers stand firm, taking their
was captured as the Roman province of Africa. Other Berber demands to foreign academics, journalists, and non-
states were also annexed by the Romans, meaning Rome governmental organizations. In 2016, Movement on
came to control most of North Africa, including modern the Road ’96 brought their concerns to the 2016 UN
Algeria, Tunisia, and Morocco. By the fifth century, however, Climate Change Convention’s annual conference,
Berber nomads started to put pressure on the Romans, and which helped raise the international profile of their
when the Arabs arrived in Africa in 647, the Romans lost demands.
Libya and Tunisia to Arab rule. Unlike previous invaders, the
For more information, see https://minorityrights​.org​
Arabs did not wish simply to conquer an empire—they also /mor​oc​co​-an-amazigh-communitys-long​-wait​-for​
hoped to establish Islam and the Arabic language in a new -water​-rights.
area. These aims could not be achieved until the Arabs ruled
parts of North Africa, so the Arabs waged war against the
Berbers. When the Arabs defeated the forces of the Berber
warrior princess known as Dihya (or Kahina), which were Today, Berbers are mostly Sunni Muslim, with some
defending Numidia in 702, Dihya’s followers became the small groups of Berber Kharaji Muslims living in parts of
first Berbers to embrace Islam. With their help of these early Algeria, Tunisia, and Libya. Some Moroccan Jews are also
converts, the Arabs conquered all of North Africa and much Berber, having originated from the Phoenician traders
of Spain, allowing their religion to take root where they sent to North Africa by King Solomon. There are also some
went. The spread of the Arabic language took longer, and in Christian Berbers descended from Berbers who converted
more isolated areas of North Africa, it was not adopted until during France’s colonizing of North Africa.
recently. The Berber language is still more widely spoken Over time, the Berbers became pastoral nomads who
than Arabic in most Berber areas. herded animals and also grew crops. The Berber society
176 Berber

also became organized around tribes, with Berber people forces composed of Berber tribesmen to dethrone Sultan
belonging to various lineages. The various nomad line- Muhammad V, and then by the role of Berber leaders in
ages were led by an authority figure known as an amghar. the attempted assassinations of King Hassan II in 1971
Assemblies of lineages called jama’a led settled Berber and 1972. In Kabylie, Berber rebellion in 1963–1964 was
communities. seen as a further justification for a policy of Arabization.
The Berber dynasties declined during the fifteenth As a result of growing Berber nationalism, Berber studies
and sixteenth centuries. This resulted in a power vac- were banned or repressed in both Morocco and Algeria.
uum along the valuable coastal strip of North Africa In 1980, the cancellation of a university conference featur-
known as the Barbary Coast (because of the presence of ing a Berber poetry began what is known as the Berber
the Berbers), which attracted the attention of Spain and Spring. The Berber Spring was a series of demonstrations
Turkey, the two most powerful Mediterranean countries by over two hundred students who demanded the state
of the time. The Spanish-Turkish rivalry lasted for much recognize the language of Tamazight and Berber self-rule.
of the sixteenth century but was eventually won by Tur- Tensions grew, and eventually police stormed the protests,
key, whose pirates, the corsairs, came to control to Bar- with reports of beatings and rape reported afterward.
bary Coast. Piracy in areas formerly controlled by the Since 1980, Algerians and the Kabyle Berbers across North
Berbers remained the chief income source of all Turkish Africa have commemorates the anniversary of the Berber
settlements along the Barbary Coast. This situation lasted Spring on April 20. An event related to the Berber Spring,
until the French began to colonize North Africa in 1830. known as the Black Spring, occurred in 2001 when, during
It was not until 1847 that the French conquest of Algeria preparations for the twenty-first anniversary of the Berber
was complete because there was sustained resistance from Spring, a Berber student was killed while in police custody.
the Berber hinterland, which had never been fully con- The incident sparked riots between civilians and the secu-
trolled by the Turks. By the start of the twentieth century, rity forces, which spread throughout Kabylie and resulted
the Berber areas of North Africa had greatly reduced to in the deaths of around 123 protestors.
include enclaves of varying size, including Tripolitania (a Growing demands for the recognition of Berbers as
historical region of North Africa that now forms north- both the original inhabitants of North Africa and as a dis-
western Libya) and southern Tunisia; the island of Djerba tinct people of North Africa have met with a degree of suc-
off the coast of Tunisia; Kabylie and the Aurès in Algeria; cess. Tamazight is studied in Algeria and since 2002 has
in Morocco, the various mountain ranges including the been recognized as an unofficial national language. Berber
Middle and High Atlas and the Drâa valley; and various nationalism in Morocco has led to the foundation of the
locations in the Sahara. Royal Institute of Amazigh Culture, teaching in Tamazight,
During the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, many and (since 2011) the recognition of Tamazight as an offi-
aspects of Berber culture have survived, though they have cial language.
been shaped by economic and political pressures. For
instance, many Kabyle Berber from Kabylie in Algeria have
moved from the mountains to France and other western Society, Culture, and Tradition
European countries in search of work. This emigration has Traditionally, the Berber economy was based around
led to modern Western popular culture being transmitted subsistence agriculture and pastoralism as well as crafts
to the Berbers still residing in North Africa. including weaving, pottery, metalwork, and leatherwork.
The independence of countries such as Morocco, Homes varied from caves and tents to houses and cas-
Algeria, Tunisia, Libya, and Niger has created new polit- tles. Women had a major say in the running of the home,
ical situations in which Berber nationalism is becom- though Berber society is traditionally patrilineal. In prin-
ing prominent. This Berber nationalism is frequently ciple, all families and clans are equal and governed by
frowned upon, however, because non-Berbers see the codes of honor and a council of elders, the jamāʿah, who
Berber desire for a separate Berber identity as a relic of kept the peace by ruling on compensation and handing out
colonialism that is incompatible with the unity of inde- punishments.
pendent nations. For example, in Morocco, the monarchy The Berber people maintain unique customs, one of
felt doubly threatened, first in 1953 when the French used which is the annual Imilchil Moussem or Berber Marriage
 Berber 177

Festival, which is also known as the September Romance. own spouses. The Imilchil marriage festival sees young
The festival, which is a traditional event in the cultural people select their own partners. Another possible origin
calendar of the Aït Yaazza Berbers, is held in September for the Berber marriage festival is that at some point in
at Imilchil a location high in the Atlas Mountains. It is a time, Moroccan authorities declared that the Berbers must
unique event that draws around thirty thousand partici- assemble once per year to register all Berber births, mar-
pants (plus cattle and horses) from several Berber tribes, riages, and deaths, which they did at the Imilchil festival.
including the surrounding tribes the Aït Sokham and Aït The growth of tourism in Morocco meant that the coun-
Bouguemmaz. The festival also attracts many tourists. try’s tourism chiefs encouraged the tradition to continue.
The Berber marriage festival is thought to have begun The Imilchil Moussem takes the form of a grand mar-
when a young man named Isil (which means groom in the ketplace where Berbers can trade items, but it also acts
Berber language) fell in love with a young woman called as Morocco’s biggest wedding fair. The Imilchil festival
Tislit (meaning bride), but they were denied permission takes place near the tomb of a holy man, Sidi Mohammed
to marry because their families were at war. The lovers Maghani, who in life used to bless marriages. The Berbers
were consumed by sadness at not being allowed to wed congregate and erect tents to sleep under. Women arrive
and cried themselves to death, their tears forming a lake. at the festival wearing ceremonial clothing, and men wear
Today, two lakes at Imilchil are named after the lovers, a white clothing including white turbans. The couples dance
mountain divides the lakes so that even in death, the lovers and flirt. Some couples know each other before the festival,
remain apart. The families of Isil and Tislit are said to have but most do not, and contrary to rumors, few of the mar-
been so distraught at the deaths of the youngsters that riages are prearranged. Thus, the festival provides young
they vowed to forevermore allow the young to choose their men and women with the chance to meet each other in

Young Berber couples await their wedding ceremony in the village of Imilchil, Morocco. The annual Imilchil Moussem (Berber Marriage
Festival) is Morocco’s largest wedding festival, attracting around thirty thousand participants from different Berber tribes. (Abdelhak
Senna/Getty Images)
178 Berber

public and decide whom to marry. The meetings are fast- all brides live with their husband’s families. It is usual for
paced, akin to Western speed dating, with the difference the husband’s family to control all aspects of the bride’s
being that a successful interaction leads to marriage rather life, and quite often she will be subjected to physical and
than a date. In addition to the meetings being brief in verbal abuse from her husband and his family. A Berber
duration, the interactions are further complicated by the husband is also allowed to take a second wife if he so
fact that the women will often remain covered so that pro- chooses. Indeed, it is legal for a Berber man to take up to
spective husbands cannot see what the potential brides four wives.
look like. Men may get clues about a woman’s appearance
from her family, who try to guide the men and women into
making good decisions. Once he has received a favorable Health Care and Education
gesture from a woman, a man may hold her hand. Dropping Health care in Berber areas often suffers from insufficient
the hand signals romantic rejection. Women are allowed to funding and a lack of qualified healthcare providers. In
refuse a man’s offer of marriage, but if she wishes to accept Algeria, the government has focused on improving chil-
a man’s proposal, then she will tell him that he has cap- dren’s health, but poverty continues to endanger children.
tured her liver because the Berbers consider the liver to be Mortality rates for children aged less than five years in
the organ of romance and well-being. Algeria run at around 39 percent (Issitt), and the infant
The festival lasts for three days and is a time of much mortality rate is around 25 percent. The main cause of
eating, trading, and general celebration. During the festi- infant mortality is malnutrition. Algerian health care is
val, the families of those who wish to marry will settle legal often geared toward prevention of disease by way of free to
and financial matters, including how much the husband access vaccination programs targeting polio, tuberculosis,
will have to pay to the bride’s family. Toward the end of measles, hepatitis B, and other common diseases.
the festival, the marriage ceremonies begin, though some Most Berber children go to school, though girls often
couples who become engaged at the festival travel home leave school aged around thirteen years. Rural Berber
and wed in their own villages. Those who marry at the fes- children who do not speak any other languages can find
tival in communal marriages may do so because it is less it difficult to adjust when they start primary school, where
expensive to be part of a big wedding than to pay for a pri- lessons are taught in Moroccan and Arabic. Not only do
vate event. Thus, some Berber parents like their children to the children have to adjust to these new languages, but
marry at the festival to keep down costs. they also then have to learn French and Arabic as school
Away from the Imilchil festival, a Berber wedding, subjects.
which lasts for three days, usually begins with the groom In recent years, the Tunisian government has begun to
asking his parents for permission to wed. If they agree, the recognize the advantages of promoting Berber culture to
groom’s parents meet with the bride’s parents to arrange European tourists. For example, each day, European tour-
the dowry; a government official oversees the writing of ists staying on the Tunisian coast visit the Berber village
the marriage contract. The groom then starts accumulat- of Chenini, which is home to three thousand people who
ing the goods required by the dowry package. If the bride dress in traditional Berber costume. To encourage the
calls off the wedding, she must return the goods. If the cou- village’s inhabitants to stay in the village and therefore
ple divorce, the bride is allowed to keep the dowry items. remain a tourist attraction, the government has built both
On the day of the wedding, the dowry is brought to a new clinic and a primary school for the villagers.
the bride’s home, where all the dowry items are verified
against the marriage contract. Later that day, animals are
killed to provide meat for the wedding feasts. Threats to Survival
It is extremely important that the bride is a virgin when A severe lack of employment is forcing many Berber men
she marries; it would bring great shame to her family if to move away from their communities in search of work
she were found to be unchaste. The next morning, those either in other North African countries or in France. As
who have participated in the wedding have breakfast and the men move to towns in search of work, Berber vil-
then return to their own homes, except the bride’s mother, lages empty, and the people become assimilated into the
who stays with her daughter until it is time for the her to non-Berber population. Once the men move away, they
go to her new husband’s home. It is the Berber custom that do not tend to return to their home villages. As a result
 Bhil 179

of this migration, the demography of the villages changes, BHIL

with the population of settlements becoming overwhelm-
ingly composed of women and elderly men. Subsequently, Current Location India
young Berber women face a shortage of Berber men to Current Population 6 million
marry. Some families try to arrange marriages between the Language Bhili; regional languages
Berber women and men living in towns, but many fam- Interesting Fact The Bhils are the most widely dis-
ilies do not attempt this because town-dwelling men are persed tribal group in India.
often not Berber, and families do not want their female rel-
atives to marry non-Berbers. This situation creates tension Overview
because the women still wish to be married and have chil-
The Bhils are a tribal group inhabiting several states of
dren. Meanwhile, women who do marry often spend many
India as well as parts of Pakistan. The Bhils speak the
months alone with their children because their husbands
Bhili language, which belongs to the Western Indo-Aryan
are earning money elsewhere.
language family and forms a bridge between the Guja-
Another problem with Berbers moving to towns in
rati and Rajasthani languages spoken in northern India.
search of work is that in Morocco, and particularly in
Most Bhils also speak the language of the region in which
Algeria, while Berbers assimilate into the wider commu-
they live, such as Marathi, Gujarati, or Hindustani. The
nity to a degree, they also face of anti-Berber discrimi-
Bhils identify largely as Hindu, but Bhil religion tends
nation. In Tunisia, Berbers do not face the same level of
to vary with location. For instance, the Nirdhi Bhil and
discrimination because when France colonized the coun-
Tadivi Bhil groups are Muslim, whereas many Dang Bhils
try, the French created a division between Berbers and
are Christian. Many other Bhils follow their own reli-
non-Berber Tunisians by championing Berber culture and
gion, Sonatan, which blends Hindu beliefs with animistic
language, thereby giving Tunisian Berbers some influence.
philosophies.
Berber activists call on the governments of North Africa
The Bhils are known for using bows and arrows, and
to improve living in Berber settlements by providing run-
it has been theorized that the name Bhil derives from the
ning water, schools, and employment. In tourist areas, gov-
Dravidian word billu (or villu, bil, or vil), meaning bow.
ernments often offer assistance to Berber settlements, but
in settlements that are not visited by tourists, governments
shows little interest to improve Berber living conditions by Population, Diaspora, and Migration
building schools and medical facilities. The Bhil population is estimated to measure around six
See also: Mozabite; Sahawari; Tuareg million people (Minahan 2012). The Bhils live predomi-
Further Reading nantly in the upland areas of an area known in Rajasthani
Ennaji, Moha. 2005. Multilingualism, Cultural Identity, and Edu- as Rewakantha, where the Indian states of Gujarat, Maha-
cation in Morocco. New York: Springer. rashtra, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh
Issitt, Micah, L. 2008. “Algeria.” In The Greenwood Encyclopedia meet. Small numbers of Bhils also live in the Sindh region
of Children’s Issues Worldwide: North Africa and the Middle of Pakistan. The Bhils are the most widely scattered tribal
East, edited by Ghada Hashem Talhami (volume editor) and
group in India, the third largest tribe in India after the
Irving Epstein (general editor), 1–17. Westport, CT: Green-
wood Press. Gonds and the Santhals, and the third most populous
Jones, Lucy. 2009. “Tunisia’s Berbers under Threat.” Washing- South Asian tribal group.
ton Report on Middle Eastern Affairs, July 20. https://www​
.washingtonreport.me/2001-august-september/tunisia​
-s-berbers-under-threat.html. Geography and Environment
Reilly, Bernard F. 1995. The Contest of Christian and Muslim Bhils live in hilly areas with mild climates. The people’s
Spain 1031–1157. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. villages are home to dense forests with rich mineral
Shoup, John A. 2011. Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle East:
deposits. Some villages in Bhil areas suffer from drought.
An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the In such cases, villages tend to move toward each other
World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA: so that people can share what water there is, but this
ABC-CLIO. resettlement often leads to conflict as villagers argue
over available water. Both domestic and international
180 Bhil

India’s Forest Dwellers Face Forced Eviction

In February 2019, the Supreme Court of India ruled that indigenous people living illegally in forests should be evicted
by force. The ruling came in response to petitions filed by wildlife conservation groups that wanted the court to
declare the Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act (2006) invalid.
The act gives forest dwellers the right to their ancestral lands, including land in wildlife conservation areas. The con-
servation groups argued that in the seventeen states in which the forest dwellers lived, the people illegally encroached
on protected areas, thereby endangering wildlife and forests. It is reported that up to 7 million of India’s indigenous
forest peoples may be evicted by mid-2019.

non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have attempted areas in the thirteenth century and continued to rule until
to address this issue but have had only limited success the mid-nineteenth century. During the nineteenth cen-
(West 2009). tury, the British came to rule India, leading to many aca-
Trees (including mango trees, shrubs, and bamboo) demics, adventurers, and Christian missionaries arriving
and various flowers and grasses surround Bhil villages. in Bhil areas hoping to study, engage with, or convert the
Agriculture is the main occupation of the Bhils, who start Bhils, respectively. At the end of the nineteenth century,
to plow fields as soon as the monsoon rains arrive in the Bhil warriors frequently fought against the British and
second or third week of June. Popular Bhil crops include continually moved to increasingly high land to avoid pay-
maize, pulses, wheat, and gram as well as vegetables such ing taxes to the British as well as to evade conscription as
as okra, onions, garlic, ginger, potatoes, sweet potatoes, car- laborers. Moving to higher, less fertile land meant the Bhil
rots, radishes, and cucumbers. A few Bhil groups live in the had to abandon many of their possessions. As a result of
deserts of Rajasthan, where they hunt antelopes, lizards, this loss of property, many Bhils turned to banditry and
and rabbits and keep small numbers of cattle. looting to survive, a move that faced opposition from both
In recent year, the Bhils have become increasingly neighboring peoples and British authorities. Those Bhils
urbanized. Nonetheless, a deep reverence for the land and who did not relocate tended to hold animist beliefs and
nature is instilled in all Bhils. became the focus of Christian missionaries, who figured
that these Bhils would be easier to convert to Christian-
ity than local Hindus or Muslims (Minahan 2012). After
History and Politics a while, some of the Bhils who had moved upland relo-
The Bhils claim to be descended from a son of the god cated to more lowland areas, where they turned to agri-
Siva and his human lover, who were banished to the culture and animal farming. Other Bhils remained widely
mountains where the Bhils have lived ever since. Histori- dispersed in upland areas. By the start of the twentieth
ans believe the Bhils are descended from the earliest set- century, Bhil warriors were incorporated into the Bhil
tlers of northern India, with some academics theorizing Corp of the British military. This move allowed the British
that they originated from the Harappan civilization that to keep a close eye on Bhil activities while also enabling
inhabited the Indus Valley from 3500 to 2500 BCE. During the Bhil to have their own semiautonomous state, which
the second millennium BCE, various Indo-­Aryan incur- was negotiated between the British and a Bhil chief called
sions forced the Bhils to move to high ground that was Kumar Vasava of Sagbara. Ever since this period, the Bhil
easier to defend. The Indo-Aryan invasions also meant have practiced agriculture and animal husbandry. To start
that over the years, the Bhils came to adopt many aspects with, the Bhils practiced slash-and-burn (jhum) farming,
of Indo-Aryan culture. In medieval times, various forces, but this farming method was outlawed during the twen-
including the Rajputs, invaded the Bhils. This led to the tieth century in an effort to prevent deforestation. After
Bhils living in Rajasthan becoming adept at using bows this ban, the Bhils opted for settled agriculture. However,
and arrows in guerilla conflict. The Bhils practiced this it is often the case that Bhil land lacks water, which leads
guerilla warfare against Muslims, who conquered Bhil to sporadic conflict between neighbors. Water rights
 Bhil 181

and landlessness are significant, ongoing socioeconomic Bhil descent is through the male line. Bhil society used
issues for the Bhil. to be matrilineal, but over time the society has become
more patriarchal, with men allowed to make decisions
for families and the wider community. That said, Bhil
Society, Culture, and Tradition husbands do consult their wives over household matters
Agriculture is the mainstay of Bhil life. The Bhil often prac- (Department of Gujarat 2017). Bhil women are allowed
tice sharecropping, whereby a landowner permits a tenant to choose their husbands, although Bhil marriage is often
farmer to cultivate land in return for a share of the pro- polygamous. In some Bhil areas, sororal polygyny, whereby
duce grown on that land. Bhil farmers work from dawn to a man marries more than one sister from a family, is the
sunset, and though some Bhil farmers use tractors to work preferred marriage system. In other areas, cross-cousin
the land, many small farms are plowed using traditional marriage, in which a man marries his father’s sister’s
plows made from wood and iron. Typically, a husband will daughter, is frequently practiced. Many Bhils do not agree
operate the plow while his wife or female relative follows with cross-cousin marriage, however, because they con-
closely behind, dropping seeds into the plowed furrows. sider this custom an incestuous taboo. Bhil men who are
Labor is divided so that men perform the most strenuous involved in polygynous marriages are expected to provide
tasks. In addition to growing crops, the Bhils also keep ani- separate households for each of their wives, so the practice
mals. In Bhil areas, 80 percent of farmers keep bullocks for is often reserved for only the richest Bhils. Traditionally,
plowing and working irrigation equipment (Department the Bhils marry when they are very young, with brides
of Gujarat 2017). Cows, buffalos, and goats are also kept for being aged eleven years and boys aged fourteen years,
their milk and their dung, which is greatly valued as a ferti- though husbands and wives do not live together until the
lizer and can be used as fuel. During the Diwali festival, the girl experiences her first menstrual bleed.
Bhils paint their cattle and tie a ritual thread around the Hinduism is important to many Bhils. The Bhils are
animals’ necks. Bhils are not usually vegetarian, and many referenced in Hindu mythology, and a Bhil creation myth
enjoy eating fish, crabs, eggs, poultry, and mutton. Some includes the Hindu god Lord Rama. Although Bhil reli-
Bhils also eat buffalo, and they consider wild game hunted gious beliefs vary geographically, many Bhils worship
in forests surrounding their villages to be a delicacy. the tiger god, Vaghdev as well as Hanuman, the monkey
Bhils who do not engage in agriculture tend to find god and Nandervo, the god of agriculture. Before the
work as metalworkers, potters, and weavers. It is often the eradication of smallpox from Bhil areas, Sitala, the god-
case that Bhils exchange goods such as pots, baskets, and dess thought responsible for outbreaks of the disease, was
tools for farm produce, wild honey, cotton, and tobacco. greatly feared. The Bhils do not have their own dedicated
Recently, the Bhils have begun to turn to moneylenders shrines or temples. The Bhils tend to consider women as
to survive, and others have found themselves in positions inferior to men (Department of Gujarat 2017), so it follows
akin to indentured servitude (West 2009). that Bhil women are not allowed to make offerings to the
In the main, Bhils live in scattered houses constructed gods. Running alongside their religious beliefs, the Bhils
from wattle and thatch. Traditionally, Bhil villages are are extremely superstitious, entrusting local gurus to per-
constructed on hilly mounds and slopes. Many villages in form rites and consulting sorcerers on special occasions.
Bhil areas are multiethnic because Bhil families and other The Bhils also employ shamans to commune with their
tribal peoples inhabit them. In such cases, the Bhil inhab- ancestors and make offerings to the gods to stave off bad
itants share the concerns of the village while maintaining luck and illness.
their Bhil identity. Relations between the Bhil and other Like Bhil religious beliefs, Bhil culture varies from place
indigenous groups are not always smooth, however. For to place, though there are recognizable Bhil festivals and
example, the Bishnoi (a nature-worshipping Hindu sect, styles of dress. For instance, after the colorful festival of
also called the Vishnoi and Prahladapanthi) take offense Holi, the Bhils celebrate the festival of Gol Gadhedo, dur-
at the Bhil hunting antelopes (which they consider sacred) ing which boys and girls select their marriage partners.
and felling trees (which they revere). Nevertheless, the Bhil The ceremony sees a long bamboo stem cut and a coco-
and Bishnoi trade with each other, herd together, and work nut placed at its top before girls sing and dance around
together to improve water supplies to villages suffering the bamboo while holding sticks in their hands. The girls
from drought. use the sticks to stop the boys from reaching the top of
182 Bicol

the bamboo to collect the coconut. Any boy who is able Bhil activists have become important figures in local poli-
to reach the coconut from the bamboo stem is allowed to tics because they aim to improve living conditions for their
select a girl to marry. Bhils only ever marry their own kind, people while trying to highlight Bhil culture.
resulting in families being very close.
See also: Gond; Naga; Tharu
Bhil men often wear a dhoti (material tied around the
waist and covering the legs), a kurta (tunic top), and a Further Reading
Department of Gujarat. 2017. “Bhil.” Tribal Research and Train-
safa (type of turban). Bhil women wear a ghagra choli (an ing Institute, November 29. https://trti.gujarat.gov.in/bhil.
outfit consisting of a long skirt and blouse) and an odhni Joshi, P. C., and Prashant Khatri. 2008. “Traditional Medical Sys-
(shawl worn over the head). Bhil women also wear jewelry, tem of the Bhils: Characteristics, Function and Change.” In
including rings on their toes and fingers. Bio-Social Issues in Health, edited by A. K. Sinha, B. G. Baner-
Although often impoverished, Bhil families subscribe jee, R. N. Vasishat, and C. J. Edwin, 471–486. New Delhi, India:
to newspapers, and most Bhil villages have a television and Northern Book Centre.
Kumar, T. Santhosh, Rushabh J. Dagli, Anmol Mathur, Man-
a radio. Mobile phones have had a profound effect on Bhil ish Jain, Gowthan Balasubramanyam, D. Prabu, and Suhas
lifestyles because they allow tribal groups to contact each Kulkarni. 2009. “Oral Health Status and Practices of Dentate
other and relay information about jobs, diseases, accidents, Bhil Adult Tribes of Southern Rajasthan, India.” International
and crimes while also facilitating matchmaking. Dental Journal 59: 133–140. https://www.researchgate.net​
/publication/26700511_Oral_health_status_and_practices​
_of_dentate_Bhil_adult_tribes_of_Southern_Rajasthan​
Health Care and Education _India.
Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the
Researchers have found the Bhils are malnourished, with Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
many following unhealthy lifestyles involving alcohol and West, Barbara A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and
tobacco. Bhil health care comes from a variety of sources. Oceania. New York: Facts on File.
For instance, traditional Bhil health care is provided by
both shamans and a figure called a Badwa. A shaman is
regarded as curing the sick through divine, supernatural
means, whereas a Badwa treats medical conditions by
repeating mantras that he has learned by heart. The Badwa
not only acts as a healer but also creates harmony between
BICOL
a sick person, the universe, and the people around him or Current Location The Philippines
her. The Badwa comes from the same society as the people Current Population 6 million
her or she treats, sharing the same cultural and societal
Language Bikolano
values as the sick. Thus the Badwa is regarded by the Bhils
Interesting Fact Other Filipinos view the Bicols as
as having a good understanding of health problems. Other
supporters of left-wing liberality
Bhil medical practitioners include the dais (birth attend- because they have a long history
ants), bhopas (medicine men), bonesetters, and herbalists. of opposing right-wing Filipino
Few Bhils have access to dentists (Kumar et al. 2009). governments.
Christian missionaries established missionary schools
in Bhil areas during the nineteenth and twentieth centu-
ries. These schools led to the creation of an educated Bhil Overview
elite that championed Bhil culture and resisted attempts to The Bicols (also spelled Bikols) are an indigenous ethnic
assimilate the Bhil. Today, all Bhil tribal districts have their group living in on the island of Luzon in the Philippines.
own colleges and universities. The Bicols are also sometimes called the Bicolanos or
Oragon. The Bicols speak varieties of a Malayo-Polynesian
language called Bikolano, which in turn divides into three
Threats to Survival main dialects. Most Bicols are Christian, especially Roman
The Bhils are some of India’s poorest people and live in Catholic. However, many Bicols do not subscribe to any
some of the least developed parts of India (Minahan 2012). religion.
 Bicol 183

Population, Diaspora, and Migration Arab and Chinese traders settled in the region and inter-
The roughly six million Bicols live in the southeast of the married with the indigenous inhabitants. Ibalon soon
central Filipino island of Luzon. The center of the Bicol developed a chief-centric culture noted for its music and
community is the city of Legaspi, the regional center of the poetry.
Philippines’ Bicol Region. Naga City is another important In 1565, Spanish sailors made contact with the Bicols
Bicol hub, acting as both a cultural and education center when Spanish galleons sailing the route between Manila in
for the Bicols and an important tourist destination provid- the Philippines and Acapulco in Mexico stopped at the port
ing the Bicols with income. in the city of Legaspi. In 1570, Spanish missionaries set-
tled in the Bicol homeland, enabling Catholicism to spread
throughout the region, where it supplanted the area’s tra­
Geography and Environment ditional animist religion. Churches became the focal point
The Bicol Region comprises six provinces, four on the Bicol of Bicol villages, with priests accorded great respect. In
Peninsula located at the southeastern end of Luzon (Albay, addition, Bicol region’s rice growing became important to
Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, and Sorsogon) and the Spanish colonialism. In time, the Bicol’s became restless
offshore island provinces of Catanduanes and Masbate. The under Spanish rule. Consequently, the indigenous inhab-
landscape of Bicol Peninsula has a long coastline featuring itants of the Bicol Region began to revolt, culminating in a
deep coastal bays and large subpeninsulas (peninsulas widespread rebellion in 1649. There were also smaller scale
projecting from another, larger peninsula). Bicol Peninsula revolts against the Spanish in 1762 and 1764.
also includes volcanic highlands and the Bicol Plain, a low- In 1814, Mount Mayon erupted to devastating effect
land area that is home to rice production. The most notable and forced most of Luzon’s inhabitants to flee to safety.
geographic feature in the Bicol Region is Mount Mayon, an The eruption had a lasting impact on the Bicol Region, set-
active stratovolcano (a volcano consisting of alternate lay- ting back the area’s already slow development. In 1872, the
ers of lava and ash) in Albay Province that is famous for its Spanish reopened the ports in Bicol Region, thereby ena-
symmetrical cone. Mount Mayon is the main feature of the bling the region to trade once more. The reopening of the
Albay Biosphere Reserve, which was declared a biosphere parts encouraged outsiders to migrate to the area, where
by UNESCO in 2016. The Albay Biosphere consists mostly they married local people.
of grassland and forest ecosystems, a coastline comprising In 1900, the Philippines were ceded to the United
of mangrove forests, urban settlements, and agricultural States following the United States’ victory in the Spanish-­
land. The biosphere contains 182 terrestrial plant species, American War. The U.S. occupation of the Bicol Region
twelve species of birds including the Luzon bleeding-heart accelerated the area’s economic development while also
ground dove (Gallicolumba luzonica), seventeen amphib- providing locals with greater access to education. Greater
ian species, thirty reptile species, and five of the world’s access to education stimulated a Bicol cultural renaissance,
seven marine turtle species. In total, Albay’s marine and especially in literature.
coastal ecosystems are home to sixty-two species of vege- During the 1950s and 1960s, Protestant evangelical
tation that represent 62.5 percent of all know species in the groups began to arrive in Bicol Region, where they created
Philippines (UNESCO 2016). converts among the Bicols.
The Bicol Region experienced typhoons annually.
Typhoons, like floods, drought, and volcanic eruptions,
occur frequently in Bicol Region and lead to severe dam-
Society, Culture, and Tradition
age to properties, regional infrastructure, and loss of Bicol culture is very similar to mainstream Filipino culture.
income from farming. Every October, the Bicols participate in the secular Ibalong
Festival held in Legazpi City. The festival is inspired by
the Ibalong folk epic that contains accounts of the Bicols’
History and Politics origin, superstitions, and traditional beliefs. During the
Inhabitants of Bicol Region (then called Ibalon) are known festival, the Bicols wear costumes relating to legendary
to have traded with China, Malaya, and Indonesia around Bicol characters as they parade the streets, dance, and play
two thousand years ago (Minahan 2012). At some point, traditional music. The festival celebrates not only Bicol
184 Bilen

culture but also the people’s determination to survive the See also: Aeta; Igorot
typhoons that strike their homeland annually. The Bicols Further Reading
derive their income from gold mining, jewelry making, Brown, Keith, and Sarah Ogilvie. 2009. Concise Encyclopedia of
and increasingly the tourist industry. Languages of the World. Kidlington, UK: Elsevier.
The Bicol language is spoken in numerous regional dia- Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. n.d.
“Introduction: Bicol Region.” http://www.fao.org/3/a-br339e​
lects, though standard Bikolano is based on the Bikol Naga
.pdf.
dialect spoken in the city of Naga. This dialect is spoken in Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the
churches throughout Bicol Region. Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Non-Bicol Filipinos consider the Bicols as supporters of Minority Rights Group International. n.d. “Philippines: Indige-
the counterculture and left-wing liberality. This reputation nous Peoples.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous
stems from the Bicols’ long history of opposing right-wing Peoples. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/indigenous​
-peoples-6.
Filipino governments.
UNESCO. 2016. “Albay.” Ecological Sciences for Sustainable
Development, June. http://www.unesco.org/new/en/natural​
-sci​ences/environment/ecological-sciences/biosphere​-res​erves​
Health Care and Education /​asia-and-the-pacific/philippines/albay.
The Philippines’s recent, rapid economic growth has led
to a significantly improved healthcare system. However,
not all people in the Philippines have experienced these
changes, and the country’s health system remains frag-
mented. Although maternal and child healthcare services
have been upgraded, there are deep inequities between
BILEN
regions, social groups, and ethnicities. Many Filipinos con- Current Location Eritrea; Ethiopia; Djibouti
tinue to die from conditions such as tuberculosis, HIV, car- Current Population 91,000
diovascular disease, and dengue.
Language Bilen; Tigrinya; Tigré
In the Philippines, indigenous peoples are entitled to
Interesting Fact Some Bilen nationalists claim the
education in their mother tongue under the Indigenous
early Bilen are the world’s oldest
Peoples Rights Act of 1997. However, this act is unimple-
human community.
mented. The Institute for Indigenous Peoples’ Education
has founded several pilot schools to teach indigenous cul-
ture, but indigenous language education is not part of the Overview
official state curriculum. Indigenous schools established The Bilen, also called the Bogo, Bilin, or Beleni, among
privately with some teaching in traditional languages con- other names, are an indigenous people of Eritrea, Ethi-
tinue to meet obstacles from the country’s Department opia, and Djibouti. The Bilen call themselves the Blen or
of Education (Minority Rights Group International n.d.). Blean. The Bilen speak a Cushitic language also called
Recently, some Filipino universities have begun to offer Bilen. The Bilen are Christian and Muslim. Most Christian
courses in Bicol language and literature. Bilen speak Tigrinya, but Muslim Bilen speak Tigré and
write using either the Latin or the Ethiopic alphabet. Young
Bilen often use Arabic words and expressions in conver-
Threats to Survival sation. The Bilen belong to the Agaw, an ethnic group of
The Bicols are hopeful that the construction of an inter- Ethiopia and Eritrea. Agaw is the term applied to peoples
national airport in Bicol Region will better connect their who speak Central Cushitic languages.
people to the outside world. The Bicols also feel that an air-
port would bring income to their homeland, especially by
allowing more tourists to visit, thereby continuing the cur- Population, Diaspora, and Migration
rent decline in poverty in Bicol Region. Typhoons, floods, There are no recent population figures for the Bilen, but in
drought, and volcanic eruptions occur frequently in Bicol 2006, the Bilen population numbered around ninety-one
Region, posing a threat to the Bicols’ properties, developing thousand people living in Eritrea, Ethiopia, and Djibouti.
infrastructure, and agricultural income. Most Bilen live in the Keren region of Eritrea as well as the
 Bilen 185

country’s capital, Asmara. Many Bilen also live in Ethio- as the benefits of using oxen and plows to farm. As the
pia’s Tigray Province (Shoup 2011). The most famous Bilen Agaw community grew, more land was cleared for farm-
clans are the Tarqe, Tawqe, Bet Mussi, and Jengeren. ing. At the same time, urban cultures became established
because agricultural improvements produced higher
yields that were able to feed growing populations. Popula-
Geography and Environment tion exchange between Yemen and Ethiopia also continued
Eritrea is a country in the Horn of Africa bordered by and led to adaptations in Ethiopian culture, including the
Sudan to the west, Ethiopia to the south, and Djibouti introduction of Judaism.
to the southeast. Northeastern and eastern Eritrea have In the first century CE, the pre-Christian Kingdom of
coastlines on the Red Sea. Keren is the second largest city Aksum ruled the Agaw. Later, Christianity also spread
in Eritrea and lies around fifty-seven miles northwest of throughout Agaw society. Then in the 970s, the Agaw King-
the Eritrean capital, Asmara, at an altitude of around 4,560 dom of D’mt, under the Zagwé dynasty, rebelled against the
feet. The town stretches across a wide basin surrounded Kingdom of Aksum, leading to Aksum’s ultimate downfall.
on all sides by granite mountains. Keren has a hot, sem- Following the downfall of the Zagwé dynasty circa 1270,
iarid climate with two main seasons. A monsoonal wet some Agwa decided to live in isolation, emerging in the
season lasts from June to September, with the rest of the sixteenth century only during the Islamic invasions of
year being dry. Keren’s high altitude means it does not their homeland when they enlisted in the jihad armies
experience temperature extremes. Asmara lies at an alti- moving toward the Ethiopian interior. Other Agwa moved
tude of 7,628 feet and is on the edge of an escarpment that northward, possibly to escape famine.
serves as the northwest edge of the Great Rift Valley and of By the 1530s, most of Ethiopia was under Islamic
the Eritrean highlands. The Gash River, which rises near control. It was at this point that the Bilen ethnic identity
Asmara, flows south to form the border between Eritrea, developed. By the 1550s, however, the Portuguese had
Ethiopia, and Sudan. Asmara has a drier, cooler climate interceded on behalf of Christian Ethiopians to drive the
than elsewhere in Eritrea. Islamic forces out of most of the country, including the
Tigray Province is the northernmost of Ethiopia’s nine Islamic principality of Damot.
kililat (regions) and is bordered by Eritrea to the north, The Agaw (including the Bilen) emerged again in 1869
Sudan to the west, the Afar Region to the east, and the with the building of the Suez Canal, which once again
Amhara Region to the south and southwest. Tigray’s ter- made the Red Sea an important trade route. The 1860s
rain is high plateau, dissected by deep ravines. Almost all also saw the Bilen suffer intertribal wars and attacks from
Tigray land is used as farmland or pasture, though reserved the Tigrean Wubie people and the Beni Amer (a subgroup
areas surrounding churches contain cedar trees. Rainfall in of the Beja), who murdered many Bilen, took survivors as
Tigray Province occurs during two periods: heavy rain that slaves, and stole Bilen cattle.
starts in mid-June and falls for three months, and unreliable During the nineteenth century Egyptian expansion into
periods of light rain in January or February. The unpredict- Bilen areas saw many Christian Bilen convert to Islam,
ability of Tigray’s rainfall means the area often experiences whereas European colonization in the area resulted in
droughts. Daytime temperatures can be quite cool, with many Muslim Bilen becoming Christian, especially Roman
nighttime temperatures in winter falling below freezing. Catholic. The renaissance of the Red Sea as an economic
thoroughfare made the British, Italians, and French inter-
ested in the remote area, and in the 1930s, the Italians used
History and Politics Bilen soldiers as part of the Italian invasion of Ethiopia. In
The ancestors of the Bilen originated sometime during the 1941, the British and French forced the Italians from Ethio-
early Christian era, though some Bilen nationalists believe pia. In 1952, Eritrea was added to Ethiopia under the guid-
the Bilen are the world’s oldest human population group ance of the United Nations, but in 1962, Ethiopia invaded
(Shoup 2011). Between 3500 and 1000 BCE, the Agaw Eritrea, leading to the emergence of a multitude of Eritrean
formed a community in the Ethiopian Highlands, where separatist groups. A prolonged civil war began soon after
they grew teff (a grain high in protein and calcium) and Ethiopia’s annexation of Eritrea. In 1993, Eritrea gained
millet. Soon after, settlers from Yemen arrived and intro- independence, but by this time the civil war had left around
duced the Agaw to barley and wheat production as well 50 percent of the Bilen scattered throughout Eritrea.
186 Bonairean

Society, Culture, and Tradition improve school enrollment and the quality of education.
Each Bilen clan has its own chief who is invested with non- NGOs provide basic school supplies, offer logistical help,
hereditary power. As a result of this chieftainship struc- and construct school buildings while the government is
ture, Bilen authority is decentralized among the various involved in reforming the school curriculum and training
Bilen clans and subclans. teachers. Traditionally, girls in Eritrea have lower rates of
The early Bilen were pastoralists rearing large herds school enrollment than boys, so courses have been estab-
of livestock. However, the continual incursion of other lished to train female teachers who can serve as role mod-
peoples into Bilen areas decreased the amount of pasture els and encourage girls’ education.
available to the Bilen, forcing the Bilen to become settled
farmers. Today, the majority of Bilen are livestock herders Threats to Survival
or settled agriculturalists growing barley, durra (a type of
The Bilen have adapted to become settled farmers. Because
sorghum), maize, and millet. The crops grown by the Bilen
most Bilen crops are irrigated by rainfall, the erratic rain-
vary depending on local topography and climate.
fall in Bilen areas mean the people’s agriculture is often
Around two-thirds of the Bilen are Muslim, with the
at risk, leading to food shortages. Droughts also result in
remainder being Christian. The majority of Christian Bilen
a lack of clean water being available leading to illnesses
are Roman Catholic, a reflection of Italy’s past colonization
among the Bilen. Increasingly, Bilen farmers lose farm-
of Ethiopia. There are also small Bilen groups of Copts and
land to settlement expansion caused by population growth
Protestants. Christian Bilen tend to be more urban than
and a growing numbers of plantations. The Bilen remain
their Muslim counterparts. Muslim Bilen usually live in
unusual in Eritrea and Ethiopia in that they have managed
rural areas, where they mix with the Tigré.
to preserve their individual clans despite the presence of
The staple food in Ethiopia and Eritrea is engera (or
neighboring ethnolinguistic groups such as the Tigrinya
injera), a flat sourdough-like fermented pancake made
and Tigré.
from teff that is served with a stew made from meat,
pulses, and spices. On special occasions such as weddings, See also: Afar; Amhara; Beja; Copts
Eritreans may drink homemade alcoholic drinks called Further Reading
suwa and miyes. Suwa is made from barley, millet or sor- Cooper, Dorothy, and Aisling Underwood. 1996. “Eritrean Cul-
ghum, and hops and is consumed more often than miyes tural Profile.” EthnoMed, January 1. Revised June 16, 2010.
because it is cheaper to produce. Miyes is considered to a https://ethnomed.org/culture/eritrean/eritrean-cultural​
-profile.
more refined drink because it is made from more expen-
Shoup, John A. 2011. “Bilen.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and
sive ingredients such as honey and spices. the Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup,
62–63. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Tesfagiorgis G., Mussie. 2011. Africa in Focus: Eritrea. Santa Bar-
Health Care and Education
bara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Eritreans believe in the healing powers of plants, though UNICEF. n.d. D’Hnet H’Tsanat: For the Welfare of the Children:
they usually seek health care from a medical practitioner UNICEF in Eritrea: Two Decades of Collaboration. https://​
before using herbal remedies. If Western medicine proves www.unicef.org/eritrea/ECO_resources_20years.pdf.
unsuccessful, then an Eritrean patient will turn to tradi-
tional natural remedies. By 2003, 70 percent of Eritreans
had access to Western health care, and vaccination coverage
and antenatal care provision continue to grow (UNICEF
n.d.). However, malnutrition, a lack of clean water, and BONAIREAN
poor sanitation worsened by drought continues to hamper
efforts to improve the people’s health, especially children’s
Current Location Bonaire
health. Such chronic illnesses as diabetes and hypertension
are common among elderly Eritreans. Eritreans do not Current Population 22,000
openly discuss HIV/AIDS, and thus Eritreans diagnosed Language Papiamentu; Dutch
with HIV/AIDS often keep this information secret. Interesting Fact The entire coastline of Bonaire was
Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) such as designated a marine sanctuary in
UNICEF work with Eritrea’s Ministry of Education to 1979.
 Bonairean 187

The Origins of Papiamento

The language of Papiamento (or Papiamentu) developed in Curaçao after the Netherlands took over the island from
Spain in the seventeenth century. In 1659, Portuguese-speaking Dutch colonists, together with some Sephardic Jews,
immigrated to Curaçao after having been expelled from Brazil. The exiles took with them their slaves and their Portu-
guese and Dutch vernaculars. Gradually, the immigrants’ languages were appropriated and modified by the slaves who
were continually being imported to the island. Increased contact with Spanish-speaking slavers from South America
introduced a Spanish element to the still-developing Papiamento. During the eighteenth century, Papiamento spread
from Curaçao to Aruba and Bonaire.

Overview on the island’s east coast. The collected litter is then pro-
The Bonaireans are a Caribbean ethnic group inhabiting cessed. Due to such efforts, Bonaire was listed as one of
the Caribbean island of Bonaire. The Bonaireans speak 2016’s top one hundred most sustainable tourism destina-
the creole language, Papiamentu as well as Dutch. Most tions (ILoveBonaire 2018). The trade winds make Bonaire
Bonaireans are Protestant, though there are a smaller num- ideal for producing electricity from wind. The wind farm
ber of Roman Catholic Bonaireans, and some Bonaireans at Morotin, east of Rincon, has twelve wind turbines of 900
belong to other religions. kW each, and a wind turbine of 330 kW is located at Soro-
bon. Annually, wind power provides about 33 percent of
Bonaire’s energy (ILoveBonaire 2018).
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Around twenty-two thousand Bonaireans live on Bonaire.
Outside of Bonaire, there is a large Bonairean community History and Politics
residing in the Netherlands. The first people to live on Bonaire were the Caquetio, a
branch of the Arawak tribe that arrived on Bonaire from
South America by canoe around 1100 CE. In 1499, a Span-
Geography and Environment ish expedition led by Alonso de Ojeda visited Bonaire. The
Bonaire is located fifty miles north of Venezuela and thirty Spanish then claimed the island. However, the Spanish
miles east of Curaçao. The island’s landscape is rocky, flat, soon lost interest in the island because it lacked precious
and so low-lying that the name Bonaire likely derives from metals or other resources. In 1515, the Spanish deported
the Caquetio word bonay, meaning “low country.” Essen- the Caquetio and made them work in Hispaniolan copper
tially, Bonaire is a coral reef that has been pushed up and mines. In 1526, Juan de Ampies was appointed the Span-
out of the sea by geological processes. These processes ish commander of Bonaire and other nearby islands. de
have also created the coral reef system that fringes the Ampies then returned surviving Caquetios to Bonaire
island. Bonaire’s shoreline is dotted with lagoons, inlets, while also importing cattle and other animals. Subse-
and wetlands that provide excellent habitat for a variety of quently, Bonaire was transformed into a giant cattle ranch
birds. Bonaire has a warm, dry, and windy climate. Because on which the surviving Caquetios labored.
Bonaire receives little annual rainfall, the island has a fairly Starting in 1623, passing ships from the Netherlands
barren, arid climate. visited Bonaire to acquire meat, water, and wood. The
Bonaire has a modern sewage treatment plant that helps Eighty Years’ War fought by the Dutch and the Spanish
to protect the island’s reefs and seawater. In 2013, Selibon (1568–1648) affected the Caribbean and saw Bonaire cap-
NV, the national solid waste-processing plant, opened a tured by the Dutch in 1636. Later, Bonaire was established
recycling center where Bonaireans can bring items such as as an island plantation by the Dutch West India Company.
glass, paper, cardboard, batteries, cooking oil, and textiles The plantation was worked by the Caquetios, convicts,
for recycling. Selibon NV also organizes coastal cleanup and a small number of African slaves. During the Napo-
programs that see volunteers collect plastic and other litter leonic Wars of the early nineteenth century, the ownership
from the windward side of the island. Some of the detri- of Bonaire changed several times. However, in 1814, the
tus comes from as far away as Africa, only to wash ashore Dutch regained control of the island. Bonaire remained a
188 Bonairean

plantation owned by the Dutch government from 1816 to the Bonaireans speak Papiamentu, a creole language com-
1868. At this time, the population consisted of some Dutch bining Spanish, Portuguese, African, Arawak, English, and
administrators, a few Caquetios, and several hundred Dutch influences. There are two main Papiamentu dialects:
slaves. Papiamento, which is spoken mainly on Aruba, and Papia-
In time, many of Bonaire’s slaves were freed and ren- mentu, which is spoken on Bonaire and Curaçao.
dered freemen with a duty to work for the island’s gov- Bonaire is home to many churches. Although most
ernment. Other slaves were freed when the Dutch banned islanders are Protestants, there are also some Roman
slavery in 1862. Some of the island’s plantation lands were Catholic Bonaireans as well as a growing Muslim pop-
sold by the Dutch who in 1870, also sold the island’s salt- ulation. The Bonaireans have a truly unique dance style.
pans, the island having become a major salt producer by The rhythms are reminiscent of African drumbeats com-
the end of the 1830s. After the sale, all people living on bined with modern influences. The Simadan is one of
Bonaire became dependent on two landlords, a move which Bonaire’s most famous dances. This dance is tradition-
caused the islanders poverty. To escape the suffering, some ally performed to celebrate the maize harvest in the fall.
Bonaireans migrated to Aruba, Curaçao, or Venezuela. In Another Bonairean dance is the Bari, which is also asso-
the first decades of the twentieth century, the island’s gov- ciated with harvest. The dance is influenced by the waltz,
ernor built the first pier in the harbor. This enabled passen- the mazurka, the polka, and a local dance called Baile di
ger boats and, later, cruise ships to visit Bonaire, and soon Sinta, which is performed around a maypole. There are
tourism became central to the island’s economy. a number of traditional Bonairean musical instruments
During World War II, Bonaire became a self-ruling such as the bari drum, a small rum barrel covered with
protectorate under American and British patronage. In a taut sheepskin. The Bari is played especially during the
1943, the Allies built an airport on Bonaire that allowed Simadan. Another Bonairean instrument is the chapi, a
the islanders to communicate more easily with the outside small percussion instrument made from the metal end
world. After World War II, hotels were built on Bonaire that of a garden hoe and struck with a metal bar. The Bonaire-
attracted visitors from Europe as well as North and South ans play conch shells and cow horns, and the dried jaw
America. The ensuing tourist boom brought prosperity of a donkey with teeth intact is used traditionally as a
to Bonaire’s growing population. In 1966, salt production shaker.
resumed on Bonaire, and in 1975, an oil transhipment ter-
minal was created for the island.
In 2010, tensions within the Dutch islands of the Neth- Health Care and Education
erlands Antilles federation caused the federation to end. Bonaireans have access to a hospital, an urgent care clinic,
In December 2010, Bonaireans voted to become a spe- several doctors, and an air ambulance service. Children
cial municipality as part of the Netherlands. Today, many on Bonaire have access to education from the ages of four
Bonaireans live in the Netherlands, resulting in Bonaire- to eighteen years. Schools on the island vary from public
ans having strong economic, political, and family ties to schools to Catholic schools and private education based on
the Netherlands. school in the Netherlands. Education on Bonaire is offered
in both Dutch and Papiamentu.

Society, Culture, and Tradition

Bonairean culture derives from the cultures of the many Threats to Survival
people who have settled on the island over the centuries to There are no threats to the Bonaireans. They have access
create the Bonairean nationality. The biggest influence is to health care and education while their tourist industry
Afro-Caribbean culture, though colonial Dutch, Caquetio, is booming.
and Venezuelan culture, as well as America popular cul- See also: Aruban
ture, are important too.
Further Reading
Bonaireans hold dear the concept of family and pay
ILoveBonaire. 2018. “Sustainable Bonaire.” https://ilovebonaire​
great respect to the natural environment. .com/sustainable-bonaire.
All Bonaireans speak Dutch because this is the language Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An Ency-
of education and administration. In everyday life, however, clopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
 Bosniak 189

Tourism Corporation Bonaire. n.d. “History and Culture of Mush of Bosnia-Herzegovina is mountainous, encom-
Bonaire.” About Bonaire. https://www.tourismbonaire.com​ passing the Dinarides, a mountain range in southern and
/bonaire-history-culture. southeastern Europe separating the Balkan Peninsula
from the Adriatic Sea.
Bosnia-Herzegovina contains deposits of limestone,
iron, coal, zinc, lead, salt, manganese, and bauxite. Around
half of Bosnia-Herzegovina is forested. Northern Bosnia is
BOSNIAK home to very fertile farmland along the Sava River that is
a part of the Pannonian Plain extending into neighboring
Current Location Bosnia-Herzegovina
Croatia and Serbia.
Current Population 4.6 million
Language Bosnian
Interesting Fact More than 8,000 Bosniaks were History and Politics
slaughtered during the 1995 Bosniaks are descended from the South Slavs who
­Srebrenica massacre. migrated to the Balkans in the fifth century. During the
sixth and seventh centuries, Slavs raided the Western
Overview Balkans, including Bosnia. The Slave raiders were com-
Bosniaks (also written Bosniacs and formerly called the posed of small tribal units drawn from a united Slavic
Muslimani) are a Slav people living in the former Yugosla- confederation known to the Byzantines as the Sclaveni. A
via, especially the republic of Bosnia-Herzegovina, which medieval, de facto independent Bosnian state (the Banate
the Bosniaks consider their homeland. Bosniaks speak of Bosnia) existed under Ban Kulin (r. 1180–1204) and
the Bosnian language, which is based on the Ijekavian Stephen Tvrtko I, the first king of Bosnia. In 1463, Otto-
dialect spoken across Croatia, Montenegro, and Bosnia-­ man sultan Mehmet III (r. 1595–1603) made the Bosniak
Herzegovina. Most Bosniaks are Muslim, and the term Bos- homeland an administrative area of the Ottoman Empire.
niak is often used interchangeably with the term Bosnian Under Ottoman rule, the early Bosniaks converted from
Muslim. In the past, the term Bosniak was used to describe folk Christianity to Islam. By the seventeenth century, the
Bosnians of all faiths, but since the 1990s, Bosnian Mus- Bosniak homeland had a Muslim majority population
lims and others have adopted the term to reflect what they that enjoyed legal and financial benefits of belonging to
feel are the Bosniaks’ historical ties to Bosnia-Herzegovina. the area’s dominant religion. Throughout the Ottoman era
of Bosniak history, few ethnic Turks entered the Bosniak
homeland, and the area retained its Slavic language though
Population, Diaspora, and Migration Arabic, Turkish, and Persian were studied.
The Bosniak population is estimated to comprise 4.6 The Bosniak homeland lay on the borders of the Otto-
million people, 2.2 million of whom live in Bosnia-­ man and Hapsburg Empires and so experienced much
Herzegovina. Between 300,000 and 350,000 Bosniaks live conflict. During the nineteenth century, the area suffered
elsewhere in the former Yugoslavia. Conflict in the Bal- many rebellions by Muslims who were anti-Ottoman
kans during the 1990s resulted in a large Bosniak diaspora modernization and by Christian peasants who favored
consisting of around five hundred thousand people being integration with Europe. Christian revolts ultimately
established in German-speaking countries, Scandinavia, led to the Ottomans losing the Bosniak homeland to the
Australia, and the United States (Moe 2011). ­Austro-Hungarian Empire in 1878.
Under Ottoman rule, the estates of military lead-
ers were passed down as heirlooms, thereby creating an
Geography and Environment indigenous Bosniak landed nobility. Usually the estates’
Bosnia-Herzegovina comprises two entities: the Feder- land was farmed by kmets (Christian tenants). Under the
ation of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Republika Srpska. Austro-Hungarian Empire, land reforms did away with
Bosnia-Herzegovina is located in the western Balkans, the landed Bosniak class. Instead, the Bosniak homeland
where it is bordered by Croatia to the north and west, by underwent rapid industrialization and urbanization. As a
Serbia to the east, and by Montenegro to the southeast. result of Austro-Hungarian rule, many Bosniaks moved to
190 Bosniak

countries still ruled by the Ottomans, whereas other Bos- the birthday of the Islamic prophet Mohammed with
niaks integrated into Austro-Hungarian society. recitals of religious poems. Bosniaks also hold tevhid com-
Prior to its independence, Bosnia-Herzegovina was memorations for the dead, during which Islamic prayers
part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire; the first Yugoslavian are recited. Another expression of Bosniak Islamic prac-
state (1918–1941); Nezavisna Drzava Hrvatska (NDH), tice, dovišta, sees believers say prayers at sites of pilgrim-
the fascist Croatian state of World War II; and socialist age. The strength of Bosniak religious devotion ranges
Yugoslavia (1945–1992). Austro-Hungarian rule left a from almost secular to rigidly pious Bosniaks who adhere
lasting legacy on Bosniak law, education, administration to Salafism, a reform branch of Sunni Islam that some crit-
and architecture. It was also under the Austro-Hungarians ics associated consider puritanical and linked to Middle
that Bosniak nationalism began to emerge because the Eastern jihad.
­Austro-Hungarians granted the Bosniaks limited auton-
omy over education and the administration of religion.
Under the communist rule of Josip Broz Tito, Muslims Health Care and Education
in socialist Yugoslavia were recognized as a sixth narod The shortcomings of the current healthcare system
(nation), though unlike the other nations, the Muslims in ­ Bosnia-Herzegovina include poor communication
were not awarded their own republic, and neither was their between healthcare facilities, lack of skilled medical staff,
ethnicity promoted. and varying standards of health care throughout the coun-
In the 1990s, the Bosniaks experienced the collapse try. In 2015, the Bosnian Minister of Health warned the
of socialist rule, economic difficulties, and their first country’s debt-ridden healthcare system may collapse
democratic elections that brought to power an uneasy unless urgent reforms are undertaken. In Slovenia, many
political coalition. Bosnia’s decision to secede from a Bosniak migrants lack residence papers, meaning they are
failing Yugoslavia sparked the start of war (1992–1995), unable to access health care.
during which Bosnian Serb and Croat forces backed by Following war in the 1990s, Bosniaks Serbs, and Croats
Serbia-Montenegro and Croatia fought Bosnians for in Bosnia have each had their own national curriculum
the right to divide Yugoslavia along ethnic lines. The with each taught in the Serb, Croat, or Bosnian language,
war bore witness to ethnic cleansing, including the Sre- which linguists agree are essentially one language. In some
brenica massacre. This notorious event occurred in July schools, Bosniak and Croat children attend separate classes
1995 and saw the murder of more than eight thousand in the same building.
Bosniaks, mostly men and boys, by units of the Bosnian In recent years, Bosniak families in Republika Srpska
Serb Army of Republika Srpska commanded by Ratko have found their children are placed in segregated schools.
Mladić in and around the town of Srebrenica, which had In majority Croat and majority Serb areas of Bosnia-­
been declared a UN Safe Area. The siege of Sarajevo, the Herzegovina, textbooks stress the need for loyalty to Croa-
capital of Bosnia-Herzegovina, resulted in the deaths tia and Serbia (Minority Rights Group International 2015).
of thousands of Bosniaks. Bosnian Serb and Bosnian Bosniak children are able to attend Islamic schools, col-
Croat forces systematically targeted destroyed symbols leges, and universities.
of Bosniak cultural heritage, including mosques and the Outside of Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bosniaks face educa-
Ottoman-era Stari Most Bridge at Mostar. The bridge tional difficulties. In Kosovo, there is an inadequate supply
reopened in 2004. of Bosniak textbooks in primary and secondary schools. In
addition, some Bosniak children taught in Albanian have
limited opportunity to learn in Bosnian or learn about
Society, Culture, and Tradition Bosniak culture, history, and traditions.
In recent years, Islam has gained an increasingly high pro- In 2018, it was reported that starting in the next school
file in Bosnia-Herzegovina that has seen an increase in the year, Republika Srpska will adopt a curriculum unified
number of Islamic publishers and cultural organizations. with Serbia covering four key subjects: language, history,
The Islamic community, headed by the Grand Mufti, over- geography, and knowledge of nature and society. This
sees most Bosniak religious life. has sparked criticism from Bosniak politicians in the
Traditionally, Bosniaks are Sunni Muslims of the Hanafi Serb-dominated Republika Srpska who are unhappy that
School. Bosniaks observe the mevlud tradition that marks the subjects will be taught differently in schools according
 Bougainvillian 191

to pupils’ ethnicity. Bosniaks fear this new approach to in part because of widespread discrimination, and partly
teaching will create a homogeneous Serb identity (Kova- because some Bosniaks do not have residence papers,
cevic 2018). meaning they cannot access basic services.
See also: Croat; Gorani; Macedonian
Threats to Survival Further Reading
Bartrop, Paul R., ed. 2016. Bosnian Genocide: The Essential Refer-
Recent conflict has impacted on all aspects of Bosniak ence Guide. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
life and left the Bosniaks with the challenge of rebuilding Kovacevic, Danijel. 2018. “Bosnian Serbs to Adopt Same School
a devastated nation, a weak economy amid a backdrop of Curriculum as Serbia.” Balkan Insight: Balkan Transi-
simmering ethnic tension. More than twenty years after tional Justice, February 16. http://www.balkaninsight.com​
the war, reconciliation is slow with ad hoc reconciliatory /en/article/the-same-curriculum-for-pupils-in-serbia-and​
-rs-02-23-2018.
solutions intended to be temporary after the war con-
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Bosnia and Herce-
tinues. For example, Bosniak, Croat, and Serb nationalist govina: Bosniaks.” World Directory of Minorities and Indig-
parties base their power on mutual distrust, meaning all enous Peoples, June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities​
attempts to unify aspects of life such as education have /bosniaks.
failed thus far. Moe, Christina. 2011. “Bosniaks.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe: An
In Bosnia-Herzegovina, Bosniaks returning to major- Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 46–51. Santa Barbara,
CA: ABC-CLIO.
ity Republika Srpska and to Croat-majority areas have
faced widespread intimidation since the end of the war. In
addition, suspected participants in the Srebrenica massa-
cre serve in the Republika Srpska police force. Returning
Bosniaks face great discrimination in the workplace and
BOUGAINVILLIAN
in education (Minority Rights Group International 2015).
In Serbia, political analysts have suggested Bosniaks par- Current Location Autonomous Region of Bougainville
ticipate very little in Serbian politics. Many Bosniak pol- (Papua New Guinea)
iticians and civic organizations also openly opposed the Current Population 165,000
recent redraft of the Serbian constitution. The Bosniak Language Melanesian languages; Tok Pisin;
community of Serbia faces continuing intolerance from English
the majority population and enjoys only limited partic- Interesting Fact During the 1990s, Bougainvillians
ipation in public life, including in the police and judici- were involved in the longest and
ary. Unemployment is higher among Bosniaks than the deadliest war in the Pacific since
majority of Serbians. One of the reasons for this high World War II.
unemployment may be a lack of teaching in the Bosnian
language in Serbia’s public schools, a language that was
formerly considered part of a common usage within Overview
Serbian. The Bougainvillians (or Bougainvilleans) are the indige-
In Kosovo, Bosniaks find their language rights are nous inhabitants of the Autonomous Region of Bougain-
increasingly limited, with Bosnian use officially in only ville in Papua New Guinea. The Bougainvillians are also
four municipalities: Prizren, Dragash, Pec, and Istok. Bos- sometimes called the North Solomon Islanders, Meek-
niak children in Kosovo also have trouble difficulty access- amuii, or Mekamui. The Bougainvillians speak around
ing education that teaches about their heritage. For these twenty Melanesian languages as well as Tok Pisin, a lin-
reasons, Bosniaks in Kosovo fear for their cultural survival. gua franca comprising English, Melanesian, and Poly-
Bosniaks in Kosovo feel they must either assimilate into nesian words. Because English is the official language of
Kosovar society or migrate to Bosnia-Herzegovina. In Slo- Papua New Guinea, Bougainvillians also speak English.
venia, authorities do not recognize Bosniaks as a minority The majority of Bougainvillians are Roman Catholic,
and face problems exercising their language rights, includ- though there are some protestant Bougainvillians. A small
ing education in their mother tongue. Bosniaks in Slove- number of Bougainvillians maintain traditional religious
nia also face economic and social discrimination. This is beliefs.
192 Bougainvillian

Bougainvillea
As well as providing the name of the Autonomous Region of Bougainville, French explorer Louis-Antoine de Bou-
gainville also gave his name to the bougainvillea plant. Bougainvillea was first classified in Rio de Janeiro in 1768 by
the French botanist Philibert Commerçon (1727–1773), who named the plant after de Bougainville, with whom Com-
merçon had served in the French navy. The most striking aspect of bougainvillea is the brightly hued bracts, which
are petallike and usually in shades of purple, red, and pink. The actual bougainvillea flower is a small cream-colored
tubelike structure attached to the base of the bracts.

Population, Diaspora, and Migration twenty-eight thousand years ago. The settlers established
The Bougainvillian population is estimated at 165,000 peo- numerous tribes and clans that lived off the land and sea,
ple (Minahan 2012). Bougainvillians are ethnically related eating vegetables, seafood, birds, lizards, rats, and bats.
to the people of the neighboring Solomon Islands but are The various communities fought among themselves fre-
not related to the Papuans of Papua New Guinea to which quently and gradually developed their own individual
the Autonomous Region of Bougainville belongs. cultures. The first outsider to spot the Bougainvillian
homeland was Portuguese explorer Alvaro de Mendaña
in 1567. de Mendaña and other European navigators
Geography and Environment explored the islands and traded goods such as water and
The Bougainvillian homeland is located in the southwest food with islanders, but they did not try to colonize the
Pacific Ocean at the western tip of the Solomon Islands islands. The next wave of Europeans to visit the islands
archipelago to the north of Australia. The largest island in began in 1768, when French explorer Louis-Antoine de
the archipelago is Bougainville Island, the main island of Bougainville arrived. Bougainville Island is named after
the Autonomous Region of Bougainville. The island forms the explorer.
part of the Northern Solomon Islands, which is politically Over time, a number of Bougainvillians were either
separate from the sovereign nation of the Solomon Islands. recruited or forced to work on plantations in Fiji, Australia,
Bougainville Island measures seventy-five miles by sixty and Samoa. After 1845, a very small number of traders
miles. The island lies just over four miles from the near- and Christian missionaries settled in the Bougainvillian
est island of the Solomon Islands but over three hundred homeland, others being too frightened to settle because
miles from Papua New Guinea. of the islanders’ fierce resistance to colonization. In the
All Bougainvillians consider the land sacred and revere mid-nineteenth century, missionaries did establish mis-
it as a living spirit. They therefore view environmental sions on Bougainville Island and Buka Island. The missions
damage as an attack on their culture and beliefs. The rich provided islanders with a church education that gave them
biodiversity of the Bougainvillian homeland is heavily an advantage over other nearby islanders. By the start of
threatened by mining activities and in the past has been the twentieth century, Bougainvillians were far better edu-
severely damaged by the operation of the Panguna copper cated and wealthier than neighboring islanders.
and gold mine, which contains one of the world’s largest The Bougainvillian homeland was not fully explored
copper deposits. In January 2018, it was reported that the until 1882 when it became property of a German trading
Bougainville government has enacted an indefinite mora- firm. The islands soon became the focus of dispute between
torium on renewing the license of a mining company that Germany and Britain, who in 1886 decided to divide the
might potentially reopen the mine prompting fears civil islands between themselves: the southern islands went to
unrest might erupt (Davidson 2018). the British, and the northern islands went to Germany. The
mines and harbors located on the northern islands made
them one of Germany’s most profitable colonies. When
History and Politics World War I erupted, Germany tried to fortify the islands,
Waves of Melanesian and Polynesian migrants first but Australian and New Zealand troops quickly captured
arrived in the Bougainvillian homeland around them. In 1920, Australian civil rule was established over
 Bougainvillian 193

the islands, which were then united with the Australian Bougainvillians dead or wounded, and around seventy
territory of New Guinea. thousand displaced Bougainvillians were left languishing
In 1967, the Bougainville Copper Agreement was rati- in centers run by the Papua New Guinea government. The
fied, which allowed a consortium headed by an Australian war also forced the closure of the Panguna mine. In the
mining company over half the ownership of the Panguna mid-1990s, the Papua New Guinea government allowed
mine along with most of the profits from the mine. The the establishment of an interim Bougainville government
Bougainvillians reacted fiercely to the creation of the while at the same time hiring foreign mercenaries to fight
mine because they considered it a violation of land they Bougainvillians rebels. The mercenaries were provided by
held sacred. The mine’s creation also left eight hundred a range of private corporations founded by former military
Bougainvillians landless and 1,400 without fishing rights personnel to fight on behalf of corporate backers wishing
(Minahan 2002). The mine poisoned local forests, which to protect resource projects, including mining projects.
were then felled with resultant timber dumped in a major African mercenaries, together with helicopters and arms,
river along with fertile topsoil. Subsequently, ethnic vio- were sent to the Papua New Guinean capital, Port Moresby,
lence erupted when Papuans were brought to the islands for use in armed assaults on Bougainville villages (Minor-
to work the mine. In addition, Bougainvillians began to ity Rights Group International 2018).
demand a share of the mine’s profits with which to repair In 1997,  a cease-fire was signed. By this time, over twenty
their land. The nationalist Napidakoe Navitu movement, thousand Bougainvillians had died, mainly through a lack
which “sought a referendum on whether Bougainville of health care and medicines (Minahan 2002). The cease-
[Island] should remain [part of] Papua New Guinea,” pro- fire created a peace agreement providing an autonomous
moted the rejection of the mine and the foreign workers. Bougainvillian state as part of Papua New Guinea with the
Authorities refused to hold a referendum, but in 1973, proviso that an independence referendum be held after a
Bougainville Island was permitted to establish a provin- period of autonomy. Today, Bougainvillians continue to
cial government. Despite the new government, pressure call for greater autonomy, with the ultimate aim of cre-
for Bougainvillian secession continued. Most prominent ating a Bougainvillian state. Some nationalists have even
secessionists “were Roman Catholics, and the Catholic suggested the possibility of Bougainvillians once again
Church was closely tied to the search for an independent unilaterally declaring the independence of their homeland
[Bougainvillian] identity” (Minority Rights Group Inter- or beginning an armed defense of their territory.
national 2018). In 1975, the government of Papua New
Guinea suspended the new government and sent troops to
occupy the Bougainvillian homeland. Society, Culture, and Tradition
At the start of the 1980s, the Panguna mine began to Bougainvillian culture is Melanesian and village-centric,
expand prompting further tension between islanders and with islanders’ lives focused around fishing and growing
the increasingly large Papuan workforce. Soon the ethnic food. Because Bougainvillian inheritance is through the
tension worsened into racist name-calling with the Papu- female line, women own much of the land on which food
ans called Skin i Red (Redskins) by the Bougainvillians and is grown. Extended families are the Bougainvillian norm,
the dark-skinned Bougainvillians dubbed the Bilong Sus- and it is usual for three generations of the same family to
pen (“as black as the remains in the bottom of the sauce- live together.
pan”) by the Papuans (Minahan 2002). Most Bougainvillians are Roman Catholic, though there
Bougainvillians started to mobilize and in 1988 began is a significant Protestant Bougainvillian minority. Bou-
a war of independence with Papua New Guinea, which gainvillians living in the most remote areas maintain the
derived much of its annual income from the Panguna people’s traditional beliefs. Christian Bougainvillians often
mine. In 1990, the rebel-led Bougainville Revolutionary combine traditional beliefs with Christianity.
Army (BRA), together with its political wing the Bougain-
ville Interim Government (BIG), declared Bougainville
independent of Papua New Guinea. This move resulted in Health Care and Education
Papua New Guinea blockading the island. In 1992, more Malaria is endemic on Bougainville. There is a public
government troops were sent on to Bougainville, lead- hospital on Buka Island, while the towns of Arawa and
ing to intensified fighting. Sporadic fighting left many Buin have health centers. A number of smaller healthcare
194 Breton

facilities are scattered across the islands. Health care in the 6. https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-papua​-min​ing-bougain​
area is very basic. ville-insight/plans-to-restart-giant​-bougain​ville​-mine-stall-
During the Bougainvillian civil war, schools were as-operating-rights-battle-rages​-idUKKBN​1CA2XT.
Davidson, Helen. 2018. “Bougainville Imposes Moratorium on
destroyed and teachers were killed or displaced. Today, Panguna Mine over Fears of Civil Unrest.” The Guardian, Jan-
some schools remain understaffed and ill-equipped, and uary 10. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/10​
many Bougainvillian children do not go to school. Island- /bougainville-imposes-moratorium-on-panguna-mine-over​
ers do enjoy better literacy rates than are found elsewhere -fears-of-civil-unrest.
in Papua New Guinea. Bougainvillians who missed out on Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
education during the civil war are unable to access adult Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 1, A–C.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
education. Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the
Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Papua New Guinea:
Threats to Survival
Bougainvilleans.” World Directory of Minorities and Indige-
Bougainvillian society is fairly peaceful. The main chal- nous Peoples, February. http://minorityrights.org/minorities​
lenge for Bougainvillians is how to establish a viable econ- /bougainvilleans.
omy on Bougainville and whether or not to make mining
a focus of the economy. The Autonomous Bougainville
Government (ABG) faces continuing resistance from sup-
porters of the late Bougainville secessionist leader Francis
Ona, who lived in a no-go zone near the Panguna mine and BRETON
refused to accept peace. This issue has been compounded
by criminal activity in the region, including the apparent Current Location France
use of Fijian mercenaries to train dissident rebels in areas Current Population 172,000–270,000
considered by some Bougainvillians the Republic of Meka- Language Breton; French
mui (Minority Rights Group International 2018). Interesting Fact The traditional Breton music
A Bougainville Referendum Commission has been and dance festival, the fest-noz, is
established, with an independence referendum sched- included on the UNESCO Represen-
uled tentatively for June 2019. The ABG depends on the tative List of the Intangible Cultural
Heritage of Humanity.
reopening the Panguna mine because this is essential for
the otherwise impoverished Bougainvillian homeland to
flourish financially. However, recent events suggest the Overview
mine is unlikely to reopen. Environmental damage caused Breton people are a self-identified ethnic group living
by the Panguna mine is another important factor in the mainly in the Brittany region of northwestern France.
Bougainvillians’ future. A mining conglomerate that was Bretons are of Celtic cultural origin and are especially
the mine’s majority owner for many years claims that it closely related to the Celts living in the southwest-
is not responsible for cleaning up environmental damage ern England, particularly in Cornwall. Breton identity
arising from the mine, including contaminated water and is bound up with the speaking of the Breton language.
a delta of tailings extending over nine miles into the sea The Breton language is categorized as an insular Celtic
(Minority Rights Group International 2018). Bougainvil- language and is most akin to Welsh among the various
lians will have to decide whether they desire independence Celtic languages while also incorporating elements of
to the extent that they are willing to reopen the Panguna the Cornish language. There are four main Breton dia-
mine, thereby risking more ethnic tension and environ- lects, Gwenedeg, Kerneveg, Leoneg, and Tregerieg, which
mental damage. are mutual intelligibility to a degree. In 1908, a stand-
See also: Anutan; Papuan; Torres Strait Islanders; ard Breton spelling system was devised to help people
Trobriander understand each other. In addition to speaking Breton,
Further Reading all Bretons also speak French. In addition to speaking
Barrett, Jonathan. 2017. “Plans to Restart Giant Bougainville Breton, other indicators of Breton ethnicity include Bre-
Mine Stall as Operating Rights Battle Rages.”  Reuters, October ton ancestral origins and participation in Breton culture
 Breton 195

(music, costume, and dance). Bretons are almost exclu-

sively Roman Catholic.

Population, Diaspora, and Migration

Most Bretons live in Brittany (Breizh in the Breton lan-
guage), a region of France consisting of four of administra-
tive départements (Finistère, Côtes d’Amor, Ille et Vilaine,
and Morbihanas) well as the Loire-Atlantique department.
The three largest cities in Brittany are Rennes, Brest, and
Nantes. The total population of modern Brittany is around
four million, but only a small proportion of people living
in Brittany identify as Breton, with the estimated number
of Breton speakers ranging from 170,000 (Hornsby and
Nolan 2011) to 270,000 people (Minority Right Group
2017).
Significant concentrations of Bretons live in other
French cities such as Paris, Toulon, and Le Havre. Interna-
tionally, Breton immigrants can be found in Canada and
the United States. Several famous French people identify
as Breton, including Academy Award–winning actress
Marion Cotillard. Canadians and Americans with Breton
ancestry include singers Beyoncé and Celine Dion and
actor Sylvester Stallone.

A couple in traditional Breton costume take part in a parade

Geography and Environment in Quimper, Brittany, France. The distinctive Breton costume
is important to Breton culture. Women wear long dresses with
Brittany is the largest French peninsula measuring some white aprons, lace collars, and lace-trimmed headdresses. Men
13,140 square miles. Indeed, the Breton coast is around wear a white shirt with dark trousers, a close-fitting jacket, vest,
1,780 miles long, meaning it makes up a third of the and boots. (Jeff Wodniack/Dreamstime.com)
French coast. The peninsula stretches toward the Atlantic
Ocean and is bordered to the north by the English Chan-
nel and to the south by the Bay of Biscay. A part of the they call Argoat (“by the forest”). There are several forests
Atlantic Ocean called the Iroise Sea lies off the coast of in Brittany, including the Paimpont forest, which accord-
Brittany and is contained within the Celtic Sea and the ing to local folklore is the real-life location of Brocéliande,
Bay of Biscay. The Iroise Sea is one of the most danger- the forest of legendary British leader King Arthur.
ous stretches of water in Europe for seagoing vessels, The hills of Brittany continue into Normandy and the
especially in winter when violent storms occur. The Iroise Pays de la Loire. Brittany also has many rocky areas cov-
Sea is extremely rich in marine life and was selected as a ered by heathland, moorlands, and marshes.
UNESCO biosphere reserve and as France’s first marine Brittany’s long coastline means the region is home to
park in 2007. a variety of seabirds including cormorants and Atlantic
The Breton coast features many cliffs, capes, and coastal puffins as well as such marine animals as basking sharks,
inlets called rias, which are formed by flooded river valleys. grey seals, dolphins, leatherback turtles, and jellyfish. The
The Gulf of Morbihan is a vast natural harbor and contains region’s many rivers are populated by fish such as trout and
some forty islands. Indeed, approximately eight hundred pike as well as mammals that include otters and coypu.
islands lie off the Breton coast, the largest being Belle Île. Inland, larger mammals such as the wolf have become
Bretons refer to coastal areas of Brittany as Armor or Arvor extinct, but roe deer, wild boar, foxes, hares, and bats can
(“by the sea” in Breton) as opposed to inland areas, which still be found.
196 Breton

Le Forêt de Paimpont: King Arthur’s Enchanted Forest

Le Forêt de Paimpont (Paimpont forest) is the last remnant of the ancient forests that once covered inland Brittany.
The forest’s age means it is associated with many legends, including the claim that it was the location of Brocéliande,
the forest of King Arthur. Brocéliande appears in many medieval texts, mostly those related to Arthurian characters
such as Merlin, the Knights of the Round Table, the enchantress Morgan le Fay, and the Lady of the Lake. Brocéliande
is said to shelter the enchanted Vale of No Return (where Morgan le Fay imprisons knights) and is the place of Merlin’s
imprisonment or death.

History and Politics language and society either within France or as part of an
That Brittany was inhabited before the arrival of the Bret- independent Breton state.
ons is evinced by the world-famous ancient monuments Throughout the first half of the twentieth century,
known as the Steudadoù Karnag (Carnac stones), an Breton political parties generally promoted right-wing
exceptionally dense collection of megalithic sites located policies, and during World War II, some Bretons collab-
around the Breton village of Carnac. More than three thou- orated with the Nazis. As a result of this collaboration, a
sand prehistoric aligned standing stones fashioned from number of Bretons were executed or imprisoned by the
local rock were erected here by the pre-Celtic people of French authorities. The actions of these Bretons led to the
Brittany sometime during the Neolithic period, most likely Breton nationalist movement being discredited outside
around 3300 BCE. of Brittany, and Bretons went on to suffer indiscriminate
Bretons arrived in northwestern France via successive repression. Indeed, for Bretons the post–World War II
waves of migration from Britain as British Celts fled the period was arguably the lowest point in their modern his-
invading Anglo Saxons during the third century CE. The tory with regard to their relationship with the French state.
Celts’ Cornish and Welsh languages led to the development For years after the war, the Breton language was banned in
of the Breton language, which is still in existence today. By schools, and playground notices read, “No spitting on the
the ninth century, the Bretons had developed an orderly, ground or speaking Breton” (Hooper 2011). Bretons spoke
independent state that lasted until the sixteenth century. the Breton language in the privacy of their homes but not
In 1488, the French army conquered the Breton army, and in public because the language was inexplicably linked
in 1532, an accord was signed that united Brittany with with a dark past. Another reason why countless Bretons
France. Despite the unification, Brittany retained control stopped speaking their language was that many parents
of its own taxation, laws, and administration until 1789, chose not to pass on the language to their children because
when the French revolutionary government banned the they viewed the language as representative of a backward
use of the Breton language and abolished Breton taxes and culture and feared their children would be disadvantaged
laws. Throughout this period, the Bretons lived a subsist- if they were known to speak Breton.
ence existence, growing their own vegetables, hunting and Brittany did not share in France’s post–World War II
fishing. From the start of the nineteenth century through economic boom, resulting in many young Bretons emi-
the middle of the twentieth century, however, the French grating. After the war, military bases were developed in
state began to exert control over Brittany and modernize Brittany. Subsequently, French-speaking military person-
the region. Railways and roads were built, industrialization nel moved to the region, creating service industry jobs for
began, and compulsory French-language state education local people.
was rolled out. These changes resulted in Bretons migrat- The next important event for the Bretons was the cre-
ing from rural areas to cities, thereby accelerating the ation of the Deixonne Act (1951). In common with sub-
assimilation of the Bretons into mainstream French soci- sequent decrees from the Ministry of National Education,
ety. At the end of the nineteenth century, a strongly Catho- the act permitted a few regional languages to be taught in
lic Breton nationalist movement began in reaction to the public schools. The Deixonne Act wasn’t implemented for
absorption of Breton identity into the French nation-state. a decade after its inception. The act allowed teachers who
The nationalists demanded the promotion of the Breton were willing to work without pay to teach Breton once a
 Breton 197

week. At around the same time, adult Breton-language dark, close-fitting jacket; vest; and boots. The iconic Breton
courses were organized, Breton-language books were pub- stripe top featuring alternating horizontal stripes of navy
lished, and Breton music and dance became popular both blue and white originated in 1858 as part of the French
in Brittany and internationally. navy uniform. Navy officials created the design because
The Breton language was central to the revival of the they believed the stripes would make overboard sailors eas-
Breton nationalist movement during the late 1960s. The ier to see. Traditionally, each top should have ­twenty-one
nationalist movement’s membership consisted largely of stripes, one for each victory achieved by French emperor
left-wing, middle-class, urban intellectuals who regarded Napoleon Bonaparte.
the Breton language as symbolic of culture freedom. In Like most places in France, Brittany has many food
1963, a violent militant group called Front de Libération de specialties. For example, Brittany is famous for its shellfish
la Bretagne (FLB, Breton Liberation Front) was founded. such as lobsters, oysters, winkles, and crabs. Other Breton
The following year, the Union Démocratique Bretonne delicacies include crêpes (thin pancakes), galettes (savory
(UDB, Breton Democratic Union) was formed with the pancakes usually made with buckwheat flour), and a wide
goal of creating autonomy for Breton. variety of Breton pastries, the most famous of which is
In the period of the 1960s to the 2000s, there were over Kouign Amann (Breton butter cake). Another popular
two hundred violent attacks in Brittany aimed at further- desert is Far Breton, a dense custard containing prunes.
ing the Breton cause. These attacks were attributed mainly Unlike many parts of France, Brittany does not have a great
to the banned organization the Armée Révolutionnaire cheese or wine tradition. Instead of wine, Bretons tend to
Bretonne (ARB, Breton Revolutionist Army). Despite not drink cider from a ceramic cup called a bollée. Other popu-
intending to target people in its attacks, the ARB was to lar drinks among Bretons include calvados (apple brandy)
blame for the death of a waitress when the eatery she and chouchen (mead).
worked at was attacked by the group in 2000. Following Brittany society is traditionally agrarian, and the region
this attack, in 2004, six ARB activists were imprisoned. is well-known for a rural lifestyle underpinned by a deep
Also in 2004, four members of the Union Démocratique Catholic religiosity. Catholic life rituals such as baptisms,
Bretonne (UDB) were elected to the Breton regional weddings, and funerals are major social events, and the
assembly. Today, the one-thousand-member UDB and Bretons believe in a wide range of Catholic saints and
other Breton parties, including the Parti Breton (Breton participate in ancient penitential rituals called pardons.
Party) and Emgann (a Breton term meaning “struggle”), Pardons are extremely important to the Bretons because
campaign for the Atlantique Maritime province (a historic they mark the feast days of the patron saints of individ-
province of Brittany) to be included in the Breton region. ual churches, where indulgences are granted—hence the
Other demands include Brittany’s political and economic name pardon. Bretons also take part in pilgrimages known
autonomy, the official recognition of the Breton language as troménie (Breton for walk around a sacred place). The
by the French government, and Brittany’s independence most celebrated troménie is the one held in Locronan in
from France. The Parti Breton and Emgann are much dedication to St. Ronan. This pilgrimage occurs every six
smaller parties than the UDB, and Emgann has ambiguous years (the most recent took place in July 2019) and sees
ties to the ARB. thousands of people, many dressed in traditional costume,
walk in a 7.5-mile procession while carrying banners
depicting the saint.
Society, Culture, and Tradition Although deeply Catholic, Bretons maintain some cul-
Although the Breton national political movement is fairly turally distinct beliefs regarding death and the afterlife.
marginal, Breton culture is influential and vibrant, with Perhaps the most notable of these is the belief in L’Ankou
many groups devoted to performing folkloric, traditional, (the Ankou), the Breton mythological personification of
and neo-traditional Breton dances, plays, and recitals. Death that also appears in Cornish folklore. As the embodi-
Another facet of Breton culture is the distinctive Breton ment of Death, the Ankou beckons the souls of those about
traditional dress. Typically, Breton women wear long dark to die and carries them away in a cart or carriage called
dresses offset by stark white aprons, lace collars, and tall, the karrigell an Ankou, the wheels of which can be heard
lace-trimmed headdresses. Breton men traditionally wear screeching during the night. Like the Grim Reaper, the
a voluminous white shirt and dark trousers together with a Ankou is a tall, thin figure usually resembling a skeleton
198 Breton

dressed in a black robe and wearing a wide brimmed hat, There have been a number of important milestone in
sometimes with long flowing white hair and often carrying Breton-language education. Skol Diwan An Oriant, an
a scythe. In some parts of Brittany, both the Ankou and the independent schools organization, was established in 1977.
Ankou’s servant, mervel an Ankou, are thought to be the The organization, commonly referred to as Diwan (mean-
last person to have died in the parish the previous calen- ing “seed” in Breton), aimed to establish a Breton nursery
dar year or the last person to have been buried in the local education system that would instill fluency in Breton in
graveyard. For this reason, the Ankou is not an abstract future generations. Today, Diwan schools teach children
figure but rather a particularly familiar or intimate figure almost exclusively in Breton from nursery age to bacca-
because it is likely that those who believe in the Ankou will laureate level. An important event occurred in 1981: the
know the person who is said to have become the personifi- inception of a course in Breton at the Université de Haute
cation of Death through being the last to die or be buried. Bretagne, with permission from the French government.
Some folklorists suggest that the Ankou is a remnant The government went on to allow a certificate for teachers
of the prehistoric death goddess once worshipped in Brit- in the Breton language four years later. Meanwhile, in 1999,
tany, whereas others propose that the Ankou derives from the Ofis Publik ar Brezhoneg (Public Office for the Bre-
the Celtic god of death who was said to transport the dead ton Language) was established to promote, research, and
to his kingdom. In addition, a Breton legend tells that the protect Breton while also creating new words that would
Ankou is the firstborn son of Adam and Eve. The Ankou has reflect modern lifestyles.
been present in Breton literature for a long time, appear- In total, an estimated three thousand children learn Bre-
ing in many works of sixteenth-century literature such as ton every year in Roman Catholic and bilingual schools.
Le Mirouer de la Mort (The Mirror of Death). The myth In addition, Breton is taught to an estimated 2,800 youth
of Ankou continues in the many Breton funeral customs in Diwan schools from nursery school up through high
involving food. This is because the Ankou and its minions school. Approximately twenty thousand other children
are said to walk on Earth on November’s Eve, and the living are taught Breton as an optional subject in French state
are expected to keep them well fed with a supply of crêpes, schools (Hooper 2011).
cider, and milk. As a result of this folk belief, many Breton
graveyards are built to accept offerings of food, with grave-
stones embellished with small cup-like holes for receiving Threats to Survival
cider and milk. Meanwhile, it was a common belief that if The future of Breton ethnic identity is difficult to predict. A
a person died from cancer, then a dish of butter should be history of anti-Breton discrimination and marginalization
placed near the corpse so that the butter could absorb the of the Breton language has resulted in the Breton language,
disease. The “infected” butter would then be removed and which is so central to Breton identity, falling into serious
buried to prevent the disease from spreading. Another Bre- decline. In 1863, 98 percent of people living in Brittany
ton death custom is that the corpse should eat, or be buried spoke Breton, with 86 percent of these people speaking
with, the amount of soil equivalent to the amount of bread only Breton. By 1952, Breton was spoken by 72 percent of
that they wasted during their lifetime. people in Brittany. Only 6 percent of those questioned in
Since the 1940s, many of these customs have begun to 1952 did not speak French, and 27 percent of people in
die out. However, the presence of the Ankou is still evident Brittany spoke only French (Crepaz 2016). Today, UNE-
in the numerous statuettes of the Ankou present in Breton SCO classifies Breton as a severely endangered language
churches. Indeed, in the church at Ploumilliau, a village meaning that the language is spoken by older generations
in northwestern Brittany, a statue of the Ankou appears only and that although the parent generation may under-
amongst a collection of saints’ effigies. stand it, parents do not speak the language to their chil-
dren or among themselves. The number of Breton speakers
is estimated to decrease by ten thousand people per year
Health Care and Education (Hooper 2011) because the majority of Breton speakers are
Bretons have adequate access to modern Western health aged seventy years or older.
care because they are assimilated in French society. On the plus side, Breton activists have seen their efforts
France is a highly economically developed, technologically to promote the Breton language supported by local organ-
advanced nation with a well-developed healthcare system. izations and politicians who are increasingly sympathetic
 Bribri 199

to regional issues. To this end, bilingual (Breton/French) Williams, Victoria. 2017. Life Customs around the World: From
road signs and advertisements are now commonplace in Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Brittany, and there are several television and radio shows
and websites in Breton. In addition, the Lorient’s Inter-
celtique Festival has become an annual celebration of
Breton identity through music and the arts, new books are
published in Breton each year, Breton-language plays are BRIBRI
performed, and there is a burgeoning Breton film indus-
try. Pro-Breton changes are also occurring in the political Current Location Costa Rica; Panama
sphere, with some local councils (such as that of Finistère) Current Population 35,000
adopting a bilingual (Breton/French) policy. A significant Language Bribri
change in the fortunes of the Breton language was also Interesting Fact Some Bribri schools have not held
signaled in 2008, when the French National Assembly graduation ceremonies since 2010.
voted for a constitutional amendment that acknowledged
regional languages as an element of French heritage. There Overview
are also continual efforts to pass regional language laws The Bribri are a Central American ethnic group indig-
that would commit the French state to providing regional enous to Costa Rica and Panama. The Bribri speak their
language classes to all children. own native language, which belongs to the Chibchan
Despite these efforts, it is still the case that most Bre- language family. Virtually all Bribris also speak Spanish
ton families do not speak Breton at home. Those Breton fluently. The majority of Bribri people follow their own tra-
families that do speak the language at home do not tend ditional belief system, but some have converted to Christi-
to speak traditional Breton; they speak the standardized anity, with Christian Bribris being mostly Roman Catholic,
Breton that is traditionally taught to students. This being though there are also some Protestant Bribris.
said, that Breton has managed to survive at all against a
backdrop of cultural assimilation suggests the language
and culture of the Bretons is extremely resilient. Time will Population, Diaspora, and Migration
tell whether Breton will being subsumed totally by French There are approximately thirty-five thousand Bribri people
culture when existing older speakers die out, or whether it (Minahan) living in the highlands and lowlands of coastal,
will flourish as the children taught at Diwan schools carry southern Costa Rica and northern Panama. Around twenty
the language forward throughout the twenty-first century. years ago, many unemployed Bribri were left with little
See also: Occitan; Welsh choice but to move to other parts of Costa Rica in search of
work, but city life was alien to the Bribri, who were used to
Further Reading
Crepaz, Katharina. 2016. The Impact of Europeanization on
living in isolation. Today, there are four Bribri reservations:
Minority Communities. Wiesbaden, Germany: Springer. the Talamanca Bribri and Kekeoldi reservations, situated
Hooper, Simon. 2011. “Bretons Fight to Save Language from on the Atlantic watershed, and the Salitre and Cabagra
Extinction.” CNN, January 5. http://edition.cnn.com/2010​ reservations of the Pacific watershed. One of the most oft
/WORLD/europe/12/11/brittany.language/index.html. written about Bribri villages is Yorkín, a community of 280
Hornsby, Michael, and J. Shaun Nolan. 2011. “The Regional Lan- indigenous Bríbri people that lies along the Panamanian
guage of Brittany.” In Handbook of Language and Ethnic Iden-
tity: The Success-Failure Continuum in Language and Ethnic
border (Gibian and Crandall 2015) and upstream on Costa
Identity Efforts, edited by Joshua A. Fishman and Ofelia Gar- Rica’s Yorkín River.
cia, 310–322. Vol. 2. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Koch, John T. ed. 2006. Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia.
Vol. 1, A–Celti. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Geography and Environment
Maynard, David. 2011. “Bretons.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe: An The Bribri live in the Talamanca (canton) in Limón Prov-
Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 52–55. Santa Barbara,
ince of Costa Rica, which is home to the Cordillera de Tala-
CA: ABC-CLIO.
Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “France: Breton.” manca mountain range. The highlands extend from Costa
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. Rica across the border into western Panama. The range’s
http://minorityrights.org/minorities/breton. highest peak, Chirripó Grande, reaches a height of 12,530
200 Bribri

feet. The area has poor transportation links and is home to At the start of the nineteenth century, some Bribris
several national parks, including Chirripó National Park. moved to other highland areas, where the volcanic soil was
The Cordillera de Talamanca and La Amistad (Friendship) extremely fertile and the climate less tropical. In 1875, the
National Park, adjoining Panama, are designated a UNE- American William Gabb published an article on the Bri-
SCO World Heritage Site. bri language. After the article’s publication American and
European anthropologists and linguists started to visit
Bribri areas, as did missionaries, who brought with them
History and Politics Western medicines and Christian education. Some Bribris
According to the Bribris’ indigenous religion, Sibö (the Bri- living near missions converted to Christianity and took up
brí god) created the first Bribri people from seeds of corn Western health care and schooling, but most Bribris did
that he carried from a place called SuLa’kaska (meaning not adapt to Western or Christian ways and continued with
the Place of Destiny). Anthropologists believe the Bribris their traditional lifestyles.
originated several thousand years ago on the isolated Tala-
manca highlands situated on the border of Costa Rica and
Panama. In their earliest days, the Bribri inhabited a much Society, Culture, and Tradition
larger area than they do now, but successive attacks by other The Bribri subsistence lifestyle and diet have not changed
indigenous peoples together with shrinking reserves of nat- greatly over time. The Bribri own fincas (small horticultural
ural resources forced the Bribri to migrate to higher land. plots) on which they grow bananas and plantains, cacao,
During the sixteenth century, Spanish explorers trave- peach palm, yucca, rice, beans, and corn. The Bribri find
led inland from Central America’s east coast in search of other foods through hunting, fishing, and foraging wild
precious metals and other treasures. The Bribri caught plants. The Bribri also keep poultry and occasionally also
European diseases from the explorers, with the diseases rear cattle, pigs, and goats. The Bribri live in small commu-
killing many Bribris and severely reducing the Bribri pop- nities of houses that are home to individual families and
ulation. The Bribri population was reduced further when scattered across farmland. Bribri homes vary shape; some
European settlers kidnapped and transported Bribris as are square or rectangular, and other are conical pyrami-
slaves, or when settlers forced the Bribris to move from dal, constructed from poles with thatched roofs reaching
their lands. The surviving Bribris migrated to the Cordil- to the ground. The Bribri supplement the food that they
lera de Talamanca, where they settled and reestablished grow to eat with bought black beans and white rice, both
their traditional society. of which are cheap enough for the Bribri to afford. Many
Ultimately, the Spanish discovered that Bribri land Bribri exist on what they grow on their fincas and on their
lacked gold and silver reserves, meaning that for the most animals as well as payments they receive from the govern-
part, the Spanish ignored Cordillera de Talamanca. The ments of the countries they inhabit. The Bribri encourage
area also lacked a large indigenous population, meaning ecotourism to the areas in which they live, with some Bri-
that the Spanish did not establish haciendas there because bri people estimating that ecotourism contributes around
the region lacked a large workforce. As a result of this lack 70 percent of the people’s income (Batchelder 2016). For
of available workers, the Spanish settlers opted for smaller example, around twenty ago, years a Bribri woman devel-
estates that they worked themselves. This is turn created a oped the idea of allowing tourists to visit her community
European sensibility in areas in which the colonialists set- in the Yorkin Indigenous Reserve. Today, small numbers of
tled. At the same time, the Bribris and other local ethnic tourists visit the community daily to experience Bribri life,
groups were left alone by the settlers. The Bribris existed by with forty families taking it in turns to host the visitors,
hunting, fishing, and farming, and the lack of interference cook them traditional Bribri meals, and talk to the tourists
by outsiders meant that the Bribri were able to maintain about Bribri culture (Turtle n.d.). The Bribri also sell their
their native traditions. This was in contrast to other indig- crafts, which include pottery, basketry, and rope making.
enous peoples of Central America who were absorbed into
colonial society and lost much of their ethnic identity. The
lack of interference from settlers also meant that Bribri Health Care and Education
society could exist as a rural democracy that did not see Compared to the rest of society in Costa Rica and Pan-
the creation of an indigenous underclass. ama, the Bribris generally lack access to health care and
 Bribri 201

education as well as to electricity and safe drinking water UNICEF, indigenous children suffer from illiteracy rates
(Minority Rights Watch International 2017). Since the six times higher than the national average: 30 percent of
1970s, however, some Western-style health clinics have Costa Rica’s indigenous children are illiterate, compared to
established in Bribri areas, meaning the Bribri can better 4.5 percent of the Costa Rica’s child population in general.
access health care. At the same time, although the Bribri Some researchers claim part of the reason for the illiteracy
hunt, fish, and farm, their diets consist of many starchy, of indigenous children in Costa Rice is due to the national
heavy foods, which coupled with a taste for sugar and junk curriculum being aimed at urban students. In addition,
food means obesity is an increasingly significant health many schools in the rural areas inhabited by the Bribri
issue for the Bribri (Batchelder 2016). lack books for use in lessons.
Traditionally, in the Bribris’ matriarchal society, grand-
mothers pass down knowledge and tradition. Since the
1970s, however, schools have been built in Bribri settle- Threats to Survival
ments that teach children in both Bribri and Spanish. The Bribris’ past interaction with colonialists has left them
Today, virtually all Bribrís speak Spanish, though some marginalized. Spanish and other Western settlers treated
elders living in particularly remote locations speak them badly, and they were denied the same rights as other
only Bribrí. Around 150 years ago, the Bribri avoided all
people living in Costa Rica and Panama. This situation
­Spanish-speakers. Since then, Spanish has become the Bri- created a spiral of poverty, illiteracy, and unemployment.
bris’ main language, possibly because Spanish-­speaking Commentators often refer to the Bribris as Costa Rica’s
teachers began to teach in elementary schools. In addi- “hidden people” because they traditionally live in isolated
tion, Bribri children weren’t allowed to speak their native communities, but recently unemployment and the need
language within the classroom, and parents were threat- to earn an income have led the Bribri to develop parts
ened with punishment by the church if they spoke to their of Talamanca. This development has exposed the Bri-
children in Bribri. The situation has changed greatly, how- bri to other people as well as an unprecedented amount
ever, and currently teachers in Talamanca must be of Bri- of information. The rise of technology in general Costa
brí heritage. The Bribri language is taught in elementary Rican society is a major concern for some Bribri commu-
schools, and parents speak Bribri to their children. The nity leaders, who fear the younger generations of Bribris
future of Bribri is uncertain because recently some Bribri spend more time on their cell phones than reading their
have questioned whether it would be better for children schoolbooks. Community elders also fear that the next
to learn English as a second language rather than Bribri. generations of Bribris are losing touch with their indig-
Despite the fact that Bribri children have access to edu- enous culture because they are in thrall to the Internet
cation, some high schools in Bribri areas have not held and Western music. Whether Bribri culture survives the
graduation ceremonies for several years. For example, in encroachment of modern ways has yet to be determined.
Yorkín, the last graduation ceremony was held in 2010,
when twelve students received their high school certif- See also: Guaymi; Guna
icates. Since then, cell phone usage has increased, and Further Reading
the number of graduating students has decreased. Some Batchelder, Greg. 2016. “Tag Archives: Bribri.” The Schema,
locals believe that this situation is not a coincidence, with November 24. https://anthropology.ua.edu/blogs​/greg​batch​
elder/tag/bribri.
the influx of technology together with high poverty rates
Gibian, Rebecca, and Diana Crandall. 2015. “Why Aren’t Costa
contributing to the Bribris’ low graduation rates (Gibian Rica’s Indigenous Students Graduating?” The Atlantic,
and Crandall 2015). December 23. https://www.theatlantic.com/education​
According to UNICEF, in 2012, the average indigen- /archive​/2015/12/costa-ricas-indigenous-students/421335.
ous child living in Costa Rica attended an average of 3.4 Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Costa Rica: Indige-
years of school in total, after which many of the chil- nous Peoples.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous
Peoples. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/indigenous​
dren dropped out of education. In contrast, the average
-peoples.
non-indigenous child in Costa Rica attended school for Turtle, Michael. n.d. “Now I Feel Free on My Land.” Time Travel
7.6 years. Indigenous children in Costa Rica face difficul- Turtle. https://www.timetravelturtle.com/bribri-yorkin​-indi​
ties in accessing education that differ greatly from those genous-costa-rica.
of urban Costa Rican pupils. For instance, according to
202 Bubi

BUBI measures 779 square miles and rises steeply from the sea
to its highest point, Santa Isabel Peak, which stands some
Current Location Bioko Island (Equatorial Guinea) 9,869 feet high. The island’s capital and main port, Malabo,
Current Population 40,000–50,000 is located in a crater breached by the sea. The island has
Language Bube; Spanish rich, volcanic soil that is good for cultivating crops such as
Interesting Fact In 1976, the president of Equatorial palms, yams, and cocoa (Bioko Island was one of the first
Guinea banned Bubis from using places in African to have land planted with cocoa). The sea
boats in case they tried to escape surrounding the island is rich in fish.
their island home.

History and Politics

Overview
Linguists and archaeologists suggest that the ancestors of the
The Bubis (also known as the Voove, Bombé, Pove, Boo- Bubis were the first peoples to break away from the western
bees, Boobies, Adeeyahs, Eris, Fernando Poans, and the Bantu people. These early Bubis left their original home in
Bantu-speaking Bubi, among other names) are a people Nigeria and Cameroon some five thousand years ago when
belonging to the Bantu ethnic group. The Bubis speak a they traveled southeast to establish settlements on the coast
Bantu language called Bube as well as Spanish. Most Bubis of what is now northern Gabon and southern Cameroon.
are Christian though the indigenous Bubi religion under- Around two thousand years after the Bubis settled here,
lies much of Bubi society. another bigger, fiercer tribe invaded Bubi territory, forcing
the Bubis to retreat and migrate to Bioko Island. According
to Bubi folklore, around the seventh century, the Bubis built
Population, Diaspora, and Migration large canoes that enabled them to sail to Bioko Island; Bubi
There are around forty thousand to fifty thousand Bubis subgroups traveled in four waves under the cover of night
living on Bioko Island (Cabezas Lopez 2005). The Bubis and settled in different parts of the island. Once on the iso-
were once the largest group on Bioko Island, but their lated island, the Bubis developed a community and religion.
numbers reduced greatly for a number of reasons. Today, a Bioko Island’s rich, volcanic soil allowed the Bubis to grow
number of Bubis live in Nigeria, Benin, France, and Spain yams and palms, and the surrounding sea provided fish to
to avoid persecution in their homeland. The Bubi peo- eat. The Bubis also made pots and tools. The Bubis used
ple have long been without political significance, though round pieces of seashell as coins when buying and sell-
recently appointed government officials, such as former ing their farmed produced, fish, and pottery. Bubi society,
Prime Minister Miguel Abia Biteo Borico, have Bubi her- unlike that of other Equatoguinean ethnic groups, became
itage. Despite this, most Bubis living in Equatorial Guinea monogamous and matrilineal, meaning children inherit
and elsewhere hold little political or economic influence in property from their mothers. Early Bubi society did not
their homeland. In the wake of successive waves of anti- have an economic class structure but rather distinguished
Bubi aggression, over the years, many Bubis immigrated among people based on their occupation (i.e., fishermen,
to Spain to escape political persecution. Bubi numbers on hunters, and farmers). Despite this lack of economic class
Bioko Island have also decreased over the years because structure, early Bubi society did recognize chiefs, though a
there has been a great deal of intermarriage between Bubis chief’s authority had to be approved by his subjects.
and other populations. These include Afro-Cubans and To ensure that outsiders did not invade their island, the
Krio people (descendants of freed African American, West early Bubis gradually developed into fearsome warriors.
Indian, and liberated African slaves who settled in Sierra Such was the Bubis’ reputation that Europeans searching
Leone) as well as Portuguese and Spanish immigrants. for slaves were reluctant to venture near Bioko Island. This
reluctance was borne out in 1810, when the Bubis were
reported to have killed the entire crew of an English ship.
Geography and Environment One European who did alight on Bioko Island was Portu-
The Bubis are indigenous to the volcanic Bioko Island, guese explorer Fernao do Porto, who renamed the island
which lies in the Bight of Biafra off the coast of Came- Formosa (meaning beautiful) in 1472. Over time, con-
roon. The island is part of Equatorial Guinea. The island tact with the outsiders decimated the Bubi population as
 Bubi 203

explorers killed the Bubis, and those Bubi who escaped the mainland Equatorial Guinea, and in 1963, the island was
explorers caught diseases such as whooping cough, small- granted autonomy by Spanish authorities. In 1969, how-
pox, and dysentery from the foreigners. Other outside ever, a great deal of civil unrest, including major rioting,
influences that were introduced by the colonialists (such developed throughout the newly independent Equatorial
as alcohol) also led to social upheaval. Guinea. One of the reasons for the riots was that non-
Apart from the Portuguese, other Europeans also ven- Bubi people supposed that the Bubis must have become
tured on to the island and reported that the Bubis were relatively prosperous through unfair advantages. In 1972,
extremely aggressive, which helps explains why slave hunt- continuing political and economic unrest presented the
ers captured relatively few Bubis. However, Bioko Island country’s new president, Masie (also known as Francisco
provided an essential physical base for the Portuguese Macias Nguema), with the opportunity to declare himself
slave trade that operated along the coast of the mainland. ruler of Bioko Island. He instituted a harsh dictatorship on
In 1777, the Portuguese ceded Bioko Island to the Spanish. the island that effectively ended the Bubis’ independence.
As a result, the Bubis’ rarely made contact with the out- Masie came from the Fang ethnic group, and his dictator-
side world save for the odd visit from Spanish ships sailing ship was characterized by such brutality that Equatorial
from Spanish colonies located in South America. During Guinea was likened to an African concentration camp. The
the eighteenth century, the Bubis society began to incorpo- viciousness of Masie’s regime caused Europeans and Nige-
rate elements of European culture because the Bubis were rians to leave Bioko Island, which led to the ruination of
influenced by the Dutch, British, French, and German slave the island’s economy. Masie’s nephew overthrew his uncle
traders and merchants who frequented Bioko Island. At the in 1979 but continued to persecute the Bubis, with many
same time, the Bubis welcomed members of other African Bubi politicians and alleged Bubi separatists killed in a
groups who were emigrating from mainland Africa in an campaign of violence that observers denounced as geno-
attempt to escape the slave traders. cide. In 1993, Bubi nationalists established the Movimiento
The Spanish gradually came to realize that there was de Autodeterminacion de la Isla de Bioko (MAIB) to pro-
little commercial worth to keeping Bioko Island and ceded test against government persecution of their people. Before
it to the British in 1827. The British used Bioko Island as Equatorial Guinea gained independence, there had been an
a base for the ships used to suppress the slave trader ship- official Bubi nationalist party. MAIB, in contrast, was not
ping routes and as a refuge for freed slaves. The freed slaves official and was operated by a mix of underground activ-
whom the British settled on the island soon came to be ists in Equatorial Guinea and exiled Bubis living abroad.
known as Fernandinos. In 1843, Bioko Island was returned Subsequently, in 1998, the government arrested and inter-
to Spanish administration, and in 1858, it became a sepa- rogated some eight hundred Bubis following an attack on
rate colony. Eventually the island was united with the Con- a military barracks on Bioko Island. Many of those Bubis
tinental Region of Equatorial Guinea in 1885. arrested were tortured while in detention. Fifteen of the
In 1926, the Spanish established cocoa plantations on prisoners were sentenced to death, but the death sentences
the Bioko Island capitalized on the island’s rich volcanic were later commuted to life imprisonment.
soil. The Bubis resisted Spanish attempts to enlist them as
plantation workers. This resulted in the Spanish import-
ing many thousands of Igbo workers from British Nigeria. Society, Culture, and Tradition
Having resisted attempts to be enlisted to work on the plan- As a result of Spanish colonialism, almost all Bubis are
tations, the Bubis set themselves up as small-scale farm- officially Roman Catholic. In 1996, the government of
ers and as the island’s civil servants. Despite the fact that Equatorial Guinea relaxed some of the rules surrounding
the Bubis refused to work for the Spanish, they were very preaching by foreign missionaries, and as a result, a number
much in favor of Spanish involvement on Bioko Island. The of Bubis became evangelical Christians. The following year,
Bubis feared that if the Spanish left the island, the more however, the country’s authorities introduced new rules
populous Fang people living on the mainland would attack on religious activity. For instance, Catholic priests have to
Bioko Island. When the Spanish decolonized the area in the apply for government permissions before holding masses.
1950s, ethnic tensions between the prosperous Bubis and Although the Bubis are ostensibly Christian, the indige-
the more numerous Fang increased. This tension led to calls nous Bubi religion underlies many aspects of Bubi society.
from the Bubis for Bioko Island to become separate from According to the Bubi indigenous religion, the chief god is
204 Bubi

Rupe (or Eri), the omnipotent creator. The Bubi believe that deaths resulted from communicable or preventable dis-
the spirit realm is divided into three layers: Labako-ppua eases. Equatorial Guinea’s healthcare system continues to
(realm of the angels, akin to heaven), Ommo ich ‘ori (realm suffer from a lack of qualified medical staff, long waiting
of the evil angels, analogous to hell), and Ommo boeboe times, shortages of basic medical supplies, and frequent
(limbo). According to Bubi beliefs, the spirit realm merges misdiagnoses (Human Rights Watch 2017).
with the physical world so that the Bubi inhabit a world Equatoguinean law provides free primary school, in
that is shared between the Bubis and a constellation com- line with international human rights law, but it has been
prised of good and evil spirits. The evil spirits are blamed reported that a number of the country’s public primary
by the Bubis for misfortune and disease. Because the Bubis schools do charge enrollment fees. The government of
consider the material world and the spirit world to overlap, Equatorial Guinea has neglected education, with schools
the Bubis believe that each landmark on Bioko Island has being in the poor condition. In 2012, 42 percent of primary
its own Bubi spirit. For this reason, the mountains, rivers, school-age children were found not to be in education, and
and lakes on Bioko Island are each thought to be invested half of the children who attended primary school never
with their own specific spiritual energies. finished their primary education. Of those who did, less
The Bubis also developed a language that differed than 25 percent went on to middle school. Many teachers
from those of other African peoples and was divided into lack basic training, but since 2006 numerous teachers have
four distinct dialects. Most Bubis speak a Bantu language received instruction through a ten-year program jointly
belonging to the Bubi-Benga family, which is subdivided funded by the government and Hess Oil. According to
into three dialects: North Bubi, Southwest Bubi, and South- UNESCO’s data, the teacher-training situation is improv-
east Bubi. These dialects are influenced by elements of Ibo, ing, with just under half of the country’s primary school
Spanish, and Portuguese. Some Bubi also speak a dialect teachers receiving some training in 2011 (Human Rights
known as Fernandino Krio, which borrows from English. Watch 2017).
Educated Bubis speak Spanish, which is the official lan-
guage of Equatorial Guinea.
Threats to Survival
At the start of the twenty-first century, the Bubis continued
Health Care and Education
to suffer persecution at the hands of Equatorial Guinea’s
The president of Equatorial Guinea, Teodoro Obiang Fang-controlled authorities. In 2006, the U.S. State Depart-
Nguema Mbasogo, the world’s longest serving president, ment Human Rights Report on Equatorial Guinea noted
has promised repeatedly to prioritize health services and that as in previous years, the Bubis still faced extreme har-
education in Equatorial Guinea. However, the amount assment by the military. Any Bubis who refused to hand
of money spent on health and education is miniscule; in over their harvests, cash, or lands to authorities were likely
2011, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) reported to face beatings or be shot. The same year, it was reported
that country’s government spent 3 percent of its budget that for the first time since independence, a new Equato-
on education and less than 2 percent on health. Instead rial Guinea prime minister was appointed who was not a
of spending on health care and education, the country Bubi, thereby ending the last vestige of Bubi power within
invested in large-scale infrastructure projects such as the country’s government. As a result, the Bubis continue
airports and roads. More than half of the country’s pop- to experience a lack of freedom of movement on Bioko
ulation lacks access to safe drinking water, and vaccina- Island and are generally without authority.
tion rates for children are among the worst in the world,
with tuberculosis vaccination for newborns and young See also: Chewa; Igbo; Tsonga
children running at 35 percent in 2015, the most recent Further Reading
year for which data is available. In addition, a 2011 house- Cabezas Lopez, Joan Manuel. 2005. “Bubi.” In Encyclopedia of the
hold survey discovered that one in four children were so World’s Minorities, edited by Carl Skutsch, 241–243. Vol. 1,
A–F. New York: Routledge.
malnourished that they were physically stunted, and two-
Human Rights Watch. 2009. Well Oiled: Oil and Human Rights in
thirds of children were anemic. Two-thirds of Equatorial Equatorial Guinea. New York: Human Rights Watch.
women were also found to be anemic. In June 2017, the Human Rights Watch. 2017. “Manna from Heaven?: How Health
World Bank estimated that 60 percent of the country’s and Education Pay the Price for Self-Dealing in Equatorial
 Bugi 205

Guinea.” Human Rights Watch, June 15. https://www​.hrw​ society. The majority of Bugis live in rural areas, however.
.org/report/2017/06/15/manna-heaven/how-health-and​ Many Bugi men migrate to Java, Kalimantan, and Malaysia
-education-pay-price-self-dealing-equatorial-guinea. to earn money, which they send back to their families in
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 1, A–C.
South Sulawesi.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing.
Sa, Ana Lucia. 2016. “The Concept of ‘Land’ in Bioko: ‘Land as
Property’ and ‘Land as Country.’” In Doing Conceptual His- Geography and Environment
tory in Africa, edited by Axel Fleisch and Rhiannon Stephens, The Bugi homeland, which the Bugis call Tana Ugi
138–161. Brooklyn, NY: Berghahn Books. (loosely translated as “The Land of the Buginese”)
Scafidi, Oscar. 2015. Equatorial Guinea. Chalfont St. Peter, UK:
Bradt Travel Guides.
extends across the Southeast Asian island of southern
World Peace Foundation. 2015. “Equatorial Guinea.” Mass Atroc- Sulawesi. Tana Ugi is the cultural heartland of the Bugis.
ity Endings, August 7. https://sites.tufts.edu/atrocityendings​ South Sulawesi covers central and southwestern Sulaw-
/2015/08/07/equatorial-guinea. esi, Indonesia. The province is bordered by the provinces
Young, Eric. 2010. “Bubi.” In Encyclopedia of Africa, edited by of Central Sulawesi to the north and Southeast Sulawesi
Kwarme Anthony Appiah and Henry Louis Gates Jr., 206– to the northeast. The Gulf of Bone lies to the east, the
207. Vol. 1. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
Flores Sea is to the south, the Makassar Strait lies to
the  southwest, and the province of West Sulawesi is to
the northwest. The province includes the several islands
located in the Flores Sea. Much of Sulawesi is mountain-
ous, though the island also contains several peninsulas
BUGI that enclose gulfs. South Sulawesi is home to many for-
Current Location Indonesia
ests that yield teak and rattan. Many of the people living
in South Sulawesi are farmers who grow rice in paddies,
Current Population 3 million–6.3 million
sugarcane, coconuts, and coffee. Deep-sea fishing occurs
Language Buginese (Basa Ugi)
off the coast. Mineral reserves in South Sulawesi include
Interesting Fact Bugi culture recognizes five distinct silver, tin, nickel, and iron.
genders.
South Sulawesi is one of the Indonesian regions most
prone to the effects of climate change. Data suggests that
Overview climate change will cause the region’s rainfall pattern to
The Bugis (or Buginese) are one of the three main ethnic change so that rainfall decreases between July and Sep-
groups living on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi (or Cel- tember but increases between December and May. This
ebes). The Bugis speak a distinct language called Buginese would mean South Sulawesi’s dry season will become
or Basa Ugi, which belongs to the South Sulawesi group of drier, and the rainy season will experience more rain.
Malayo-Polynesian languages. Bugis living in urban areas Consequently, it is likely that South Sulawesi faces a high
also speak Bahasa Indonesia. Most Bugis are Sunni Mus- risk of future water shortages. Water shortages are already
lims, though some maintain pre-Islamic beliefs. The name a serious issue on South Sulawesi’s numerous small coral
Bugi derives from the phrase To Ugi, meaning “the Bugi islands, including the Spermonde Archipelago (Schwerdt-
peoples.” The name refers to the followers of La Sattum- ner Máñez et al. 2012). Another issue facing the environ-
pugi, the first Bugi king of South Sulawesi. ment of South Sulawesi is the presence of human waste
on the land and in water supplies. Poor toilet facilities and
waste management result in feces, urine, and domestic
Population, Diaspora, and Migration waste polluting the land and water. The feces and urine
Populations estimates for the Bugis vary from 3 million contain pathogenic bacteria that mix with the soil and
(Graham Davies) to 6.3 million (Minahan 2012). The water to cause various diseases in the people living nearby
Bugis live in the Indonesian province of South Sulawesi (Rauf 2015). The island of Sulawesi is prone to environ-
on the island of Sulawesi, the third largest island in the mental disasters resulting from seismic activity because
Indonesian archipelago. Many Bugis live in urban areas, the island lies within the zone of interaction of several
where they have assimilated into mainstream Indonesian of the Earth’s plates. Many major earthquakes have been
206 Bugi

attributed to movement in this area, which is recognized new Indonesian nation failed to provide the Bugis with the
as representing the greatest seismic risk in eastern Indo- autonomy they desired. The failure to deliver Bugi auton-
nesia. In September 2018, northwest Sulawesi experienced omy led to another Bugi revolt in the 1950s.
a devastating tsunami. In the 1980s, the Bugis protested Javanese control of
Indonesia, resulting in renewed civil unrest. By the 1990s,
the unrest had developed into a pro-democracy move-
History and Politics ment. In the 2000s, Sulawesi became the site of religious
The Bugis are descended from settlers who traveled from violence. Although Christian and the Muslim Bugis had
the north to the Bugi homeland probably around 1500 lived together for centuries, in the 2000s, sporadic fight-
BCE. Ultimately, the early Bugis settled near Lake Tempe ing erupted between rival Christian and the Muslim gangs,
and Lake Sidenreng circa the second millennium BCE. resulting in the deaths of over two hundred people and the
Around 1200 CE, the discovery of iron ore on their land, destruction of many thousands of island properties. The
together with the importation of tools, allowed the Bugis to violence continued throughout Indonesia’s transition to
become an agrarian people. In time, a boom in Bugi farm- democracy following the fall of the Indonesia’s dictatorial
ing allowed the Bugis to expand their homeland eastward, leader Suharto (in office 1968–1998). Tensions in the Bugi
westward, and southward. Over the next four hundred homeland continue to undermine efforts to modernize the
years, various Bugi kingdoms became established, result- Bugi economy, meaning Bugi areas are not as affluent as
ing in Bugi culture transforming from a chiefly society into other parts of Indonesia.
a society based around hierarchical states. In the 1660s, the
Bugi warrior-prince Arung Palakka united with the Dutch
to overrun parts of Saluwesi, thereby allowing the Bugis to Society, Culture, and Tradition
dominate that part of the Indonesian archipelago. By this Most Bugis are rice farmers, merchants, or fishers. Bugis
time, most Bugis had converted to Islam. Some historians living in coastal areas supplement their incomes by sell-
believe the Bugis transported Islam to other parts of Indo- ing cash crops and interisland trading. The Bugis also
nesia because over time, the Bugis built oceangoing boats have a long tradition of producing silk sarongs tradition-
that allowed them to trade across a wide area as well as ally worn by Bugi women. Because traditional Bugi ways
convert local populations to Islam. The seaworthy ships are maintained, many Bugis still live in houses built on
also allowed for the creation of a Bugi diaspora elsewhere stilts.
in the Indonesian archipelago after a long civil war began According to Bugi tradition, the majority of marriages
in 1669. are arranged, with newlyweds living with the wife’s family
From 1837 to 1860, the Bugis fought against Dutch, for the first few years of the marriage. Recently, divorce has
Spanish, and British colonialism in their homeland. Grad- become common among the Bugis. Most Bugis are Sunni
ually, the Dutch gained control over Bugi areas, resulting in Muslim, but they maintain pre-Islamic beliefs, many of
the establishing of Dutch missionary stations in the region. which pertain to gender and sexuality. For example, tradi-
However, the Dutch did not forcibly convert the Bugis to tional Bugi culture recognizes five distinct genders, which
Protestantism and remained on fairly cordial terms with the Bugis consider essential to world peace. The Buginese
the Bugis. Because Dutch influence remained relatively language contains five terms that refer to various forms of
weak over the Bugis, some Bugi states managed to main- sex, gender, and sexuality: makkunrai (“female women”),
tain their independence into the twentieth century. During oroani (“male men”), calalai (“female men”), calabai
the 1920s and 1930s, the Bugis revolted against the Dutch (“male women”), and bissu (“transgender priests”). Other
multiple times, threatening Dutch control of Sulawesi con- pre-Islamic religious practices maintained by some Bugis
tinually. By this time, however, the Bugis had become a include ancestor worship, a belief in shamanism, and spirit
largely peripheral people in Sulawesi. possession. However, belief in such things is waning as
After World War II, the Bugis rejected the returning younger Bugis are educated in Islam. Similarly, although
Dutch because they supported the drive for Indonesian visual and performing arts are an essential element of Bugi
independence or the creation of a separate Sulawesi nation culture, with performances of epic poems still occurring,
called Celebes. In 1949, Celebes became an autonomous most Bugis prefer modern forms of entertainment such as
state in the new United States of Indonesia. However, the karaoke.
 Bulgarian 207

Health Care and Education traditional culture is under threat, including the reverence
Malnutrition is prevalent in South Sulawesi. Around 18 for ancestors and spirit possession. Similarly, the influence
percent of newborn babies have a low birthweight, and 41 of the West is also in danger of destroying some elements
percent of children aged less than five years have stunted of Bugi life.
growth. Most pregnant women in the province give birth See also: Acehnese; Ambonese; Dayak; East Timorese
with assistance from a skilled birth attendant. However, Further Reading
for every one thousand live births, thirteen babies die in Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the
their first month, and thirty-seven children die before Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
their fifth birthdays. This is despite most infants being Rauf, Bakhrani. 2015. “Raising Environmental Awareness to
vaccinated against diphtheria, tetanus, pertussis (whoop- Improve Toilet and Drainage Facilities around Lake Tempe
in South Sulawesi, Indonesia.” World Transactions on Engi-
ing cough), and measles. In South Sulawesi, there is a need neering and Technology Education 13 (4): 658–663.
to improve people’s access to safe drinking water and to Schwerdtner Máñez, Kathleen, Sainab Husain, Sebastian C. A.
provide hygiene education. A majority of the province’s Ferse, and Maria Manez Costa. 2012. “Water Scarcity in the
inhabitants have some form of basic sanitation facility in Spermonde Archipelago, Sulawesi, Indonesia: Past, Present
their homes. However, 13 percent of people practice open and Future.” Environmental Science & Policy 23 (November):
defecation (UNICEF n.d.). 74–84.
UNICEF. n.d. “SDGs for Children in Indonesia: Provincial Snap-
Many rural medical centers (puskesmas) provide shot: South Sulawesi.” https://www.unicef.org/indonesia​
Western health care. However, some Bugis seek medical /sites/unicef.org.indonesia/files/2019-05/South_Sulawesi​
treatment from indigenous practitioners (sanro) who use _ProvincialBrief.pdf.
techniques including massage, praying, and holy water West, Barbara A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and
to cure illnesses. Sanro believe illnesses can be caused Oceania. New York: Facts on File.
by a person’s spirit leaving the body and that people are
inflicted by specific spirits associated with the elements of
fire, air, earth, and water.
South Sulawesi has achieved near universal access to
primary education. In 2015, 97 percent of children in the BULGARIAN
province aged six years were enrolled in education, and
many preschool-aged children attended primary school. Current Location Bulgaria
However, the children of poorer families are far less likely Current Population 9 million
to complete secondary school than the children from Language Bulgarian
wealthier households. The quality of education in South Interesting Fact Of all women living in the European
Sulawesi could be improved because recently, only 18 per- Union, Bulgarian women have the
cent of primary school children achieved the minimum lowest life expectancy at birth.
national benchmark in math, and 29 percent attained the
minimum level in reading (UNICEF n.d.). Overview
The Bulgarians are a Slavic people concentrated in Bulgaria
Threats to Survival and other countries of Europe’s Balkan Peninsula. Bulgar-
There are no immediate physical threats to the Bugis. ians speak the Bulgarian language, which is a South Slavic
However, in 2015, around 12 percent of children in South language. Some Bulgarians also speak other languages
Sulawesi were found to live in poverty. Many families in such as Russia. The majority of Bulgarians are Orthodox
the province live just above the poverty line. A common Christians.
punishment in the region for young offenders is deten-
tion without sentence. This means some unsentenced
Bugis suffer a loss of liberty. Traditional Bugi culture is Population, Diaspora, and Migration
threatened. In urban areas, many Bugis have assimilated The total worldwide Bulgarian population is estimated at
into mainstream Indonesian culture and no longer speak nine million people, of whom seven million live in Bul-
Buginese. Elsewhere, as the Bugis embrace Islam, their garia. There are significant minority Bulgarian populations
208 Bulgarian

in Romania, Greece, Turkey and Serbia. There are two hun- CE, the khanate of Onogur Bulgar (a short-lived Turkic
dred thousand Bulgarians living in Ukraine and 330,000 empire), living south of the Black Sea, disintegrated into
living in Russia. Since 1989, two hundred thousand Bul- multiple tribes. One of the tribes, headed by Khan Aspa-
garians have migrated to the United States, one hundred rukh (r. 681–701), migrated southwest to establish a new
thousand to South America, and five hundred thousand state on the Danubian Plain. The new state bordered the
to Western Europe. In total, since 1989, over one million Byzantine Empire, and though the new state was in con-
Bulgarians have emigrated from Bulgaria (Frusetta 2011). stant conflict with the Byzantines, it also took on many ele-
ments of Byzantine culture. During the 860s, the ruler of
this first Bulgarian state, Boris I (r. 852–889), converted the
Geography and Environment previously pagan people to Christianity. The influence of
Bulgaria is located in the east of the Balkan Peninsula, the Byzantine Empire on Bulgaria increased under Simeon
where it is bordered by five countries—Greece and Turkey I (r. 893–927). Simeon I founded the first Bulgarian Empire
to the south, Macedonia and Serbia to the west, and Roma- and persuaded the Orthodox Church to recognize the
nia to the north. The most notable features of Bulgaria’s Bulgarian Patriarch as the first patriarch to operate inde-
landscape are the Danubian Plain (the northern part of pendently of authorities based in Constantinople. Subse-
Bulgaria lying north of the Balkan Mountains and south quently, during the ninth and tenth centuries, a number of
of the Danube River), the Balkan Mountains, the Rhodope Bulgarian towns became hubs of Slavic Orthodoxy, where
Mountains, and the Thracian Plain (located in southern key religious texts were translated and distributed.
Bulgaria between the Sredna Gora Mountains to the north In 1018, the Bulgarian Empire was disbanded under
and west; the Rhodope Mountains, Sakar Mountains, and Byzantine emperor Basil Boulgaroktnos (Basil the
Strandzha Massif to the south; and the Black Sea to the Bulgar-Slayer). However, in 1185, a second Bulgarian
­
east). Bulgaria is home to the highest point of the Balkan Empire arose only to disintegrate into many smaller states
Peninsula, Musala (9,596 feet above sea level), and the during the thirteenth century. Initially, these smaller states
Peninsula’s lowest point. Bulgaria has a dense network of were subordinate to the Ottoman Empire, and then from
over five hundred rivers, though most of these are small 1376 to 1396, they were annexed directly by the Ottomans.
and contain little water. The Ottomans ruled the Bulgarians for five hundred years.
Bulgaria’s location at the confluence of Mediterranean To start with, the Ottomans were tolerant of the Bulgarians’
and continental air masses, together with the barrier effect Christianity, allowed the Bulgarians some autonomy, and
of its many mountain ranges, means the country experi- did not levy high taxes of the Bulgarians (because Otto-
ences a dynamic climate. The north of the country is cooler man wealth was based on conquest rather than taxation).
and wetter than the parts of Bulgaria lying south of the However, the Bulgarians did suffer devșirme (“child tax”),
Balkans. In winter, Bulgaria experiences high amounts of which saw some children enslaved, forcibly converted to
snow brought by continental air masses. Islam, and made to serve in the Janissary, elite infantry
Deforestation is a major problem in Bulgaria. The coun- units that served as the Ottoman Sultan’s household troops
try also suffers from industrial pollution from factories and bodyguards. Later, the Ottomans began to impose
and metal works. Air pollution from coal-based power restrictions on the Bulgarians, including limitations on the
plants affects urban areas, and pesticide use by farmers construction of churches, forbidding the Bulgarians from
and old-fashioned industrial sewage systems pollute the wearing clothes in certain colors, and preventing them
country’s soil and water with chemicals and detergents. from owning weapons. At the same time, some Bulgarians
became wealthy, and a prosperous Bulgarian elite known
as the chorbadzhiia (“providers of soup”) emerged, provid-
History and Politics ing for the poor. In the eighteenth century, the Ottoman
Bulgarians often trace their ancestry to the ancient Thra- Empire began to breakdown, and this led to the victimiza-
cian peoples (Indo-European tribes inhabiting an expanse tion and marginalization of Bulgarians by administrators,
of Eastern and Southeastern Europe). However, it is gen- mutinous soldiers, and bandits.
erally accepted by historians that Bulgarians arise from From 1839 to 1876, Bulgarian areas of the Ottoman
a melding of Slavic peoples and Bulgar nomads who set- Empire enjoyed widespread prosperity because they
tled in the Balkans during the seventh century CE. In 640 became key suppliers of fabric and iron used by the
 Bulgarian 209

Ottoman army. This wave of prosperity resulted in an the whole, Bulgarian politics remain stable, and various
upsurge in Bulgarian nationalism. Bulgarian calls for inde- ethnicities live side by side fairly peacefully.
pendence were met in 1870 by the establishment of an
autocephalous Bulgarian Exarchate Church and then by
the Bulgarian Uprising. This 1876 rebellion saw the regu- Society, Culture, and Tradition
lar Ottoman Army and irregular mercenary bashi-bazouk Bulgarian society and culture reflect the people’s Balkan
units suppress Bulgarian rebels with such brutality that and Ottoman heritage. Although Bulgarians are over-
there was public outcry across Europe, with many people whelmingly Orthodox Christians, they maintain many
condemning the Ottomans and supporting the Bulgarians. pagan traditions. For instance, Baba Marta (“Grandmother
Ultimately, the rebellion led to the founding of an inde- March”) is a Bulgaria folk tradition steeped in pagan lore.
pendent Bulgarian principality, albeit one under nomi- According to Bulgarian folklore, Baba Marta takes the form
nal Ottoman sovereignty and ruled by a German prince, an old woman who is in tune with the weather. When she
Alexander of Battenberg, who was elected by a Bulgarian is happy, the sky turns blue and the sun shines, but when
congress. she is annoyed, she causes wet and windy weather. For this
The principality allowed for the incorporation of all reason, the festival of Grandmother Marta has her own
Bulgarians into a single state, leading to border disputes special time of the year beginning on March 1 because
with neighboring countries. By the end of the nineteenth this date is believed to be the start of spring. There are a
century, Bulgarians were embroiled in rivalries with Serbs number of traditions associated with the Baba Marta cele-
(in Macedonia), Greeks (in Thrace and Macedonia), and brations. Chief among these is the giving and receiving of
Romanians. Bulgarians were particularly sensitive to the red and white objects called martenitsi (singular marten-
issue of Macedonian because they believed Christian, itsa). Martenitsi symbolize the concept of Mother Nature,
Slavic Macedonians were truly Bulgarians. The Bulgarian though they are usually produced in male-female pairs
desire to incorporate Macedonia into Bulgaria resulted that symbolize spring as a time of fertility and rebirth.
in Bulgaria joining the Balkan Wars (1912–1913) as well There are many different types of martenitsi but the most
as its later participation in World Wars I and II. Bulgaria traditional figures are the white, male Pizho and the red,
was on the losing side in these conflicts, and the dispute female Penda. Pizho idols are white to symbolize strength
over what constitutes Macedonian and Bulgarian national and endurance, and the Penda idols are red to represent
identity remains a source of controversy. the blood present during menstruation and birth. When
So busy were Bulgarian authorities concentrating on Christianity became prevalent in Bulgaria, converts tried
foreign affairs that they neglected the needs of Bulgarians to alter the meaning of the white Pizho idols to suggest
at home. This resulted in a peasant-focused regime coming that they represent Christlike purity. However, Christians
to power in Bulgaria in 1919 only for this regime to suffer a could not explain away the red of the Penda idols because
coup and be replaced in 1923 by a right-wing administra- Bulgarians have long considered red to be the color of the
tion. In 1944, socialists came to power in Bulgaria and set feminine.
about industrializing the country, improving infrastruc- Another Bulgarian tradition, Babinden (“Day of the
ture, and extending education and health care to rural Midwife”), expresses gratitude to those people responsible
areas. Such changes led to the Bulgarian economy boom- for the care and safety of both women and babies during
ing during the 1940s and 1950s. In the 1970s, however, the childbirth. The roots of Babinden stretch back to ancient
economy suffered a downturn that was exacerbated by the pagan traditions, and the day has been celebrated through-
disintegration of the Soviet Union and resulted in growing out Bulgarian history. Traditionally, pregnancy in Bulgaria
Bulgarian nationalism. was kept a secret from most villagers, with only the preg-
Since 1989, Bulgarians have entered into the free econ- nant woman, her mother-in-law, and the village midwife
omy but suffered a decline in living standards. This decline, aware that a birth was impending. According to Bulgarian
along with widespread corruption and organized crime, custom, the midwife was an elder village woman who was
has left many Bulgarians feeling frustrated (Frusetta 2011). past childbearing age or a widow. Today, midwives still
This frustration has resulted in successive changes of Bul- play an important role in Bulgarian family life because
garia’s leadership. The right-wing nature of some Bulgar- not only do they assist in childbirth, but they also treat the
ian political parties grabs international headlines, but on sick using their knowledge of herbs, poultices, and natural
210 Bunun

The Kukeri
The Kukeri is an ancient Bulgarian tradition that sees Bulgarians jump around while wearing scary masked costumes
with huge bells tied around their waists to scare away evil. In the past, the Kukeri went door to door to perform mag-
ical dances in front of houses. Today, however, the Kukeri usually perform at organized events, the largest of which
is the Surva Festival. The Surva Festival takes place in late January or February. In Bulgarian villages, Kukeri festivals
often occur on January 1, while in the Rhodope mountain village of Shiroka Laka, Kukeri events occur in early March.

remedies. Babinden traditions vary from one village to the anti-minority propaganda. The high number of Bulgarians
next, but they often involve ritual washing, gift giving, and leaving Bulgaria concerns many Bulgarians who feel that
the holding of mock marriages. as a people, Bulgarians may become assimilated within
Europe, resulting in the loss of their culture. Although
many Bulgarians welcomed Bulgaria’s joining the Euro-
Health Care and Education pean Union as a sign of coming economic prosperity,
The Bulgarian life expectancy at birth of 74.7 years is the many also feared that the loss of Bulgarian culture would
second lowest in the EU (after Lithuania) and is around be hastened. Some Bulgarians also fear that fast-growing
six years lower than the EU average. In addition, the life Muslim communities within Bulgaria will overwhelm
expectancy at birth for Bulgarian women is the lowest in Christian Bulgarian communities.
the EU. However, life expectancy at birth for university-­
See also: Bosniak; Croat; Macedonian; Pomak
educated Bulgarians is seven years higher than that of Bul-
garians who stopped schooling at the secondary level. In Further Reading
Frusetta, James. 2011. “Bulgarians.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe:
2014, Bulgarians had the highest smoking rates in the EU, An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 55–60. Santa Bar-
with over a quarter of Bulgarian adults smoking tobacco bara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
daily. Bulgarians also have the highest per capita alcohol OECD/European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies.
consumption in the EU. 2017. Bulgaria: Country Health Profile 2017, State of Health
In 2015, Bulgaria spent less than half the EU average in the EU. Paris, France: OECD Publishing; Brussels, Bel-
on health care. Many Bulgarian healthcare facilities lack gium: European Observatory on Health Systems and Policies.
https://ec.europa.eu/health/sites/health/files/state/docs/chp​
qualified staff and equipment, though the EU has helped _bulgaria_english.pdf.
Bulgarians develop electronic health records and prescrip- Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
tion systems. Most Bulgarians cite expense as the chief World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA:
reason they do not access health care, though traveling ABC-CLIO.
distance and a lack of doctors are other important barri-
ers to healthcare access. In contrast, Bulgarians have easy
access to dentistry because the country has a high density
of dentists (OECD/European Observatory on Health Sys-
tems and Policies 2017). BUNUN
In Bulgaria, education is compulsory from the ages of
Current Location Taiwan
seven to sixteen. Education at state-run schools is free,
Current Population 47,000
with schools being coeducational. Basic education consists
Language Bunun; Mandarin
of primary school (grades one through four) and presec-
ondary school (grades five through eight). The country has Interesting Fact The Bunun are the third most popu-
lous Taiwanese indigenous people.
numerous colleges and universities.

Overview
Threats to Survival The Bunun are an indigenous people of Taiwan. Most
At the moment, Bulgarians enjoy relatively peaceful lives Bunun speak the Austronesian Bunun language. Many
with occasional unrest that is often the result of far right, Bunun also speak Mandarin Chinese. Most Bunun are
 Bunun 211

Christians, belonging to either the Catholic Church or the History and Politics
Presbyterian Church, though many Bunun maintain ele- The origins of the Bunun probably stretch back to around
ments of the people’s traditional animist religion. 5000 BCE, when proto-Austronesians (forerunners of
peoples that speak languages stemming from the Austro-
nesian language family) migrated from China to settle in
Population, Diaspora, and Migration Taiwan. Over the next four thousand years, various other
The Bunun population consists of forty-seven thousand Austronesians traveled to Taiwan, where the people soon
people who are divided between six groups (Indigenous divided into various groupings based on linguistic and
Peoples Cultural Development Centre n.d.). The Bunun are cultural similarities. Although the groups had their own
the third most populous of the thirteen officially recog- languages and cultures, all the settlers employed slash-
nized indigenous peoples of Taiwan. The Bunun also have and-burn farming techniques, followed animist religions,
the second largest indigenous territory of these groups and valued kinship.
(West 2009). During the seventeenth century, Han-Chinese migrants
The Bunun live in central Taiwan in remote, mountain- settled on Taiwan from southern China. Some migrants
ous (above 3,281 feet), forested areas spread across four married into the Bunun, but the Bunun’s headhunting
counties: Kaohsiung, Nantou, Hualien, and Taichung. The practices prevented mass Han migration. During the
Bunun villages in Taichung are usually larger than Bunun eighteenth century, many Bunun left Nantou. Some moved
villages found elsewhere. Bunun villages in Nantou and to the Jhuosi and Wanrong Townships located in Hualien
Hualien tend to be smaller than other Bunun villages and before moving on to Haiduan and Yanping Townships in
are also found in more isolated locations. In Kaohsiung, Taidong. Other Bunun migrated southward along Tai-
Bunun villages are particularly scattered and lack defined wan’s Central Mountains before settling in Sanming and
boundaries. Taoyuan Townships in Kaohsiung and Haiduan Township,
There are several Bunun residential communes that located in Taidong county.
are sometimes likened to tribal units: the Chuo and Luan, The Bunun were among the last of Taiwan’s peoples to
located in Nantou county’s Yu-shan region; the Ka, found yield to Japanese rule during the Japanese colonial period
east of the Chuo and Luan; the Dan, situated on the border (1895–1945). After a lengthy period of fierce guerrilla
of Nantou and Hualien counties; and the Yu and Lan in resistance, the Japanese forced the Bunun to move down
Nantou. from the mountains and concentrated them into numer-
ous, scattered lowland villages. As a result of this forced
migration, the family unit became less important to the
Geography and Environment Bunun, who instead began to base their lives around indi-
Taiwan is an East Asian island separated from mainland vidual village units. Resettlement also led to a decline
China’s southeast coast by the Taiwan Strait. The East in the Bunun population because the areas to which the
China Sea lies to the north of Taiwan, the Philippine Bunun were moved had high rates of malaria, leading to
Sea is to the east, the Luzon Strait lies to Taiwan’s south, high infant mortality rates among the resettled Bunun
and the South China Sea lies to the southwest. Taiwan (Yang 2001). The existence of the Bunun and their wide-
is home to numerous high mountains, of which Yu Shan spread headhunting practices were considered a problem
is the tallest reaching an altitude of 12,966 feet. The tec- by the Japanese colonial government. Thus, all issues con-
tonic boundary responsible for creating these mountains cerning the Bunun, including education, trade, and welfare,
remains active so Taiwan experiences many earthquakes. were made police matters. The Japanese colonial authority
Numerous active submarine volcanoes exist in the Tai- restricted the Bunun’s hunting activities and forced them
wan Straits. to grow rice for the Japanese. However, since the 1970s, the
Taiwan’s climate ranges from tropical in the south to Bunun have turned to growing cash crops.
subtropical in the north. The island receives monsoon At the start of the twentieth century, Christian mission-
rains as well as several typhoons per year. Taiwan’s east- aries began to arrive in Bunun areas. Following the arrival
ern mountains are heavily forested and home to a range of of the Chinese Nationalist Kuomintang political party in
wildlife. Taiwan’s western and northern sides are home to 1945, life became much more difficult for the Bunun. The
lowlands characterized by rolling plains. party’s “one language, one culture” policy banned the use of
212 Bunun

any language other than Standard Mandarin, indigenous people also believe in the sky god, Dehanin, who governs
cultures were discriminated against, and indigenous peo- the weather and climate. The Bunun concept of time is
ples were encouraged to assimilate into the mainstream. governed by the growing season of millet and by the moon.
In 1952, a Japanese musicologist sent a recording of the Farming and hunting seasons are dictated by the growing
Bunun Millet Harvest Prayer (Pasibutbut) to UNESCO. of millet plants; millet is sown when plum trees are in
Ever since, the people’s eight-part chorus has been best blossom. When the moon wanes, the Bunun prepare fields.
known for polyphonic vocal music. When the moon is full, the Bunun harvest fields and hold
harvest festivals. In addition, each November and Decem-
ber, the Bunun hold a seed millet ritual during which they
Society, Culture, and Tradition pray for good harvest. During this ritual, the Bunun gather
Bunun society is patrilocal, with women expected to move in a circle and sing Pasibutbut (an eight-part chorus sung
into their husbands’ homes after marriage. The Bunun polyphonically in four-part harmony). The Bunun believe
are also patrilineal, with society based around tribes and that the beauty of their song will please Dehanin so much
clans; each tribe usually consists of at least two large clans. that he endows the people with a bountiful harvest.
Bunun society is further divided in hierarchical clan sub- Another important Bunun ritual is the ear-­shooting
groups linked by common male ancestors. It is usual for ritual. This is an annual festival intended to hone the
Bunun people to use the subclan name as the family name, hunting skills of Bunun men. In the past, men would
with these subclan names serving as important social shoot the ears off pigs or deer from a specific distance.
markers allowing people to connect. Bunun clans share Today, competitors use bows and arrows to shoot large,
hunting grounds and any resultant meat, and subclans animal-shaped targets drawn on paper. The ear-shooting
share farmland and farmed produce. Each Bunun tribe has festival attracts an increasing number of tourists. Tourists
three leaders: one priest, who presides over farming rites inject money into the Bunun economy, but such cultural
and events linked to astronomy while also being responsi- festivals perpetuate long-standing ethnic stereotypes of
ble for keeping the peace between Bunun groups; the head the Bunun that lead to bias and anti-Bunun discrimina-
of the ear-shooting ritual, who is responsible for choosing tion among mainstream Taiwanese. For example, in recent
the best hunter of the year; and the political chief, who years, Taiwanese news reporters have described tribal peo-
commands during battle and takes charge of hunting trips. ples as barbaric after having witnessed the pig-killing rite,
The traditional Bunun diet consists of sweet potatoes, which is a sacred part of the ceremony (Coolidge 2016).
corn, and millet grown on shifting fields. The people also
eat mushrooms, pigeon peas (a type of perennial legume),
wild herbs, and pork ribs. In the past, Bunun homes were Health Care and Education
made from animal skin and linen, but nowadays, Bunun The Bunun believe a person is composed of several parts,
dwellings are fashioned from slate, wood, straw, rattan, including the body and the is-ang, which is the seat of emo-
cotton, and wool. More northerly Bunun tend to favor tions and individual will that corresponds to the center
slate and wood houses, whereas the southerly Bunun pre- of the chest. The Bunun feel that when is-ang becomes
fer homes made from slate, wood, and straw. Normally, detached from the body temporarily, a person becomes ill,
Bunun homes have several bedrooms, but parents share and a person will die if is-ang leaves the body permanently.
one bedroom with their children. Traditional Bunun men’s The Bunun also believe that children’s health is dependent
clothes consist of a woven white sleeveless jacket, the dec- on protection from the members of their mother’s patri-
oration of which is inspired by the pattern of snakeskin. lineal clan (taikanai-ah). The Bunun seek medical help
Traditional Bunun women’s clothes are made from ramie from various sources, including spirit mediums who per-
(a plant in the nettle family) and typically include a long form one of a number of healing rituals (lapaspas) to cure
jacket with tight sleeves, long skirts, sarongs, and short patients.
trousers colored blue or black. Indigenous language education began in Taiwan in
The traditional Bunun religion is animist, and although 1990. By 1996, indigenous language education has been
most Bunun are now Christian, many still believe that peo- rolled out to several elementary and junior high schools. In
ple, animals, and objects have their own individual hanido 2001, mother-tongue teaching became a required subject
(spirit). In addition to believing in multiple spirits, the for elementary and junior high pupils. At the same time,
 Burakumin 213

the Taiwanese government began to certify some teachers Indigenous Peoples Cultural Development Centre. n.d. “Bunun
as having proficiency in indigenous languages. Schools Tribe: Geographical Distribution.” Taiwan Indigenous Cul-
lacking teachers for this subject are allowed to employ mis- ture Park. https://www.tacp.gov.tw/tacpeng/home02_3.aspx​
?ID=$3072&IDK=2&EXEC=L.
sionaries and suchlike to teach the subject. Some schools Stock, Jonathan P. J. 2017. “Asia/China, Taiwan, Singapore, Over-
in Bunun areas also hold Bunun Days, on which everyone seas China.” In Worlds of Music: An Introduction to the Music
in school must speak Bunun. Online Bunun language data- of the World’s Peoples, edited by Jeff Todd Titon, 385–440.
bases have been created, and some Bunun villages have Boston, MA: Cengage.
their own evening classes, enhancing the people’s knowl- West, Barbara A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and
edge of their native language. Oceania. New York: Facts on File.
Yang, Shu-Yuan. 2001. The Bunun in Contemporary Taiwan. PhD
thesis, University of London. http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/1631​
/1/U155956.pdf.
Threats to Survival
During the twentieth century, Taiwan became increasingly
industrialized. In response to this change, many young
Bunun moved to urban areas in search of work. Because
there is little demand for people to speak indigenous BURAKUMIN
languages in Taiwan’s cities, young Bunun people living
in cities stopped speaking the Bunun language. Conse- Current Location Japan
quently, Bunun language loss has become a major issue Current Population 1 million–3 million
for the Bunun, with some villages lacking young people Language Japanese
who speak Bunun. In turn, this has endangered Bunun Interesting Fact Estimates suggest a third of the
social cohesion and threatens Bunun cultural survival. In yakuza (Japanese organized crime
this situation, the significance of the church has grown in groups) come from the Burakumin,
importance because churches act as the focus of Bunun who are drawn to the organization
communities and as cultural centers promoting the Bunun because they have difficulty finding
language and traditional music style. other employment opportunities.
Tourism is an important source of Bunun employment
and income. Bunun cultural centers attract tourists while
Overview
also helping to disabuse ethnic Chinese visitors of preju-
diced opinions that indigenous people such as the Bunun The Burakumin, or Buraku people, are a descent-based
are drunkards, gangsters, and troublemakers. The Bunun people of Japan. The name Burakumin derives from the
often find it difficult to find work, and at the same time, words buraku (community or hamlet) and min (people).
industrialization has eroded the Bunun’s traditional occu- The Burakumin are considered Japan’s untouchable caste
pations such as farming and hunting, thereby exacerbat- because they are associated with death. The lowest class
ing the Bunun employment problems. The Bunun hope the of Burakumin are often called the Eta by other Japanese
cultural centers will address negative Bunun stereotypes. people—a highly derogatory term that translates as “much
Despite the economic upside of tourism, in some areas filth.” The Burakumin are not a distinct ethnic group but
visitors are damaging the local environment by trampling rather are people associated with buraku, areas where
on scenery and threatening traditional Bunun tribal life by most residents are descendants of the outcastes of Japan’s
demanding the introduction of new rituals and foods. historical feudal society.

See also: Kavalan

Further Reading Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Coolidge, Tony. 2016. “Taiwan’s Ear-Shooting Festival (Mala-Ta- Exact population figures for the Burakumin are unknown.
Ngia) Fosters Competitive Spirit and Unity among Bunun
In 1993, a Japanese government survey reported there
Tribal Communities.” Cultural Survival, March 31. https://​
www​.cul​tural​survival.org/news/taiwans-ear-shooting​-fest​ were almost a million Burakumin living in over four thou-
i​ v al​ - mala-ta-ngia-fosters-competitive-spirit-and-unity​ sand communities throughout Japan. However, a Buraku-
-among​-bunun. min rights group, the Burakumin Liberation League (BLL),
214 Burakumin

posits the number of Burakumin population at approxi- A Japanese caste system emerged in the era known
mately three million people living in around six thousand as the Edo period (1603–1867), in which the Buraku-
communities (Sunda 2015). Other estimates suggest the min were subjugated to laws that put strict limitations
Burakumin population consists of around six million peo- on their options for housing, work, and land ownership
ple (Minority Rights Group International 2018). The dis- rights, in addition to casting them outside of the four pri-
parity in population figures derives in part from the fact mary caste divisions in the country. Burakumin people
that Japanese government data only includes individuals were shunned by other Japanese and were forced to live
who believe they have buraku ancestry and also live in separately. At the beginning of the Meiji era (1868–1912),
a buraku, whereas figures given by Burakumin activists the 1871 Emancipation Edict ended the feudal system,
include all buraku inhabitants past and present, including legally allowing the Burakumin people to be treated as
residents who do not have Burakumin ancestry. equals in society.
Despite this legislation, continuing social and financial
discrimination meant the Burakumin continued to face
Geography and Environment exclusion and repression from other Japanese people who
Although the Burakumin are found throughout Japan, the did not wish to be polluted through contact with the Bura-
Burakumin population tends to be particularly concen- kumin. In addition, non-Burakumin people refused to
trated in the west of Japan. In the western city of Osaka, work alongside the Burakumin. Over time, in addition to
there are over twenty apartment blocks inhabited exclu- working in roles associated with death, urban Burakumin
sively by people with Burakumin ancestry as well as butch- began to find work as day laborers, and rural Burakumin
ers, meat traders, leatherworkers, and shoe sellers. worked as sharecroppers.
Traditionally, the Burakumin tend to live in individ- During the 1960s, following the urbanization of Japan,
ual hamlets or villages located in poorly drained areas especially the country’s central urban Honshu Island,
unsuitable for human habitation. The word buraku is often many buraku communities became more integrated into
used to mean “ghetto” in various regions of Japan, such as Japanese society. Unfortunately, buraku continued to be
Kansai, Hyogo, and Hiroshima (McLaughlan 2006). Many segregated in other parts of Japan, living in inadequate
residents have reportedly moved out of their buraku over housing in isolated areas. Residents of these areas also
time, referred to as passing. Although attitudes toward the lacked educational resources. The poor living conditions
Burakumin have softened somewhat since the 1960s and experienced by these buraku resulted in the government
1970s, passers are still liable to prejudice if their links to creating the 1969 Law on Special Measures for Dowa
the buraku are discovered. For this reason, individuals who Projects. However, this law addressed only buraku’s poor
previously lived in buraku are often reluctant to divulge infrastructure and housing. Burakumin continued to be
this information to others. discriminated against in the workplace as well as in their
relationships. Those wishing to be married were often sub-
jected to background checks by the partner’s family as a
History and Politics way of determining whether they could have Burakumin
The origins of the Burakumin are unknown. It is thought ancestry. In 1976, the Japanese government revised the
that the Burakumin worked in hereditary occupations that Family Registration Law to prevent third parties from
involved working with dead humans and animals, includ- investigating a person’s possible Burakumin lineage via
ing as executioners, gravediggers, leatherworkers, and the Ministry of Justice. People could still consult privately
butchers. In the eyes of Japan’s indigenous Shinto religion, produced Buraku Lists that contained similar information,
the dead are considered ritually unclean. After Buddhism or they could hire private investigators to check for Bura-
became prevalent in Japan during the seventh century, kumin ancestry. In 1985, some Japanese authorities acted
Shinto concerns about the polluting qualities of being in to prevent such actions. For example, authorities in Osaka
contact with the dead became associated with Buddhist Prefecture adopted a decree banning private investigations
prohibitions on taking life. Thus, the Burakumin became into people’s background to check for Burakumin associ-
doubly tainted to the extent that the Samurai were permit- ations. Several other prefectures adopted laws that were
ted to kill members of the Eta caste with impunity if they similar in nature, however no broader national laws pro-
were suspected of committing a crime. hibit this behavior.
 Burakumin 215

Society, Culture, and Tradition

The Burakumin share the same language, religions, cus- Sue Sumii
toms, and physical appearance as other Japanese people. Sue Sumii (1902–1997) was a Japanese social
Many buraku communities are located on the sites of reformer and writer who was an outspoken advo-
former Eta villages, and many Burakumin are descended cate for victims of discrimination, particularly
from the Eta caste (McLaughlan 2006). Most buraku the burakumin. The first volume of her popular
inhabitants continue to work in tanneries and are gener- ­seven-volume book, published as Hashi no nai kawa
ally known to be skilled in creating leather products such (The River with No Bridge), appeared serially in the
as drums, coats, and shoes. The reality of the people’s con- magazine Buraku before being published as a book
tinued marginalization is that many Burakumin are con- in 1961. Sumii’s story follows a burakumin youth
sidered of low socioeconomic standing, and most older who grows up under the burden of discrimination
Burakumin in particular are unskilled and unemployed. amid a hypocritical society before becoming a bura-
In addition, a prevailing Burakumin stereotype suggests kumin leader in the liberation movement. Hashi no
the Burakumin are violent criminals, drug dealers, pros- nai kawa has sold over eight million copies, and it
titutes, and gang members. Buraku residents often look has been made into two films in Japan. In 1992, an
identical to ippan (mainstream) Japanese citizens, mak- English translation was published.
ing it impossible for Japanese people to tell by sight who Though born in Nara Prefecture, which is home to
is Burakumin and who is not. However, when marriage many burakumin communities, Sumii was not her-
or employment is at stake, ippan Japanese may pay sub- self a member of the burakumin whom she champi-
stantial amounts of money to private investigators, who oned. Opposed to discrimination in any form, Sumii
then conduct illegal background checks searching for continued to fight many causes throughout her long
hints of Burakumin heritage or associations. If a child’s life. After completing the seventh volume of Hashi
potential marriage partner is found to have links to the no nai kawa, at the age of 90, she began work on the
Burakumin, then parents will often attempt to break up eighth volume. Sumii is also known for her pacifist
the relationship through a combination of bribery or pro-burakumin speeches and articles, and she has
disinheritance. donated some of her royalties to fund a cinema and
lecture hall in Ushiku City so that burakumin issues
could be discussed. A museum located in Gosho,
Health Care and Education Nara Prefecture, that charts the history of the bura-
The Burakumin are one of the most excluded and disad- kumin movement includes Sumii’s archives.
vantaged communities of Japan. Many Burakumin are too
poor to buy into Japan’s national health insurance program
because the scheme has high premiums.
A 2012 BLL report on minority women in Japan claims they want to live in a school district that includes a buraku
that Buraku women find it hard to find stable employment community (Minority Rights Group International 2013).
because their lack of education leaves them no choice Following the cessation of the Law on Special Measures
but to take seasonal or other irregular work. The Buraku- for Dowa Projects in 2002, commentators have noted the
min’s lack of education means that the Burakumin often Japanese government typically overlooked issues facing
take jobs in Japan’s most dangerous or difficult industries, the Burakumin. Annual reports to the Diet (Japanese par-
including the nuclear sector (Minority Rights Group Inter- liament) have included reports on Burakumin issues under
national 2013). the Human Rights Promotion Law, but these tend not to
include many substantial details that illustrate whether
government programs have been effective at stopping dis-
Threats to Survival crimination against Burakumin. Buraku communities that
Discrimination toward the Burakumin is deeply ingrained have received funding from the government are referred to
in Japanese society. According to the BLL, up to 50 percent by the term kaiho buraku (liberated buraku). These kaiho
of Japanese people surveyed do not want family members buraku often lose their homes to the development of apart-
to marry a person with Buraku heritage, and neither do ment complexes and community centers such as libraries,
216 Buryat

kindergartens, swimming pools, healthcare facilities, and Overview

human rights centers. Social welfare is available for the The Buryats, also known as the Buriat, Buriyad, Mongols,
poorest residents. However, an anti-Burakumin stigma Northern Mongols, Burgut, and Byryat, are a Central Asian
remains engrained in Japanese society—something that indigenous people. The Buryats live in the Buryat Repub-
is reflected in the Burakumin’s rising levels of alcohol lic (also known as the Republic of Buryatia or simply as
dependency and negative attitudes toward education. Buryatia), a member of the Russian Federation, as well
Recently, social media has compounded issues for as in other Russian states, Mongolia, and China. Buryats
Burakumin who have felt bullied and outcast, often speak the Buryat language, which is classed as a Mongolic
increasing their visibility and indicating their location to language. This language is considered severely endangered
anti-­Burakumin individuals. In response, in December by UNESCO.
2016, the Diet adopted legislation called the Act on the Pro- Buryats living west of Lake Baikal tend to be Russian
motion of the Elimination of Buraku Discrimination. This Orthodox, whereas those living east of the lake are typ-
stated that the Japanese government had a responsibility ically Buddhist while also holding traditional Buryat
to protect the Burakumin from discrimination by way of spiritual beliefs. A minority of Buryats practice shaman-
improving Burakumin education and investigating anti-Bu- ism and hold indigenous beliefs in the spiritual world.
rakumin bias. Critics have suggested, however, that this law
is ineffectual because it does not outlaw anti-­Burakumin
prejudice, so perpetrators cannot face penalties. Population, Diaspora, and Migration
See also: Ainu; Muhamasheen; Ryūkyūans According to the 2002 national census, there were 445,175
Buryats living in the Russian Federation. Most Buryats
Further Reading
Brackney, William H., ed. 2013. Human Rights and the World’s live in the Buryat Republic, where the Buryat population
Major Religions. Condensed and updated edition. Santa Bar- makes up 27.8 percent of the republic’s total population
bara, CA: Praeger. of 981,238. Buryats also live in Irkutsk Oblast in south-
McLaughlan, Alastair. 2006. “Japan’s Burakumin: An Introduc- ern Siberia, northern Mongolia, and northwestern China
tion.” Asia-Pacific Journal 4, no. 1 (January 4). https://apjjf​ (Minority Rights Group International 2017). The Buryats
.org/-Alastair-McLaughlan/2075/article.html.
make up the largest ethnic minority in Siberia, where they
Minority Rights Group International. 2013, September 24. “State
of the World’s Minorities and Indigenous Groups 2013: live in the environs of Lake Baikal.
Japan’s Burakumin Minority Hired to Clean Up after Fukush- Traditionally, the Buryat population was divided into
ima.” http://www.refworld.org/docid/526fb70e5.html. five groups, but during the twentieth century, these groups
Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Japan: Burakumin have united somewhat so that the only contemporary divi-
(Buraku People).” World Directory of Minorities and Indig- sion between the groups exists between the Burayats living
enous Peoples, April. http://minorityrights.org/minorities​
west of Lake Baikal, who are known as the Irkutsk Buryat,
/burakumin-buraku-people.
Sunda, Mike. 2015. “Japan’s Hidden Caste of Untouchables.” and those living east of Lake Baikal, called the Transbaikal
BBC, October 23. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia​ Buryat.
-34615972.

Geography and Environment

The Buryat Republic is located in Asia in the southcentral
region of Siberia in the Russian Federation. The capital of
BURYAT the republic is the city of Ulan-Ude. The Buryat Republic
lies along the eastern shore of Lake Baikal, a freshwater
rift lake situated in southeastern Siberia. Lake Baikal is
Current Location Buryat Republic (Buryatia); Russian
the largest freshwater lake by volume in the world because
Federation; Mongolia; China
it contains around 23 percent of the world’s fresh surface
Current Population 445,175
water and 20 percent of the entire world’s unfrozen fresh
Language Buryat water. The lake is also the world’s deepest lake, reaching
Interesting Fact The Buryat homeland lies along the a depth of 5,670 cubic miles; is among the world’s least
world’s deepest and oldest lake. polluted lakes; and is the world’s oldest lake at twenty-five
 Buryat 217

Lake Baikal: The World’s Oldest Lake

Lake Baikal, located in southern Siberia, is the largest freshwater lake by volume in the world as well as the
­seventh-largest lake in the world by surface area. Indeed, Lake Baikal holds more water than all of the North American
Great Lakes combined. Lake Baikal is also the world’s deepest lake, one of the world’s clearest lakes, and the world’s
oldest lake at 25 million years in age. The Lake Baikal area is home to myriad plants and animals, many of which exist
nowhere else in the world. In 1996, the lake was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site on account of its significance
to evolutionary science.

million years old. In 1996, Lake Baikal was declared a off the Buryats from all other Mongol peoples. Under the
UNESCO World Heritage Site. The region lying to the east Russians, the Buryats became a homogenous ethnic group
of Lake Baikal is known as Transbaikalia, and the area of with a distinct national identity. In response to this, the
the lake is sometimes referred to as Baikalia. Russians granted four Buryat groups land before open-
The majority of the Buryat Republic’s land is mountain- ing up the rest of the region to Russian settlers. During
ous, including the Baikal Mountains that lie on the north- the eighteenth century, Russian colonizers moved into the
ern shores of Lake Baikal. The republic is rich in minerals areas and took the most fertile land, thereby displacing the
such as zinc, gold, uranium, and tungsten. Buryats, who had established communities west of Lake
Baikal.
During the nineteenth century, a Tibetan form of Bud-
History and Politics dhism, Lamaism, became prevalent in the areas surround-
The origins of the Buryats are not known for sure, though ing Lake Baikal, with Lamaism’s peaceful philosophies
most ethnographers believe Buryat origins combine Mon- finding favor with almost all Buryats except for those
gol, Samoyed, Turkic, and Tungus ancestry. The various living in the most remote areas. In 1898, the construction
peoples living near Lake Baikal were probably assimi- of the Trans-Siberian Railroad brought huge numbers of
lated into a tribal federation that then spread through- Russian peasants to the area. The peasants were desper-
out Central Asia before the modern era began. Following ate for land of their own. Feeling threatened, the Buryats
the breakup of the tribal federation, various tribes living united together to stop the Russians from dominating
around the lake began to establish defensive communi- their culture and religion. Buryat society and culture man-
ties, which formed the basis of future ethnic divisions. The aged to remain vibrant and unaffected by Russia’s involve-
Buryat are most likely descended from one of these com- ment in World War I until the Russian Revolution in 1917.
munities or the Karluk Turkic tribe, which inhabited the During the Russian Civil War that followed the revolution,
eastern shore of Lake Baikal. the Buryats tried to remain neutral, but in 1920, the Bol-
The tribes around the lake soon came under control sheviks conquered Buryats lands and occupied the region.
of the Chinese empires before ridding themselves of Chi- In 1921, the Soviets established a Buryat-Mongol region
nese rule in 754. The tribes then faced successive waves of called the Buryat-Mongol ASSR under their minorities
Mongol migration from the south. The Turkic tribes were program, and in 1923, this region was upgraded to an
assimilated into the Mongol society led by Genghis Khan independent republic. Two years later, in 1925, the Sovi-
in 1205. By the end of the fourteenth century, the Buryats ets cracked down on the Buddhism that was flourishing in
had become immersed in Mongol Empire. The sixteenth Buryat areas, burning libraries and shutting down temples.
century saw the Buryats form a defensive federation The Buryats were dealt a further blow when the Soviets
incorporating many different tribes. In 1643, the Cossacks forced them to collectivize their animal herds. Unhappy at
entered Buryat land, spearheading a Russian incursion their treatment, the Buryats rebelled against their Soviet
in the area. Russia took political and financial control of rulers, but the Buryat rebels were no match for the Soviet
the region gradually, and by 1700, all Buryat people were forces, meaning thirty-five thousand Buryats died in the
under Russian rule. The Russian Empire and China signed fighting, including Buddhist monks who were massacred
a number of treaties in 1689 and 1727 that effectively cut on the orders of Joseph Stalin. After the Buryat rebellion
218 Buryat

failed, the Soviets encouraged Slavs to move to Buryat declared that uniting the three Buryat regions was uncon-
areas to dilute the Buryat population. stitutional because the territories did not share a common
In 1937, the Buryat-Mongol ASSR was divided up, with border (Jacobson 2011). Despite the Russian Federation’s
some sections given to other regions of the USSR. Buryat announcement, the same year, Buryats in Irkutsk Oblast
land west of Lake Baikal (about 12 percent of the total ter- and the Ust-Orda were able to vote in favor of the unifica-
ritory) went to Irkutsk Oblast, where the Buryat enclave tions of both regions into one administrative unit. In the
Ust-Orda (or Ust-Ordynsk AOk) was established. The east- Ust-Orda, 99.5 percent of the population voted, with 99
ern steppe (also 12 percent of the total) was integrated percent of the voters voting for unification (Minority Rights
into Chita Oblast, where another Buryat community, the Group International 2017). The unification come into effect
Aga Buryat (or Aginsk AOk), was formed. This division on January 1, 2008, with the region renamed the Ust-Orda
of the Buryat territory caused great bitterness among the Buryat Okrug. Similarly, the Aga Buryat province was reuni-
Buryats. fied with Chita oblast on March 1, 2008, as the Agin-Buryat
By the end of World War II, the Buryats had become a Okrug. However, despite the reported voting figures, there
minority population in their own lands. In 1958, the Sovi- were reports that popular feeling was not as unanimous
ets attempted to eliminate any link between themselves as official sources might wish to portray (Minority Rights
and Mongolia and so removed the word Mongol from the Group International 2017). For example, many Buryats in
Buryat region’s title, leaving it as the Buryat ASSR. Mon- Ust-Orda voiced concerns about their culture’s future after
golian culture continued to influence the Buryats, how- they unified with Irkutsk, because after unification the Bury-
ever, and this influence resulted in a revival of Buddhism ats would make up only 5 percent of the new region’s pop-
and Lamaism in the region toward the end of the 1980s. ulation. In addition, some of Ust-Orda’s Buryats reported
In addition, a Buryat movement demanding closer links being restricted from organizing protests against the uni-
with Mongolia emerged. These elements paved the way fication and being prevented from organizing the Tailagan
for the declaration of a sovereign Buryat republic, Bury- Buddhist spring festival. According to some human rights
atia. At the tail end of the late 1980s, the Buryat Republic activists, authorities had commandeered leaflets circulated
became a center for Buddhists in the Russian Federation, to protest the merger, and the printing house that had pub-
with the Central Theological Department of Russian Bud- lished the leaflets had reportedly been shut down.
dhists located in Ulan-Ude. In 1991, the collapse of the In 2008, the governor of the Agin-Buryat Okrug, Bair
USSR meant that the Buryat Republic was able to become Zhamsuev, urged the population of the Aginsk Buryat
an autonomous member of the Russian Federation. The Autonomous Region to support a referendum that would
following year, in June 1992, a session of the Buryat par- in effect strip the region of its independence by allowing
liament asserted that the 1937 division of Buryat land it to be engulfed by the surrounding ethnic Russian ter-
had been unconstitutional. This announcement led the ritory. Then on January 1, 2010, the region ceased to exist
republic’s main nationalist party, the Buryat-Mongolian officially because it merged with the surrounding region
Peoples’ Party, to demand the reunification of all Buryat-­ and was renamed the Transbaikal Region. The merger was
Mongolian lands on both sides of the Russia-Mongolia one of many that saw Russian regions home to high pop-
border. The continuing Buddhist revival in the Buryat ulations of minority ethnic groups being combined with
Republic brought the region into closer contact with Mon- majority Russian territories. Some commentators have
golia and also with Tibet and Kalmykia. In 1999, Tibetan suggested that this is part of a Russian plan to further rein-
medicine was included as a subject at the Buryatia State force Moscow’s control over its land.
University; this was the first time that the subject had been
included in tertiary education in the Russian Federation.
In 2005, around two thousand Buryat intellectuals Society, Culture, and Tradition
signed an open letter to Russian leader President Vladimir Buryat culture reflects the peoples’ nomadic past for the
Putin proposing the restoration of the pre-1937 Buryat early Buryats were pastoralists who herded various ani-
borders. The signatories claimed that ensuring the pres- mals such as cattle, sheep, camels, horses, and goats. The
ervation of Buryat language and culture without auton- culture is patrilineal, with interrelated clans grouped
omy from the Russian Federation’s national government together into villages that make up tribal federations. Many
was almost impossible. Two months later, the Kremlin modern Buryat customs and traditions are influenced
 Buryat 219

Buryat women wearing traditional costume welcome guests in Siberia. Buryat costumes and traditions are influenced by Mongol cul-
ture. (Elena Sitnikova/Dreamstime.com)

by Mongol culture. This is especially true of the Bury- Russia’s economic problems during the twenty-first
at’s favorite sports of wrestling, archery, and horseracing century have affected the Buryats. For example, as Buryat
that are also very popular pastimes in Mongolia. Another land has become integrated with other regions, funds that
­Mongol-influenced aspect of Buryat culture is the Buryats’ used to flow directly from Moscow to Buryat areas are now
love of uligers, epic poems that reveal the peoples’ history. diverted to regional centers, from where they may or may
Buryat spirituality combines shamanism with Bud- not be directed to Buryat areas. Such funding issues mean
dhism. As a result of this spiritual combination, the Bury- many projects planned for the Buryat Republic have been
ats are naturally inclined to peace and try to avoid being put on hold, including school-building projects. In addi-
involved in conflict. tion, teachers and other government workers find their
pay arrives late.
Buryat shamans tend to blame ancestral spirits for inci-
Health Care and Education dences of disease and will ask sick people about their family
Contemporary Buryats are highly educated, especially history and origins. Sometimes shamans encourage their cli-
those Buryats living in their republic’s capital city, Ulan- ents to revisit the place where their ancestors used to live so
Ude, and other urban areas. This high level of learning that they can commune with ancestral spirits via mountains
means that many younger Buryats have found employ- or sacred trees. Here, the clients are instructed to perform a
ment in regional industries. According to 2002 figures special ritual (alban) that will placate the spirit and so cure
published in 2005, around 40 percent of Buryat primary the illness. According to the latest figures (from 2008), there
schools offer teaching in the Buryat language, but second- were around 39 doctors and 116 nurses per 10,000 people in
ary and tertiary education is conducted exclusively in Rus- the Buryat Republic, but only 9.5 hospital beds per 10,000
sian (Minority Rights Group International 2017). patients (Business Information Agency 2008).
220 Buryat

Threats to Survival housing, and roads. The region’s residents also became
Language shift and cultural assimilation are major con- richer, being newly able to afford to buy cars, cell phones,
cerns for many Buryats. Because some Buryats areas have and computers.
merged with other regions, the people have struggled to See also: Avar; Chechen; Circassian; Ingush; Ket; Komi;
maintain their Buryat ethnicity. Despite these difficulties, Lak
the Buryat language has survived, and some Buryat areas Further Reading
have become centers of Buddhism and Tibetan medicine. Business Information Agency. 2008. Statistical Business Profile
Lack of money is another issue for the Buryats because for the Siberian Federal District of the Russian Federation. 4th
their regions tend to lack funds for essential infrastruc- ed. Tbilisi: Georgia.
ture. One Buryat area that is unusual is Aginsk, which, Helman, Cecil G. 2007. Culture, Health and Illness. 5th ed. Lon-
don: Hodder Arnold.
since it merged with Chita, has experienced both eco- Jacobson, J. Lee. 2011. “Buryats Worried by Future in Newly
nomic development and cultural revival. The reason for Merged Territory.” HuffPost, May 25. https://www​
this is that the region’s former leader, Governor Zhamsuev, .huffingtonpost.com/j-lee-jacobson/buryats-worried-by​
established an offshore zone that permitted large compa- -future_b_415670.html.
nies to register their businesses in the area and pay their Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East and Cen-
taxes into the Aginsk budget. The offshore zone payments tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Russian Federation:
resulted in the region’s administration having the funds to Buryats.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peo-
pay for the construction of schools, hospitals, museums, ples. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/buryats.
 C

CABINDAN Population, Diaspora, and Migration

There are between 350,000 and 600,000 Cabindans living
Current Location Angola
in Angola. Cabindan communities also exist in other Afri-
Current Population 350,000–600,000 can countries and in Europe (Minahan 2016).
Language Kikongo; French; Portuguese
Interesting Fact In 2010, the Cabindan separatist
group—the Front for the Liberation
Geography and Environment
of the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC)— The Cabindan homeland, Cabinda, is located in a densely
claimed responsibility for a gun attack forested part of southwest Africa on the Atlantic Ocean,
on the Togo national soccer team that just north of the Congo River. Cabinda forms a province
killed one person and injured nine of Angola. The Cabinda enclave is oil-rich and separated
others. from the rest of Angola by a strip of land belonging to the
Democratic Republic of Congo. The province’s densest for-
ests are situated in the wet, mountainous regions of May-
Overview ombe. The forests consist of valuable ebony, sandalwood,
The Cabindans (also called the Cabindese or the Kabindan) and black wood. Gorillas live in this area as a protected
are a Bantu people living in a disputed enclave of Angola. species. Cabinda also contains deposits of diamonds,
The Cabindans speak the Kikongo dialect as their main rubies, emeralds, and various metals.
language. They also speak French and Portuguese, as In recent years, oil pollution has become a major prob-
these languages are spoken widely in neighboring parts lem in Angola. The country experiences petroleum spills
of the Democratic Republic of Congo and Congo. Most at sea during the transshipment of oil or when tankers
Cabindans are Roman Catholics who nevertheless main- leak, and the land is polluted when oil exploration takes
tain many pre-Christian traditions. place. Additionally, burning gas causes air pollution. Oil
The Cabindans are considered as part of the Kongo eth- exploration has also caused environmental problems off
nic group. However, the Cabindans regard themselves as a the Angolan coast, where much of the exploration occurs.
separate nation. The Cabindans’ history and fight for inde- Consequently, aquatic habitats have been destroyed. Con-
pendence has resulted in the development of a distinct tinual oil spills off the coast of Cabinda have also caused a
Cabindan identity. decrease in the fish population, which has in turn affected

221
222 Cabindan

local fishermen. A lack of official regulation means areas in 1967. These gave Cabinda an economic base that fue-
of Cabinda have suffered deforestation. Commercial for- led Cabindan nationalism. Consequently, during the
estry and mining have destroyed trees that have subse- 1960s, Cabinda became the site of serious separatist vio-
quently not been replaced. The poverty in which many lence, as the Cabindans feared being overrun by more
Cabindans live means they tend to overgraze animals populous Angolan tribes. This fear caused the Cabindans
on arable land, which impedes the agricultural produc- to call for the renewed recognition of the separate sta-
tion of the land. Poisonous chemicals are in constant use tus of Cabinda. In turn, these demands led to a surge in
during the extraction of gold and other minerals. These Cabindan nationalism and a mass movement against
toxins enter local rivers and accumulate in fish and wild- colonialization. In 1974, the Portuguese, drained finan-
life, many of which are food sources for local people (Le cially by involvement in various long and expensive
Cabinda Libre 2008). colonial conflicts, were ousted by a popular uprising. The
departure of the Portuguese from Angola resulted in a
multiparty civil war that allowed Cabindan nationalists
History and Politics room to maneuver. Following growing Cabindan nation-
At some point before 1100 CE, Bantu Kongo tribes migrated alism throughout the 1970s, in 1975 the Cabindans
to the huge Congo River basin. In the thirteenth century, declared their independence three months prior to
the Kongo Kingdom united the tribes living south of the Angola becoming independent. However, Cabindan
river. From there, the Kongo people gradually expanded independence was fiercely opposed by Angolan polit-
their kingdom to control a swathe of vassal states located ical groups, which all agreed that the Cabindans, and
north of the river. Soon the Kongo language and culture Cabinda’s oil, belonged to Angola.
came to dominate southwest Africa. In 1975, the Angolan Civil War began, and it con-
In 1493, Portuguese explorers arrived and made con- tinued in interludes until 2002. The war for power was
tact with the Kongo Kingdom. This was the first step in waged between two past liberation movements, the Peo-
European colonization of the region that was eventu- ple’s Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and
ally shared between Portugal, Belgium, and France. The the National Union for the Total Independence of Angola
division of the kingdom unsettled Kongo society. At the (UNITA), and saw Marxists assisted by the Soviets and
same time, port cities at the mouth of the Congo River Cubans take control of most of Angola. In so doing, the
became important centers of the slave trade. By 1884, Marxist troops ended Cabindan secession while retaking
Europeans had come to define colonial borders, with the Cabindan oil reserves. Despite its professed Marxism, the
Portuguese controlling the area north of the Congo River. new Angolan regime did not nationalize the Cabindan oil
Cabinda became a Portuguese Protectorate after the fields. As a result, the oil fields were run by the American
1885 signing of the Treaty of Simulambuco. The area was Gulf Oil Company while being guarded by Cuban guards
an enclave separated from Angola by a small stretch of within a communist country. The Cabindans remained
Belgium land. From 1900, Cabinda was called the Portu- the poorest people in Angola despite the fact that their
guese Congo. The enclave was the most neglected region homeland produced 90 percent of the nation’s exports
of Portuguese Africa and was notorious for the poverty (Minahan 2002).
of the Cabindans and the use of forced labor within the In 1991, five Cabindan organizations met to discuss
colony. In 1914, a revolt by the Kongo people living in how they could unite to push for Cabindan independ-
northern Angola spread to Cabinda, where the rebellion ence. The next year, most Cabindan voters boycotted the
continued until 1917. The revolt united the Cabindans Angolan national elections. However, the result was sub-
and instigated the later Cabindan nationalist movement. sequently voided by the reignition of the Angolan Civil
In 1933, Portugal recognized Cabinda as a separate col- War. The Cabindans were unable to take advantage of
ony, so it was officially no longer part of Angolan land the war because they remained divided among various
farther south. regional and philosophical groups. By 1993, Cabindan
In 1954, oil exploration began in the Portuguese revolutionaries controlled the jungle forests of Cabinda,
Congo, which at this time was jointly administered by but the Angolan army was in charge of Cabinda City,
Portugal and Angola. Offshore oil fields were discovered over half of the Cabindan people, and the Cabindan oil
 Cabindan 223

fields. In the late 1990s, the Angolan government helped Democratic Republic of Congo, and Congo. The Cabindans
topple national regimes in neighboring Zaire (later the are divided into the majority Coastal Kakongo and the
Democratic Republic of Congo) and Congo. The ousting Cabindan minority of the Mayombe who live in inner
of these governments robbed the Cabindans of much of Cabinda in the environs of Mount Mayombe. Another
their outside support. At the same time, Cabindan sepa- Cabindan group, the Fiote, lives in the north of Cabinda.
ratist forces stationed in those countries became scattered The Fiote speak a language that most Cabindans find hard
as their bases were destroyed. Having cut off outside help to understand.
to the Cabindans, the Angolan army set about attack- The Cabindans speak the Ibinda dialect, Kikongo,
ing Cabindan villages while forces from Congo raided which the Cabindans regard as their national language.
Cabindan refugee camps. At the start of 1998, it was widely This language is also the language of the Kongo peoples.
reported that Angolan forces were raping and torturing The Kikongo spoken by the Cabindans contains many ele-
Cabindans (Minahan 2002). In 1999, the Angolan gov- ments of French and Portuguese. Cabindan leaders are try-
ernment announced it would enter into peace talks with ing to promote Ibinda as the Cabindan national language
the Cabindans, only for the talks to be cancelled when to instill unity among the Cabindans. However, Ibinda
the Cabindans protested Cabindan youngsters being con- comprises multiple dialects.
scripted into the Angolan army. Due to the legacy of Portuguese colonialism, most
The Cabindans suffered greatly for their attempt at Cabindans are Christian, especially Roman Catholic.
gaining independence. Over seventy thousand Cabindans Many Cabindans continue to maintain pre-Christian
were killed, and a further thirty thousand became refugees traditions. For example, some maintain Kongo religious
in foreign countries. Many tens of thousands were also beliefs, including the worship of a Creator-God, Nzambi
sent to the Angolan island of Ba’a dos Tigres, where they Mpungu, whom they believe originated the universe
were executed (Minahan 2002). Without hope of a peace- and all the spirits that inhabit it. Recently, an increas-
ful solution to their struggles, the Cabindans resorted to ing number of Cabindans have turned to evangelical
kidnapping Portuguese hostages to attract international Protestantism spread by European and North American
attention. The hostages were later released. missionaries.
The end of the Angolan Civil War in 2002 caused
fighting between separatists and the Angolan army to
intensify in Cabinda. These battles incurred exten- Health Care and Education
sive human rights violations against the Cabindans. In Angola suffers from shortages of health resources and a
March 2006, the Cabinda Forum for Dialogue (FDC) badly distributed health workforce. Cabinda experiences a
opened talks with the Angolan government. Later, in concentration of medics in urban areas while rural short-
2006, the government banned part of the FDC, Mpal- ages lack sufficient numbers of health professionals. Addi-
abanda Cabinda’s only human rights body. That same tionally, the healthcare facilities in rural areas are often
year, a Cabindan rebel leader signed a peace accord with basic. In 2014, Cabinda province had only forty-seven
the Angolan government that was disowned by other medics. Of these, 79 percent worked in the province’s
Cabindans. urban areas. The remaining 21 percent were distributed
Sporadic fighting between Cabindan rebels and the between the rural municipalities. Cabinda province’s
Angolan government continues. Peace talks fail because public health network comprised 102 healthcare facili-
Angola fears losing control of the Cabindan oil wealth. ties, including hospitals and health centers. The capital
Meanwhile, Cabindan leaders continue to call for a ref- of Cabinda is home to four hospitals. Smaller healthcare
erendum to decide Cabinda’s future. units are distributed across municipalities (Macaia and
Velez Lapão 2017).
In Angola, education consists of four years of free,
Society, Culture, and Tradition compulsory primary education from age seven fol-
­
Although the Cabindans view themselves as a distinct lowed by eight years of secondary education starting
people, they are usually classed as a Bantu people that at age eleven years. It is usually thought that adult liter-
is part of the Kongo ethnic groups found in Angola, the acy levels are low across Angola, though data on this is
224 Canarian

unreliable. On a positive note, Angola’s university system CANARIAN

continues to develop. Cabinda has a relatively good edu-
cational  take-up, though children often study in poor Current Location Canary Islands
conditions.
Current Population 1.8 million–2 million
Language Habla canaria (dialecto canario);
Threats to Survival Spanish
Interesting Fact Considered the ends of the earth in
Cabinda comprises only a tiny proportion of Angola’s
ancient times, the Canarian home-
population. However, their homeland accounts for much
land takes its name from canis, the
of the country’s oil output. In general, Cabindans do not Latin word for dog.
benefit from this wealth any more than other Angolans.
While Cabindan politicians have established various sep-
aratist movements, the effectiveness of these groups is Overview
hindered by the fact that they tend to split up and regroup. The Canarians (also called the Canario, Islenos, or
In recent years, Cabindans have faced disturbing Guanches) are the indigenous inhabitants of the Spanish
human rights violations at the hands of the Angolan archipelago of the Canary Islands (also commonly called
armed forces and authorities. Between 2007 and 2009, at the Canaries). The Canarians speak a distinctive variety of
least ­thirty-eight Cabindans in Cabinda were arbitrarily Spanish called habla canaria (Canary speech) or dialecto
arrested by the Angolan military and accused of state canario (Canarian dialect). Canarians also speak Span-
security crimes. Most detainees lived in villages located ish. Most Canarians are Catholic. A minority of Canarians
in inner Cabinda and were subjected to detention, tor- adheres to the Church of the Guanche People, which is
ture, and inhumane treatment in military custody. The classed as a neo-pagan native religion.
detainees were arrested following attacks attributed to
the separatist guerrilla group, the Liberation Front of
the Enclave of Cabinda (FLEC) (Human Rights Watch Population, Diaspora, and Migration
2009). Many Cabindans continue to demand the crea- The estimated Canarian population measures between 1.8
tion of a Cabindan republic called Kilansi kia Kabinda million and 2 million people (Minahan 2016). Since the
or Mambu ma Nzambi Kabinda (meaning “Kabinda Free 1960s, Canarians have become an increasingly urban people.
State”). There is a large Canarian diaspora descended from Canari-
ans who settled in the New World from the fifteenth century
See also: Kasaian; Lozi
onward. The diaspora is most evident in Cuba, Puerto Rico,
Further Reading the Dominican Republic, Venezuela, and Uruguay.
Human Rights Watch. 2009. “Angola: Stop Military Abuses in
Cabinda.” Human Rights Watch, June 22. https://www.hrw​
.org/news/2009/06/22/angola-stop-military-abuses-cabinda.
Le Cabinda Libre. 2008.“The Environmental Problems in Angola: Geography and Environment
Case Study—Cabinda.” Le Cabinda Libre, October 23. http://​ The Canary Islands are an archipelago consisting of thir-
cabinda.unblog.fr/2008/10/23/the-environmental-problems​ teen islands. They are located in the Atlantic Ocean around
-in-angola-case-study-cabinda.
sixty-seven miles from the Moroccan coast and eight hun-
Macaia, Damas, and Luís Velez Lapão. 2017. “The Current Sit-
uation of Human Resources for Health in the Province of dred miles south of Europe. The islands were created mil-
Cabinda in Angola: Is It a Limitation to Provide Universal lions of years ago by volcanic eruptions. Their name was
Access to Healthcare?” Human Resources for Health 15 (1), derived from the Latin, canis, meaning dog.
Article 88. doi:10.1186/s12960-017-0255-7. The Canary Islands fall into two groups. The western
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: group comprises the islands of Tenerife, Gran Canaria, La
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 1, A–C.
Palma, La Gomera, and El Hierro. These islands consist of
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth- mountain peaks rising straight from the ocean floor. The
nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa Bar- eastern Canary Islands consist of Lanzarote, Fuerteven-
bara, CA: Greenwood. tura, and six islets topped by a plateau, the Canary Ridge,
which rises 4,500 feet from the ocean floor.
 Canarian 225

The Canary Islands have a subtropical climate; the tem- The Spanish lost interest in the Canary Islands during
peratures are warm and dry all year round. The islands’ the nineteenth century, once Spain’s New World colonies
mild temperatures and rich volcanic soils support a wide had gained independence. Neglected by the Spanish, the
range of vegetation. Crops grown on the islands include Canarians survived by producing wine. However, in 1853,
bananas, oranges, coffee, dates, sugarcane, tobacco, cereals, the people’s vineyards were affected by grape blight that
potatoes, and grapes. The islands highest peaks are home destroyed the vines. Consequently, the Canarians switched
to holly, myrtle, and laurel trees. to producing cochineal (red dye made from the dried, pul-
verized bodies of female scale insects, Dactylopius coccus).
Later, sugarcane farming became the focus of the Canari-
History and Politics ans’ economy.
The exact history of the Canarians is unknown. It is gen- Realizing that they could not rely on Spanish authori-
erally accepted that in ancient times, Phoenician colonists ties for support, the Canarians developed a strong sense of
transported fair Berbers called Guanches from Carthage self-reliance and took little interest in or were affected by
to the Canary Islands to work as serfs. At this time, the events on the Spanish mainland. At the start of the twenti-
Canary Islands were considered the ends of the western eth century, a Canarian nationalist movement arose, and in
world. When the Romans invaded Carthage in 146 BCE, the 1907, a Canarian cultural organization, Ateneo, raised the
Phoenicians lost contact with the Guanches, who reverted Canarian independence flag on the islands. In 1927, how-
to a tribal existence on the islands. The Guanches lived as ever, the Canary Islands were officially integrated into the
disorganized tribes and were frequently conquered. Spanish state. To appease the two largest islands, Tenerife
In 999 CE, Arab traders arrived on Gran Canaria, and Gran Canaria, the Spanish divided the Canary Islands
where they entered into trade with the Guanches. The into two provinces ruled by authorities in the Spanish cap-
Canary Islands were virtually forgotten until 1341, when ital of Madrid.
the Portuguese rediscovered the islands. However the In 1936, the Spanish fascist leader Francisco Franco,
Portuguese were worried by the Guanches’ ferociousness who had been horrified to be stationed on the remote
and decided not to settle on the islands. In 1344, a papal Canary Islands in 1932, used the Canary Islands as his first
bull gave the Canary Islands to Castille, then a Spanish base because they allowed Franco to consolidate his troops
kingdom. In 1402, the explorer Jean de Betencourt, who before embarking onward to Spanish Morocco. The Canary
was backed by Castille, traveled to Lanzarote. Two years Islands were held by Franco’s Nationalists but were mostly
later, de Betencourt declared himself king of the Canary unaffected by the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). Indeed,
Islands. In 1406, de Betencourt returned to Europe, allow- located far from Spain and economically and politically iso-
ing his nephew to rule the islands. In 1425, the Portu- lated from the mainland, the Canarians began to consider
guese explored the island of Gomera and in so doing set their islands as separate from Spain. Canarians national-
off a fierce ­Portuguese-Castilian rivalry. Around the same ist sentiments grew during the 1950s when the Canarians
time, impoverished colonists from Andalusia settled on a became more educated, witnessed increased nationalism
number of the islands. In 1496, the Guanches were totally in Morocco, and began to earn a living from tourism.
defeated by Spanish settlers who took control of all the Canarian nationalism developed further in the 1960s with
Canary Islands. In time, the Guanches disappeared, either the emergence of numerous organizations demanding the
because they had been killed or because they had been islands’ autonomy. However, Franco quickly banned these
completely assimilated into island society. groups, which nonetheless united to form the first Canar-
In the early sixteenth century, the Canary Islands ian separatist party, the Movement for the Autonomy and
became important stopping points for ships traveling to Independence of the Canary Archipelago (MAICA). Sev-
the New World. During this time, the islands remained iso- eral African liberation groups who considered the Canary
lated, and this together with the many visiting trade ships Islands colonized African land backed MAICA.
made the islands a target for pirates and mercenaries. In During the 1970s, MAICA became increasingly violent
the seventeenth century, the islands supplied wine to New in its efforts to win independence for the Canary Islands.
England sailors in return for fish. This trade sustained the In 1977, a Canarian separatist bomb at the airport on Gran
island after Spain established more direct routes to its col- Canaria forced a Pan Am flight to divert to an overcrowded
onies in the New World that bypassed the Canary Islands. runway on Tenerife. This resulted in a collision between two
226 Canarian

Silbo Gomero
Silbo Gomero is a whistled register of Castilian Spanish used by inhabitants of La Gomera in the Canary Islands. The
whistled language allows islanders to communicate across the island’s ravines and valleys. Silbo Gomero, which is the
world’s only fully developed whistled language used by a large community, replaces each vowel and consonant with
a whistling sound. Whistles are distinguished according to their pitch and length. The language has been taught in
island schools since 1999 and is used during festivities and religious rites. In 2009, UNESCO declared Silbo Gomero a
Masterpiece of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity.

planes and the deaths of 583 people. The incident horrified Another Canarian tradition is the holding of street
the Canarians, and as a result, the Canarian separatists lost parties, known as verbenas del mogollón, which are often
much support on the islands. However, since 2000, Canar- part of carnival occasions. A Canarian cultural highlight is
ian interest in independence has rekindled, with some the murgas—groups of Canarians who dress in costumes
Canarians calling for the establishment of the Republica to sing about their discontent and criticisms of local,
Federal Canaria (Federal Republic of the Canary Islands) regional, or national social and political situations in an
or Republica Canaria (Republic of the Canary Islands). ironic manner.
One of the most popular Canarian pastimes is lucha
Canaria (Canarian wrestling), a sport dating from the
Society, Culture, and Tradition 1400s that was played by the Guanches. The popularity
The Spanish spoken by the Canarians, Habla canaria, of lucha Canaria has grown massively over the years, and
includes many borrowings from old Portuguese and is today it is broadcast on Canarian television.
sometimes classed as an Andalusian subdialect. Habla The Canarians are known throughout Spain for two
canaria contains many archaic words, phrases, and syntax unique foods, papas arrugadas (wrinkled potatoes) and
that have disappeared from regular Spanish. gofio. Papas arrugadas consists of potatoes cooked in boil-
The mainland Spanish consider the Canarians the ing water with so much salt that the potatoes float. When
most conservative Roman Catholics in Spain because the the potatoes are cooked, they are left encrusted with salt.
Canarians maintain a number of archaic religious trad- Traditionally, papas arrugadas are accompanied by mojo
itions that are extinct on the Spanish mainland. In times picon, a sauce made from garlic, paprika, cumin, bread-
past, the village was the center of all Canarian life, both crumbs, and wine vinegar. Gofio is milled grain resem-
religious and secular. Today, with the Canarians living bling whole-grain flour. It was once the staple food of the
increasingly urban lifestyles, the influence of the Catho- Guanches, and today it is added to all manner of dishes,
lic Church has waned somewhat. That said, the Canarians sweet and savory. While non-Canarians are not always
maintain Catholic traditions such as saints days. A min- keen on gofio, Canarians are so proud of the product that
ority of Canarians follows a neo-pagan religion called the they established the Canary Island Gofio Producers Asso-
Church of the Guanche People. Canarian worshippers of ciation in 1990.
the goddess Chaxiraxi, the Sun Mother goddess, founded
the church. The Church of the Guanche People performs
baptisms and weddings according to what believers con- Health Care and Education
sider is Guanche traditions. The Church of the Guanche Modern health care is widely available on the Canary
People has its own liturgical calendar. The Canarian trad- Islands. There are occasional outbreaks of yellow fever and
ition of romerías blends Christian and pagan beliefs. dengue fever on the islands. Because the Canary Islands
Romerías are akin to a harvest festival dedicated to a saint are a tourist destination, these outbreaks tend to make
who has benefited the harvest. Canarians dress in folk cos- international headlines. Some Canary Islands bats carry
tumes and transport a procession of carts filled with food rabies.
and wine through the streets accompanied by musicians, On the Canary Islands, Spanish is the language of edu-
dancers, and animals. cation. Although the islands are home to two universities,
 Carpatho-Rusyn 227

the general educational level of Canarians is relatively low Carpatho-Rusyns are seen as belonging to an East Slavic
(Lahtinen et al. 2013). Rus nation. Carpatho-Rusyns are sometimes called the
Rusyns, Rusnaks, Rusyn-Ukrainians, Boiko, or Rutheni-
ans. Carpatho-Rusyns are also sometimes associated with
Threats to Survival the Lemko. Carpatho-Rusyns speak Rusyn, an Eastern
There are no imminent threats to the Canarians. Canarian Slavic language. In general, Carpatho-Rusyns are Greek-
nationalism has recently revived with the evolution of a Slavonic Rite Christians who belong to the Eastern Rite
number of political parties and nationalist trade unions. A church (also called the Eastern Catholic Church). There
Canarian newspaper has also started to support Canarian are also an increasing number of Baptist, Jehovah’s Witness
nationalism. One issue that may become an issue in the and evangelical Carpatho-Rusyns. The Carpatho-Rusyns
future is the high level of unemployment among young, refer to themselves as the Po-Nashemy (meaning “our
educated Canarians. This is resulting in a brain drain as people”).
educated Canarians leave their homeland.
See also: Basque; Catalan; Galician; Occitan
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Further Reading
The total Carpatho-Rusyn population of Europe is
Lahtinen, Henri, Kimmo Viljamaa, Bianca Buligescu, and René
Wintjes. 2013. “ESIC European Service Innovation Centre unknown. This is because there is no Carpatho-Rusyn
Report: Summary Assessment of the Canary Islands.” Euro- political body to ascertain this date and because the
pean Commission, November. ec.europa.eu/DocsRoom​ countries in which the Carpatho-Rusyns live employ dif-
/documents/5122/attachments/1/translations/en/.../native. ferent ways to record population data. At the start of the
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth- ­twenty-first century, however, there were likely around
nic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 1, A–C. West-
1.2 million Carpatho-Rusyns living within the borders
port, CT: Greenwood Press.
Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth- of Poland, Slovakia, Ukraine, Romania, and Hungary
nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa Bar- (Magocsi and Pop 2002). Save for Ukraine, all countries
bara, CA: Greenwood. in which the ­Carpatho-Rusyns reside recognize them as a
distinct group. In Ukraine, the Carpatho-Rusyns are con-
sidered a Ukrainian subgroup.
Carpatho-Rusyn communities exist in Serbia, Croatia,
and Hungary, and a fairly large Carpatho-Rusyn diaspora
can be found in the United States, Canada, Argentina, and
CARPATHO-RUSYN Australia. Carpatho-Rusyn immigrants to the United States
Current Location Central Europe settled in major cities, including New York, Cleveland, Chi-
Current Population 1.2 million
cago, Minneapolis, and Detroit, and in New Jersey; Bridge-
port, Connecticut; and parts of Pennsylvania (especially in
Language Rusyn
hard coal regions and the towns of Pittsburgh and Johns-
Interesting Fact Famous American artist Andy War-
town), Today, small numbers of Carpatho-Rusyns from the
hol had Carpatho-Rusyn ancestry,
Slovakian villages of Litmanov and Jarabina are immigrat-
which is celebrated with the Andy
Warhol Museum of Modern Art in ing to New York and New Jersey (Custer n.d.).
the Slovak town of Medzilaborce.

Geography and Environment

Overview The traditional Carpatho-Rusyns homeland, called Ruthe-
The Carpatho-Rusyns are an East Slavic minority whose nia (or Carpatho-Ukraine or Subcarpathian Rus), is located
nationality is much disputed. Poland considers them northeast of Central Europe’s Carpathian Mountains and
a lost Polish tribe, Hungary counts them as Slav-speak- stretches across all of the south and part of the north of
ing Hungarians, and in Slovakia, they are considered that area. This area includes the northeast of Slovakia’s
Eastern Rite Slovaks. In Ukraine, Carpatho-Rusyns are Presov region, part of the Maramures district in north cen-
regarded as a subgroup of Ukrainians, while in Russia, tral Romania, the Lemko Region of southeast Poland, and
228 Carpatho-Rusyn

Subcarpathian Ukraine (the Zakarpatska Oblast). Much of Carpatho-Rusyn legend, Christianity was brought to the
Ruthenia lies within fertile valleys. Carpatho-Rusyns in 860 by Byzantine monks called Cyril
The Carpathian climate is influenced by winds from the and Methodius. At some point after their conversion to
east and west, including both polar continental air masses Christianity, Carpatho-Rusyns settled in Kievan Rus’ (an
from the northeast during winter and oceanic air masses early, mostly East Slavic state dominated by the city of Kiev
from the west in summer. The Carpathians are one of that is now the capital of Ukraine). In the tenth and elev-
Europe’s most expansive mountain ranges, spanning across enth centuries, Kievan Rus’ became the first great East Slav
Central and Eastern Europe. The Carpathians are home to state.
many ecosystems, including virgin forests and grasslands In 1382, the Carpatho-Rusyn became part of Hungary.
that harbor such animals as bears, lynx, and wolves. The Living under Magyar rule distanced the Carpatho-Rusyns
Carpathians contain three major rivers that provide fresh- from their Slav cultural heritage. Around the same time,
water: the Danube and Dniester Rivers, which flow into the the Lemko region in the north Carpathians was divided
Black Sea, and the Vistula, which flows into the Baltic Sea. between Poland and the Eastern European Galicians (not
The Carpathians are a delicate range and very sus- to be confused with Spanish Galicians) in the east. Lemko
ceptible to the impacts of environmental change and remained divided until the 1340s, when all of Lemko
extreme weather. As a result, the mountains’ biodiversity is became part of Poland.
threatened by climate change. Over the past few decades, In the sixteenth century, the Protestant Reformation
the mountains’ summer temperatures have increased by and subsequent Catholic Revival had a huge impact on
2.4°C. This temperature rise has been accompanied by the Carpatho-Rusyns, for local authorities across the
an increase in the frequency and intensity of heat waves. Carpatho-Rusyn homeland tried to bring the Ortho-
Some studies also indicate changes in the mountains’ dox Carpatho-Rusyns in line with the Roman Cathol-
precipitation patterns, with indications suggesting there icism of the powers that controlled their territory: the
will be less rain in summer, thereby resulting in lower Kingdom of Hungary and Poland-Lithuania. In 1586,
river flows. The frequency of summer droughts will also many ­Carpatho-Rusyn bishops in Hungary accepted the
increase, which will in turn raise the risk of wildfires and Church in Rome and, in 1646, set about establishing a
make crops more vulnerable to pests. There are also indi- Carpatho-Rusyn Uniate Church (a Uniate Church is an
cations that there will be more intensive short-duration Eastern Christian church that traces its origins back to an
rainfall in the Carpathians. Heavy rainfall will lead to an ancient national or ethnic Christian tradition but is united
increased risk of flooding, land erosion, and landslides. with or is in canonical communion with the Roman
Increased winter snowfalls have been forecasted as well. Catholic Church). In 1699, the first Bible written in Car-
Early snowmelt will diminish river discharge, meaning patho-Rusyn was published.
less drinkable water during the summer months. As one Over time, the Carpatho-Rusyn homeland remained
UN report predicts, “If no adaptation to these hazards is divided, with Russia and Austria each taking a portion of
undertaken, the region will suffer from economic and live- the land in 1772 following the First Partition of Poland
lihood losses, impaired [ecosystems] and loss of species” (when Russia, Prussia, and Austria signed a treaty that par-
(Alberton et al. 2017). titioned Poland so that Poland lost around half of its peo-
ple and approximately one-third of its land area to Russia,
Prussia, and Austria). Carpatho-Rusyns living in Austria
History and Politics found that their territory was not awarded minority status,
The Carpatho-Rusyns are probably descended from Slavic unlike the land belonging to other minorities within the
migrants and tribes of unknown origin—Rusyn is an early Austria Empire. Consequently, the Carpatho-Rusyns found
umbrella term for Slavs. Slav peoples have likely inhabited their land divided between several counties of northeast
the Carpatho-Rusyn homeland since at least the sixth cen- Hungary, the Presov region of Hungarian Slovakia, and
tury CE, though they may have settled in the Carpathian the neighboring parts of Austrian Galicia. (Galicia was
Mountains during the eighth century as a breakaway group a historical region located between Central and Eastern
of migrants from elsewhere. Alternatively, it may be that Europe that was once a small kingdom but later became
the Carpatho-Rusyns already inhabited the Carpathian a crown land of Austria-Hungary. Today Galicia straddles
valleys but went unremarked by chroniclers. According to the Poland-Ukraine border.)
 Carpatho-Rusyn 229

As part of the Austrian Empire, the Carpatho-Rusyns Tisza River became part of Romania, Lemko became part
faced intense pressure to assimilate into the prevailing of Poland, and other Carpatho-Rusyn areas were incorpo-
culture and existed as illiterate peasants on large estates rated into the new South Slav state (later renamed Yugo-
under serf-like conditions. With their Carpatho-Rusyn slavia). Amid this geographical reclassification, a number
cultural identity under threat and lacking a clear image, of Carpatho-Rusyn autonomous governments formed,
most Carpatho-Rusyns under Austrian rule focused their though these were short-lived.
identity on the Carpatho-Rusyn church, around which the In 1919, the Czech government agreed to the founding
people’s lives revolved. Meanwhile, Carpatho-Rusyns liv- of a new autonomous Carpatho-Rusyn province, Ruthenia,
ing in Russia faced mounting pressure to conform to Rus- governed by the Carpatho-Rusyn nationalist leader Greg-
sian ways, resulting in many Carpatho-Rusyns reconverted ory Zsatkovich. The Carpatho-Rusyns living in the Presov
to the Orthodox Church. In the mid-nineteenth century, a region and Lemko tried to unite with Ruthenia but were
church-educated Carpatho-Rusyn elite evolved that spear- prevented from doing so by Czech and Polish authorities.
headed a Carpatho-Rusyn cultural rebirth. At the same In 1920, Zsatkovich resigned his post, resulting in Czech
time, Carpatho-Rusyn nationalism arose, as the people authorities taking control of Ruthenia. In 1938, the lead-
were tired of living in poverty and a climate of cultural ers of Britain, France, Italy, and Germany approved the
repression. In reaction to their poor living conditions and Munich Pact, which agreed to Germany’s annexation of
marginalization, from the 1880s, many Carpatho-Rusyns the Sudetenland (northern, southern, and western parts
left from their homeland, with most heading for the Amer- of Czechoslovakia primarily inhabited by Sudeten Ger-
icas. Mass Carpatho-Rusyn emigration continued until the mans) in exchange for a peace pledge from Adolf Hitler.
start of World War I, which blocked ­Carpatho-Rusyn migra- The pact saw Czechoslovakia rearranged into a federation
tion routes. In total, around 250,000 Carpatho-Rusyns set- of autonomous states, a situation that allowed Ruthenia to
tled in the United States during these years of emigration be granted self-rule. Carpatho-Rusyn leaders considered
(Best 2011). the transformation of Czechoslovakia into a federation
During the war, the Carpatho-Rusyns refused to sup- as a chance to gain full autonomy and mobilized their
port the Austro-Hungarian Empire that had left them one followers. In 1939, the Carpatho-Rusyns declared a new
of Europe’s poorest and least developed peoples. Young independent state, Carpatho-Ukraine. However, almost
Carpatho-Rusyns avoided conscription and even fought immediately, the state was invaded by Hungary. Hungary
for opposing forces. The war also saw Carpatho-Rusyn then annexed the new state and suppressed all forms of
nationalism rise rapidly, and it soon developed into an anti-­ Carpatho-Rusyn nationalism.
Hungarian movement. In 1917, Carpatho-Rusyn leaders In 1944, the Soviets occupied the Carpatho-Rusyn land
went so far as to demand their people’s i­ndependence—a appropriated by Hungary. The following year, the Soviets
demand that was ignored. The following year, Car- pressured Czechoslovakia into ceding their portion of the
patho-Rusyn nationalists mobilized as the defeated Aus- Carpatho-Rusyn homeland to the Soviet Union. Under
tro-Hungarian Empire faced a revolution. Soviet rule, Czech Carpatho-Rusyns lost their auton-
In the aftermath of World War I, newly created Euro- omy and became part of Soviet Ukraine. Meanwhile, the
pean states ignored Carpatho-Rusyn calls for an inde- Czech government blocked the autonomy demands of
pendent homeland. Frustrated, a Carpatho-Rusyn Carpatho-Rusyns living in the Prevos region. In 1948,
delegation went to the 1919 Paris Peace Conference to communists came to power in Czechoslovakia. Under the
demand recognition for their people under Point 10 of communists, the Carpatho-Rusyn political and religious
U.S. president Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points decla- leadership was disbanded, and the Carpatho-Rusyn min-
ration for peace: self-determination for the people of the ority status was later abandoned. Instead, authorities clas-
Austro-Hungarian Empire. However, Carpatho-Rusyn sified the Carpatho-Rusyns as Ukrainians. As such, around
independence was opposed not only by Hungarians, 12,000 Carpatho-Rusyns were transported from Czecho-
but also by the Allies and the newly instituted states of slovakia to Soviet Ukraine (Minahan 2002). Similarly, in
Europe. Ultimately, Carpatho-Rusyn nationalist leaders an attempt to end the issue of Carpatho-Rusyn national-
accepted broad autonomy as part of the new Czech-Slovak ism, Poland’s communist authorities transported 178,000
state. Much of the Presov region and Subcarpathian Rus’ Lemko (Minahan 2002). Most of the deported Lemko were
became part of Czechoslovakia, settlements around the sent to Soviet Ukraine while some were sent to Germany.
230 Carpatho-Rusyn

After their deportation, Polish authorities denied the exist- Rusyns, which occasionally meets to agree on ways to fur-
ence of Carpatho-Rusyn ethnicity in Poland. ther the Carpatho-Rusyn cause.
Once they entered Ukraine, Soviet authorities set about In the twenty-first century, Carpatho-Rusyns are
assimilating the Carpatho-Rusyn into Ukrainian life. accepted by most researchers as an East Slavic nation
They also outlawed all elements of Carpatho-Rusyn iden- alongside Russians, Ukrainians, and Belarusians. In
tity, including their religion, culture, and political beliefs. Ukraine’s Subcarpathian province (Zakarpatska Oblast),
Remaining Carpatho-Rusyns in communist Czechoslova- Carpatho-Rusyns are recognized as distinct, although
kia and Poland suffered a similar process of assimilation. the Ukrainian government refuses to recognize a distinct
In the 1970s, a Carpatho-Rusyn nationalist revival ­Carpatho-Rusyn ethnicity.
began as an underground movement. Later, the loosen-
ing of strict Soviet authority during the 1980s allowed
Carpatho-Rusyn nationalism to grow apace. In 1989,
­ Society, Culture, and Tradition
Lemko in Poland formed a nationalist organization that The Carpatho-Rusyn Church is central to Carpatho-Rusyn
became officially recognized by authorities. Subsequently, cultural identity. The Church combines elements of east-
the Lemko in Poland were classified as a distinct eth- ern and western Christian traditions but is usually viewed
nic group, and they demanded the right to closer ties as synonymous with Byzantine Rite tradition (Best 2011),
with Carpatho-Rusyns living in Slovakia and Ukraine. that is, the liturgical system observed by the majority
When the Soviet Union collapsed in the early 1990s, of Eastern Rite churches and others, which are in com-
Ukraine became an independent state. Consequently, munion with Rome. The form of Eastern Rite Christian-
­Carpatho-Rusyns in Ukraine demanded the reinstate- ity professed by the Carpatho-Rusyns allows priests to
ment of their autonomous province. However, when the marry. The Rusyn language is also extremely important
Ukrainian government failed to act on referendum results to ­Carpatho-Rusyn cultural identity. The language exists
in favor of this move, in 1993, Carpatho-Rusyns within in four mutually intelligible dialects: Lemko, Boiko, Hut-
Ukraine declared their own parallel government in the sul, and Transcarpathian. These dialects are written using
Republic of Subcarpathian Rus. Cyrillic or Roman alphabets.
Collapsing authority in other countries that were home Well into the twentieth century, outsiders arriving in
to Carpatho-Rusyns raised the people’s hopes of greater Carpatho-Rusyn areas noted that Carpatho-Rusyns were
Carpatho-Rusyn autonomy. Carpatho-Rusyn nation- extremely conservative and shunned modern ways. Tra-
alist groups formed in Slovakia, the Czech Republic, ditionally village-dwellers, Carpatho-Rusyns tend to be
Yugoslavia, Hungary, and Poland with the aims of estab- farmers and animal herders (especially of sheep and cat-
lishing ­Carpatho-Rusyn as a distinct nationality, creating tle). Carpatho-Rusyn herders practice seasonal migration
a unified Rusyn literary language for use in schools, and in search of pastures, whereby they spend the summer
spreading Carpatho-Rusyn culture via broadcasts and cul- at high altitudes before spending the winter in sheltered
tural events. In 1991, Carpatho-Rusyn organizations from valleys. Typically, Carpatho-Rusyn villages are located
around the world gathered to form the World Congress of along rivers in mountain areas. The villages tend to be

Cimitirul Vesel: The World’s Happiest Graveyard

Cimitirul Vesel, or the Merry Cemetery, in Săpânța in Romania’s Maramureș County (founded in the 1930s) is known
for the cheerfulness of its carved wooden tombstones. The Merry Cemetery contains around eight hundred colorful
grave markers that depict the dead either as they were in life or at the moment they died. Each tombstone is accompa-
nied by a poem that acts as an apology for the ordinariness of the deceased’s life. The grave markers are hand carved
from planks of local oak that are painted blue and decorated with bright floral borders and wryly mundane images
of the deceased in life. The grave markers are repainted every 15 years because the paint fades quickly in the local
climate.
 Catalan 231

self-sufficient but cash poor. Consequently, it is traditional foreign policy with its Western neighbors or with Rus-
for male Carpatho-Rusyns who are not herders to travel sia. International human rights organizations also keep
down to lowland areas in spring and summer, where they abreast of Ukraine’s attitude toward the Carpatho-Rusyns.
work as manual laborers on estates owned by Hungar-
See also: Crimean Tatar; Magyar; Moldovan; Székely
ian, Polish, and German landowners. In autumn, the men
Further Reading
return to their mountain homes. Carpatho-Rusyn hawkers
Alberton, Mariachiara, Magnus Andresen, Federica Cittadino,
are known to travel far and wide selling the oil that seeps Harald Egerer, Uta Fritsch, Helena Götsch, Christian Hoff-
from the ground in the Lemko Region as a medicine or mann, et al. 2017. Outlook on Climate Change Adaptation in the
lubricant; others offer door-to-door repair services. Carpathian Mountains. Nairobi, Kenya: United Nations Envi-
In Slovakia, Carpatho-Rusyns are best known for their ronment Programme. http://www.carpathianconvention​
wooden churches, some of which are located in outdoor .org/tl_files/carpathiancon/Downloads/02%20Activities​
/Climate%20Change/MP_Carpathians_lores.pdf.
museums known as skanzens. Carpatho-Rusyn icons,
Best, Paul J. 2011. “Carpatho-Rusyns.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe:
Easter eggs (called pisanky or kraanky), and folk music are An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 61–63. Santa Bar-
also well known. Annual Carpatho-Rusyn folk festivals are bara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
held in Svidnk, Medzilaborce, Kamienka, Bardejov, Mikov, Custer, Richard D. n.d. “What Is a Rusyn?” Slovaki.org. http://​
Pichn, and elsewhere. www.slovakia.org/society-rusyn.htm.
Magocsi, Paul Robert. 2010. A History of Ukraine: The Land and
Its Peoples. 2nd ed. Toronto, Canada: University of Toronto
Health Care and Education Press.
Magocsi, Paul Robert, and Ivan Pop, eds. 2002. Encyclopedia of
In theory, Carpatho-Rusyns have access to the healthcare Rusyn History and Culture. Toronto, Canada: University of
systems in the locations where they live. However, as a Toronto Press.
traditionally mountain-dwelling people, this access may Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
be limited by geography and other issues, including poor Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 1, A–C.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
infrastructure.
Codified versions of Rusyn are taught in schools wher-
ever Carpatho-Rusyns live. In some Slovakian elementary
schools, classes are taught in both Slovakian and Rusyn.
CATALAN
Threats to Survival
Current Location Spain
Increasingly, the Carpatho-Rusyns are recognized by the
governments of Hungary, Poland, Slovakia, and Romania Current Population 8.2 million–9 million
as a distinct people with their own separate language and Language Catalan; Spanish
culture. Carpatho-Rusyns in Slovakia are experiencing Interesting Fact In 2017, the Spanish government
a cultural renaissance after years of communism. Today, used emergency powers to dissolve
Carpatho-Rusyns in Slovakia have their own weekly news- the Catalan parliament after an
paper (Narodnŷ novynkŷ), a magazine (Rusyn), radio independence referendum.
programs, an art museum (the Warhol Family Museum
of Modern Art in Medzilaborce), and a theater (the Alex- Overview
ander Duchnovič Theatre in Preov, which shows Rusyn-­ Catalans (also called Catalonians) are an indigenous peo-
language productions). ple living in the Spanish autonomous community of Cat-
Even in Ukraine, where Carpatho-Rusyns are con- alonia (Spanish: Cataluña). Catalans speak the Catalan
sidered by authorities as a subethnos of Ukrainians, the (Catala) language, which is part of the Ibero-Romance
government does not oppose Carpatho-Rusyn identity language group. Catalans also speak Spanish. Most Cata-
(Magocsi 2010). In Ukraine, the issue of Carpatho-Rusyn lans are Roman Catholic, but they tend to be less devout
identity is seldom discussed, but it does occasionally arise than other peoples living in Mediterranean Europe. This is
in domestic political debates or in discussions of Ukraine’s probably because Catalans spent many years living under
232 Catalan

a Fascist regime. Additionally, a growing number of Cata- the early Catalans became wealthy and adopted the Latin
lans belong to Protestant sects. language and culture.
In the fifth century, Germanic Goths invaded the area
when they realized Roman authority over Catalonia was
Population, Diaspora, and Migration waning. The Goths named the region Gothalonia, which
Most Catalans live in Catalonia, a region of northeast was later renamed Catalonia. Then, in the eighth century,
Spain. The Catalan population is estimated to consist of Muslim Moors overran Catalonia followed soon after by
between 8.2 million and 9 million people. This makes the the forces of Frankish king Charlemagne (742–814). How-
Catalans one of the largest stateless nations in Europe and ever, the inhabitants of Catalonia later united to conquer
the largest non-Castilian Spanish population (Minahan other parts of what is now Spain—Muslim-ruled Valen-
2016). Of the total Catalan population, 70 percent live in cia and the Balearic Islands. In the ninth century, Cata-
and around the Catalonian capital, Barcelona (McDonogh lonia became an independent state called the County of
2011). Large Catalan communities also exist elsewhere in Barcelona.
Spain (in Valencia, Aragon, Murcia, the Balearic Islands, In 1137, the Catalans entered into a dynastic union with
and Roussillon), in Paris and Languedoc-Roussillon Aragon through the marriage of Roman Berenguer IV of
in France, and in Germany. Outside of Europe, a Cat- Catalonia with Peronella of Aragon. The marriage united
alan diaspora is evident in the United States and South the two territories but benefited the Catalans more than
America. it did the Aragonese, for it allowed the Catalans to create a
Mediterranean empire.
In the thirteenth century, King Jaume I came to rule
Geography and Environment Valencia and Mallorca, and later kings conquered Menorca,
Catalonia occupies an area of northeastern Spain bordered Naples, Sicily, and Sardinia. As a result of such conquests,
by France and Andorra to the north, the Mediterranean from the thirteenth to the fifteenth centuries, a Catalan
Sea to the east, the autonomous community of Valencia to trading zone extended from the Mediterranean and Pyre-
the south, and the autonomous community of Aragon to nees as far east as the Balkan Peninsula. The wealth created
the west. The Pyrenees Mountains separate Catalonia from by this trade accompanied a golden age of Catalan arts and
France, while to the west, the foothills of the Pyrenees and culture.
the Ebro River basin separate Catalonia from Aragon. To At the start of the fifteenth century, the line of succes-
the southwest, coastal hills separate Catalonia from the sion of the counts of Barcelona ended, thereby weakening
Valencia. Catalonian leadership. Soon Aragon tried to conquer Cat-
Catalonia enjoys a Mediterranean climate featuring alonia, resulting in a devastating war from 1460 to 1472.
hot, dry summers and mild, fairly wet winters. Tradition- Ultimately, Catalonia retained its autonomy, and in 1705,
ally, Catalonia’s farming focused on growing grapevines, the Generalitat (the Catalan parliament) sought inde-
almonds, olives, rice, potatoes, and maize as well as raising pendence from Spain, unsuccessfully. During the early
pigs and cows. Catalonia is the most industrialized area of part of the War of Spanish Succession (1713–1714, wars
Spain, with textile, paper, chemical, and metal production contesting the Spanish crown), Barcelona fell to the forces
being concentrated in and around Barcelona. The region of Archduke Charles of Austria (supported by Great Brit-
also houses car-part production factories and petroleum ain and the Netherlands) when his fleet anchored in the
refineries. Catalonia has excellent transport links, partly Barcelona port and troops were deployed around the city.
because the region is a major tourist destination. The newly defeated Catalans supported the archduke
against Philip V of Spain (backed by France). The Siege
of Barcelona occurred toward the end of the war and
History and Politics saw the Catalan army on the losing side, resulting in cen-
Catalonia has been inhabited for millennia. In 600 BCE, turies of Catalan repression by Spain during which the
the region’s resident Iberian tribes were invaded by the Catalan language was banned. The Catalans that tried to
ancient Greeks. Then, in the third century BCE, Carthagin- defend Barcelona were buried in a cemetery (now a pub-
ians co-led by Hannibal overran the area. In 218 BCE, the lic memorial square) called Fossar de les Moreres. Cat-
Roman Empire absorbed the region. Under Roman rule, alans gather at this location annually on September 11.
 Catalan 233

Catalans know this date as la Diada, the National Day of the Fascists managed to conquer Catalonia and order the
Catalonia. execution of all members of the Catalan government. The
In the 1830s, Catalan culture began to revive, and the thought of life under Franco terrified many Catalans and
Catalan language became a major factor in the region’s caused around two hundred thousand of them to flee to the
education and publishing. This cultural and linguistic Pyrenees, where many died in Nazi concentration camps
revival reawakened Catalan nationalist feelings that, in (Minahan 2002). For the next forty years, Catalans who
turn, led to separatist rebellions from the start of the twen- remained in Catalonia suffered many repressive measures,
tieth century into the 1920s. In 1931, with the Spanish gov- including a ban on the Catalan language that especially
ernment in turmoil, Catalonia declared its independence. applied to education and publishing. During this period,
However, a compromise between the Catalan and Spanish Catalan writers, politicians, and teachers faced intimida-
leaders saw the Catalans settle for becoming an autono- tion, and nationalists groups evolved in secret.
mous community of Spain. In 1934, Catalan authorities The 1979 Statute of Autonomy revived the General-
declared the region’s independence again in the wake of itat and gave it extensive control over local government,
continual interference from Spain. However, the Spanish including educational oversight, and Catalan became
reacted by deploying soldiers to Barcelona. Catalan lead- the region’s official language alongside Castilian Spanish.
ers were arrested, and the region’s autonomy was retracted. The Spanish government also recognized Catalonia as
A leftist government came to power in Spain in 1936 and a nationality. In 1983, the Language Standardization Act
reinstated Catalonia’s autonomy. To preserve their regional was passed, encouraging the use of Catalan in all aspects
autonomy, most Catalans fought against Franco’s Fascist of Catalan life, including public administration, court pro-
forces during the Spanish Civil War (1936–1939). However, ceedings, and education. Then, in 1988, the Consorci per a

Catalan independence supporters react to news that the Catalan Parliament has voted to declare independence from Spain, October 27,
2017. Following the declaration, the Spanish government enacted emergency powers to dissolve the parliament. (Claraaa/Dreamstime
.com)
234 Catalan

Catalan Leaders Detainment

In late 2018, it was reported that Spain’s public prosecutor was seeking lengthy jail terms for nine leaders of Cata-
lonia’s independence movement on rebellion charges arising from the 2017 Catalan secession bid. The nine Catalan
politicians were jailed without bail for their role in the independence drive and remained in custody pending trial.
International reports noted in particular that the prosecutor sought the longest term of twenty-five years for Oriol
Junqueras, the leader of the pro-Catalan independence party, ERC. Subsequently, it was reported that Jordi Turull, the
former Catalan government spokesman, had been admitted to a prison hospital following weeks on hunger strike.

la Normalització Lingüistica was established to coordinate 2003, 2.2 million Catalans considered the Catalan lan-
programs promoting Catalan. guage their mother tongue, and 2.7 million Catalans spoke
In 2014, an informal symbolic referendum saw Cat- Catalan daily (Minority Rights Group International 2015).
alans vote in favor of independence. Following the 2014 Catalonia is home to several daily newspapers pub-
referendum, Catalan separatists won the 2015 regional lished entirely in Catalan, and the Balearic Islands has
election. On October 1, 2017, Catalonia’s proindepend- one Catalan-language daily newspaper. A number of
ence leaders held a full referendum, which, like the 2014 ­Spanish-language newspapers have sections or versions
vote, was declared illegal by Spain’s constitutional court. printed in Catalan. Catalan-language magazines have
Organizers of the 2017 referendum declared 90 percent of large readerships in Catalonia, Valencia, Aragon, and on
the voters voted in favor of Catalonian independence, but the Balearic Islands, some of which receive funding from
turnout at the election was only 43 percent because it was regional governments. Textbooks, children’s books, poetry,
boycotted by unionists (BBC 2018). Much acrimony sur- novels, and short stories are also published in Catalan.
rounded the referendum, and the sight of Spanish national In 1983, the Catalan Corporation of Radio and Tele-
police beating voters and politicians being jailed reminded vision was founded by regional authorities; it broadcasts
many voters of the Franco era. On October 27, 2017, amid a number of Catalan-language television and radio sta-
a feverish atmosphere, the separatist majority of the Cat- tions. A separate Catalan-language television broadcaster
alan parliament declared Catalonia’s independence. How- operates on the Balearic Islands, and Spanish national
ever, the Spanish government enacted emergency powers broadcaster RTVE also broadcasts some Catalan-language
to dissolve the parliament, sacked the parliament’s leaders, programs. There are over three hundred local independ-
and called a snap election. Subsequently, Catalan’s presi- ent television and radio stations broadcasting in Catalan.
dent, Carles Puigdemont, entered self-imposed exile in However, Catalan is used in only a small number of court
Belgium; several other proindependence politicians were proceedings.
jailed. Catalonia is home to many traditions, both old and
new. One of the most striking is the correfocs (“fire-run”),
which is a type of open-air performance during which par-
Society, Culture, and Tradition ticipants dressed as devils and monsters carry pitchforks
Central to Catalan ethnic identity is the use of the Catalan and ignite fireworks among onlookers. The correfoc trad-
language. Catalan is closer to the Provençal and Occitan ition evolved from medieval street theater, Ball de Diables,
languages or Italian than to Castilian Spanish and has which was adopted by the Catholic Church and organized
several dialects, including Catalan-Roussillonese and performances on religious occasions, including the feast of
Northwestern Catalan. Catalan is spoken throughout Cat- Corpus Christi. However, the tradition only truly became
alonia as well as on the Balearic Islands (as the Mallorquí, popular across Catalonia in the 1980s and 1990s. Another
Menorquí, and Eivissenc dialects) and in parts of Aragon. spectacular Catalonian tradition is the building of castells
Outside of Spain, Catalan is spoken in the city of Alghero (castles). For the past two hundred years, teams in Cata-
on the Italian island of Sardinia, in Andorra, and among lonia have competed at the friendly sport of building the
200,000 people in southern France (McDonogh 2011). most elaborate human tower possible. A common sight at
According to Catalan regional government statistics, in festivals in Catalonia, castells can reach up to ten “floors”
 Catalan 235

high, usually with a small child (wearing a crash helmet) end of their primary schooling. Catalan is the language of
placed at the top of the construction. The tallest castell ever education at the majority of schools in Catalonia as well
was a 3 de 10, meaning a ten-floor castell with three people as most of the region’s universities and teacher training
making up each floor. In 2010, castells were added to the colleges. The Consorci per a la Normalització Lingüistica
UNESCO Intangible Cultural Heritage List. provides adult education classes promoting the Catalan
Another important Catalan tradition is la Diada language and culture. On the Balearic Islands, around half
(National Day of Catalonia), a daylong festival com- of all nursery schools provide Catalan-language lessons,
memorating the fall of Barcelona during the War of but only a small number of these nurseries use Catalan as
the Spanish Succession. The day was first celebrated on the language of education. However, Catalan and Castilian
September 11, 1886. However, it was suppressed dur- Spanish are both compulsory school subjects, with approx-
ing the Franco dictatorship only to be revived in 1977 imately half of all Balearic state primary and secondary
during a demonstration in Barcelona before being offi- schools using Catalan as a language of teaching. Around
cially reinstated in 1980. During the commemorations, half the islands’ university courses are taught in Catalan.
nationalist groups and political parties lay flowers at In Aragon, parents have to ask in writing for their children
monuments to commemorate the Catalan leaders who to learn Catalan.
stood against the king of Spain. Catalan nationalists In 2015, Spain’s Supreme Court ruled that at least 25
often congregate at Barcelona’s Fossar de les Moreres, percent of the instruction in Catalonia’s schools had to be
where they pay homage to the city’s defenders. Through- provided in Spanish and that core academic subjects must
out la Diada, patriotic rallies and cultural events are held be taught in Spanish. Some Catalan nationalists view such
throughout Catalonia, and people wave senyeres (official reforms as an attempt to dilute Catalan culture and repress
Catalan flags) and estelades (unofficial flags favored by any moves toward Catalan independence.
proindependence Catalans). In recent years, la Diada has
increasingly become explicitly political and focused on
Catalan independence. Threats to Survival
Catalans have a tradition of strongly held regionalism. In
the post-Franco era, long-held Catalan nationalism has
Health Care and Education revived and intensified, and the Catalan capital, Barcelona,
Catalonia has good services, including healthcare powers, has become a major world city. If Catalan nationalists do
which have mostly been devolved to the regional gov- manage to achieve Catalonia’s independence, it might be
ernment. However, in recent years, the region’s political difficult for Catalonia to win international recognition
instability has resulted in healthcare services experiencing because new states usually emerge from situations where
funding cuts. Organizational changes to health care have ethnic groups have suffered recent major human rights
also been delayed because of governmental delays and abuses. In contrast, Catalonia is also one of the wealthi-
interruptions. Under recent austerity measures, the Cat- est parts of Spain, making up almost 19 percent of Spain’s
alan health department has ceased afternoon surgeries, gross domestic product (GDP) (BBC 2018).
reduced the opening hours of primary healthcare centers, During the most recent referendum crisis, the Cata-
stopped hiring cover for health professionals taking leave, lan economy suffered a downturn, leading thousands of
and closed entire floors in some hospitals to reduce staff- businesses to relocate their headquarters elsewhere. The
ing costs. Such measures have resulted in street demon- European Union has largely ignored Catalan calls for inde-
strations organized by health workers, unions, and social pendence and regards the matter as an internal Spanish
groups, with people protesting about long waiting lists, concern. The political fallout from the crisis has damaged
overcrowded emergency rooms, and overworked medical Spain’s democratic credentials. For example, the influen-
staff. tial Economist Intelligence Unit, which ranks countries
Catalan children have the right by law to receive pri- according to their level of democracy, has suggested Spain
mary education in their mother tongue, whether this is could be downgraded from a full democracy to a flawed
Catalan or Spanish. Both languages are mandatory at all democracy because of the way the government handled
levels of nonuniversity education because pupils in Cat- the situation. Only time will tell whether proindepend-
alonia are expected to be fluent in both languages by the ence Catalans press ahead with another referendum and
236 Cham

whether this will harm the region’s long-term finances or Population, Diaspora, and Migration
protect its culture and language. The Cham population consists of approximately 500,000
See also: Basque; Canarian; Galician; Occitan people (Minority Rights Group International 2015). Of
Further Reading this number, some 160,000 Chams live in Vietnam (Bray
BBC. 2018. “Catalonia’s Bid for Independence from Spain 2014). In Cambodia, the Chams are concentrated around
Explained.” BBC, January 31. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news​ Kampong Cham, Kampot, and Phnom Penh. In rural areas,
/world-europe-29478415. Chams live in their own villages, often directly next to
McDonogh, Gary Wray. 2011. “Catalans.” In Ethnic Groups of ethnic Cambodian villages. In urban areas, Chams live in
Europe: An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 63–68.
Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
clusters in Cham neighborhoods or in the suburbs of large
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth- cities. In Vietnam, the Chams inhabit central and south
nic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 1, A–C. West- central areas of the country.
port, CT: Greenwood Press.
Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa Bar- Geography and Environment
bara, CA: Greenwood. In Cambodia, the Kampong Cham province lies on the cen-
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Spain: Catalans.”
tral lowlands of the Mekong River, which forms the prov-
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, June
19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/catalans. ince’s eastern border. Kampot has a coastline on the Gulf
Wong, Alia. 2017. “Is Catalonia Using Schools as a Political of Thailand. The province is rich in arable lowlands and
Weapon?” The Atlantic, November 3. https://www.theatlantic​ has abundant natural resources, including forests, rubber
.com​ / international/archive/2017/11/is-catalonia-using​ plants, sea salt, and other minerals. Specialist products
-schools​-as-a-political-weapon/544898. grown here include Kampot black pepper and durians (a
strong-smelling fruit).
Central and South Central Vietnam are mountainous
and stretch from the sea in the east to Laos in the west.
Volcanic plateaus, beaches, sand dunes, and lagoons char-
acterize the central region.
CHAM
Current Location Vietnam; Cambodia History and Politics
Current Population 500,000
The ancestors of the Chams spoke a Malayo-Polynesian
Language Cham-Chru; Khmer language and arrived in Vietnam by oceangoing canoe
Interesting Fact Cham culture is the only mainland from Kalimatan (Borneo). Most researchers believe the
Asian culture to include elements of Chams are descended from the Sa Huynh, who occupied
Oceanic cultures.
the same area as the Chams from around 1000 BCE to
the second century CE. Over time, the Chams developed
Overview a medieval Hindu kingdom called Champa. At its height
The Chams are a Malay ethnic minority living predomi- during the ninth century, the Champa ruled land from
nantly in Vietnam and Cambodia. There are also smaller Hue, in Central Vietnam, to the Mekong Delta in the south
Cham communities in Thailand, Laos, China, Malaysia, of the country. The Chams slowly came under Indian influ-
Europe, and the United States. The Chams are also called ence and developed into an advanced kingdom that traded
the Tjam, Urang Champa, and Chiem, among other names. with Hindu Indians. After a while, the civilization spread,
The majority of Chams speak Cham-Chru language that bringing the Chams into conflict with the Khmer and Viet-
is part of the Aceh-Chamic group of Malayo-­Polynesian namese. In the tenth century, the Chams fought a succes-
languages. Some Chams also speak the Khmer. sion of wars against the Khmer, the Vietnamese, and China.
Most Chams living in Cambodia practice a distinct Additionally, the expansion of Vietnamese territory meant
form of Sunni Islam. Elsewhere, Chams may be Hindu or the Chams had to relinquish some of their land. Then, in
Buddhist. A small Cham community in China follows Shia 1145, the Khmer overran the Cham kingdom. Later, the
Islam. Chams, under their new leader, King Jaya Harivarman I,
 Cham 237

defeated the Khmer in a decisive battle at Chakling, near return to their traditional areas, where they resumed their
Phan Rang, in southern Vietnam and sacked the Khmer former occupations.
capital of Angkor.
Despite being in almost constant conflict with their
neighbors, the Chams flourished and became known for Society, Culture, and Tradition
their architectural and construction prowess. In 1471– The Chams are ethnically, culturally, and religiously dis-
1472, however, the Chams were conquered by the Vietnam- tinct from their neighbors. Traditionally a matrilineal
ese, who massacred thousands of Chams and caused many people, the Chams have become more patriarchal under
thousands more to flee, with some of the refugees settling the influence of Islam. That said, modern Cham women
in Khmer areas. Around this time, many Chams, especially often have to perform duties traditionally considered the
among the Cham elite, converted to Islam, which had been preserve of Cham men because so many Cham males
spread by Malay merchants. were killed during the reign of the Khmer Rouge, thereby
In 1822, the Vietnamese, who continued to expand their skewing the Cham sex ratio. This is particularly the case of
territory, conquered the last Cham land. Defeat by the Viet- Chams living in western areas. In Vietnam, although they
namese ended some seventeen centuries of Cham inde- are a minority group, the Chams very rarely marry the
pendence. More Cham massacres during the 1830s further Vietnamese or Khmer among whom they live.
depleted the Cham population, leaving only isolated Cham Most Chams are Muslim, but they combine their
refugee communities residing in highland areas and along Islamic faith with the traditions of Shaioita Brahminism,
the coast of the Gulf of Thailand. a religion originating from the Hinduism practiced in the
In the mid-nineteenth century, France established a Champa kingdom. Muslim Chams follow Imam San and
colonial administration in areas inhabited by the Chams. refer to themselves as the Kaum Juma’at, meaning the
The French military protected the Chams from attacks by “Friday Group.” This name refers to the fact that Cham
Vietnamese and Cambodian neighbors, resulting in the Muslims pray only on Fridays, while most other Mus-
Chams becoming loyal allies of the French. The Chams lims pray several times per day. Though a united people
also served in the French colonial army and administra- in terms of a shared history and culture, the Chams are
tion. Through their links to the French, the Chams soon divided into various religious groupings. For example,
developed connections with other Muslim groups under Muslim Cham groups include the Bani and the Utsuls,
French colonial rule. who are descended from the Cham Muslims of the island
In 1946, the French established a Cham autonomous of Hainan. Hindu Cham groups include the Balamon and
zone situated around the Cham cultural center of the town the Kaphir. In addition to observing Muslim or Hindu
of Dalat. The Cham region attracted increasing numbers practices, the Bani and Balamon also venerate their ances-
of Chams, and by 1970, the region’s population exceeded tors and various deities. Each June, the Bani, together with
one million people. During the Vietnam War, buoyed by some Balamon, observe Ramawan, a variation of the
their growing population, Cham nationalists declared the Islamic holiday of Ramadan.
founding of an independent Cham state, Champa. How- The Vietnamese government has prohibited the Cham
ever, the Vietnamese quashed the secession quickly. tradition of allowing the deceased to remain with their
During the period of the Cambodian Khmer Rouge families in residential homes for several weeks prior to
regime (1975–1979), Cham communities were executed burial. Some Cham do practice the ritual of “second bur-
en masse, with between 100,000 and 250,000 Chams mur- ial,” however. This tradition sees the remains of a corpse
dered by authorities (Minahan 2016). The Chams suffered exhumed on the anniversary of the deceased’s death before
so greatly at the hands of the Khmer Rouge that their death a feast with prayers and music is held for the dead person’s
rate was almost triple that of the general Khmer popula- friends and family together.
tion (Lim 2017). Surviving Chams were forcibly relocated Dance is an important part of the spiritual life of the
to the Cambodian countryside. Chams. Throughout the year, they hold religious feasts
From 1975, some Cham rebelled against the Khmer for their ancestors, deities, and folk heroes, with dance
Rouge in response to restrictions placed on practicing an essential component of the festivals. The music for the
Islam. The defeat of the Khmer Rouge allowed the Chams dances is played on instruments that include gongs, horns,
to practice their religion, rebuild ruined mosques, and and drums.
238 Cham

The Cham are famous for their woven textiles, which people religious freedom, including the Chams, who are
are sold in tourist markets by Cham groups living in Laos, permitted to practice Islam. The Chams also have full
Cambodia, Thailand, and Vietnam. political rights. However, many Chams feel that anti-Cham
prejudice prevalent during the Khmer Rouge era continues
and that the Chams are discriminated against (Lim 2017).
Health Care and Education In Vietnam, relations between ethnic minorities, such as
The leading causes of death in the Cambodia include the Chams, and the national government are sensitive. In
respiratory infections, dengue hemorrhagic fever, 2001 and 2004, large-scale human rights protests resulted
malaria, tuberculosis, measles, and dysentery. There are in deaths and detentions. Sporadic demonstrations and
minimum-level primary healthcare facilities in rural
­ smaller uprisings continue, and accusations of human
populations; each of the 1,049 facilities serve between rights violations by the government are frequently men-
ten thousand and twenty thousand people. These facili- tioned in minority areas. Although they are full Vietnam-
ties provide services that include consultations and pri- ese citizens, the Chams consider themselves a conquered
mary diagnosis, emergency first aid, chronic disease care, people. However, the Chams feel unable to raise the issue
maternal and pediatric care, and immunization programs. of Champa’s historical sovereignty over the South China
However, it is often the case that health centers do not Sea, for doing so would raise questions about the Chams’
provide all services because they lack staff, supplies, and lost ancestral land and may cause problems between the
equipment. Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) also Chams and the Vietnamese government.
provide disease prevention programs. Overall, Cambo­ Despite the Chams’ religious and political freedom,
dia’s healthcare system is fragmented, lacks funding and Cham culture is threatened by the linguistic and cultural
monitoring, and is poorly coordinated. People living in influences of the people among whom they live. For exam-
geographically remote areas have significant problems in ple, the Vietnamese build Buddhist temples on top of
accessing health care (WHO and Ministry of Health Cam- the ruined Cham religious sites and use the bricks from
bodia 2012). Cham fortresses to build their houses. On a positive note,
Many people in Cambodia use traditional herbal med- in 2004, the Cambodian government permitted a private
icine. During the era of the Khmer Rouge, Western health Cham radio station to broadcast programs in the Cham
care was banned, so people turned to traditional healing language for the first time, though the station was financed
methods. This medicine is provided by mediums known by the United States. In 2006, broadcasting in Cham was
as Kru Chol Ruup and Buddhist monks. Although people extended to two hours per week.
in Cambodia now have ready access to modern medicine, In 2001, there was a move by state authorities in Cambo-
traditional medicine is endorsed by the government and dia to restrict some Islamic religious practices and contact
used frequently, particularly in rural areas. between Muslims in Cambodia with those living abroad.
In Vietnam, the Vietnamese language is used in schools Although these prohibitions have since been removed,
(as well as in business and public life in general). Conse- they raised concerns among the Chams over a potentially
quently, few Chams can read and write their own language, anti-Islamic trend in government policies influenced by
and the spoken language is at risk of extinction. In Cam- the international war on terrorism.
bodia, the Cham language is not used in teaching in state See also: Khmer
schools, even in areas with large Cham populations. For
Further Reading
this reason, many Chams living outside of Phnom Penh
Bray, Adam. 2014. “The Cham: Descendants of Ancient Rul-
enroll their children in schools in southern Thailand or ers of South China Sea Watch Maritime Dispute from
in Malaysia, where languages closely related to Cham are Sidelines.” National Geographic, June 18. https://news​
used in education. Alternatively, Cham parents send their .nationalgeographic.com/news/2014/06/140616-south​
children to madrassas (Muslim education facilities). -china-sea-vietnam-china-cambodia-champa.
Lim, Alvin Cheng-Hin. 2017. “Ethnic Identities in Cambodia.”
In The Handbook of Contemporary Cambodia, edited by
Katherine Brickell and Simon Springer, 359–367. London:
Threats to Survival
Routledge.
In recent years, relative peace has descended on Cham Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the
areas. Cambodian authorities are committed to allowing Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
 Chamorro 239

Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth- of the Chamorro language, all public schools on Guam and
nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa Bar- the Northern Mariana Islands must teach the Chamorro
bara, CA: Greenwood. language as part of the school curriculum. In addition, a
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Cambodia: Cham.”
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, June
website (LearningChamorro.com) allows people world-
19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/cham. wide to discover the Chamorro language.
World Health Organization (WHO) and Ministry of Health The national symbol of the Chamorros is the latte, a rec-
Cambodia. 2012. “Health Service Delivery Profile: Cam- tangular stone pillar topped with a semicircular capstone,
bodia.” http://www.wpro.who.int/health_services/service​ which was used by the early Chamorros as foundations for
_delivery_profile_cambodia.pdf. buildings.

Population, Diaspora, and Migration

According to a 2010 census, there are 147,798 Chamorro
CHAMORRO people in total living on the Mariana Islands and the west
coast of the United States. The Chamorro are the most
Current Location Mariana Islands
populous ethnic group on Guam, where they make up 37
Current Population 147,798
percent of the population. The Chamorro are also the third
Language Chamorro; English
most populous Pacific Islander people living in the United
Interesting Fact The Chamorro are the third most States (Balajadia et al. 2008).
populous Pacific Islander people
found in the United States.
Geography and Environment
Overview The Mariana Islands are the southern part of a submerged
The Chamorro (or Chamoru) are the indigenous people of mountain range. The islands in the group’s north are con-
the Mariana Islands archipelago that comprise Guam and sidered geologically young, as they formed within the last
fourteen smaller islands that stretch northward toward five million years. In fact, the islands continue to evolve
Japan. The Mariana Islands are located in the northern through volcanic activity, a phenomenon that has been
part of Micronesia and are politically divided into two noted on several individual islands, such as Pagan, Ana-
jurisdictions of the United States: the Commonwealth tahan, and Farallon de Pajaros. The southernmost islands
of the Northern Mariana Islands and the U.S. territory in the group are older. Guam, for example, is nearly thirty
of Guam. Large Chamorro communities also exist in the million years old. The southern islands were formed from
United States, notably in the states of Hawaii, California, volcanic rocks overlain with limestone derived from coral.
Washington, Nevada, Texas, Tennessee, and Oregon. As a result of consistent tectonic activity and fluctuating
The Chamorro language is part of the Malayo-­ sea levels, many of the southern islands rise high above sea
Polynesian subgroup of the Austronesian family. As the level, jutting out in the form of cliffs and terraces. By way
Spanish colonized Guam for around three hundred years, of contrast, the lowest point on earth, the Mariana Trench,
many Chamorro words derive from Spanish, and Spanish is located close to the Mariana Islands and takes its name
numbers have supplanted the traditional Chamorro num- from them.
ber system. Some academics also suggest that the name The Mariana Islands are part of a geological structure
Chamorro likely derives from the Old Spanish word cham- known as the Izu-Bonin-Mariana Arc, a tectonic plate con-
orro meaning “shaven headed,” as high caste Chamorros vergent boundary that features a subduction zone that is
used to display a shaven head. This hairstyle is demon- the site of frequent seismic activity, including earthquakes.
strated by an iconic statue of Guam’s first Catholic chief, However, as the subduction occurs slowly underneath the
Quipuha (d. 1669), which shows the chief with shorn hair Mariana Islands and far beneath the Philippine plate, the
save for a tuft at the crown of his head. effects of the area’s earthquake activity is not that noticea-
Chamorro is frequently spoken in Chamorro homes, ble on the surface of the Mariana Islands.
but it is spoken increasingly infrequently on Guam, where The Mariana Islands have a warm, humid climate
English is the official language. To prevent the extinction throughout the year. From December to April, the trade
240 Chamorro

winds are at their strongest, which lessens the humidity. Chamorro population. The Spanish relocated the Cham-
The driest month of the year is March, and the wettest orros living on the Northern Mariana Islands to Guam to
month is September. The Mariana Islands are located in the accelerate cultural assimilation and to hasten the islanders’
area known as Typhoon Alley. Typhoons often threaten the conversion to Christianity. At the same time, the Spanish
Mariana Islands, and the cyclonic storms bring with them imported settlers from the Philippines and the Caroline
high winds and stormy seas that can cause severe damage Islands to repopulate the northern islands. Eventually, the
on the islands. In 2002, for example, Typhoon Pongsona Chamorros were allowed to return to the Northern Mar-
left several hundred families homeless and caused outages iana Islands, and today both Chamorros and Carolinians
of electricity, clean water, and telecommunications that are considered indigenous to the islands.
lasted for several weeks. The typhoon’s storm surge also The United States claimed Guam in 1898 during the
caused moderate beach erosion and wrecked crops, a fuel Spanish-American War. Spain’s defeat in the war also led
pier, and a loading pipeline. to Spain selling the Northern Mariana Islands to Germany
The Mariana Islands’ varied topography features coasts under the terms of the 1899 German-Spanish Treaty. The
fringed by reefs, coastal plains, and some higher areas. Northern Mariana Islands were invaded by Japan dur-
The islands have fairly dense vegetation, and some of the ing World War I, and the United States administered the
islands are heavily forested. Many of the islands also have Northern Mariana Islands.
areas of grasslands and cryptogams such as ferns, mosses, Then, during World War II, within hours of the attack
and fungi, thrive in the islands’ damp climate. on Pearl Harbor, Japan launched an invasion of Guam
from the Northern Mariana Islands. The Chamorros living
on Saipan, Tinian, and Rota as well as those living on the
History and Politics Northern Marianas Islands (who had been living under
According to Chamorro folklore, everyone in the world is Japanese administration since World War I) were trans-
descended from a soul that escaped torture inside the vol- ported to Guam to work as translators for the invading Jap-
cano at Mount Sasalaguan, Guam. However, ethnologists anese authorities. Some of the Chamorros that assisted the
believe that while many Chamorros have European herit- Japanese treated the Guamanian Chamorros harshly dur-
age, the Chamorros are primarily of Austronesian descent ing the Japanese occupation of the island (National Park
and are most closely related to the Austronesian-speaking Service n.d.). This cruelty created a lasting rift between the
indigenous peoples of Taiwan, the Philippines, and the Car- Guamanian Chamorros and those living on Saipan, Tinian,
oline Islands (an archipelago of tiny Pacific islands lying Rota, and the Northern Marianas Islands. Indeed, the rift
north of New Guinea). Ethnobotanists support this theory, was the main reason Guamanians rejected the reunifica-
for they point out that plants introduced by the Chamorros tion referendum that was approved by the inhabitants of
to the Marianas Islands, such as breadfruit, taro, sugarcane, the Northern Mariana Islands during the 1960s.
yams, and mangoes, can all be found in Southeast Asia.
The Chamorro may have arrived on the Mariana Islands
as early as 2000 BCE. Through radiocarbon dating, archae- Society, Culture, and Tradition
ologists have discovered that the people have inhabited The Mariana Islands’ long history of colonialism has all but
Saipan (one of the most southerly Mariana Islands) from eradicated the Chamorros’ memory of their indigenous
1527 BCE. Other southerly Mariana Islands (Guam, Rota, heritage. Until the 1970s, Chamorro indigenous history
and Tinian) have been inhabited since around 1700 BCE. was not taught in schools, and when the story of Chamor-
In 1521 CE, the famous circumnavigator Ferdinand ros’ past was studied, it went back only as far as the Spanish
Magellan became the first European to make contact colonial period of Chamorro history.
with the Chamorro. After this initial contact, the Mariana Today, Chamorro life is highly influenced by Spanish
Islands became a stopover for ships where they could take culture and Catholic practices, with fiestas and Spanish
on supplies. Then, in 1668, a Jesuit mission was established and Catholic life customs all being regarded as extremely
on the islands that led to nearly three hundred years of important by the Chamorros. The influence of Spanish
Spanish colonialism. All aspects of Chamorro culture culture can also be seen in the near disappearance of the
were influenced by Spanish colonialism. In addition, for- Chamorros’ traditional dance styles, which have been
eign diseases imported by the colonialists decimated the almost totally replaced by the batsu (Spanish waltz). The
 Chamorro 241

Spanish influence on Chamorro dance declined as the (CIG), a private practice physician group, provides special-
American influence on Guam took hold at the end of the ized cancer treatment such as chemotherapy. These facili-
nineteenth century. The influence of the United States saw ties are important, as cancer is the second leading cause of
the Chamorros start to enjoy big band music as played by death for all residents of Guam, including the Chamorro
navy bands as well as ballroom, ragtime, and flapper dance (Balajadia et al. 2008). The most commonly diagnosed
styles. Later, the cha-cha, tango, rock ’n’ roll, and jitterbug cancers in Chamorro women are breast cancer, colorectal
also became popular in the wake of World War II. Indeed, cancer, and lung cancer, with lung cancer being the lead-
by the end of World War II, the Spanish dances that became ing cause of cancer death among Chamorro women. The
popular during the Spanish colonial period had come to be most frequently diagnosed cancers, and also the cancers
regarded as traditional Chamorro dances. causing the most deaths among Chamorro men, are lung
Family is of central importance to modern Chamorro cancer, prostate cancer, colorectal cancer, and nasopharyn-
culture, with virtually all social events (christenings, wed- geal cancer. The frequency of cancer among the Chamorro
dings, funerals, and so on), revolving around the family. has led healthcare providers to suggest that, among other
Older Chamorros depend on their families to look after things, there is a need for healthcare professionals working
them, and the Chamorros feel responsible for their senior among the Chamorro to have greater training in chemo-
family members because they understand the importance therapy and palliative care.
of shared obligation in regard to kinship groups. The education system of the Mariana Islands is very sim-
ilar to the U.S. public school system. Education is compul-
sory for pupils aged six to eighteen years. In the early 2000s,
Health Care and Education the area’s public school system had fifteen schools, of which
Archaeologists have found evidence that throughout his- eleven taught provided primary education. The school year
tory the Chamorro have been a strong people who enjoy runs from August to June, with classes running from 7:30
good health, except for issues such as yaws (a tropical a.m. to 2:00 p.m. in elementary school and from 8:15 a.m.
infection of the skin, bones, and joints), arthritis, anemia, to 3:10 p.m. in high school. There are also fifteen private
and dental disease. Traditionally, the Chamorro believed schools in the Mariana Islands offering primary and second-
that disease is either naturally occurring or caused by ary education. In 1995, the pupil–teacher ratio on the Mari-
spirits. For this reason, the Chamorro feel it is necessary ana Islands was around twenty-one to one (Villena-Alvarez
to respect the ancient spirits of the islands (taotaomona). and Villena 2017). The Mariana Islands public school system
They believe that if their relationship with the taotaomona offers bilingual education and Head Start for children under
is not maintained, then disease will become rife. To combat six years of age. Head Start is a federally funded program
disease, Chamorros would seek medical advice from suru- that provides comprehensive services to income eligible
hana (female) and suruhanu (male) healers. These names children. On the Mariana Islands, the Head Start program is
derive from the Spanish word cirujano, meaning “sur- based at ten centers—one on Tinian, two on Rota, and seven
geon” or “doctor.” The traditional healing methods of the on Saipan. The program offers sessions four days a week and
suruhana/suruhanu involved using natural plants, roots, teaches 462 children, including those with disabilities.
and flowers as well as body lotions, massage, and dietary The Mariana Islands has one postsecondary educa-
advice. Over time, these traditional healing methods have tional establishment, Northern Mariana College, which
merged with American attitudes to health, so today the offers programs in arts and science. If students wish to
Chamorro often combine Western medicine with advice study further, they usually enroll at the University of Guam
and treatments from traditional healers. or the University of Hawaii.
On the island of Guam, Western-style medical care is
available through a civilian hospital as well as three public
health clinics and private practitioners. The island also has Threats to Survival
a Breast and Cervical Cancer Screening Program supported Recently, there have been negotiations between the United
by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention States and Japan surrounding the relocation of several
(CDC) that pays for screenings for uninsured and under- thousand U.S. marines and their families from Okinawa
insured women (but does not cover treatment if a woman (Japan) to Guam. To accomplish this mass relocation, the
is found to have cancer). The Cancer Institute of Guam U.S. military would also import outsiders to facilitate the
242 Chechen

transfer and build the necessary infrastructure. Bodies Taimanglo, Patricia L. G. 2010. “The Chamorro People of Guam.”
such as the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) have American Psychological Association, August. http://www.apa​
raised concerns about the relocation’s environmental and .org​/pi/oema/resources/communique/2010/08/chamorro​
-people​.aspx.
social impact on Guam. The social impact includes over- U.S. Census Bureau. 2012, May. “The Native Hawaiian and Other
crowding and overburdening the island’s education and Pacific Islander Population: 2010.” https://www.census.gov​
healthcare systems and social service agencies. Competi- /prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-12.pdf.
tion for housing and jobs would be heightened, and there Villena-Alvarez, Juanita, and Victoria Villena. 2017. “North-
is a fear that building more homes will destroy the island’s ern Mariana Islands.” StateUniversity.com. http://education​
environment. For instance, one area suggested for redevel- .state​university.com/pages/1120/Northern-Mariana-Islands​
.html.
opment, Pagat, is the location of one of the most significant
sites of archaeological evidence pertaining to the Cham-
orro people. The area is also a freshwater source.
Somewhat ironically, one thing that may prevent the
large-scale relocation of U.S. marines to Guam is the cur- CHECHEN
rent threat presented by the North Korean dictatorship.
Guam lies within range of North Korea’s medium- and Current Location Russian Federation
long-range missiles, making it a logical target for the North Current Population 1,268,989
Korean military. Obviously, any missile strike against U.S. Language Chechen
forces on Guam would also affect the Chamorro living on Interesting Fact The Boston Marathon bombers were
the island, and a nuclear strike would presumably affect all Chechen.
of the Mariana Islands for years to come.
The Chamorro are also threatened by climate change. Overview
Small increases in global temperatures may severely
The Chechens are a Sunni Muslim ethnic group indige-
impact coral reefs and consequently also affect the marine
nous to the Caucasus Mountains. Chechens refer to them-
and coastal environments of the Mariana Islands. Mean-
selves as the Vainakh or the Nokchi. The Chechen language
while, increasing populations on the islands would require
is an ancient tongue belonging to the northeastern branch
enlarged landfill sites. However, these sites can result in
of the Caucasian language family. The language is unre-
contaminated groundwater, as occurred on Saipan, lead-
lated to any other Indo-European language. The Chechen
ing to disease among islanders and endangering protected
national psyche has been shaped by the people’s history of
animal species. Environmental change may also increase
persecution and conflict.
the frequency of typhoons, and so the Chamorro would
face extremely powerful storms more often than at present.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
See also: Anutan; Moriori; Nauruan; Rapa Nui; Torres
The Chechens are the largest Muslim group in Russia.
Strait Islanders
According to the 2010 Russian census, the Chechen pop-
Further Reading ulation measures 1,268,989 people (CNN 2017), though
Balajadia, Ronald G., Lari Wenzel, Jimi Huh, Jamie Sweningson,
several demography experts have suggested that this fig-
and F. Allan Hubbell. 2008. “Cancer-Related Knowledge, Atti-
tudes, and Behaviors among Chamorros on Guam.” Cancer ure is too high given the number of Chechens killed in
Detection and Prevention 32 (Suppl 1): S4–S15. https://www​ recent conflict.
.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2441600. The majority of Chechens inhabit the North Cauca-
Cunningham, Lawrence J. 1992. Ancient Chamorro Society. Hon- sus part of the Chechen Republic (usually referred to as
olulu, HI: The Bess Press. Chechnya), a state of the Russian Federation. Some Chech-
Herle, Anita, Nick Stanley, Karen Stevenson, and Robert L.
ens also live in neighboring Dagestan.
Welsch, eds. 2002. Pacific Art: Persistence, Change, and Mean-
ing. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press.
National Park Service. n.d. “Great Shrine Island: The Japanese
Geography and Environment
Occupation of Guam.” War in the Pacific: The First Year.
https://www.nps.gov/parkhistory/online_books/npswapa​ Chechnya is located in the eastern North Caucasus, which
/extContent/wapa/guides/first/sec4.htm. is situated in the southernmost part of Eastern Europe
 Chechen 243

around sixty-two miles from the Caspian Sea. It is sur- strengthening of Chechen clans and the formation of reli-
rounded on nearly all sides by Russian Federation. In the gious brotherhoods.
west, Chechnya borders North Ossetia and Ingushetia, to Assimilation attempts were especially frequent during
the north by Stavropol Krai, in the east by Dagestan, and the early years of the Soviet era when authorities tried
to the south by Georgia. The capital city of the Chechen to minimize ethnic identity. During the first few decades
Republic is Grozny. of the Soviet era, Chechen leaders were executed, and a
The recent history of armed conflict in Chechnya has scheme enforcing the collectivization of Chechen property
affected the country’s environment. Rivers are badly pol- was implemented. During the early part of the soviet era,
luted by oil and sewerage that spews from pipes damaged Chechnya remained one of the least developed Russian
by fighting. Illegal logging is destroying the country’s regions.
dense forests, and forest guards have been killed in areas The Chechens suffered greatly under the rule of Soviet
near Grozny after stepping on land mines. There are also leader Joseph Stalin. On February 23, 1944, Stalin ordered
fears that Chechnya suffers from chemical and radioactive the deportation of every single Chechen from their home-
pollution caused by chemical plants and laboratories being land along with other indigenous minorities, including the
bombed during fighting. Many Chechen doctors have Ingush, Crimean Tatars, and Balkars, as punishment for
claimed that increasing numbers of Chechen babies and alleged collaboration with Nazi Germany. This was despite
children are displaying genetic abnormalities that stem the fact that many Chechens fought in the Soviet Red
from such pollution. Army. As a result of the decree, the entire Chechen pop-
ulation was forcibly deported from their mountain homes
to Central Asia. According to KGB documents released in
History and Politics the 1990s, one in three Chechens died as a result of the
The Chechens are among the oldest people in Europe. The deportation. In total, around 459,486 people were sent
early Chechens followed animist and pagan religions but to Central Asia, with at least 20 percent dying during the
converted to Sunni Islam in the seventeenth and eight- train journey (Minority Rights Group International 2017).
eenth centuries under the influence of missionaries that At the same time, back in Chechnya, Chechen villages
visited from Dagestan. Specifically, the Chechens, like were burned, people that had escaped deportation were
many other indigenous peoples living in the North Cau- executed en masse, and anyone that managed to survive
casus, adopted a mystical form of Islam known as Sufism deportation and slaughter died from disease, starvation, or
that melded elements of traditional Sunni Islam with exposure due to the destruction of their village homes.
ancient pagan philosophies. Most of the Chechens deported to Central Asia were
The Chechens clashed with Russia for the first time in transported to the frozen wastelands of Kazakhstan. Here,
the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, when the north those Chechens that survived deportation gradually began
flank of Russia’s Cossack forces started to encroach on the to rebuild their lives. In the meantime, tens of thousands
North Caucasus. Dynamic guerilla leaders such as Imam of Russians moved into formerly Chechen areas, place
Shamil unified the Chechens with other nearby Muslim names were changed to remove any Chechen associations,
groups in a jihad against the Russian Empire. The Rus- mosques and cemeteries were destroyed, and books writ-
sians responded to the resistance by instigating a bru- ten in Chechen were burned. In 1957, Soviet leader Nikita
tal scorched-earth operation that saw Chechen villages Khrushchev released the Chechens from exile, prompt-
burned down and villagers massacred. The Russians also ing many Chechens to head back to their former home-
destroyed Chechen forests in which rebels might hide and land. Once they arrived, the returning Chechens clashed
built fortresses in Chechen cities such as Grozny to sub- with the Russians that had settled in the area. The clashes
due the Chechens. In 1861, Shamil and the rebel Chechens lasted on and off for many years, but this did not deter the
were defeated, but the Chechens living in the Caucasus Chechens from settling in their homeland. The resettled
highlands resisted Russian rule and rebelled several times. Chechens faced discrimination in their homeland. Chech-
Nonetheless, over the years, Russia attempted to assim- ens were the largest ethnic group in the Chechen-Ingush
ilate the Chechens into mainstream Russian society. In Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (the name for the
the 1920s and 1930s, Russians began to move to Chechen region since 1936), but ethnic Russians administered the
areas in great numbers, and the immigration produced a republic. In addition, although the Chechen capital of
244 Chechen

Grozny grew to be the largest city in the North Caucasus, Caucasus. As part of their operations, the rebels inflicted
Chechens were denied residency in the city. Chechens also a number of attacks on Russian civilians, including the
faced prejudice in the workplace and at schools, and many 2002 hostage siege at the Nord-Ost theater in Moscow,
anti-Islam campaigns targeted the Chechens. in which 700 people were held hostage and 129 hostages
The fall of the Soviet Union in 1991 allowed Chechen eventually killed, and the Beslan school siege in 2004, in
nationalists to declare Chechnya an independent state which 1,200 people, including children, were held hostage.
known as Ichkeria. This declaration riled Russian president At least 335 hostages, including 156 children, died dur-
Boris Yeltsin, who feared that Chechnya’s independence ing the Beslan siege (CNN 2017). These events, as well as
would create a domino effect leading to the breakaway of various other rebel operations, including a suicide bomb-
other Muslim former Soviet states close to Chechnya. In ing on the Moscow subway, drew global criticism. Rebels
response to the Chechen declaration of independence, the also assassinated Ahmed Kadyrov in 2004. Kadyrov was
Russians invaded Chechnya in 1994 to force Chechnya to an influential Chechen mufti who swapped sides to sup-
return to Russian control. The Russians thought any result- port the Russians before becoming president of Chech-
ing conflict would be short-lived, but Chechen resistance nya in 2003. Kadyrov’s son, Ramzan, ruled Chechnya as
members managed to destroy invading Russian forces and a pro-Russian president from 2007. Russia capitalized on
launched a full-on partisan war. Russia withdrew from the Chechen rebels’ loss of popular support in the wake
Chechnya in 1996, but not before around 35,000 Chechens of the Moscow theater hostage taking and Beslan school
had been killed in the conflict along with 7,500 Russian siege by installing a pro-Russian regime that managed
soldiers (Williams 2011). to hunt down and execute influential rebellious figures,
The withdrawal proved a humiliation for Russia, which including former president Mashkadov and Basayev. At
then signed a deal with Chechnya granting de facto inde- the same time, Russia has tried to link Chechen resistance
pendence. This deal did not bring peace to Chechnya, to Wahabi radicalism and the global war on terrorism by
however, for the nation fell into a state of lawlessness and associating Chechen rebels with al-Qaeda. However, links
political instability as moderate Chechen president Aslan between the two groups are tenuous at best and seem to
Mashkadov strove for supremacy with radical Chechen rest on the fact that an Arab volunteer group joined the
figures such as military hero Shamil Basayev. Chechnya Chechen resistance movement.
soon fell into state of anarchy that spread to other nearby Russia declared the second Russo-Chechen War over
Russian republics. Russia noted the spreading social unrest in 2008, though low-level rebellion continues in neighbor-
and used it as a pretext to invade Chechnya once more. One ing Ingushetia and Dagestan. The peace that the Chechens
event that helped Russia decide to invade Chechnya again are currently experiencing has come at a price, however,
was an incursion into Dagestan by a thousand Chechen for Kadyrov has been accused of countless crimes against
and Arab raiders led by Basayev in August 1999. The sec- humanity, including the assassination of journalists and
ond event prompting the Russian reinvasion was a series political opponents (Williams 2011). Today, Chechens
of bombings across Russia that the new Russian president exist in a sort of limbo state, officially part of the Russian
Vladimir Putin blamed on dissident Chechens. Federation yet in reality an independent state ruled by
In October 1999, Russia invaded Chechnya once again, Kadyrov and his pro-Russian militia.
thereby initiating the second Russo-Chechen War. Ini-
tially, the Russian invaders were thwarted by numerous
ambushes perpetrated by Chechen rebels amid the lab- Society, Culture, and Tradition
yrinthine streets of Grozny. In February 2000, however, Chechens are famous for their elaborate three-day wed-
Russia prevailed and managed to push into and destroy dings. Chechens take marriage very seriously, as they con-
Grozny, but not before Chechen guerillas had escaped the sider a wedding to be the first step in the creation of a new
city and made their way to the forests and mountains of family. According to tradition, the family background of a
southern Chechnya. The rebels continued to attack Rus- future bride should be checked over three generations to
sian forces periodically, but the rebels eventually began avoid any possible incestuous link between the betrothed.
to lose their momentum. Chechen rebels continued to In addition, the groom’s family checks the bride’s friends,
operate both within Chechnya and throughout the North relatives, and neighbors for suitability. The groom has to
 Chechen 245

accrue a sum of money before the wedding because his claim that Chechen authorities have killed a hundred gay
family has to pay a bride-price. Since the groom also pays Chechen men in facilities likened to concentration camps.
for the wedding, it is traditional for only his family to be In the face of growing Chechen homophobia, many gay
guests at the wedding ceremony. men have managed to escape from Chechnya to seek asy-
On the eve of a wedding, the bride-to-be undergoes a lum elsewhere in Europe and in Canada. In April 2017, the
ritual bath in herbal water during which her skin is cleaned U.S. State Department issued a strongly worded response
and symbolic patterns are painted on her back and arms. to Russian and Chechen leaders that condemned the vio-
Next, the woman’s mother and aunt pin a new needle to lence perpetrated against the LGBT community.
the hem of her wedding dress to protect the bride from the
evil eye. The bride is also given beans, maize, apricots, or
peaches to symbolize that she will soon become a mother. Health Care and Education
On the day of the wedding, the bride is collected from her The North Caucasus region, particularly Chechnya (as well
home by a procession of people that includes friends of the as Ingushetia and North Ossetia), is experiencing an ongo-
bridegroom in a form of mock kidnapping. Traditionally, ing humanitarian crisis marked by social instability, con-
the best man then leads the bride around a lit fire three flict, and poverty. Health systems in the areas are unable to
times while surrounded by the bride’s friends who are meet the demands of the 1.5 million people affected by the
singing hymns. The best man then breaks a rope or chain humanitarian crisis, of whom 50,000 are being internally
to signify the parting of the woman from her family. The displaced. In addition, 27,000 people are living in tempo-
bride is then taken to the bridegroom’s house, where she rary accommodation centers in Chechnya (WHO 2017).
must step over a rug. A Chechen wedding is performed by Because of poor living conditions, such as a shortage of
a mullah in accordance with Muslim wedding rites, first in safe drinking water, lack of sanitation, overcrowding, and
the bride’s home and then at the groom’s house. poor waste removal, communicable diseases such as tuber-
In 2016, President Kadyrov complained that Western culosis (TB) are a major health issue facing the Chechens.
wedding customs were beginning to undermine wedding Migration to and from Chechnya of TB-infected people
traditions in Chechnya. The president singled out skimpy increases the risk of the disease spreading. In addition,
clothing, the drinking of alcohol, celebratory gunfire, people who return to Chechnya partially treated for TB
dancing, and the newlyweds’ cutting their wedding cake often do not take follow-up medicines, thereby increasing
together as especially unwelcome Western wedding tradi- the risk of drug resistance and subsequent disease spread.
tions. The president also suggested that brides should not The main health priorities in the North Cauca-
dance at their weddings. sus are maternal and child health, communicable and
Chechen society is ultraconservative and based around ­vaccine-preventable disease control, tuberculosis control,
strong codes of family and clan allegiance as well as Islam. sexually transmissible infections and HIV/AIDS control,
These factors mean that homosexuals in Chechnya face rebuilding health facilities, and the provision of mental
a great deal of homophobia. Chechens consider it a stain health services, psychosocial rehabilitation, and antiper-
against an entire family to have a gay relative, and mem- sonnel land mine victim support.
bers of a gay man’s extended family will find it hard to In 2002, it was reported that two hundred thou-
marry because the entire family will be considered tainted. sand children went to school in Chechnya, where they
Many gay Chechens lead double lives or suppress their were taught by fourteen thousand teachers. There were
feelings by getting married so as not to cause problems for also three functioning higher education establishments
their families. (ReliefWeb 2002). Russian is the main language of pri-
Recently, there have been claims that gay men have mary education in Chechnya, though in more rural areas,
been murdered by their families after being “outed” as classes may be taught in both Russian and the Chechen
gay by Chechen authorities. In addition, Chechen author- language. In addition, some Chechen-language textbooks
ities are housing gay men in detention centers, where the have started to be printed. In recent years, it has also been
men suffer beatings and electroshock treatment—torture reported that the line between history of religion and reli-
that is designed to force the men to reveal the names of gious education is becoming blurred; Chechen schoolchil-
other gay men. Numerous reports in Western media also dren are being taught courses on Islam that focus on the
246 Chewa

history of Islam and how to act as a Muslim. According to CHEWA

Russian media, between 99 percent and 100 percent of all
Chechen pupils are taking part in these lessons, despite a Current Location Malawi; Zambia
call from Vladimir Putin that schools should remain secu- Current Population 1.5 million–over 2 million
lar (Reuters Staff 2012). Language Chicewa (Chinyanja or Banti)
Interesting Fact The first president of Malawi, Hast-
Threats to Survival ings Banda, was a Chewa.
According to some analysts, Chechens rebels are increas-
ingly militant, less willing to negotiate with Russia, and Overview
more inclined toward Islamic fundamentalism. Further- The Chewa, also called the Chichewa, Nyanja, Achewa,
more, reports have suggested that splits are appearing Cewas, or Masheba, among other names, are an ethnic
within Chechen rebel groups. Some rebels support the group living in Malawi and Zambia. The Chewa speak a
establishment of a self-governing Chechen republic as a Bantu language called Chicewa (or Chinyanja or Banti).
nation-state, while other rebels would prefer to see the Most Chewa are Christian, belonging especially to the
establishment of an Islamic state incorporating all of the Roman Catholic Church and the Church of Central Africa
North Caucasus region, of which Chechnya would be part Presbyterian. There are also Chewa Anglicans, Baptists,
(Minority Right Group International 2017). Whether the and Seventh-day Adventists. A minority of Chewa are
two rebel factions can come to share a common purpose Sunni Muslim, and some Chewa in remote areas practice
or head into further Chechen conflict has yet to be seen. the people’s traditional religion.
See also: Avar; Ingush; Izhorian; Lak; Lezgin; Udmurt; Vep
Further Reading
Bakke, Kristin M. 2015. Decentralization and Intrastate Strug-
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
gles: Chechnya, Punjab, and Québec. New York: Cambridge Estimates of the total Chewa population vary from around
University Press. 1.5 million people (Shoup 2011) to over 2 million (Asanta
Cable News Network (CNN). 2017. “Chechnya Fast Facts.” CNN, 2009). The Chewa make up around 57 percent of the pop-
October 4. http://edition.cnn.com/2013/10/17/world/europe​
ulation of Malawi, where they are the largest ethnic group.
/chechnya-fast-facts/index.html.
Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Russian Federation: In Zambia, the Chewa are the third-largest ethnic group
Chechens.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous (Shoup 2011). In Malawi, the Chewa are mainly concen-
Groups. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/chechens. trated in the central region, surrounding the country’s
ReliefWeb. 2002. “UNESCO Discusses the Problem of Educa- capital of Lilongwe, and in areas such as Dedza, Kasungu,
tion in Chechnya.” ReliefWeb, March 27. https://reliefweb​ Dowa, Ntchisi, Mchinjui, Ntcheu, Salima, and Nkhota Kota.
.int/report/russian-federation/unesco-discusses-problem​
During the 1980s, droughts forced many rural Chewa to
-education-chechnya.
Reuters Staff. 2012. “Islam Comes to the Classroom in Russia’s move to Malawi’s few urban areas.
Chechnya.” Reuters, October 22. https://www​.reuters​.com​
/article/us-russia-chechnya-islam​/islam-comes​-to​-the​-class​
room-in-russias-chechnya-idUSBRE​89L0​BQ​2012​1022. Geography and Environment
Walker, Shaun. 2017. “Chechens Tell of Prison Beatings and
Malawi is a landlocked country in southeast Africa. It is
Electric Shocks in Anti-Gay Purge: ‘They Called Us Ani-
mals.’” The Guardian, April 13. https://www.theguardian​ bordered by Tanzania to the north, Lake Malawi to the
.com/world/2017/apr/13/they-called-us-animals-chechens​ east, Mozambique to the east and south, and Zambia to
-prison-beatings-electric-shocks-anti-gay-purg. the west. Lake Malawi accounts for over a fifth of Malawi’s
Williams, Brian Glyn. 2011. “Chechens.” In Ethnic Groups of total area. Malawi has a varied landscape comprising four
Europe: An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 68–72. basic regions: the Great Rift Valley, the central plateaus, the
Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
highlands, and the mountains. The Great Rift Valley is a
World Health Organization (WHO). 2017. “Russian Federation:
North Caucasus: Chechnya.” Humanitarian Health Action. vast depression running north–south throughout Malawi
http://www.who.int/hac/donorinfo/callsformobilisation and containing Lake Malawi and the Shire River valley. The
/rus​/en/. lake’s shoreline features swamps and lagoons. The plateaus
of central Malawi, where many Chewa live, rise to altitudes
 Chewa 247

of 2,500–4,500 feet and lie to the west of the Lake Malawi they subsequently sold as slaves. The Portuguese, the
littoral. The highlands, including the Dowa highlands, the Nguni (a Bantu people of southern Africa), and Arabs also
Dedza-Kirk mountain range, and the Shire Highlands, are sold the Chewa as slaves.
predominantly isolated areas rising to 8,000 feet. Malawi’s From 1600 to 1870, various neighboring peoples
isolated mountains include the Mulanje Massif, an insel- launched warfare against the Chewa as they expanded
berg reaching 9,849 feet that is the country’s highest point. their territories. The Luba, Bemba, and Luyi attacked the
Lake Malawi is the country’s main drainage system and is Chewa from the north, and the Nguni attacked the Chewa
fed by the North and South Rukuru, Dwangwa, Lilongwe, from the south. In 1856, Arab merchants from Zanzibar
and Bua Rivers. The Shire River, the lake’s only outlet, flows supplied the Bemba with guns, and together with the
through neighboring Lake Malombe. There are two main Nguni, the Bemba decimated the Chewa.
seasons in Malawi: the dry season from May to October The Chewa were first contacted by the Portuguese dur-
and the wet season from November to April. ing the seventeenth century. Although the Portuguese
Malawi’s vegetation is diverse and includes savannah took some Chewa as slaves, they tended to leave them
grassland, sparse deciduous woodlands, and fertile pla- alone because they found the Chewa barbarous and loud
teaus. However, human activity has significantly altered (Shoup 2011). The British, however, colonized the Chewa.
Malawi’s natural vegetation. Swamps have been drained Colonization began when the Scottish missionary David
and cultivated, and woodland has been cleared; however, Livingstone traveled through Chewa areas. In 1864, Liv-
softwood forests have been planted in the highlands. High ingstone visited Nkhotakota and met the Swahili-Arab
population density and intensive farming in the highlands slave trader Salim-bin Abdullah (commonly referred to as
have also hampered natural processes. Wells have been dug Jumbe). Livingstone secured a treaty between Jumbe and
and rivers dammed to irrigate dry savannah for farming. the Chewa chiefs to stop Jumbe from taking the Chewa as
Animals that include antelopes, elephants, leopards, slaves. However, the treaty did not last long because Jumbe
lions, and zebras live in Malawi’s game reserves, and hip- continued to capture the Chewa as slaves. It was only when
popotamuses live in Lake Malawi. Lake Malawi is famed Nyasaland became a British protectorate in 1891 that the
for its remarkable biodiversity, including a huge variety area’s slave trade completely stopped (UNESCO 2011).
of fish. Originally called the British Central African Protectorate,
Among the major environmental concerns for Malawi the area’s name was changed in 1907 to the Nyasaland
are land degradation; deforestation; threats to endangered Protectorate.
species; climate change; sewage treatment; industrial pol- During World War I, British and German troops fought
lution from coal, gas, charcoal, and petrol usage; and water on Lake Malawi and also engaged on the border between
pollution involving agricultural fertilizers. their respective colonial protectorates. British victories
over the German ship operating on Lake Malawi and the
much larger German land force in 1915 did much to boost
History and Politics British morale and to bolster the standing of the British in
According to Chewa oral tradition, the Chewa originated the Lake Malawi area. In the 1950s, moves for Nyasaland’s
as the Nyanja people, who migrated to their homeland independence were set in motion because of the increas-
from Nigeria and Cameroon around 1000 CE. However, ing numbers of local people working in the protectorate’s
researchers believe that the Chewa migrated to the Lake administration. Many Chewa were educated in Britain
Malawi area in the fifteenth century, when they lived under or the United States and became interested in politics on
the Maravi chieftaincies that ultimately merged into one their return to their homeland. This led to the creation
state that straddled the borders of Malawi, Mozambique, of the Nyasaland African Congress Party, later called the
and Zambia. The Chewa established at least one kingdom, Malawi Congress Party, in 1944. In 1953, Britain united
Undi, which used trade routes that stretched into Africa’s its protectorates of Nyasaland, Northern Rhodesia, and
interior to sell fabric. To the north of Undi, there were hun- Southern Rhodesia, thereby giving increased impetus to
dreds of Chewa chieftainships that were attacked by the the Nyasaland independence movement. Subsequently,
Yao (a Bantu people living east of Lake Malawi). The Yao in the 1961 elections, the Malawi Congress Party won
took advantage of the civil wars among the many Chewa the majority of the vote, and Hastings Banda, a Chewa
chieftainships by capturing Chewa war wounded, which who had been educated in the United States and Britain,
248 Chewa

became prime minister. In 1964, Nyasaland gained full Health Care and Education
independence, and in 1966, Hastings Banda became Malawians suffer from a high prevalence of communicable
the first president  of  Malawi. Banda remained in office diseases, including malaria, tuberculosis, and HIV/AIDS,
until 1994. with an estimated eighty-five thousand new HIV infec-
tions occurring annually. Malawi has a growing incidence
of noncommunicable diseases, including hypertension,
Society, Culture, and Tradition
cardiovascular diseases, diabetes, and asthma. Tropical
The Chewa are a settled agricultural people who mainly diseases that include schistosomiasis, onchocerciasis, and
grow rice, sorghum, maize, and beans. Nsima (a dish made trachoma are increasing too. The maternal mortality ratio
from white cornmeal, meat, and vegetables) is the Chewa’s of 807 per 100,000 live births translates to thirteen moth-
staple food. Both Chewa men and women work the land, ers dying each day. Since 1985, the infant and under-five
and children go out to work from the ages of six or seven child mortality rates have reduced steadily but are still
years. Ganyu, an informal type of community employment, high. Violence (including sexual violence), physical abuse,
binds the people together in a reciprocal arrangement; for and the exploitation of women and children are reportedly
instance, if a person collects wood for someone, he or she widespread, and mental illness is an increasing issue.
can expect to be paid in corn. Malawi’s healthcare system exists at the primary, sec-
British and Portuguese missionaries converted many ondary, and tertiary levels. Community-based programs,
Chewa to Christianity, but today there are an increasing dispensaries, health centers, and community hospitals
number of Muslim Chewa. Traditionally, Chewa society provide primary health care. District hospitals provide sec-
is matrilineal, but the growing influence of Christianity ondary health care, and central hospitals provide tertiary
and Islam means the Chewa are increasingly patrilineal. care. In 2006, it was discovered that Malawian healthcare
Despite the influence of Christianity and Islam, a number facilities are so understaffed that there were just two physi-
of Chewa maintain their traditional religion that is cen- cians per one hundred thousand population and fifty-nine
tered around the Creator-God Chiuta (or Chaunta), who nurses per one hundred thousand population. Moreover,
created all living things while on Kapirintiwa Mountain, there were too few medical students to fill vacant posts.
located on the Malawi-Mozambique border. The retention of medical staff is also difficult because
The Chewa have a deep devotion to ancestral tradi- Malawi’s healthcare professionals suffer from low pay and
tions. They believe ancestors and spirits play a vital role in poor working conditions. The country’s authorities are
modern Chewa society by being in constant contact with trying to rectify the situation, however, by training auxil-
the rituals of the living world, mostly through dances per- iary nurses to fill gaps in the health service and improving
formed by members of secret societies called Nyau. For- health worker pay.
mal dances called Gule Wamkulu (meaning “big dance”) While health care is free at the point of delivery in
are a traditional Chewa religious ceremony that consists Malawi, access to health care is limited, with only 46 per-
of organized dances performed to allow the Chewa’s cent of the people living within three miles of a health-
ancestors and spirits to show in public. The dances also care facility. Authorities aim to improve this situation by
allow dancers to display their physical abilities. The peak expanding community health care, providing transport
season for Gule Wamkulu occurs in July. Masked young for referrals, and securing funds for drugs and equipment
Chewa men dress as ancestral spirits, animals, or trees to (WHO 2009).
enter a kind of spiritual state, and the dancers must not Primary education is not compulsory in Malawi, though
be touched by nonparticipants. Dancers are often asked the country’s constitution entitles all citizens to at least
to perform at important events, including Chewa births, five years of school. In 2011, the Welfare and Monitoring
weddings, and funerals. Only Chewa men who have been Survey found that 21.6 percent of people in Malawi aged
initiated into a secret Gule society may take part in the six to twenty-nine years had never been to school. The
dances. When a Chewa girl reaches womanhood, she Malawian education sector faces a number of challenges,
experience an initiation process, Chisamba, whereby she including a lack of qualified teachers, adequate classrooms,
is taken to a house and instructed in the ways of being and teaching materials. Malawian schools also often suf-
a Chewa woman, including how to perform a Chisamba fer from poor sanitation facilities. School dropouts are a
dance.
 Chiquitano 249

serious problem in Malawi; only 58.5 percent of school Overview

pupils finish the first four years of education, and the aver- The Chiquitanos, also known as the Chiquitos, Chiki-
age national dropout rate is at 10.5 percent. Across Malawi, tos, Churapas, Manasis, Paicas, Tamacocsis, and Zúbacas,
girls are more likely than boys to drop out of school because among other names, are a people indigenous to Bolivia
they marry earlier, become pregnant, or are kept home so and Brazil. Most Chiquitanos speak Spanish, though a
that they can avoid assault while walking long distances to small number also speak the people’s indigenous language
school (UNICEF n.d.). isolate Chiquitano (sometimes called Bésiro or Tarape-
cosi). The majority of Chiquitanos are Roman Catholic,
Threats to Survival though they often combine elements of shamanism with
Catholic beliefs.
While there are no imminent threats to the Chewa, envi-
ronmental issues may increasingly impact their environ-
ment and economy in the future. The Chewa also face Population, Diaspora, and Migration
challenges such as poor education levels and a lack of Populations estimates for the Chiquitanos vary from forty
health care. thousand to sixty thousand (Povos Indigenas No Brasil
See also: Aka; Bubi; Hutu and Tutsi; Tonga n.d.) to around two hundred thousand people (Minahan
Further Reading
2013). Most Chiquitanos live in the Santa Cruz Depart-
Asante, Molefi Kete. 2009. “Chewa.” In Encyclopedia of African ment in eastern Bolivia, the northern Beni Department,
Religion, edited by Molefi Kete Asante and Ama Mazama, and the provinces of Nuflo de Chavez, Velasco, Sandoval,
159–160. Vol. 1. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. and Chiquitos. Around two thousand Chiquitanos are
Gough, Amy. 2004. “The Chewa People.” Peoples of the thought to live across Bolivia’s border with Brazil in the
World Foundation. http://www.peoplesoftheworld.org/hosted​ Brazilian state of Mato Grosso, especially in the munici-
/chewa.
Shoup, John A. 2011. “Chewa.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and
palities of Vila Belam Caceres and Porta Espiridiao (Povos
the Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup, Indigenas No Brasil n.d.). Population estimates of the
69–71. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. number of Chiquitanos in Brazil are only available in the
UNESCO. 2011. “Malawi Slave Routes and Dr. David Livingstone context of surveys undertaken because of the construction
Trail.” UNESCO: The List, February 1. https://whc.unesco.org​ of the Brazil-Bolivia Gas Pipeline through their territory
/en/tentativelists/5603. and do not taken into account Chiquitanos living in urban
UNICEF. 2018. “Basic Quality Education and Youth Development
(BEYD).” UNICEF: Malawi Statistics. https://www.unicef.org​
Brazil. The Chiquitanos are the largest ethnic group in
/malawi/media/516/file/BEYD%20Statistics%20Factsheet​ Bolivia’s eastern lowland areas (Minahan 2013).
%202018.pdf.
WHO Regional Office for Africa. 2009. “WHO Country Cooper-
ation Strategy 2008–2013: Malawi.” http://apps.who.int/iris​ Geography and Environment
/bitstream/handle/10665/136059/ccs_mwi.pdf;jsessionid The Santa Cruz Department is the largest of all the Boliv-
=​E72D28B6CDEDF6DF8568155D7B4512CC?sequence=3. ian departments. The department’s topography varies
from temperate sub-Andean mountains ranges and val-
leys in the west to two lowland areas (the Beni and Chaco
lowlands) in its north and south. To the northeast lie the
flat Llanos Chiquitanos plains. Beyond these lie the low
CHIQUITANO Serranías Chiquitanas mountain ranges. In the far east
of the department lie small sections of the Pantanal wet-
Current Location Bolivia; Brazil
land, the largest tropical wetland area in the world, which
Current Population 40,000–200,000 mostly lies in the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso do Sul but
Language Spanish; Chiquitano stretches into Mato Grosso and Paraguay.
Interesting Fact Spanish colonists called the Chiq- Traditionally, agriculture, ranching, and animal hus-
uitanos Chiquitos, meaning “little bandry are the main industries in Santa Cruz, though log-
ones,” because of the small doors on ging and timber production, mining, and oil and natural
their traditional homes. gas industries are increasingly important.
250 Chiquitano

History and Politics the Jesuits. The mestizo also realized that the Chiquitanos
The earliest Chiquitanos were nomadic hunter-gatherers were financially dependent on them and exploited this
living in independent bands on South America’s fertile neediness as well. Eventually, the mestizo came to control
plains and in the region’s lush rainforests. The Chiquitanos all Chiquitano land, establishing farms and cattle ranches
were prolific hunters, killing animals for their meat, and on land that had been inhabited by the Chiquitanos.
over time, the belief in animal spirits became a major part The coming of the mestizo prompted many Chiquitanos
of Chiquitano culture. Even when the Chiquitanos began to migrate from former Jesuit villages and establish their
to make contact with the more advanced peoples of the own independent settlements, where the people live to
highland Andes, the Chiquitanos continued to follow an this day. The mestizo often inveigled the Chiquitanos into
independent, seminomadic lifestyle. Prior to 1560, the debt, which they used to control the Chiquitanos by forc-
Chiquitanos were visited by a Spanish expedition for the ing them to work on farms and ranches. The Chiquitanos
first time, but they did not welcome the intrusion and had little hope of repaying the debts or of fleeing to Chiq-
forced the Spanish to leave the area. In 1560, a Spanish uitano villages in inaccessible areas where they could be
expedition led by Nuflo de Chavez that included several free of their creditors. In the 1880s, Bolivian and Brazilian
armed members entered Chiquitano areas and defeated rubber farmers employed many thousands of Chiquitanos
the people. The Spanish tried to make the various Chiq- as forced labor workers and rubber tappers in tropical for-
uitano nomadic bands live in settled villages founded by ests. Many generations of Chiquitanos became trapped in
Roman Catholic missionaries. Some Chiquitanos did move a cycle of debt slavery tied to farms, ranches, and rubber
into the villages, but by the end of the sixteenth century, companies. Often the Chiquitano laborers died of diseases,
most Chiquitanos had abandoned the villages and had such as malaria and beriberi, while others deaths resulted
instead taken to raiding Spanish settlements. from hunger, poor working conditions, overwork, and
However, in 1692, the first Jesuit mission was estab- employer abuse (Minahan 2013).
lished on Chiquitano land. This caused a sea change in From 1945 to 1955, many Chiquitanos were hired to
Chiquitano society. Under the Jesuits, the Chiquitanos construct the railroad that would extend from the largest
again had to live in settled villages and were made to con- city in lowland Bolivia, Santa Cruz, to Corumba in Brazil.
vert to Roman Catholicism. In the years after the found- Today, many Chiquitanos still work on the railway, with
ing of the first Jesuit mission on Chiquitano territory, the the families of these railroad employees being the most
Jesuits set about establishing nine more missions on the assimilated of all Bolivian Chiquitanos.
people’s land. Since the Chiquitanos remained the major- In the 1970s, political activism spread throughout South
ity population, despite the building of the missions, the America, and a number of Chiquitano leaders founded
Jesuits decided to employ the Chiquitano language as the activist factions to protest the mistreatment of their peo-
language in which to preach and read from the Bible and ple, in particular the number of Chiquitanos working as
other religious scriptures, thereby making Chiquitano the virtual slaves. Then, in the 1990s, a new grassroots politi-
language of religious conversion with which they could cal group called the Chiquitano Indigenous Organization
reach the local people. (Organizacion Indigena Chiquitana) evolved, and it had
The Jesuits instigated a strict regime by governing the representatives in most towns and villages in which the
Chiquitanos’ labor and prayers. At the same time, however, Chiquitanos lived.
the Jesuits trained the Chiquitanos in how to protect them- In the 2000s, increased logging activity resulted in
selves from raids by slavers, who crossed into Chiquitano attacks on the Chiquitanos. For example, in 2006, Chiqui-
land from Brazil. In 1767, all Jesuits were expelled from tano political figures and their offices in the Santa Cruz
Spanish colonies following a dispute back in Spain. By this Department were attacked, and it was blamed on a pow-
time, there were thirty-seven thousand Chiquitanos liv- erful racist group called the Comité Civico (Civic Com-
ing in Jesuit missionary villages, and another twenty-five mittee) (Minority Rights Group International 2015). In
thousand Chiquitanos had converted to Catholicism. The recent years, indigenous peoples from the Bolivian Andes
expulsion of the Jesuits allowed missionary villages to be have moved into areas in which the Chiquitanos are prev-
overrun by mestizo people, who set about exploiting the alent, thereby competing with the Chiquitanos for jobs.
Chiquitanos’ strong work ethic that had been instilled by The Bolivian government, led by Evo Morales (himself
an indigenous person from the Bolivian highlands), has
 Chiquitano 251

vowed to improve the situation for the country’s indige- The Chiquitanos remain Roman Catholic following
nous communities. However, this improvement has not their conversion by the Jesuits, with oral versions of the
been felt by the Chiquitanos, who believe government pol- Bible transmitted through generations. Despite the peo-
icies favor peoples from the Andean highlands. ple’s Christianity, the Chiquitanos put great store in sha-
mans, who are respected because they are believed to be in
contact with the natural world.
Society, Culture, and Tradition
Chiquitano culture revolves around agriculture. Most of
the people are farmers, horticulturalists, or wage laborers, Health Care and Education
though a small number work as domestic servants. Those The Chiquitanos often have difficulty in accessing health
Chiquitanos that live in traditional Chiquitano villages care because they lack transport to reach health facilities,
earn money from selling animal skins (particularly ocelot but most Chiquitano settlements have basic educational
skin), rice, eggs, chickens, and pigs. Some rural Chiqui- facilities. Some Chiquitanos welcome the building of gas
tanos also gain an income from selling woven goods such pipelines on their land, as they feel this sort of investment
as hammocks as well as ceramic pots. Chiquitanos farm- can fund community development projects, including the
ers, weavers, and ceramicists are generally wealthier than building of health centers and schools (Hindery 2013).
those that work as wage laborers on ranches or as rubber
tappers on rubber plantations.
While hunting is no longer an important food source Threats to Survival
for the Chiquitanos, they do still forage for honey and
Despite their long history of interacting with mestizo
fruits. In the main, the Chiquitanos are not able to hunt
peoples, the Chiquitanos have not assimilated into main-
because land has been cleared to make way for farms and
stream Bolivian society. As a result of this resistance to assim-
ranches, which has caused animals to leave. In addition,
ilation, the Chiquitanos maintain a strong ethnic identity.
farms and ranches are fenced off, and so the Chiquitanos
While they are most populous indigenous people of
cannot gain access to hunt any remaining animals.
lowland eastern Bolivia, the Chiquitanos have been mar-
The Chiquitanos live in stucco homes topped with
ginalized from national politics since the activist groups
palm leaves or thatched roofs. In the past, they lived in
began to protest in the 1990s. The Chiquitanos are, how-
­beehive-shaped huts that featured very low, small door-
ever, represented by several cultural and political organi-
ways to keep out mosquitos. These small doorways gave
zations. Nonetheless, violent attacks by colonists and those
rise to the Spanish name for the Chiquitanos, Chiquitos,
wishing to clear Chiquitano land for logging continue to
meaning “little ones.”
threaten the Chiquitanos. In addition, because the Chiq-
The structure of Chiquitano society is still heavily influ-
uitanos live on the Bolivia-Brazil border, they are often
enced by the Jesuit missions of the past, though instead
caught up in political and territorial disputes that are not
of being overseen by Jesuit missions, settlements are over-
their concern.
seen by local authorities. That said, most Chiquitano vil-
The Chiquitanos continue to call for an indigenous
lages tend to be self-governing, and while each village has
land of their own, a claim that is being investigated by the
an elected chief and village council, in reality, these have
National Indian Foundation of Brazil (FUNAI) in the hope
little say in village life. Chiefs and council members are
of strengthening the people’s ethnic identity further.
usually young men who are esteemed for their ability to
communicate in Spanish with non-Chiquitanos. See also: Aymara; Guaraní; Quechua
Chiquitano society is divided into sibs, each of which Further Reading
has its own family name. Sibs are headed by the eldest Green, Duncan. 2008. From Poverty to Power: How Active Citi-
male whose authority does not extend to any other sib. zens and Effective States Can Change the World. Oxford, UK:
When a Chiquitano couple wed, the husband moves Oxfam International.
Hindery, Derrick. 2013. From Enron to Evo: Pipeline Politics,
into his wife’s family home.
Global Environmentalism, and Indigenous Rights in Bolivia.
The exchange of labor is very important to the Chiqui- Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
tanos. It is common for work parties to work together to Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the America: An Ency-
construct homes, clear land, and gather in the harvest. clopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
252 Chukchi

Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Bolivia: Low- south of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug. There are also
land Indigenous Peoples.” World Directory of Minorities Chukchi communities in other parts of Russia as well as
and Indigenous Peoples, June 19. http://minorityrights.org​ in Europe and North America. The Chukotka Autonomous
/minorities/lowland-indigenous-peoples.
Povos Indigenas No Brasil. n.d. “Chiquitano: Population.” https://​
Okrug is both the second least populated federal subject
pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/chiquitano/414. and the least densely populated of the Russian Federa-
tion. Modern Chukchi society is not homogenous, being
divided into various populations, such as Chukchi groups
that live in villages along coasts, Chukchi that live in camps
in tundra areas or reindeer herding encampments, and an
CHUKCHI increasing number of urban Chukchi.

Current Location Russian Federation

Current Population 16,000 Geography and Environment
Language Russian; Chukchi The Chukchi are indigenous to the Chukchi Peninsula as
Interesting Fact The Chukchi are the butt of many well as the shores of the Chukchi Sea and the Bering Sea
derogatory Russian jokes because region of the Arctic Ocean. The Chukotka Autonomous
they are considered uneducated and Okrug is an independent federal subject of Russia situated
their culture is considered basic and in the Far East region of the country. Administratively, the
rural. Chukotka Autonomous Okrug is part of the Far Eastern
Federal District. Chukotka Autonomous Okrug is bor-
dered by the Chukchi Sea and the East Siberian Sea (part
Overview of the Arctic Ocean) to the north; by the Bering Strait and
The Chukchi (or Chukchee), also known as the Chukot, the Bering Sea (part of the Pacific Ocean) to the east; by
Chukcha, Luoravetlan, Luorawetlan, or Lygorvetlat, are a Kamchatka Krai and Magadan Oblast to the south; and
people indigenous to the Russian Federation. The name by the Sakha Republic in the west. The Chukchi Peninsula
Chukchi derives from the Chukchi word chauchu meaning points eastward, forming the Bering Strait between Rus-
“rich in reindeer.” sia and Alaska and also enclosing the northern side of the
The Chukchi speak Russian as a first language, though Gulf of Anadyr. Cape Dezhnev, the easternmost point on
around half of all Chukchi also speak the Chukchi lan- the Chukchi Peninsula, is also the easterly point of main-
guage, which belongs to the Chukotko-Kamchatkan land Russia.
language family and is one of the five Paleo-Siberian lan- The Chukotka Autonomous Okrug is divided into three
guages spoken in Far Eastern Russia that are akin to the distinct zones: the northern Arctic desert, the central tun-
languages spoken by indigenous Alaskans. The Chukchi dra, and the southerly taiga (snow forest). Around half the
are nominally Russian Orthodox, though many Chuk- Chukotka Autonomous Okrug lies within the Arctic Cir-
chi combine Christianity with indigenous shamanistic cle. Arctic areas of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug are
beliefs. extremely mountainous. The region’s many rivers spring
from its northern and central mountains. The area also has
many lakes.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration Significant areas of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug
The Chukchi population measures approximately six- have landscapes similar to that of parts of Alaska and are
teen thousand people (Minahan 2014). The majority of covered with moss and lichen. Indeed, the region is home
the Chukchi live in the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug (or to more than 900 species of plants, including 400 different
Chukotka) located in the Far Eastern region of the Rus- types of moss and lichen. Areas surrounding the Gulf of
sian Federation that lies opposite Alaska. In addition, some Anadyr and in the river valleys are home to trees such as
Chukchi live in the neighboring Sakha Republic to the larch, pines, poplars, and willow. The abundance of water
west of the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug, in the Maga- and trees makes the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug home
dan Oblast to the southwest of the Chukotka Autono- to many polar bears and walruses as well as 220 bird spe-
mous Okrug, and in the Koryak Autonomous Okrug to the cies and 30 species of freshwater fish. Despite the plethora
 Chukchi 253

of flora and fauna in the area, decades of Soviet rule have that doing so may endanger Chukchi territory and society.
significantly damaged the environment of Chukchi areas. In 2015, an obshchina (kinship-based Chukchi commu-
Huge reserves of natural resources (coal, natural gas, nity cooperative) on the Chukotka Peninsula successfully
iron ore, petroleum, and timber) exist on Chukchi land, appealed a 2013 administrative decision depriving it of its
as they do in other parts of Siberia. Outsiders have real- land. The obshchina also overturned a court ruling order-
ized that the exploitation of these resources represents a ing the obshchina to pay a fine of around $15,000 to a coal
fairly quick way to make money and are bent on develop- mining company that had ruined their land. The mining
ing mining and industry in Chukchi areas despite the fact company was not ordered to compensate the obshchina

Taiga
Taiga is a forest type found in the subarctic region of the Northern Hemisphere between tundra areas to the north and
temperate forests to the south. The world’s largest taiga is in Russia, where it stretches roughly 3,600 miles from the
Pacific Ocean to the Ural Mountains. Taiga often contains permafrost along with layers of bedrock beneath the soil.
The combination of permafrost and rock prevents water from draining from the topsoil, creating shallow bogs called
muskegs. Taigas typically contain few plants except conifers, mosses, lichens, and fungi. Many animals and birds live
in the taiga, including the world’s largest cat, the Siberian tiger.

Chukchi people enjoy festivities in Bilibino, Chukchi, Russia. In recent years, numerous Chukchi associations have been established to
try to help ensure the survival of Chukchi culture. (Avstraliavasin/Dreamstime.com)
254 Chukchi

however (IWGIA 2015). Increased frequency of oil drilling In the nineteenth century, alcohol and guns became
is another environmental concern for indigenous peoples prevalent in Chukchi society, and the Russians began to
living on the Chukchi Peninsula. Both indigenous groups demand expensive furs from the Chukchi. All three factors
and environmentalists worry that a serious oil spill in the had a damaging effect on Chukchi society. For example,
Chukchi region would have a significant environmental alcoholism became rife among the Chukchi, leading to
impact; if oil spills under thick winter ice, there is little that many deaths, and fur hunting led to the near extinction
can be done to repair the damage. of many animal species. At the same time, European dis-
eases such as smallpox also killed many Chukchi. Despite
these issues, nomadic Chukchi were able to fend off
History and Politics Russian attempts to govern them and existed as a semi-­
In ancient times, the Chukchi Peninsula formed the west- independent society well into the nineteenth century.
ern end of a land bridge connecting Asia with North The first Christian missionaries arrived on Chukchi
America. Around thirty thousand years ago, small num- land in 1815, but few locals immediately converted. The
bers of nomadic hunters crossed the land bridge while missionaries did, however, introduce European-style edu-
following mammoths and other prehistoric animals. The cation to the Chukchi, and as a result, the sons of Chukchi
nomadic groups that settled at the western end of the chiefs started to study in schools.
land bridge are the ancestors of the indigenous Siberian When Russia sold Alaska to the United States in 1867,
peoples of northeastern Russia as well as the Chukchi. Russia strengthened its hold over northeastern regions to
The first Chukchi lived as nomadic hunter-gathers and prevent American whalers and traders from encroaching
over time divided into two groups: the reindeer Chuk- in the areas. Another international event, World War I,
chi (Chauchu) and the Maritime Chukchi (Ankalyn). made little impact on the Chukchi, though the downfall
The Chauchau lived inland as nomadic herders in tundra of the Russian government and the coming of the Russian
areas, while the Ankalyn lived as maritime hunters in Revolution in the war’s wake were greeted with dismay.
coastal zones. Chukchi territory was viewed as strategically important by
In the sixteenth century, Cossacks started to arrive the revolution’s opposing sides, and in 1920, it fell to the
in Chukchi areas, where they built fortresses and subju- Reds (or Bolsheviks). Soon the Chukchi came under Soviet
gated the Chukchi in the name of the Russian czars, who control. The Soviets attempted to collectivize or confiscate
were bent on extending Russian rule into Siberia. In the Chukchi reindeer herds, to take over traditional Chukchi
mid-seventeenth century, the Cossacks began to explore hunting and fishing grounds, and to break the people’s
the far northeast of Siberia, where they constructed a belief in shamanism. However, the Chukchi resisted these
fortress at Anadyrsk and tried to make the Chukchi pay attempts, leading to many Chukchi leaders being impris-
yasak (tribute) in the form of animal furs. The Chukchi oned or executed, and regular Chukchi were forced to
were unwilling to pay this, however, and the Cossacks, resettle on collectives. In addition, by the end of the 1930s,
realizing that the Chukchi would not be easy to overcome chains of Chukchi slave labor camps had been established
militarily, changed track by offering the Chukchi a peace throughout Chukchi areas mainly populated by anti-Soviet
treaty that exempted them from paying tribute. At the dissidents, many of whom came from European Russia.
same time, to see off any attempt by other Europeans to World War II saw the Soviets relocate much of their
lay claim to the Chukchi Peninsula, the Russians claimed industry eastward to keep it safe from German aerial bom-
the coasts of the Chukchi Peninsula as well as Alaska for bardments, causing many ethnic Russian workers to move
themselves. The Russians established a few trading posts to Siberia. After the war, the Soviets accelerated industri-
in these areas, but realizing that the Chukchi were too fear- alization in Chukchi areas, resulting in Chukchi reindeer
some to subjugate fully and had access to too few furs, the herders operating on ever-decreasing tracts of land. In
Russians left the Chukchi more or less to their own devices. the 1950s, the Soviets forced many Chukchi from tundra
While the Russian Empire annexed areas inhabited by the and coastal lactations and made the people live on com-
Chukchi between 1763 and 1800, and continued to trade munal farms housed in prefabricated dwellings. As a result
in these areas until the mid-nineteenth century, the Rus- of this move, by the 1980s, the majority of Chukchi were
sians but did not try very hard to bring the Chukchi under living in poverty. Alcoholism and apathy were rife, and
their control. the people were culturally adrift, as Russian was the only
 Chukchi 255

language being spoken around them. The destabilizing of Chukchi language is that males pronounce it differently
the Soviet Union in the early 1990s led to many Russian than females; females do not pronounce r sounds because
colonists returning to western Russia, leaving the Chuk- these are considered unladylike (Minahan 2014). Older
chi to make the best of what was left of their surviving Chukchi people and the young who live in reindeer herd-
society and culture. The Chukchi started to demand their ing communities mainly speak the Chukchi language.
independence, and in February 1991, the legislature of the
Chukchi Autonomous Okrug split from Russia’s Magadan
Health Care and Education
Krai, renaming the area the Chukchi Soviet Autonomous
Republic. When the Soviet Union collapsed at the end of The Chukchi, like other Russians living in Arctic areas,
1991, the legislature dropped the word “Soviet” from their have an average life expectancy of less than fifty years. This
name and so became the Chukchi Autonomous Republic. low figure is due to the prevalence of alcoholism, tubercu-
In the main, since the collapse of the Soviet Union, the losis, and parasitic infections, problems that are linked the
Chukchi have returned to hunting, fishing, and reindeer people’s high unemployment rates.
herding. However, a significant number of Chukchi have The Chukchi language has been taught up to year eleven
abandoned their traditional occupations to work on build- in Chukchi schools since the 1990s. There are, however, no
ing sites, oil and natural gas works, and in factories. The Chukchi-language textbooks for use in secondary schools.
Chukchi have also forged links with Alaskan peoples who
deliver food aid and other forms of assistance to the Chuk- Threats to Survival
chi. These links have helped the Chukchi connect with The Chukchi face continuing issues of language assimi-
indigenous peoples living in North America. lation as their territory becomes increasingly developed
and urbanized. Increased industrialization has led to fears
among Chukchi leaders that the people’s traditional ways,
Society, Culture, and Tradition
such as reindeer herding, may become endangered. For
Chukchi culture is very similar to the culture of indige- this reason, Chukchi elders have called for the creation
nous Alaskan peoples. Nominally, the Chukchi are Russian of national parks on Chukchi land to help preserve rein-
Orthodox, but, nevertheless, shamanistic pre-Christian deer herding. Recently, a number of Chukchi associations
beliefs abound among the Chukchi. Around 2 percent of have been established to try to deal with various threats
the Chukchi are practicing Christians, but many more pro- to Chukchi survival. For example, the Chukchi and the
fess to be Christian (Minahan 2014). The Chukchi believe Lesser-Numbered Peoples of Chukotka have been repre-
that invisible spirits populate the universe and that all senting the smallest Chukchi minority populations since
things—animals, plants, landscape features, astronomi- 1990, the Chychetkin Vetgav (meaning “native word”) aims
cal bodies—have souls, and the souls of the animals they to revitalize the Chukchi language, and Doverie (meaning
hunt have particular significance. As part of their belief “confidence”) tackles the issue of alcohol abuse among the
in souls, the Chukchi make sacrifices and offerings to the Chukchi. Meanwhile, the works of modern Chukchi writ-
spirits. Traditionally, Chukchi living in coastal areas would ers such as Yuri Rytkheu and Valentina Veqet foster an
make ritualistic offerings to the souls of whales, walruses, understanding of Chukchi life. Whether such measures,
and seals and would sacrifice dogs to ensure good hunting. together with strengthening ties with North American
Nomadic Chukchi would offer entrails, bones, and blood indigenous groups, will help stave off the economic, envi-
to protect reindeer (Olson 1994). The Chukchi also believe ronmental, and social decline only time will tell.
that shamans can contact the spirit realm and turn to sha-
mans for healing and to tell the future. Chukchi people See also: Aleut; Ket; Komi; Nenet; Yupik
also regard shamans as able to practice sorcery. Shaman- Further Reading
ism was able to survive in Chukchi society throughout the International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA). 2015.
Soviet era because it had no obvious religious hierarchy for “Russia: Chukchi Community Defends Territorial Rights
against Coal Mining Company.” IWGIA, June 12. https://​
the Soviets to attack, and so it could continue untroubled.
www.iwgia.org/en/russia/2260-russia-chukchi-community​
The Chukchi language is very similar to that of nearby -defends-territorial-right.
Paleo-Siberian peoples as well as to the Aleutian languages Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Cen-
spoken by indigenous Alaskans. An idiosyncrasy of the tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
256 Chuvash

Nuttall, Mark, ed. 2005. Encyclopedia of the Arctic. 3 vols. New Geography and Environment
York: Routledge.
Olson, James S., ed. 1994. An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the Chuvashia occupies the southwest bank of the middle Volga
Russian and Soviet Empires. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. River and is drained by the Volga River’s ­tributaries—the
Sura in the west, the Great Tsivil and Little Tsivil in the
center, and the Kubnya in the east. Most of Chuvashia
consists of the Chuvash Plateau which is characterized
by low-altitude rolling hills dissected by ravines. The pla-
CHUVASH teau forms the northern end of the Volga Upland before
dropping to terraced terrain and the Volga floodplain. The
Current Location Russian Federation western end of the plateau along the Sura River is home to
Current Population 1,637,094–2 million ancient alluvial sands that are covered in pines and decid-
Language Russian; Chuvash uous forests.
Interesting Fact The Chuvash homeland is one of Chuvashia is bisected by a boundary formed by forest
the few regions of Russia where an and forest grasslands. However, a great deal of Chuvashia’s
ethnic minority forms a majority original tree cover has been deforested, and about half of
population. the republic’s land area has been cleared for farming. In
the east and southeast of the republic, there are patches
of fertile, tilled black soil containing a high percentage of
Overview
humus, phosphoric acids, phosphorus, and ammonia. The
The Chuvash are an indigenous people living in the Rus- Volga and Sura Rivers are surrounded by floodplain mead-
sian Federation. The Chuvash refer to themselves as the ows. The republic’s climate is dry and continental, with
Chavash. The Chuvash speak Russian as well as the Cha- warm summers and cold winters.
vush language, which is part of the Turkic branch of the The republic is one of the most important economic
Uralo-Altaic language family. The Chuvash homeland is areas in the Volga region, as it is a center of industry and
considered the border between Russia’s Turkic-speaking home to factories that produce agricultural equipment,
and Finno-Ugric–speaking peoples. drinks, and furniture.
Most Chuvash are either atheist or nominally Orthodox
Christians. Orthodox Chuvash often maintain the people’s
traditional paganism. History and Politics
Most historians believe the Chuvash are directly descended
from the people of the Volga Bulgar Khanate, a Turkic
Population, Diaspora, and Migration state located in the Volga-Kama basin that thrived from
The exact population figures for the Chavush are unknown. the seventh to the thirteenth centuries. The inhabitants of
According to the 2002 Russian national census, there the Volga Bulgar state were themselves descended from the
were 1,637,094 Chuvash living in the Russian Federation Scythians (an Iranian people that built a civilization on the
(Minority Rights Group International 2015), while other Black Sea coast) and the Hunnic civilization (also known
estimates put the number at nearer two million (Karasar as the Huns, a coalition of Eurasian tribes from the Central
2011). The majority of Chuvash live in the Chuvash Auton- Asian steppes). Prior to the tenth century, the people of the
omous Republic (also known as the Chuvash Republic or Volga Bulgar state used the Turkic runic alphabet, but after
Chuvashia), which has a total population of 1,346,300 peo- the people converted to Islam in the tenth century, they
ple. Of this total population, 67.7 percent is Chuvash, 26.5 adopted the Arabic alphabet. During the Middle Ages, the
percent is Russian, and 5.8 percent is made up of other people of the Volga Bulgar became known for their trad-
minorities. The Chuvash people also live in Tatarstan and ing abilities and cultural sophistication, especially their
Bashkortostan (formerly known as Bashkiria). Chuvashia stunning architecture. The inhabitants of the Volga Bul-
is one of the few regions of Russia where an ethnic minor- gars also accumulated great wealth, partly through trading
ity forms the majority population with ethnic Russians in but also because they formed a close relationship with the
the minority. Turkic Khazar Empire to the south. At this time, one of the
 Chuvash 257

dominant tribes of the Volga Bulgar state was the Suvar. Society, Culture, and Tradition
Today, Chuvash nationalists employ the name Suvar to The Chuvash are divided into three cultural groups: the
refer to the Chuvash people. Upper (Hill) Chuvash, the Central (Meadow) Chuvash, and
The Volga Bulgar state was decimated in 1236 by the the Lower (Southern) Chuvash. All three speak the same
Mongols of Batu Khan, who subjugated the state’s inhab- ancient Ogur Turkic Chuvash dialect and are the only Tur-
itants for the next three hundred years. This subjugation kic people to employ this language.
created a Turkic culture among the Chuvash people. Fol- Most Chuvash are Russian Orthodox Christians. Rus-
lowing the breakup of the Golden Horde (a Mongol Turkic sians living alongside the Chuvash do not consider the
khanate) in 1437, the Chuvash became the subjects of the Chuvash to be truly Christian, for the Chuvash blend
Kazan Khanate, in whose military the Chuvash aristocracy Christianity with elements of Islam as well as the Central
served. According to Russian and Soviet popular history, Asian shamanism religion Tengrism, which incorporates
in 1551, the Chuvash joined the Russian state led by Ivan ancestor worship and animism. In the second half of the
the Terrible. This theory is contentious, however, as it is nineteenth century, the Russian Empire forced the Chu-
used as a reason for Russia’s expansion into Chuvash areas. vash to convert en masse to Russian Orthodox Christian-
Historians counter this popular theory by highlighting the ity. Before this mass conversion, the people had followed
fact that the Chuvash became Russian subjects only after polytheist Tengrism that saw the people worship many
the fall of the Kazan Khanate in 1552. From this time until minor deities as well as a powerful sky god. The people still
the start of the nineteenth century, the Chuvash peasant make sacrifices to these gods at shrines located through-
classes were subject to a yasak (law) that saw them made out their homeland. Today, in addition to being nominally
to work for Chuvash lords in exchange for foods such as Christian, there is also a significant number of atheist Chu-
bread or milled corn. During this period, however, most vash, and the number of Muslim Chuvash is now negligi-
Chuvash people survived by hunting, fishing, and intervil- ble (Lewis 2013).
lage trading. The Chuvash language and culture has experienced a
In the seventeenth century, the Chuvash participated in revival in recent years. In the 1990s, following the breakup
the Cossack peasant rebellions in Razin (1670–1671), and of the Soviet Union, measures were implemented to
in the eighteenth century, they took part in the peasant ensure the Chuvash language was included in education,
revolt at Pugachev (1773–1775). During the nineteenth and April 25 was announced as Chuvash Language Day to
century, reforms to the rules of serfdom allowed landless popularize the language. Students at Chuvash schools and
Russians to claim Chuvash land. universities are taught about their culture, Chuvash radio
In 1920, the Chuvash Autonomous Oblast was estab- stations have become established, and Chuvash language
lished within the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist and cultural classes are available for people for whom a
Republic. During the Russian famine of 1921–1923, this knowledge of such matters is requisite for employment.
new Chuvash region allowed the Russians to survive by The Chuvash are renowned for their poetry, which, unu-
providing them with some food. Then, in 1925, the Chu- sually for poetry by a Russian minority, focuses on the
vash Autonomous Oblast was renamed the Chuvash internal workings of the individual rather than pastoral
Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. After the fall of the themes.
Soviet Union in 1991, the Chuvash Autonomous Republic
remained part of the Russian Federation.
Today, the Chuvash National Congress (CNC), an inter- Health Care and Education
regional cultural-political organization aiming to unite The Chuvash still seek health care from traditional sha-
the Chuvash people while preserving Chuvash ethnicity, manist healers who use herbal remedies and enact ancient
only commands around 10 percent of the public vote, but traditions to heal the sick.
it is said to be an influential faction within the republic. In 1992,the Chuvash authorities expanded the number of
In 2004, the CNC protested President Putin’s plans to end Chuvash-language textbooks available to students to ensure
the election of regional governors, a move that would have the continuation of the Chuvash language. The authorities
permitted federal authorities to ignore the Chuvash law also created funding for Chuvash schools and increased the
that requires the republic’s president to speak Chuvash. number of students at Chuvash State University as well as
258 Circassian

the Chuvash State Teachers’ Institute. Today, Chuvash law Overview

requires that the Chuvash language is taught at all schools The Circassians are an indigenous people of Russia, and
and universities in the republic, and there are guidelines in they speak the Circassian language that is a northwest
place to ensure Chuvash culture and arts are taught at Chu- Caucasian language. Many Circassians also speak Russian,
vash universities. Despite the laws requiring the teaching of Turkish, English, Arabic, and Hebrew. The overwhelming
these subjects, the laws are frequently ignored, and so Rus- majority of Circassians are Sunni Muslims, though there
sian continues to be the language of administration. That is a very small number of Orthodox Christian Circas-
said, documents in Russian are translated into Chuvash. sians. Some Muslim Circassians also continue to hold pre-­
Islamic beliefs.
Threats to Survival The names Circassian, Adyghe (or Adyg among other
similar spellings), and Cherkess are often used inter-
According to 2005 Russian newspaper reports, the reorgan-
changeably to designate the same people. Typically, Adyghe
ization of the All-Russian State Television and Radio Com-
is the name used by the Circassians in reference to them-
pany resulted in the reduction of non-Russian-language
selves. The term Cherkess is a Turkic version of Adyghe, and
programming, meaning there were no Chuvash-language
Circassian is a Latinized version of Cherkess.
broadcasts Chuvash. President Nikolai Fedorov reportedly
declared that he would try to establish an independent
broadcasting agency in Chuvash Autonomous Republic, Population, Diaspora, and Migration
but the republic’s budget did not have the necessary funds There are no exact figures for the total Circassian popula-
to permit this enterprise (Minority Rights Group Interna- tion; estimates range from 3.5 million to 8 million. Sim-
tional 2015). How long the Chuvash language and culture ilarly, the number of Circassians in Russia is unknown,
can be preserved in the face of Russian assimilationist atti- though it is likely between 750,000 and 1.3 million (Mina-
tudes has yet to be seen. han 2016). Most Circassians live in the Russian Federation’s
See also: Chechen; Circassian; Evenk; Ket; Mansi; Mord- Kabardino-Balkarian Republic, the Karachai-Cherkess
vin; Udmurt Republic, and the Republic of Adygea. The Circassians
Further Reading
include the Kabard, Cherkess, and Shapsug peoples, all of
Gorenburg, Dmitry P. 2003. Minority Ethnic Mobilization in the whom were considered distinct peoples by both czarist
Russian Federation. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Russia and the Soviets.
Press. A large Circassian diaspora exists in Turkey, Israel,
Karasar, Hasan Ali. 2011. “Chuvash.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe: Jordan, Syria, Egypt, and Libya as well as in Germany, the
An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 72–74. Santa Bar- Netherlands, and the United States. Turkey’s Circassian
bara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Lewis, David C. 2013. After Atheism: Religion and Ethnicity in
community is widely believed to be the largest Circassian
Russia and Central Asia. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. population in the world, but Circassians in Turkey are
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Russian Federation: widely dispersed throughout the country, making them
Chuvash.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peo- hard to quantify, though the population may include as
ples, June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/chuvash. many as four million people (Jaimoukha 2005). Circas-
sians in Turkey are largely assimilated into mainstream
Turkish society.

CIRCASSIAN Geography and Environment

The Circassian homeland, Circassia, is located in Eastern
Current Location Russia; Turkey; Middle East
Europe. Circassia extends across the southern slopes of the
Current Population 3.5 million–8 million North Caucasus Mountains and the lowlands of the north-
Language Circassian; Russian east Black Sea. The historic region of Circassia covers the
Interesting Fact The Circassians are widely regarded south of Krasnodar Krai (Russia’s southernmost region),
as the victims of the world’s first eth- which includes the Republic of Adygea, the north of the
nic cleansing. Karachai-Cherkess Republic, and the Kabarda region of
 Circassian 259

the Kabardino-Balkarian Republic. Circassia’s inland areas of Egypt. Then, from 1382 to 1517, Egypt was ruled by the
consist of fertile plateaus and steppe grasslands. Burji Circassian mamluk dynasty, which provided Egypt
Traditionally, the Circassians consider the Black Sea city with numerous Circassian sultans. Following the aboli-
of Sochi their capital city. Sochi is home to the Caucasian tion of the mamluk sultanate, Circassians continued to
State Nature Biosphere Reserve, a nature reserve home to form much of Egypt’s administrative, political, and mili-
Nordmann fir trees, English yews, and European box trees. tary classes, but their influence declined after the Egyptian
Sochi has a humid subtropical climate, yet it was the loca- coup of 1952.
tion for the 2014 Winter Olympic and Paralympic Games. From the end of the sixteenth century, Russia increas-
ingly encroached on Circassian territory, and in the eight-
eenth century, Russia began to interfere in Circassian life.
History and Politics In 1771, Russia built the Caucasian Military Line, a series of
The Circassians are descended from Caucasian tribes forts and settlements, the construction of which prompted
such as the Maikop and originated in southwest Russia’s the Circassian Wars (1763–1864), during which the Otto-
Kuban River basin prior to the sixth century BCE. The mans assisted Russia. The wars killed approximately six
early Circassians were a handsome people, and their good hundred thousand Circassians and are often referred to
looks made them highly prized as slaves, resulting in the as the Circassian Genocide. The wars caused many Circas-
Circassians being targeted by slave raiders and traders. sians to flee to Turkey, and around five hundred thousand
Consequently, the Circassians developed a warrior cul- more Circassians were deported from their homeland in
ture to see off would-be slavers. In the third century CE, what has been described as “history’s first ethnic cleansing”
the Goths established a state to the north of the Black Sea. (Minahan 2016). An unknown number of deportees died
Subsequently, they invaded Circassian land, where they during the deportation process, succumbing to neglect
engaged in mighty battles with the Circassians. In the 370s, and epidemics of such diseases as typhus and smallpox.
the Huns destroyed the Goth state and invaded the Circas- Also, their ships sometimes sank during storms or when
sians. Later, in the fourth century, the Byzantines erected profit-driven transporters overloaded ships to maximize
a fortress on Circassian land. Venetians then supplanted their financial gain. During this time, other Circassians
the Byzantine presence on Circassian territory. In the sixth sold all their possession or entered into slavery to pay for
century, Greek monks introduced Christianity to some passage away from their homeland.
Circassians, who found their new Christianity enabled By the end of the Circassian Wars, Russia had annihi-
them to forge trade links with Byzantines and Slav peoples. lated all Circassian resistance, and, by 1897, only around
Despite the presence of other peoples on their land, the 150,000 Circassians remained in their destroyed homeland
Circassians managed to maintain their independence until (Minahan 2016). Surviving Circassians faced persecution,
the thirteenth century. At this time, some Circassian terri- first from czarist Russia and then by the Soviets. Under the
tory became the subject of Georgian rule under the reign Cossacks, Circassia remained a devastated area, though it
of Queen Tamara (1184–1213), under whose reign the did experience some in-migration from Slavs.
majority of Circassians adopted Christianity. Although the The Circassians came under Soviet rule in 1920. The
Circassian elite converted first, the Circassian lower classes Soviets divided the Circassians between four regions,
initially clung to their traditional religious beliefs. the names and status of which changed continually until
The Mongols invaded the Circassians from 1241 to the downfall of the Soviet Union. Under the Soviets, the
1242, during which time the Mongols devastated the Cir- Circassians suffered Stalinist purges and collectivization.
cassian homeland. Mongol rule ended in fifteenth century, Many Circassians died during World War II, a period fol-
when Tamerlane, the first ruler of the Sunni Muslim Timu- lowed by the prolonged stagnation of the Circassian home-
rid dynasty, conquered the Caucasus. By the 1700s, most land, until the 1980s, when Soviet control began to wane.
Circassians has converted to Islam. In the meantime, the During the 1980s, Circassians began to call for Circassian
Circassians fought a succession of war against the Mongols unity and the creation of a Circassian state that the peo-
and Tatars while also trying to forge closer ties to Russia. ple would not have to share with Turkic peoples, to whom
Additionally, Circassian mamluks (slave warriors) pro- they were unrelated. The 1990s saw local parliaments in
vided Egypt with elite soldiers for six centuries. In 1297, Kabardino-Balkaria, Adygeia, and Abkhazia officially
a mamluk, Lajin, became sultan of the Mamluk Sultanate recognize the Circassian Genocide, and in 2011, Georgia
260 Circassian

became the first foreign state to recognize the events as Nart sagas form the basic mythology of the Circassian
such. Russia continues to deny the events amount to gen- tribes as well as those of neighboring peoples. The Nart
ocide. For this reason, in the run-up to the 2014 Winter sagas often deal with the Circassians’ fear of outsiders and
Olympic and Paralympic Games, many Circassian organi- worries about everyday life.
zations in the United States and Turkey called on Russian The Circassians continue to commemorate the Circas-
president Vladimir Putin to cancel the games on the basis sian Genocide. To this end, every year on May 21, Circas-
that Sochi was the site of the Circassian Wars’ final battles sians around the world hold a minute’s silence and light
and the port from which Circassians were deported to the 101 candles in memory of a war that lasted 101 years.
Ottoman Empire.
Circassian nationalists in Russia, together with mem-
bers of the Circassian diaspora, continue to demand the Health Care and Education
reunification of the Circassians and the founding of an In recent years, the North Caucasus region has experienced
independent Circassian republic, the Respublika Adyghe a heightened rate of disease, particularly tuberculosis.
Heku (Republic of Circassia). There has also been an increased incidence of infectious
diseases such as measles, whooping cough, and poliomy-
elitis that could be prevented by efficient vaccination pro-
Society, Culture, and Tradition grams (Gutlove 1998).
Traditionally, Circassian social structures were com- During the Soviet era, Circassian was not the language
plexly feudal and hierarchical, featuring many castes that of education. In 2000, the Supreme Court of Adygea rein-
included royalty, aristocracy, serfs, and slaves. The children troduced Circassian-language education, but in 2007, the
of the elite were expected to undergo military training, and court overruled the compulsory teaching of Circassian in
women enjoyed a high social status. However, hierarchi- the republic’s schools on the basis that it was unlawful to
cal Circassian society ended with the so-called Circassian make pupils study Circassian if they did not want to do so.
Genocide. The traditional Circassian economy revolved There are reportedly no primary schools where teaching
round farming and animal husbandry. During the Soviet is conducted purely in Circassian, and teacher training in
era, however, the Circassian homeland became industrial- Circassian has also been reduced. Similarly, the study of
ized. Today, the Circassians earn money from herding ani- the Circassian language at universities has fallen dramati-
mals and growing fruits. They also hunt and fish for food. cally in the recent past.
The traditional Circassian diet consists of yoghurt, milk, According to the latest data from Adygea’s Ministry
cheese, leafy vegetables, and mutton. of Education and Science, the republic is home to 148
The Circassian language is one of three languages in schools teaching approximately fifty thousand pupils. Of
the northwest group of Caucasian languages (the others these schools, only 34 provide Circassian language and
are Abkhaz-Abaza and Ubykh). There are two divisions literature lessons. Some Circassian educators feel that the
of the Circassian language: Kabardian, which is used in creation of a unified Circassian language would make it
­Kabardino-Balkaria and Karachai-Cherkessia, and Adi- easier to teach Circassian. However, there is disagreement
gean, which is used in the Republic of Adygea. over whether a Latin or Cyrillic alphabet should be used
Most Circassians are Sunni Muslims, though a small to teach the language. Some Circassians advocate that
minority of Circassians are Orthodox Christians, including the language should be taught using Circassian tamgas,
the Mozdox living in the North Ossetia. Some Circassians, ancient abstract symbols used by Eurasian nomads (Ali-
including those who are nominally Muslim or Christian, yeva 2018).
adhere to indigenous Circassian Habze beliefs. Habze is
a belief system that reveres nature, especially mountains,
thunder, and groves of trees, and it also includes fertility Threats to Survival
rites and ancestor worship. Those Circassians that main- The ideal of a united, independent Circassian state contin-
tain Habze beliefs believe ancestral spirits influence the ues to appeal to Circassians both within Russia and across
daily lives of the living. Circassian life is also governed by the world. Circassian life is generally fairly peaceful, and
a traditional code of conduct, Adige Xabze, which is trans- recent conflicts in neighboring Chechnya, Ossetia, and
mitted orally and adhered to rigidly. Folktales called the Georgia have had little effect on the Circassians.
 Comanche 261

The Circassian language unites the Circassians both in themselves the Numinu or Numunuh, meaning “the
their homeland and abroad. However, the way in which the People.” Comanches speak American English as a first
language is written is a matter of discussion among the language because it is the language of education and
Circassians. Some Circassians call for the revival of the Cir- administration. A minority of Comanches also speak the
cassian language written in Latin script rather than  the Comanche language. This is a northern or Numic language
Cyrillic alphabet because this would be a way for the Cir- belonging to the Uto-Aztecan language group. Comanches
cassians to show they are culturally distinct from other are Christians or belong to the Native American Church
Russian peoples. Some Circassians also argue that switch- spiritual movement that fuses Christian philosophies with
ing to a Latin alphabet would be a way for the Circassians Native spiritual traditions. The name Comanche derives
to show their contempt for past Soviet abuses. either from the name given to the people by the Ute tribe,
Komantica (meaning “People Who Fight Us All the Time”),
See also: Abkhaz; Bashkir; Chechen; Crimean Tatar;
or from the Spanish camino ancho (“broad trail”).
Ossetian
Further Reading
Aliyeva, Madina. 2018. “Vulnerable and Divided: The Uncer- Population, Diaspora, and Migration
tain State of the Circassian Language.” OC Media, March 14.
http://oc-media.org/vulnerable-and-divided-the-uncertain​ The Comanche population is estimated to comprise
-state-of-the-circassian-language. between fourteen thousand and thirty thousand people. In
Gutlove, Paula. 1998. “Health as a Bridge for Peace.” World Health recent decades, younger generations of Comanches have
Organization. http://www.who.int/hac/techguidance/hbp​ become urbanized, and so they often reside in urban or sub-
/training_caucasus/en. urban parts of the southwestern United States. Only about
Jaimoukha, Amjad. 2005. “Circassians.” In Encyclopedia of the
half of the Comanches live in the region of their traditional
World’s Minorities, edited by Carl Skutsch, 313–316. New
York: Routledge. homeland in Oklahoma and Texas (Minahan 2013).
Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa Bar-
bara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Geography and Environment
Thomson, Madia. 2015. “Circassians.” In Native Peoples of the Comanche territory, Comancheria, is located in the United
World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contem-
States’ Great Plains grasslands. Comancheria was only ever
porary Issues, edited by Steven Danver, 528. Abingdon, UK:
Routledge. vaguely defined. In the past, it was bordered to the south
Waldman, Carl, and Catherine Mason. 2006. Encyclopedia of by the Balcones Fault zone north of San Antonio, Texas,
European Peoples. New York: Facts on File. and then continued north along the Cross Timbers (a strip
of land extending from southeast Kansas across Central
Oklahoma to Central Texas covered by prairie, savanna,
and woodland) to include the northern part of the Cimar-
ron River as well as the upper Arkansas River east of the
High Rockies. To the west, Comancheria was bordered by
COMANCHE the Mescalero Ridge (the western edge of a vast plateau
located in New Mexico and Texas) and the Pecos River
Current Location United States
and then continued north along the edge of Spanish settle-
Current Population 14,000–30,000
ments in Santa Fe de Nuevo México. Today, Comancheria
Language English; Comanche
covers West Texas, the Llano Estacado, the Texas Panhan-
Interesting Fact Traditionally, when a Comanche dle, the Edwards Plateau (including the Texas Hill Coun-
warrior died, his favorite horse was
try), Eastern New Mexico, western Oklahoma (including
also killed so that the warrior could
the Oklahoma Panhandle and the Wichita Mountains),
enter the afterlife on horseback.
southeast Colorado, and southwestern Kansas. The head-
quarters of the Comanche Nation are located in Lawton,
Overview Oklahoma.
The Comanches are a federally recognized Native Amer- According to research from the World Wildlife
ican tribe—the Comanche Nation. The Comanche call Fund (WWF), in 2017, 1.7 million acres of Great Plains
262 Comanche

grasslands were lost to crop farming across the plains. This convert the Comanches to Catholicism. The French, with
number represents a decrease in conversion from grass- whom the Comanches enjoyed generally good relations,
land to farmland from 2016 numbers, with 800,000 fewer entered Comanche land to acquire furs trapped in the
acres ploughed. The reduction in conversion benefits local north of Comanche land. The French also traded guns and
ecosystems, wildlife habitat, and rural communities who ammunition with the Comanches. However, through the
rely on the grasslands. Grassland that has been converted contact with Europeans, the Comanches became ill with
is less able to filter water, reduce soil erosion, or support European diseases, principally smallpox, which decimated
wildlife diversity, which in the plains includes bison, black- the Comanche population.
footed ferrets, and a variety of birds. Following the British defeat of the French in the French
and Indian War (1763), most French traders left North
America, and the Comanches lost one of their most val-
History and Politics uable trading partners. Then, in 1780 and 1781, a major
At the end of the seventeenth century, the Comanches smallpox outbreak swept through Comanche land. Weak-
emerged as a distinct people from the hunter-gatherer ened, the Comanches were no longer able to fight off the
Shoshone people living around the upper reaches of the Spanish. While some Comanches made peace with the
Platte River in what is now Wyoming. The newly separated Spanish, others continued their hostile relationship with
Comanches migrated to the south of the Great Plains. The the Spanish, whom they continued to raid. Over time, the
emergence of the Comanches corresponded with the peo- Comanches expanded their territory across the southern
ple’s acquisition of horses from the Pueblo people to the plains. While extending their hold over the land, they dis-
south and from the Ute tribe, which had acquired horses placed other peoples to control a vast region known to the
from Spanish traders. The horses enabled the Comanches Spanish (later Mexican) authorities as Comancheria.
to hunt more efficiently over a greater distance and afforded Horses continued to play an essential part in the
the Comanches greater mobility. The original population Comanches’ life, with the Comanches supplying horses
of the Comanches grew dramatically, partly because their to other tribes and to settlers, including American set-
new home had a plentiful supply of buffalo that could sup- tlers heading to California during the 1849 gold rush. The
port a large population, partly because significant numbers Comanches’ relationship with European and American
of Shoshone migrated to join the Comanches, and partly settlers was often contradictory. The Comanche viewed the
because the Comanches captured many members of other settlers as important trading partners, especially for their
tribes. The Comanches did not live as a unified tribe but horses, but at the same time, the Comanche were feared
rather as around a dozen self-ruling bands. Although the throughout the frontier because of their tendency to raid
bands shared a culture and religion, they frequently fought frontier settlements. The Comanches continued to partici-
among themselves. Horses proved to be the backbone of pate in conflict with virtually all their neighbors, including
Comanche culture and way of life, and they introduced the Americans, Spanish, and Mexicans.
horses to other inhabitants of the Great Plains. In the mid-nineteenth century, however, the Coman-
At some point, the Comanches migrated farther south, ches almost became extinct after they experienced a suc-
and in so doing they displaced other plains peoples, in par- cession of diseases to which they had no immunity. For
ticular the Apaches, whom the Comanches forced from the example, in 1817 and 1848, the Comanches suffered small-
southern plains. By the late 1700s, the Comanches proba- pox epidemics, and in 1849, they experienced a major
bly numbered around forty-five thousand people that had cholera outbreak. As a result of these outbreaks of disease,
divided into five major groups (Minahan 2013): the Yam- by the 1870s, the Comanche population had decreased
parika (“Root Eaters”), the Kotsoteka (“Buffalo Eaters”), from around twenty thousand people to only a few thou-
the Penateka (“Honey Eaters”), the Nokoni (“Those Who sand (Minahan 2013).
Turn Back”), and the Quahadis (“Antelopes”). After the U.S. Civil War, American authorities tried
Although the groups were autonomous, they would to make Comanches live on reservations. In 1867, three
unite to see off common enemies, especially the Apaches, treaties, collectively called the Treaty of Medicine Lodge,
or to acquire horses, land, and prisoners from other peo- were signed by the American government and various
ples, including the Spanish. The Spanish desired Coman- Native tribes, including the Comanches. The treaty saw
che land because it contained gold, and they also aimed to the U.S. government agree to provide churches, schools,
 Comanche 263

and financial payments to the Comanches in return for

relinquishing a huge area of Comanche land. The gov- LaDonna Harris
ernment also vowed to stop settler hunters from killing LaDonna Harris (b. 1931) is a Comanche activist and
buffalo herds. However, the killing continued, prompting civil rights leader. She was raised during the Great
some Comanches to strike back by leaving their land and Depression, and during this time, she witnessed the
violently attacking frontier settlements. In response to the assimilation of American Indian communities into
attacks on settlers, the U.S. Cavalry drove more Coman- white society. Following the refusal of her applica-
che groups onto reservations. Within a short time, the buf- tion to join the Junior League of Oklahoma on the
falo were close to extinction, which essentially ended the grounds of her Comanche ethnicity, Harris started a
Comanches’ traditional nomadic hunter way of life. national organization, Americans for Indian Oppor-
In 1875, the final remaining band of free Comanches tunity (AIO). After moving to the District of Colum-
agreed to move to a reservation in Oklahoma. Then, in bia following her marriage to a white politician, she
1892, a new contract reduced the area of Comanche land began teaching members of Congress about indig-
even further. Individual Comanche families were given enous matters (an assignment that lasted for over
allotments, and surplus land was opened up to white set- thirty years). Harris served on many committees
tlers. Entering the U.S. economy proved problematic for and advisory boards and went on to help return land
the Comanches, many of whom were defrauded by settlers to Alaskan tribes as well as the Taos Pueblo tribe of
of their remaining land and possessions. At the start of the New Mexico. She also formed the National Women’s
twentieth century, the elected Comanche chief Quanah Political Caucus and the National Urban Coalition
Parker campaigned for better deals for the Comanches as while helping the Menominee tribe gain federal
well as the right for Comanches’ to use peyote (the bud of recognition.
a spineless cactus found in the deserts of the Southwestern In 1980, Harris bid for the role of vice president
United States and Mexico that has hallucinogenic proper- on the environmentalist Citizens Party ticket. She
ties) sacramentally in ceremonies as part of their worship also served as the U.S. representative to UNESCO
of the Native American Church. and the Organization of American States (OAS)
During World War II, many Comanches left Comanche Inter-American Indigenous Institute and is a found-
territory and headed southwest in search of work, having ing member of Common Cause and the National
realized that the survival of the Comanches could occur Urban Coalition. And she has served on the boards
only through the people entering into prevailing American of Think New Mexico, the National Committee to
society (Minahan 2013). Preserve Social Security and Medicare, and the
Smithsonian’s National Museum of the American
Indian. More recently, Harris’s organization has
Society, Culture, and Tradition established a program that enables young Indians to
Comanche culture borrows from American society, yet it become ambassadors of their nations.
maintains elements of the people’s traditional culture. Tra- LaDonna Harris: Indian 101 is a documentary
ditionally, the Comanche regard children as a precious gift, film chronicling Harris’s life as a Comanche activ-
so Comanche children are seldom punished. If a child is ist. The film details her accomplishments, and how
punished, the punishment is meted out by the child’s older her Comanche beliefs shaped her worldview and
sister or other relative. led her to become an activist. Harris on Facebook at
Historically, buffalo are very important to the Coman- @LaDonnaHarrisAIO.
che, who make more than two hundred items from buffalo
skin, horn, and bones. For example, as former nomads, the
Comanche traditionally do not use pottery, which could
break in transit, but instead use items made from buffalo. Comanches would decorate both themselves and their
Compared to some Native peoples, the Comanches horses with war paint. After battle, a triumphant Coman-
hold few ceremonies. Traditionally, the Comanches’ most che warrior would reapply paint to his horse so that his
important ceremony was their war dance, which was community could see at a glance that he and his horse had
held the night before a battle. When going into battle, the survived. The Comanches so loved their horses that when
264 Copts

a Comanche warrior died, his horses were also killed, with See also: Apache; Hopi; Lakota
the warrior’s favorite horse killed at the graveside so that Further Reading
the warrior could enter the afterlife on horseback. Comanche Nation. 2018. “Health Programs.” Lord of the
The Comanches’ traditional religion is animist and Plains. https://comanchenation.com/departments/health​
revolves around the idea that all natural things have spir- -programs.
Hamalainen, Pekka. 2008. The Comanche Empire. New Haven,
its, and they also revered the moon and sun as deities.
CT: Yale University Press.
Like other Great Plains tribes, the Comanche believe in Johansen, Bruce E., and Barry M. Pritzker, eds. 2008. “Coman-
Manitou, the Great Spirit. To commune with their guard- che.” In Encyclopedia of American Indian History, 1167–1170.
ian spirits, young Comanche men would undertake vision Vol. 4. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
quests (isolating journeys to remote, sacred sites). Today, Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An Ency-
however, most Comanches are Christian or belong to the clopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Warpaths2peacepipes.com. n.d. “Comanche Tribe.” https://www​
Native American Church, which teaches a combination
.warpaths2peacepipes.com/indian-tribes/comanche-tribe​
of Christianity and traditional Native American beliefs. .htm.
Following their move to reservations, many Comanches
began to use peyote ceremonially, having been influenced
by neighboring tribes.

Health Care and Education COPTS

There are a number of health services aimed at the Coman-
Current Location Egypt
ches, including the Comanche Nation Diabetes Program,
Current Population 12 million
which is intended to promote healthy lifestyles among the
Language Coptic; Arabic
Comanche through education, exercise, and nutrition to
prevent and control diabetes, and the Comanche Nation Interesting Fact Copts claim to be the last remaining
descendants of the ancient Egyptian
Prescription Assistance scheme provides members with
pharaohs.
help to obtain prescribed medicines, equipment, and den-
tal needs. The Comanche Nation Prevention and Recovery
Center supports Native Americans in ending dependency Overview
on unhealthy habits, including excessive alcohol consump- Copts, known more formally as Coptic Christians, are an
tion, tobacco use, substance abuse, and gambling addiction. ethnoreligious minority indigenous to Egypt. The name
Some older Comanches can speak the Comanche lan- Copt is a Westernized version of the Arabic word qibt,
guage, despite the fact that in the 1920s, the language was which in turn derives from the ancient Greek word Aigyp-
suppressed in schools under the influence of the Bureau tos, meaning “Egyptian.” The word Aigyptos comes from
of Indian Affairs (BIA). Today, the Comanche language Hak-Ka-Ptah, the ancient name for Memphis, the capital
is taught as part of an immersion program aimed at pre- of the Egyptian pharaohs.
school children. Since the 1960s and 1970s, the Coman- Traditionally, Copts speak the Coptic language, which
ches have regarded schooling, especially higher education, according to the World Council of Churches, derives from
as a way for their community to advance. Egyptian hieroglyphics. The Coptic language is still used
in liturgical situations, but most Copts today speak Arabic.
Many modern Copts identify as Arab, but Copts do not
Threats to Survival consider themselves to be of Arab heritage. Rather, Copts
Today, many Comanches live in urban areas across the believe they are the remaining descendants of the phar-
United States, where they work in a range of occupations aohs of ancient Egyptian.
and professions. However, the Comanches maintain close
links to their people’s history and culture with the help
of bodies such as the Comanche Language Preservation Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Committee, which aims to preserve both the Comanche The Copts are the largest ethnoreligious minority in
language and culture. Egypt with a population measuring around nine million
 Copts 265

(Rehbein 2017) of the country’s population of ninety-five and obstructs most of the fertile sediment that was benefi-
million people. There were once hundreds of Coptic mon- cial to the farmland.
asteries to be found in the Egyptian deserts, but today only The Nile delta, meanwhile, consists of flat lowlands,
around twenty Coptic monasteries remain, though there some of which are boggy and waterlogged.
are also seven Coptic convents in Egypt. In all, there are
around 1,000 Coptic monks and 600 Coptic nuns in Egypt
(Rehbein 2017). Though based primarily in Egypt, Copts History and Politics
also live in Libya, Sudan, and elsewhere. According to the The theology of the Copts is based on the teachings of the
World Council of Churches, there are about twelve million apostle St. Mark, who, according to the St. Takla Church
Copts worldwide. Outside of Africa, there are 24,693 Copts in Alexandria (the capital of Coptic Christianity located
living in Australia, and a Coptic diaspora can also be found on Egypt’s north coast), introduced Christianity to Egypt.
in Latin America, the Gulf States, and the European Union. Copts believe that their church dates back to about 50 CE,
There are also more than one hundred Coptic churches thereby making the Copts one of the earliest Christian
in the United States and a Coptic cathedral in the United groups existing outside of the Holy Land. In 50 CE, the apos-
Kingdom. tle St. Mark visited Egypt and later became the first pope
of Alexandria. The Copts split from the broader Christian
community in 451 CE. The schism partly stemmed from
Geography and Environment
Traditionally, there were two types of Coptic churches in
Egypt: the anchorite and the cenobite. Anchorite churches
were built in the wilderness of the Egyptian desert but
were self-contained with their own water supplies. Ceno-
bite monasteries were also built in the Nile valley.
The geography of Egypt consists mainly of desert. The
Western Desert covers an area of some 270,272 square
miles, thereby covering approximately two-thirds of the
country’s total land area. The Western Desert lies to the
west of the Nile, stretching from the Mediterranean Sea
south to Sudan. The desert is predominantly made up of
flat, rocky plateaus. The topography of the Eastern Desert,
located east of the Nile River, differs in that the land is
fairly mountainous. The elevation rises sharply from the
Nile before turning into downward-slanting, sandy pla-
teaus and then arid, rocky hills that rise up between the
Sudanese border and the Nile delta.
The Nile River is the longest river on earth and has
formed the Nile valley and delta, which is the most exten-
sive oasis in the world. The Nile valley and Nile delta are
very important regions of Egypt, as they are Egypt’s only
cultivatable areas and support almost all of the country’s
population. The Nile valley extends approximately 497
miles from Aswan to Cairo. The valley generally has cool
temperatures. In some parts of the valley, sheer rocky cliffs
rise up along the banks of the river, while in other areas,
An Egyptian Copt pilgrim visits the Church of the Holy Sepul-
the land is flat and used as farmland. Historically, the river
chre in Jerusalem, Israel. Copts believe their church dates from
would flood in summer, providing silt and water for agri- around 50 CE, which would make the Copts one of the earliest
culture. Since the construction of the Aswan Dam, how- Christian communities outside the Holy Land. (Kobby Dagan
ever, agriculture in the Nile valley depends on irrigation /Dreamstime.com)
266 Copts

the two camps’ differing beliefs about the nature of Christ. Copts wear new clothes, eat fish, and make social calls.
Copts believe that Christ had two natures (one human Copts also abstain from eating meat and dairy products for
nature and one divine nature) that though separate were the forty-three days leading up to Christmas. At 8:00 p.m.
also united. Other Christians believe that Christ was both on Christmas Day, Copts go to church and pray until mid-
fully human and fully divine. At the time of the split, the night. At midnight, the church lights are extinguished and
Copts were accused of believing that Christ had one divine then relit, after which candy and gifts are shared among
nature (Monophysitism). the worshippers.
When Christian missionaries first arrived in Egypt in the Like most religions, Copts have traditions and rituals
first century CE, they made contact with Jews and pagans surrounding birth, marriage, and death. When a baby is
who spoke Greek. Evidence of Coptic-speaking Egyptians born, friends and relatives will wait one week before visit-
converting to Christianity dates back to the third century, ing the mother and baby, for it is only after seven days that
and Greek and Coptic continued to be the languages of the the mother is thought to be free from the bodily pollution
Coptic Church for a long time, despite the Arab conquest attendant upon birth. A baptism may take place at any age,
of Egypt. By the tenth century, however, many Christians but baby boys are usually baptized in church at forty days
no longer understood Coptic, and so Christian documents of age and girls at eighty days. Traditionally, Coptic babies
were written in Arabic. Two centuries later, the Christian are baptized at this stage, as it is only after forty days post-
liturgy was fully transcribed into Arabic save for a few partum that the mother is considered sufficiently unpol-
phrases that were written in Coptic or Greek. In recent luted to enter a church.
years, there has been a move to promote the study of Cop- Babies are dressed in white when they are baptized. In
tic by Copts, and the language is considered by many Copts Egypt, if a baby is baptized at a private home, the baptism
to be the language of their religious instruction. Today, the may see visitors arrive and then the baby’s father purifies
pope of Alexandria is based in Cairo and is regarded as the the infant by washing him or her in a basin of water, all the
head of the Coptic Church. The Church is organized into while praying the Salat el Tist (“Prayer of the Washbowl”).
the patriarchate of Alexandria and a system of bishoprics Everyone present prays over the baby, which is then dipped
both in Egypt and elsewhere. in the sanctified water three times and anointed with oil.
This ritual is akin to a baptism and takes around thirty
minutes to complete. Once the ritual is concluded, the
Society, Culture, and Tradition family and friends pray for two hours before sharing food.
Music is considered an important part of Coptic worship. Today, Coptic weddings are held in churches, with
Until the period 1926 to 1936, Coptic music was handed receptions held in restaurants or hotels. Extremely reli-
down through generations via oral transmission. The gious couples may go to stay in a Coptic monastery for
music is sung by men and combines elements of pharaonic, three days after the wedding to pray and fast. This three-
Greco-Roman, Jewish, and Syrian musical traditions. day period refers to the ancient story of Tobit, a woman
The Coptic calendar is based on the calendar used by the who found that each time she wed, the devil killed her hus-
ancient Egyptians, so Copts observe Christmas on January band. When Tobit married Tobia, her father prayed to God
7 and celebrate Easter in late April or early May. The date that Tobia would not be killed. In answer to the prayer, the
of one of Egypt’s most celebrated national spring holidays, archangel Raphael appeared to Tobia, telling him that he
Sham el Nessim (literally meaning “smelling the breeze”), should pray and fast for three days to protect both himself
takes its cue from the date of the Coptic Easter. The holi- and Tobit.
day falls on the first Monday after the Coptic Easter and When a Copt dies, a relative of the same sex washes
harks back to the agricultural fertility rituals of ancient the corpse before it is dressed in a shroud. Once the body
Egypt that at a later date became associated with Christi- is shrouded, the deceased’s family goes to church, where
anity and Easter celebrations. In the fifty-five days preced- a funeral service is held. Three days after the burial, the
ing Easter, the Copts fast from midnight until 6:00 p.m., timings and manner of which are left up to the family, a
abstain from using all animal products, and pray every priest visits the deceased’s family home, where he prays
day. On the Friday before Sham el Nessim (Good Friday), and pours purifying water on the floor. According to Cop-
Copts dress in black and drink vinegar. Then, to demon- tic tradition, the relatives of the dead should mourn for
strate that Easter is a celebratory occasion, on Easter Day, forty days.
 Copts 267

Health Care and Education In recent times, Copts and Coptic churches in Egypt
Coptic healthcare facilities employ the same doctors as the have suffered regular attacks. For instance, during the
Egyptian government, usually employing the doctors to 2011 Egyptian Revolution, the Egyptian army ran tanks
perform night shifts and paying the doctors significantly over and killed some twenty-eight Coptic protesters while
more than the state. In Egypt, faith-based health care has firing live ammunition at demonstrators, hurting hun-
been noted as being better quality than mainstream health dreds more, in what has become known as the Maspero
care. The staff are said to be more personable, and facilities Massacre. Some commentators saw the Maspero Massa-
are more easily accessible (Harrigan and El-Said 2009). It cre as a turning point in the Egyptian Revolution—Egypt’s
is for these reasons that patients are often willing to pay military government thought it could act with impunity
more to visit a faith-based medical facility. Coptic welfare against demonstrators. The authorities’ disregard for the
organizations also provide training and funding for med- Copts was further highlighted when the Coptic protest-
ical staff, though many Coptic doctors work as volunteers ers were publicly blamed for attacking the military dur-
at Coptic healthcare facilities. ing the massacre. In general, the Egyptian public was not
The Coptic Church operates in primary and secondary interested in the deaths of Coptic demonstrators, for the
schools throughout Egypt. In addition, there is a Coptic people believed the government’s narrative that the Copts
theological college located in Cairo as well as a Coptic were attempting to destabilize and ultimately destroy the
museum. nation.
Violence against Copts has frequently made the
news in recent times, as Copts have faced attacks by the
Threats to Survival Islamic State (IS, also known as ISIS and Daesh, among
Copts have long been the targets of violent persecution. other names). In addition to attacks by Egyptian Mus-
Historically, the early Coptic Church suffered persecution lims, which have burned Coptic homes and destroyed
under the rule of the Roman Empire as well as under the churches, the Copts have felt increasingly unsafe since
Byzantine Empire. The Copts were also repressed, at times, IS began operating throughout Iraq and Syria in 2014.
after the Arab conquest of Egypt during the seventh cen- For example, in December 2016, an IS suicide bomber
tury. During one such period of Arab persecution in 1000 murdered thirty people at the Coptic Cathedral in Cairo,
CE, the ruling Islamic caliph is said to have razed three and in February 2017, hundreds of Copts fled after a
thousand Coptic churches and forced large numbers of succession of killings in northern Sinai for which IS
Copts to abandon their religion. claimed responsibility. IS violence against the Copts
Copts have been the victim of repeated attacks in Egypt made further international headlines on Palm Sunday
and have a history of discrimination and marginalization 2017, when at least forty-four people were murdered
by Egyptian authorities. The division between Egyptian and one hundred injured by IS in twin attacks on the
Muslims and the Copts was aggravated by the Egyptian cathedral of the Coptic pope and another church. The
Revolution (1952), which saw the Egyptian army over- attacks caused anger and fear in the Coptic community
throw British colonial powers to establish the Republic in Egypt.
of Egypt. The founding of the Egyptian republic was part Meanwhile, the Egyptian government of President
of then president Gamal Abdel Nasser’s anti-Western, Abdel Fattah al-Sisi used the attacks on the Copts to deflect
pan-Arabism movement that would eventually establish Western criticism that he was oppressing human rights,
Egypt as a Muslim state. As a result of this pan-Arabism, including those of the Copts. In the wake of the attacks
the following decades saw an exodus of Copts from Egypt. the Egyptian government deployed troops and declared a
The Copts faced continual discrimination by the Egyptian three-month state of emergency, having vowed to protect
authorities, including lynchings, and they were refused the Copts as part of a campaign to drive religious extrem-
permission to build churches. As a consequence of such ism from Egypt. By pledging to protect religious minori-
persecution, the relationship between the Coptic Church ties such as the Copts from attacks by IS, al-Sisi aimed to
and the Egyptian government is extremely shaky. Succes- present himself as a crucial defense against terrorism in
sive Egyptian governments have pledged to protect the the Middle East.
Copts from persecution, but such promises have failed to
deliver in general. See also: Druze; Mandean; Maronites; Samaritan
268 Cornish

Further Reading but many also speak Cornish (or Kernewek), a language
Australian Government. 2014. “The People of Australia: Statistics derived from the Brythonic branch of the Insular Celtic
from the 2011 Census.” https://web​.archive​.org/web​/2014​ languages. The Cornish language is closely related to Bre-
0714131850/http://www.immi.gov.au​/media​/pub​lica​tions​
/statistics/immigration-update/people​-australia​-2013​-statis​
ton and, to a lesser extent, to Welsh, though the languages
tics.pdf. are not mutually intelligible. Traditionally, Cornish people
Blumberg, Antonia. 2017. “Who Are Egypt’s Coptic Christians adhere to Celtic polytheism, a pagan, animistic religion
and What Do They Believe?” HuffPost, April 10. http://www​ associated with Druidism. Today, however, most Cornish
.huffing​tonpost.com/entry/who-are-egypts​-coptic​-christ​ are Christian, especially Methodist.
ians​ - and-what-do-they-believe_us ​ _ 58ebc537e4 ​ b 0c89f​ The Cornish trace their heritage to ancient Britain and
912058d5.
Coptic-Cairo. 2017. “Customs and Traditions.” Coptic Culture.
consider themselves ethnically distinct from the English.
http://www.coptic-cairo.com/culture/tradition/tradition​.html. Cornish people are classified as a national minority under
Farag, Lois M., ed. 2014. The Coptic Christian Heritage: History, the rules of the Council of Europe’s Framework Conven-
Faith and Culture. London: Routledge. tion for the Protection of National Minorities.
Gaballa, Arwa, and Ahmed Tolba. 2017. “Palm Sunday Bomb-
ings of Egyptian Coptic Churches Kill 44.” Reuters, April 9.
http://www.reuters.com/article/us-egypt-violence​-idUS​KBN​ Population, Diaspora, and Migration
17B06U.
Guirguis, Laure. 2017. Copts and the Security State: Violence, The last national census found that 37,500 people within
Coercion, and Sectarianism in Contemporary Egypt. Stanford, the United Kingdom identified as Cornish, with all but
CA: Stanford University Press. 3,700 Cornish residing in Cornwall (Collins 2011). There
Harrigan, Jane, and Hamed El-Said. 2009. Economic Liberalisa- are significant numbers of people with Cornish heritage
tion, Social Capital and Islamic Welfare Provision. Basing- living in the United States (especially in California), South
stoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Rehbein, Matt. 2017. “Who Are Egypt’s Coptic Christians?” CNN,
Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and Canada because in
May 26. http://edition.cnn.com/2017/04/09/middleeast​ the past many Cornish emigrated to find work as miners.
/egypt-coptic-christians/index.html. The Cornish capital and main cultural center is the city of
Timbie, Janet A. 2010. “Coptic Christianity.” In The Blackwell Truro. Other major towns include Penzance, St. Ives, Fal-
Companion to Eastern Christianity, edited by Ken Parry, mouth, and Camborne-Redruth.
94–116. Chichester, UK: Wiley-Blackwell.
Zabad, Ibrahim. 2017. Middle Eastern Minorities: The Impact of
the Arab Spring. London: Routledge.
Geography and Environment
Cornwall is a small county with a subtropical climate
located in the very far southwest of England. It is bordered
to the north and west by the Celtic Sea (part of the Atlantic
Ocean), to the south by the English Channel, and to the
CORNISH east by the River Tamar, which separates Cornwall from
Current Location England the English county of Devon. Cornwall forms a peninsula
consisting of wild moorland and sandy beaches and ends
Current Population 37,500
at the promontory known as Land’s End. The south coast
Language English; Cornish (Kernewek)
of Cornwall, dubbed the Cornish Riviera, features many
Interesting Fact The Cornish are descendants of
scenic harbor villages. The county’s north coast is home
ancient Britons and consider them-
to towering cliffs and seaside resorts that are popular with
selves ethnically separate from other
English people.
surfers. Cornwall’s interior consists of infertile, exposed
uplands set amid a series of granite intrusions, including
Bodmin Moor, which is home to Cornwall’s highest point,
Overview Brown Willy, a 1,378-foot-high hill. These uplands are
The Cornish, sometimes called Cornishmen (irrespective surrounded by more fertile land that is mainly used for
of gender), Kernowyon, or Kerne, are a Celtic people liv- farmland. Along the south coast, deep wooded valleys pro-
ing in the English county of Cornwall (called Kernow in vide sheltered conditions for plants that enjoy shade and a
the Cornish language). All Cornish people speak English, damp, warm climate.
 Cornish 269

Cornwall’s famous Lizard Peninsula has a notable geol- reopening, bringing a much needed, if small, income to
ogy because it is Britain’s only ophiolite, that is, oceanic the area.
crust and underlying upper mantle that has risen to lie During the 1960s, tourism became the basis of the Cor-
exposed on the land. The Cornish’s remoteness from the nish economy. Indeed, Cornwall is so popular with tourists
rest of England, being surrounded by water on four sides, that the Cornish call tourists emmets (meaning insects)
is often cited as one of the reasons for the survival of a on account of the way they swarm across the county. The
distinct Cornish identity. 1960s also saw the rise of concerted Cornish nationalism
that revolved around the revival of the Cornish language
and culture. Nationalists called for Cornwall to be accorded
History and Politics the same status as the other Celtic nations (Wales and
Cornwall has been inhabited since the Paleolithic era. Scotland) within the United Kingdom. The United King-
In the first century BCE, Celts migrating from mainland dom’s entry into the European Economic Community in
Europe settled in southwest England. Then the Roman 1979 fueled Cornish nationalism, for many Cornish people
Conquest of Britain Latinized the Celtic settlers in the first believed too much political power had been centralized in
century CE. When the Roman influence began to wane in London or transferred to unelected semiautonomous bod-
the 400s, Britain was invaded by various German tribes, ies far from Cornwall.
who forced the Celts to migrate to the very tip of south- The last Cornish tin mine closed in 1998, a closure that went
western England (i.e., Cornwall) as well as to Wales and hand in hand with a steep rise in Cornish unemployment.
Brittany. Cornwall’s rich tin reserves allowed the area to The closure was a symbolic, cultural, and economic mile-
remain an independent enclave until 936, when the Sax- stone for the Cornish that strengthened Cornish nationalism.
ons overran the region. During the tenth century, Corn- At the same time, the closure forced more Cornish people to
wall became a constituent kingdom of England. In 1337, move abroad to find mining work, as had their ancestors. The
Cornwall became a duchy of the Kingdom of England. The financial and cultural loss of the mine resulted in increased
centralization of Cornish life as part of England led to the anti-English and anti-European feelings, with the most mil-
weakening of Cornish culture throughout medieval and itant Cornish nationalists asserting that Europe began at the
early modern times. River Tamar. The recently shut tin mine reopened in 1999,
During the eighteenth century, the Cornish converted but, nonetheless, although mining remains fundamental
en masse to Methodism, then a new Christian sect. The to Cornish history, the industry is virtually extinct and no
people’s preference for speaking Cornish rather than Eng- longer integral to Cornish culture (Minahan 2002). In the
lish throughout the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries late 1990s, some Cornish sought Cornwall’s independence
resulted in the Cornish being considered uneducated from the European Union (EU), something that may have
rustics by other English people. In response, the Cornish come to fruition following the United Kingdom’s contentious
revived the old Cornish traditions of piracy, smuggling, referendum decision to leave the European Union.
and shipwrecking; Cornish people known as “wreckers”
would lure English ships onto the rocky Cornish coast
and then salvage the wrecked cargoes. This activity was Society, Culture, and Tradition
so widespread on the Cornish coast that the area became The Cornish have a distinct culture and many unique cus-
known as the “graveyard of ships.” toms and traditions. Examples of unique Cornish customs
In 1886, the Cornish tin mining industry collapsed, include Nickanan Night (also called Hall Monday, Peasen
resulting in seven thousand impoverished Cornish fam- Monday, or Roguery Night), which is held on the Monday
ilies leaving Cornwall for English-speaking countries, before Lent. This occasion sees youngsters play practical
including the United States, Australia, New Zealand, South jokes on their relatives and friends, and coastal commu-
Africa, and various Caribbean islands as well as to other nities gather shellfish. In other parts of Cornwall, a straw
parts of England. Some unprofitable mines continued to figure is paraded through the streets before being pelted
operate, but the global economic depression of the 1930s with projectiles and set alight. In western Cornwall, a skull
ended all Cornish mining, thereby increasing unemploy- on a pole known as an Obby Oss is sometimes paraded too.
ment and poverty levels among the Cornish. Demand for Traditional foods to mark the occasion include pea soup
copper during World War II led to some Cornish mines and salt bacon.
270 Cornish

Communities throughout Cornwall all celebrate St. divide into separate groups: piskies (small mischievous
Piran’s Day on March 5, the national day of the Cornish. sprites that live on moorlands), knockers (spirits of the
The day is named after Cornwall’s patron saint, St. Piran. mines whom miners placate by giving them food), sprig-
Specific St. Piran’s Day celebrations vary greatly but usu- gans (grotesque, thieving beings found guarding buried
ally include the flying of Saint Piran’s flag, which features a treasure at ruined locations), and browneys (helpful
centered white cross of St. Piran against a black field. household spirits). The Cornish interest in the supernat-
Famous Cornish food dishes include the Cornish pasty, ural is such that the Museum of Witchcraft and Magic
a freeform, half-moon-shaped, folded pie filled with ingre- is located in Boscastle on the north coast of Cornwall
dients such as beef and root vegetables. Another notable between Bude and Tintagel, the latter being home to a
Cornish dish is star gazy pie, a fish pie from which the ruined castle long associated with the legendary British
heads of the fish protrude. king Arthur.
Music, dancing, and drama are other important facets Despite their strong beliefs in the supernatural, the Cor-
of Cornish culture. Cornish bagpipes are unusual in that nish have been Christian since early medieval times, when
they feature two chanters (the part of the bagpipe resem- Irish missionaries converted them from their indigenous
bling a recorder that allows the player to create melody) animist religion. Protestant Methodism is closely linked
that are played independently, thereby creating interesting to Cornish culture, but in recent times, church attendance
tunes. Cornish guise dancing is performed at Christmas, among the Cornish has declined in line with a general
on Plough Monday, and on feast days; it celebrates mis- downturn in church congregations throughout England.
chief and role reversal. Despite its name, guise dancing is The Cornish language became extinct in 1777 but was
not solely a dance form, for it includes singing, acting, and revived in the 1960s. Such was the success of this revival
music as well as dance. that there are now Cornish evening classes, distance-­
Tourism is a major source of income for Cornwall. Peo- learning courses, summer camps, and schools where indi-
ple visit the county not just for the sandy beaches and surf- viduals can learn the language.
ing but also because Cornwall is home to many legendary
tales. For example, Cornwall is reputed to have been home
to giants as well as Jack the Giant Killer, who originated Health Care and Education
in the legends of the Penwith area of Cornwall. Mermaids Cornish children have access to free state-run schools, col-
also figure large in Cornish folklore. The county is home leges, and universities. Cornish is taught in some schools
to the tale of the Mermaid of Zennor, who, according to and at the university level as part of the course in Cornish
legend, worshipped at St. Senara’s Church in Zennor, where Studies at the University of Exeter. Ninety percent of Cor-
a famous carved “mermaid chair” (on which the mermaid nish youngsters who attend university outside of Cornwall
reportedly sat) is located. The tale of the Arthurian lov- do not return. For this reason, in 2001, Cornish nationalists
ers Tristan and Isolde also has its origins and settings in proclaimed that having a university located in Cornwall is
Cornwall, with a stone monument to Tristan situated near essential to Cornish survival (Minahan 2002).
Fowey. People living in Cornwall are able to access free state-
In common with other Celts, the Cornish have a funded health care provided by the United Kingdom’s
strong belief in fairies, which they call “little people” and National Health Service (NHS).

The Mermaid of Zennor

According to legend, many years ago, a beautiful lady attended church at Zennor. The lady attracted many suitors,
including a local man named Mathew Trewella. One Sunday, Trewella followed the lady as she walked toward the
cliffs, but he never returned to Zennor. Trewella’s disappearance was forgotten until one day a ship’s crew anchored off
Zennor. Soon after, a mermaid appeared and asked the sailors to raise the anchor because it was resting on her door
and preventing her from reaching her children. The sailors obliged. When the villagers heard of this encounter, they
concluded that the mermaid was the beautiful lady and that she had enticed Mathew Trewella to live with her.
 Corsican 271

Threats to Survival See also: Breton; Welsh

While the Cornish are established as a national minor- Further Reading
ity, have a strong cultural identity and a booming tourist Collins, Peter. 2011. “Cornish.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe: An
Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 74–76. Santa Barbara,
industry, Cornish nationalist demands for Cornish auton- CA: ABC-CLIO.
omy following the Welsh model have been ignored. The Jankowicz, Mia. 2017. “Did Cornish Voters for Brexit Just Kill
future of the Cornish may be shaped by the United King- Off Their Own Language?” New Statesman, April 21. https://
dom’s exit from the European Union, commonly referred www​ . newstatesman.com/politics/staggers/2017/04/did
to as Brexit. -cornish​-voters-brexit-just-kill-their-own-language.
Cornwall is England’s poorest county. In 1999, Cornwall Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
nic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 1, A–C. West-
was afforded Objective One status, meaning it was identi- port, CT: Greenwood Press.
fied as one of the European Union’s poorest nations and
therefore deserving of large EU grants. Additionally, in
2014, Cornwall was classed as the second-poorest region in
northern Europe. For this reason, Cornwall is traditionally
one of the biggest beneficiaries of funds from the Euro-
pean Union. For example the European Regional Develop- CORSICAN
ment Fund and European Social Fund gave hundreds of
Current Location France
millions of euros to Cornwall between 2000 and 2013, with
the aim of improving Cornwall’s transport, infrastructure, Current Population 150,000
and enterprise. Without European ties, funding for these Language French; Corsican
sectors may disappear. Interesting Fact The most famous Corsican is
Leaving the European Union may also pose a threat to the undoubtedly Napoleon Bonaparte,
Cornish language. The European Union promotes and sup- the emperor of France from 1804 to
ports minority languages, including Cornish, to help them 1814 and briefly in 1815.
survive. Indeed, the survival of Cornish has been driven
more by European initiatives than by programs backed by Overview
the British government. Cornish-­language campaigners Corsicans are the inhabitants of Corsica, a French territo-
fear that Brexit, for which the Cornish overwhelmingly rial collectivity in the Mediterranean Sea. Corsicans speak
voted in favor of, will remove initiatives that ensured the French as well as the Corsican dialect, Corsu, which is a
language’s revival. Additionally, soon after the Brexit vote, Romance language related to Tuscan that borrows heavily
Cornish-language funding from the British government from French. Corsicans are predominantly Roman Catho-
abruptly ended, something that worries ­Cornish-language lic. In the French language, Corsicans are called le peuple
campaigners. In March 2017, the Council of Europe (not Corse, while in Corsican they are u Populu Corsu.
part of the European Union) advocated that the British
government reconsider its decision to end the funding and
recommended the creation of ­Cornish-language support Population, Diaspora, and Migration
via the BBC (Jankowicz 2017). The Corsican population is estimated at 150,000 people
Another threat to Cornish society arising from the (Minority Rights Group International 2015), and Corsica’s
Brexit vote is that following the decision to enact Brexit, main population hubs are the island’s capital, Adjaccio, and
Cornwall has had to seek assurances that it will not lose the port town of Bastia. There are also many villages nes-
the £60 million it receives every year from the European tled among the mountains of the island’s interior. Villages
Union that helped to both launch local businesses and are central to Corsican identity, so many Corsicans main-
boost educational facilities, including Falmouth Univer- tain two dwellings—an urban home that they use during
sity and Truro College, institutions regarded as essential the week when at work and a family home in a rural loca-
to Cornish survival. Only time will tell how Brexit pans out tion to which they return on weekends.
and how the potential loss of EU funding will impact the The Corsican diaspora is estimated to be larger than
Cornish. the Corsican population living on Corsica itself. Most
272 Corsican

Corsicans living outside of Corsica work on mainland From the eighth to the twelfth centuries Muslim Sar-
France, though many also live in former French colonies acens from North Africa continually threatened Corsica.
or in the United States (Minority Rights Group Interna- As a result of this, the Franks ceded Corsica to the Holy
tional 2015). See, an independent sovereign body that is the ecclesias-
tical jurisdiction of the Catholic Church in Rome. In 1047,
Pope Gregory VII gave Corsica to the Republic of Pisa. The
Geography and Environment Pisans were a maritime people who began to develop the
Corsica, which is the fourth-largest island in the Mediter- island and constructed hundreds of churches there.
ranean Sea, is located just over one hundred miles from The Pisans also made Italian the island’s language rather
southern France and fifty-six miles northwest of Italy. The than Latin. However, after a prolonged, bloody conflict, the
narrow Strait of Bonifacio separates Corsica from Sardinia. Pisans’ rival republic, Genoa, overran Corsica in 1284. By
Much of Corsica is mountainous with a massif bisect- 1347, the Genoese had expelled all Pisans from Corsica
ing the island. Many mountains on Corsica exceed 6,500 and instigated six hundred years of harsh, unpopular rule
feet, and Mount Cinto reaches an elevation of 8,890 feet. over Corsica.
Several of the mountains descend steeply along the coast, In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, France briefly
creating cliffs and headlands. In the east of Corsica, the took control of Corsica, modernizing the island’s admin-
massif gives way to extensive alluvial plains and lagoons. istration before returning it to the Genoese. It was dur-
The island is home to several permanent rivers as well as ing Genoese rule in the sixteenth century that Corsican
seasonal mountain rivers. nationalism began to stir.
Corsica has a generally Mediterranean climate with In the eighteenth century, the Corsicans, under the
abundant rainfall. Consequently, Corsica’s vegetation is leadership of Pasquale Paoli, revolted against Genoese rule
luxuriant. Much of Corsica is covered in maquis (scrubby in general and most especially against a Genoese tax hike.
brush composed of fragrant shrubs). Chestnut forests grow The revolt occurred over the course of several decades,
at higher elevations, and the Corsican pine dominates the but in 1755, the Corsicans were able to achieve independ-
highest areas. Irrigation allows Corsicans to farm citrus ence and establish their own republic. Under Paoli’s rule,
fruits, grapes, and olives. a Corsican national government was founded along with
a university to train administrators, a printing press, and a
national navy.
History and Politics In 1768, the Genoese sold their rights to Corsica to
Corsica’s history is one of continual invasion and occupa- France. This prompted the French to invade Corsica and
tion. The Etruscans, an ancient Italian civilization, were establish a colonial administration that dissolved all Cor-
the first people to settle Corsica (Minahan 2002). The sican institutions, including the university. The Corsicans
Phoenicians from modern-day Lebanon followed the frequently revolted against the French, and in 1793, they
Etruscans. The ancient Greeks also conquered the island, drove French officials from the island. Corsican rebels
followed by the North African Carthaginians. The Romans called on the British for help against the French and for the
incorporated Corsica into the Roman Republic following union of Corsica with Great Britain. However, in 1796, the
a series of conflicts lasting from 259 BCE to 163 BCE. French troops led by the Corsican Napoleon Bonaparte,
Under Roman rule, Corsicans came to adopt Latin as their retook the island. In 1814, the British reclaimed Corsica
language and Christianity as their religion. Following the as part of the Napoleonic Wars. However, despite Corsican
fall of the Roman Empire, Corsica was left almost entirely protests, their homeland was returned to the French as
undefended, allowing the Germanic Vandals to invade. part of the 1815 Congress of Vienna, a meeting of Euro-
The Vandals devastated the island, driving the Corsicans pean ambassadors, with the aim of achieving long-lasting
inland so that the coast became deserted. In 534 CE, the peace across the continent in the wake of the French Rev-
Byzantines took control of Corsica but were unable to olutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars. Corsica’s new
keep hold of the island in the face of successive invasions administration was continually disrupted by banditry,
by Germanic tribes, including the Goths. In 725, the Lom- blood vendettas, and attacks on French officials, for the
bards overran the island, followed by the Franks. island’s marquis provided criminals and dissidents with
 Corsican 273

refuge. Under French rule, the importance of Corsican Corsicans. Corsicans were outraged at the funds going to
clans began to wane. the pieds noirs and became increasingly nationalistic as a
During the nineteenth century, the Corsicans devel- result (Davis 2011).
oped staunchly pro-Bonaparte feelings that kept the peo- Anti–Vietnam War feelings compounded the antico-
ple loyal to France. Under French rule, formal education lonial sentiments held by many Corsican students at the
was established on Corsica along with agriculture and law university in France. Soon these feelings caused Corsican’s
and order. At the same time, French became the island’s cultural identity to reawaken. Thus, from the late 1960s
main language. On the whole, however, Corsicans did not to the 1980s, militant Corsican students returned to their
assimilate into mainstream French society on the island, homeland determined to revive Corsican culture, and dur-
and many Corsicans had to leave their homeland in ing this period, the population on Corsica rose to as high
search of employment because, in general, France failed to as 240,000 (Davis 2011). In the mid-1970s, the Libyan gov-
develop the island. By the 1920s, the Corsicans had become ernment began to train and financially support the main
resentful of France’s neglect of their homeland, especially Corsican regionalist group, Front de Libération Nationale
France’s failure to industrialize the island except for estab- de la Corse (FLNC, Corsican National Liberation Front).
lishing unsuccessful asbestos and lead mines. The growing The FLNC was inspired by the Algerian independence
Corsican resentment eventually led to the creation of the movement and demanded both Corsican independence
first Corsican nationalist organization in 1927. and the expulsion of the pieds noirs. Oftentimes, the FLNC
During World War II, Italian fascists took control of used violence to further its cause, resorting to acts that
Corsica and began to Italianize the islanders. In 1943, the included bombings and murder.
Corsicans, with the help of the Free French (the French In the 1980s, there were remarkable strides toward the
government-in-exile), removed the Italians from Corsica. recognition of Corsican cultural identity resulting from a
World Wars I and II decimated the Corsican population, combination of the Riacquistu movement for the redis-
with an estimated twenty thousand islanders dying over covery of Corsican culture, the actions of Corsican nation-
the course of the two conflicts. alists, and the approach of French president François
The Corsicans believed the ousting of the Italians Mitterrand (in power 1981–1995), who strove to highlight
put them on course for independence, and so they were France’s diverse culture and heritage.
severely disappointed when France claimed Corsica in In 1991, Corsica became the only French region to have
1945. Disillusioned, Corsican nationalists went dormant, its own regional government. In 2002, this government
and many Corsicans moved to the French mainland in was awarded full responsibility for its own cultural policy,
search of work. The mass migration of Corsicans to France a move strengthened in 2008 by its being awarded €636.6
prompted the French to develop Corsica, which France did million with which to protect Corsican culture.
by encouraging tourism on the island. Recently, Corsican nationalism fell out of favor among
The Algerian War of Independence (1954–1962) Corsicans who have become tired of island-wide bomb-
between France and the Algerian National Liberation ing campaigns. The FLNC assassination of French prefect
Front caused a resurgence of Corsican nationalism. Cor- (French state representative) Claude Érignac, who was shot
sicans became dismayed at France settling seventeen on his way to a music concert in Ajaccio, also caused Cor-
thousand Algerians loyal to France together with French sican nationalism to wane. In recent times, only 6 percent
colonists evacuated from Algeria on the island (Minahan of Corsican voters were registered as nationalists (Davis
2002). In 1958, a failed Corsican rebellion sparked further 2011). However, in 2017, a nationalist alliance won a major-
insurrection, with Corsicans of all social classes united ity in Corsica’s regional elections. The “For Corsica” coalition
in their desire for independence. This situation led to the (Pè a Corsica), which calls for greater Corsican autonomy
founding of multiple Corsican nationalist groups, several rather than full independence, won 56.5 percent of votes
of which turned to terrorism and violence. In 1962, the sit- in the second round of voting. The alliance also demanded
uation was exacerbated when France awarded most of the amnesty for Corsicans jailed for proindependence violence,
funds from an initial economic development fund aimed for Corsu to have equal status with French on the island,
at improving agriculture on Corsica to pieds noirs (French and a special Corsican residency status that would deter
former settlers from Algeria) rather than to indigenous French investors from acquiring property on the island.
274 Corsican

Society, Culture, and Tradition people became ill with a parasitic infection that causes
Corsicans have long been infamous for their vendettas and schistosomiasis (or bilharzia) after being exposed to the
prolonged feuds, which are passed down through gener- Schistosoma haematobium fluke via Corsica’s Cavu River.
ations. Traditionally, Corsican politics revolved around The disease is usually associated with tropical areas and
deeply entrenched family and village affiliations involving was the first report of schistosomiasis being acquired in
clans. Until the 1930s, clan honor and vendettas governed France.
much of Corsican life. It is widely reported that violence A diminishing number of young Corsicans speak Corsu
related to the Mafia continues to occur on the island. as their first language despite an increasing use of Corsu
Until the start of the twentieth century, Corsican life in schools. In 2002, around 21,400 pupils studied Corsu at
revolved around farming and animal husbandry, with primary school, 7,400 did so at secondary school, and 2,000
chestnuts, olives, wine, honey, and wheat being the most students studied the language at lycées (high schools). Addi-
important produce. Corsicans also kept their own garden tionally, 2,000 pupils used Corsu in bilingual ­Corsu-French
plots, which produced fruit and vegetables to supplement schools. In 2003, another four bilingual schools opened
the people’s diet of seafood and meat acquired through on Corsica (Minority Rights Group International 2015).
fishing and hunting. Nomadic goat and sheepherders pro- Today, Corsu-language teaching is enshrined in Corsica’s
duced cheese, wool, and milk, which became symbolic of education curriculum, with pupils able to attend bilingual
Corsican cultural traditions. Today, tourism is the main- schools from primary school onward. In 1981, the Uni-
stay of Corsica’s economy. versita di Corsica Pascal Paoli opened and now includes a
Sheep farming for ewe’s milk is still very important, Department of Corsican Studies.
and Corsicans are known for making high-quality ewe’s
milk cheeses, including brocciu (similar to ricotta). Corsi-
Threats to Survival
can cuisine includes ingredients such as wild boar, trout,
pork, cheese, and chestnuts. The classic Corsican dish of Despite a growing tourist industry, Corsica is one of
pasticciu di meruli (blackbird pâté) is now prohibited. Cor- France’s poorest areas. Farming and industry account for
sican food is particularly aromatic because local animals only 7.4 percent of the island’s economy, while services and
eat the fragrant plants that make up the maquis as well as public sector employment account for 70 percent of Cor-
the chestnuts and oaks of the island’s forests. These flavors sica’s economy. Many commentators fear that French state
thus become imparted in the island’s food. Corsica also funding as well as that from the European Union is unsus-
produces a variety of alcohols, including brandy, red and tainable given Corsica’s lack of economic activity (Davis
white wines (Vinu Corsu), and the apéritif “Cap Corse.” 2011). Questions also remain as to how best to increase
Cap Corse is a quinquina, a type of aromatic aperitif wine tourism on Corsica while preserving Corsican’s traditional
whose main ingredients provide quinine, an ingredient culture and language. Indeed, Corsicans face the threat of
originally used to fight malaria. losing their distinctive dialect; hence, it appears on UNE-
Christianity is firmly entrenched among Corsicans, SCO’s list of potentially endangered languages. Almost all
with each Corsican village having its own patron saint and Corsicans speak French, and there is a growing tendency
a church. Nonetheless, Corsicans maintain pre-Christian to use French in formal matters, with Corsu reserved for
beliefs, including a belief in mazzeri (dream-hunters), speaking at home or at informal gatherings. That said,
shaman-like individuals who are believed to tell the future, Corsu-language magazines and a weekly newspaper are
deflect the evil eye, and prevent deaths in their community. published in Corsu, and state and private radio also broad-
Corsica has a rich musical tradition that includes nanne cast partly in Corsu. At the same time, Corsican culture
(lullabies), tribbiere (harvest songs), voceri (laments for is thriving; many cultural associations promote Corsican
the dead), and chamji et respondi (improvised debate in culture alongside the use of Corsu. On the whole, it seems
poetic form). the Riacquistu movement for Corsicans’ cultural reacqui-
sition has succeeded.
In recent times, Corsican life has become more stable,
Health Care and Education with fewer bombings and alleged illegal activity by nation-
Corsicans have access to modern health care across their alist groups. In 2014, after committing ten thousand vio-
homeland. In 2014, it was reported that a number of lent attacks in forty years (Day 2014), the FLNC declared a
 Crimean Tatar  275

permanent and unconditional cease-fire. FLNC’s decision Crimean Turkish), which belongs to the Turkic branch
to renounce violence was prompted by a decision by Cor- of the Uralo-Altaic language family. Tatars are ostensi-
sica’s regional assembly to give Corsicans priority when bly Sunni Muslim, but many do not practice any form of
buying property on Corsica. religion.
While many Corsicans call for greater autonomy, few
dream of an independent Corsica. Citizens feel that trans-
national bodies such as the European Union make the idea Population, Diaspora, and Migration
of “nationhood” a moot point. Instead, most Corsicans According to the 2002 national census, there were
hope for their autonomy to increase in a way that gives 2,031,000 people living in Crimea of which 15 percent
them control over their language, immigration, and land (or 304,650 people) identified as Crimean Tatars (Kirimli
speculation that raises property costs. 2011). A large Tatar diaspora exists in former Soviet states,
including Ukraine, Uzbekistan, and Tajikistan, as well as
See also: Basque; Breton; Canarian; Catalan; Occitan
elsewhere in Europe and Asia. The Tatar population of
Further Reading
Turkey is estimated at 5,000,000 people, with 30,000 Tatars
Buckley, Martin. 2014. “Are Corsica’s Militants and Mafia a Thing
of the Past?” BBC News Magazine, November 1. https://www​ living in both Romania and the United States, 20,000 in
.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-29662561. Germany, and 15,000 in Bulgaria (Kirimli 2011).
Davis, Sarah H. 2011. “Corsican.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe: An In the past, Crimean Tatars were included in Soviet cen-
Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 76–80. Santa Barbara, suses under the umbrella term “Tatar,” thereby grouping
CA: ABC-CLIO. them with the much larger Tatar community of the Volga
Day, Michael. 2014. “Corsican Terror Group Lays Down Arms
region. However, the language and culture of the Crimean
in Battle for Independence from France.” The Independ-
ent, June 27. https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world​ Tatars is very different to that of the Volga Tatars.
/europe/corsican-terror-group-lays-down-arms-in-battle​
-for-independence-from-france-9569569.html.
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: Geography and Environment
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 1, A–C. Crimea (or the Crimean Peninsula) is an area recognized
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
internationally as part of southern Ukraine but which
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “France: Corsicans.”
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, June was annexed by Russia in March 2014. Crimea lies on the
19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/corsicans. northern shores of the Black Sea and is almost entirely sur-
rounded by both the Black Sea and the smaller Sea of Azov
that lies to the northeast. Crimea is situated in Ukraine’s
Kherson region, to which it is physically connected by the
Perekop Isthmus, a historic battle site in the struggle for
control of Crimea. Between Crimea and the mainland to
CRIMEAN TATAR the north lies Syvash, a network of shallow lagoons sep-
Current Location Crimea; Russia; Ukraine; Uzbekistan; arated from the Sea of Azov by the Arabat Spit, a long
Turkey; Romania; elsewhere sandbar on Crimea’s eastern shore. Saltwater from Syvash
Current Population At least 7,430,650 supplies chemical plants at Krasnoperekopsk in northwest
Crimea. Across the Black Sea to the west of Crimea lies
Language Krym (Crimean Turkish)
Romania and to the south Turkey.
Interesting Fact In 1944, Russia deported the entire
Crimea consists of three regions. Northern and central
Crimean Tatar population from
Crimea.
Crimea comprise a level steppe plain that gently slopes
south to north. The area experiences intensive agricul-
tural cultivation, with the main crops being wheat, corn,
Overview potatoes, and sunflowers. The region has a dry climate, so
The Crimean Tatars, also called the Krym-Tatars, Tatar- irrigation water is brought in by canal from the Dnieper
larnin Elvi, and Krym-Turks, among other names, are the River. The second region (the Kerch Peninsula) consists
indigenous Turkic people of Eastern Europe’s Crimean of low hills rich in iron ore, mud volcanoes, and mineral
Peninsula. Tatars speak the Tatar language, Krym (or springs, which have given rise to a spa and tourist industry.
276  Crimean Tatar

The third region comprises chains of alpine fold mountains authority over the khanate of Crimea. There followed years
running parallel to Crimea’s south coast. This mountain- of civil unrest that only ended when Russia’s empress
ous region receives more rain than elsewhere in Crimea, Catherine the Great officially annexed Crimea to the Rus-
and the mountains are home to many species of trees and sian Empire in 1783. Russian rule of Crimea was repressive
grass. The southern region has a mild Mediterranean cli- and saw the Russians try to colonize Crimea, resulting in
mate that allows plants that include oleander, almonds, the mass migration of Crimean Tatars to Ottoman Tur-
palms, vines, and tobacco to grow. Wine production, tour- key. Consequently, by the 1860s, the Crimean Tatars were
ism, and quarrying are important economic activities in no longer Crimea’s majority population. A Crimean Tatar
Crimea’s south. nationalist movement soon arose, instigated by Ismail
Gaspirali, the Crimean Tatar intellectual, educator, and
politician.
History and Politics By the 1910s, Crimean Tatar intellectuals and under-
The earliest Turkic people to enter Crimea were the Huns, ground nationalist groups were bent on the independence
who invaded the region during the latter part of the fourth of their people. When the Russian Revolution erupted in
century. By the eighth century, Crimea had become part 1917, the Crimean Tatar nationalists took over the run-
of the Turkic Khazar Empire. During the tenth century, ning of Crimean Tatar life in Crimea. Democratic elections
however, the Khazar Empire had disintegrated, allowing were held in Crimea in November 1917, resulting in the
a new wave of Turkic peoples, the Pechenegs, to invade formation of a Crimean national parliament that went on
the steppes north of the Black Sea before traveling south to declare the creation of a Crimean Democratic Repub-
to Crimea, where they settled. Less than a hundred years lic. The new republic was swiftly ended, however, when
later, another Turkic people, the Cumans (or Kipchaks), Bolshevik troops invaded and overthrew the government.
came to dominate Crimea, except for coastal cities, which Subsequently, the opposing sides of the Russian Revolu-
were ruled first by the Byzantines and then by the Vene- tion, the Red and White Armies, proceeded to alternate
tians and Genoese. The Cumans ruled much of Crimea for control of the peninsula, with neither side favoring the
two hundred years. concept of Crimean Tatar independence. In late 1920,
The Mongol forces of Genghis Khan invaded Crimea in the Red Army eventually came to occupy Crimea perma-
the 1240s. Soon after, Crimea became part of the Mongo- nently, and the following year, it declared the foundation
lian Empire’s western branch, the Golden Horde. Within of the Crimean Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.
a century, however, the Golden Horde had converted to The Crimean Tatars then experienced dekulakization—a
Islam, and their culture had been Turkified, for they were Soviet campaign of political repression, including arrest,
greatly outnumbered by the Turkic peoples they had con- deportation, and execution as well as the collectivization
quered. Once the Mongols had become Turkic, more Turkic of agriculture. By the 1930s, the Crimean Tatar intelligent-
peoples came to live in Crimea, where they soon became sia had all but been annihilated (Kirimli 2011).
assimilated into the general population. The Turkic Mus- During World War II, Germany occupied Crimea until
lim peoples living in Crimea have been called the Crimean the Red Army recaptured the peninsula in 1944. On May
Tatars since the thirteenth century (Kirimli 2011). 18, 1944, every single Crimean Tatar was deported from
Once the Golden Horde disintegrated, a self-proclaimed Crimea by the combined forces of the Red Army and
heir to the Golden Horde, Haci Giray, settled in Crimea, the Narodnyy Komissariat Vnutrennikh Del (or NKVD,
where, in 1428, he proclaimed himself khan. In 1475, the the People’s Commissariat for Internal Affairs). Crimean
khanate of Crimea came under the nominal control of Tatars were packed on to sealed cattle trains with inad-
the Ottoman Empire in a deal that allowed Crimean Tatar equate water, food, medicine, or sanitation for a journey
soldiers to fight for the Ottomans while permitting the lasting at least three weeks. Unsurprisingly, at least half
khanate of Crimea to stretch into southern Russia, eastern the deportees died en route (mainly children, women, and
Poland, and Ukraine. The khanate of Crimea controlled the elderly). Survivors of the hellish journey were sent to
much of Eastern Europe for the next three hundred years, concentration camp–type facilities in the Ural Mountains,
and it also established trade links with Greece and Genoa. Siberia, and Central Asia, where there was substandard
In 1774, the Treaty of Kukuc Kaynarca signed by the Rus- housing, little food, and no social facilities. Deportees were
sian Empire and the Ottoman Empire ended Ottoman also forbidden to leave the camps for sixteen years (Kirimli
 Crimean Tatar  277

2011). Other Crimean Tatar deportees were relocated faced by a people with such a dispersed population. Subse-
to labor as indentured workers under the Soviet Gulag quently, while the Qurultay (national congress and highest
system. representing ministerial body of the Crimean Tatars) and
Meanwhile, back in Crimea, Russian authorities erad- Mejlis (national council) have not received unambiguous
icated any trace of Crimean Tatar existence. For example, acknowledgment as part of the Ukrainian government,
Crimean Tatar place names were replaced with Russian they do act as de facto political representatives of the
names, and entries under the heading “Crimean Tatar” Crimean Tatars.
were removed from reference books and censuses. At the In 2014, the legislature of the Autonomous Republic
same time, Russian migrants were encouraged to settle in of Crimea and the local government of Sevastopol ran a
Crimea. controversial referendum on Crimean independence that
In 1954, Crimea was declared part of the Ukrainian asked voters whether they wished to join Russia as a fed-
Soviet Socialist Republic. Two years later, the Crimean eral subject or to restore the 1992 Crimean constitution
Tatar National Movement, founded by Crimean Tatars in and Crimea’s status as a part of Ukraine. The referendum
exile, called for the return of their homeland. The Soviets occurred during a Russian military takeover of Crimea
arrested and imprisoned members of the movement, but and was not recognized by most countries. Following the
the movement continued to operate and attracted tens of referendum, the Supreme Council of Crimea and Sevas-
thousands of followers willing to sign petitions, travel to topol City Council announced the Republic of Crimea‘s
Moscow, and demonstrate for the return of Crimea. The independence from Ukraine and requested to join the Rus-
movement proceeded in this vein until Russian president sian Federation. That day, Russia recognized the Republic
Gorbachev instigated the policies of openness and polit- of Crimea as a sovereign state. However, most members
ical freedom known as glasnost and perestroika. In 1987, of the European Union as well as the United States and
the Crimean Tatar National Movement held its first pub- Canada regarded the referendum as illegitimate because
lic meeting in Moscow’s Red Square, and although Rus- it took place during Russia’s ongoing military intervention
sian authorities discussed ways to combat the nationalist in Crimea. Since Russia’s annexation of Crimea, Russia has
movement, they took no steps to instigate Crimean Tatar banned the Mejlis national council as an extremist organ-
independence. ization. International commentators have argued the ban
Frustrated by the lack of action by authorities, a cen- was a key element of Russia’s systematic repression of the
tralized body called the Organization of the Crimean Tatar Crimean Tatars.
National Movement (OCTNM) formed in exile and called
on Crimean Tatars to return to Crimea illegally. Then, in
1990, Crimean Tatars were finally allowed to return to Society, Culture, and Tradition
Crimea, though the people were given no financial assis- Crimean Tatar society is divided into three subgroups
tance to do so. From the early to mid-1990s, approximately that are classified geographically: the Steppe-Tatars, the
250,000 Crimean Tatars and their descendants returned to Hill-Tatars, and the South Coast Tatars. The Crimean Tatar
Crimea following the end of Soviet Union amid a back- language, Krym, is divided into three main dialects that
drop of growing tension between Russia and Ukraine that correspond to the three social subgroups: Northern or
mainly stemmed from Russian claims to the large formerly Steppe Crimean, Southern or Coastal Crimean, and Cen-
Soviet naval base at Sevastopol. tral Crimean. The dialects are influenced by the language
Crimean Tatars returning to the region found they were of Nogais (a Turkic people living mainly in the North Cau-
relegated to living in marginal areas and city slums. Such casus region) and the Turks living to the south. Until 1927,
poor living standards reinvigorated the Crimean Tatar literary Krym took the form of the Turkicized Southern
nationalist movement, and in 1994, in an effort to gain dialect, but post-1927, it switched to the Central dialect.
Crimean Tatar support against Russia, Ukraine greatly Similarly, up until the 1920s, the language was written
expanded the housing provision for Crimean Tatars while using Arabic letters. From the 1920s to 1938, however,
simultaneously dismantling Crimean Tatar shantytowns. the language was written using the Latin alphabet. After
Then, in 1995, Crimean Tatar leaders called on the Ukrain- 1938, the Russian Cyrillic alphabet was used. Importantly,
ian authorities to set a quota of parliamentary seats for Ukraine has ratified the European Charter for Regional or
Crimean Tatars to overcome the electoral disadvantage Minority Languages, the European convention promoting
278  Crimean Tatar

and preserving minority languages such as Krym. How- the World Health Organization (WHO 2014), restoring
ever, Russia has not ratified the convention, so Crimean access to health care in the conflict area is a priority, so
Tatars are no longer afforded the language protection they the WHO is working with the United Nations and mul-
enjoyed under Ukrainian legislation. tiple nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) to achieve
Most Crimean Tatars identify as Sunni Muslim, but in this aim (WHO 2014).
reality, many do not practice their religion. At the same In recent history, Crimean Tatar pupils have had no
time, however, a degree of religious friction has arisen in access to education in their own language, and as of 2002,
Crimea between returning Crimean Tatars and the area’s 75 percent of Crimean Tatar children could not read their
majority Slavic population. As a response to this friction, native language (Minahan 2002). Since Russia’s occupa-
Crimean Tatars who are more fervently religious have tion of Crimea, the number of pupils in Crimea taking
become more fundamentalist and called for stricter reli- classes taught in Ukrainian has plummeted from 13,589
gious observance (Minahan 2002). in 2013 to 371 in 2016. Additionally, Crimean parents have
Crimean Tatars are passionate about music and song, claimed that school officials have pressured them not to
for these unite their scattered diaspora. Most Crimean enroll children in classes taught in Ukrainian and then
Tatars marry within their ethnicity, something that is rare removed those classes from the curriculum on the basis
for indigenous peoples of the former Soviet Union. that not enough pupils were enrolled in the classes. As a
result, the children are taught in Russian (Cooper and Gor-
bunova 2017).
Health Care and Education
Following Russia’s annexation of Crimea, Russia began
bestowing Russian citizenship on Crimean residents. Threats to Survival
Since the annexation, access to health insurance in Crimea
There are a number of problems facing Crimean Tatars
depends on residents having a Russian passport or per-
returning to Crimea. For instance, Crimean Tatars lack
manent residence permit. Although Russia says it does
land rights, and since Russia’s annexation of Crimea, they
not force anyone to take-up Russian citizenship, in real-
no longer enjoy other rights they held previously, such as
ity, Crimean residents have little choice but to do this if
the right to have their language protected. Other issues
they wish to receive health care. Thus, many people have
include high incidence of disease, unemployment, and
accepted Russian citizenship or obtained Russian res-
poor living conditions.
idency reluctantly so that they can afford health care.
Crimean Tatar nationalism has also been threatened.
Residents of Crimea who chose not to apply for Russian
Since the annexation, Russian authorities are reported to
papers or who were denied Russian citizenship claim they
have suppressed dissent and fostered an environment of
are unable to afford private health care and have to travel
fear. People considered to have criticized Russia’s occupa-
to mainland Ukraine for medical treatment or ask friends
tion of the region have disappeared, been killed, or been
who are medical professionals to treat them or buy medi-
imprisoned, and most independent media outlets and
cations (Cooper and Gorbunova 2017).
rights activists have had to leave Crimea. In 2017, wide-
Since 2014, Ukrainian doctors have voiced concerns
spread news reports have alleged that authorities have
that the young and old ethnic minorities, such as the
imprisoned and abused ethnic Tatar human rights activists
Crimean Tatars; the poor; people with mental, physi-
and nationalists. Russian authorities are reported to detain
cal, or psychosocial disabilities; gay men; and displaced
activists in psychiatric hospitals, where they are submitted
persons have particular problems accessing health
to psychological abuse. However, in late 2017, Ukraine’s
care under Russia’s occupation of Crimea. The country
state radio company announced plans to broadcast news
has low vaccination rates, institutionalized psychiatric
programs in Krym to the indigenous population of Crimea
patients are reported to have died from neglect, and
so that the Crimean Tatars could listen to broadcasts in
some villages are said to be without medical facilities,
their own language. What effect this has on Crimean Tatar
personnel, or supplies (WHO 2014). Low vaccination
nationalism is yet to be seen.
rates mean Ukraine has an endemic transmission rate for
measles, though clinics report being well stocked with See also: Chechen; Circassian; Evenk; Ingush; Komi;
MMR (measles, mumps, rubella) vaccines. According to Udmurt
 Croat 279

Further Reading exists, and many Croats live in other parts of the former
Cooper, Tanya, and Yulia Gorbunova. 2017, May 3. “Crimea: ‘Not Yugoslavia (Bosnia-Herzegovina, Slovenia, and Serbia),
Our Home Anymore.’” https://www.hrw.org/news/2017/05​ Slovakia, the Czech Republic, Hungary, and Romania.
/03/crimea-not-our-home-anymore.
Fisher, Alan W. 1978. The Crimean Tatars. Stanford, CA: Hoover
According to Minority Rights Group International, Austria
Press Publication. is home to around 50,000 Croats, most of whom live in the
Kirimli, Hakan. 2011. “Crimean Tatars.” In Ethnic Groups of Austrian state of Burgenland. There are also approximately
Europe: An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 84–87. 15,000 Croats living in the Austrian capital of Vienna. Sev-
Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. eral thousand Croats live in the Molise region of southern
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth- Italy, especially in the isolated mountain communities of
nic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 1, A–C. West-
port, CT: Greenwood Press.
San Felice del Molise, Acquaviva Collecroce, and Mon-
Roache, Madeline. 2017. “Russian Authorities ‘Imprisoning temitro in the Molise province of Campobasso. The Croat
Crimean Tatars in Psychiatric Hospitals.’” The Guardian, community of Molise is bilingual in Croatian and Italian,
March 28. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017​/mar​ with some Molise Croats being trilingual because they
/28/russian-authorities-imprisoning-crimean-tatars-in​-psy​ also speak Albanian. Croats are the smallest minority
chiatric-hospitals. group in Italy. There is a Croatian consulate located in
World Health Organization (WHO). 2014, December. “Ukraine
Conflict: Upholding the Right to Health for All.” http://www​
Montemitro. A few hundred Croats live in Kosovo, mainly
.who.int/features/2014/ukraine-conflict/en. in Letnica in southern Kosovo and Janjevo, which is near
the capital of Pristina in the northeast of Kosovo. Political
upheaval in Yugoslavia means many Croats live in North
and South America, Australia, and New Zealand as well as
Scandinavia.
Croatia has one of Europe’s lowest total fertility rates.
CROAT Consequently, Croatia’s population is expected to decrease
Current Location Former Yugoslav republics; Central by 30 percent by 2050 (Čapo and Zrnić 2011).
and Eastern Europe; North and
South America; Australia; New
Zealand Geography and Environment
Current Population 4.8 million The Croatian homeland is located in the northwest of the
Language Croatian Balkan Peninsula in southwest Europe. Part of this tradi-
Interesting Fact Croats are Italy’s smallest minority
tional homeland stretches into Bosnia and Herzegovina,
group. which shares a long border with Croatia. In addition to
being bounded by Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia is
bordered by Serbia, Hungary, Slovenia, and Montenegro.
Overview Much of Croatia also borders the Adriatic Sea.
Croats (or Croatians) are a South Slav people that make Croatia consists of three main geographic areas. In
up the majority population of the Balkan country of Cro- the north and northeast, there are the Pannonian and
atia. Other European countries also have significant Croat para-Pannonian plains. The plains form the most fertile
communities as do North and South America, Australia, farming land in Croatia because they have alluvial soil
and New Zealand. Croats speak Croatian, which is a South deposited by the Sava and Drava Rivers. North of the
Slavic Serbo-Croatian language written using the Latin Croatian capital of Zagreb, there are the Zagorje Hills,
alphabet. In Croatian, the Croats are called the Hrvati. vine-covered portions of the Julian Alps, and the Sava and
Most Croats are Roman Catholic. Drava River valleys. The second region lies to the west and
south of the Pannonian region and consists of a central
mountain belt that is part of the Dinaric Alps. This region
Population, Diaspora, and Migration has poor soil, but some of the land is farmed or used as
The population of Croatia consists of around 4.8 million pasture. The third geographic region, the Croatian littoral,
people, with Croats making up 90 percent of the popu- consists of the Istrian Peninsula in the north and an area
lation (Haarmann 2015). A global diaspora of equal size of the Dalmatian coast that stretches south to the Gulf of
280 Croat

Kotor, which includes thousands of islands and islets. The their traditions and customs. The blending of cultures
littoral is mainly mountainous with poor soil. led to the assimilation of the area’s communities of pre-­
Croatia is home to many rivers, the most of important Roman peoples and Illyrians (Indo-Europeans inhabiting
of which are the Sava, Drava, and Kupa Rivers, on the the western Balkans) who had adopted Roman lifestyles.
grounds that they are largely navigable. In Dalmatia, the In the seventh century, the Croats were overrun by the
Krka and Cetina Rivers are also important because they Avars. In the following century, the Croats conquered the
have to potential to be used for hydroelectric power. Avars before being conquered themselves by the Franks.
Croatia has two main climatic zones. The plains and Around this time, Greek missionaries converted the Slavs
mountainous areas experience a continental climate fea- to Christianity. By the ninth century, Croats had come to
turing warm summers and cold winters. These areas can dominate two areas in particular. One area was located in
experience considerable rainfall with snow in winter. The the north between the Sava and Drava Rivers. The second
Dalmatian coast has a mild Mediterranean climate. The area was located in the hinterland of the Dalmatian coast.
south of southern Dalmatia experiences sirocco winds During the tenth century, parts of the Dalmatian coast
(known locally as jugo). Here, summers are warm and were conquered by the Venetians. In 924, a Croat king-
sunny, and winters are wet. In the north of Dalmatia, win- dom was created that, in 1102, entered into a union with
ters are drier and colder because they experience a cold Hungary. The influence of Hungary meant that the Croats
northeast wind called the bura. retained a Western European mind-set that was Roman
Croatia’s varied geography and climate is reflected in Catholic in outlook and used the Latin alphabet.
the country’s diverse flora and fauna. For example, on the The Kingdom of Hungary, including Croat lands,
Dalmatian coast, wine and oil are produced from local became part of the Hapsburg Empire that ruled from Aus-
grapes and olives, while the Istrian peninsula is dominated tria after 1687. In 1699, the many Croats living in Slovenia
by firs. Lizards live along Croatia’s coast, and wolves, bears, also came under Hapsburg rule when the state was ceded
boars, and wild sheep live elsewhere. The Adriatic Sea con- by the Turks. Additional parts of Croatia came under
tains many coral reefs. Hapsburg rule after 1740, though Dalmatia remained
under Venetian rule until 1797, and Ragusa (later renamed
Dubrovnik) existed as a semiautonomous republic.
History and Politics In the mid-nineteenth century, the Croats began to
The first Slavs arrived in the western Balkans during the resist their union with Hungary. This resistance prompted
sixth and seventh centuries. By this time, the area had a Croat cultural revival. Early Croat nationalists aimed to
already been developed by the Romans. The Slavs’ conquest establish a South Slav kingdom within Austria-Hungary
of Salona (the capital of the Roman province of Dalmatia) (the constitutional union of the Austrian Empire and
in 614 is considered the beginning of Slav settlement in the Kingdom of Hungary ruled by the Hapsburgs). The
Croatia. Today, the Croatian region of Dalmatia is much early Croat nationalist movement split, with one group
smaller than the ancient province of Dalmatia that encom- of nationalists demanding a separate Croat state and the
passed parts of modern-day Albania, Croatia, Bosnia and other desiring the unification of all South Slavs. Prior to
Herzegovina, Montenegro, Kosovo, and Serbia. Over the World War I, Hungarian repression of Croat nationalism
following centuries, a Croat ethnicity developed as Slav led to a series of unsuccessful Croat revolts. Exasperated,
peoples inhabiting the western Balkans began to merge the Croats began to call for total Croat independence.

Mirila
Mirila are stone monuments found on Croatia’s Mount Velebit. Dates inscribed on the mirila indicate the first stones
were erected in 1717, with the most recent being erected in 1971. Mirila are dedicated in memory of the people who
died on the mountain’s slopes before being transported to the local graveyard for burial. The corpse carriers would
stop once en route to the graveyard. The mirila mark where the bodies rested on the ground during these stops. As
the pause was the last time that the deceased would encounter the sun, many mirila are orientated toward the sun.
 Croat 281

This move for independence gained momentum until had a population composed of Croats, Serbs, Roma, and
the assassination of the Hapsburg Archduke Franz Fer- Muslim groups.
dinand, who was the heir presumptive to the Austro-­ Although the state was officially independent, in actu-
Hungarian throne. The archduke’s assassination in Bosnia ality, it was a satellite state of Nazi Germany (Haarmann
sparked Austria-Hungary’s declaration of war against Ser- 2015). The new republic’s government was anti-Serb, anti-
bia. Ultimately this declaration triggered the events that communist, and anti-Semitic. As a result, it mercilessly
resulted in the allies of Austria-Hungary and Serbia declar- persecuted the state’s Serbs, Jews, and Roma. Many Cro-
ing war on each other, which in turn led to World War I. ats, who both believed the Axis powers were soon to win
In 1917, South Slav representatives from Croatia, Slo- the war and had an ingrained hatred of Orthodox Serbs,
venia, Serbia, and Montenegro met to plan for an inde- joined in the persecution. Other Croats, however, joined
pendent South Slav state. The following year, the fall of the partisan groups inspired by the hero of the Croat resist-
Austro-Hungarian Empire together with the end of World ance, the ethnic Croat Josip Broz (commonly called Tito).
War I enabled the South Slavs to create the Kingdom of the Under Pavelic’s rule, a third of Croatia’s Serbs were exiled,
Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes on the Balkan Peninsula. Soon another third was forced to convert to Catholicism, and the
after, tension formed between the Catholic Croats and the final third were executed (Minahan 2000). These events led
Orthodox Serbs. The kingdom’s Serbian rulers alienated to a civil war that occurred during World War II. The civil
the other South Slavs living in the kingdom, including war was a vicious affair that saw massacres committed
the Croats. Consequently, the Croats continued to call for by Croats, Serbs, and Muslims and resulted in the deaths
autonomy with the backing of the Roman Catholic church. of between three hundred thousand and seven hundred
Croatian calls for independence were led by the Croat thousand people (Minahan 2000).
Peasant Party, the leader of which, Stjepan Radic, was In 1945, an anti-Fascist party led by Tito was voted
assassinated by a Montenegrin Serb along with other into power, abolishing the monarchy and establishing a
high-profile Croat political figures in 1928. The assassi- new republic of Yugoslavia that incorporated Croatia, Bos-
nations caused outrage among the Croats, who withdrew nia and Herzegovina, Serbia, and Slovenia. The following
from the kingdom’s government to establish a separate gov- year, the republic’s new constitution was instituted along
ernment in preparation for Croat independence. However, the lines of the Soviet Union, and all opposition parties
in 1929, Croat secession was thwarted when King Alex- were annulled. Tito managed to balance the interests of
ander installed a dictatorship to rule the kingdom, which the Croats, Bosniaks, Serbs, and Slovenes. Nonetheless, a
was renamed the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. In the 1930s, the Croat cultural revival occurred in the 1960s when Croat
desperate Croats resorted to terrorism to try to unseat the nationalists called for the separation of literary Croatian
dictatorship. In 1934, a Croat assassinated King Alexan- from Serbo-Croat. Around the same time, Croats started to
der with the help of Montenegro, an event that plunged feel resentful that while Croatia earned 40 percent of Yugo-
the kingdom into crisis. Fearing that the kingdom’s insta- slavia’s foreign income, it received only 5–7 percent of this
bility might allow Fascists to take control, moderate Cro- income from the government because most of the money
ats forged an autonomy agreement with Yugoslavia. The was spent on prestige projects in poorer parts of the repub-
agreement was denounced by Croatia’s Fascist, nationalist lic (Minahan 2000). The resentment felt by the Croats led
Ustaše organization that was backed by the Fascist regimes to an upsurge in Croat nationalism. Subsequently, in 1971,
controlling Germany, Hungary, and Italy. the Croat leadership was removed from power, all Croat
The outbreak of World War II saw the Croats pulled in officers were removed from the army, thirty-two thousand
two separate directions because the Allies called on the Croats were arrested, and four hundred Croat students
Yugoslavs to help defeat the Fascists while Germany and were imprisoned (Minahan 2000). The crises only ended
Italy also called upon the Yugoslavs for support. Yugoslav in 1971 when the Yugoslav constitution was rewritten and
leaders dithered, prompting the Yugoslav army to over- Yugoslavia became a looser confederation of states divided
throw the government. When the army vowed to fight along ethnic lines.
the Axis powers, German, Hungarian, and Italian forces Tito’s death in 1980 coupled with the end of the
invaded Yugoslavia. The invasion allowed the Ustaše leader, Soviet Union in 1989 destabilized Yugoslavia. The events
Anton Pavelic, to declare Croatia’s independence. The new strengthened Croat nationalism, which was strenuously
republic contained parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina and opposed by the Serbs. In response, Serb rebels started to
282 Croat

organize autonomous districts within Yugoslavia. Next, the Along Croatia’s Adriatic coast, a maritime culture
Yugoslav army, which was 80 percent Serbian (Minahan exists. Many Croats in this area derive their livelihood
2000), entered Croat nationalist areas on the pretext of from sailing, shipbuilding, trading, and from industries
preventing ethnic conflict. Ultimately, the army occupied that use products taken from the sea (i.e., fish, coral,
25 percent of Croatian land (Minahan 2000). Meanwhile, sponge). As the land lacks fertility and water, the people
in Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croats called for their unifica- grow olives, grapes, figs, and vegetables and rear sheep
tion with Croats in Croatia. and goats. Unlike in some mountainous or forested parts
When Croatia declared its independence in 1991, the of Croatia, houses along the Adriatic coast are often built
Yugoslav army together with Serb militias attacked Cro- from stone. In the twentieth century, there has been a rise
atia. Together, the Yugoslav army and Serb militias terror- in the number of male Adriatic Croats emigrating over-
ized the Croats during a campaign of ethnic cleansing that seas in search of work. Consequently, women have taken
caused 600,000 Croats to become displaced as refugees on jobs traditionally considered men’s work. Nevertheless,
either in foreign nations or their ethnic homeland, and many areas of Croatia maintain a patriarchal attitude
10,000 Croats were killed. In 1995, a reorganized Croat because they have a long history of patrilineality (Čapo
army attacked the Serbian enclave of Krajina, causing and Zrnić 2011).
180,000 Serbs to flee (Minahan 2000). The war ended in The vast of majority of Croats are Christian, yet they
1995 with the forced capture of Croatian land from Ser- retain some vestiges of pagan belief that are often incorpo-
bian forces. The land was peacefully reintegrated into the rated into Christian customs. For example, at Christmas,
country in 1998. Today, Croatia is home to around 500,000 Croats burn a badnjak, a log brought into the home and
non-Croats, many of whom are Serbs (Čapo and Zrnić placed on the fire on Christmas Eve that is kept burn-
2011). In 2013, Croatia became a member of the European ing throughout Christmas Day. Researchers believe this
Union. tradition is a relic of a pagan religion, with the badnjak
symbolizing the spirit of vegetation and importance of
sustaining family life throughout the generations. Simi-
Society, Culture, and Tradition larly, at the summer solstice, Croats hold bonfires in the
Religion is an important element of Croat identity because name of John the Baptist that are also connected to old
Roman Catholicism has long distinguished the Croats traditions surrounding Kresnik, the South Slavic god of
from Orthodox Serbs and Muslim Bosniaks. Croatian cul- sun. At Easter, Croats produce pisanica (plural: pisanice),
ture is shaped by a range of influences, including Roman decorated Easter eggs that derive from an old pagan cus-
history, Christian tradition, and Slavic farming practices. tom. Many Croats also maintain belief in supernatural
Traditionally, farming in the Pannonian region is beings, including fairies, vampires, and witches as well
focused on grain production and raising livestock (espe- as female entities that can harm children. Folk beliefs are
cially cattle, pigs, and horses). Viticulture is also important. fading from Croatian culture, however, though they retain
In the area of the Dinaric Alps, transhumance is practiced, a foothold in Croat consciousness through legends, folk-
and milk production remained a major Croat occupation tales, and poetry.
until the mid-twentieth century. Fabric production, espe- Croatia is home to numerous styles of music, singing,
cially the weaving of woolen cloths, was also an important and dancing. One well-known Croatian dance is the high
occupation until the mid-twentieth century. The people’s energy lindo, a theatrical folk courtship dance that orig-
traditional clothes are usually made from embroidered inated near Dubrovnik that uses a musical instrument
white cotton or linen that is spun at home. Other impor- called the lijerica. This is a triple-stringed instrument that
tant traditional Croat occupations include the production became popular along the Adriatic coast during the nine-
of wooden furniture, cooking equipment, and musical teenth century. The lindo is performed during Croatia’s
instruments. Croat houses are also traditionally made main cultural event, the Summer Festival. Another Croa-
from wood (usually oak), though homes constructed in tian dance, the Sokacko Kolo (Sokac Round Line Dance), is
the nineteenth century are usually made from clay, chaff, also associated with courtship and romance and originates
and brick. Historically, Croat settlements are either clus- from Croatia’s historical Slavonia region.
tered together or organized into parallel streets. Tradition- The oldest written language in Croatia is Old Church
ally, Croat households are home to many families. Slavonic, which is written using Glagolitic script. This is
 Croat 283

the oldest known Slavic alphabet and is generally thought Threats to Survival
to have been created in the ninth century by Saint Cyril. Croats in Croatia have enjoyed peace since the end of
Glagolitic script fell from favor once Croats started to use Croatia’s war with Serbia. The postwar government’s pol-
Latin script, but along the Adriatic coast, some Catholic icy of allowing ethnic Croats to migrate from abroad has
priests continued to use Glagolitic script until the twenti- encouraged a number of people with Croatian heritage
eth century. In Italy, Croats speak Molise Croatian, which to return to Croatia. This is especially true of Croat ref-
is similar to dialects spoken in Dalmatia but influenced by ugees coming from Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Croats
Italian dialects used in Molise, Abruzzo, Campania, and maintain their own language, whether they live in Croa-
Puglia. In Austria, Burgenland Croatian is an officially rec- tia or in communities abroad, where they have developed
ognized version of the Croat language. Croat dialects influenced by their locale. However, back in
Croatia, global culture is gradually eroding distinct Croat
Health Care and Education traditions, including folk beliefs, clothing, and traditional
Croatia has a universal healthcare system, with peo- occupations.
ple covered by a basic health insurance plan. Croatia is In Austria, Burgenland Croats are represented in pol-
home to hundreds of healthcare institutions, including itics, education, and the church, but their traditional life-
hospitals, clinics, emergency services. The main cause of style and culture faces continual erosion. In Italy, Croatians
death among Croats is cardiovascular disease followed by live in nine communities, though Molise Croatian is spo-
tumors. ken in only three of these areas. That said, Molise Croatian
Croats are highly literate. In Croatia, primary education is used in local council debates, and some road signs are
starts at the age of six or seven years and lasts until stu- written in both Croatian and Italian. While church services
dents reach eighteen years. Compulsory education com- are usually held in Italian, many of the clergy speak Croa-
prises eight grades of elementary school. The country has tian, and Croatian bishops visit the area.
thousands of elementary schools and hundreds of schools In Slovenia, Croats face widespread discrimination. Slo-
providing secondary education. Primary and secondary venian authorities do not recognize Croats as a minority,
education are available in minority languages, with les- and so Croats in Slovenia face difficulty exercising their
sons held in Italian, Czech, German, Hungarian, and Ser- linguistic, cultural, and educational rights. Croats in Slove-
bian. Nationwide leaving exams called the državna matura nia also face economic and social exclusion. This is partly
comprise three compulsory subjects (Croatian language, because of widespread anti-Croat prejudice and partly
math, and a foreign language) plus optional subjects. Tak- because some Croats in Slovenia lack residence papers,
ing the exam is a prerequisite for university education. without which they cannot access services, including
In Italy, some primary schools offer Croatian language health care and pensions.
as an optional subject. However, Molise Croatian is diffi- See also: Avar; Bosniak; Gorani; Roma; Székely
cult to teach because it differs from standard Croatian and
lacks a standard written form. The Fondazione Agostina Further Reading
Čapo, Jasna, and Valentina Gulin Zrnić. 2011. “Croats.” In Ethnic
Piccoli (a Molise Croatian cultural body) offers courses in Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole,
standard Croatian. Despite Austria’s long association with 87–92. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
the Croats, Croatian is usually taught as a foreign language Haarmann, Harald. 2015. “Croats.” In Native Peoples of the World:
in Austrian secondary schools because Croatia does not An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues,
share a border with Austria. A secondary school in Bur- edited by Steven Danver, 285–286. Vol. 2. London: Routledge.
genland does, however, offer bilingual Croatian/German Minahan, James B. 2000. One Europe, Many Nations: A Histor-
ical Dictionary of European National Groups. Westport, CT:
and Hungarian/German lessons. Slovenian authorities do Greenwood Press.
not recognize Croats as a minority, and so Croat parents in Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
Slovenia find it difficult to find mother tongue education World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA:
for their children. ABC-CLIO.
 D

DAASANACH the Daasanach number around twenty thousand. A 2012

estimate suggested the Daasanach population comprises
Current Location Ethiopia; Kenya fifty-three thousand people. Roughly ten thousand Daas-
Current Population 20,000–53,000 anach live in northwest Kenya. Most Daasanach live in
Language Daasanach rural areas, though a sizeable minority live in towns.
Interesting Fact Unlike other barefoot people, most The Daasanach is not strictly defined by ethnicity, for
Daasanach run by landing on their any man or woman can become a Daasanach if they agree
heels first. This gait contradicts the to be circumcised. Consequently, over time, the Daas-
scientific hypothesis that barefoot anach has absorbed many different peoples. Today, the
people habitually strike the floor Daasanach comprise eight territorial groups (en) who live
with their forefoot. together loosely and perform many rituals together. The
largest territorial group, the Inkabelo, lives in the heart of
Overview Daasanachland on both sides of the Omo River and in its
The Daasanach (sometimes spelled Dassanetch, Dasanech, delta, together with three smaller Daasanach groups, the
Daasanech, or Daasanetch) live in Ethiopia and Kenya. In Oro, the Kuoro, and the Riele. The Randal and the Elele
Ethiopia, the Daasanach are sometimes called the Geleb, also live in the northwest of Daasanachland. The Inkoria
and in Kenya, they are sometimes called the Merile or group inhabits Lake Turkana’s northeast shore in Kenya.
Shangilla. Reshiat is another name used for the Daasanach. The Ngaritch live to the north of the Inkoria. On the
The Daasanach speak the East Cushitic Daasanach lan- eastern side of the Omo River, Daasanach villages tend
guage. The name Daasanach means “People of the Delta.” to consist of between five and thirty houses, but on the
The Daasanach hold animistic beliefs and consider spirits western side of the river, where the Daasanach are often
able to influence the physical realm. more wary of attacks by neighboring peoples, villages
tend to comprise over fifty homes. On both sides of the
river, there is usually several hundred feet between Daas-
Population, Diaspora, and Migration anach villages.
According to the 2007 Ethiopian census, Ethiopia is Recently, local governments have announced that they
home to around forty-eight thousand Daasanach. How- plan to force thousands of Daasanach to move to settled
ever, according to the BBC Tribe television series (2007), households. In general, Daasanach living in the Daasanach

284
 Daasanach 285

capital of Omerate and those who have graduated from side of Lake Turkana. Here, they lived among the Nyube
high school believe the relocation will provide them with (or Pokot) people. When the Turkana attacked them at the
employment opportunities. However, the majority of the start of the nineteenth century, the Nyube headed south
Daasanach are against such moves and feel anxious about to present Pokotland, and the Inkabelo and Inkoria fled
their future (Sagawa 2006–2013). north to Daasanachland. Other peoples from the Rendille
and Samburu tribes of northwest Kenya moved to Daasan-
achland and joined the Daasanach because of natural dis-
Geography and Environment asters that occurred at the end of the nineteenth century.
The Daasanach live in a semiarid to arid area extending From the end of the 1890s to 1903, the Ethiopian mil-
across the east and west of the Lower Omo Valley and itary invaded Daasanach land repeatedly. Any surviving
the western side of the northern shore of Lake Turkana Daasanach fled either southward or to the west of Lake
where the Omo River delta enters the lake. The Daasanach Turkana. Over time, the Daasanach returned to their
homeland, sometimes called Daasanachland, stretches homeland, where they made peace with highland Ethiopi-
into Kenya from Ethiopia. Despite the presence of the ans. Subsequently, the highland Ethiopians left the Daasan-
lake and delta, the Daasanach homeland can be incredibly ach homeland before returning during the 1920s. Around
dry, with nothing but desert to its west and southwest and this time, the Daasanach entered into major conflict with
daytime temperatures generally around 35°C. For many the Turkana of Kenya. As a result of the war, Daasanach
years, Daasanach lands have experienced severe, sus- territory came to extend into Kenya.
tained droughts, and in 2006, their land suffered severe At the end of the nineteenth century, the Daasanach
flooding. were incorporated into the Ethiopian Empire. Since then,
Typically, the Omo River floods annually in July. The the Ethiopian and Kenyan authorities have negatively
floodwater causes fertile silt from the Ethiopian highlands impacted both the Daasanach’s survival and the Daasan-
to enter Daasanach land and renew the land for grazing ach’s relations with neighboring peoples. For example, the
and farming. As the flood recedes, the Daasanach plant creation of international and domestic borders disrupted
crops (especially sorghum) along the banks of the river traditional Daasanach migration routes and hampered
and on the floodplain. The crops are harvested during the the Daasanach’s ability to visit other peoples. Additionally,
dry season, first in December and a second harvest in Feb- from the 1900s to the 1930s, the Ethiopian authorities fol-
ruary. During the dry season, the Daasanach also slaughter lowed by Ethiopia’s Italian administrators (from 1936 to
their older cattle, as this is when grazing is limited, crops 1941) forced the Daasanach to serve in raiding parties or
grow the least, and the cattle’s meat is most needed. Envi- as border security forces against the British East African
ronmental issues facing the Daasanach include the shrink- Protectorate. In this way, the Daasanach were urged to
ing of Lake Turkana, desertification, deforestation, and fight against such Kenyan pastoralists as the Turkana and
overfishing by Turkana fishermen. Gabra. In the early twentieth century, the introduction of
rifles to Daasanach areas by Ethiopian traders intensified
the violence, which has worsened over time. In the 1970s,
History and Politics the abundance of automatic rifles that entered Daasanach-
According to Daasanach oral history, the Daasanach were land through political unrest in Uganda, Sudan, Somalia,
forced to move to their present homeland during the late and Ethiopia has exacerbated the situation. Despite these
eighteenth century from their previous territory called negative influences, many pastoralists living in or near
Nyupe after the Turkana invaded their land during an Daasanachland have maintained amicable interethnic
expansionist war. Famine also caused the early Daasanach relations, which has helped restore a degree of peace to the
to migrate to Daasanachland. According to the people’s oral region.
tradition, the Daasanach groups are descended from the Today, the Daasanach homeland is at the front line of
original Daasanach migrants who came to the Omo River investment by international and domestic corporations,
area from various directions. Once living in close proxim- with large-scale development projects planned or pro-
ity, the Daasanach formed the Daasanach society. The early gressing. The construction of the Gibe III hydroelectric
Inkabelo and the Inkoria settled at Ger (or Gerio), which dam on the Omo River basin regulates the river’s flow.
was likely located around the Kerio River on the southwest The regulation of the river’s flow reduces the scale and
286 Daasanach

frequency of the river’s flooding, which in turn negatively the ages of fifteen and twenty years. Following an initia-
impacts the Daasanach, who traditionally rely on the tion ceremony, the man transitions from the status of boy
floods for their agriculture. Authorities have also leased (nyigeny) to adolescent (kabana). Initiated men are able to
huge tracts of land to international and domestic investors, marry. Daasanach females wed between the ages of fifteen
who have established mass commercial farms producing and twenty years. When a couple’s first daughter reaches
export crops, including sugarcane and cotton. The farms the age of ten years, the couple experiences a dimi cere-
operate on Daasanach land and so have displaced many mony, after which they are recognized as Daasanach elders
Daasanach from their land, generally without compensa- (karsich). Daasanach villages comprise well-ventilated
tion. Consequently, tension has arisen between farm work- semicircular huts that are built and taken down by women
ers and the Daasanach living nearby. Since 2013, regional during migrations. The huts are constructed from reeds,
oil exploration has also disturbed the Daasanach. branches, and rope made from cow skin. Women control
the right-hand side of the hut as well as the hut’s porch.
The Dies are scorned by most Daasanach. Although
Society, Culture, and Tradition they are considered members of the tribe, they are also,
The Daasanach follow a seminomadic life that involves to some extent, set apart culturally. In times of need, how-
subsistence pastoralism, flood-retreat farming, and fish- ever, the Dies provide food for other Daasanach families,
ing. The Daasanach keep cattle, sheep, goats, donkeys, and for they share their fish and crocodile meat with villagers.
camels. According to a 2000 census, the Daasanach owned In return, the Daasanach provide the Dies with goat meat
4.4 cattle, 4.9 sheep, and 5.2 goats per person (Sagawa or beef. Also, if a Dies man needs cattle to exchange as
2006–2013), but cattle are far more culturally important bride-wealth, then the man along with his relatives who
to the Daasanach than the other animals because cattle own cattle will pay the bride-wealth in installments. Dies
are central to Daasanach society. In addition to provid- are allowed to acquire animals and resume herding by
ing the Daasanach with meat, milk, and the leather with exchanging goods for a small amount of livestock. It can
which to make clothes, tents, and mattresses, cattle also take a generation or more for a Daasanach family to com-
provide tribe members with status and the bride-wealth plete the transition back to cattle herding and therefore
that allows a man to marry. If a Daasanach man loses his leave behind their Dies associations. However, for some
­cattle—to disease, drought, or during a raid by a neigh- Daasanach, the change in status is permanent. If a Dies is
boring people—he loses his status as a cattle owner and is unable to acquire cattle, then it is possible for them to cross
unable to sustain his usual lifestyle. Any Daasanach man join another tribal group to which they have a family con-
that loses his cattle is classified as one of the Dies (“poor nection. In times of plenty, there are fewer Dies because
people”) and must follow a subsistence lifestyle whereby cattle are not at risk, but in times of famine or drought, the
he fishes and hunts crocodile and or hippopotamus on number of Dies increases.
Lake Turkana. Some young, cattleless Daasanach men Daasanach girls are circumcised at around ten or twelve
are employed on commercial farms, where they complain years of age. If a Daasanach girl is not circumcised, then
about receiving low wages. Traditionally, the Daasanach she is not allowed to marry, and, in turn, her father will
despise fishing because they consider it a sign of poverty. not receive her bride-price. The Daasanach believe that a
However, the Daasanach have increasingly come to value girl will only act like a woman once she has had her clit-
fishing as a source of cash income. oris removed. Girls are circumcised in age sets either in
Traditional Daasanach households consist of a man, his their mother’s house or in another village. The circumci-
wife, and their unmarried children. When a man takes a sion is performed by an older woman who is assisted by
second wife, she builds herself a new house, and the hus- the girl’s relatives. During the procedure, the girl is held
band then lives with both his wives’ alternately. The hus- down and prevented from moving by a leather strap that
band shares his livestock and farmland between his wives. is tied around her ankles. The tie is kept in place until the
Each wife milks her own livestock, farms her own land, wounds have healed. When the circumcision is complete,
and cooks and eats meals with her children and separately the girl receives sour milk and a necklace from her mother.
from her husband. From this time, the girl is allowed to wear a leather skirt to
All Daasanach men belong to an age set (haari). A Daas- symbolize that she is now a marriageable adult. Daasan-
anach man is initiated into his haari when he is between ach men experience a dimi ceremony that celebrates his
 Daasanach 287

daughter’s fertility and marriageability. During the cer- biggest challenge. Some teachers in Daasanach areas use
emony, cattle and other animals are slaughtered, and the the Alternative Basic Education (ABE) system to teach
men trade coffee. Because dimi ceremonies require the Daasanach children. This system is especially suited to
slaughter of cattle, they take place during the dry season. the pastoral lifestyle, for it provides flexible school hours
that enable pastoral children to fulfill their family respon-
sibilities, such as taking cattle to find water. Schools using
Health Care and Education this system report increased attendance. In addition to
According to Daasanach tradition, members of their larg- the construction of schools using the ABE system, outside
est clan, the Galbur (or Water and Crocodile) clan, possess agencies provide Daasanach schools with furniture, train
power over both water and crocodiles and so are able to ABE teachers, and produce education materials. There are
deal with diseases affecting people’s glands. Turat clan also moves to increase school capacities so they can teach
members are thought responsible for dealing with injuries pupils up to sixth grade.
resulting from burns and are believed to have powers that
cure many diseases. Members of the Turnyerim clan are
thought to cure snakebites by spitting on the bites. Other Threats to Survival
Daasanach clans are considered to have healing powers Traditionally, the Daasanach enjoy various degrees of hos-
over eye infections, scorpion bites, and musculoskele- tility with neighboring peoples. The Daasanach consider
tal problems. The Daasanach believe some illnesses are the Kara, to the north, and the Arbore, to the northeast, as
caused by the shadow of evil spirits, a situation the Daas- gaal kinnyo (“our people”), meaning they are on friendly
anach call gaatch. terms with the Daasanach. The Daasanach consider other
Projects by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) mainly pastoral peoples—the Turkana to the southwest,
exist that aim to improve the Daasanach’s access and use the Nyangatom to the northwest, the Hamar to the north-
of maternal, child, and adolescent health services. The east, and the Gabra to the southeast—as kiz (“enemies”),
main issues that hamper the Daasanach’s access to health with whom the Daasanach have fought intermittently for
care are their generally poor education, poverty, and the years.
long distances from which the Daasanach live from health Another threat to the Daasanach is Lake Turkana—
centers. These factors especially affect Daasanach women the world’s largest desert lake—which intermittently
and children, who often lack access to health services. Pro- grows and shrinks. Traditionally, the lake’s changing size
grams look at the nutrition of pregnant Daasanach women, is mainly climatic; regional droughts result in less water
mothers, and infants, traditional Daasanach infant care, entering the lake, and higher temperatures cause more
and the risk to adolescent girls of experiencing pregnancy lake water to evaporate. The situation is worsened by the
at a young age. Other projects aim to help the Daasanach damming of rivers that once fed the lake as well as the
tribe learn how to stave off diarrheal diseases that particu- increasing amount of water from the Omo River that is
larly affect Daasanach children. Typically, the Daasanach used for the irrigation of thirsty crops and so is unable to
fetch drinking water from unprotected sources and then enter the lake. As the lake shrinks, the Omo River delta that
store the water in unsanitary open containers. NGOs have is home to most Daasanach grows in size as the river flow
shown the Daasanach herders how to collect pure rainwa- reduces. As the delta grows in size, more people settle in
ter for drinking so that they have water to drink during the delta, thereby risking deforestation and overgrazing in
dry periods as well as how to treat water so that it does not the delta wetlands. It has been suggested that if sugarcane
become contaminated. and cotton plantations are allowed to grow, over many
Children are crucial to the Daasanach pastoralist life- years, the Omo River will diminish to the point that Lake
style. Boys as young as six years old herd their family’s Turkana will drop by at least sixty feet, eventually creating
sheep and goats, and girls are expected to marry when two small lakes. One of these lakes would sit on or near
young so that their parents can acquire livestock through Daasanach land, and the other more saline and shallower
bride-wealth. For these reasons, Daasanach parents do not lake would lie to the south. That the Ethiopian govern-
tend to send their children to school. Indeed, many of the ment has launched a campaign to settle the Omo Valley’s
Daasanach view education as a luxury (Sewunet 2014). nomadic and pastoral tribes in permanent villages has
For teachers in Daasanach, changing this mind-set is their caused several human rights groups to fear that the area’s
288 Dai

indigenous peoples are being forced to live in villages so Tai, or Shan. The Dai speak Dai, a Northwestern Tai dialect
that their land can be used for sugarcane and cotton pro- belonging to the Tai-Kadai language family. The Dai’s lan-
duction, something that would hasten the decline of Lake guage is divided into two main dialects: Dai Lu and Dai
Turkana (Shea 2015). Nua. Many Dai also speak Mandarin Chinese and other
Meanwhile, moves by the Ethiopian authorities and regional languages. Most Dai are Theravada Buddhists,
the African Parks Foundation to fence game parks in the though Dai living in remote areas maintain the people’s
area would restrict the Daasanach’s access to the area and traditional animist beliefs. Although the Dai encompass
therefore deny the Daasanach their grazing land in the several distinct regional groups, they are considered a sin-
delta area (BBC Two n.d.). In recent years, the Daasanach gle entity by the Chinese government.
have received help from the Ethiopian government and
agencies, including the United Nations. In the long term,
however, the Daasanach may need to find solutions to their Population, Diaspora, and Migration
ongoing lack of health care and water scarcity to survive. There are an estimated 1.5 million to 2 million Dai, two-
thirds of who live in China. The rest are spread throughout
See also: Mursi; Turkana
Southeast Asia (Minahan 2014). The Dai are divided into
Further Reading
three main regional groups as well as dozens of subgroups
BBC Two. n.d. “The Dassanech.” Tribe. http://www.bbc.co.uk​
/tribe/tribes/dassanech. centered on geography and dialect.
Sagawa, Toru. 2006–2013. “Daasanach.” University of Oxford:
Mursi Online. http://www.mursi.org/neighbours/daasanach.
Sewunet, Zerihun. 2014. “In South Omo, Education—A Gateway Geography and Environment
for Children But a Competition for Parents.” UNICEF Ethio- The Dai refer to their homeland as Sibsongbanna, mean-
pia, February 17. https://unicefethiopia.org/tag/daasanach.
ing “Land of Twelve Rice Fields.” Sibsongbanna is located
Shea, Neil. 2015. “Last Rites for the Jade Sea?” National Geo-
graphic Magazine, August. https://www.nationalgeographic​ in the Xishuangbanna Autonomous Region in China’s
.com/magazine/2015/08/lake-turkana-jade-sea-kenya​ Yunnan province and is home to many wide river val-
-threatened. leys and terraced rice fields. Yunnan is the most south-
Shinn, David H., and Thomas P. Ofcansky. 2013. Historical Dic- westerly province of China and is bordered by Guangxi
tionary of Ethiopia. 2nd ed. Plymouth, UK: Scarecrow Press. and Guizhou to the east, Sichuan to the north, and the
Tibet Autonomous Region to the northwest. Myanmar
borders Yunnan to the west, Laos lies to the south, and
Vietnam to the southeast. The north of Yunnan province
forms part of the ruggedly mountainous highland area
DAI known as the Yunnan–Guizhou Plateau. Yunnan has an
Current Location China; Myanmar; Thailand; Laos; extremely rich biodiversity that ranges from lush alpine
Vietnam flora, subtropical evergreen forests, and a variety of ani-
Current Population 1.5 million–2 million mals, including tigers, elephants, monkeys, and hun-
Language Dai; Mandarin Chinese
dreds of fish species.
Interesting Fact The Dai are an ethnic group encom-
passing several peoples but consid-
History and Politics
ered a single entity by the Chinese
government. First-century Chinese documents refer to the Dai as the
Shan or Dainyue, a people who originated around three
thousand years ago to the south of China’s Yangtze River.
Overview Later, the Dai migrated south over the course of several
The Dai, also called the Baiyi, Boyi, or Padai, among other hundred years to avoid territorial expansion by the Han
names, are an indigenous ethnic group living in China’s Chinese. Ultimately, most of the early Dai settled in the
Yunnan province as well as parts of Myanmar, Laos, Viet- fertile valleys of the Mekong River and its southern tribu-
nam, and Thailand. Dai is the official Chinese designation taries in southern China. The rest of the Dai followed rivers
for the people. Outside of China, the Dai are called the Thai, headed southeast and southwest and settled in Myanmar,
 Dai 289

Laos, and Thailand. By 1000 CE, Buddhism had become Dai farmers, something that added to the growing Dai
prevalent throughout Dai areas. During the tenth century, resentment toward the Han.
the Dai founded a mighty kingdom, Mong Mao, which was Changes wrought by the Chinese Revolution in 1911
succeeded in the eleventh century by Kocambi kingdom. further reduced Dai influence in Yunnan. When the Burma
At some point during the tenth or eleventh centuries, the Road was built linking Yunnan to India, and Myanmar
Dai also established another kingdom, called Yanaga or opened new markets at which the Han could sell their
Xienrun, in the south of Xishuangbanna. agricultural produce, the Han gained an even greater eco-
Around 1300, the Mongols invaded Mong Mao, thereby nomic advantage over the Dai. In 1949, the communists’
forcing the Dai to migrate south again. Also in the four- victory in the Chinese Civil War was accompanied by the
teenth century, the Dai living in the northern part of their annihilation of the Dai’s aristocracy, who were regarded
homeland came under Chinese rule when the southerly as enemies of the state, while Dai peasants were glorified.
expansion of Han territory entered Yunnan province. At the same time, Dai farms were collectivized and new
Then, between 1271 and 1368, almost all Dai land came crops and farming methods introduced to them. In 1956,
under the control of Yunnan province. To quell any social however, communist minority policies resulted in Dai lan-
unrest caused by the overrunning of the territory, the Han guages being consolidated into one language, Dai prop-
posted hundreds of thousands of soldiers to the province erty being confiscated, and Dai history being rewritten to
as military colonists. The Chinese also realized that the Dai reflect communist ideals. Dai landowners were detained in
were a highly populous group, so to appease the people, the reeducation and labor camps.
Han installed many Dai in leadership roles in the region China’s Cultural Revolution (1967–1977) saw many
under a system known as tusi. The Dai tusi governors were Dai shrines and monuments destroyed. However, in 1979,
endowed with absolute power over their administrative China experienced economic and cultural reforms that
domains as long as they remained loyal to Chinese impe- allowed the Dai to recover some of their culture and his-
rial authorities and met required quotas of taxes, forced tory. China adopted capitalist economic reforms that ena-
labor, and tributes. The Dai were also allowed to own their bled the Dai to grow new crops, including tea, rubber, and
own land. This landownership together with their admin- sugarcane, and former landowners were released.
istrative powers created a feudal Dai society. From the 1950s to the 1980s, state-run shops and coop-
In 1570, the Chinese appointed a Dai tusi governor over eratives dominated the Dai homeland. Since then, the Dai
twelve Dai city-states. Meanwhile, from the thirteenth have experienced an economic renaissance fueled by a
to the eighteenth centuries, a Dai-majority city-state in growing tourist industry. Dai culture and religion is also
northern Thailand called Lanna (or Babai Xifu) ruled flourishing, aided by strengthening ties between the Chi-
over peoples that included the Jingpo, Lahu, and Achang. nese Dai and the Dai in Thailand. The growing association
In China, from the fourteenth to the nineteenth centuries, between the Dai in China and throughout Southeast Asia
however, the tusi’s power declined, resulting in Dai gover- has stimulated demands for Dai independence and the
nors being replaced by Han administrators. By the eight- creation of an independent Dai state, Sibsongbanna.
eenth century, Dai feudal powers had been considerably
reduced, having been replaced by a Chinese political sys-
tem. In 1800, the Dai mounted a serious rebellion in the Society, Culture, and Tradition
face of a growing Han population in Sibsongbanna and the Traditionally, Dai society is split between two classes, aris-
imposition of new Han taxes. The revolt caused the rul- tocracy and commoners, with several divisions belonging
ing Qing dynasty to enlist many ethnic minorities to take to both classes. An individual’s social status was dependent
charge in Yunnan. This move resulted in small successive upon his or her lineage.
waves of Dai to migrate southward in a migratory pattern Traditionally, Dai culture is rich in literature, especially
that lasted into the twentieth century. At the end of the epic poetry and song, and folklore. However, these aspects
nineteenth century, remaining tusi Dai landowners sold of Dai culture were banned under communist rule.
their land to the Han Chinese settlers, who then set about Most Dai follow Theravada Buddhism, though many
acquiring Dai leaseholders and sharecroppers. By the start of the people, particularly those in remote areas, maintain
of the twentieth century, Han farmers using advanced beliefs in spirits. For this reason, pre-Buddhist rituals are
farming techniques were producing far greater yields than now amalgamated with the people’s Buddhist practice. Dai
290 Dai

thinking about death reflects this fusion of spiritualism boy return her hair adornment, she signals her rejection
and Buddhism. of the boy’s proposal, and the courtship must begin again.
The visiting-girls courtship tradition (gantuozong) is A couple’s parents decide their wedding date, and
an ancient Dai courtship ritual that sees single young men the ceremony usually takes place in the girl’s home after
and women meet to determine whether they have roman- the  betrothed couple has visited a Buddhist temple.
tic feelings for each other. It is very rare for Dai boys and After the wedding, it is usual for newlyweds to live in the
girls to interact socially apart from during this ritual. Some bride’s home for three years before moving to their own
Dai villages consider formal dating or romance taboo. home.
Thus, the visiting-girl’s courtship tradition is very impor- Another ancient Dai courting custom is Dui Bao. Dui
tant to young Dai. The courtship custom always takes place means “to throw,” and bao translates as “pouch” or “bag”
following the harvest season, when the Dai, who are pre- and refers to an embroidered and tasseled triangular
dominantly farmers, are less busy. pouch. Young Dai men and women use the colorful bags to
The ritual begins with all the houses in a village extin- signal romantic intentions. They line up facing each other
guishing their lights before bonfires are lit. Eligible girls, and throw the pouches back and forth. If couples wish to
usually aged fifteen or sixteen years, sit around the fires become better acquainted, they continue to throw the bags
and turn their own individual spinning wheel. Young men between them while stepping closer together with each
wearing red blankets approach the girls and then “visit” throw of the bag.
the girls by walking among them playing musical instru-
ments and evaluating the girls’ looks. If a boy is attracted
to a girl, he walks closer to her before serenading her. If the Health Care and Education
girl reciprocates the boy’s interest, she produces a small Traditionally, the Dai rely on spirit offerings to cure med-
stool from beneath her long skirt and beckons him to sit ical issues. China’s rural health care has improved greatly
down. This is the only part of the ritual in which the girl after a nationwide campaign that started in 2009. In the
has a direct choice in her courtship. If a boy chooses a girl past, in rural areas of China, when people fell ill, they used
who fancies him, he will sit on the girl’s stool and wrap to refuse medical treatment until they were extremely ill
the girl in his blanket. Only now can the couple enter into for fear of incurring high medical bills. Transport to hospi-
a deep conversation about love and discuss plans for the tals from rural areas was also too expensive for many rural
future. people to afford. In addition, many Chinese ethnic minori-
If a couple find they like each other, they begin a court- ties simply could not access health care because they lived
ship during which the boy visits the girl’s parental home in scattered settlements in remote areas. Medical reform
(girls always remain living with their parents until they has focused on providing grassroots public hospitals in
marry). The girl’s parents chaperone the couple during the rural areas so that people there can access basic medical
visits, which continue for as long as the boy remains inter- treatment. Improved transport links, such as the building
ested in the girl. During the visits, the boy presents the girl of new roads, makes it easier to reach medical facilities.
with many gifts, including hair combs, and the courtship Many Chinese ethnic minorities are experiencing a
continues for as long as the girl accepts the presents. After rapid increase in the rate of infectious diseases, including
a number of visits, it is thought that the couple will have HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and hepatitis. In Yunnan prov-
gotten to know each other and determined whether they ince, the number of HIV-positive people is approximately
are compatible. The couple must not interact physically two hundred thousand, though reliable data is not avail-
until the actual wedding ceremony takes place. able (Médecins Sans Frontières 2000). The prevalence of
Eventually, the boy asks the girl’s parents if he may HIV/AIDS in areas such as Yunnan province is such that
marry her, and preparations for the marriage begin. In nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) such as Médecins
some villages, a boy must not speak directly to his beloved’s Sans Frontières (MSF, in English sometimes called Doc-
parents but must approach a matchmaker who proposes tors without Borders) have launched HIV/AIDS awareness
on his behalf. A boy can also propose by removing a girl’s campaigns to educate rural people about the risks of sexu-
hair comb or scarf. If the girl does not ask for the return of ally transmitted diseases.
her hair accessory, it is assumed that she has accepted the In the past, Dai children were educated at village
boy’s proposal. In contrast, if the girl does demand that the temples and schools, but they are taught increasingly at
 Dayak 291

state-run schools, where Mandarin Chinese is the main addition, many Dayaks also understand Malay or Indone-
language of instruction. However, since 2000, Dai com- sian, depending on their heritage. Most Dayaks are Chris-
munity leaders have worked with social organizations to tian, but there is also a small number of Muslim Dayaks.
revive the tradition of temple education as part of a move The Dayak national flag is a tricolor featuring horizontal
to preserve the Dai language. bands of red, yellow and blue.

Threats to Survival Population, Diaspora, and Migration

Buddhism is playing a leading role in the Dai’s cultural There are approximately 450 ethnolinguistic Dayak groups
renaissance, for monks in Thailand have given the Dai reli- living in Kalimantan (Minority Rights Group International
gious texts and icons to place in reconstructed Dai temples 2017b), including Dayak groups such as the Ngaju Dayak,
funded by Dai living in both Thailand and Laos. Addition- Penan, Murut, Maanyan, and Lawangan. Estimates of the
ally, Dai literature has also revived. The people’s traditional total Dayak population vary. According to Minahan, there
epic poetry, long banned by China’s communist rulers, are 2.4 million Dayaks living in Kalimantan (Minahan
now enjoys large audiences. 2012), while according to Minority Rights Group Inter-
See also: Hui; Kachin; Mosuo; Pumi national, there are between 2 million and 4 million Day-
aks living throughout Indonesia (Minority Rights Group
Further Reading
International 2017b). In Sarawak, Dayaks make up around
Médecins Sans Frontières. 2000. “China: Healthcare and MSF
Activities.” Médecins Sans Frontières, March 31. http://www​ 40 percent of the population.
.msf.org/en/article/china-healthcare-and-msf-activities. The two largest ethnic groups within the Sarawak Dayak
Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Cen- community are the Iban (also called the Sea Dayaks), who
tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. constitute just over 31 percent of the Sarawk Dayaks, and
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the the Bidayuh. Other Sarwak Dayak groups include the
World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA:
Kenyah, Kayan, Kedayan, Murut, Punan, Bisayah, Kelabit,
ABC-CLIO.
Berawan, and Penan. Dayaks who live in the Sarawak inte-
rior are referred to occasionally as the Orang Ulu, meaning
“people from the interior.” Members of the Orang Ulu live
in longhouses and practice shifting cultivation and fish-
ing. A few hundred Eastern Penan Dayaks live as nomads
DAYAK in the rainforest (Minority Rights Group International
2017b). In Brunei Darussalam, the Iban live along the bor-
Current Location Kalimantan
der with Sarawak and make up around 4.7 percent of the
Current Population 2 million–4 million
population (Minority Rights Group International 2017a).
Language Dayak languages
The Iban are thought to have migrated to Brunei from
Interesting Fact The Dayaks likely migrated to Indo- Sarawak during the reign of the English White Rajahs, a
nesia from Asia around three thou-
dynastic monarchy of the Brooke family, who founded
sand years ago.
and ruled the Kingdom of Sarawak from 1841 to 1946. It
is most likely for this reason that the Brunei authorities
Overview do not consider the Iban as Bumiputera (a term used in
The term Dayak is usually used generically to describe Malaysia to describe Malays and other indigenous peoples
a group of indigenous peoples living on the island of of Southeast Asia).
Kalimantan (formerly known as Borneo). The various There are fewer than three hundred individual Penan
indigenous peoples share many similarities, including Dayaks living in Brunei. Traditionally, the Penan are forest
languages, lifestyles, and customs. Dayak indigenous lan- dwellers that follow a nomadic lifestyle and use blowpipes
guages belong to the Indonesian branch of the Malayo-­ and poison-tipped darts to hunt wildlife. Today, however,
Polynesian language family, but the languages are not the majority of the Penan are farmers who live in perma-
mutually intelligible. However, the Dayaks are able to nent settlements (Minority Rights Group International
communicate with each other in English and Dutch. In 2017a).
292 Dayak

Students in Kalimantan (formerly known as Borneo) in traditional Dayak dress attend a cultural event in Sukoharjo, Central Java,
Indonesia. The term Dayak describes a group of indigenous peoples from Kalimantan that share similar languages and cultures. (Suryo
/Dreamstime.com)

The first transmigration policies of the Indonesian gov- and South Kalimantan. The Dayaks’ de facto capital and
ernment that were implemented had a profound effect on cultural center is the port city of Pontianak, which is the
the population in Dayak areas. For example, in the prov- capital of the Indonesian province of West Kalimantan.
ince of Kalteng, the population rose from two hundred Straddling the equator, Kalimantan has an intensely
thousand in 1930 to five hundred thousand in 1961, and tropical climate. Temperatures in lowland areas range
to around two million by 2006. Most of this population between 25°C and 35°C, and the island has two monsoon
increase was the result of people migrating from Java, seasons: the “dry” monsoon (occurring from May to Octo-
Madura, and other parts of Indonesia to Dayak land ber) and the “wet” monsoon (November to April). How-
(Minority Rights Group International 2017b). ever, all of Kalimantan lies within what climatologists call
the “ever-wet zone” and receives between 79 inches and
157 inches of rainfall each year (WWF 2017).
Geography and Environment Kalimantan’s lush, tropical forests are home to approx-
Kalimantan is world’s third-largest island and is divided imately 6 percent of global biodiversity, including animals
between three countries: Indonesia, the Malaysian Feder- such as the Bornean orangutan and elephants and plants
ated States of Sabah and Sarawak, and Brunei Darussalam. such as giant pitcher plants and Rafflesia flowers. This rich
Indonesian Kalimantan is divided into four provinces: diversity is severely threatened, however, for Kalimantan
West Kalimantan, Central Kalimantan, East Kalimantan, has “lost over half its forests, a third of [which] disappeared
 Dayak 293

in the last three decades” (WWF 2017). Although the

island is famed for its forests, mangroves, peat swamp, and Emmanuela Shinta
heaths also occur in Kalimantan. Huge rivers cut swathes Emmanuela Shinta is a Dayak, activist, filmmaker,
through the landscape, weaving their way across central and writer whose work is known throughout Asia
Kalimantan. The rivers are hugely important, as they pro- Pacific. Shinta regularly speaks at regional work-
vide freshwater to river communities. shops, graduations, panel discussions, forums, and
Perhaps the biggest threat to Kalimantan’s ecology is churches and has a growing reputation as an influ-
the growth of the palm oil industry, with acres of forest encer of young people. As part of her advocacy, in
cleared to make way for palm oil plantations. Demand for 2016, Shinta started the YOUTH ACT campaign
palm oil as a cheap source of food and energy is rising and after Indonesia became the world’s biggest carbon
expected to increase further. The demand for palm oil as a contributor to climate change. The ultimate goal of
food alone is “expected to double in the next decade while the YOUTH ACT campaign is to end the forest fire
the Indonesian government has [stated its aim to] increase haze that has occurred over Kalimantan since 1997.
oil palm production from 20 million tonnes in 2009 to 40 The campaign came to prominence through a doc-
million tonnes in 2020” (WWF 2017). umentary short called When Women Fight that was
produced and filmed by Shinta. In 2017, the YOUTH
ACT campaign was featured in a UNICEF white
History and Politics paper.
The Dayaks are thought to have migrated to Indonesia Shinta uses her knowledge and experience in
around three thousand years ago as part of the Austro- the media to train indigenous young people to
nesian migration from Asia. For most of their history, the use the  media to bring about social change. She is
Dayaks have been isolated and sought autonomy. Early in also  the founder of the Ranu Welum Foundation,
the Dayaks’ history, the people were forced to move inland which is focused on preserving Dayak culture, indig-
to the mountainous interior of Kalimantan when Muslim enous rights advocacy, and the protection of Kalim-
Malay migrants settled in coastal areas. However, Kalim- antan’s forests. Shinta is an author and the founder
antan was located far enough from other islands that it was of Danum Magazine. The magazine is put together
not visited often; it lay outside Indian trade routes and so by young Dayaks and features the Dayak commu-
was not a frequent destination for merchants or migrants. nity of Kalimantan. Articles in the magazine focus
The Malay migrants united as one people under the sul- on Dayak culture and the environment. Danum
tanate of Brunei, and by the sixteenth century, the sultan- Magazine is sustainably produced from wastepaper
ate controlled almost all of Borneo. and bound manually. It is also bilingual (being pub-
Before the establishment of the sultanate, the Dayak lished in Bahasa and English) and so enjoys an inter-
society suffered from many civil wars, and the vari- national audience. Danum Magazine is intended to
ous Dayak peoples engaged in one of their favorite past inform readers about Dayak culture while also try-
times—the collecting of human heads as trophies gath- ing to preserve that culture.
ered in times of war. You can learn more about Shinta at https://​
In 1521, Borneo was visited by Ferdinand Magellan, emmanuelashinta.org.
whose expeditionary party brought tales back to Europe
of Borneo’s lavish sultanate. Spurred on by talk of Borneo’s
opulence, Spanish and Portuguese envoys reached coastal
Borneo by the mid-sixteenth century, quickly followed In 1893, James Brookes, a British man with a military
by English and Dutch expeditions. The coming of the background, arrived on Borneo and offered to help the
Europeans led to the weakening of the sultanate, and for sultanate of Brunei quell local uprisings. In return for his
a while, Borneo descended into a lawless society. Despite services, the sultanate gave Brooke seven thousand square
encroachments by Europeans, the Dayaks remained fairly miles of Borneo and conferred upon him the title of the
isolated and free from outside influences until the nine- raja of Sarawak. Subsequently, Brooke received a knight-
teenth century, when Christian missionaries began to hood from the British authorities and was allowed to cre-
arrive on Borneo. ate a government on Borneo that aimed to prevent piracy
294 Dayak

being committed by the Dayaks and to stop the Dayak tra- Dayaks’ traditional practices of slash-and-burn farming
dition of headhunting. Brooke’s family ruled Sarawak until and forest foraging. The logging operations and planta-
the start of World War II. At the same time, parts of Borneo tions tend to be granted without recognition of the Dayaks’
were classed as British territory. The Dutch ruled the rest rights over the land and its resources, so the Dayaks were
of Borneo until World War II. largely uncompensated for the clearance of their forests.
Over time, the Dayaks came to resent being politi- One estimate suggests that during the 1970s, more than
cally and economically subordinate to the region’s Mus- 2.5 million indigenous peoples, including Dayaks, were
lim population. In 1953, the Dayaks sought ownership of made homeless in Indonesia by logging and other such
a territory known as the Great Dayak. By 1956, the Day- activities (Minority Rights Group International 2017b).
aks realized their ownership claim had failed, leading to This was one of the reasons for mass violence perpetrated
a revolt occurring in Indonesian Borneo among Chris- against transmigrants in 1997, 1999, and 2001, when armed
tian Dayaks and those Dayaks that followed the local folk Dayaks, together with indigenous Malay groups, began to
religion, Kaharingan. In 1957, a new province called West attack and expel Madurese and other transmigrants that the
Kalimantan was created that was home to an ethnic Dayak indigenous people considered invaders. The situation was
majority. In 1965, the PKI (Communist Party of Indonesia) worsened by the fact that many Dayaks felt that they had
attempted a coup, and many Dayaks were killed after being been exploited by the Madurese, who, favored by the author-
caught up in fighting between the Indonesian army and ities, had been allowed to set up plantations on which the
Chinese guerrillas. Dayaks worked. The Dayaks also resented what they consid-
The Dayaks were viewed with suspicion by the author- ered the favoritism shown to the Madurese. Estimates sug-
ities as separatists, and the Indonesian government labe- gest that at least one thousand ethnic Madurese were killed
led Kaharingan irreligious and, by association, linked to during this period, with tens of thousands more transmi-
communism. As a result of this classification of their reli- grants seeking refuge in other parts of Indonesia. Somewhat
gion, the Dayaks suffered greatly when, in the late 1960s, paradoxically, the departure of so many transmigrants was
an anticommunist mania spread throughout Indonesia. accompanied by the gradual decentralization of the Indo-
During the 1970s, the Dayaks entered into talks with the nesian government’s power, meaning the Dayaks regained
Indonesian authorities with the aim of having their reli- some control over local matters. Few transmigrants who
gion reclassified. In the end, Kaharingan was reclassified fled the violence of the 1990s and 2001 have returned.
as an offshoot of Hinduism and therefore acceptable to the Meanwhile, in addition to turning against transmi-
authorities, despite the fact that the religion is not related grants, the Dayaks became increasingly angry at the
to Hinduism. amount of logging occurring on their land. For example,
Up until the 1960s, Dayaks were able to continue liv- in 1987, Dayaks living in Malaysia started to blockade
ing their traditional lifestyles. In 1966, however, the advent roads in order to hinder logging companies from trans-
of the regime led by General Suharto meant that logging porting timber. The Dayaks did this in the hope that their
companies were permitted to operate on Dayak land. The actions would help prevent further deforestation in their
government helped the logging firms to remove the Day- homeland. Similar small-scale protest occurred in Sar-
aks from their homes and did not make much of an effort awak throughout the 1990s, but authorities responded by
to rehome those Dayaks that were displaced. Then, in the detaining protesters and protecting the logging operations,
1970s, the government implemented its transmigration many of which were covertly owned by leading Sarawak
scheme, in which people living in overcrowded parts of politicians (Minority Rights Group International 2017c).
Indonesia were moved to less populated areas. As a result Other logging operations on Dayak land was controlled
of this scheme, hundreds of thousands of mainly ethnic by Australian companies that cut down trees and then
Javanese and Madurese migrants were allowed to settle on burned the land to ready it for replanting. In 1994, how-
Dayak territory that had been cleared for logging. These ever, this activity led to fires that destroyed nineteen thou-
migrants had little in common with the Dayaks, as they sand square miles of forest and prompted the Indonesian
spoke different languages, followed different religions, and government to ban forest clearance through fire. None-
did not understand Dayak culture. theless, illegal logging continued, so the Dayaks started to
The transmigration policy marginalized the Dayaks on destroy logging equipment and the camps used by loggers.
their own land, and the government’s timber concessions Toward the end of 1996 and into 1997, ethnic vio-
and rubber and palm oil plantations severely restricted the lence broke out between the Dayaks and the Madurese.
 Dayak 295

The violence killed thousands of people and displaced Kaharingan beliefs, the spirit of the dead remains with the
thousands more, who were rehomed in refugee camps body in the lower realm of heaven, so a tiwah is needed
run by the Indonesian military. In March 1997, several to transport the soul to its ultimate resting place. On the
Dayak leaders were arrested, blamed for the violence, first day of a tiwah, the bones of the deceased are exhumed,
and accused of being members of the outlawed national- cleaned, and placed in a wooden coffin, where they rest
ist group Republik Dayak Merdeka (RDM). The detained until the third day of the ritual. On the third day, the bones
Dayaks denied belonging to a separatist movement, but are transferred to a sacred mausoleum called a sanding,
the arrests highlighted the Dayaks’ mistrust of the Indo- where ancestral remains are stored. To ensure that evil
nesian authorities. During the late 1990s the Indonesian spirits are kept at bay during the tiwah, masked dancers
and Malaysian authorities increasingly clamped down known as babukungs parade during the reinterment of the
on Dayak efforts to stop illegal logging. Security forces bones.
raided the offices of indigenous groups, it became illegal Though many Dayaks are Christian, they often com-
to block the roads used by logging companies, and many bine Christian beliefs with Kaharingan philosophies and
Dayaks were forced to move from their homes to unsan- values. This is especially true in regard to the Kaharingan
itary city slums, where they suffered from malnutrition adat system that sees Kaharingan traditions relating to the
and unemployment. supernatural realm govern how the Dayaks see the world
In 1999, violence between the Dayaks and Madurese around them.
erupted once more, and then in 2000, Christian Dayaks, The Dayaks have a long tradition of tattooing, using
animist Dayaks, Muslim Malays, and Madurese migrants designs that feature snakes, birds, and plants to repre-
based in Pontianak began to fight each other. By the end sent qualities such as courage, endurance, and beauty. The
of 2000, over a thousand people had died in the violence, hornbill bird, in particular, is an important symbol to the
properties had been destroyed, and thousands of Dayaks, Dayaks. The Dayak perform a hornbill dance that is per-
Muslim Malays, and Madurese had been displaced. formed in such a way that the dancers’ arm movements
At the start of the twenty-first century, the Dayaks faced resemble a flying hornbill. The dancers (men and women)
increasing marginalization, as the governments of Indone- wear an elaborate headdress, and the women dancers per-
sia and Malaysia promoted national languages as well as form with hornbill feathers tied to their hands. The feath-
the state religion, Islam. ers open when the dancers move their hands.
Originally, Dayak dances were performed as a post-
warfare ritual to welcome home returning warriors who
Society, Culture, and Tradition had been successful on headhunting expeditions. Today,
Traditionally, Dayaks lived in longhouses in villages where however, the dances are usually performed to mark the
they practiced shifting cultivation or in urban areas where rice harvest season and at New Year. The hornbill dance is
they worked as manual laborers. Today, most Dayaks accompanied by sape music. The sape (also called a sampe
are settled farmers that grow rice, though some Dayaks, or sapeh) is a traditional Dayak lute played during celebra-
such as the Penan, still practice nomadic hunter-gatherer tions, including gawai (harvest festivals).
lifestyles.
Most Dayaks are Christian, a small number are Mus-
lim, and others, mainly those belonging to the Ngaju and Health Care and Education
Katingan tribes, practice Kaharingan. Kaharingan (mean- Essential infrastructure is missing in many parts of rural
ing “life”) is an animistic, polytheistic religion that con- Indonesia, including roads, electricity, water, and sanita-
tains many complex rituals. Originally, the Indonesian tion facilities. According to the World Health Organiza-
state considered Kaharingan an agama suku (“spiritual tion (WHO), as of the year 2000, only 65 percent of rural
grouping”) or adat (“customary law” or “tradition”) rather Indonesians had access to safe water, and only 52 percent
than a religion. Later, the government reclassified Kaha- lived in areas with adequate sanitation. The Indonesian
ringan as an offshoot of Hinduism, a reclassification that government’s health expenditure is low, so in rural areas
made Kaharingan more acceptable to the religious stand- of Borneo, even basic health care is minimal. As a result
ards of the Indonesian authorities. of this lack of healthcare facilities and unsanitary living
The most famous Kaharingan ritual is the tiwah, or sec- conditions, rural Indonesians, including many Dayaks,
ond funeral, which takes place after a burial. According to die from malnutrition and preventable and treatable
296 Degar

infectious diseases. These problems affect both children into approving plantations (Minority Rights Group Inter-
and adults. For instance, one in three Punan Dayak chil- national 2017b).
dren dies before reaching adulthood (Ali 2004). Dayak languages are also threatened, as schools in the
Poor health, poverty, and environmental destruc- parts of Kalimantan, where the Dayak are the majority,
tion are interlocking problems for the Dayaks. Despite do not teach the language. Government officials are usu-
the Dayak protests against illegal logging, many ally not Dayaks and so do not speak the local Dayak lan-
­poverty-stricken people in Borneo see logging as a way guages and do not feel it is important that the languages
for men to earn a meager income with which they can are taught. In the main, the increasing democratization in
pay for food, accommodation, their children’s educa- Dayak areas has not empowered the Dayaks, and so they
tion, health care, and goods such as vehicles and satellite continue to be underrepresented politically.
dishes. In addition, the Dayak men who earn money from
See also: Acehnese; Ambonese; Madurese
logging tend to be uneducated and young, and so areas
Further Reading
with significant logging activity often attract prostitutes,
Ali, Robbie. 2004. “Conservation and Health: A Case Study in
gambling networks, alcohol, and antisocial behavior in Borneo.” Cultural Survival Quarterly Magazine, June. https://​
general. These issues weaken indigenous communities www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival​
and can lead to the exploitation of indigenous peoples -quarterly/conservation-and-health-case-study-borneo.
by outsiders. Baier, Martin. 2007. “The Development of the Hindu Kaharin-
Health programs linked to forest conservation in Dayak gan Religion: A New Dayak Religion in Central Kalimantan.”
Anthropos 102 (2): 566–570. http://www.jstor.org/stable​/403​
areas aim to highlight the need for the sustainable use of
89742.
natural resources (for example, stopping slash-and-burn Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the
farming and developing indigenous medicines) through Pacific. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
education; to improve the physical and mental health of Minority Rights Group International. 2017a. “Brunei Darus-
indigenous rainforest dwellers so that they see the bene- salam: Dusun, Murut, Kedayan, Iban, Tutong, Penan.” Minor-
fit of safeguarding the forests and decreasing demands on ity Rights Group International. http://minorityrights.org​
/minorities/dusun-murut-kedayan-iban-tutong-penan.
forests; and to educate local people about contraception
Minority Rights Group International. 2017b. “Indonesia: Dayak.”
and thereby slow population growth. World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples.
http://minorityrights.org/minorities/dayak.
Minority Rights Group International. 2017c. “Malaysia: Indig-
Threats to Survival enous Peoples and Ethnic Minorities in Sarawak.” World
The Dayaks continue to face threats to a number of their Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. http://​
minorityrights.org/minorities/indigenous-peoples-and​
rights on two fronts. First, the Dayaks are unable to protect
-ethnic-minorities-in-sarawak.
their traditional lands from logging, mining, and planta- World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF). 2017. “Threats to Bor-
tion operations that are supported by the state. In addition, neo Forests.” http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/where_we​
authorities refuse to promote languages or cultures, either _work​/borneo_forests/borneo_deforestation.
through education or officialdom. Subsequently, non-­
Dayaks have become dominant in many spheres of public
life in Kalimantan, thereby increasing the marginalization
of the Dayaks.
The Dayaks’ way of life is greatly threatened by the DEGAR
devastation of Kalimantan’s rainforests that continues
largely unabated as forest is cleared to make way for Current Location Vietnam; Cambodia
palm oil plantations and the like. Oil palm plantations Current Population 1.5 million
and the accompanying floods and brush fires that go Language Chamic; Mon-Khmer; Tai languages
hand in hand with deforestation are an increasing threat Interesting Fact During the Vietnam War, U.S. sol-
to Dayak settlements, but the people are unable to oppose diers nicknamed the Degars the
these schemes. There are also continuing reports of the “Yards,” a phonetic abbreviation
military menacing Dayals who protest against logging of the people’s alternative name,
and of community leaders being bribed or threatened Montagnards.
 Degar 297

Overview However, researchers believe the Degars originate from

The Degars, also called the Montagnards, Moi, or Aus- mountain areas of the Indochina Plateau, where the ear-
triens, among other names, are the indigenous people of liest Degars lived as hunter-gatherers in the area’s dense
central Vietnam and neighboring parts of Cambodia. The forests. Around 2,000 years ago, these hunter-gatherers
names Montagnards and Moi are not always welcomed migrated to coastal and riverine valley locations, where
by the Degars—Montagnards (from the French word for they began to fish. Over time, other peoples came to influ-
“mountain,” montagne) is a throwback to the French col- ence the Degars. These peoples included the Cham, who
onization of Degar areas, and Moi is the Vietnamese word invaded Degar lowlands as part of their own territorial
for “savages.” The Degars refer to themselves as the Dega, expansion and drove the Degars to settle at high altitude.
meaning “sons of the mountains.” The earliest written references to the Degars are Cham doc-
The Degars consist of several ethnic groups that subdi- uments dating from the first century. They detail a people
vide into many tribes. In the main, Degars speak Chamic of the hinterland, that is, the Degars, whom the Cham con-
languages that belong to the Malayo-Polynesian language sidered very primitive. Invasions by the Chinese forebears
family, though some Degars speak languages belonging to of the modern Vietnamese and the Khmers also forced the
the Mon-Khmer and Tai language families. Most Degars Degars to live in increasingly isolated, mountainous areas.
are Roman Catholic or Protestant, though there are some High in the mountains, the Degars developed a unique
Degar Buddhists. A minority follow an indigenous animist culture that revolved around nature and cosmological
religion. beliefs. Over time, the Degars formed into multiple small
social units, each of which settled on its own land, a move
that created some differences between the communities’
Population, Diaspora, and Migration social structure. Nonetheless, the Degars shared mountain
The Degars are indigenous to Vietnam’s Central Highlands, homeland meant that the people maintained certain phys-
an area called the Degar Republic by the Degars. Exact ical and spiritual similarities that kept them united and
population figures for the Degars are unavailable. Some created a shared mountain culture.
sources believe the Degar population measures around 1.5 People living in the lowlands surrounding the Degars
million people and consists of six different ethnic groups left them in peace because they were fearful of the Degars’
subdivided into forty tribes (Minahan 2012). Other sources mountain territory, which they considered bleak and
suggest the Degar population numbers between one mil- remote. At the same time, however, the Degars were hated
lion and two million (Minority Rights Group International by neighboring tribes, who referred to the Degars as the
2015). The majority of Degars live in scattered temporary Moi (“savages”). During the nineteenth century, France
communities located on steeply sloping mountainsides. established colonial control over Vietnam, Laos, and Cam-
bodia, an area known to the French as Indochine. When
French missionaries began to arrive in Degar areas, a
Geography and Environment new era began during which the Degars interacted more
The Central Highland in which the Degar live are charac- frequently with other local minorities. Sometimes this
terized by high mountain peaks, waterfalls, fertile valleys, contact resulted in conflict, as the Degars reacted against
and high, densely forested plateaus. The area has basalt soil outsiders entering their territory. The intermixing also left
suitable for growing coffee, cacao, pepper, white mulberry, the Degars open to being taken advantage of by outsiders.
cashew, and rubber plants. Local animal species include For example, Vietnamese merchants often swindled the
tigers, buffalo, gaurs, banteng, elephants, and doucs. Degars (Minahan 2012).
In recent years, the Central Highlands have faced As French authority grew in the region, French colonial
deforestation, as the government has sought to modernize control became more formalized. In 1899, this formality
the area and make it more productive. saw parts of Vietnam’s Central Highlands divided into
exclusively Degar provinces. Despite the creation of Degar
provinces, Degar life was often disturbed by what the
History and Politics Degars regarded as unwelcome incursions by outsiders.
According to Degar myth, the people descend from De These outsiders included land speculators who were bent
and Ga, figures comparable to the biblical Adam and Eve. on grabbing Degar territory and who were often supported
298 Degar

by colonial authorities, who viewed the speculators as Vietnamese move to the Central Highlands to modernize
modernizing forces. the area, thereby increasing the region’s economic output.
In the early twentieth century, several Degar uprisings In 1958, the Bajaraka Degar nationalist movement was
occurred against French colonial rule. In response, France founded with the aim of uniting the various tribal groups
established military posts in Degar areas with the intention to stop Vietnamese incursions into their land. However,
of ensuring the continuation of French authority. During in 1960, the Vietnamese government began to resettle the
the 1920s and 1930s, the French military presence led to Degars, thereby allowing Vietnamese settlers to take over
an increase in the number of French colonists migrating to Degar ancestral lands. Any Degars who refused to move
Degar areas, but it did not cause more ethnic Vietnamese were labeled procommunist and used as justification for
to move there. After World War II, Vietnamese national- the government to massacre hundreds of Degars and other
ists headed by Russian-trained communist Ho Chi Minh opponents (Minahan 2002).
fought French troops returning to Vietnam postwar. Addi- In the early 1960s, the Degars came into contact with
tionally, the communists moved into Degar areas, where American CIA and Special Forces operatives. Then, as
they aimed to enlist the Degars to their cause by promis- the Vietnam War intensified and the Central Highlands
ing to expel foreigners and grant independence to areas emerged as being of strategic importance, American troops
inhabited by minority groups. However, the French acted started to camp in Degar areas and entreated the people
to keep the Degars on their side by giving them a great to fight the communists. The Degars soon became allied
deal of autonomy, including the creation of five provinces to the Americans, and when communist soldiers entered
known collectively as the Montagnard Provinces of South the South Vietnamese capital in 1973, thereby signaling
Indochina (also called the Dega Republic). These provinces the end of the war, 10,000 Degars continued to fight the
were regarded as separate from the rest of Vietnam and communists in the Central Highland as a force known as
placed under direct French rule. The Degars considered the Forgotten Army. Nonetheless, by the end of the war, 85
the creation of the provinces as a move toward the ulti- percent of Degar villages had been destroyed and 220,000
mate creation of a Degar state within Indochina. However, Degars killed (Minahan 2002). After the reunification of
in 1951, French authorities faced mounting pressure from Vietnam in 1976, the new government started to resettled
communists and nationalists within Vietnam and began to lowland Vietnamese people in the Central Highlands, and
transfer political power to the Vietnamese. Degar leaders were jailed. Those leaders that managed to
The Vietnamese emperor Bao Dai cancelled French rule escape capture fled to neighboring Cambodia. By 1982,
and brought the Degars back under Vietnamese control, all Degar resistance had dissipated. Degar nationalists
though he also guaranteed the Degars’ right to continue received no help from their former American allies, and
their customs and the safeguarding of Degar land rights. without outside aid, many Degars either fled to neighbor-
The Degars continued to live in relative harmony until ing countries or resettled in the United States.
1954, when the Viet Minh communist group defeated In the 1980s and 1990s, the Degars faced escalating lev-
French troops at the battle of Dien Bien Phu. This defeat els of disease and malnutrition as increasing numbers of
resulted in Vietnam being divided into communist North Vietnamese moved into the Degar homeland. In 1992, UN
Vietnam and Southern Vietnam, which was supported by operatives located the last of the Forgotten Army together
the United States. After the division, millions of Vietnam- with their families living in Cambodia and allowed them
ese fled from the north of the country and settled in the to move to the United States. Also during the 1990s, organ-
Central Highland, which became incorporated into South izations led by former U.S. soldiers who had served along-
Vietnam. side the Degars began to provide the Degars with health
In 1955, the new president of South Vietnam declared care and educational services and helped to establish mod-
the Degars a minority group that must be assimilated into ern agriculture in Degar villages.
Vietnamese society. To this end, Degars were forced to take In the early twenty-first century, the Degars launched
Vietnamese names, and all Degar villages and place names fierce demonstrations calling for their religious and polit-
were changed to Vietnamese names. Teaching in Degar ical freedom and the return of their land rights. However,
languages was banned, and all books and documents in the government retaliated by launching repressive meas-
these languages were destroyed. Additionally, a scheme ures against the Degars, including closed trials and harsh
was established that aimed to make huge numbers of prison sentences for protestors. At present, the Degars
 Degar 299

continue to call for the creation of a Degar autonomous deprived of reproductive health care, are forcibly sterilized
state, and hundreds of Degar prisoners of conscious remain by Vietnamese authorities, or are injected with chemicals
in prison (Minority Rights Group International 2015). that prevent pregnancies (UNPO 2015).
The Degars have limited access to formal education,
especially education in their own languages. This lack of
Society, Culture, and Tradition education hinders their ability to find employment and
The Degars are subsistence farmers that practice shift- develop their areas economically.
ing cultivation. Some Degars earn extra money by selling
handcrafted goods or wooden items made from forest
trees. Threats to Survival
The Degars live in small villages led by local families or The Vietnamese government maintains a contradictory
elders. The villagers live in longhouses arranged in a pat- policy toward indigenous groups in the Central Highlands.
tern around a central point. Each Degar group has its own On the one hand, in recent years, the government has
culture, style of dress, and oral tradition. Most Degar tribes declared its recognition of indigenous groups and stated
are matrilineal, with Degar women acting as heads of fam- its intention to address their specific requirements. On
ilies and making important decisions. the other hand, many official policies and programs have
Most Degars are Roman Catholic, a legacy of French impacted negatively on these groups.
colonialism. There are also a significant number of Degar The Degars face continued displacement from their
Protestants; the people having converted under the influ- ancestral lands in the name of development, but the people
ence of evangelical Protestant sects that operate in Degar are frequently moved to areas without access to rivers,
areas. In addition, Degars’ past interactions with U.S. sol- where it is difficult for the people to practice their tradi-
diers led to some Degars converting to Protestantism—in tional farming methods.
the post–Vietnam War era, Degar Protestants have faced Protestant Degars face harassment, discrimination, and
greater repression than Degar Catholics because authori- the confiscation of their land for following their religion
ties associate Protestantism with the U.S. military (Carroll and for holding church services or religious material. How-
2015). As a Christian minority in officially atheist Viet- ever, most repressive measures are implemented by local
nam, the Degars are forbidden to congregate in churches officials and do not necessarily reflect government policy.
and come under frequent pressure to renounce their faith. According to the anticommunist Montagnard Foundation,
Other Degars maintain Buddhist beliefs or follow the which aims to protect the rights of the Degars and other
Degar animist religion that considers elders to hold sha- groups, the Vietnamese government continues to prevent
manistic powers, the ability to treat the sick, and being able human rights monitors from having unlimited access to
to enter trances that allow them to tell the future. While the the Central Highlands. It is believed that over 350 Degars
specifics of Degar animist beliefs differ, the people tend to remain prisoners of conscience and endure brutal prison
worship the same deities. conditions.
In 2012, the Committee on the Elimination of Racial
Discrimination (CERD) voiced deep concern about the
Health Care and Education disparity in the socioeconomic situation between disad-
Although the Vietnamese economy has grown rapidly vantaged ethnic minorities such as the Degars and Viet-
recently, the areas inhabited mainly by minorities such nam’s majority Kinh people, particularly with regard to
as the Degars have benefited the least, and the minorities the healthcare, educational, and employment prospects
remain the poorest people in Vietnam (Minority Rights of indigenous and minority groups. CERD also called on
Group International 2015). The Degars have poor access Vietnam to ensure the rights of minority groups to prac-
to health care and education. International organizations tice their religion freely, without the fear of arrest, arbi-
have called on the Vietnamese government to reinstate free trary detention, and mistreatment in custody.
basic health care to those Degars too poor to afford health At present, thousands of Degars have been arrested in
services, including prenatal checkups, moves to reduce the what has been described as an official Vietnamese pol-
maternal mortality rate, and HIV/AIDS prevention pro- icy of “arrest, torture, threaten and release” (Home Office
grams. It has also been reported that Degar females are 2014), the aim of which is to repress the Degar people.
300 Dinka

Many Degars remain in prison, where they experience Dinka have converted to Christianity or Islam, but many
beatings. Other Degar prisoners have died from abuse that still follow the people’s traditional religion. The Dinka call
included electroshock torture. In addition, the Vietnam- themselves the Moinjaang, which translates as “people of
ese government has recently intensified surveillance and the people.”
paramilitary operations in the Central Highlands to stop
the spread of Christianity and to prevent the Degars from
seeking legitimate reparation for alleged abuses (Home Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Office 2014). The Dinka are the largest ethnic group in South Sudan,
with a population measuring between three million and
See also: Cham; Khmer
four million people. The Dinka consist of several closely
Further Reading
related subgroups organized into clusters on a regional,
Carroll, Al. 2015. “Montagnards.” In Native Peoples of the World:
An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues, linguistic, and cultural basis. These subgroups include the
edited by Steven Danver, 226–227. London: Routledge. Agar, Aliab, Bor, Rek, Twic (Tuic, Twi), and Malual. Some
Home Office. 2014, December. “Country Information and Guid- of these subgroups are very large. For example, the Ngok
ance Vietnam: Ethnic Minority Groups.” https://www.justice​ Dinka population measures approximately two million
.gov/sites/default/files/pages/attachments/2015/06/19/cig​ people (Shoup 2017).
.vietnam.ethnic_minority_groups.pdf.
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
nic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 3, L–R. West-
port, CT: Greenwood Press.
Geography and Environment
Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the The Dinka inhabit the northwest of South Sudan in a his-
Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. toric area called Bahr al-Ghazal. Bahr al-Ghazal is home
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Vietnam: High- to one of the tributaries of the Nile River, the White
land Minorities.” World Directory of Minorities and Indige-
Nile River, which is formed at Lake No, where the Bahr
nous Peoples, June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities​
/highland-minorities. al-Ghazal River and Bahr al Jabal River meet. Most Dinka
Unrepresented Nations and People Organization (UNPO). 2015. live on the banks of the White Nile River. The start of White
“UNPO Submits Alternative Report on Viet Nam to CEDAW.” Nile flows east from Lake No to the mouth of the South
UNPO, July 7. http://unpo.org/article/18347. Sudan’s Sobat River, traveling over gentle slopes and taking
in many swamps and lagoons.
The area inhabited by the Dinka experiences a dry
season and a rainy season. The dry season occurs from
November to April, and the rainy season usually starts in
DINKA June and carries on until October. During the dry season,
Current Location South Sudan the Dinka travel with their cattle to the Sudd wetland, Afri-
ca’s largest wetland and one of the world’s largest fresh-
Current Population 3 million–4 million
water ecosystems. The Sudd mainly consists of permanent
Language Nilotic languages and dialects; Suda-
swamps, flooded grasslands, and floodplain woodlands.
nese Arabic
The Sudd is home to various endangered mammals, ante-
Interesting Fact Cattle are so important to the Dinka
lope migrations, migratory birds, and fish populations.
that Dinka men will often adopt the
name of their favorite cow.
Sudan’s long-running civil wars have disrupted efforts
to conserve the Sudd, and the widespread availability of
weapons has led to higher levels of wildlife poaching in the
Overview area, especially of the African elephants.
The Dinka are a Nilotic ethnic group indigenous to the
Upper Nile River that mainly lives in South Sudan. The
Dinka speak multiple closely related Nilotic languages that History and Politics
belong to the Eastern Sudanic branch of the Nilo-­Saharan The origins and early history of the Dinka are unknown.
language family as well as many dialects. Many Dinka During the mid-nineteenth century, the Dinka fought
are bilingual, for they also speak Sudanese Arabic. Some against the Ottoman Turks who ruled Sudan, and they
 Dinka 301

sporadically fought against neighboring peoples such as from Abyei, allowing the Misseriya to claim ownership of
the Atuot. the area.
During the nineteenth century, the Dinka came under Sudan’s second civil war started in 1983, with the Dinka
British colonial rule. The British had little impact on the led by politician John Garang. Garang wanted to see the
Nilotic people of southern Sudan, including the Dinka, creation of a united, secular Sudanese state, much to the
with the Dinka killing the first British soldier sent to con- consternation of some members of the Sudan People’s Lib-
tact them in 1919. The arrival of British missionaries did eration Movement (SPLM), the South Sudanese political
influence the Dinka, however, for the Dinka began to build party that began as the political wing of the Sudan People’s
their villages within easy reach of British missions and Liberation Army (the South Sudan army). The discovery of
administrative centers. oil in the area further disrupted Dinka life, for local rural
When Sudan gained independence from Britain in Dinka were dispersed to the north, where they were con-
1956, the Dinka called for more of a say in the running centrated into Abyei. Then, in March 1987, a Rizeigat per-
of the country. Prior to Sudan’s independence, the Ngok petrated an infamous attack on the Dinka militia living in
Dinka living in Abyei agreed with their Misseriya Arab the town of Al Diein in southern Darfur in revenge for an
neighbors to remain part of the Sudanese province of SPLM attack on their own people. The Rizeigat survivors
Kordofan rather than unite with other independent attacked Dinka men, women, and children and set fire to
Dinka. The agreement aimed to keep relations between the railway carriages in which the Dinka were sheltering.
the neighbors cordial, but as Sudan descended into civil Those Dinka who did not burn to death were stabbed or
war, the Ngok Dinka supported the southern Dinka shot. In total, over one thousand Dinka were killed in the
rebels. attack (Meredith 2011). Meanwhile, war and hunger led
Sudan’s first civil war broke out between people living in to increasing numbers of orphaned rural Dinka children
the south (black Africans) and north (Muslims and Arabs) landing on the streets of northern Sudanese cities. Here,
of the country, with the Dinka fighting against Sudan’s the children suffered many forms of abuse and were taken
central government forces. Over the following decades of to inqaz (“salvation camps”) located in the remote desert,
war, Khartoum mobilized Arab militias against the Ngok where they were trained to serve in militias (Minority
Dinka, whose suffering reached new heights during the Rights Group International 2008).
mid-1980s, when the militias abducted Dinka women and Garang continued to negotiate throughout the course of
children, burned down nearly all Dinka villages surround- the civil war, but he died in a helicopter crash in 2005, the
ing Abyei, and stole the people’s cattle (Minority Rights year that the second civil war finished.
Group International 2008). In 2011, states in the south of Sudan voted for inde-
The war ended in 1972, but not before many Dinka had pendence from Sudan, and Dinka leader Salva Kiir Mayar-
died during fighting or from famine and disease. During dit became the first president of South Sudan. Just before
the civil war, it was reported that the Dinka suffered at the South Sudan achieved full independence, Mayardit sacked
hands of Arab militias, who shot Dinka men while enslav- his entire government, including his vice president, Riek
ing Dinka women and children, who were either kept as Machar, who was a Nuer. The sacking caused enmity
the militias’ personal property or sold at markets in north between the two men and led to the outbreak of another
Sudan (Minority Rights Group International 2008). civil war between the Dinka and Nuers that is ongoing.
The 1972 Addis Ababa Agreement that ended the civil Very recently, schisms have appeared in Dinka political
war included a clause that allowed the people of Abyei to circles. For example, in April 2018, exiled South Sudan
choose whether to remain in the north of Sudan or join military chief Paul Malong announced the founding of a
the autonomous South. However, the referendum never new organization, the South Sudan United Front (SS-UF),
occurred, and the Ngok Dinka continued to suffer attacks which aims to protect democracy within South Sudan and
from militias. Meanwhile, in the mid-1980s, the Misseriya improve the country’s economy.
Arabs began to support the Sudanese government, form-
ing frontline units as well as mounted raiding parties
called the Murahleen that attacked southern villages, tak- Society, Culture, and Tradition
ing villagers as slaves and stealing valuables. By the end of Traditionally, the Dinka lived in nomadic family groups
the civil war, the conflict had displaced most Ngok Dinka that traveled with their cattle and set up temporary
302 Dinka

Sudd. When the rainy season begins, the Dinka return to

their semipermanent villages, where they grow crops that
include millet, corn, okra, and pumpkin, which they har-
vest before returning to the Sudd with their cattle.
Cattle are vitally important to the Dinka. Cattle own-
ing is considered a sign of wealth and prestige in Dinka
society. As the Dinka live in an inhospitable region with
scarce resources, the Dinka consider eating their cattle
to be wasteful. Thus, the Dinka only tend to eat beef
when their animal has died naturally. To make as much
use of their cattle as possible, the Dinka drink cattle’s
milk and turn it into butter from which they make cook-
ing oil. Cattle’s urine is used for washing, disinfecting,
tanning hides, and dyeing hair, and dung is used to make
fires to keep the people warm and ward off insects. Ash
from dung fires is used as an abrasive cleaner and trans-
formed into paint with which the Dinka decorate their
skin. If an animal dies, its flesh is eaten; its skin is used
as leather to make cloth, drums, and ropes; and its horns
and bones are fashioned into musical instruments, eat-
ing implements, and tools. As cattle are so important to
the Dinka, the people incorporate cattle into religious
rituals. Cattle also contribute to bride-price (a financial
A Dinka woman cooks cassava in a large pot in Bor, South Sudan. gift given by a groom to his bride’s relatives) to make a
During the dry season the Dinka live in temporary camps while marriage official.
their animals graze on the Sudd. During the rainy season, the The traditional Dinka religion reveres the Creator-
Dinka reside in semipermanent villages where they grow crops. God Nhialac, plus many lesser deities and spirits called
(John Wollwerth/Dreamstime.com) the yeeth (singular yath or jak). Many Dinka people are
named after individual yath, including Deng, the yath of
homesteads as they went. When the British arrived in rain and storms; Abuk, the yath of rivers and also the
Dinka areas, however, the Dinka started to build small vil- first human woman (comparable to the biblical Eve); and
lages consisting of clusters of homesteads that were home Garang, the yath of the sun but also the first human man
to hundreds of families. Today, every Dinka village is made (comparable to the biblical Adam). That the Dinka follow
up of one or two extended families led by an elected head. either their traditional religion or are Christian means
Typically, Dinka homes take the form of hard-wearing that, over time, they have been targeted by Islamization
mud huts with conical roofs. Dinka women and children campaigns instigated by the Sudanese government based
sleep within the huts, and Dinka men sleep with their cat- in Khartoum (Minority Rights Group International
tle in cattle pens that have mud roofs. 2008).
Dinka society is classless. All people, whatever their
financial situation, are expected to contribute to the com-
munity. The Dinka consider generosity an important Health Care and Education
aspect of life, and generous acts are seen as a way for indi- The Dinka’s access to health care is severely limited, with
viduals to improve their social status. some estimates suggesting that around 90 percent of the
Like other Nilotic peoples, the Dinka are farmers people have been without access to health care in recent
and pastoralists. The Dinka move their cattle twice per years (Buckley 1997).
year. During the dry season, the Dinka reside in tempo- Many Dinka are illiterate and have never been to school.
rary camps while allowing their animals to graze on the The Dinka were introduced to mission schools during the
 Diola 303

1930s, but because of the almost constant war in Dinka DIOLA

areas, an educational system never became established
among the Dinka. Those schools that do exist in Dinka Current Location Senegal; Guinea-Bissau; Gambia
areas are often in a poor state and need constant repair Current Population 3.2 million
(Lindsey 2015). Language Diola
Interesting Fact Several Diola words have passed into
American English, including banjo
Threats to Survival
(from the Diola word bangoe).
Sudan’s first civil war deeply affected the Dinka. Many
Dinka died in fighting, and many more became inter-
Overview
nally displaced. During the second civil war, many Dinka
entered refugee camps. A 1997 report suggested that The Diola (also called the Jola, Yola, or Diula, among
fourteen thousand mostly Dinka people were residing in other names) are an indigenous people living in Senegal,
a refugee camp near the Ugandan border (Buckley 1997). ­Guinea-Bissau, and Gambia. The Diola speak the Diola lan-
Successive civil wars have caused the dilution of some guage, which belongs to the Bak group of the West Atlantic
Dinka traditions, the loss of dialects, and a change in the language family. This in turn is part of the Niger-Congo
traditional Dinka extended family structure, as elderly language phylum. Most Diola practice traditional religious
and orphaned Dinka have had to fend for themselves. The beliefs. Christian and Muslim Diola often combine these
line between tribes and subgroups also became blurred beliefs with organized religion.
as the people intermarried. Where once Dinka would not
marry outside their tribe, the loss of potential spouses
during wartime forced many Dinka to wed outside their Population, Diaspora, and Migration
communities. Most Diola live in Casamance, a small region of Sen-
At present, the ongoing war between the Dinka and egal located between Guinea-Bissau and Gambia. In
Nuers has killed tens of thousands of people on both sides ­Guinea-Bissau, the Diola live in the northwest of the coun-
and uprooted around a quarter of the South Sudan’s twelve try, while in Gambia, they live in the Combo and Foni dis-
million people. tricts. A recent estimate puts the total Diola population at
around 3.2 million people. Of this figure, 1.2 million Diola
See also: Acholi; Fur; Hutu and Tutsi; Kalenjin; Nuba;
live in both Senegal and Gambia, and 800,000 Diola live in
Nubian
Guinea-Bissau. In Gambia, the Diola make up 10 percent
Further Reading of the country’s total population, and in Senegal, the popu-
Buckley, Stephen. 1997. “Loss of Culturally Vital Cattle Leaves
lation is 4 percent Diola. Smaller numbers of Diola live in
Dinka Tribe Adrift in Refugee Camps.” Washington Post,
August 24. https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/inatl​ Mali and Burkina Faso (Shoup 2011).
/longterm/africanlives/sudan/sudan.htm.
Lindsey, Fred. 2015. “Dinka.” In Native Peoples of the World: An
Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues, Geography and Environment
edited by Steven Danver, 27–28. London: Routledge.
Senegal is located in West Africa, where it is bordered to
Meredith, Martin. 2011. The State of Africa: A History of the Con-
tinent since Independence. London: Simon & Schuster. the west by the North Atlantic Ocean. Senegal’s longest
Minority Rights Group International. 2008. “Sudan: Dinka.” land border is with Mauritania, which lies to the north. To
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, July. the east of Senegal lies Mali, Guinea lies to the southeast,
http://minorityrights.org/minorities/dinka. and Guinea-Bissau lies to the south and southwest, with
Shoup, John A. 2011. “Nilotic.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and both borders following the course of the Casamance River.
the Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup,
Gambia is surrounded by Senegal and the North Atlantic
210–219. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Shoup, John A. 2017. “Dinka.” In The Nile: An Encyclopedia of Ocean. Casamance is located in southern Senegal, south of
Geography, History and Culture, edited by John A. Shoup, Gambia and north of Guinea-Bissau. The region includes
113–114. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. the Casamance River and is divided into two areas: Lower
Casamance and the Upper Casamance.
304 Diola

Senegal has a hot and humid tropical climate. The coun- Kabu region, which stayed allied to Mali until the fifteenth
try’s rainy season extends from May to November and is century. Following the breakup of the Malian Empire,
characterized by strong southeast winds. The dry season the number of Muslim Mande people increased in parts
lasts from December to April and is dominated by the hot, of Senegambia (a confederation comprising Senegal and
dry, and dusty harmattan trade wind that blows across Gambia), forcing the Diola and other indigenous peoples
West Africa from the Sahara. to either migrate to the coast or to forests.
Much of Casamance falls within the Guinean forest In the fifteenth century, European traders began to
savanna mosaic ecoregion consisting of interlacing forest, operate on Africa’s Atlantic coast. In 1456, the Venetians
savanna, and grassland that separate the Guinean rain- became the first Europeans to enter Gambia, followed by
forest from Sudan’s savanna. The combination of forest the Portuguese, who arrived in 1570 and established trad-
and grassland is home to a variety of animals, including ing posts in Casamance, the name of which derives from
leopards, elephants, hippopotamuses, tortoises, and mon- the Portuguese interpretation of the name of a Mande
keys. The main threats to Senegal’s wildlife are poaching, kingdom in the area, Kasa Mansa (King of Kasa). During
deforestation, overgrazing, soil erosion, and desertifica- the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the French, Brit-
tion. Food insecurity has become an issue for the Diola, ish, and Dutch arrived in the area. The later Europeans
for some fields in Casamance have become contami- founded trading posts, mostly with the intention of buying
nated by seawater. Consequently, although Casamance slaves. The French also built a fortress at Seju in Senegal.
is home  to Senegal’s best farmland, the region has Sen- By the end of the seventeenth century, around one million
egal’s highest levels  of hunger (Minority Rights Group Africans had been transported to the Americas, with most
International 2017). coming from Senegambia region.
During the fifteenth century, Portuguese Christian mis-
sionaries attempted to convert the Diola to Christianity.
History and Politics The Portuguese made little headway, however, and it was
The early history of the Diola is unclear, though they are not until the French arrived that significant numbers of
believed to have inhabited the land between the Casa- Diola became Christian. The majority of Diola followed
mance and Gambia Rivers since the first millennium BCE. their traditional religion or Christianity until the nine-
The people’s oral history suggests the Diola may have teenth century, when some Diola became embroiled in
originated in Egypt before migrating across North Africa jihad. The jihad came about when, in 1843, the Mande
during the tenth century, when they settled in the Niger united with the Muslim Fulbe of Fouta Djallon, a highland
wetlands. Subsequently, drought and conflict forced the region in central Guinea, to overrun the Diola and convert
people to move southward. The Diola eventually settled in them to Islam. During the 1850s, the Mande-Fulbe alliance
the isolated marshes and mangroves of Casamance. If this gained the advantage in the ensuing conflict that spread
history is correct, then the Diola are likely the earliest peo- north to Gambia, then under British colonial rule. In the
ple to settle to the south of the Gambia River (Barry 2005). 1860s, the main jihad leader was defeated by an alliance of
It is known that the Diola were conquered in the 1260s the French and then non-Muslim ethnoreligious Serer peo-
by the Malian military, though the Malians were unable ple. Following this defeat, Fode Kaba, a Senegalese Muslim
to assume control of the lower reaches of the Casamance priest, assumed leadership of the jihad south of Gambia.
River basin. The Malians did not replace the existing Diola From 1878 to 1880, Kaba’s forces overran the north bank
authorities but did make the Diola subjects of the Malian of the Casamance River, where he imposed Islam and the
king (or mansa). At the same time, the Malian Mande peo- Mande culture on the Diola. Kaba was defeated in 1901,
ple came to prominence over the Diola, who lacked organ- but by this time, many Diola had converted to Islam. Con-
ization above the village level. The Diola’s lack of political sequently, today, around half of all Diola are Muslim.
organization allowed the Mande to start the process of The Diola resisted enlistment into the French military
nation building, and they consequently took up the rank during both World War I and World War II, and the French
of nobility. In 1360, the Malian Empire began to disinte- faced many Diola revolts during both conflicts. The Diola
grate following arguments over succession. Much of the also refused to pay taxes to France during the wars and
empire’s western region left the empire to form the King- tried to stop France from obtaining Diola rice and cattle
dom of Jolof, but the Mande remained in control of the as war supplies. Such was the level of resistance to French
 Diola 305

authority during the wars that the French governor in of Diola elders are the decision makers, and though these
Casamance denounced the Diola as being actively hostile councils lack political power, they still hold considerable
(Barry 2005). The French reacted to Diola resistance with sway. Elders are also considered to possess sacred powers
a mixture of repression and violence and also sent many and are responsible for preserving the people’s traditions.
Diola into exile. Although Diola society is patriarchal, women play a major
Following World War II, an indigenous rights group role in society as members of village councils, landown-
formed by a union of intellectuals and Christian and Mus- ers, and religious leaders. Additionally, the Diola’s main
lim educators came into being, the Mouvement Des Forces traditional economic activity, wet rice farming, is mainly
Démocratiques de Casamance (MFDC, Casamance Move- performed by women. The Diola also fish in rivers and
ment of Democratic Forces). The MFDC aimed to protect produce palm wine and palm oil. Diola living on the north
the rights of the region’s indigenous peoples and to oppose bank of the Casamance River also grow millet and ground-
political centralization and colonial rule. The MFDC later nuts. The Diola are skilled at basketry and pottery, and they
merged with the socialist Bloc Démocratique Sénégalais rear animals, including goats, ducks, cows, and pigs.
(BDS). Subsequently, part of the MDFC broke away from The Diola living on the Casamance River’s north bank
the MFDC to form the Casamance Autonomous Move- tend to be Muslim, and those on the south bank are usu-
ment (MAC), which, like the MFDC, called for Casamance ally Christian or follow the people’s traditional animist
autonomy. religion. Traditional Diola religious beliefs center around
Following Senegal’s independence from France in 1960, the Creator-God Emit. Some Diola believe that Emit, as the
calls for Casamance independence grew on the grounds supreme god of the sky, created the earth, the people, and
that the government was neglecting the region. A Diola the world’s religions. Many Diola continue to build shrines
resistance movement developed from these demands. to spirits (ukine), which act as intermediaries between the
From the 1980s to the 2000s, a Diola separatist group has spirit world and the people. Two of the most important
been engaged in a low-level civil war with the Senegal gov- Diola ceremonies are funerals and the boy’s initiation to
ernment. The conflict ended in 2004 after the signing of a manhood, Bukut. Before the prevalence of organized reli-
treaty by the Senegalese president and the MDFC, which gion among the Diola, funerals would last for a week or
had reformed under the leadership of Abbé Senghor, a more and involved the consumption of rice, beef, and palm
Catholic priest. Prior to the treaty’s signing, many Diola wine. Traditionally, the Diola believe that a funeral allows
has already fled to Guinea-Bissau and Gambia, and around the soul of the deceased to return to the Creator-God and
5,000 were forced to move to camps for internally displaced rejoin his or her ancestors.
persons. Both the separatists and the Senegalese govern- Bukut is held every twenty to twenty-five years for
ment were accused of abuses against civilians, including Diola males aged twelve to thirty-five years. Bukut rituals
torture and extrajudicial executions (Barry 2005). are held in sacred forests, where initiates live in seclusion
Since 2006, low-intensity fighting between separatists for a period of time. The ritual sees Diola elders pass down
and Senegalese authorities has continued, with sporadic sacred Diola knowledge to initiates as well as the prac-
outbreaks of violence causing more people to flee to Gam- tical tips on Diola life. Bukut is a community event during
bia. Between 2010 and 2012, fighting intensified, but peace which people shoot muskets and canons, sing, dance, and
in Casamance has been prioritized by President Macky feast.
Sall, who came to power 2012. Nonetheless, members of the
MFDC are rumored to have been recruited into the Gam-
bian military and were linked to killings near the Casa- Health Care and Education
mance town of Ziguinchor in early 2018. MFDC leaders During conflict in Casamance, healthcare facilities were
deny the killings, however, which they say were connected closed, and both medical equipment and personnel
to illegal timber harvesting from the region’s forests. became scarce. This situation resulted in Casamance hav-
ing a higher infant mortality rate than the rest of Senegal.
Today, UNICEF trains community healthcare practition-
Society, Culture, and Tradition ers and equips medical centers to treat the most common
Diola society is egalitarian, for the Diola do not believe in illnesses, including acute respiratory infections, malaria,
hereditary leaders or in keeping slaves. In villages, councils and diarrheal disease. Around a quarter of children in
306 Dogon

Casamance aged less than five years are underweight, so introduced the Diola to prostitution and drugs (Barry
since 2008, UNICEF has implemented nutritional therapy 2005). The rise of Islam in Senegal, where over 90 percent
to fight severe malnutrition. of people are Muslim, represents a cultural threat to the
Years of conflict in Diola areas have left schools dis- Diola, as it erodes the number of Diola following the peo-
organized, in a state of disrepair, and lacking in teachers ple’s traditional religion.
and equipment. In Zinguinchor, Sedhiou, and Kolda, 35
See also: Dogon; Fulani; Mande
percent of schools receive aid from UNICEF. This aid goes
Further Reading
toward improving teaching facilities and teacher training
Barry, Abdoulaye. 2005. “Diola (Joola).” In Encyclopedia of the
as well as providing people with access to nutrition, health World’s Minorities, edited by Carl Skutsch, 398–400. New
care, safe water, and sanitation. UNICEF also promotes York: Routledge.
campaigns to eliminate the gender gap between boys and Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Diola (Jola).” World
girls in primary education. As a result of such initiatives, Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, November.
the number of girls enrolling in primary school in Kolda https://minorityrights.org/minorities/diola-jola.
Shoup, John A. 2011. “Diola.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and
rose from 38 percent in 2000 to 46 percent in 2008, and
the Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup,
in Zinguinchor, the figure increased from 44 percent to 47 82–85. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
percent over the same period (UNICEF Senegal 2009). Fol- UNICEF Senegal. 2009. “Casamance: Rebuilding & Healing.”
lowing the 2005 Organisation for Economic Co-­Operation https://www.unicef.org/spanish/infobycountry/files/leaflet​
and Development (OECD) Paris Declaration on Aid Effec- _Casamance_low.pdf.
tiveness, USAID has worked with the Senegal government USAID. n.d. “Improving Education in Senegal.” https://www​
.usaid.gov/sites/default/files/documents/1860/Senegal​
to build middle schools. Senegal builds schools using its
_USAID_FactSheet_Education.pdf.
own finances, and USAID later reimburses the govern-
ment an agreed upon amount once it has verified the
schools’ construction. Since 2007, this system has created
forty-six middle schools (USAID n.d.).
DOGON
Threats to Survival
Current Location Mali; Burkina Faso
While the separatist conflict in Casamance is at a low level, Current Population 400,000–800,000
it sees periodic surges of violence. As such, it remains
Language Dogon dialects and subdialects;
West Africa’s longest-running civil conflict (Minority French
Rights Group International 2017). The Diola face danger
Interesting Fact Some people believe the Dogon’s
from unexploded land mines hidden in fields and villages;
advanced astronomical knowledge
hence, there are initiatives such as Handicap Internation- came about through contact with
al’s 2016 demining program aimed at reducing the dangers extraterrestrials.
of land mines in Diola areas. The aftermath of being forced
to move by conflict has damaged individual families’ eco-
nomic prospects. The conflict has also left many Diola liv- Overview
ing as refugees in Gambia and Guinea-Bissau. As of 2016, The Dogon are a people indigenous to Mali and Burkina
the Internal Displacement Monitoring Centre recorded Faso. They are also known as the Habé and Cadau. The
twenty-four thousand internally displaced people in Sen- Dogon speak twelve dialects and fifty subdialects of the
egal, mainly due to past conflict in Casamance (Minority Dogon language, some of which are not mutually intelli-
Rights Group International 2017). gible. Researchers disagree as to whether the Dogon lan-
Increasingly, younger Diola are migrating to urban guage belongs to the Niger-Congo phylum or is unrelated
areas in search of seasonal work. Since the 1960s, the Sen- to any other language. Some Dogon also speak French,
egal government has developed tourism on the country’s which is the official language of Mali. Many Dogon are
Atlantic coast. Although this has created employment Muslim or Christian, though some follow the indigenous
opportunities in hotels, restaurants, and so on, it has also Dogon religion.
 Dogon 307

Population, Diaspora, and Migration on the Bandiagara Escarpment, they had to defeat the
Estimates of the Dogon population put the figure at between Niongom and Tellum people who were already living there.
four hundred thousand and eight hundred thousand peo- Another Dogon myth claims that the people are descended
ple (Shoup 2011). Most Dogon people live in the hills and from a pair of water sprites called the Nummo, who were
mountains surrounding Mali’s Bandiagara Escarpment. the children of Amma, the Creator-God.
The Dogon living on the escarpment are closely associated Historians, however, believe that the Dogon came to
with the Cliff of Bandiagara or Land of the Dogon. There the Bandiagara Escarpment around 1,000 years ago, hav-
is also a small number of Dogon living across the border ing migrated from the north or west at the behest of the
in Burkina Faso. In terms of religion, 35 percent of Dogon Mande people or from the banks of the Niger River. There
are Muslim, 10 percent are Christian, and the rest maintain is some disagreement as to whether the Dogon were in fact
their native beliefs (Shoup 2011). the Tellum originally.
Dogon village are made up of granaries that are square Unlike some other Malian peoples, the Dogon resisted
with tapering, thatched roofs. The interiors are divided conversion to Islam for many centuries. In the fifteenth
into eight cubicles, each representing a different organ of century, other peoples joined the Dogon on the Bandiagara
the human body, with the interior and outer walls repre- Escarpment in an effort to avoid efforts to convert them to
senting the human skeleton. Another feature of the Dogon Islam or Christianity by outsiders that included Portuguese
village are the large windowless family homes called and French colonialists. Both Muslim and Christian slave
gin’na, which are constructed over two levels. Gin’na are traders took people who refused to convert to their pre-
decorated with sculptural motifs of men and women that ferred religions, and so they posed a threat to the Dogon,
represent the ancestors of the occupants. A noteworthy who still adhered to their own faith at this time. At around
feature of the Cliff of Bandiagara is the togu-na, a large the same time, the Mossi people often raided Dogon vil-
shelter that provides refuge under a roof of branches sup- lages in search of slaves. In response to the threat from
ported by wooden poles. slavers, the Dogon settled on the Cliffs of Dogon, where
they were able to escape slave raids while also being able
to control who moved into their community. The resulting
Geography and Environment mixture of peoples led to the wide variety of Dogon dia-
Mali is a landlocked country of West Africa with an area of lects and traditions evident today.
around 480,000 square miles. Mali is bordered by Algeria The Dogon remained isolated in their homeland and
to the northeast and Niger to the east. Burkina Faso and therefore free from the Islamization of Mali for centuries.
Côte d’Ivoire lie to the south, to the southwest is Guinea, This allowed the Dogon to keep alive their native religion.
and Senegal and Mauritania are to the west. Mali’s north- Such was the people’s isolation that Dogon cosmology
ern borders run deep into the Sahara Desert, and the south was not studied until the 1930s, when French ethnogra-
of the country is home to the Niger and Senegal Rivers. pher Marcel Griaule researched the religious beliefs of the
Farming and fishing are very important to Mali’s economy, Dogon.
though the country also has rich natural resources of gold In 1860, the Dogon fell under the control of the leader of
and salt. The Bandiagara Escarpment is located in rural a Muslim theocracy, Al-Haj Umar Tall, who, equipped with
central Mali (near Mopti) amid a landscape of tablelands, European weapons, launched a jihad against neighboring
cliffs, hills, mountains, gorges, sandy plateaux, and plains. countries. Then, in 1893, the French colonized the area
The Cliff of Bandiagara covers 400,000 hectares of land inhabited by the Dogon, though the colonists were unable
that are home to 289 villages scattered across three types to conquer the Dogon outright. After French colonization,
of terrain: sandstone plateau, escarpments, and sahelian some Dogon converted to Islam and Christianity, though
plains. others stayed faithful to the indigenous Dogon religion.
Recently, the proliferation of Dogon arts and ceremo-
nies as well as the outstanding architecture of the Cliffs of
History and Politics Dogon have brought tourists flocking to the Dogon home-
According to one Dogon myth, the people were led to their land. This has brought much-needed income to the people.
homeland by a snake called Lébé, and when they arrived Tourists are encouraged to enter Dogon areas by tourist
308 Dogon

groups located in the Malian capital of Bamako. Tour- outsiders. The traditional Dogon animist faith includes
ists then travel to Dogon villages, where they watch the totem spirits called Binou, which the Dogon believe pro-
Dogon dance, and stay in special accommodations that are tect their villages. The Dogon do not kill totem animals,
designed to be in keeping with traditional Dogon architec- and when they die, the people do not use the animals’
ture. The Dogon income from the tourist trade is threat- hides. The Dogon Creator-God Amma is the focus of all
ened, however, by attacks by Islamist militant groups, Dogon religious ceremonies and has his own dedicated
which are deterring visitors. annual feast.
The Dogon follow their own calendar, which follows the
fifty-year orbit of the star Sirius B. When Marcel Griaule
Society, Culture, and Tradition studied Dogon religion, he discovered that the people had
Dogon society is patrilineal, with the eldest living male an advanced understanding of heavenly bodies such as
being the head of the guinna (extended family). Women the Dog Star (Sirius) that are not visible to the naked eye.
join the guinna of their husbands only after they have Griaule offered no explanation for the people’s astronom-
produced a son. Men are permitted to have more than one ical knowledge, and this led to a proliferation of theories
wife, but in reality, few take up polygamy. While Dogon suggesting possible explanations for the people’s under-
society permits divorce, this step is considered extremely standing of space. These theories included the belief that,
serious and is usually discouraged. Traditionally, for a cou- in the past, aliens may have visited the Dogon. This is in
ple to divorce, the dissolution of their marriage has to be line with the pseudoscientific “ancient astronaut” theory.
agreed un by their entire village. Dogon religious life peaks every sixty years when
The Dogon have a rich culture that has survived because a ceremony called the sigui takes place. The ceremony
the people have generally managed to stay isolated from occurs when Sirius appears between two Bandiagara

Dogon dancers in Mali wearing traditional masks, typically used in ceremonies and processions. The masks are highly sought after by
Western art dealers. (Michele Alfieri/Dreamstime.com)
 Dogon 309

mountain peaks and is based on the belief that around Many Dogon parents cannot afford to send their chil-
three thousand years ago, amphibious beings from Sirius dren to school. Those Dogon children that do attend school
visited the Dogon. Prior to the ceremony, young Dogon are taught to read, write, and converse in French.
men go into a three-month-long seclusion, during which
they converse in a secret language. The language is related
to the fact that part of the sigui ceremony commemo- Threats to Survival
rates the death of the first man, Lébé Serou, and the time The Dogon face several threats, both cultural and phys-
when humankind received the gift of language. During ical. On the one hand, the Dogon face pressure from
the ceremony, masked participants dance in long lines, neighboring Muslim and Christian peoples to abandon
perhaps reflecting the Dogon belief that Lébé Serou was elements of their traditional culture. Non-Dogon neigh-
transformed into a snake. The Dogon also hold a distinct bors want Dogon shamans, who are traditionally gay or
annual Lébé Serou ceremony that lasts for three days. The lesbian, to change their lifestyles and conform to the het-
dances performed during this ceremony are very popular erosexuality preferred by the Mali government and soci-
with tourists. ety at large.
Spiritual leaders known as hogon oversee Dogon cere- Over the last few years, the Dogon have been caught
monies to ensure they are performed correctly. The hogon up in atrocities perpetrated by armed Islamist groups
are elected to their posts and on election have to begin a within Mali as well as violent responses by Malian secu-
six-month period of seclusion during which they wear rity forces. Dogon civilians have suffered threats, rape,
white, may not wash or shave, and are served food by vir- and murder at the hands of extreme Islamist groups, and
gin girls who have not yet experienced their first menstru- Malian security forces have conducted seemingly arbi-
ation. It is during this time of seclusion that the hogon are trary arrests, sometimes torturing detainees. Some of
believed to acquire the necessary wisdom to make sure the Islamist groups perpetrating these crimes include al-­
that ceremonies are properly performed. The Dogon think Qaeda in the Islamic Maghreb (AQIM), Al-Mourabitoun,
that this knowledge is passed on by Lébé, the snake that and the Macina Liberation Movement. In 2015, these
visits them at night. groups killed at least forty-four civilians, some of whom
The Dogon are known for their art, which is highly were suspected of helping the Malian army, and those
sought after by Western art dealers. Of particular interest “killed during attacks on a nightclub and hotel in Bamako
to dealers are Dogon masks that the people wear during and in an attack on [an] army garrison town” (Human
ceremonies, funerals, and processions. Art dealers and Rights Watch 2016). In addition, the Malian Armed
tourists alike also collect Dogon statues. These sculptures Forces (FAMA, Forces Armées Maliennes) have often been
often depict equestrian subjects or the Dogon’s ancestors accused of perpetrating serious abuses, including the
with their arms held aloft and are intended for use in rain- targeting of Dogon civilians. However, in the main, this
making ceremonies. Dogon statuary is so popular with for- abuse stopped after the military handed captives over to
eigners that other Malian peoples now produce statues in government gendarmes.
the same style. Dogon leaders also suggest that Islamists operating in
locations near Mali’s border with Burkina Faso exploit ten-
sions between the Peuhl people and the Dogon over land
Health Care and Education and grazing rights. A recent incident near Niangassadiou,
There are few health facilities in the Dogon homeland, so about nine miles from the Burkina Faso border, saw armed
most Dogon people seek medical help from village medi- Islamists kill Dogon residents across three hamlets on the
cine men, who treat them using talismans and items such Muslim holiday of Eid al Fitr Peuhl after a dispute over
as special beads and monkey paws (Hammer 2010). Death communal grazing. Increasingly, the Dogon are also the
is an ever-present factor of Dogon life. Widows are made to victims of banditry by Islamists and other groups.
live in special huts on the outskirts of the village for three See also: Mossi
weeks after the death of their husbands, together with
Further Reading
their sisters. A year after a death, a widow sprinkles millet Hammer, Joshua. 2010. “Hiking Deep into Dogon Country in
flakes over a smooth boulder as an offering to the soul of Mali.” New York Times, March 2. http://www.nytimes.com​
her departed husband. /2010/03/07/travel/07personal.html.
310 Dom

Howell, Christopher. 2015. “Dogon.” In Native Peoples of the seasonally migrate to the Jordan Valley. Other Dom con-
World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contem- tinue to live in Syria, where the Dom have lived for cen-
porary Issues, edited by Steven Danver, 29. Vol. 1. London: turies. Dom communities also exist in Turkey, Israel, and
Routledge.
Human Rights Watch. 2016.“Mali: Abuses Spread South.” Human
Lebanon as well as elsewhere in the Middle East and North
Rights Watch, February 19. https://www.hrw.org/news/2016​ Africa.
/02/19/mali-abuses-spread-south. There are no official population figures for the Dom.
Shoup, John A. 2011. “Dogon.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and According to UNICEF, estimates for the Dom population
the Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup, vary from thirty thousand to thirty-five thousand and sev-
86–88. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC–CLIO. enty thousand to eighty thousand people, with the total
UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 1992–2018. “Cliff of Bandi-
agara (Land of the Dogons).” World Heritage List. http://whc​
Dom population divided into sixty-three clans or sub-
.unesco.org/en/list/516. tribes. Smaller nomadic Dom communities are often not
included in any estimates (UNICEF 2016). According to
Minority Rights Group International, unverified figures
suggest that before the current Syrian Civil War, between
three hundred thousand and one million Dom lived in
DOM Syria. A few hundred Dom now live scattered between
parts of northern Jordan and Jordan’s Azraq refugee camp,
Current Location Middle East which is home to more than thirty-six thousand refugees.
Current Population Unknown In total, there may be as many as seventy thousand Dom
Language Dommewiri (Al-Asfouriyah); Arabic; living in Jordan. However, except for a few cross-national
Domari; Kurdish marriages, the Dom community living in Jordan distances
Interesting Fact The Dom are often called the nawar, itself from the Dom community of Syria (Oddone 2019).
meaning “tramps.” It is thought that roughly twelve thousand Dom live in
the Gaza Strip, while around three thousand reside in the
Overview West Bank (Heruti-Sover 2016). In Turkey, the Dom live
The Dom (also called the Bani Murra, among many other in southeast Anatolia. Since the outbreak of civil war in
names) are an Indo-Aryan people of the Middle East. The Syria, Turkey has received many Syrian refugees, includ-
Dom are often associated with the Roma. The Dom speak ing members of the Dom community, who reportedly face
the Dommewiri language, which is commonly referred to especially high levels of discrimination on account of their
as “Al-Asfouriyah.” The Dom also speak Arabic as well as ethnicity as well as their refugee status.
the Domari dialect, a regional Romani language. The Dom There are three main reasons for the lack of Dom pop-
living in parts of Turkey mainly populated by Kurds are ulation information. First, many Dom live among refu-
bilingual, for they also speak Kurdish. gee populations in Jordan and Syria and so are included
The Dom are Muslim, though some Dom communities in refugee figures. Second, the Dom have long faced dis-
follow the religion more strictly than others. Some Dom crimination by outsiders, so members of the Dom tend to
communities combine Islam with pre-Islamic religious hide their true identity. Instead, they adopt a Jordanian,
traditions. Due to popular stereotypes that associate the Bedouin, Turkman, or generally Arab identity to better
Dom with witchcraft, fortune-telling, and criminal behav- assimilate into surrounding communities. Another rea-
ior, in the Middle East, the Dom are often referred to as the son for the lack of data on the Dom is that while some
nawar (“tramps”). Although this term is derogatory, some members of the Dom community live settled lives, many
Dom have reclaimed the name for themselves. smaller Dom communities continue to follow nomadic
lifestyles. Consequently, these nomadic groups may not be
included in official population counts.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Civil war and unrest have resulted in the Dom becoming
widely scattered. Today, Dom communities live across Jor- Geography and Environment
dan, with major concentrations living in Amman, Madaba, Jordan is bordered to the north by Syria, to the east by Iraq,
Zarqa, Jerash, Mafraq, Karak, and Irbid. Some Dom also to the southeast and south by Saudi Arabia, and to the west
 Dom 311

by Israel and the West Bank. Jordan has three main geo- (Heruti-Sover 2016). World War I had a profound effect
graphic areas: desert, the uplands to the east of the Jordan on the Dom, for the fall of the Ottoman Empire saw the
River, and the Jordan Valley, which is the northwest section formation of nation-states with international borders that
of the East African Rift System. Jordan’s desert lies mostly greatly curtailed Dom nomadism.
within the Syrian Desert, which is itself an extension of the
Arabian Desert. The desert’s landscape is largely shaped by
wind erosion. The uplands to the east of the Jordan River Society, Culture, and Tradition
overlook the rift valley and rise to around 5,755 feet at Dom society is egalitarian and matrilineal. Permanent
Mount Ramm, Jordan’s highest point. The Jordan Valley Dom leaders (called Mukhtars) are selected from within
drops to roughly 1,410 feet below sea level at the Dead Sea, individual communities. The Mukhtar is responsible for
which is the lowest point on earth’s surface. The Jordan completing all official documents pertaining to commu-
River travels southward, draining the waters of the Sea of nity members as well as representing the community’s
Galilee, the Yarmūk River, and valley streams into the Dead specific needs to state authorities, arbitrating in commu-
Sea, which lies in the center of the valley. Much of Jordan’s nity disputes, and acting as a liaison between the police
soil is highly saline, and the shores of the Dead Sea com- and the community.
prise salt marshes that cannot support vegetation. Over time, the Dom have acquired a reputation as arti-
sans, musicians, magicians, fortune-tellers, basket makers,
metalsmiths, weavers, and animal tamers. In Syria, as else-
History and Politics where in the Middle East, the Dom are called the nawar.
The history of the Dom is largely unknown. However, This term likely derives from a word for “fire” and is a ref-
researchers believe that during the sixth century, the Dom erence to the Dom tradition of working as blacksmiths.
left South Asia to gradually move through the Middle East, Over the years, the word nawar has evolved to become a
with Dom settlements well established by the start of the derogatory word that suggests uneducated, uncivilized
Crusades that took place from the eleventh to the twelfth individuals. The various names given to the Dom differ-
centuries. The Dom themselves believe they are descended entiate them regionally as well as by the work they per-
from pre-Islamic Arabs and have existed in the Middle form. For example, in the Syrian towns of Aleppo and Idlib,
East for at least a thousand years. the Dom are called Qurbat and work as blacksmiths and
Much of the information about the origins of the Dom untrained dentists, while in the Syrian towns of Homs and
is gathered from their language, Domari, which is akin to Hama, the Dom are called the Riyass and either sell hand-
Romani, the language of the European Roma. This linguis- icrafts or work as party entertainers. Similarly, in the Syr-
tic affiliation suggests the Dom, like the Roma, may have ian capital of Damascus, Dom women, called Hajiyat, earn
their roots in India. Both Domari and Roma contain many money as nightclub dancers, beggars, or fortune-tellers.
words borrowed from other languages, thereby reflecting Before the Syrian Civil War, other Dom in Syria existed as
their history of migration through countries that include migrant fruit pickers working in the Jordan Valley.
Iran. It is possible that during the Ottoman period, the Typically, Dom girls are married between the ages of
Dom traveled freely throughout the Middle East as com- fifteen and sixteen years. If a Dom boy wishes to wed, his
mercial nomads that provided services to the communi- parents will often marry off a daughter first so that they
ties in which they settled temporarily. There have likely can use the resulting dowry to cover their son’s marriage
been Dom communities in Turkey since the Byzantine expenses. Dom children enter employment at a young age,
era, and a large Dom community arose in Syria, especially often between the ages of thirteen and fifteen years. This
around the town of Aleppo. means that not only do the children miss out on education,
Over time, multiple waves of migration caused the Dom but they often work in hazardous conditions, collecting
to become highly fragmented, with Dom groups residing scrap metal or begging. Sometimes Dom parents do not
in what is now the West Bank, Gaza, Iraq, and Jordan. The realize it is illegal for their children to work, and Dom par-
Dom living in Israel claim that a Dom community has ents have reported their children being detained by state
existed in Jerusalem since the sixteenth century, initially authorities for begging or selling on the streets.
as a poor, small, tented community before resettling inside Usually, Dom adults work in poorly paid, temporary
Jerusalem’s Old City during the British Mandate period informal jobs. Both Dom men and women travel to work
312 Dom

in other Middle East countries, where the men become access the water service because public water is a paid ser-
street vendors and the women work in private homes. vice, and they cannot afford to pay for the service. Dom
Dom parents will travel for up to two years at a time before groups living in tents or following a nomadic lifestyle can
returning for a year. During these periods, Dom children often only access water by pausing near villages or at loca-
are care for by their grandparents. Typically, Dom women tions that they have historically used as stopping points.
in Jordan work selling handmade accessories, clothes, Here, the available water comes from watercourses that lie
and henna; work as housemaids; or are employed in hair close to farmland or industrial facilities and so are con-
salons. Dom men in Jordan are often employed as trash taminated by sewerage and chemicals. In Jordan and Leb-
collectors or street sellers. anon, the lack of safe drinking water has led to high prices
Traditionally, some Dom women wear a loose-fitting, being charged for safe water. This has left many Dom with
full-length black robe called an abaya, which leaves only no choice but to buy cheap water from unknown sources.
their faces exposed. Older Dom women may display facial The Dom’s lack of sanitation facilities is a major source
tattoos, for in the past, the Dom used to tattoo their faces of anti-Dom discrimination and presents a barrier to their
and bodies to gain protection from malevolent spirits and employment and education, as outsiders consider the Dom
the evil eye. The tattoos were also considered a sign of unclean. UNICEF considers providing the Dom with safe
beauty and of belonging to the Dom tribe. water, sanitation, and hygiene facilities as a key objective
The Dom’s language, Dommewiri, combines many ele- (UNICEF 2016).
ments of different languages, including Turkish, Kurdish, Many Dom children are not in education. According
Farsi, and Hindi. The language differs dialectally between to UNICEF, only 10 percent of Dom children interviewed
Dom groups. by the agency were enrolled in school. At the same time,
The Dom believe that all humans share the land; hence, however, many of the children wished to attend school
they think nothing of settling on other people’s property. (UNICEF 2016). Dom children face many barriers to edu-
As a result of this belief, nomadic Dom are often forced to cation, including the nomadic lifestyles of their parents,
move from the land, as they are viewed as an irritation by bullying by teachers and fellow pupils, and living in coun-
landowners. Additionally, in settled urban environments, tries where the Dom traditionally face discrimination. In
many Dom communities will attach tents to their houses Lebanon, Dom children are generally excluded from the
to preserve their nomadic traditions as best they can. mainstream school systems, either because they do not
meet admission criteria or because schools do not have
any spaces for them. In Israel, however, some Dom chil-
Health Care and Education dren attend afterschool centers where they receive extra
According to UNICEF, the main concerns facing the Dom lessons in math and English.
surround their access to clean water, sanitation, and hygiene.
The transitory nature of Dom camps in Jordan, which is a
result of both the Dom’s economic migration and eviction Threats to Survival
by outsiders, means that no unsettled Dom families have Historically, Dom communities across the Middle East
access to adequate water and sanitation facilities (UNICEF have suffered marginalization from the wider society
2016). Health risks facing the Dom in general are conditions and limited access to education and jobs. The political
linked to poor accommodation and living conditions. These and physical destruction of countries such as Syria and
include typhoid, tuberculosis, bronchitis, and parasitic leish- Iraq have left Dom society highly dispersed and lacking
maniasis. Asthma, and chronic lung complaints are com- in resources. Today, the Dom lack political representation,
mon among the Dom. The lack of toilet facilities among the access to employment, health care, and education. Some
Dom living in refugee camps cause some Dom to feel they are also denied citizenship of the countries in which they
lack dignity. Because two or three families living in a Jor- live on account of their nomadic lifestyle, Indo-Aryan her-
danian camp may share one tent, the families lack privacy itage, and use of the Domari language.
when they use the toilet. Additionally, many Dom parents Dom girls report facing widespread harassment. Fear
cannot afford diapers for their children (UNICEF 2016). for their daughters’ safety leads some families to limit girls’
In Turkey, the Dom often live in ruined houses that are freedom of movement. In some instances, Dom girls do
not connected to the public water system. The Dom cannot not report harassment or rape to the police, either because
 Doma 313

they prefer to resolve such issues within their community Overview

or to avoid social stigma. The Doma, also called the vaDoma (singular: muDoma),
Jordan’s soaring living costs mean most pover- Dema, Wadoma, Tebomvura, or Vadema, are a people
ty-stricken Dom are condemned to a life of misery. Despite indigenous to Zimbabwe. The Doma speak the Doma (or
this, the Dom in Jordan are reluctant to ask for help from Dema) language as well as Shona. Most of the Doma follow
other Dom or even to mix with their Syrian counterparts the people’s traditional religion, though a number of Doma
whom the Jordanian Dom see as very different from them- have recently converted to Seventh-day Adventism.
selves. The Dom’s lack of representation is hampered by Other Zimbabweans sometimes refer to the Doma
the fact that they have not formed any type of political derogatorily as the “ostrich people” because some Doma
body, such as the Romas’ International Romani Union. suffer from a rare genetic condition called ectrodactyly,
In Turkey, the Dom also face the loss of their language, or “lobster claw syndrome.” This condition affects one in
for there has been a dramatic reduction in the number of four Doma children, causing their middle three toes to be
Dom who can speak Domari, mainly because the Dom liv- absent and the two outer toes to turn inward, resembling
ing there now speak Kurdish. lobster claws. This malformation causes the Doma to face
See also: Jews; Kurd; Palestinian; Roma; Turkmen severe discrimination within Zimbabwe and keeps them
Further Reading separate from the rest of Zimbabwean society. Living apart
Heruti-Sover, Tali. 2016. “Jerusalem’s Gypsies: The Community from the rest of society has reinforced negative Doma
with the Lowest Social Standing in Israel.” Haaretz, Octo- stereotypes within Zimbabwe, and so very little is known
ber 26. https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/.premium​ about the Doma.
.MAGAZINE-the-lowest-caste-on-israel-s-social-ladder​
-1.5452219.
Kirkayak Kültür-Dom Research Workshop. n.d. “The Dom: The Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Other Asylum Seekers in Syria: Discrimination, Isolation and
Social Exclusion: Syrian Dom Asylum Seekers in the Cross- Most Doma live in the Kanyemba region in the Mbire Dis-
fire.” http://panel.stgm.org.tr/vera/app/var/files/t/h/the​-dom​ trict of northern Zimbabwe’s Mashonaland Central Prov-
-the-other-asylum-seekers-from-syria-report.pdf. ince. More specifically, the people live in the areas around
Oddone, Elisa. 2019. “Jordan: The Struggles of Bani Murra, One the basins of the Mwazamutanda River, a tributary of the
of Syria’s Most Marginalized Communities, Now Displaced Zambezi River. The Zimbabwean government does not
as Refugees.” Minority Rights Group International. https://​
keep official population data on indigenous populations,
minorityrights.org/jordan-the-struggles-of-bani-murra-one​
-of-syrias-most-marginalized-communities-now-displaced​ but estimates suggest there are around 1,250 Doma in
-as-refugees. Zimbabwe (Minority Rights Group International 2018).
Parrs, Alexandra. 2017. Gypsies in Contemporary Egypt: On the
Peripheries of Society. Cairo, Egypt: American University in
Cairo Press. Geography and Environment
UNICEF. 2016. “A Qualitative Report on Children from Margin- Mashonaland Central Province is located in northeast-
alized Jordanian Minority Groups.” https://www.unicef.org​
ern Zimbabwe, where it is bordered by Mozambique. The
/jordan/Report_on_Dom_Children_Feb2017-ENG.pdf.
province has rich soil and a variety of minerals, including
gold, nickel, chromite, tantalite, limestone, marble, and
semiprecious stones. These resources attract many mining
companies.
DOMA Mbire District is located in the Mid-Zambezi Valley.
The area is fairly dry, and any rain that is received hap-
Current Location Zimbabwe pens only once per year. Consequently, some peoples
Current Population 1,250 living in the Mbire District live and farm crops near riv-
Language Doma; Shona ers to access water more easily. However, the main eco-
Interesting Fact The Doma suffer a high incidence nomic activities in Mbire District are livestock and game
of a genetic mutation; many of their ranching. Although rain can be scarce in Doma areas,
children have feet resembling lobster Doma communities also experience floods. For instance,
claws. at the start of 2014, torrential rains wreaked havoc in
314 Doma

Mbire District, causing severe flooding that killed people from this location during the droughts in 1984 and 1986,
and washed away crops and livestock. Floodwaters also however, to resettle in the Kanyemba region, where they
flooded many boreholes, causing the local communities have lived an isolated existence at a distance from other
to fear that the water might be contaminated by water- Zimbabweans.
borne diseases. After Zimbabwe gained independence in 1980, land
Another environmental issue facing the Doma is rights reforms did not result in the Doma gaining fertile land,
to land resources. For instance, in recent years, the estab- and consequently, the Doma are Zimbabwe’s only nonag-
lishing of new conservation areas and safari areas within ricultural people.
the Zambezi Valley, such as Chewore Safari Area, the Sapi
Safari Area, and Mana Pools National Park, means the
Doma cannot access some land. Additionally, Doma live- Society, Culture, and Tradition
lihoods have been affected because the people now have Traditionally, the Doma are hunter-gatherers who sur-
to buy licenses that cost as much as Z$800 (US$800) to vive by foraging for wild plants and hunting animals and
hunt or fish in some areas. With their traditional nomadic insects. To a certain extent, the people still find food in that
­hunter-gatherer lifestyle curtailed by the development of way. The Doma also grow crops, including maize, sorghum,
conservation areas and parks, some Doma are left reliant sugarcane, and bananas, the latter being particularly
on state handouts to survive. As natural hunter-gatherers, flood-resistant crops. Recently, the Doma have economi-
the Doma are sometimes excluded from other communi- cally diversified by laboring on farms owned by local peo-
ties that do not practice hunter-gathering. At the same time, ple, raising animals, working in tourism, and launching
the Doma’s hunter-gatherer tradition means the Doma are small-scale businesses.
not instinctively predisposed to growing crops, and their The Doma are an extremely poor people, and so Doma
farming knowledge is limited. To improve the Doma’s land homes can be very humble. For example, some Doma liv-
and resource management skills, in recent years, the Doma ing on the plains of the Zambezi River on the border with
have learned about conservation via projects such as Car- Zambia and Mozambique inhabit homes made of grass.
bon Green Africa’s reduced emissions from deforestation As a people, the Doma tend to be reserved and shy with
and degradation (REDD+) initiative. This program sees outsiders, partly because their culture dictates that they
the Doma learn how to prevent deforestation, manage should not mix with other people (Mutizwa 2016) and also
boreholes, keep bees rather than gather wild honey, and possibly as a result of facing discrimination.
grow productive gardens.

Health Care and Education

History and Politics The Doma live below the poverty line, and Mbire District
According to Doma mythology, the people’s ancestors suffers from poor infrastructure. Thus, it is difficult for the
emerged from a baobab tree from which they walked Doma to access both health care and education.
upright to hunt and gather fruits. However, some The ectrodactyly from which many Doma children
researchers believe the Doma may be related to Khoisan suffer is an inherited genetic mutation. Some researchers
­hunter-gatherers who preceded the migration of the Bantu have hypothesized that the mutation may have originated
Shona to the Zambezi Valley. as a way to help the Doma climb trees. More likely, how-
Historically, the Doma lived in mountain areas, where ever, the mutation is caused by the Doma having a very
they followed a mainly nomadic lifestyle that saw the peo- small genetic pool because they live an isolated existence
ple hunt, fish, gather honey, and gather fruits and wild removed from other Zimbabweans, and traditionally, it is
plants. Before the European colonization of Africa, the against Doma tribal law for the people to marry outside
Doma resisted assimilation into the Korekore Shona king- their tribe.
dom of Mutapa, but this resistance meant that the Doma Many Doma parents cannot afford school fees, so their
ended up with limited access to fertile land. children stay at home. Doma children tend not to mix with
At some point during Zimbabwe’s colonial period, the non-Doma children because they exist outside of the Zim-
Doma were encouraged to follow settled lifestyles in the babwean school system. Some nongovernmental organi-
mountains close to the Zambezi River. The Doma moved zations (NGOs) provide funds to pay for Doma children’s
 Druze 315

school fees and also provide schoolbooks, school uniforms, A cultural threat to the Doma comes from the many
and food for pupils. However, even when educational facil- religious groups who have started to target the Doma to
ities are provided for the Doma, the people cannot always convert them, thereby threatening the people’s traditional
make use of them. For instance, in September 2016, it culture and religion.
was reported that two schools built by the Seventh-day
See also: Chewa
Adventist Church and the government remain unused by
Further Reading
the Doma, two years after the schools were constructed.
Bola, G., C. Mabiza, J. Goldin, K. Kujinga, I. Nhapi, H. Makurira,
When asked why Doma children were not attending the and D. Mashauri. 2013. “Coping with Droughts and Floods:
school, spokespeople replied that no teachers had been Case Study of Kanyemba, Mbire District, Zimbabwe.” Journal
arranged for the school because, it was rumored, the Zim- of Physics and Chemistry of the Earth. http://www.academia​
babwean government was struggling to find staff willing to .edu/5289648/Coping_with_droughts_and_floods_A_Case​
live in remote Doma areas (Mutizwa 2016). _study_of_Kanyemba_Mbire_District_Zimbabwe.
International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA). n.d.
“Indigenous Peoples in Zimbabwe.” https://www.iwgia.org​
/en/zimbabwe.
Threats to Survival Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Zimbabwe: Doma.”
Because the Doma are isolated geographically and socially, World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, April
they tend to lack access to essential services such as health 4. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/doma.
facilities, water supplies, and good sanitation. The Doma Mudzong, Wadzanai. 2014, March 3. “The Untold Story of the
Mbire Flood.” http://www.actionaid.org/zimbabwe/2014/03​
also face ongoing discrimination from other Zimbabwe-
/untold-story-mbire-floods.
ans, high unemployment rates, and limited participation Mutizwa, Godfrey. 2016. “Zimbabwe’s Doma Children on the
in politics. Margins of Society.” CNBC Africa, September 12. https://​
The Doma face land loss because of the implementa- www​.cnbcafrica.com/news/southern-africa/2016/09/12​/zim​
tion of legislation, including the Land Acquisition Act that ba​bwes-domas.
allows the Zimbabwean government to commandeer any
rural land it wishes. The government has already appropri-
ated Doma land to create the Chewore National Park and
Dande Safari Area. As the Doma are no longer permitted
to hunt in these areas, they have been cut off from a food
DRUZE
source, leaving many Doma at risk of starvation (Minority Current Location Middle East (mainly Syria, Lebanon,
Rights Group International 2018). Israel, Jordan)
In the past, floods, droughts, and the effects of the El Current Population 1 million
Niño phenomenon have devastated Doma communities.
Language Arabic
If, as predicted, the frequency and magnitude of these
Interesting Fact The Druze are forbidden to eat
weather events intensify in the future due to climate
a vegetable called molokhiya (or
change, the Doma will be left extremely vulnerable to food
mulukhiyah).
shortages as their crops and livestock are washed away.
Food shortages are also caused when Doma crops are
damaged by elephants, baboons, and hippos that roam the Overview
Zambezi floodplains where the crops are grown. Govern- Druze (also spelled Druse) is the name commonly applied
ment food relief often does not reach the Doma because of to the Middle Eastern, Arabic-speaking ethnoreligious
a state rule forbidding food distribution beyond the cost of group that self-identifies as the Muwah.h.idūn (meaning
a dollar a kilometer. In situations where costs exceed this “monotheists”). The Druze national flag, which is recog-
limit, only people with money are able to access the food, nized by Druze living in Israel, Syria, and Lebanon, shows
leaving out impoverished communities such as the Doma four horizontal colored bands (red, yellow, blue, and white)
who live in remote areas. Another reason the Doma expe- with a green triangle at its hoist. The Druze symbol is a
rience food shortages is that the Doma are a shy people multicolored star, the points of which represent five ele-
and have to be singled out for help by food relief distribu- ments: green symbolizes the mind, red signifies the soul,
tors; otherwise, they do not receive supplies. yellow denotes truth, blue stands for the power of the will,
316 Druze

and white symbolizes the manifestation of the spirit in the Geography and Environment
material universe. The Druze are mainly located in an area of the Middle East
spanning the borders of a volcanic area of southern Syria
known as Jebel ed-Druze (“Mountains of the Druze”), the
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
region of Lebanon adjacent to Jebel ed-Druze, in northern
The Druze live in southern Syria, parts of Lebanon, north- Israel and Jordan, and in the disputed Golan Heights.
ern Israel, Jordan, and in the disputed Golan Heights (a Syr- The Druze living at Jebel ed-Druze live in around 120
ian plateau annexed by Israel). Outside of the Middle East, villages on or near Mount al-Durūz. The largest village on
most Druze live in the United States, Canada, Colombia, the mountain’s eastern slope is Sālah, and on the western
Australia, and Germany. There are believed to be just over slope, the biggest village is Qanawāt, which is inhabited
one million Druze worldwide (Jolly 2014), but it is difficult by the area’s highest-ranking Druze spiritual leader (jaw-
to ascertain exact Druze population figures, as the group wād). Qanawāt is also a place of pilgrimage for the Druze.
tends to outwardly conform to the prevailing religion and The ruins of numerous Roman settlements are scattered
customs of their surroundings. This conformist attitude throughout the area of Jebel ed-Druze.
reflects the Druze belief in the coexistence of all religions
and ethnicities living together. This principle includes loy-
alty to the country in which they reside, though this does
preclude the Druze living outside the Middle East from History and Politics
maintaining close ties to their homeland. The exact origins of the Druze are unknown, but they are
thought to have Persian and Arabic roots. According to
Druze folklore, many Druze are tall and fair, as they are
descended from both the soldiers of Alexander the Great
and the nomads of the Levant, most particularly the
Auranites, after whom the Hauran (or Hawran) volcanic
plateau and mountainous region of Syria and Jordan is
named. The Auranites were greatly influenced by Jewish,
Greek, and Eastern religious practices and ultimately con-
verted to Christianity while being ruled by the Roman
Empire in the second century CE. Despite converting to
Christianity, however, the Auranites, maintained many
of their pre-Christian ways. During the seventh century,
Muslim Arabs invaded Auranite land, forcing the Auran-
ites to convert to Islam. Though the Auranites did convert,
many continued to practice their Christian traditions in
secret. Over time, Auranite faith spread throughout Egypt,
Syria, and Lebanon, eventually leading to the development
of the Druze faith.
The Druze religion began to evolve in Egypt as a strand
of Ismaʿīlī Shīʿism, when, during the reign of the caliph
al-H.ākim bi-ʿAmr Allāh (r: 996–1021), some Ismaʿīlī reli-
gious figures started to establish a movement proclaiming
al-H.ākim as a divine figure. Although al-H.ākim probably
encouraged this notion, it was denounced as heresy by the
religious establishment. When this doctrine was aired in
pubic for the first time in 1017, riots began in Cairo, and
A Druze man participates in an annual festival in Isfiya—one of
the largest Druze villages in Israel. In the Middle East, the Druze the chief advocate of al-H.ākim’s divinity, H.amzah ibn ʿAlī
live in Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, and the disputed Golan Heights ibn Ah.mad al-Zūzanī, found himself vying for religious
as well as in Israel. (Kobby Dagan/Dreamstime.com) authority with a former disciple, Muh.ammad al-Darāzī.
 Druze 317

Ultimately, Al-Darāzī was denounced as a heretic within them targets of the French and British occupying forces
the bourgeoning Druze religious movement and later dis- seeking to undermine Arab nationalism in the wake of
appeared. Despite his disappearance, outsiders attached World War I. These outside forces believed that the Dru-
Al-Darāzī’s name to the new religious faith, which they ze’s devotion to each other would mean that, in essence,
referred to as al-Darāziyyah and al-Durūz (in Arabic, the recruiting one Druze recruited them all. Although the
Druze are known as Durūz, singular Darazi). In 1021, Al- Druze were not truly part of the Arab nationalist move-
H.ākim also disappeared, and the movement faced perse- ment, they were not in favor of the Christian powers, most
cution. Indeed, the Druze’s refusal to adhere to the teach- especially the French, whom they suspected remained in
ings of Islam led to the neighboring Muslims treating contact with Muslim sects that wished to suppress the
the group with hostility. In particular, the Druze suffered Druze way of life.
persecution at the hands of Sunni Muslims. Faced with The Druze’s distrust of the French came to a head in
discrimination, the Druze eventually sought refuge in the 1925 with what became known as the Druze Rebellion.
Hauran region and the mountains of Lebanon. This seclu- This Druze uprising against a French authority that sought
sion from the rest of the world made the Druze increas- to change Druze traditions and tribal structure occurred
ingly isolationist. throughout Syria and in parts of Lebanon. When the rebel-
Despite their small population, the Druze have been an lion reached the Syrian capital of Damascus, the French
important factor in the history of the Middle East. For exam- bombed the city. The French fought the rebels throughout
ple, the Druze resisted the Crusaders, and in the sixteenth 1926, and by mid-1927, the rebellion was virtually fin-
century, they enjoyed some freedom under Ottoman rule. ished. As a result of the failed rebellion, Druze land was
Indeed, as fierce warriors, the Druze rebelled several times kept under tighter French control. Officials were no longer
under the Ottomans, as they were protected from direct elected by the people but rather appointed by the French
Ottoman influence by the mountainous terrain in which authorities and were usually French. The French felt it nec-
they lived. From the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries, essary to keep the Druze dependent on France for political
a series of powerful feudal lords dominated Druze politi- stability while also encouraging the Druze’s isolationist
cal life. One of these lords, the seventeenth-century ruler tendencies to remove them from the influence of Arab
Fakhr al-Dīn II, established a coalition with neighboring nationalism.
Maronites that challenged the Ottomans by affiliating with The tension between France and the Druze continued
Tuscany (in modern Italy). During the nineteenth century, until 1936, when France acknowledged both Lebanon and
however, the accord between the Druze and the Maronites Syria as independent nations and sovereign members of
broke down to the extent that, in 1860, the Druze rebelled the League of Nations. This sovereignty notwithstanding,
against both the Ottomans and the Maronites. In addition however, the French remained a presence in both Syria
to participating in insurrection, the Druze also established and Lebanon until the end of World War II. The Druze,
a de facto capital at the fortress town of Sweida. meanwhile, had no physical starting point to argue for
Because the Druze believed that any warrior who died their own autonomy, and they were so small in number
in battle would be instantly reincarnated, the Druze were that they had no influence on national affairs. As a result
fearless fighters and resisted any attempt by the Ottomans of this lack of influence, the Druze were dominated by the
to control their land. In the 1890s, the Druze renewed their Maronites and Sunni Muslims. The French did, however,
attacks on other religious minorities. This move prompted grant the Druze the privilege of administering their own
the French to occupy Druze land, though the Druze civil affairs. Despite being given a degree of autonomy, the
retained a good deal of autonomy over their territory. In Druze continued to be involved in a number of rebellions
1914, when World War I broke out in Europe, the French in Syria and Lebanon.
tried to impose direct rule over the Druze. This resulted Meanwhile, the growing Druze population in Israel
in another Druze rebellion that was not fully contained was allowed separate administrative rights over marriage
until the French could send in more troops after the end and divorce. As residents of Israel, the Druze requested
of the war. that they participate in the country’s compulsory mili-
The dismantling of the Ottoman Empire after World tary service, something they have done since 1957. Dur-
War I left the Druze living under Christian authority. The ing the 1960s and 1970s, however, some Druze protested
fierce loyalty that the Druze have toward each other made against Israel’s appropriation of the Golan Heights, with a
318 Druze

minority of Druze being involved in violent demonstra- the Druze are increasingly employed in finance, trade,
tions. Such actions led to the Druze acquiring an interna- and entrepreneurial activities, and they study subjects
tional reputation for violent radicalism, something that led that include engineering and economics. Meanwhile, in
to bodies such as the American Druze Society launching the Gulf States, many Druze men are notable business-
educational campaigns to show the general public that the men working for U.S. and European companies, or they
Druze are not undemocratic, leftist, or unpatriotic. Indeed, have eminent positions in education. In the Middle East,
Druze residing in the United States have fought in the U.S. however, the Druze tend to live in rural areas, where older
military, and in 1982, Salwa Shuqayr, the elder daugh- Druze practice traditional agriculture. Conventionally, the
ter of Lebanese Druze immigrants, was appointed the Druze are agriculturalists who grow olives, wheat, and fruit
State Department’s chief of protocol by President Ronald (mainly cherries and apples) on hillsides. Most Druze fam-
Reagan. ilies eat a mainly vegetarian diet, growing their own fruit
During the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, the and vegetables and baking their own bread. When they eat
Druze in Lebanon have mostly been represented in meat, the Druze will typically opt for lamb (or sometimes
national politics by two families, the Jumblatts and the chicken or beef), but this is only eaten on special occasions.
Arslans. In particular, the Jumblatts are considered the cur- Customarily, the Druze do not eat pork, though the eating
rent kingmakers of Lebanese politics, having influenced of pork is not proscribed as it is in Islam. When meat is
the course of Lebanese politics between 2000 and 2013 by wanted, animals are slaughtered in the halal fashion, with
constantly switching sides between Lebanon’s opposing the meat eaten the day the animals are killed.
pro-Syrian and anti-Syrian alliances. The Syrian Druze A Druze meal might include olives, flatbread, hummus,
have also played an important role in the Syrian Civil War. labne (yoghurt cheese), eggplant, or cauliflower dishes;
The mountainous Druze territory of Jebel ed-Druze is bulgur wheat; salad; and kat’aif (cheese-stuffed fried
strategically significant and gives the Druze leverage over dumplings sprinkled with rosewater). For desert, sweet,
those wishing to control Syria’s future. Until quite recently, nutty baklava or fruit may be served with cinnamon coffee
the Sunni Muslim opposition was able to take advantage or mint tea. One food that is not eaten by the Druze is the
of this leverage because the Druze loyalty to Syrian presi- bitter-tasting green leaf known as molokhiya or mulukhi-
dent Bashar al-Assad’s regime was negligible. On the other yah. The Druze were banned from eating this by the sixth
hand, however, Assad has managed to exploit Druze anx- Fatimid caliph Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah (r: 996–1021),
ieties over their future, thereby convincing the Druze to though the exact reason for the ban is unknown.
help defend Damascus, which is home to around 250,000 In traditional Druze areas, women wear long black
Druze. or blue dresses and a white fabric head covering. Druze
men have moustaches and tend to sport Western-style
clothes, though some wear the traditional shirwal (baggy
Society, Culture, and Tradition pants worn tight at the ankle). Male Druze farmers may
To this day, a degree of secrecy surrounds the Druze reli- also wear the traditional Middle Eastern kufiya checkered
gion. Some elements of the Druze faith are kept undis- headdress.
closed from the Druze community as a whole (Druze The Druze consider the birth of a baby, particularly a
laypeople are known as juhhal, meaning “the ignorant son, as a cause for great celebration. Traditionally, as sons
ones”). Only select initiates, known as uqqāl (knowers, are considered a social and economic asset, a Druze couple
sages), who follow a life of meditation and poverty, are will keep having children until they produce a son. For this
permitted to fully participate in the Druze religion. As reason, Druze families often have an average of five or six
Druze is a nonritualistic religion without requirements to children. In recent years, however, the size of Druze fami-
pray, fast, make pilgrimages, or observe days of rest, the lies has decreased, as the Druze have come to realize that
Druze are not considered an Islamic people by Sunni Mus- it is easier to feed fewer children. The Druze do not require
lims. Instead of following religious practices, the Druze are male children to be circumcised, but Druze living in cit-
expected to adhere to values of truthfulness, loyalty, belief ies sometimes have baby boys circumcised for hygiene
in God, and submission to God’s will. reasons.
Outside of the Middle East, the Druze work in various The Druze are expected to marry within their faith.
realms of employment. For instance, in the United States, If a Druze marries a non-Druze, the wedding will not be
 Druze 319

considered a Druze wedding. Moreover, any offspring While Druze women are afforded high social status,
resulting from the marriage will not be Druze, as the reli- women in Druze communities are governed by a code of
gion can only be passed on through children born to two conduct that demands modesty and restricts their contact
Druze parents. Thus, it follows that it is not possible for with men to whom they are not directly related. Research-
someone to convert to the Druze religion. ers have discovered that these rules of modesty can result
Druze weddings are extravagant social events that pro- in Druze women delaying or avoiding medical attention
vide an opportunity for communities to unite, and they are to avoid contact with male doctors, especially male obste-
noted for the serving of large amounts of food and drink. tricians and gynecologists. While this situation is begin-
Although generally discouraged, the Druze do drink alco- ning to change, older Druze women in particular may feel
hol, and wine and spirits are often served at weddings. uncomfortable about seeking medical help from male
Druze weddings are also important because they are one physicians.
of the few occasions that allow young Druze to mix. Thus, Another health issue affecting the Druze is that the
weddings also provide a vehicle for youngsters to find Druze custom of endogamy (marrying only within their
potential marriage partners. Premarital sex is taboo to the community) and consanguinity (breeding between people
Druze, and a Druze bride and groom are expected to be who are related as second cousins or closer) can result in
virgins on their wedding night. Generally, the Druze con- Druze babies being born with birth defects and autosomal
sider sex to be a taboo subject, and it is never discussed, recessive disorders, that is, health problems passed down
especially in earshot of an older Druze person. through families. In Israel, the rate of birth defects is much
Divorce rarely happens in Druze society. Common higher among the Druze population than it is among the
grounds for divorce by Druze husbands is that their wives Jewish population. For example, during 1991 and 2000,
are infertile, disobedient, immodest, or have a chronic “the rate of Down syndrome at birth was 2.4 times higher
mental or physical conditions that prevents them from among the Druze than among Jews, and the rates for anen-
having sex. If a Druze husband divorces his wife, he can cephaly (a serious birth defect in which a baby is born
reclaim any dowry money as well as his wedding expenses. without parts of the brain and skull)” and encephalocele
A Druze wife may instigate a divorce, but this is unusual. (a birth defect that affects the brain) were more than five
The wife can ask for divorce based on her husband’s impo- times higher (Falik-Zaccai et al. 2008).
tence or desertion. If a wife wins a divorce case, she will be Since the creation of the state of Israel, the level of edu-
compensated for her efforts during marriage. This is espe- cation among the Druze has continually risen. To start
cially important for the older women who will not nor- with, the Druze were considered part of Arab-speaking
mally remarry and cannot return to their family homes for Israeli society and so were included in the national Arab
support in old age. education system. In the late 1960s, however, Druze leaders
A Druze funeral is even more of a community event started to worry that younger Druze were assimilating into
than a Druze wedding. Funeral arrangements are made general Arab society. To rectify the situation, Druze leaders
as soon as someone dies, and funerals are normally held established an independent Druze education system that
the same day. In preparation for the funeral, the deceased taught its own Druze curriculum. In 1977, the Ministry of
is washed and dressed in his or her best clothes. At the Education removed the Druze education sector from the
funeral, female mourners proclaim loud laments, and male influence of the Department of Arab Education and Cul-
acquaintances tell stories that demonstrate the deceased’s ture, and the Druze and Circassian Education and Culture
virtues. The Druze bury their dead above ground and mark Department was established to control education among
burial plots with monuments that may be very simple or these minority groups.
highly ornate. In 1992, the Ministry of Education instituted a five-year
program aimed at bringing Druze education standards up
to the level of the general Israeli education system, with the
Health Care and Education provision of new textbooks, better teacher training, and
Most studies considering health care and education among renovated schools. The number of pupils in the Druze edu-
the Druze concentrate on the Druze living in Israel. In cation system is rising. Most Druze children attend Druze
Israel, as Israeli citizens, the Druze benefit from universal kindergarten. As of the 2007/2008 school year, Druze chil-
health care. dren had access to seventy-seven elementary and high
320 Druze

schools located in twenty-two villages. Since 1968, sixteen among the Druze living in Lebanon and Israel and saw
junior high schools have opened in the Druze education Israeli Druze call upon the Israeli government to help the
sector, and these are attended by over 95 percent of sev- Syrian Druze.
enth through ninth grade pupils (Almog 2008). In short, as a non-Muslim minority in the Middle East,
the Druze may be forced to pick a side in the region’s vari-
ous conflicts, and the side they pick may decide their long-
Threats to Survival term future.
The Druze are increasingly caught up in the violent See also: Copts; Mandean; Maronites; Samaritan
conflicts in the Middle East. With the threat of the
Further Reading
Islamic State (IS)and Syria on one hand, and the repres- Almog, Tamar. 2008. “Education in the Druze Community.” Peo-
sive regime of Bashar al-Assad on the other, the Syrian ple Israel, April 21. http://www.peopleil.org/detailsEn.aspx​
Druze are faced with the dilemma of which political and ?itemID=7674&sLanguage=en-US.
military moves to make. As fighting spreads across the American Druze Foundation. 2017. “Druze Values.” http://www​
region, the Druze are being dragged into the turmoil. .americandruzefoundation.org/about-the-druze/druze​
-values.
For instance, in 2015, Druze villagers living in Syria’s
Balanche, Fabrice. 2016. “The Druze and Assad: Strategic Bed-
Idlib province were shot dead by the al-Qaeda–affiliated fellows.” Washington Institute: Policy Analysis, October 20.
Islamic militant group al-Nusra Front, who view the http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view​
Druze as heretics. /the-druze-and-assad-strategic-bedfellows.
For many years, most Syrian Druze remained loyal to Falik-Zaccai, Tzipora C., Nechama Kfir, Pnina Frenkel, Cindy
President Bashar al-Assad because they feared that if he Cohen, Mary Tanus, Hanna Mandel, Shihab Shihab, et al.
2008. “Population Screening in a Druze Community: The
were overthrown, minorities such as the Druze would be
Challenge and the Reward.” Genetics in Medicine 10 (12):
targeted by extremists among Syria’s Sunni majority. Some 903–909. http://medweb.md.biu.ac.il/research/tzipora-falik​
Druze took up weapons and established Popular Commit- -zaccai/images/Falik-Zaccai_2008.pdf.
tees to defend their homes from rebel attacks; other Druze Gerlach, Sebastian. 2017. “Political Leadership in Lebanon and
joined the pro-Assad paramilitary group, the National the Jumblatt Phenomenon: Tipping the Scales of Lebanese
Defence Forces, to fight alongside the Syrian army. Now, Politics.” SAIS Europe Journal of Global Affairs, May 5. http://​
saisjournal.org/posts/political-leadership-in-lebanon-and​
however, with Syrian government forces suffering defeats,
-the-jumblatt-phenomenon.
some Druze are starting to turn against Al-Assad, and Jolly, Jihii. 2014. “Looking for Love in One of the World’s Tini-
signs of dissent have become more visible among Druze. est Religions.” The Atlantic, June 2. https://www.theatlantic​
In particular, the Druze in the south of Syria have reacted .com/national/archive/2014/06/looking-for-love-at​-a-con​
angrily to the Syrian government’s efforts to conscript ven​tion/371998.
young Druze men into the Syrian army. Miller, Jenny. 2015. “Eating Druze: Seasonal Cooking Is a Virtue
in Galilee, the Tuscany of Israel.” Food Republic: Middle East,
At the same time, the Druze are increasingly worried
March 18. http://www.foodrepublic.com/2015/03/18/eating​
about the threat posed by jihadists belonging to IS from -druze-seasonal-cooking-is-a-virtue-in-galilee-the-tuscany​
al-Nusra Front, who have been gaining ground in south- -of-israel.
ern Syria. For a while, al-Nusra’s leader promised not to Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
attack the Druze as long as the Druze did not fight against Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 2, D–K.
al-Nusra while also renouncing their religion. However, Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Rohland, Pam. 2017. “Druze.” EveryCulture: Countries and Their
after a rebel alliance that included al-Nusra took control
Cultures. http://www.everyculture.com/multi/Bu-Dr/Druze​
of Jabal al-Summaq, hundreds of Druze were forced to .html.
convert to Sunni Islam, their shrines were damaged, and Russell, Gerrard. 2014. Heirs to the Forgotten Kingdoms. London:
their graves were vandalized. Such actions incited anger Simon & Schuster.
INDIGENOUS
PEOPLES
 INDIGENOUS
PEOPLES
An Encyclopedia of Culture, History,
and Threats to Survival

VOLUME 2: E–K

Victoria R. Williams
Copyright © 2020 by ABC-CLIO, LLC

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without
prior permission in writing from the publisher.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Williams, Victoria, author.

Title: Indigenous peoples : an encyclopedia of culture, history, and
  threats to survival / Victoria R. Williams.
Description: Santa Barbara, California : ABC-CLIO, an Imprint of ABC-CLIO,
  LLC, [2020] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019026786 (print) | LCCN 2019026787 (ebook) | ISBN
  9781440861192 (v. 1 ; hardcover) | ISBN 9781440861208 (v. 2 ; hardcover)
  | ISBN 9781440861215 (v. 3 ; hardcover) | ISBN 9781440861222 (v. 4 ;
  hardcover) | ISBN 9781440861178 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781440861185 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Indigenous peoples—Encyclopedias.
Classification: LCC GN380 .W5494 2020 (print) | LCC GN380 (ebook) | DDC
 305.8003—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019026786
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019026787

ISBN: 978-1-4408-6117-8 (set)

978-1-4408-6119-2 (vol. 1)
978-1-4408-6120-8 (vol. 2)
978-1-4408-6121-5 (vol. 3)
978-1-4408-6122-2 (vol. 4)
978-1-4408-6118-5 (ebook)

24 23 22 21 20   1 2 3 4 5

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 Contents

List of Entries, vii

Geographical List of Entries, xiii
Preface, xix
Introduction, xxi

A–Z Entries, 1

Appendix: United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 1211

Selected Bibliography, 1219
Index, 1223

v
 List of Entries

Volume 1
Abkhaz Armenian
Aboriginal Australian Aruban
Acehnese Asháninka
Acholi Asiri
Adivasi Assyrian
Aeta Avar
Afar Aymara
Agul Azeri
Ahwazi
Aimaq Baganda
Ainu Baka
Ajar Bakhtiyari
Aka Balawar
Akan Baluch
Akha Bamileke
Akie Bashkir
Alawi Basque
Albanian Bassa
Aleut Batak
Altai BaTwa
Ambonese Bavarian
Amhara Bedouin
Annang Beja
Anuak Berber
Anutan Bhil
Apache Bicol

vii
viii  List of Entries

Bilen Faroese
Bonairean Finn
Bosniak Flemish
Bougainvillian Fon
Breton Frisian
Bribri Friulian
Bubi Fulani
Bugi Fur
Bulgarian
Bunun Gagauz
Burakumin Galician
Buryat Garifuna
Garo
Cabindan Gilaki and
Canarian  Mazandarani
Carpatho-Rusyn Gond
Catalan Gorani
Cham Greek
Chamorro Guarani
Chechen Guaymi
Chewa Gujarati
Chiquitano Guna
Chukchi Gwich’in
Chuvash
Circassian Hadhramis
Comanche Hadza
Copts Haida
Cornish Hani
Corsican Haratine
Crimean Tatar Hausa
Croat Hazara
Hezhe
Daasanach Himba
Dai Hindi
Dayak Hmong
Degar Hopi
Dinka Hui
Diola Hutu and Tutsi
Dogon
Dom Icelander
Doma Igbo
Druze Igorot
Ijaw
Volume 2 i-Kiribati
Ingush
East Timorese Innu
Edo Inuit
Evenk iTaukei
Ewe Izhorian
 List of Entries  ix

Jews Maltese
Juhuro Manchu
Jumma Mande
Mandean
Kachin Mansi
Kalasha Manx
Kalenjin Māori
Kanak Mapuche
Kanaka Maoli Maronites
Kanuri Marsh Arab
Karakalpak Marshallese
Karamojong Martu
Karbi Matis
Karelian Mayan
Karen Mbuti
Kasaian Mende
Kashmiri Mi’kmaq
Kavalan Mingrelian
Kayapó Miskito
Ket Mixtec
Khasi Moldovan
Khmer Mon
Kickapoo Mongol
Komi Mordvin
Korean Moriori
Koryak Mossi
Kumyk Mosuo
Kurd Mozabite
Kyrgyz Muhamasheen
Mursi
Volume 3
Naga
Lak Nahua
Lakota Nanai
Latgalian Nauruan
Latvian Nenet
Lenca Nicobarese
Lezgin Ni-Vanuatu
Lhotshampa Nivkh
Liechtensteiner Nogai
Livonian Nuba
Lozi Nubian
Lur Nyamwezi

Maasai Occitan
Macedonian Ogiek
Madurese Ojibwe
Magyar Onge
Malagasy Orang Asli
x  List of Entries

Oraon Svan
Oromo Swahili
Ossetian Swede
Otomi Székely

Palestinian Tahitian
Pangasinan Talysh
Papuan Tamil
Pashtun Tharu
Pech Tibetan
Pemón Tiv
Piaroa Tlingit
Pipil Toba
Pomak Tohono O’odham
Pumi Tokelauan
Tonga
Qashqai Tongan
Quechua Torres Strait Islanders
Tripuri
Rapa Nui Trique
Rohingya Trobriander
Roma Tsonga
Romansh Tuareg
Rotuman Tubu
Ryūkyūans Turkana
Turkmen
Tuvaluan
Volume 4
Udmurt
Saharawi
Uncontacted Peoples
Sakalava
Urueu-Wau-Wau
Samaritan
U’wa
Sami
Uyghur
Samoans
Uzbek
San
Sardinian
Sateré-Mawé Vep
Sea Gypsy
Selkup Walloon
Seminoles Walpiri
Serer Walser
Shabak Wanniyala-Aetto
Shilluk Waorani
Shipibo-Conibo Warao
Sidama Wayuu
Sikh Welsh
Somali Worimi
Sorb Wurundjeri
 List of Entries  xi

Xhosa Zápara
Xicaque Zapotec
Zaza
Yagnobi Zomi
Yanomami Zoque
Yapese Zulu
Yazidi Zuni
Yoruba
Yupik
 Geographical List of Entries

Africa and Middle East Chewa

Copts
Acholi
Afar
Ahwazi Daasanach
Aka Dinka
Akan Diola
Akie Dogon
Alawi Dom
Amhara Doma
Annang Druze
Anuak
Asiri Edo
Assyrian
Ewe
Baganda
Baka Fon
Bakhtiyari Fulani
Bamileke Fur
Bassa
BaTwa Gilaki and Mazandarani
Bedouin
Beja Hadhramis
Berber Hadza
Bilen
Haratine
Bubi
Hausa
Cabindan Himba
Canarian Hutu and Tutsi

xiii
xiv  Geographical List of Entries

Igbo Tiv
Ijaw Tonga
Tsonga
Jews Tuareg
Tubu
Kalenjin Turkana
Kanuri
Karamojong Xhosa
Kasaian
Kurd Yazidi
Yoruba
Lozi
Lur Zulu

Maasai
Central and South America
Malagasy
Mande Aruban
Mandean Asháninka
Maronites Aymara
Marsh Arab
Mbuti Bonairean
Mende Bribri
Mossi
Mozabite Chiquitano
Muhamasheen
Mursi Garifuna
Guarani
Nuba Guaymi
Nubian Guna
Nyamwezi
Kayapó
Ogiek
Oromo Lenca

Palestinian Mapuche
Matis
Qashqai Mayan
Miskito
Saharawi
Sakalava Pech
Samaritan Pemón
San Piaroa
Serer Pipil
Shabak
Shilluk Quechua
Sidama
Somali Sateré-Mawé
Swahili Shipibo-Conibo
 Geographical List of Entries  xv

Toba Liechtensteiner
Livonian
Urueu-Wau-Wau
U’wa Macedonian
Magyar
Waorani Maltese
Warao Manx
Wayuu Moldovan
Mongol
Xicaque
Occitan
Yanomami
Pomak
Zápara
Roma
Europe Romansh
Albanian
Sami
Sardinian
Basque
Sorb
Bavarian
Swede
Bosniak
Székely
Breton
Bulgarian
Walloon
Walser
Carpatho-Rusyn
Welsh
Catalan
Cornish
Corsican North America
Crimean Tatar
Aleut
Croat
Apache

Faroese Comanche
Finn
Flemish Gwich’in
Frisian
Friulian Haida
Hopi
Gagauz
Galician Innu
Gorani Inuit
Greek
Kanaka Maoli
Icelander Kickapoo

Karelian Lakota

Latgalian Mi’kmaq
Latvian Mixtec
xvi  Geographical List of Entries

Nahua Tongan
Torres Strait Islanders
Ojibwe Trobriander
Otomi Tuvaluan

Seminoles Walpiri
Worimi
Tlingit Wurundjeri
Tohono O’odham
Trique Yapese
Tsimshian
Other
Yupik
Sea Gypsy
Zapotec
Zoque Uncontacted Peoples
Zuni
Russian Federation and Central Asia

Oceania Abkhaz
Agul
Aboriginal Australian Ajar
Anutan Altai
Armenian
Bougainvillian
Avar
Azeri
Chamorro
Bashkir
i-Kiribati
Buryat
iTaukei
Chechen
Kanak Chukchi
Chuvash
Māori
Circassian
Marshallese
Martu Evenk
Moriori
Hazara
Nauruan
Ni-Vanuatu Ingush
Izhorian
Papuan
Juhuro
Rapa Nui
Rotuman Karakalpak
Ket
Samoans Komi
Koryak
Tahitian Kumyk
Tokelauan Kyrgyz
 Geographical List of Entries  xvii

Lak Dai
Lezgin Dayak
Degar
Mansi
Mingrelian East Timorese
Mongol
Mordvin Garo
Gond
Nanai Gujarati
Nenet
Nivkh Hani
Nogai Hezhe
Hindi
Ossetian Hmong
Hui
Selkup
Svan Igorot

Talysh Jumma
Turkmen
Kachin
Udmurt Kalasha
Uzbek Karbi
Karen
Vep Kashmiri
Kavalan
Yagnobi Khasi
Khmer
South and Southeast Asia Korean
Acehnese
Adivasi Lhotshampa
Aeta
Aimaq Madurese
Ainu Manchu
Akha Mon
Ambonese Mosuo

Balawar Naga
Baluch Nicobarese
Batak
Bhil Onge
Bicol Orang Asli
Bugi Oraon
Bunun
Burakumin Pangasinan
Pashtun
Cham Pumi
xviii  Geographical List of Entries

Rohingya Uyghur
Ryūkyūans
Wanniyala-Aetto
Sikh
Zaza
Tamil Zomi
Tharu
Tibetan
Tripuri
 E

EAST TIMORESE people aged less than twenty-five years. The youth pop-
ulation (ages fifteen to twenty-four years) is expected to
Current Location Timor-Leste grow by seventy thousand people between 2010 and 2020.
Current Population 1.2 million Around 70 percent of the East Timorese live in rural areas.
Language Tetum; Portuguese Timor-Leste is divided into 13 administrative districts, 65
administrative posts, 442 sucos (villages) and 2,225 aldeias
Interesting Fact From 1975 to 1999, hundreds of
thousands of East Timorese died (hamlets). The Oecusse district is a rural enclave within the
during the country’s occupation by territory of the neighboring Indonesian province of East
Indonesia. Nusa Tenggara. Seventy percent of East Timorese live in
rural areas in small, dispersed villages that remain isolated
by mountainous terrain and poor roads (WHO 2016).
Overview
The East Timorese (also called the Maubere, Timurese,
Tatums, or Timorese) are an ethnic group inhabiting the Geography and Environment
Southeast Asian country of Timor-Leste (also called East Timor-Leste comprises the eastern half of the island of
Timor). The East Timorese speak the Tetum language, Timor, the islands of Atauro (Kambing) and Jaco, and the
which belongs to the Malayo-Polynesian language group. enclave of Ambeno. Timor is bordered by the Timor Sea to
Tetum is an official language of Timor-Leste along with the southeast, the Wetar Strait to the north, and the Ombai
Portuguese. Most East Timorese are Roman Catholic, Strait to the northwest. To the southwest of Timor-Leste
though there is an East Timorese Muslim minority. Some is the western part of the Timor island. This is part of the
East Timorese also maintain animist beliefs. Indonesian province of East Nusa Tenggara. Timor-Leste
is located 249 miles north of Australia, from which it is
separated by the Timor Sea. Timor-Leste is part of the
Population, Diaspora, and Migration eastern Lesser Sunda Islands that lie at the far south of the
East Timorese population is estimated to comprise 1.2 Malay Archipelago.
million people (Minahan 2012). Timor-Leste has one of Timor-Leste has a rocky terrain, with mountains ris-
the world’s youngest populations, with 62 percent of the ing to 9,721 feet at Mount Tatamailau (Tata Mailau). The

321
322  East Timorese

landscape consists mainly of hills covered with sandal- mainly due to trees being felled for timber and fuel wood
wood and lowlands that are home to scrub, grass, coconut as well as the creation of brackish fishponds and extraction
palms, and eucalyptus trees. The area also hosts hot springs of salt from the fringes of mangrove forest.
and mountain streams. Wildlife in Timor-Leste includes There are several main causes of land degradation
the cuscus marsupial, monkeys, deer, civets, snakes, and in Timor-Leste, including unsustainable agricultural
crocodiles. Timor-Leste has a hot, tropical climate. A dry practices, such as slash-and-burn agriculture and over-
season lasts from May to November, and the wet season grazing by goats that damage the land, and the illegal
spans December to April. Coastal temperatures are usually logging of native tree species. Land degradation causes
between 25°C and 35°C, but higher elevations are much the increased surface water runoff that results in the
cooler. deposit of sediment in coastal environments. This is
One of Timor-Leste’s most valuable natural resources is true especially during heavy rainfall and flash floods. In
its offshore natural gas deposits that are useful for hydro- the longer-term, this land degradation will lead to soil
carbon production. Marble is also important because erosion and landslides in upland areas, while lowlands
it is quarried for export. The Ambeno region is home to will experience devastating floods. Not only does land
valuable sandalwood forests, coconut groves, and rice degradation threaten Timor-Leste’s agricultural produc-
plantations. Timor-Leste contains globally significant eco- tivity, and consequently its food security as well, but it
systems, including tropical rainforests, mangroves, wet- is also probable that the land degradation will affect the
lands, and marine ecosystems. The country’s coastal waters country’s water resources because soil erosion will affect
comprise a rich variety of species, and shallow coral reefs bodies of water and biodiversity through the loss of land
on the north coast occupy an area of about three thousand habitats.
hectares comprising several distinct marine ecosystems. Some areas of Timor-Leste are without sewage sys-
There are around sixty thousand hectares of coral habitat tems or adequate systems for the collection and disposal
in Timor-Leste’s deeper waters. The risk of oil spills during of wastewater and solid waste. This lack of facilities leads
extraction and transportation is a major threat to Timor- to the widespread pollution of groundwater in highly pop-
Leste’s marine environment. ulated urban areas as well as in coastal areas frequented
Timor-Leste is likely to feel the impact of global cli- by tourists. The capital of Timor-Leste, Dili, is equipped
mate change in the form of rising sea levels, increased with a basic sewerage system and limited disposal of solid
flooding, drought and heat extremes, increased intensity waste. However, the illegal dumping of trash results in rub-
of tropical cyclones, and acidification of the ocean. How- bish heaps accumulating that in turn pollute groundwater
ever, at the moment, Timor-Leste’s most pressing envi- used for drinking water.
ronmental issues include deforestation, land degradation Demand for fish by East Timorese living in coastal
associated with unsustainable agricultural practices and areas is the main cause of overfishing in the waters
overgrazing, the country’s vulnerability to natural disas- around Timor-Leste. The overfishing is facilitated by weak
ters, poor water quality in urban areas and water scarcity enforcement by officials together with a lack of fishing
in the north of the country, waste management issues, and regulations. In addition to overfishing, several species in
biodiversity loss. Timor-Leste are threatened with extinction, especially
Timor-Leste has experienced massive deforestation. forest and marine species such as turtles. According to the
Estimates suggest around 90 percent of the country’s orig- International Union for Conservation of Nature, in Timor-
inal forest cover has been cleared (Asian Development Leste, three tree species, four birds, three mammals, and
Bank n.d.). Most of this forest has been cleared to make one butterfly are considered threatened with extinction
way for slash-and-burn farming, coffee growing, and graz- (Asian Development Bank n.d.).
ing land, but some of the trees have also been harvested Timor-Leste is the ninth most disaster-prone country
for firewood. in the world (Asian Development Bank n.d.). When heavy
Coastal mapping shows there is major ongoing coastal seasonal rain falls on steep slopes, it results in flash flooding
habitat loss in Timor-Leste. The country’s mangrove for- and landslides. Timor-Leste is at risk of tropical cyclones
ests have declined from 9,000 hectares in 1940 to 1,802 and storms as well as coastal flooding, and drought is also a
hectares in 2008, with a 40 percent loss occurring dur- serious problem in some parts of the country. Earthquakes
ing the period 2000–2008. This loss of mangrove forest is are also common in Timor-Leste. When natural disasters
 East Timorese  323

occur, they cause deaths, crop damage resulting in famine, In 1942, Japanese forces invaded Portuguese Timor
infrastructure damage, and house destruction. Climate during World War II. Here, the Japanese fought battles
change is expected to exacerbate these issues. Timor- with Australian troops. Timor’s rugged landscape pro-
Leste’s National Adaptation Programme of Action aims to vided ideal conditions for guerrilla warfare, and the East
implement a number of policies ahead of climate change Timorese provided Australian troops with food, shel-
by 2020. These implementations include increasing food ter, and ponies for carrying equipment; helped set up
security by protecting farmland from floods and drought, ambushes; and also acted as porters and guides. Some
protecting water resources, and protecting human health East Timorese also fought alongside the Australians. As a
by readying health services for climate-sensitive diseases. result of their actions, the Japanese, who controlled Portu-
Longer-term policies include restoring forests and marine guese Timor until 1945, executed many East Timorese. It
ecosystems, installing climate-resilient infrastructure, and is thought many tens of thousands of East Timorese were
adapting offshore oil and gas infrastructure to withstand killed during the war.
storms and strong waves. The Netherlands’ control of West Timor ended in 1949,
when the Netherlands granted independence to all Dutch-
held land in Indonesia. This meant that West Timor came
History and Politics under Indonesian rule. The new Indonesian government
Originally, the island of Timor was part of the Melanesian called for the decolonization of Portuguese Timor but
Islands and inhabited by small groups of Papuan peoples. found that few East Timorese backed the move. In 1951,
In the thirteenth century, Malays colonized the island and Portuguese Timor became a Portuguese overseas territory,
in so doing drove the Papuans into remote jungle-covered a change that meant the colony received more spending
high-altitude areas. In time, the Malays spread out into on its development. By the start of the 1960s, the East
Timor’s interior, and as they did so, they either killed or Timorese enjoyed a better standard of living than the
assimilated any surviving Papuans. inhabitants of neighboring parts of Indonesia.
In 1521, Portuguese explorers visited Timor. They were In 1974, a leftist revolution occurred in Portugal that
followed by the Spanish, who visited the island the follow- led to Portugal withdrawing from Timor. Consequently,
ing year. In 1586, Timor came under Portuguese control multiple political bodies began to form in Timor-Leste
before the western side of the island was claimed by the because they sensed the end of Timor’s time as a colony.
Dutch in 1618. In 1641, the Dutch defeated the Portu- These political bodies included the Revolutionary Front of
guese to control the East Indies, with the defeat leaving Independent East Timor (Fretilin), which was backed by
Portuguese Timor as the only Portuguese-held territory Timor-Leste’s rural population. The party favored Timor-
in the region. Catholic Portuguese missionaries exerted Leste’s immediate independence. Meanwhile, the Timor
huge influence over the isolated islanders, and so Roman Democratic Union (UDT), which was mainly supported
Catholicism was entrenched on the island before Islam by urban Timorese, called for Timor-Leste to be given
spread throughout neighboring islands. Portuguese Timor the right to self-govern while remaining linked to Portu-
became a neglected adjunct of Portuguese India until gal, with the aim of a gradual move toward independence.
1844, when the responsibility of administrating Portu- Another, pro-Indonesian party, Apodeti, had only a small
guese Timor was transferred to Portuguese Macao. During number of supporters.
this period, Portuguese Timor experienced little in the way In July 1975, Fretilin won 55 percent of the vote in the
of European immigration and remained poor and unde- local council elections, the UDT received 45 percent of the
veloped. The colony also remained a bastion of Christian- vote, and Apodeti failed to make an impact. In reaction
ity in an overwhelmingly Muslim region. to doing badly in the election, in August 1975, Apodeti
In 1896, Portuguese Timor became a separate colony attempted a coup. The attempted coup instigated a civil war
following the demarcating of Dutch Timor. The border in Timor-Leste. In November 1975, Fretilin, which contin-
between the two colonies was decided along religious ued to have the support of Timor-Leste’s Catholic major-
lines, with all Roman Catholics included within the Por- ity, defeated rebels that were backed by Indonesia. Having
tuguese colony. From 1910 to 1912, a major East Timorese won the war, Fretilin declared Timor-Leste independent.
rebellion resulted in colonial reforms that prompted the This declaration prompted the Indonesian government to
development of Portuguese Timor. invade Timor-Leste nine days later. The Indonesians easily
324  East Timorese

thousand East Timorese either fled their devastated home-

Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo land or hid in isolated East Timorese mountain areas or
Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo (b. 1948) is an were forced to move to Indonesian West Timor. Many East
East Timorese who, together with José Ramos- Timorese cities, including Dili, were ruined. Addition-
Horta, received the 1996 Nobel Peace Prize for his ally, Catholic nuns and priests were singled out by mili-
part in bringing about peace in East Timor during tias for attacks to such an extent that the Vatican called
the time it was under Indonesian control (1975– for United Nations peacekeeping forces to restore order to
1999). In 1983, Belo was made the Roman Catholic Timor-Leste.
bishop. As the spiritual leader of an overwhelmingly After twenty years of oppressive rule, the Indonesian
Roman Catholic area, Belo became one of the main government began talks with East Timorese nationalist
spokespeople for the East Timorese. In 1989, Belo organizations in the face of intense international pres-
was named apostolic administrator of Dili. sure. Finally, an Australian-led UN mission took control
Belo denounced the brutality of the Indonesian of Timor-Leste. Following the instigation of the UN mis-
government despite enduring at least two attempts sion, around four hundred thousand East Timorese refu-
on his life. Indonesia also placed him under strict gees had started to return to their homeland. In 1999, an
surveillance. His activism won the sympathy of Pope exceptional vote saw the Indonesian parliament ratify an
John Paul II, who demonstrated his support by visit- East Timorese independence vote, which paved the way
ing East Timor in 1989. Following the 1991 massacre for Timor-Leste to secede from the Indonesian federa-
of peaceful demonstrators in Dili, Belo successfully tion after twenty-four years of brutal Indonesian rule. The
campaigned for reforms in the Indonesian military. Indonesian parliament’s decision to endorse East Timor’s
He also helped to smuggle two witnesses of the mas- independence vote came on the same day that UN peace-
sacre to Geneva, where they were able to describe keepers found a mass grave containing victims from Indo-
what they had witnessed to the United Nations nesia’s period of occupation.
Commission on Human Rights (UNCHR). During the twenty-four years of Indonesian rule, many
In an open letter written in 1994, Belo summa- hundreds of thousands of East Timorese men, women,
rized his concern for the East Timorese and called and children had died. According to the Commission for
on the Indonesian government to reduce its military Reception, Truth, and Reconciliation, human rights viola-
presence in the area, to expand the civil rights of the tions committed in Timor-Leste between 1974 and 1999
East Timorese, and to allow East Timor to conduct resulted in the deaths of up to two hundred thousand
a democratic referendum on self-rule. The referen- East Timorese. Some East Timorese were executed, while
dum was held in 1999 and marked the start of East others, short of food because their crops had been delib-
Timor’s move toward eventual independence. Belo erately destroyed, had no choice but to move to move to
rejected calls to run for president of East Timor. In camps. The camps lacked food, medicines, and lavatories,
2004, he began missionary work in Mozambique. and, consequently, many East Timorese, weakened by star-
vation and surviving on meager rations, died of malnu-
trition, cholera, diarrhea and tuberculosis. Following the
1999 vote, East Timor was able to hold democratic elec-
defeated Timor-Leste’s small number of armed forces, and tions. In May 2002, Timor-Leste became independent once
over fifty thousand East Timorese were killed in the first more. The republic remains one of Southeast Asia’s poorest
two months of the conflict. Following its defeat, Timor- and least developed areas.
Leste was incorporated as a province within Indonesia. In
1999, the end of a dictatorship in Indonesia paved the way
for a referendum over Timor-Leste’s independence. The Society, Culture, and Tradition
vote revealed great support for Timor-Leste’s independ- East Timorese culture is influenced by Malayan, Mela-
ence from Indonesia. The Indonesian military and local nesian, and Portuguese traditions and customs. Roman
Muslim militias refused to accept the referendum result, Catholicism also exerts great influence over the East
however, and attacked Timor-Leste, burning settlements Timorese. At the same time, however, pre-Christian prac-
and slaughtering the people. In all, over three hundred tices also influence the East Timorese. When Indonesia
 East Timorese  325

invaded Timor-Leste in 1975, only around 40 percent of many East Timorese are unable to access to health care, a
East Timorese were Roman Catholic, with the rest of the situation exacerbated by the fact that most East Timorese
East Timorese practicing their traditional animist ances- live in remote rural areas.
tral religion. As the occupying Indonesian troops were Timor-Leste has one of the world’s highest rates of mal-
Muslim, the indigenous East Timorese came to iden- nutrition. As a result, over 50 percent of East Timorese
tify Islam with Indonesian violence and occupation. As children have stunted growth, while 37.7 percent of East
a result of this association, by the start of the 1990s, the Timorese children aged less than five years are underweight.
percentage of East Timorese that identified as Roman Many East Timorese women also suffer from malnutrition,
Catholic had increased to over 90 percent (Minahan 2012). with approximately 24.8 percent of the women having a
Today, Roman Catholicism is an integral element of East body mass index (BMI) of less than 18.5 (the underweight
Timorese identity. range). The reasons for this malnutrition include high rates
The influence of Portugal is still evident in East of childhood illnesses, poor diets, and food shortages. The
Timorese cuisine, architecture, and poetry. Additionally, malnourished East Timorese suffer deficiencies in iron,
the Tetum language contains numerous borrowings from vitamin A, and iodine. Consequently, around 63 percent of
Portuguese. Timor-Leste’s historical ties to Portugal means East Timorese children aged six to fifty-nine months suffer
the East Timorese are members of the Community of Por- from anemia. However, the main known causes of death in
tuguese Language Countries (also called the Lusophone East Timorese children aged less than five years are pneu-
Commonwealth). monia, diarrhea and malaria. The causes of around 76 per-
cent of deaths in East Timorese children in this age range
are, however, unknown. A lack of immunization may con-
Health Care and Education tribute to these deaths, for only 53 percent of East Timorese
The Timor-Leste Constitution protects the East Timorese children aged one year were fully immunized, and 23 per-
right to health, health care, and a healthy environment. cent had received no vaccinations (WHO 2016).
Under Article 57 of the Constitution, the state is respon- Noncommunicable diseases prevalent in Timor-Leste
sible for providing free universal health care through a include cardiovascular and chronic obstructive pulmo-
decentralized public healthcare system. In accordance with nary diseases, which are a leading cause of death in the
the Constitution, East Timorese are able to access public country. At the same time, over half of East Timorese
health care free of charge. Primary health care is provided adults used some form of tobacco product, and almost
by a network of community health centers, and the inte- nine in ten adults are exposed to secondhand smoke at
grated community health services (Servisu Integradu da home. In addition to using tobacco, the East Timorese tend
Saúde Communitária, SISCa). East Timor also has a med- not to eat the recommended number of servings per day
ical school, a nursing school, and a school of midwifery. of fruits and vegetables. Communicable diseases, includ-
Timor-Leste has 6 hospitals, including 5 regional refer- ing tuberculosis, malaria, and dengue, are also common
ral hospitals. There are 67 community health centers at the in Timor-Leste. Although leprosy has been eliminated at
subdistrict level as well as 232 village health facilities, and the national level, it remains prevalent is some parts of the
SISCa provides health care in 474 locations across Timor- country. Lymphatic filariasis (commonly called elephanti-
Leste for people living in areas without healthcare services asis), soil-transmitted helminth infections (caused by par-
(WHO 2016). Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) asitic worms transmitted by eggs present in human feces
provide a range of additional health services to other parts that contaminate the soil in areas of poor sanitation), and
of the country. Some private medical facilities operate in the chronic bacterial infection yaws remain major pub-
Dili and larger towns. lic health issues. Timor-Leste also has one of the South-
Over the last decade, Timor-Leste has made steady east Asian region’s highest incidence rates of tuberculosis
progress in rebuilding medical facilities and expanded its (WHO). Foreign health workers report being hampered
community health services, including SISCa. However, pri- by widespread superstitions when treating East Timorese
mary healthcare facilities and hospitals continue to report patients, including the common belief that colostrum (the
running out of essential medicines. There are also funda- first milk produced after childbirth) is bad for the baby. In
mental gaps in Timor-Leste’s health infrastructure, and some parts of East Timor, the colostrum is thrown away
there are few medical specialists. These factors mean that and replaced with sugar water (McCall 2014).
326 Edo

Around 90 percent of East Timorese children are .com/journals/lancet/article/PIIS0140-6736(14)61926​

enrolled in basic education (WHO 2016). Between 2002 -7/fulltext.
and 2014, enrollments have increased by 150 percent, up to Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the
Pacific. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
364,000 pupils. At the same time, the number of teachers Patrinos, Harry A., and Lucinda Ramos. 2015. “Timor-Leste:
is more than double at 12,000, and government spending Starting an Education Revolution.” Education for Global
on education rose from 13 percent in 2004 to 25 percent Development (blog), June 18. World Bank Blogs. http://blogs​
in 2010 before declining again to just 11 percent in 2014. .worldbank.org/education/timor-leste-starting-education​
There is a large disparity between education in urban -revolution.
and rural areas. For example, in urban areas, the gross World Health Organization (WHO). 2016. WHO Country Coop-
eration Strategy Timor-Leste 2015–2019. Geneva, Switzer-
enrollment rate at the presecondary and secondary levels land: WHO.
is 100 percent, but in rural areas, the figure is 60 percent.
Additionally, around 10 percent of East Timorese children
have never attended school. Another educational issue fac-
ing East Timorese children is the high number of pupils
that need to repeat school years. This is especially true of EDO
children in first grade. Poor-quality teaching also means
that many first-year pupils are unable to read even a sin- Current Location Nigeria
gle word in either Tetum or Portuguese. This was true of 40 Current Population 3.8 million
percent of pupils completing second grade. A lack of quality Language Bini (Edo)
teachers is a major issue in Timor-Leste, for many teachers Interesting Fact The Edo claim they are descended
are educated only to the secondary level. There is also a high from the people who founded Benin
degree of teacher absenteeism, with 13 percent of primary City in the fourteenth century.
school teachers and 25 percent of secondary school teach-
ers absent on any given day (Patrinos and Ramos 2015). Overview
The Edo, also called the Bini, are a people indigenous to
Threats to Survival Nigeria. The name Edo is the local name for Benin City,
the capital of Nigeria’s Edo State, and the term Bini derives
The East Timorese homeland is one of the poorest and
from a Portuguese corruption of the word Ubino, which
least developed countries of Southeast Asia. Timor-Leste
was used to describe the Edo kingdom’s royal adminis-
has struggled under the weight of past Indonesian occupa-
trative center. The Edo speak a Kwa language called Bini
tion and the devastation left in the wake of recent conflicts.
(or Edo) that belongs to the Benue-Congo branch of the
Although the country’s economic growth is strong due to its
Niger-Congo language family. Many Edo are Christian
petroleum sector, a significant proportion of East Timorese
or Muslim, though some follow traditional Edo religious
live below the poverty line. Food shortages, low agricultural
beliefs involving ancestor worship.
production, poor education, and a lack of health care remain
major issues that pose challenges to the country’s develop-
ment. Nonetheless, Timor-Leste continues to work toward Population, Diaspora, and Migration
establishing a new national infrastructure to replace that The Edo are one of Nigeria’s largest ethnic groups. At the
destroyed under Indonesian rule. Any new infrastructure start of the twentieth century, the Edo population meas-
will need to withstand potential damage by environmental ured approximately 3.8 million people (Shoup 2011). Most
problems, including floods, typhoons, and rising sea levels. Edo live in the Edo homeland, Edoland, which consists of
See also: Ambonese; Dayak; Madurese; Papuan Edo State and Delta State in southern Nigeria.
Further Reading
Asian Development Bank. n.d. “Timor-Leste Environment Geography and Environment
Assessment (Summary).” https://www.adb.org/sites/default​
/files/linked-documents/cps-tim-2016-2020-ena.pdf. Edo territory lies west of the Niger River and stretches
McCall, Chris. 2014. “East Timor Striving for Universal Access to from the hilly north to the swamps of the Niger Delta.
Health Care.” The Lancet, October 25. https://www.thelancet​ The Edo live in high-density settlements that range in size
 Edo 327

from small hamlets to towns that are home to thousands money resulting from the sales was used to cover the cost
of people. The Edo follow a subsistence lifestyle, mainly of expeditions to Africa.
growing yams supplemented by corn and vegetables such The downfall of the Benin kingdom continued through-
as plantains and cassava. out the eighteenth century. The obas had created for them-
selves an aura of divine right to rule and had introduced
large-scale human sacrifice as part of an effort to reinforce
History and Politics their sacred status. The British were horrified at the human
The Edo originated in the Nigerian rainforests around sacrifice but also realized they could justify invading
1,000 years ago. Here, the people established large densely Benin City if they claimed to do so to prevent more sac-
populated settlements, the largest of which often grew rifices (Shoup 2011). Once they took over Benin City, the
so big that they incorporated smaller settlements. Tra- British left the kingdom’s power structure intact more or
ditionally, the people would clear the land around the less, but at the same time, they incorporated the kingdom
settlements to reduce the chance of diseases occurring. into British Nigeria. Subsequently, the kingdom was also
The settlements soon developed to include a class of elite included in Nigeria when the country gained independ-
merchants who traded with the Yoruba, Hausa, and Song- ence in 1960. The states in which the Edo are the dominant
hay peoples. The Edo also began to expand their territory population did not unite with other southern states when
southward. the Igbo seceded from the federation of Nigerian states in
By the fourteenth century, Edo society had become 1967. When Nigeria restructured its federal state bounda-
known as the Benin kingdom and was centered on Benin ries in 1996, Edo State was established with Benin City as
City, which was noted for its wide streets and impressive its capital.
city walls. From the fourteenth to the seventeenth cen-
turies, the Benin kingdom was the most powerful in the
area, having become wealthy by trading ivory, palm oil, Society, Culture, and Tradition
and pepper. The kingdom also gained great power through The Edo tend to live in villages and small towns, where
its participation in both the African and transatlantic slave they grow subsistence crops and rear goats and sheep.
trades (Appiah and Gates 2010). Traditionally, the oba is head of Edo society, with the oba
Edo descent was matrilineal, with women shaping being determined by the laws of primogeniture (being
village life and having a major say in the running of the the firstborn child) or being the eldest son. The oba has
kingdom. Women became especially important in the the rights to all ivory within the kingdom, so anyone that
seventeenth century when European merchants began to kills an ivory-producing animal, such as an elephant, must
trade fabric with the Benin kingdom. The cloth trade not give the oba half of the ivory resulting from the kill. The
only brought the Benin kingdom money but also enhanced oba is also entitled to purchase the rest of the ivory. In the
the status of women, who were the main producers of past, an oba was invested with great political, religious, and
the cloth. Around this time, the Benin kingdom became economic power. Today, however, an oba has no political
famous for its artistry, especially carved ivory and bronze power but is still culturally significant.
work. In the fifteenth century, the people made contact Edo inheritance is matrilineal, and Edo villages work
with the Portuguese, who taught them metalworking tech- along the principles of age sets, with different age sets
niques such as brass gilding. responsible for various aspects of village life.
The Benin kingdom began to decline during the eight- The Edo are renowned for their music and dance, both
eenth century because peoples outside of Africa started to of which are important elements of celebrations and spe-
produce cloth for export. When the kingdom was taken cial events. One such event is the Igue festival that is held
over by the British in 1897, Europeans entered Benin City annually in December and sees the oba welcome the New
and removed thousands of brasses, ivory sculptures, and Year. The festival is celebrated by all Edo, both in the Edo
woodwork that they transported back to Europe. Among homeland and elsewhere, and comprises nine ceremonies
these pieces were brass plaques taken from the obas featuring special music and dances. For instance during
(kings). The obas monopolized decorative materials such the Otue-Ugierhoba part of the festival, groups of Edo
as ivory, brass, and coral, which they had made into art- dancers perform on the streets to pray for the oba, and
works. The objects d’art taken to Europe were sold, and the during the Ugierhoba ceremony, Edo chiefs dance before
328 Evenk

the oba while carrying scimitars. In addition to public hol- the challenge of preventing Nigeria from disintegrating
idays involving dance, each year, the Edo also participate into various ethnic or religious factions, the country also
in twenty-seven masquerades, during which the people faces issues associated with a huge population, including
don masks depicting the power of nature. The Edo are also the need to improve education and health care. Whether
well known for their arts and crafts, especially leather- the Edo are caught up in ethnic conflict in the future or
work and bronze sculptures. Traditionally, the Edo fashion see improvements to their health care and education, only
finely carved rams’ heads from wood that symbolize their time can tell.
deceased patriarchs. These carvings are regarded as heir-
See also: Annang; Hausa; Igbo; Tiv; Yoruba
looms and passed down through families.
Further Reading
Many Edo are either Christian or Muslim, though some
Agordoh, Alexander Akorlie. 2005. African Music: Traditional
adhere to the traditional Edo religious philosophies that and Contemporary. New York: Nova Science Publishers.
revolve around the concept of ancestor worship. Appiah, Kwame Anthony, and Henry Louis Gates Jr., eds. 2010.
Encyclopedia of Africa. Vol. 1. Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press.
Health Care and Education Shoup, John A. 2011. “Edo.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and the
Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A Shoup, 63–65.
Edo State was the first Nigerian state to implement a board
Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
responsible for statewide healthcare and hospital facilities, UNICEF. n.d. “Education.” Nigeria: The Children. https://www​
and the people have access to hospitals and clinics. How- .unicef.org/nigeria/children_1937.html.
ever, in December 2017, the governor of Edo State, Godwin Vanguard. 2017. “Edo Set to Develop Health Master Plan.” Van-
Obaseki, announced plans to reform health care in Edo guard, December 5. https://www.vanguardngr.com/2017/12
State so that the Edo people received improved primary, ​/edo-set-develop-health-master-plan.
secondary, and tertiary health care.
Over the past decade, Nigeria’s exponential population
growth has placed great strain on the country’s public ser-
vices and infrastructure. As children under fifteen years of
age account for around 45 percent of the country’s popula- EVENK
tion, the burden on the education sector is overwhelming.
Current Location China; Russian Federation;
At the same time, however, 40 percent of Nigerian children
Mongolia; Ukraine
ages six to eleven years do not go to school. This nonat-
Current Population 90,000
tendance occurs for several reasons, including families
Language Evenki
needing their children to work on farms, cultural or reli-
gious reasons, or because families cannot afford textbooks Interesting Fact The word shaman is of Evenki origin.
and uniforms. In recent years, Nigerian authorities have
implemented measures to increase the number of children Overview
attending schools and to improve educational facilities, The Evenk, also called the Ewenki, Lamut, Birar, or Mane-
which in some areas, do not have toilets, running water, or gry, among other names, are a Tungus people of northeast
electricity (UNICEF n.d.). At present, the quality of edu- Asia. Most Evenks live in China or Russia. The Evenks
cation in Nigeria is low, and pupils perform poorly in key speak the Evenki language (or Evedy Turën), which forms
subjects. In line with government intentions to improve the Evenki branch of the Tungusic language group. Most
education in Nigeria, in 2017, Edo State governor Obaseki Evenks follow their shamanistic religion, though an
promised to overhaul basic education in Edo State. increasing number of Evenks living in China follow Tibetan
Buddhism. In the past, the Evenks were called the Tungus.

Threats to Survival
Although Nigeria now has an elected leadership, it has a Population, Diaspora, and Migration
long history of military coups. In recent years, Edo State, The Evenks live across a wide area of northeast Asia.
like much of Nigeria, has been plagued by political insta- Evenk society comprises many groups that cover a huge
bility and rumors of political corruption. In addition to area. Consequently, they are one of Russia’s most dispersed
 Evenk 329

ethnic groups. According to the 2002 Russian national cen- and, consequently, damaged reindeer-herding Evenk cul-
sus, there are 35,527 Evenks living throughout the Russian tures. Some Evenks operate small nephrite mines on their
Federation (Minority Rights Group International 2015). land to ensure that outsiders do not operate the mines and
In the past, the Evenks had their own national autonomy, thereby interfere with traditional Evenk activities.
the Evenk Autonomous Okrug, but since 2007, the Evenks In recent years, the robust reindeer bred by the Evenks
have formed part of the newly reformed Krasnoyarsk Krai. to ride through forests while hunting and trapping such
A large number of Evenks also live in the Russia Federa- animals as elk, bear, sable, and mink for markets in St.
tion’s Republic of Sakha-Yakutia. As many as thirty thou- Petersburg have come close to extinction. This is partly
sand Evenks live in northeast China (Minahan 2002), because some Evenks swapped reindeer for vodka from
where they live mostly in Inner Mongolia and neighboring oil industry workers and also because oil workers shot the
Nehe County in Heilongjiang Province. Traditionally, the reindeer (Brown 2002).
Evenks divide into Evenk hunters and reindeer breeders,
who live scattered in the vast area of boreal forest stretch-
ing from the Ob-Irtysh watershed eastward to the coast of History and Politics
the Sea of Okhotsk and the Sakhalin Oblast and from the The Evenks likely originated during the Neolithic era
Amur River basin north to the Arctic Ocean. Evenk settled in the Lake Baikal region of southern Siberia. Here, the
farmers and pastoralists specializing in horse and cattle Evenks’ ancestors were in contact with local Mongolian
rearing live in Transbaikalia and northeastern China and peoples and communities speaking Turkic languages. Dur-
Mongolia. ing the first millennium, the early Evenks began to migrate
from the Lake Baikal region, probably under pressure from
Turkic tribes that had begun to encroach on Evenk land,
Geography and Environment assimilating smaller Evenk groups or defeating them in
The Evenk homeland, commonly called Evenkia, extends battle. Some Evenks migrated eastward to the area sur-
from northern China and Mongolia to Arctic Russia. Tem- rounding the Amur River and the banks of the Othotsk
peratures in Evenkia can vary from –68°C in winter to 30°C Sea. They also moved northward to the basin of the Lena
in summer. The region’s wildlife includes reindeer, bears, River and northwest to the Yenisey River. Other early
wolves, and elks. Southern Evenkia is home to dense pine Evenks headed south to live on the steppes, while others
and birch forests, while northern parts are tundra. Even- went north to settle in tundra regions and boreal forests.
kia contains oil, gas, gold, and diamond reserves. Although Over time, two Evenk groups evolved. Those that migrated
parts of Evenkia are located in the geographical heart of southward began to farm and rear horse and cattle, and
Russia, the region has no roads. Instead, the inhabitants the group that headed northward became reindeer herd-
rely on air transport, canoes, and motorboats. ers and hunters. Reindeer herding allowed the Evenks to
Over the last forty years, large-scale gas and oil explora- expand their territory.
tion has occurred on Evenk land. Oil, coal, and gas extrac- By the fourteenth century, Chinese chroniclers had
tion have damaged Evenk pastures and hunting grounds. already started to consider the Evenks as a distinct eth-
In the 1980s, a plan to build a dam on the Lower Tunguska nic group. In 1606, the Evenks encountered the Russians
River, which would have flooded much of the Evenk Auton- for the first time when Cossack troops serving the Russian
omous Okrug, ended after protests by Evenk activists, Empire entered Siberia. The Cossacks imposed a fur tax
Russian environmental groups, and the Association of the on the Evenks, often holding Evenks hostage until the peo-
Peoples of the North. The environmental damage affect- ple paid their taxes. The Cossacks also introduced alcohol,
ing the Evenk homeland was one of the main causes of guns, and metal tools to the Evenks as well as European
the rise of Evenk nationalism during the 1980s. Industrial diseases to which the Evenks had no immunity. The com-
development throughout Siberia has increased through- bination of exposure to firearms and disease caused the
out the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Environmen- Evenk population to decline rapidly.
tally damaging activities, including mineral and fossil fuel During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, many
extraction, logging, road building, and urbanization, have Evenks moved northward and eastward in the hope of
destroyed Evenk pasture and reindeer grazing land. This evading Russian authority. Others left their homeland to
has affected Evenk reindeer-herding economies greatly avoid migrating Buryats and Sakhas. Evenkia was one of
330 Evenk

Evenks moved northeast to the Chukchi Peninsula, Asia’s

easternmost peninsula. In general, Evenk migrations
throughout the nineteenth century were to avoid Russian
control, to escape epidemics of disease transmitted by Slav
colonists, or to find new hunting grounds.
From 1825 to 1841, the Evenks launched several unsuc-
cessful rebellions against the Russians. For the Evenks liv-
ing in central Siberia, the Russian Civil War and Russian
Revolution were remote events. The first Soviet represent-
ative only arrived on Evenk land in 1923 to organize the
first indigenous councils. Ultimately, the Soviets imposed
clan-based councils on the Evenks, who were largely
indifferent to the new arrangement. In 1924, the Soviets
founded a council for northern Siberian peoples with low
population numbers, including the Evenks. In 1927, the
Soviets reorganized the Evenks by creating Evenk village
councils and territories. Then, in 1930, the Evenk National
Territory was established in the Krasnoyarsk district as
the Soviets attempted to adapt the Evenks from being a
tribe to a socialist society (Minahan 2002). The following
year, the Soviets changed the Evenks’ name from Tungus
to Evenki. At the same time, officials classified Evenks
living in the northeast called the Evens (or Lamuts) as a
An Evenk girl wearing the national costume in Iengra, Neryungri distinct people.
District, Yakutia, Russia. Evenk society consists of many groups During the 1930s and 1940s, the Soviets collectivized
spread across a huge area of northeast Asia. Consequently,
the Evenks and forced them to live in settled villages.
the Evenks are one of Russia’s most dispersed ethnic groups.
(Andrew Berezovskiy/Dreamstime.com) Hunting and reindeer herding remained the Evenks’ main
activities. Meanwhile, during World War II, when Japan
took control of Manchuria, Evenks living in China found
the most remote parts of the Russian Empire and so was themselves drafted into the Japanese army. The Japanese
under only nominal Russian control. For this reason, it also used the Evenks as test subjects in scientific experi-
became a refuge for Old Believers, members of a Russian ments involving typhoid, smallpox, and venereal diseases.
Orthodox sect that broke with the church in 1666. The Rus- Unsurprisingly, under the Japanese, the Evenk population
sian Orthodox Church attempted to convert the Evenks, declined rapidly so that only a third of the Evenks in China
but any Evenks that did so adopted the faith only nomi- survived into 1945 (Minahan 2014).
nally. From 1635 to 1640, Evenks living in China had come In the 1950s, many smaller Evenk collectives in Rus-
under Manchu authority. During the mid-seventeenth sia were amalgamated to create major enterprises. As the
century, Russian soldiers invaded Heilongjiang Province. Evenks were not a populous people and were widely dis-
In response, Chinese authorities forcibly relocated the persed, authorities neglected to consider the interests of
province’s Evenks to Inner Mongolia. the Evenks when creating industry. Following World War
During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the II, the populations of Evenk areas of Russia changed greatly
Evenks living around the Lena River adopted the Sakha because Slavic workers started to move to the areas in
language spoken by the Sakhas, despite having fought with search of work and better living conditions. Some Evenks
the Sakhas often. Additionally, Evenks living near Lake assimilated with the Slavic migrants, thereby reducing the
Bailak started to speak Buryat and Mongolian languages, Evenk population. Until the late 1980s, the Evenks’ small
and some also converted to Tibetan Buddhism. Also, in the numbers in Russia and China meant they were assimilated
nineteenth century, some Evenk clans migrated to Sakhalin to a larger extent. This left Evenk culture in danger of anni-
Island and the Amur River area. From here, the migratory hilation. At the start of the 1990s, however, Evenk activists
 Evenk 331

revived the Evenki language and championed reindeer traditional territory because they feel this would allow
herding as an environmentally friendly occupation. the people to guide their own destiny. To this end, the
Following the downfall of the Soviet Union, Evenki Evenks increasingly wish to renew the obschina system.
teaching materials began to be produced, Evenk cultural However, in recent years, Evenks in Siberia have faced
centers were established, and Evenk activists supported attacks on their Dylacha, during which members involved
Evenks as they tried to reclaim their traditional lands. in mining cooperatives have, allegedly, been kidnapped by
Activists also called for their people’s self-rule by suggest- armed men wearing uniforms indicating they belonged
ing the return of the traditional Evenk land tenure system, to OMON, a special police unit of the Russian Ministry
obshchina. of Internal Affairs. Mining cooperatives have also been
accused of operating outside of their allotted areas and
having their nephrite stocks confiscated (Survival Inter-
Society, Culture, and Tradition national 2012). Dylacha members feel they are targeted
Traditionally, Evenk society was divided into hunter-­ because they have prevented commercial nephrite mining
gatherers and pastoralists. Evenks living in Russia concen- from occurring on Evenk hunting land. The attack on the
trated on reindeer herding and hunting, and those in China dylacha, along with the temporary suspension of Russia’s
herded cattle and horses and also farmed. Meanwhile, largest indigenous organization, Russian Association of
Evenks living in Mongolia, known as the Horse Evenk, Indigenous Peoples of the North (RAIPON), led many
took on the traditions of Mongolia. An important aspect Evenks to fear that Russia’s indigenous land was at risk of
of Evenk life is the dylacha, a type of Evenk obschina, that exploitation while indigenous inhabitants faced a growing
is, a cooperative involving an entire community that works threat of intimidation and harassment (Survival Interna-
together to care for reindeer or to hunt and fish. tional 2012).
Most Evenks maintain the people’s shamanistic beliefs Both the Evenks and RAIPON agree that the issue of
involving nature worship. Attempts to convert the Evenks land rights is the main problem facing the Evenks. Some
to Russian Orthodoxy have been unsuccessful, though commentators have even suggested that the question of
some Evenk pastoralists in China have adopted Tibetan land rights in Evenkia is the most intense issue facing any
Buddhism. indigenous people in Russia. Some Evenks argue that their
people will ultimately either have to accept assimilation
or face annihilation. Others theorize that the Evenks may
Health Care and Education have to advance the oil extraction on their land so that
Deprived of their traditional way of life, the Evenks have the Evenks can become prosperous, with roads, bridges,
high rates of alcoholism, suicide, and murder. In 2002, the schools, and hospitals built in their homeland. However,
average life expectancy in some Evenk villages was forty other Evenks argue that the key to Evenk survival is for the
years for men and forty-five years for women. Many vil- Evenks to regain their land rights and return to their tradi-
lages have high rates of stomach cancer, potentially linked tional way of life, working in tandem with their surround-
to alcoholism. Additionally, villages acquired water from ings to create a sustainable Evenk economy. Many young
local streams that have not been tested for contaminants Evenks, however, are uninterested in pursuing traditional
(Brown 2002). Evenk occupations (Minahan 2002).
In the 1950s and 1960s, Evenk children were encour- In contrast, since China’s recognition of the Evenks as
aged to learn Russian rather than Evenki. At the same time, a separate people in the middle of the twentieth century,
the language was removed from Evenk schools in Siberia. Evenks living within China have advanced educationally,
Evenki was reintroduced to Evenk schools throughout the in agriculture, and through mining on their traditional
Evenk homeland in the 1980s, but only as school subject lands. At the start of the twenty-first century, Evenks in
not as a language of education. China have come to flourish through a combination of
improved veterinary services, rearing new cattle breeds,
and the opening of farms producing animal fodder and
Threats to Survival grain.
Since the end of the 1980s, Evenk activists in Russia have
called for the reunification of their people with their See also: Buryat; Chukchi; Manchu
332 Ewe

Further Reading is a small number of Ewe living in Benin, including the

Brown, Paul. 2002. “Communism, Alcoholism . . . and Now Oil.” Aja, who also live in Togo. The Aja population measures
The Guardian, August 13. https://www.theguardian.com around five hundred thousand people, though many Aja
​/world/2002/aug/13/oil.russia.
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
have intermarried with the Fon (Shoup 2011). In recent
nic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 2, D–K. West- years, many Aja have migrated to Nigeria, Ghana, and
port, CT: Greenwood Press. Guinea Bissau because overcrowding in Benin and Togo
Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Cen- is reducing the amount of land they have for farming their
tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. traditional crops of manioc, maize, millet, and plantains.
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Russian Federation:
Evenk.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peo-
ples, June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/evenk.
Survival International. 2012. “Siberian Evenk Indigenous Organ-
Geography and Environment
ization under Attack.” Survival International, December 12. Ghana is located just above the equator on the Gulf of
https://www.survivalinternational.org/news/8882. Guinea. The country has a warm climate. On Ghana’s south
coast, grasslands mixed with shrubland and dense forests
dominate the landscape. Forests dominate the north of the
country. Ghana also has many plains, low hills, waterfalls,
rivers, and lakes, including Lake Volta and offshore islands.
EWE Southern Ghana is a center for mineral mining and timber
industries.
Current Location Ghana; Togo; Benin
Togo is located on the Gulf of Guinea between Benin,
Current Population 4.5 million–6 million
Ghana, and Burkina Faso and is one of Africa’s smallest
Language Ewe dialects; French countries. Togo’s coasts are home to tropical forest, and
Interesting Fact Voodoo is the traditional Ewe grasslands lie to the north. Togo has abundant phosphate
religion. deposits that are the focus of mining activity. Much of the
country’s land is used as arable land, supporting Togo’s
Overview subsistence farmers. The Ewe live in an area that they call
The Ewe (also called the Efe, Eve, Eibes, or Ebwes, among Eweland. This comprises wide coastal plains on the Gulf of
other names) are an ethnic group indigenous to Ghana, Guinea, southern Togo, and southwest Benin.
Togo, and Benin. The Ewe speak several dialects (four of
which are major) of the Ewe language, which belongs to
the Niger-Congo Kwa language family. The Ewe are related History and Politics
to the speakers of other Gbe languages, including the According to Ewe oral history, the people originated in
Yoruba, Fon, Gen, Phla Phera, and the Aja people of Togo Yorubaland in Nigeria and migrated to Ghana and Togo
and Benin. In addition, the Ewe have the Anlo language as in the middle of the fifteenth century (Minahan 2002).
their literary language. Around half of the Ewe are Chris- Subsequently, some Ewe moved westward to the Volta
tian, but they continue to practice the voodoo rites and Region at the start of the eighteenth century. In 1784, the
rituals of the people’s indigenous religion. Ewe fought against the Danish, who were trying to estab-
lish a chain of forts along the coast of Ewe-­controlled
areas. In general, however, the Ewe enjoyed harmoni-
Population, Diaspora, and Migration ous relations with Europeans, to whom the Ewe sold
The Ewe population is thought to measure between 4.5 ­prisoners-of-war as slaves. Indeed, from the 1500s, the
million and 6 million people (Minahan 2002). The Ewe Ewe had dominated the slave trade in West Africa, for
make up 40 percent of Togo’s total population (Shoup from this time, the Ewe set out on trips to the African
2011). This population is divided into groups: the Ewe interior with the intention of taking people as slaves. In
“proper,” the Anlo Ewe, the Wtyi, the Mina (which also 1807, however, the British abolished their slave trade.
includes the Ga people), and the Aja (or Adja). With this economic outlet now redundant, the Ewe
The area inhabited by the Ewe stretches from south of turned to other ways of making money, including pro-
the Volta River in Ghana to Togo’s Togo Mountains. There ducing palm oil and copra.
 Ewe 333

During the late nineteenth century, the Ewe were suitable for selling. More recently, however, the Ewe
divided by colonial administrations: the British established have entered the cash economy, and land has started to
the colony of the Gold Coast (a section on the coasts of the be bought and sold. Increasingly, the buying and selling
Gulf of Guinea that now covers part of modern Ghana) of land and growing urbanization is blurring the lines
in 1874, and in 1884, Germany established the colony between Ewe clans.
of Togoland (nowadays Togo and most of Ghana’s Volta Like many West African women, Ewe women play an
Region). This division meant that during World War I, the important part at markets, acting as sellers and wholesal-
Ewe were torn between fighting European powers. Post- ers. At markets in coastal ports, Ewe women have a near
war, Togoland was made a protectorate ruled jointly by monopoly on trading at markets, and they trade a vari-
Britain and France. Despite being ruled by two countries, ety of items, most of which are produced by Ewe men. In
the Ewe maintained their identity. Because of the united particular, the women trade keta cloth, which is similar to
nature of the Ewe community, in 1947, the Ewe petitioned the colorful kente cloth woven by the Ashanti Akans. Ewe
the United Nations for their unification. However, Britain men weave keta cloth in narrow strips that are then sewn
and France blocked this move. Undeterred, in 1954, the together to make broad cloths. Originally, keta cloth was
Ewe founded the Togoland Congress with the aim of unit- only available in blue and white because the Ewe only had
ing the Ewe nation and territory. However, when Ghana access to blue dye, but trading with Europeans has allowed
gained its independence in 1957, some Ewe opted to join the Ewe to acquire dyes in other colors.
Ghana, and others chose to stay in what became inde- Although approximately half of all Ewe have converted
pendent Togo in 1960. Togo’s political elite at this time was to Christianity, the Ewe hold dear their traditional animist
mainly drawn from the Ewe, and Ewe culture was used as religion, voodoo, the name of which derives from the Fon
the basis of a unifying Togo national culture. word for spirit. The Ewe believe that voodoo animates all
Ewe dominance of Togo politics ended in 1967, when things and that nature gods inhabit the people during rit-
Gnassingbe Eyadema, a member of the rival Kabre people, uals, thereby imbuing the people with incredible powers.
took over as Togolese president following a military coup. Further, the Ewe believe they can tell which nature god has
Togo experienced violent political unrest during the 1990s, inhabited a person by which way the person rolls his or her
with armed Ewe groups from Ghana operating in the Togo- eyes. Even Christian Ewe maintain beliefs in voodoo. Ewe
lese capital. Ultimately, however, Ewe attempts to eliminate voodoo rituals are often accompanied by music played on
the anti-Ewe government and assassinate Eyadema proved drums. Dancing, singing, drama, and poetry often accom-
unsuccessful. Eyadema remained president until his death pany ewe drumming. A particular aspect of Ewe drum-
in 2005. ming is halo, a special type of drumming that accompanies
Since the 1990s, the Ewe have focused on unifying their exchanges of humorous insults that take place between
people and establishing an independent Ewe state called villages.
the United Republic of Togoland or Republic of Voltaland. Another custom practiced by the Ewe is trokosi, a form
of female ritual servitude. The word trokosi translates from
local dialect as “slave of the gods” (from tro meaning god
Society, Culture, and Tradition and kosi meaning slave girl). The practice sees a child
Most Ewe are farmers or fishermen, though an increasing (nearly always female) serve time in a local shrine under
number live in urban areas, including the Ghanaian capital control of a tronua (priest). The girl is usually sent to the
city, Accra, and the Togolese capital, Lomé. shrine to atone for a crime committed by somebody else,
Ewe society and culture is based on the people’s shared usually a male relative of the girl. Occasionally, however,
language and heritage. Ewe society is divided into around a girl may be entered into servitude because her birth or
120 clans (Minahan 2002) headed by male elders that are recovery from ill health is attributed to the intervention
based on lineages and territorial rights. Elders belonging of a particular god, whom she must serve in gratitude.
to the lineages that founded a village are considered vil- In the past, some girls voluntarily entered into servitude
lage leaders and hold political power, though a council or became a trokosi with the consent of their parents
of all village elders form a decision-making panel. Tra- because the role was thought prestigious. However, today,
ditionally, the Ewe do not buy and sell land, as land is trokosi is generally seen as a form of slavery and abuse
considered a gift from the people’s ancestors that is not (Williams 2017).
334 Ewe

Health Care and Education Togolese Ewe, however, still hold strong nationalist sen-
There is little information available on Ewe health care. timents (Minahan 2002). Those Ewe that do desire the
During the period of German colonial rule, the Ewe formation of a Ewe republic claim that the Ewe’s history
became very educated. The people learned in their own as traders and politicians means they would make a suc-
Ewe language because they were averse to learning Ger- cess of independence by creating a republic that is viable
man. German authorities accepted this situation because economically and free from the political corruption that is
they preferred that the Ewe learn in their own language evident in some West African nations.
rather than in English. Subsequently, the Ewe enjoyed high See also: Akan; Fon; Yoruba
literacy rates, and a standardized version of Ewe became Further Reading
established. After World War I, emphasis on Ewe education Anyidoho, Akosua, and M. E. Kropp Dakubu. 2008. “Ghana:
declined under French and English colonial rule. This was Indigenous Language, English, and an Emerging National
especially true under French authority because the French Identity.” In Language and National Identity in Africa, edited
deliberately undermined Ewe-language teaching, as they by Andrew Simpson, 141–157. Oxford, UK: Oxford Univer-
sity Press.
saw it as being the basis of Ewe nationalism (Anyidoho Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
and Kropp Dakubu 2008). nic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 2, D–K. West-
port, CT: Greenwood Press.
Shoup, John A. 2011. “Ewe.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and the
Threats to Survival Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited John A. Shoup, 89–91.
On the whole, Ewe independence is an aspiration for Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
Ewe living in Ghana, Togo, and Benin, although the rel-
World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA:
ative peace and prosperity enjoyed by the Ewe in Ghana ABC-CLIO.
has lessened Ghanaian Ewe’s desire for independence.
 F

FAROESE tend to live in Denmark, though around one thousand Far-

oese have also settled in Iceland and Norway (Gaini 2011).
Current Location Faroe Islands; Denmark
Current Population 60,000
Language Faroese; Danish; English Geography and Environment
Interesting Fact The Faroese are descended from the The Faroe Islands are an archipelago of eighteen islands,
Vikings. seventeen of which are inhabited. The islands are located
in the North Atlantic, some 404 miles from the west coast
Overview of Norway. Scotland lies to the south of the Faroe Islands,
The Faroese, also known as the Faroe Islanders, are the and Iceland lies to the northwest. The islands’ rugged land-
indigenous people of the Faroe Islands, an independent scape is made of basaltic rock. The Faroe Islands have a
country within the Kingdom of Denmark. The Faroese subpolar oceanic climate that is windy, wet, cloudy, and
speak a West Nordic language also called Faroese. The Far- cool, though temperatures average above freezing all year
oese people have Danish as their second language and also round because the islands are warmed by the Gulf Stream
speak English. The Faroese are Christian, with 75 percent (a warm Atlantic ocean current that originates in the Gulf
of all Faroese being Lutheran (Gaini 2011). Many Faroese of Mexico).
also belong to the Plymouth Brethren, a nonconformist Although all imported foods are available to buy in the
evangelical Christian group. The Faroese have never had Faroe Islands, the Faroese tend to eat what they fish and
their own autonomous state, but because of the remote hunt locally. Scientists estimate that there are around one
geographic location of the Faroe Islands and the small Far- hundred thousand pilot whales living in the waters around
oese population, the Faroese have largely been allowed to the Faroe Islands. The Faroese hunt approximately eight
be self-ruling. hundred of these whales each year (Whaling.fo 2017), with
the resulting meat and whale blubber distributed among
the people. The Faroese are careful not to fish and hunt
Population, Diaspora, and Migration animals to extinction, but at the same time, the people are
There are sixty thousand Faroese people, a quarter of permitted under international law to exploit the natural
whom live outside of the Faroe Islands. Expatriate Faroese resources available to them.

335
336 Faroese

When a whale is dismembered for food, the blubber During the Middle Ages, the Faroese were allowed to
is removed in sections laid out skin-side down before the manage their own affairs, but during the period 1030–
meat is cut off and laid on top of the blubber. The fisher- 1816, the Faroese were ruled first by Norway and then by
men who took part in the whaling divide the blubber and Denmark. Up until the fifteenth century, the Faroese had
meat among them. One fisherman turns his back to the a spelling system similar to Icelandic and Norwegian. In
others and is asked to decide who should receive which 1536, however, the Danes banned the use of Faroese in
part. This method of allocation keeps the distribution of schools, churches, and for official papers. The Faroese peo-
meat and blubber equitable. In addition, laws regulat- ple continued to use their indigenous language in ballads,
ing the distribution of the meat and blubber ensure that folktales, and conversation though, and while this situa-
the district administrator of the meat and blubber and tion created a rich Faroese oral tradition, it also meant that
the  foremen of the whaling each receive a specific share the Faroese language was not used in any form of writing
of the whale and prevent accusations that meat has been for around three hundred years.
apportioned unfairly. Solidarity and fairness of food dis- In the 1880s, the Faroese nationalist movement led by
tribution is important to the Faroese, so for similar rea- landowner Joannes Patursson began what the group called
sons, on two of the Faroe Ilsands, Sandoy and Suðuroy, the its “awakening project” to encourage the Faroese to safe-
whale catch is distributed only among local people and not guard their culture and language from assimilation into
between those who caught the whale so that locals receive the dominant colonial Danish culture. In 1909, the Faro-
a fair share of the catch. ese nationalist movement became more political with the
Rules regulating the hunting of pilot whales have creation of the Independence Party (Sjalvstyrisflokkurin)
existed for many years, as evinced by the Sheep Letter, in opposition to the new pro-Danish Unionist Party,
a Faroese law dating from 1298 that outlines rules for Sambandsflokkurin.
whaling. A dedicated whaling law was enacted in 1832 During World War II, Denmark was occupied by Nazi
and was updated in 2013. Faroese authorities keep a close Germany. The invasion of Denmark prompted the Brit-
eye on the number of whales hunted and have whaling ish to make a preemptive invasion and occupation of
statistics dating back to 1584. These are likely the longest the Faroe Islands to prevent their being invaded by Ger-
continuous wildlife statistics found anywhere in the world many. This was important to the British because the Faroe
(Whaling.fo 2017). The Faroese counter antiwhaling Islands held a strategic position in the North Atlantic and
arguments by claiming that if they did not hunt whales, would have proved useful to Germany in the Battle of the
they would need to import even more food, which would Atlantic. The British built an airbase on the westerly Faroe
have significant environmental impact because extra fuel Island of Vágar, which is still used today as Vágar Airport.
would be needed to transport the food to their remote Faroese fishing boats also provided the British with plenti-
islands. ful supplies of fish, something that was crucial to the Brit-
ish, who were suffering from food rationing. At the end of
the war in 1945, British troops left the Faroe Islands. Until
History and Politics 1948, the Faroe Islands were officially part of Denmark,
The Faroese are descended from the Vikings of western but in 1948, the Faroe Islands achieved self-­governance
Norway who settled on the Faroe Islands in the ninth cen- with the passing of the Act of Faroese Home Rule, which
tury. Prior to the arrival of the Vikings, Irish monks who also recognized Faroese as the official language of the
enjoyed the islands’ peace and remoteness had inhabited Faroe Islands.
the islands, but the monks fled before the Vikings arrived. During the second half of the twentieth century, the
Many of the Norse migrants were descended from Norse Faroe Islands experienced great cultural change as the
people that had settled in the Irish Sea region or had mar- people became increasingly divided between those who
ried women from the Irish Sea region before settling in wished to keep to traditional ways and those that wished
the Faroe Islands. As a result of this Irish influence, there to modernize. In addition, an economic downturn that
are traces of the Gaelic language in the Faroe Islands, persisted from 1989 to 1992 made the Faroese economy
including place names such as Mykines, Stóra Dímun, collapse and forced the Faroese to link their local economy
Lítla Dímun, and Argir that some researchers believe have to the global market. Through the rest of 1990s, the Faro-
Celtic heritage. ese reconstructed their economy, while at the same time,
 Faroese 337

their culture became more outward looking through the

coming of electronic media.
Under existing constitutional arrangements, the Far-
oese parliament enacts laws independently of Denmark,
including the regulation, conservation, and management
of fish stocks and whale numbers within the islands’ fish-
ing area. In addition, unlike Denmark, the Faroe Islands
are not a member of the European Union (EU). Instead
of belonging to the European Union, the Faroe Islands
maintain bilateral trade and fishing agreements with the
European Union as well as other countries that are not EU
members, including the islands’ nearest neighbors, Nor-
way and Iceland.

Society, Culture, and Tradition

Faroese culture is fairly homogenous, though there are
small differences between subgroups that are connected
to religion, family groups, and villages. Around 90 per-
cent of all Faroese identify as Christian (Gaini 2011). The
Faroese often consider their population to divide into two
camps: those Faroese that belong to the numerous evan-
gelical free churches, including the Plymouth Brethren,
and Faroese nonbelievers that nonetheless belong to the
national church, the Church of the Faroe Islands, known A girl wears a traditional Faroese outfit during a festival in
in Faroese as Fólkakirkjan, meaning “people’s church.” Klaksvík, on the island of Borooy, one of the Faroe Islands. The
Although many Faroese people identify as Viking, when Faroese are descendants of Vikings who settled on the Faroe
asked their cultural heritage, the Faroese do not hold Islands during the ninth century. (Pierre-Henry Deshayes/AFP/
pagan beliefs or worship the gods and goddesses of Getty Images)
Norse mythology. The Faroese celebrate the Norwegian
patron saint, St. Olaf, with the annual Ólavsøka festival. In addition to religion, another important factor in
Ólavsøka translates as “Saint Olaf ’s Wake” (vigilia sancti Faroese society is a belief in kinship and the family. The
Olavi, in Latin) and commemorates the death of the Nor- Faroese are well known for their navigational abilities and
wegian king Olav the Holy, who was killed in the battle of skill at shipping and fishing, so it is usual for Faroese men
Stiklestad, in Norway, on July 29, 1030. The king’s death to work as part of international cargo ship and fishing
is considered important to the Christianization of Nor- crews. Such work takes the men away from their families
way and, therefore, of the Faroe Islands. Ólavsøka sees for six months per year, so Faroese children often grow up
thousands of Faroese gather in the streets of the coun- without much contact with their fathers. For this reason,
try’s capital city, Tórshavn, to celebrate Faroese culture. women rule Faroese households, and children obey their
People wear colorful national Faroese dress, meet up mothers, who care for their children in a strict manner.
with friends, and enjoy sport, music, traditional foods, Perhaps the most important element of Faroese cul-
and cultural activities over a two-day period. Ólavsøka ture is, however, the Faroese language, which has survived
also marks the annual opening of the Løgting (Faroese through oral tradition with stories, poems, and songs
parliament), when parliament officially returns from its passed down from one generation to the next. Music and
summer holidays. Ólavsøka ends at midnight on July 29. dance are very important to the Faroese. Faroese music
Crowds gather in the town square to sing Faroese ballads developed in isolation—not just geographical remote-
and dance the traditional Faroese chain dance, “Midnát- ness but cultural isolation too. Musical instruments were
tarsangur” (“Midnight Song”). not common on the islands until the 1860s, and before
338 Faroese

The Skúvoy Egg Harvest

A famous Faroese tradition is the fulmar egg harvest that occurs annually on the tiny island of Skúvoy. As elsewhere in
the Faroe Islands, seabird egg harvests have long been an integral part of Skúvoy life. The northern fulmar (Fulmarus
glacialis) breeds on the sides of steep cliffs, where in May female birds each lay a single egg. The fulmar egg harvest
occurs on a single day and sees Faroese lowered down the cliffs using traditional woolen climbing equipment. The
person sent to gather the eggs navigates the cliff face to collect them before being pulled back to the cliff top. The eggs
are then divided among the people who participated in the harvest, though they are not shared equally. Rather, the
eggs are awarded according to the roles individuals played in the harvest.

then, the only accompaniment to Faroese songs was the is unique to the Faroes and gives food a strong, fleshy,
stamping of feet and dances. There are three types of tra- savory flavor. Unlike wet fermenting processes used to
ditional Faroese music. First, ballads allow ancient tales to make yogurt and pickled herring, the salty, windswept air
be transmitted orally and are usually accompanied by cir- of the Faroe Islands creates ideal conditions for air-drying
cle dances. There are three types of Faroese ballad: kvæði foods, a process that occurs in food-drying sheds known
(heroic ballads), taettir (satirical ballads), and visur (folk as hjallur, which are ventilated by the wind and found scat-
ballads). The traditional accompaniment to Faroese bal- tered across the Faroe Islands. Skerpikjøt (“sharp meat”)
lads is the Føroyskur dansur (“Faroese dance”), which is is a strongly flavored ræst mutton that is served at Far-
the national circle dance of the Faroe Islands. oese celebrations, often thinly sliced between pieces of
The second main type of traditional Faroese music is rye bread, and ræst lamb is traditionally accompanied by
the skjaldur, which are lullabies sung by adults to children potatoes and other roots vegetables. Recently, ræst food
that tell tales of a pre-Christian fairytale realm. The third has becoming increasingly trendy in Nordic countries, and
type of traditional Faroese music is Kingosálmar (or Kin- in May 2016, a Faroese restaurant became the world’s first
gohymns), hymns or church songs named after the Dane, restaurant dedicated to ræst food.
Thomas Kingo, who in 1699 published a hymnbook. Today, Other foods popular among the Faroese include fish
music is so embedded in Faroese culture that the island and whale meat that is eaten fresh, dried, or salted. Dried
has its own state-supported and artist-owned record label, fish, dried whale meat, dry-salted whale blubber, and pota-
Tutl, and the islands’ music school has two thousand stu- toes are often served on festive occasions. Whale meat
dents (Hann 2016). and blubber are also frequently served with potatoes and
The Faroese language is central to the strong Faroese mustard or fried and served with gravy. Other Faroese
cultural identity. The language is derived from the lan- dishes include turnip pâté, lamb intestines, sauerkraut
guage of the Norse migrants that settled on the Faroe (fermented cabbage) in mustard cream, and rhubarb por-
Islands during the Viking era. These settlers brought their ridge. Although the Faroese have refrigerators and freezers
West Norse language with them, which was spoken across that they use to keep food fresh, they keep alive their tra-
Scandinavia and by the Norse people living in Britain. A ditional methods of food preparation and storage because
separate Faroese language developed from the Norse lan- the people consider them an integral part of their cultural
guage during the ninth to fifteenth centuries. Faroese is identity.
closely related to Icelandic, Norwegian, Danish, and Swed-
ish. In particular, Faroese grammar is similar to that used
in Icelandic and Old Norse, and the pronunciation is simi- Health Care and Education
lar to the pronunciation of Norwegian. In the Faroe Islands, the Ministry of Health and the Inte-
Faroese food has influenced the people’s struggle to rior administers the healthcare system, psychiatry ser-
survive amid a harsh climate. Local delicacies include vices, health insurance, pharmacies, and environmental
whale meat and blubber, lamb, seabirds, fish, and geese. health protection.
The Faroese use a unique food preparation method called Education is compulsory in the Faroe Islands for all
ræst (meaning “fermented”) to prepare meat and fish. Ræst children between ages six and sixteen years. Compulsory
 Finn 339

education (Fólkaskúli in Faroese) does not mean that chil- FINN

dren are made to go to school, however, for children may
be educated at public or private schools or at home. Current Location Finland
Faroese Fólkaskúli consists of one year of preschool, Current Population 6,129,000
nine years of primary education, and lower secondary edu- Language Finnish
cation. Once a child has finished compulsory education, he Interesting Fact Finland was the first country in the
or she may start upper secondary education. Upper second- world to allow women to run in pol-
ary education is aimed at sixteen- to nineteen-year-olds itical elections.
and divides into two types: general education that will allow
students to access higher education and vocational or tech-
Overview
nical education that prepares students for the labor market.
In the Faroe Islands, higher education is provided by Ethnic Finns are a Baltic-Finnic people living mainly
the University of the Faroe Islands (Fróðskaparsetrið) as in the European nation of Finland. The Finns call them-
well as vocational colleges. The Centre of Maritime Studies selves the Suomalainen and call Finland Suomi. The Finns
and Engineering also offers educational programs aimed speak Finnish as their mother tongue. Finnish belongs to
at mariners. Some Faroese students also move abroad to the F­ inno-Ugric branch of Uralic languages. Most Finns
access a broader range of higher education. belong to the Evangelical Lutheran Church.

Threats to Survival Population, Diaspora, and Migration

The survival of the Faroese depends on three main factors: the Finland is home to around 5.3 million people of whom 93
continuing success of the fishing industry, whether young Far- percent define themselves as ethnic Finns. Therefore, the
oese return home after studying abroad, and whether the Far- Finn population is approximately 4,929,000. Additionally,
oese be happy to stay part of Denmark or seek an independent 91 percent of the population of Finland speak Finnish as
state. Another important factor in the survival of the Faroese their first language. There is a large Finn diaspora, for
people is the survival of their indigenous language, which lies Finns live in countries that include Sweden, Estonia, Rus-
at the heart of Faroese culture. The Faroese are aware of the sia, Canada, the United States, and Australia (Armstrong
need to keep their language alive in the face of growing global 2011). The Finn population living outside Europe probably
cultural influences such as the Internet and television. For this measures around 1.2 million (Haarmann 2015). Finns first
reason, the preservation of the Faroese language is considered settled in the United States during the seventeenth cen-
a high priority by the government of the Faroe Islands. tury, though, in general, most Finn emigrants migrated
during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.
See also: Welsh During the twentieth century, there has been a steady
Further Reading migration of Finns from rural areas to urban centers. It
Gaini, Firouz. 2011. “Faroese.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe: An is quite usual, however, for Finns to maintain a country
Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 129–131. Santa Bar- cottage and sauna near a lake, where they live in summer.
bara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Government of the Faroe Islands. 2017. “The Faroese Education
System.” http://www.government.fo/the-government​/min​is​ Geography and Environment
tries/​ministry-of-education-research-and-culture​/edu ​c a​
tion. Finland is one of earth’s most northerly and geographically
Hann, Michael. 2016. “In the Faroe Islands, Everyone Is in a remote nations. It is bordered to the north by Norway, to
Band.” Pop and Rock (blog), July 20. The Guardian. https://​ the east by Russia, to the south by the Gulf of Finland, to
www.theguardian.com/music/musicblog/2016/jul/20/in-the​ the southwest by the Gulf of Bothnia, and to the northwest
-faroe-islands-everyone-is-in-a-band-g-festival. by Sweden. Finland includes Åland, an autonomous archi-
Skúlabókagrunnur, Føroya. 1996. Traditional Music in the Faroe
pelago located at the entrance to the Gulf of Bothnia. About
Islands. Translated by Sheila Arnskov. Tórshavn: Føroya
Skúlabókagrunnur. one-third of Finland lies within the Arctic Circle. Much of
Whaling.fo. 2017. “Home.” Whales and Whaling in the Faroe the country is heavily forested and contains many thou-
Islands. http://www.whaling.fo/en/home. sands of lakes and rivers as well as extensive marshlands.
Finland’s coastline is extremely indented with thousands
340 Finn

of islands located offshore. Finland is a fairly flat country History and Politics
but does contain glacial morainic deposits formed into Around 9500 BCE, the first settlers arrived in Fennos-
eskers (winding ridges of stratified gravel and sand). candia, a region comprising the Scandinavian Peninsula,
The area of Finland located within the Arctic Circle Karelia, Finland, and the Kola Peninsula. This area con-
experiences extremely harsh, prolonged winters during nects Scandinavia to the rest of the European continent.
which temperatures can fall as low as −22°F. In these areas, It is likely that the Finns are descended from small groups
snow never melts from north-facing slopes. In this part of of Baltic-Finnic peoples that lived in the south and south-
Finland, summers last only from May to July. In southern east of the Finnish mainland and Gulf of Finland. Over
Finland, temperatures are less extreme. time, the Finns spread into two dialect groups: the western
Recently, Finland has implemented numerous suc- dialect group descended from two older tribes called the
cessful environmental policies. Polluted lakes and rivers varsinaissuomalaiset (Finns Proper) and hämälaiset (Tav-
have been cleaned, air quality in industrial regions has astians). The varsinaissuomalaiset and hämälaiset came
improved, and much work has been undertaken to pro- from areas south of the Gulf of Finland (now Estonia)
tect areas of natural biodiversity. Finland’s most valuable between 1200 and 500 BCE. Eastern Finns were descended
natural resources, forests, are managed sensitively, and the from Karelians and people from Savo, a historical province
forest growth rate exceeds the number of trees harvested in eastern Finland.
for timber. There are environmental issues facing Finland, During the Middle Ages, Finns came into contact with
however. For example, waterborne nutrient emissions Russians and Swedes from across the Baltic Sea. At first,
generated by farms and scattered settlements not con- the Swedes settled in the Åland Islands before settling
nected to sewerage systems continue to affect lakes and permanently in Finland’s south and west. Subsequently,
rivers. Finns began to trade throughout Russia and Scandinavia
The eutrophication of Finland’s inland waters and the as well as with the Byzantine Empire. In the eleventh cen-
Baltic Sea is also an issue. Eutrophication occurs when tury, Christianity was introduced to Finland. During the
excessive amounts of nutrients enter the water, usually due twelfth century, foreign influence over Finland increased.
to surface runoff from the land causing algae to grow in By the thirteenth century, Finland had become part of
the water. To tackle this issue, Finland may have to imple- Sweden. At the same time, Finns that had settled in Swe-
ment policies that include the oxygenation of lakes. Some den became the target of the expanding Russian Empire.
researchers believe the Baltic Sea is irreparably damaged, During the sixteenth century, Russia carried out extremely
however, for the Baltic is shallow and experiences only a destructive raids on Finn settlements in Russia. Finns who
slow exchange of water with the open seas. As millions remained in Finland were affected by the Sweden-Russia
of people live around the sea, much of the pollution from relationship, for the two countries repeatedly changed
homes, workplaces, farms, and ships accumulate in it, their international border, each time placing the border so
resulting in pollution that has caused fish stocks to decline that it divided Finn territory. This pattern of land exchange
and mass algal blooms to occur that depletes oxygen from ended with the Treaty of Stolbovo (1617), which deter-
the seafloor. This situation is exacerbated by the fact that mined that all land around the Gulf of Finland belonged
the Baltic’s bottom waters are only effectively replaced to Sweden.
when a large amount of water from the North Sea rushes In the sixteenth century, the Swedish king Gustav I
into the sea through the Danish Straits. Such inrushes (r. 1523–1560) adopted Lutheranism as the religion of
have become rarer recently, possibly as an effect of climate the Swedish Empire. Consequently, Protestantism became
change on sea currents. prevalent among the Finns. Swedish authority over the
Recently, Finland has achieved significant successes in Finns saw the Finns ruled by a Swedish aristocracy, yet
nature conservation, especially in relation to larger ani- Finn peasants retained their freedom and were not bound
mals and birds that were once hunted in large numbers. in serfdom. Even when Finns lived under imperial Russian
For example, Finland’s national bird, the whooper swan, rule, Finn peasants’ Swedish-style social conditions were
has become more plentiful, as has the golden eagle. The maintained.
growth in the bear, lynx, wolf, and wolverine populations During the nineteenth century, Russia and France
has proved controversial, however, because in rural areas united under the rule of Napoleon Bonaparte. At the same
such carnivorous predators are feared (Lyytimäki 2007).
 Finn 341

time, Sweden joined an anti-Napoleonic coalition. After Winter War between the two countries, with the aim of
a short war with Sweden (1808–1809), Russia annexed capturing Finland and restoring Russian power over the
Finland, much to the Finns’ consternation. To quell Finn country. A small Finnish army resisted Russian attempts
unrest at this change, Russian czar Alexander I (r. 1801– to overrun the country, however, and in late 1940, it saw
1825) granted the Finns a grand duchy within the Russian off the Russians. Nevertheless, Finland was pressured into
Empire. The czar became the grand duke, but his pow- relinquishing southern Karelia to the Russians along with
ers were restricted by the previous Swedish constitution. the Gulf of Finland islands, Salla, and the Rybachy Penin-
Finland’s classification as a grand duchy was important sula. The cession resulted in some four hundred thousand
because it allowed Swedish institutes to remain in place in Finns being exiled from their homes in Karelia (Haar-
Finland, and the Finns could continue to speak Swedish. mann 2015). In the summer of 1941, conflict between
Czar Alexander II was also fairly benevolent to the Finns, Russia and Finland flared again (as the Continuation War)
allowing the Finnish language to gain recognition and, in following Operation Barbarossa, when Finland aligned
1863, instituting Finnish as an official language of admin- with Nazi Germany following Germany’s invasion of the
istration alongside Swedish. From 1865, Finland was also Soviet Union. The Continuation War allowed the Finnish
allowed to use its own currency, the markka. The 1860s also army to recapture surrendered land from Russia. However,
saw Finns experience one of Europe’s last famines when in 1944, the Russian army forced the Finnish army to make
the famine of 1866 to 1868, known in Finland as suuret a final retreat.
nälkävuodet or “the great hunger years,” saw a poor har- After World War II, Finland adopted a neutral stance
vest combined with bad weather leave thousands of Finns that saw the country enjoy cordial relations with the Soviets
starving. The Finnish administration was ill-equipped to and, later, the Russian Federation. As a result of Finland’s
handle such a crisis, so by the time the weather improved, neutrality, in 1975, the Finnish capital, Helsinki, was the
infectious diseases had killed many more Finns. As a result location for the Helsinki Final Act, an agreement signed by
of the famine, schemes were put in place to diversify Finn- thirty-five nations that concluded the Conference on Secu-
ish agriculture. rity and Cooperation in Europe. The act aimed to improve
The level of autonomy enjoyed by Finland during its relations between the communists and the West and had
Russian imperial era was also evident in politics, for in a far-reaching effect on both the Cold War and U.S.-Soviet
1906, Finland became the first European nation to grant relations. Finland’s neutrality has allowed Finland to take
women the vote. It was also the first country in the world part in many UN peacekeeping missions, and Finnish dip-
to allow women to stand in political elections. In 1907, lomats have brokered the independence of Namibia and
nineteen women were elected to the Diet (the Finnish Kosovo. Finland’s economy has also gained from the coun-
independent political assembly). While these innovations try’s political neutrality, for Finland has built strong trade
benefited the Finns, from 1899 to 1917, Russia began to relations with the Soviets and their allies, the Russian Fed-
introduce assimilationist policies. Russian became a com- eration, Europe, and the United States. Finland became a
pulsory school subject, and only Russian speakers could member of the European Union in 1995. During the 1990s
attain powerful jobs in the Finnish administration. Addi- and 2000s, Finland became a major player in the commu-
tionally, the czar’s governor-general to Finland, Nikolay nications industry, providing networks and information
Bobrikov, was tyrannical, and, in 1903, he exiled a num- services that became important to trade between Finland
ber of his political opponents. When Bobrikov was assas- and Asia.
sinated, Finnish-Russian relations became irrevocably
damaged.
In 1917, Finland declared its independence follow- Society, Culture, and Tradition
ing the Russian Revolution, but the Finns were split over In Finland’s north and east, swidden farming, hunting,
their country’s political organization. Eventually, a civil fishing, and forestry are the people’s traditional occupa-
war broke out between the nationalistic White Finns, who tions. In the south and west, peasant farming and animal
favored Finnish independence, and the Red Finns, who husbandry are the traditional mainstays of the local econ-
wanted an independent Finland to align with Bolshevik omy. Post–World War II, engineering, metalworking, ship-
Russia. Ultimately, Finland became independent in 1918. ping, and communications have gained in importance in
In 1939, Soviet Russia attacked Finland at the start of the Finland.
342 Finn

Finland is one of Europe’s most ethnically and cultur- about topics, including drugs, sex, and the environment,
ally homogeneous nations, though Finns have incorpo- from a neutral standpoint. Finns consider sexual equality
rated cultural elements from Russia, Scandinavia, and imperative, and so a number of women hold important
continental Europe. Forests are an especially strong ele- positions in politics, business, the clergy, and academia.
ment of Finnish culture. Many Finnish customs are associ- The Finn adaptation of leap year marriage proposal tradi-
ated with forests, which Finns traditionally view as places tions means that it is auspicious for women to propose to
of protection. This view of the forest is evident in one of men on February 29. If a Finnish man refuses a proposal
Finland’s most famous literary works, Seven Brothers, by on this date, he is required to pay the woman a penalty of
­nineteenth-century writer Aleksis Kivi, which tells the enough fabric to create a skirt.
story of a group of brothers who seek refuge in a wood. Another important holiday for Finns is Vappu, which
Today, Finns will often leave behind urban stresses to relax is celebrated annually on May 1 to mark the end of win-
in forest cottages. Other Finnish traditions are also associ- ter. The celebrations combine elements of May Day and
ated with trees and wood. At midsummer, the Finns light Walpurgis Night, the eve of the Christian feast day of Saint
bonfires and decorate their houses with birch twigs. In Fin- Walpurga, when people light bonfires to ward off evil spirits
land, midsummer is known as juhannus (a name derived and witches. Given Finland’s cold, dark winters, the arrival
from that of St. John the Baptist). Midsummer falls on June of spring is an important event for Finns. Vappu dates back
20 or 21, but in Finland, it is an official national holiday cel- to pagan times, but in the nineteenth century, engineering
ebrated by a three-day weekend that begins on the Friday students would mark the occasion by partying at midnight
that falls between June 20 and 26. In addition to the light- on April 30 while wearing white caps. This tradition con-
ing of bonfires, juhannus celebrations involve music and tinues today across Finland, with a carnival atmosphere
dancing. At Easter, Finns eat a dessert made from malt and taking over towns and cities. Another important day for
rye flour, mämmi, from containers made from birch bark. the Finns is December 6, their Independence Day. This is
In winter, Finns bring birch branches into their houses a solemn occasion marked by ceremonial observances and
as a reminder that spring is on its way. Birch whisks are the commemoration of the nation’s war dead.
also used in traditional wooden Finnish saunas. Finns con-
sider the sauna a sacred place, for they were used for both
weekly sauna baths and for such ritual purposes as healing Health Care and Education
the sick and preparing corpses for burial. The sauna was Finland’s public healthcare system is mostly funded by taxes.
also used for washing laundry, curing meat, and ferment- This means that although health care is not free to patients,
ing malt. In Finland, the sauna is thought to be inhabited fees are low. Finland has improving life expectancies as a
by the saunatonttu, an elf that punishes people who mis- result of improved care for patients suffering from cancer,
behave inside the sauna. Finnish sauna etiquette dictates diabetes, cardiovascular conditions, and chronic asthma.
that both men and women use saunas but never together, Under Finnish law, patients must have access to health care
except within a family. in their mother tongue. As Finland is officially bilingual
Finnish social attitudes are liberal. As Finland is home (Finnish and Swedish), nurses are expected to be able to
to an increasing number of immigrants, the religious tol- communicate in both languages to ensure patients’ safety.
erance of Finns is increasing. That said, Finn brides-to-be Pregnant women living in Finland who are registered
make a mockery of the Swedish festival of St. Lucia, a fig- with the country’s social security scheme are given a card-
ure associated with purity and virginity. For their mock board box by the Finnish government. The box contains
Lucia parade, a Finn bride-to-be disguises as a drunken items such as clothes, sheets, and toys and can also be used
version of St. Lucia, wearing a mass of broken candles and as a bed. It has been claimed that these boxes help Finland
her teeth especially blackened for the occasion. The bride- maintain one of the lowest infant mortality rates in the
to-be then makes a speech from a balcony before being world. Finnish women view receiving the package as an
driven around the town’s streets in a boat. adult rite of passage, and across Finland, the maternity box
In Finland, fourteen- and fifteen-year-olds can partic- is seen as a symbol both of equality and of the importance
ipate in Prometheus Camps. These are politically neutral, of children within Finnish society. It is usual for parents in
nonreligious camps organized by the Prometheus Camp Finland and other Scandinavian countries to place their
Association of Finland, also known as Protu, that run dur- babies outside in the cold to sleep, a practice sometimes
ing the summer. At a Prometheus Camp, teenagers learn referred to as Nordic Napping. Research carried out in
 Flemish 343

Finland found that children that rest outside enjoy better Overview
quality sleep and sleep longer (Williams 2017). The Flemish (or Flemings, called the Vlamingen in Dutch)
The Finnish education system stresses the need for make up the majority population of Belgium. The term
pupils to grow as members of an ethically responsible Flemish can be used to describe both people of Flemish
society while equipping students with knowledge and life ethnicity and people who live in the Flanders region of
skills. Basic Finnish education lasts for nine years, from Belgium and speak a southern variant of Dutch, which is
the ages of seven to sixteen years. Schools do not select the Flemish language. Traditionally, the Flemish are Catho-
their students. Instead, each Finnish student is allocated a lic, though their culture is influenced by Calvinism. Today,
place at a nearby school, though pupils may opt to attend a however, neither Catholicism nor Calvinism is influential
different school. All schools follow a national curriculum, on the Flemish. Instead, the Flemish are increasingly secu-
though local education authorities and schools can create lar in keeping with the prevailing trend toward secularism
their own curricula within this framework. After compul- in Belgium and the Netherlands.
sory education, students can continue to secondary edu-
cation, which may be general or vocational. Both forms
of secondary education take three years to complete and Population, Diaspora, and Migration
allow pupils to go on to higher education. The Flemish live in their autonomous homeland, Flan-
ders, which is located in northern Belgium as well as in
the Belgium capital of Brussels. The Flemish population
Threats to Survival comprises six million people (DeWulf 2011), or around
There are no imminent threats to the survival of the Finns, 60 percent of the Belgium population (Haarmann 2015).
who enjoy a high standard of living. Around ninety thousand Flemish live in parts of France
See also: Karelian; Sami; Swede bordering Flanders (Haarmann 2015).
Further Reading
Armstrong, Karen. “Finns.” 2011. In Ethnic Groups of Europe: An
Geography and Environment
Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 131–136. Santa Bar-
bara, CA: ABC-CLIO. The Flemish homeland, Flanders (or Vlaanderen), is
Haarmann, Harald. 2015. “Finns.” In Native Peoples of the World: located in the western European country of Europe, which
An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues, shares land borders with the Netherlands to the north,
edited by Steven Danver, 300–303. Vol. 2. London: Routledge. Germany and Luxembourg to the east, and France to the
Lyytimäki, Jari. 2007. “Environmental Protection in Finland:
south. To the west, Belgium shares a sea border with the
What Is Finland Doing to Preserve Its Wilderness?” This Is
Finland, July. https://finland.fi/life-society/environmental​ United Kingdom. Flanders constitutes the northern half
-protection-in-finland. of Belgium and includes the provinces of Antwerp, East
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the Flanders, Limburg, Flemish Brabant, and West Flanders.
World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA: The Brussels-Capital Region lies within Flanders but is
ABC-CLIO. administratively separate from the Flemish homeland.
Brussels is, however, both the capital of Belgium and the
capital of the Flemish Region. A small area of Flanders is
located outside Belgium; Baarle-Hertog (Baerle-Duc) is a
municipality administered by Antwerp province that con-
FLEMISH sists of several small enclaves in the Netherlands that are
interlinked with the Dutch municipality of Baarle-Nassau.
Current Location Belgium; France; Netherlands Flanders is flat and low-lying, with a coastline along the
Current Population 6 million North Sea. The Kempenland, a plateau in northeast Flan-
Language Dutch ders, is characterized by sand dunes and patches of broom
Interesting Fact The Flemish homeland, Flanders, and heather as well as coniferous plantations. The rolling
is so synonymous with the horrors Central Plateaus occupy central Flanders. Northwest Flan-
of World War I that specialist tours ders consists of a fertile low plain. Further west lie miles of
of the area’s battlefields are a major polders (land reclaimed from the sea), which are linked to
source of tourism. drainage channels. The main Flanders rivers include the
344 Flemish

Schelde, Dender, Dijle, Nete, Rupel, Yser, and Meuse, with northern Belgium, then part of Gaul (modern-day France
the Meuse forming part of Belgium’s border with the Neth- and parts of Belgium, west Germany, and north Italy). In
erlands. Flanders has a temperate climate that is greatly 54 BCE, the Belgae unsuccessfully rebelled against the
influenced by the sea. Flanders’ rainfall is mild and consist- Romans. Two years later, the Belgae rebelled against the
ent throughout the year and without a wet or dry season. Romans again and again proved unsuccessful. Ultimately,
Rich coalfields located in the Kempenland once pro- the Romans’ military might and ability to prevent the vari-
duced most of Belgium’s coal. Today, however, these ous Belgae tribes from forming powerful alliances allowed
are abandoned. Petroleum and chemical processing are the Romans to completely overrun Gaul. The Romans
important industries in modern Flanders, especially the then renamed Belgae land the province of Gallia Belgica.
refining of zinc and other nonferrous metals. Nuclear Following the collapse of the Roman Empire in the fifth
power production, glassmaking, car manufacturing, and century, Gallia Belgica was invaded from the east by the
textile production (mainly wool and linen) are also sig- Huns and the Franks. Eventually, the Franks took con-
nificant industries. Tourism is a major source of Flemish trol of Gaul, most famously under Emperor Charlemagne
income because the coastal area of West Flanders is home (r. 768–814). In 843, the Frankish Empire was divided,
to many famous seaside resorts, including Ostend and making the Scheldt River the dividing line between the
Blankenberge. western and eastern halves of the Frankish kingdoms.
In 2017, air-quality tests indicated that Flanders met In the later medieval period, Flanders flourished due to
European targets for most substances. However, the lev- the prosperity of the city of Ypres, which became wealthy
els of ozone and sulfur dioxide were higher than World through producing cloth and forging economic ties to
Health Organization (WHO) guideline values. Some parts England. The wealth enjoyed by Flanders and Ypres was
of Flanders also registered high levels of nitrogen dioxide such that both locations became the focal point of con-
and cadmium. Hoboken, a southern district of the Flemish flict between France and England. While Flanders resisted
city of Antwerp, exceeded the European target value for French rule,Ypres was captured by the French and was ruled
arsenic in a small area very close to a nonferrous plant. by a succession of French kings. In time, the French king
Similarly, cadmium levels were high in an industrial area Philip II (r. 1180–1223) was challenged by an anti-French
of Beerse, and high rates of nickel were found near an alliance of Flanders, the English king John (1199–1216),
industrial area of Genk. The WHO has cited arsenic and and the Holy Roman Empire. However, Philip defeated the
nickel as cancer-causing agents. If the arsenic level found anti-French coalition at the Battle of Bouvines in 1214.
in Hoboken continues, it will cause 1 additional cancer Then, in 1297, Flanders entered into a new alliance with
case in 28,000–90,000 people who suffer a lifetime expo- English king Edward I (r. 1272–1307), leading to another
sure to the substance. In Beerse, the risk varies between 1 French invasion of Flanders. In response to the invasion,
in 130,000 and 1 in 153,000 inhabitants, while in Genk, the the English sent troops to Flanders in support, but a major
cancer risk varies between 1 in 110,000 and 1 in 390,000 uprising against the English by the Scottish meant that the
people. If the levels of the cancer risk substances decrease English had to focus on conflicts at home. In 1298, the Eng-
over time, the cancer risk associated with them will also lish troops returned to England, thereby abandoning the
reduce (Flanders Environment Agency 2017). Flemish and allowing the French to impose its influence
over Flanders. The French oppression of Flanders caused
great resentment among the Flemish that resulted in a
History and Politics massacre of the French inhabitants of the city of Bruges
By the first century BCE, Flanders was inhabited by the in 1302. In response to the massacre, a French army was
Morini, the Manapii, and Nervii tribes of mixed Celtic and dispatched to destroy Flemish rebels. Later that year, how-
Germanic origins. The Romans, who called these tribes ever, the French lost to a Flemish peasant army at the Bat-
the Belgae, found the tribes fearsome opponents deter- tle of the Golden Spurs. This battle marked the first time
mined to resist Roman rule. In 57 BCE, the Belgae tribes in European history that an irregular army had defeated
united and attacked Roman troops based near the Sambre a regular army. Subsequently, the French regrouped and
River. Although the Belgae launched a spirited attack, the two years later defeated the Flemish at the Battle of Mons-
Romans prevailed and almost exterminated the Belgae. en-Pévèle. A resulting peace treaty allowed the Flemish
Following the Belgae’s defeat, the Romans took control of some independence in return for ceding three of their
 Flemish 345

towns (Lille, Douai, and Bethune) to France. In exchange French captured Ypres during a war between France and
for taxes, Flemish cities negotiated special rights from the Spain. Meanwhile, a Dutch blockade of the Scheldt River
French and gained a distinctive feudal status. To highlight cut Antwerp off from the sea, something that damaged the
their special status, the Flemish cities tended to include local economy severely and forced tens of thousands of
a carillon (belfry) that housed the city’s most important Flemish people, mostly members of the Flemish economic
documents. Often, the carillons were the tallest sections of and intellectual elite, to move to the Dutch Republic.
imposing Gothic churches. For a while, the English were also at war with Spain, a
From 1337 to 1453, the Hundred Years’ War waged as conflict that, in 1657, resulted in an Anglo-French treaty
a series of conflicts between the House of Plantagenet that saw English troops sent to fight alongside the French
(rulers of England) and the French House of Valois over in Flanders. In 1667, the French renewed their fight against
the right to rule France. Flanders and Ypres stayed fairly the Spanish. The war ended the following year, with the
neutral in the conflict, though the Flemish had divided result that France kept control of much of the Spanish
loyalties, for some Flemish supported France while others Netherlands. During the Franco-Dutch War (1672–1678),
backed England. In 1378, however, the election of Pope the French took control of Ypres. Flanders was again a tar-
Urban VI caused the Great Papal Schism, a split within the get of French ambition in the Nine Years’ War (1688–1697).
Catholic Church that saw England side with Urban VI and However, following the war, the 1697 Treaty of Ryswick saw
France back a rival pope, Clement VII. In 1382, a French the Spanish retain control of Flanders. During the War of
army defeated the people of Ghent who backed Urban VI the Spanish Succession (1701–1714), Flanders was again a
at the Battle of Westrozebeke (or Roosebeke). Following war zone, for the French, Spanish, and Bavarians took on
this battle, virtually all of Flanders came under French the Allies, principally England, the Holy Roman Empire,
rule and aligned the people, who were forced to support and the Dutch Republic. At the outbreak of the war, the
Clement VII. The following year, Urban VI declared a French seized Flanders, and the fortress town of Ypres was
campaign against Clement VII. As part of this campaign, incorporated into a defensive line designed to repel Allied
an English bishop led an army to capture Flanders. After forces. During the conflict, the people of Flanders suffered
many weeks, however, the English were unable to capture greatly. Ultimately, the French were defeated. Ensuing trea-
Flanders, meaning the English abandoned their campaign. ties saw Flanders ceded to the Dutch, who, in 1715, ceded
In 1384, what is now Flanders, northern France, and the the region to Austrian Habsburg.
Netherlands came under the rule of France via the Duke In 1744, the French invaded Flanders as part of the War
of Burgundy. The Burgundians dedicated much of their of the Austrian Succession (1740–1748) to occupy most of
wealth to culture so that their territories could rival cul- Flanders, including Ypres and Brussels. Under the Peace of
tured France. As part of this cultural drive, Flemish art Aix-la-Chapelle, however, France returned all the Flanders
flourished, especially the work of the Flemish Primitives, land it had acquired to Austria. The French Revolution of
who strove to depict the visible world in as detailed a man- 1789 began a period of European conflict that lasted for
ner as possible in their oil paintings. over twenty years. In 1792, the revolutionary French army
In 1482, Flanders passed from Burgundian rule to that invaded the Austrian Netherlands to take control of Flan-
of the Habsburgs, first to the Austrian branch of the Haps- ders at the 1794 Battle of Fleurus. Flanders remained under
burgs and then, in 1556, to the Spanish branch of the family. French rule until Napoleon Bonaparte’s defeat in Napole-
After this time, Flanders was called the Spanish Nether- onic Wars (1815). An ensuing treaty saw Flanders incor-
lands. Between 1568 and 1697, Europe descended into a porated into the new United Kingdom of the Netherlands.
period of continual warfare. At the same time, the rulers of The unification of Flanders with the Netherlands did not
the Spanish Netherlands became concerned at the spread last, however, for the deeply Catholic south was mistrustful
of Protestantism within the region and tried to suppress of the Protestant Dutch king William I. In 1830, a coali-
the religion. In 1568, the Dutch rebelled against Spanish tion of Catholic and Francophone troops led an anti-Dutch
rule, leading to war and the breakaway of provinces of the rebellion that broke away from the Netherland to form
Spanish Netherlands. Free of Spanish rule, the provinces the newly independent Kingdom of Belgium. However,
formed the Dutch Republic. The war continued however, the leaders of the rebellion decided that French would be
and southern parts of the Spanish Netherlands, includ- Belgium’s only official language, despite most of the inhab-
ing Ypres, were devastated. Then, from 1635 to 1659, the itants of Belgium speaking Dutch and not understanding
346 Flemish

French, for only wealthy Dutch-speaking families could Dutch-speaking Flanders and an exclusively French-­
afford for their children to have a French-language edu- speaking Wallonia and Brussels the only officially bilin-
cation. Thus, poor northern Belgium remained Dutch-­ gual location in Belgium. Through this language division,
speaking. The birth of a distinct Flemish identity is linked Belgium became a patchwork of two opposing nationalist
closely to the birth of the Romantic movement that began movements, with the Belgian state (as symbolized by the
at the end of the eighteenth century. In Belgium, the move- Belgian monarchy and federal parliament) reflecting the
ment was nostalgic for the Middle Ages, a time when many common Belgian nationality. Over the years, this situation
cities in Flanders flourished. Flemish cultural leaders has resulted in political crises. The Flemish, who resentfully
called the whole of Dutch-speaking Belgium “Flanders,” consider themselves as supporting poorer Walloon areas,
partly as a way to prevent the area from being too under tend to favor greater regional autonomy within Belgium.
the influence of the French. In 1866, Flemish nationalism Further, around 25 percent of Flemish people would like
also resulted in Antwerp becoming the first city to make to see the Flemish achieve independence (DeWulf 2011).
Dutch its official language. Ever since, Antwerp has been
a bastion of Flemish nationalism. Then, in 1898, new
language regulations meant Belgium became a bilingual Society, Culture, and Tradition
state, though French remained the country’s language of Central to Flemish culture and society is the southern var-
education and administration. By the start of the twenti- iant of Dutch that is the Flemish language. There is little
eth century, the Flemish Movement (the political drive for difference between the Dutch used in Flanders and that
Flanders’ greater autonomy) had formed an alliance with employed in the Netherlands. The Flemish do, however,
the Catholic People’s Party and developed into a Flemish speak Dutch with a different accent than the Dutch. The
pressure group. At the same time, the Flanders economy Flemish and Dutch, together with the Surinamese, form
developed as the port of Antwerp attracted investors. the Nederlandse Taalunie (Dutch Linguistic Union), a reg-
Flanders remained peaceful until the outbreak of World ulatory body that governs issues surrounding the Dutch
War I in 1914. The battles that occurred in Flanders dur- language and supporting Dutch-language courses world-
ing the war resulted in an unprecedented level of death wide. While Belgium is a bilingual nation, Flanders is
and destruction. In both World War I and World War II, monolingual, with Dutch being the language of education
Belgium was occupied by Germany. Then Germans tried and administration.
to win Flemish backing by vowing to implement Flemish-­ The Flemish are famous for their cuisine, which tends to
language reforms, including the creation of a Dutch-­ use regional ingredients, including asparagus, endive, and
language university in Flanders. While most members mussels. Other typically Flemish ingredients include pota-
of the Flemish Movement refused to cooperate with the toes, meat, fish, Brussels sprouts, spinach, and chocolate.
Germans, some of the movement’s more radical members Flanders is synonymous with the horrors of World War
did cooperate, eventually leading to the movement losing I, for many of the war’s most notorious battles took place
some of its credibility (DeWulf 2011). After each war, the there, including the First Battle of Ypres, the Second Battle
collaboration of some Flemish radicals led to harsh repres- of Ypres, the Battle of Passchendaele/Third Battle of Ypres,
sions against the Flemish. the Battle of the Lys/Operation Georgette, and the Fifth
In 1962, a language border between the Walloons and Battle of Ypres. The battles killed many hundreds of thou-
Flemish was instituted, with Belgium split into exclusively sands of soldiers and resulted in the landscape of Flanders

The Flemish Primitives

The artists referred to as the Flemish Primitives produced art that is distinguished by highly refined oil painting that
strove to depict the visible world in as much detail as possible. The Flemish Primitives usually painted religious scenes
or small portraits to which they applied complex iconography and imagery. The artists accepted commissions from
various courts and religious institutions as well as from cities and their populaces. Flemish painting came to influence
all of Europe through Flemish contact with Northern Italy and other continental European regions.
 Flemish 347

housing many military cemeteries. There are even specialist systems in terms of waiting times, results, and so on). The
tour companies offering tours of the Flanders battlefields. comparison saw Belgian health care noted as being among
Since 1928, the “Last Post” bugle call has been played every Europe’s most accessible healthcare services. Belgium’s
evening at 8:00 p.m. at the Menin Gates war memorial in healthcare spending is around €3,500–€4,000 per inhab-
Ypres. This is because the area around Ypres saw several itant, which represents around 10.4 percent of Belgium’s
battles during World War I, with the Third Battle of Ypres a annual gross domestic product (GDP). Consequently, there
notoriously prolonged fight resulting in the deaths of many are on average 6.2 hospital beds per 1,000 people. The aver-
soldiers on both sides. Just how many British and German age Belgian life expectancy is 78.8 years (Expatica 2018).
soldiers died during this battle, which only lasted from July Education in the Flemish Community (the Flem-
1917 to November 1917, is a matter still debated today, but ish provinces and Brussels) governs education in the
historians put the figure at between two hundred thousand Dutch-speaking Belgium. Flemish education comprises
and four hundred thousand (Williams 2017). three networks: state-provided education (gemeenschap-
After the end of World War I, many families that had sonderwijs), subsidized public schools, and subsidized free
lost family members during the conflict traveled to Ypres schools (these are usually affiliated to the Catholic church).
to find the graves or memorials of their loved ones. When Education is compulsory for Flemish children aged from
the Menin Gate memorial was revealed in July 1927, the six to eighteen years, though noncompulsory preprimary
“Last Post” was played to signal the end of work on the school starts at age two years and six months (around 99
memorial and the start of night. One of those who heard percent of Flemish three-year-olds are enrolled in prepri-
the playing of the call on this occasion sponsored the play- mary schools). Primary school consists of six years of basic
ing of the “Last Post” under the arch of the Menin Gate on reading, writing, and mathematics. Most primary school
a regular basis as a tangible gesture of sympathy on behalf lessons are taught in the local language, for pupils only
of the residents of Ypres toward those who had lost loved start to learn a second language in the penultimate year
ones in battles around the town. To begin with, the “Last of primary school. Pupils living in the Brussels-­Capital
Post” was played for two months after the Menin Gate Region start learning a second official language earlier,
was unveiled. Later, the ceremony became a nightly event. however, for they learn either French or Dutch in their
World War I also inspired the famous poem “In Flanders third year of primary school.
Fields,” written by Canadian surgeon John McCrae. The Flemish children start secondary school when they
battles of World War I disturbed the soil of Flanders, and reach twelve years of age. Secondary school is divided
poppies were the only flowers that would grow on the des- into four areas of study: humanities, technical, artistic,
olate battlefields. The blood red flowers inspired McCrae to and vocational. These areas are intended to prepare pupils
use the poppies as a symbol of the immense sacrifice made for university. According to the Programme for Interna-
by his comrades. Soon the poppy became a lasting symbol tional Student Assessment (PISA, the modern gauge of
commemorating those that had died in World War I. a nation’s educational success), in 2015, 68.8 percent of
Flemish ­fifteen-year-olds attended schools that admit stu-
dents based on their academic performance. Flemish sec-
Health Care and Education ondary education occurs in three two-year stages: Stage 1
In Belgium, health care is divided into state and private covers lower secondary school, while Stages 2 and 3 com-
sectors, with fees payable in both sectors. The fees are prise upper secondary education. Students aged sixteen
funded by a combination of social security contributions to eighteen years are able to combine full-time education
and mandatory health insurance. Typically, patients pay with work-based learning (OECD 2017).
costs upfront and are reimbursed a proportion of the
charges for medical fees, hospital care, and prescriptions
through their Belgian health insurance fund (ziekenfonds, Threats to Survival
in Dutch). Many Belgians top up their mandatory health There are no threats to the Flemish, who enjoy one of
insurance with private insurance so that they can receive a the world’s highest standards of living (de Vries 2007).
full refund of all medical costs. The future of Brussels is unclear, however. Historically,
In 2016, Belgium was ranked fourth in the Euro Health Brussels is a Dutch-speaking city situated within Flemish
Consumer Index (that compares European healthcare territory and is regarded by the Flemish as their capital
348 Fon

city. Nonetheless, today, most inhabitants of Brussels phylum. The Fon language is closely related to Ewe. The
speak French, leading to Wallonia seeking an alliance Fon also speak French. Around 40 percent of the Fon are
with Brussels. The fact that Brussels is also the capital of Christian, and 20 percent practice the people’s polytheistic
the European Union means that the city is increasingly religion, vodun, a form of voodoo (Shoup 2011).
devolving into a global hub that is neither Flemish nor In some earlier European documents, the Fon are
Belgian. referred to as the Dahomeans, a name derived from the
defunct West African kingdom of Dahomey.
See also: Frisian; Walloon
Further Reading
De Vries, André. 2007. Flanders: A Cultural History. Oxford, UK:
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Oxford University Press.
DeWulf, Jeroen. 2011. “Flemish.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe: An According to Benin’s 2013 national census, the Fon are the
Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 136–140. Santa Bar- largest ethnic group in Benin, making up almost 40 per-
bara, CA: ABC-CLIO. cent of the total population, or around 1 million people.
Expatica. 2018. “The Belgian Healthcare System.” November 21. The Fon predominantly live in the south of the country.
https://www.expatica.com/be/healthcare/healthcare-basics​
Another 2 million Fon live in Nigeria, taking the total Fon
/the-belgian-healthcare-system-100097.
Flanders Environment Agency. 2017. “Annual Air Report—­ population to around 3.5 million people (Shoup 2011).
Flanders (Belgium) Emissions 2000–2016 and Air Quality Smaller numbers of Fon people also live in Togo.
in Flanders in 2017.” https://en.vmm.be/publications/annual​
-report-air-quality-in-the-flanders-region-2017.
Haarmann, Harald. 2015. “Flemish.” In Native Peoples of the Geography and Environment
World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contem-
Benin consists of five natural regions. The southern coastal
porary Issues, edited by Steven Danver, 303. Vol. 2. London:
Routledge. region is low, flat, and sandy, featuring tidal marshes and
Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development lagoons. Behind the coastal region is the barre, a fertile
(OECD). 2017. “Education Policy Outlook: Belgium.” OECD, plateau containing the Lama Marsh. This is a vast swampy
September. http://www.oecd.org/education/Education​-Poli​cy​ area extending from Abomey to Allada. Here the land-
-Outlook-Country-Profile-Belgium.pdf. scape is mostly flat, with occasional hills rising to around
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
1,300 feet.
World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA:
ABC-CLIO. Southern Benin has an equatorial climate that experi-
ences two wet seasons and two dry seasons. The chief rainy
season occurs from mid-March to mid-July. After this
comes a short dry season that lasts until mid-­September,
followed by a short rainy season that continues to mid-­
November. The main dry season lasts until the rains return
FON in March. Temperatures are fairly constant, ranging from
around 72°F to 93°F. The area’s relative humidity tends to
Current Location Benin; Nigeria; Togo
be uncomfortably high.
Current Population 3.5 million Recently, Benin has suffered crop failures caused mostly
Language Fon; French by unpredictable climatic conditions (i.e., droughts and
Interesting Fact The Fon are Benin’s most populous floods). Other major environmental issues facing Benin
ethnic group. include rampant deforestation and desertification as well
as water pollution and poaching.

Overview
The Fon are an ethnic group indigenous to the African History and Politics
nation of Benin and also living in Nigeria. The Fon speak In the second half of the fifteenth century, the Fon estab-
their own language, which belongs to the Gbe subfamily of lished themselves as a dominant, centralized state, the
Kwa, which in turn belongs to the Niger-Congo language Kingdom of Dahomey, to trade with Europeans. The
 Fon 349

kingdom was organized into many autonomous clan In 1904, Dahomey became part of French West Africa,
groups. Over time, some of these clans fell under the con- a territory that was dissolved in 1958. Dahomey was
trol of the Yoruba people, while others overran neighbor- granted independence in 1960, but the new state experi-
ing villages. By the start of the seventeenth century, the enced much interethnic fighting. Following independence,
Fon state had become a formidable military kingdom that Benin society quickly divided into three ethnic/regionally
had conquered much of the African interior. The king dur- based movements: Fon, Yoruba, and Bariba. Then, from
ing this period, Tacoodonu, killed his local rival, Da, king 1970, a rotational presidency was established among the
of Abomey, by slicing open Da’s stomach and burying him Fon, Yoruba, and Bariba. Subsequently, Benin’s political
under his palace. Subsequently, Tacoodonu named his elite exploited regional ethnic differences while attempt-
newly enlarged kingdom Dahomey, meaning “Da’s belly.” ing to exert political power, with the upshot being that
Dahomey grew rapidly, and by the 1720s, its weaponized no one national presidential candidate emerged. Instead,
army was able to overrun the coastal Benin city of Why- regional politicians with strong regional power bases
day (or Ouidah), thereby founding a direct trade route began to gather momentum. In 1972, this system came
from the African interior to the Atlantic coast. Following to an end when a military coup occurred headed by Gen-
a brief struggle for dominance among various local peo- eral Mathieu Kérékou. The military formed the Military
ples, Dahomey emerged as the West Africa’s most powerful Council of the Revolution (CNR), dominated by northern
state. political factions, and adopted Marxism-Leninism as the
The state’s fierce reputation was enhanced by the national political ideology.
Dahomey kings’ custom of sacrificing enemy peoples The new regime changed the country’s name to the
en masse and executing captured enemy soldiers during Republic of Benin because authorities thought naming the
annual festivities. The Dahomey were also active in the country after the Bight of Benin was politically neutral and
transatlantic slave trade, for they would sell some of the might calm interethnic conflict. At the same time, however,
people they captured to European slave traders. Indeed, the regime’s economic policies failed, resulting in some
the Fon’s participation in the slave trade was so signifi- rural communities establishing local governments. Addi-
cant that the coastal region they controlled was dubbed tionally, economic bungling impacted heavy on Benin’s
the “Slave Coast.” In addition to executing and selling urban population, and by the mid-1980s, Benin’s military
peoples they captured, the Fon also assimilated many government was bankrupt, both financially and morally.
neighboring people into Fon society, thereby enhancing Benin descended into a general state of unrest and protest,
their control of West Africa. The Fon’s ability to continu- with student uprisings and civil strikes over pay and other
ally strengthen their dominant position was one of the factors. The country’s economic crisis deepened, and with
main reasons the Dahomey kingdom was able to remain popular protests increasing, the regime’s Marxist-Leninist
uncolonized until 1892–1894, when the French took con- policies were abandoned in December 1989.
trol of Fon land. In 1991, a new president was elected and a new con-
The French colonization of Fon land began in 1883, stitution enshrined that guaranteed multiparty democ-
when they took control of the port of Porto-Novo. The racy and basic human rights. In 1996 and 2001, however,
Fon king, Glele, tried to prevent the French from over- Kérékou was returned to power amid opposition claims
running the coast, but Glele’s endeavors proved unsuc- of voter fraud. Then, in 2006, a new candidate, Yayi Boni,
cessful, ultimately prompting the king to commit ran for, and won, the presidency. Yayi Boni was reelected
suicide. The Fon’s struggle against the French continued in 2011, but in 2016, the Fon candidate, Patrice Talon,
under Glele’s son, King Behanzin, who was defeated by defeated Boni’s favored successor. Since this time, Benin
the French in a conflict lasting from 1892 to 1894. The has emerged as one of the most secure and democratic
French used many West African peoples, including the African nations. For instance, Benin has participated in
Yoruba, to fight against the Fon, a move that forms the the UN peacekeeping mission in Mali (2013 onward), and
basis of much recent disharmony between the various in 2015, it joined Nigeria, Cameroon, Chad, and Niger in
communities. From 1892 through to the twentieth cen- an African Union–backed Multinational Joint Task Force
tury, the French used local chiefs to administer their new aimed at combating the jihadist militant organization
colony. Boko Haram.
350 Fon

Society, Culture, and Tradition their employment prospects, thereby improving chil-
Most Fon are involved in farming, animal husbandry, fish- dren’s well-being as well as earning money with which
ing, and trading. The Fon also produce a type of applique to support families and, ultimately, the nation. In addi-
fabric art called Dahomey cloth. This art form began as the tion to the All Girls to School campaign, in recent years
fabric used to make religious banners and flags belonging a new mobile educational outreach program has seen
to chiefs, but today, Dahomey cloth is sold to tourists and a teaching caravan tour rural areas where girls’ school
traded internationally, especially by fair-trade shops in the attendance rates are low. While access to education has
United States and Europe. Another Fon art form sees the recently improved for Benin’s girls and boys alike, edu-
people create small carved or cast figures called boccio. cational retention rates are very low, especially in rural
These figures only take on meaning when they are ani- areas.
mated by a vodun priest and are generally sold to tourists
or at local markets. Threats to Survival
Many Fon follow the people’s polytheistic belief sys- Unlike many African indigenous groups, there are only
tem, vodun, from which the term voodoo derives. Vodun limited threats to the survival of the Fon. As in many Afri-
encompasses the four elements of Fon beliefs: worship can nations, Benin’s people are concentrated on the coast:
of the deities, worship of personal gods, ancestor wor- southern peoples such as the Fon are mainly Christian and
ship, and belief in talismans and charms (known as gbo). live in heavily populated areas. After Benin gained inde-
The Fon also have a historical record, the Book of Fa, pendence, regional and ethnic divides came to the fore,
named after Fa, the Fon god of destiny, which they use especially between the Fon, Yoruba, and Bariba, as well
to tell the future. According to Fon beliefs, everyone has as between the north and south of the country. Initially,
a predetermined fate that can be changed by influencing these differences were exploited by competing political
the gods through performing rituals and sacrifices. The factions, but since the 1990s,, these tensions have largely
Fon also worship their ancestors, who they believe pro- diminished, though Benin’s politics remain ethnically
tect the living. In return for spiritual protection, the liv- based. There are sporadic outbreaks of tension between
ing Fon are expected to keep alive the memory of their Fon Christians and vodun practitioners, but representa-
ancestors through rituals. Every Fon settlement has its tives of Benin’s two main religions, Christianity and Sunni
own ancestral shrine (a dexoxos) where sacrifices and Islam, have commenced joint initiatives to promote reli-
rituals are performed to enhance the life force of the liv- gious understanding.
ing (ashe). Benin’s southern coast is vulnerable to coastal ero-
sion and rising sea levels, and in recent years, Benin has
Health Care and Education experienced extreme weather (particularly floods and
The people of Benin suffer from epidemics of many trans- droughts) that have caused crops to fail. Crop failures have
mittable diseases, including malaria, respiratory infec- increased food insecurity and created increased competi-
tions, and gastrointestinal afflictions, as well as HIV/AIDS. tion between ethnic groups. In response to these environ-
The healthcare system infrastructure is adequate, though mental issues, authorities have improved environmental
the death rate is fairly highly. At the same time, maternal risk planning and established early warning systems to
deaths are slowly decreasing. Other health issues for the preempt food shortages.
people of Benin include diabetes, obesity, alcohol abuse, See also: Ewe; Fulani; Yoruba
and high cholesterol. The health issues afflicting Benin are Further Reading
attributed to problems such as drinking unclean water, Lewis, Shantrelle P. 2009. “Fon.” In Encyclopedia of African Reli-
unsanitary living conditions, environmental factors, and gion, edited by Molefi Kete Asante and Ama Mazama, 270–
poor health education (WHO 2010–2018). 272. Vol. 1. Los Angeles: SAGE.
At present, there is a move to encourage awareness Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Benin.” World
Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, March.
among Benin’s community leaders, parents, chiefs, and
http://minorityrights.org/country/benin.
media about the importance of sending children to Shoup, John A. 2011. “Fon.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and the
school. The All Girls to School campaign aims to get Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup,
all children (not just girls) to attend school to improve 93–95. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
 Frisian 351

World Health Organization (WHO). 2010–2018. “Analyti- by the Frisians’ increasing life expectancies. Poor eco-
cal Summary.” Africa: Benin. http://www.aho.afro.who​ nomic conditions have caused many Frisians, particularly
.int/profiles_information/index.php/Benin:Analytical​ younger generations, to settle outside of their homeland.
_summary_-_Health_Status_and_Trends.

Geography and Environment

The Frisian homeland, Frisia (Friesland in Dutch or Frys-
lân in Frisian) is located in the northwest of the Low Coun-
FRISIAN tries (a northwestern European region comprising parts
of Belgium, the Netherlands, and Luxembourg). Frisia is
Current Location Netherlands; Germany
surrounded to the west, north, and east by the waters of
Current Population 940,000
the Wadden Sea (an intertidal area in the southeast of the
Language Frisian North Sea) and the Ijsselmeer (an inland bay in the central
Interesting Fact The Frisians hold the world’s biggest Netherlands). Frisia is bordered to the east by the  prov-
skating competition held on natural ince of Groningen and by Drenthe en Overijssel to the
ice. southeast. The Wadden islands of Vlieland, Terschelling,
Ameland, and Schiermonnikoog are also part of Frisia.
Overview The Wadden Sea is the world’s largest continuous system
Frisians (called the Frisons in French, Friesen in German, of intertidal sand and mud flats. It has a flat coastal wet-
or the Friezen in Dutch) are a people of Western Europe land environment comprising tidal channels, sandy shoals
who mostly live in the Netherlands. The Frisians are bilin- and sandbars, seagrass meadows, mussel beds, mudflats
gual because they speak the Frisian language, which is a and estuaries, salt marshes, beaches, and dunes. The area
West Germanic language closely related to English, as well is home to many species of plants and animals, including
as Dutch. The Frisians are a recognized language commu- marine mammals such as seals and porpoises.
nity of the Netherlands. Over half of the Frisians do not The northern provinces of the Netherlands—­Fryslân,
follow any religion. Most Frisians that do ascribe to a reli- Groningen, and Drenthe en Overijssel—are home to
gion are Protestant. There are also some small Catholic and extensive fields of natural gas—the gas field in Gronin-
Muslim Frisian minorities. gen is one of the world’s largest. Gas extraction has taken
place in these areas since the 1960s. In Fryslân and Dren-
the en Overijssel, smaller gas fields have been used since
Population, Diaspora, and Migration the 1980s. Many areas near the gas fields have experi-
In 2009, the population of the Frisian homeland of Frisia enced considerable soil subsidence as a result of the gas
comprised 646,318 people, making Frisia one of the least extraction. In some locations, extensive deep salt mining
populated provinces of the Netherlands. Frisia’s popula- has also caused subsidence. Subsidence is potentially very
tion is divided between over twenty rural communities dangerous for Fryslân and Groningen because these areas
and eleven cities. The Frisian capital of Leeuwarden (called are situated well below sea level behind artificial sea dikes.
Ljouwert in Frisian) has around 100,000 inhabitants. In Additionally, in recent years, the largest gas field in Gro-
2004, around 440,000 inhabitants of Frisia (some 60 per- ningen has experienced recurring earthquakes caused by
cent) were native Frisian speakers (Brand 2011). A further the gas extraction. As a result of the earthquakes, many
300,000 Frisians have left their homeland in search of thousands of buildings, including people’s homes, have
work (Minority Rights Group International 2018). A very been damaged, resulting in legal cases between property
small number of Frisians live in the far northwest of Ger- owners, mining companies, and the Dutch government.
many, where Frisian is officially recognized as a minority National laws provide oversight for mining activities
language. throughout the Netherlands, so the national government
In recent years, the number of native-born Frisians is able to override local and regional lawmakers in regard
living in Frisia has fallen due to both a declining Frisian to gas extraction. Gas extraction has been important to the
birth rate and because Frisians have left their homeland Dutch state budget since 1962, providing money that is
in search of work. The trend is only partly compensated spent on the Dutch welfare state, especially infrastructure
352 Frisian

projects in the country’s densely populated western prov- industry and commerce that led to the expansion of
inces. It has been calculated that Groningen and Fryslân towns into major independent settlements. When the
have received only 1 percent of the total benefits from the Frankish empire collapsed in 1100, Frisian territory
gas extraction (Forniès 2018). became a self-governing democratic entity encompass-
In 2018, the Dutch ministry of Economic Affairs ing an area stretching from the Zwin River in Northern
ordered hundreds of companies to switch from using fossil Flanders to the Weser River in northwest Germany. In
fuels to alternative sources by 2022 in an effort to reduce the twelfth century, four of Frisia’s cities became part of
the country’s dependency on fossil fuels. At the same time, the Hanseatic League (an alliance of trading guilds that
it is planned that Groningen gas extraction be halved. monopolized trade along the coast of northern Europe).
Since 2014, the amount of gas has already been reduced. In the twelfth century, the Danish and Dutch began to
Nonetheless, many Frisians demand a complete end to gas encroach on Frisian land, reducing Frisian territory to
extraction in Groningen. Of particular note is the gas field the northern coast of the Low Country and Lower Sax-
between Harlingen and Franeker in Fryslân, where the ony (a state of northwest Germany bordering the North
field has caused subsidence, resulting in the earth slowly Sea). The inhabitants of this smaller Frisian homeland
sinking. Locals fear more problems might arise because fostered a strong sense of Frisian identity. However, the
some scientists predict the earth will subside by up to smaller homeland lacked a uniting ruler, resulting in a
eighteen inches by 2050. This is a major concern in Fryslân society riven by feuds and conflict between rival nobles
and Groningen, where much of the land is below sea level who vied for regional power. The continuous feuds ended
(Forniès 2018). in 1498 when a representative of the Habsburg Empire
was installed as ruler of Frisia. While this move brought
about the end to the feudal violence, it also meant the
History and Politics Frisians lost their independence.
Frisia’s earliest settlements date from 700 BCE. It is The Frisians’ desire for freedom gained momentum
thought Frisians became a distinctive people around 200 during a Dutch revolt against Spain that resulted in the for-
BCE, though they are mentioned by Pliny the Elder (23–79 mation of the Republic of the United Provinces (a republic
CE) as a Germanic people living round the mouth of the comprising seven northern provinces of the Netherlands
Rhine River. The ancient scholar Ptolemy (100–160 CE) that won independence from Spain) in 1581. As part of
also discussed the Frisians, suggesting their land extended this confederacy, Frisia enjoyed considerable autonomy
as far east as the Ems River in northwest Germany. In 250 ruled only by Frisian stadholders (leaders tasked with
CE, Fryslân was flooded, forcing the Frisians to migrate maintaining peace and regional order). Fryslân’s stadhold-
to Flanders in Belgium and Kent in England. In 400, the ers remained agents of the Frisian Estates (stadholders
Frisians returned to their homeland. Once settled back in who served as the king’s representative, although there
their homeland, the fiercely independent Frisians became was no king of the Republic of the United Provinces). The
a force against Christianity and the Frankish Empire. In Frisian Estates remained powerful until France occupied
the seventh century, various Frisian communities united the republic in 1795 under Louis Napoléon Bonaparte, a
under King Redbad (r. ca. 680–719) as a seaborne empire. younger brother of French emperor Napoleon I. When the
Redbad is usually regarded as the last independent Fri- Dutch kingdom was established in 1815, Frisia lost its fed-
sian ruler because, in 734, the Frisians were conquered by eral status. Ever since, Frisian regional control has rested
Charlemagne’s Frankish Empire under which the Frisians with the Dutch national parliament and is coordinated by
converted to Christianity. Despite their subjugation, how- the Provincial Estates, which consists of elected regional
ever, the Frisians maintained their distinct identity and a representatives. The Provincial Estates is headed by a dep-
degree of autonomy. uty to the Dutch monarch and a commissar chosen by the
Starting in the eleventh century, the Frisians devel- Dutch government.
oped a drainage system to remove seawater from the A Frisian national identity revolving around the peo-
land, thereby allowing the Frisians to reclaim vast areas ple’s language and culture was cemented in the nineteenth
of low-lying peat bogs as farmland. Consequently, the century and led to the beginning of the Frisian nationalist
population of the Frisian homeland increased and movement. From the outset, this movement was focused
brought about growth not just in farming but also in on preserving the Frisian language and culture, and it
 Frisian 353

found favor among Frisian political parties and religious reign of the Merovingian dynasty (Frankish rulers that
bodies. In 1966, the Frisian National Party came into being, reigned from 450 to 751 CE). By 1500, Saxon dialects
but today, the party lacking national influence operates as come to dominate formerly Frisian-speaking areas of
a regional opposition party. Groningen and Lower Saxony, thereby reducing the area
From the 1960s to the 1980s, Frisia experienced high in which Frisian was spoken to an area comprising Frisia,
levels of immigration by migrants from North Africa, Tur- Saterland in Lower Saxony, and the far northwest coastal
key, and the Dutch Antilles. In 2001, the governments of zone on the German-Danish border. When a centralized
the Netherlands and Fryslân signed the Covenant on the government was established in Frisia around 1500, Old
Frisian Language and Culture as part of the European Dutch, which had Frankish origins, was declared the
Charter for Regional or Minority Languages. The agree- official language of administration. This move rendered
ment saw the Dutch government promise that any policy Frisian a minority language spoken only in rural areas.
relating to education, administration, the economy the However, in the nineteenth century, a strong Frisian lin-
judiciary, society, media, and culture in Fryslân would guistic revival inspired by nineteenth-century Romanti-
consider the implications for the Frisian language. In 2013, cism (a European artistic and intellectual movement that
the Administrative Agreement on Frisian Language and harked back to preindustrial times), sparked a renais-
Culture 2013–2018 was enacted, which specifically related sance in oral and written Frisian. In the latter half of the
to promoting Frisian language and culture through educa- nineteenth century, standardized Frisian was developed.
tion and the media. Also in 2013, the Dutch government Subsequently, this language was modernized in 1879,
enacted the Law on Frisian Language Use (2013). This law 1945, and 1980.
confirmed the official status of the Frisian language. Today, Many Frisians do not identify as following any religion.
the Ried fan de Fryske Beweging (RfdFB, or Raad van de However, 30 percent identify as Protestant, 6 percent are
Friese Beweging, Council of the Frisian Movement) repre- Roman Catholic, and 2 percent are Muslim (Brand 2011).
sents various bodies active in the promotion of the Frisian Protestantism is the dominant religion of the Frisians
language and culture as well as the Frisians’ regional eco- because the people’s history was closely allied to the rise
nomic and social well-being. of Protestantism during the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries.
In 1580, as the Dutch revolted against the Spanish, the
Society, Culture, and Tradition Protestant Lower German Reformed Church was declared
Until World War II, the Frisians were a mainly rural peo- the official church of Frisia, meaning that only members
ple. Today, although a minority still work in farming and of the church were permitted to fulfill public duties. While
agriculture is a major part of the Frisian national identity, both Catholicism and Anabaptism were condemned, they
most modern Frisians work in service industries or in were still tolerated because their supporters constituted
trade. Frisia has a high, but declining unemployment rate. the majority of the Frisians. Catholicism and Anabaptistm
In 2016, 6.7 percent of Frisians aged fifteen years or older remained important religions in the region well into the
were unemployed, compared with 7.9 percent in 2015. eighteenth century. After 1834, many Frisians denounced
There are two regional Frisian dialects, Stellingwerf, the Lower German Reformed Church for its loose inter-
which is spoken in the southeast of Frisia, and Bilts, pretations of religious beliefs and either converted to
which is spoken in the northwest of the region. Two Catholicism or became members of stricter Protestant
other Frisian dialects, North and Saterlandic Frisian, are reform churches. During the 1960s, like elsewhere in the
spoken in Germany. In Germany, Frisian is officially rec- Low Countries, Protestantism and Catholicism in Frisia
ognized as a minority language. Standard Frisian is also faced attempts to make the churches more secular. As a
spoken in Denmark. In common with German, English, result of this move toward secularism, today, traditional
and Scandinavian languages, Frisian has evolved from religions are followed only by a large minority of Frisians.
the Ingaevonic, or North Sea German, languages. For Immigration by Turks and North Africans to Frisia has
this reason, Old Frisian, as used in medieval legal texts, contributed to a rise in Islam, but Islam has little influence
displays many elements of Old English and Old Saxon. among the Frisians.
In the west of the Low Countries, the Frisian language In the decades around World War I, many Dutch con-
was overwhelmed by the Frankish language during the sidered Frisian culture, with its strong agrarian roots,
354 Frisian

inferior to mainstream Dutch culture. Post–World War II, universities of Amsterdam, Groningen, and Leiden allow
however, an acceptance of Frisian culture accompanied a students to study Frisian. There are Frisian-language
societal shift that saw the Frisians become more closely school textbooks covering Frisian, history, geography, biol-
integrated into national and international life. Following ogy, religion, and music. Additionally, the Frisian Broad-
this shift, Frisian music, art, and literature started to fol- casting Company broadcasts educational programs on
low trends witnessed in the Netherlands and impacted by regional television and radio.
global influences. Frisia continues to have its own Scien-
tific Academy (established in 1938) that focuses on Frisian
language, history, and social sciences. Threats to Survival
As the Frisians live in a region with the constant threat While many Frisians do not strive for political autonomy,
of being engulfed by rising sea levels, much of the Frisian in the 2015 election, the Frisian National Party retained
cultural identity is influenced by the people’s relationship all four of its seats in Fryslân. The party continues to call
with the landscape. Even the Frisian’s most popular sports for Frisian autonomy via a referendum over devolution as
are related to the land, for they include sailing and ice-­ well as Frisian autonomy over the people’s health care and
skating on local lakes and canals, and the annual skûtjes- housing.
race between eleven traditional freight sailing ships reflects The Frisian language and culture are promoted through
the Frisians’ maritime heritage. The Frisians are famous the Ried fan de Fryske Beweging (RfdFB, or Raad van de
for the Elfstedentocht (Eleven Cities Race), the world’s Friese Beweging, Council of the Frisian Movement), a
biggest skating competition held on natural ice. The long body comprising eight cultural organizations, as well as
distance tour skating event takes place on a course meas- the provincial government. The RfdFB has raised con-
uring nearly 120 miles long that connects Frisia’s eleven cerns that Dutch authorities do not do enough to protect
historical cities. The sport of fierljeppen (canal jumping) and promote the use of Frisian, despite having signed the
likely evolved when Frisian farmers decided to vault across European Charter for Regional or Minority Languages
the canals dissecting their fields using a pole rather than (ECRML), the Framework Convention for the Protec-
trudge to the bridges provided, as the bridges were few and tion of National Minorities, and the Law on Frisian Lan-
far between. guage Use. Some Frisians also note that state funding for
Frisian-language promotion is dwindling. Despite this
­
reduction in resources, Frisian parents continue to speak
Health Care and Education to their children in Frisian, and Frisian youngsters take
The Dutch healthcare system is one of the most expen- pride in their language. There are Frisian-language daily
sive European healthcare systems. At the same time, it is newspapers and magazines as well as a Frisian-language
consistently noted as the best in Europe on the basis of its version of Google.
accessibility, cost, results, the rights of patients, and the use As a people living in extremely low-lying areas, the Fri-
of medicines. The Netherlands is also known for its mental sians are at risk from rising sea level caused both by cli-
health and geriatric services. mate change and subsidence from gas extraction.
In the Netherlands, education is compulsory for chil- See also: Basque; Catalan; Liechtensteiner; Occitan;
dren between the ages of five and sixteen years. Dutch Walser; Welsh
schoolchildren receive eight years of primary education
Further Reading
followed by up to six years of secondary education. Most
Brand, Hanno. 2011. “Frisians.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe: An
teaching occurs in Dutch, though schools and universities Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 150–153. Santa Bar-
increasingly teach in English. At present, 80 percent of Fri- bara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
sian schools teach in both Frisian and Dutch (Brand 2011). Forniès, David. 2018. “As Earth Trembles Again, Fryslân and
Primary schooling in Fryslân is conducted in both Frisian Groningen Protest against Gas Extraction.” Nationalia, Feb-
and Dutch. However, in the region’s secondary schools and ruary 20. https://www.nationalia.info/new/11071/as-earth​
-trembles-again-fryslan-and-groningen-protest-against-gas​
colleges, Dutch is the language of instruction, with Frisian
-extraction.
only mandatory during lower secondary years. Frisian is Karstedt, Lars. 2005. “Frisians.” In Encyclopedia of the World’s
a mandatory subject at Fryslân’s teacher training colleges. Minorities, edited by Carl Skutsch, 470–471. New York:
Fryslân does not have a university in Fryslân, but the state Routledge.
 Friulian 355

Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Netherlands: Fri- elsewhere. For example, from 1880, Friulians settled in
sian.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, Romania, where they survived as artisans or quarry work-
April. https://minorityrights.org/minorities/frisians. ers living near the town of Greci.
Williams, Victoria. 2015. Weird Sports and Wacky Games around
the World: From Buzkashi to Zorbing. Santa Barbara, CA:
Friuli-Venezia Giulia has a very large older population,
Greenwood. and the region’s birth rate is very low. However, the aging
of the population is partly offset by the presence of many
young foreign residents in the region who comprise 8.6
percent of the population (WHO 2018).

FRIULIAN Geography and Environment

The Friulian homeland comprises most of the autonomous
Current Location Italy
region of Friuli-Venezia Giulia, one of Italy’s five autono-
Current Population 600,000 mous regions with special statute, meaning it is allowed
Language Friulian (Furlan/Marilenghe); Italian home rule to a degree. Friuli–Venezia Giulia is Italy’s most
Interesting Fact The Friulians probably originated northeasterly region. The region is bordered by Austria
from the Carni, a Celtic people who to the north, Slovenia to the east, the Adriatic Sea to the
settled in northeast Italy in 400 BCE. south, and Italy’s Veneto region to the west.
The north of Friuli–Venezia Giulia includes Carnic
Overview Alps and Julian Alps, vast pine forests, stretches of pasture,
Most Friulians (also called the Friuli, Friul, or Friulans, mountain lakes, and numerous mountain streams and riv-
among other names) are an ethnolinguistic minority, most ers. Hills lie to the south of the mountains and along the
of whom live in Italy. The Friulians speak the Friulian region’s border with Slovenia. The central plains have poor,
language, which Friulians call Furlan or Marilenghe. The arid, and permeable soil that is made fertile through exten-
majority of Friulians are bilingual, for they also speak Ital- sive irrigation and intensive farming methods. To the west
ian, which is the language of education and administra- of the region, there is a sandy coast and lagoons. To the
tion in the Friulian homeland. Most Friulians are Catholic, east, there are coastal cliffs where the Kras plateau meets
though small numbers of Protestant Friulians live in alpine the Adriatic Sea.
areas of the Friulian homeland. Friuli–Venezia Giulia has a generally temperate climate,
though it does receive the southerly Sirocco wind from the
Adriatic Sea, which causes heavy rain. Mountainous areas
Population, Diaspora, and Migration of the region have an Alpine-continental climate, and the
According to 2015 research, there are roughly 600,000 Kras plateau experiences cold air masses arriving from
Friulian speakers living in the Italian towns of Gorizia, the northeast that generate the strong, gusty northeasterly
Pordenone, and Udine. These towns are located in Italy’s Bora wind that descends onto the Gulf of Trieste.
northeastern Friuli-Venezia Giulia region. Of this popula- The region’s Marano-Grado lagoon is a site of scien-
tion, 420,00 Friulians spoke Friulian regularly, and 180,00 tific significance as a wetland and as a nesting and win-
spoke the language occasionally (Minority Right Groups tering site for birds. It is also an industrial zone, with
International 2015). In addition, more than 90 percent agriculture occurring in the lagoon’s drainage basin, and
of non-Friulians living in these areas can at least under- serves as a commercial harbor. Fishing and fish and clam
stand, if not speak, Friulian. Indeed, Friulian is Italy’s farming also occur there. The lagoon is also a tourist hub
second-largest domestic minority language after Sardin- with beach tourism in Lignano Sabbiadoro and Grado lit-
ian (Bello 2011). Due to Friulian emigration after World torals, and pleasure boating occurs on the lagoon and its
Wars I and II, Friulian communities can be found in North associated canals and rivers. One of the main problems
America, with Toronto being the fourth-largest Friulian relates to “the diffuse contamination of soil and ground-
city in the world (after Udine, Pordenone, and Gorizia). water in some industrial areas of the mainland, as well as
Argentina, Australia, France, and Germany also have large sediments in industrial channels, rivers and the lagoon
Friulian communities. Smaller numbers of Friulians exist itself ” (Ramieri et al. 2011). These various forms of activity
356 Friulian

contaminate the area’s soils (mainly the uppermost soil) Friulians formed a large minority population. The impo-
and the groundwater with waste products such as fly ash sition of foreign power caused the Friulian cultural and
(particulates that are driven out of coal-fired boilers) and linguistic identity to develop. The Friulians living under
toluene (a by-product in the production of gasoline and Venetian rule soon adopted Venetian words into the
coke from coal). Heavy metals such as mercury also con- Friulian language, and Friulians living in eastern parts,
taminate the area (Ramieri et al. 2011). under Hapsburg rule, began to speak Slovene as their first
language.
In 1797, the Republic of Venice was defeated by Napo-
History and Politics leon Bonaparte. The subsequent Treaty of Campo For-
The Friulians are most likely descended from the Carni, mio allowed the Austrian Hapsburgs to take control of
a Celtic people who settled in northeast Italy in 400 BCE. the Friulians. Following the Austro-Prussian War (1866),
In the first century BCE, the Romans conquered the Fri- however, Austria was forced to hand control of western
ulian homeland. In time, the Roman culture and Latin Friuli (now Udine province) to the newly created Italian
culture replaced the Celtic language and culture of the kingdom. This move left all Friulians living under Italian
Carni. The Romans founded the city of Forum Iulii in 50 rule save for the a Friulian minority living in the Austrian
BCE. The contracted form of Forum Iulii, Fruli, gave the port city of Trieste and its hinterland in Slovenia. Under
Friuli region its name. However, the focus of Friulian life Italian rule, the Friulians faced great pressure throughout
was the Roman-fortified city of Aquileia, founded in 181 the nineteenth century to adopt standard Italian language
BCE, which subsequently became a commercial center of and culture. The Friulians rejected any moves to assimilate
north Italy. In 452 CE, Aquileia was ravaged by invading them, however, with attempts to assimilate them leading to
Huns, who forced the Friulians to flee to islands located an intensification of Friulian identity toward the end of the
in the Venice lagoon. By the sixth century, Aquileia had nineteenth century that culminated in Friulian demands
recovered from the Hun invasion and became the seat of for autonomy within Italy. In time, Friulian unrest spread
Roman Catholic patriarchs who rejected the rule of church to Friulian-inhabited parts of Austria.
in Rome. In 1915, Italy entered World War I. Heavy fighting dev-
Following the collapse of Western Roman Empire in astated the Friulian homeland because the region formed
northern Italy, in 568, German Lombards overran Friuli. the front line between Italy and Austria. Around six hun-
The Lombards divided Friuli into several sections, includ- dred thousand Italian troops died in the fight to take the
ing a coastal area ruled by the Byzantines and an inland Friulian areas of Gorizia (east Friuli) from Austria. In 1919,
Friulian duchy. Under the Lombards, Friulian artistry and the Italian government with the backing of the Allies even-
culture flourished, with the use of zoomorphic motifs in tually annexed these areas officially (Minahan 2002). In
design evident in local architecture, including the Lom- 1922, Benito Mussolini became the Italian leader on a Fas-
bard Temple of Santa Maria in Valle, located in Cividale cist platform that stressed the need for a standardized Ital-
del Friuli (originally called the Forum Iulii). In 776, the ian language and culture. Under Mussolini, the Friulians
Friulian area passed to Frankish king Charlemagne, and found their language banned and their culture repressed,
the Friulian duchy came under Frankish control from 801. as they were forced to adopt Italianized names and place
Under the Franks, the Friulian territory was divided into names and abandon their ancient traditions. Faced with
East and West Friuli, each of which was controlled by a such threats to their cultural survival, many Friulians fled
separate ruler. to Romansh areas of Switzerland.
In 922, control of Friuli was transferred to the Haps- The Friulian homeland was devastated again during
burg dynasty. In was during the Hapsburg era that a dis- World War II when it was the scene of fighting between
tinct Friulian language began to emerge. In 1077, Friuli Italy and Yugoslavia. Following the war, communist Yugo-
became autonomous when the Holy Roman Emperor and slavia claimed eastern Friuli, and Italy took the Istria (the
German king Henry IV (r. 1056–1105) conferred control peninsula at the head of the Adriatic Sea between the
of Friuli to the Patriarch of Aquileia, Sigeart von Beilstein Gulf of Trieste and the Kvarner Gulf) that was home to
(1068–1077) and his successors. Friulian independence Friulians from Italy. In 1947, the Friulian homeland was
lasted until 1420, when the region was appropriated by partitioned, with all of eastern Friuli save for Gorizia com-
the Republic of Venice. As part of the Venetian state, the ing under communist Yugoslav rule and the rest of Friuli
 Friulian 357

made the independent Free Territory of Trieste held under and Celtic languages. Furlan is divided into three main
UN protection. After World War II, Friulian nationalism dialects: East Central Furlan, Western Furlan, and Carnico.
intensified with the creation of the Moviment Friuli, an Sometimes Furlan is called Eastern Ladin because the
organization dedicated to bringing about Friulian auton- language shares the same roots as Ladin, another Rhaeto-­
omy, in 1948. Firulian demands for autonomy were gal- Romance language that is mainly spoken in the northeast
vanized after 1954 when mainly Italian-speaking Trieste Italian mountainous Dolomite area. The Friulian language
was incorporated into the Friulian homeland to form the is mostly spoken in the Italian provinces of Udine, Porde-
Friuli–Venezia Giulia region. Friulian resentment of this none, and Gorizia, though Friulian speakers also live in
move continued into the 1960s and led to Friuli–Venezia the Italian province of Trieste. In 1998, the Italian Episco-
Giulia being granted limited autonomy in 1963. Young Fri- pal Conference gave the go-ahead for a Friulian-language
ulians were especially nationalistic, and in the 1970s, the translation of the Bible. In 2001, the Catholic Church rec-
Friulian language and history became a rallying call for ognized the Friulian language as an official liturgical lan-
their demands for autonomy. guage. Most Friulians are Catholic, though small numbers
Despite the drive for Friulian autonomy, in 1975, Italy of Protestant Friulians live in more remote alpine areas of
and Yugoslavia ratified the international border between the Friulian homeland.
the two countries, which ran through Friulian land. This In major urban areas, Friulians have established Fri-
move, combined with a poor response to a devastating ulian clubs called Fogolar Furlan (“Friulian hearthstead”)
earthquake that hit the Friulian homeland in 1976, gal- or Famee Furlane (“Friulian Family”) that aim to promote
vanized Friulian nationalism. In the 1980s, the Friulians the Friulian language and culture. Friulian traditions are
began to believe the salvation of their culture lay within promoted through various cultural activities and festivals
a united Europe. The dramatic rise in the number of local held throughout the year, including the Fieste de Patrie
and national movements across Europe in recent years has dal Friul on April 3 that commemorates the foundation of
encouraged the Friulians. In 1992, over one hundred thou- the Friulian duchy, and the Pignarûl, a bonfire ceremony
sand Friulians signed a petition calling for the dissolution of likely Celtic origin that occurs on January 6. There are
of the Friuli–Venezia Giulia region together with the crea- also many Friulian-language radio and television stations,
tion of an autonomous Friulian region. including Radio Onde Furlane and Telefriuli.
In 1996, a regional law was passed to protect and pro-
mote the Friulian language and culture as an essential part
of the ethnic identity of the regional community and estab- Health Care and Education
lished the Regional Observatory for the Friulian language The main causes of death in the Friuli–Venezia Giulia
and culture, later supplanted by the Regional Agency for region are cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and respiratory
the Friulian language. In 2007, this law was complemented diseases. Health care in the Friuli–Venezia Giulia region
by an additional regional law aimed at promoting the use is provided by five local health authorities. The region’s
of the Friulian language through policies, such as erecting healthcare facilities include three tertiary hospitals (that
Friulian-Italian bilingual street signs and allowing govern- include oncological, pediatric and rehabilitation depart-
ment offices and proceedings to use Friulian. In 1999, the ments), mental health and addiction services, palliative
Italian parliament passed a law protecting the language care, and public health centers. This regional health sys-
and culture of historical linguistic minorities, including tem, in addition to various health associations and non-
Friulian speakers. The law also gave financial support for governmental organizations (NGOs), provides adequate
Friulian-language projects, such as the appointment of health care for Friulians suffering from acute and chronic
­Friulian-speaking staff at the public university. conditions (WHO 2018).
In 1987, Friulian was only offered as an optional school
subject. Then, in 1999, the right for children to learn Fri-
Society, Culture, and Tradition ulian was preserved in a law. In practice, however, the
The Friulian language, Furlan or Marilenghe, lies at the provision of Friulian-language education is patchy, partly
heart of Friulian identity. The language is of Latin origin because there is no standardized version of the Friulian
and belongs to the Rhaetian subgroup of Romance lan- language. The teaching of Friulan is provided in a minority
guages, though it contains many elements of the Venetian of state-funded primary and secondary schools in Udine
358 Fulani

province. In Gorizia, and Trieste Friulian-language school- See also: Romansh; Sardinian; Walser
ing is available only if requested by parents. The lack of Further Reading
a standardized grammar makes Friulian difficult to teach. Bello, Barbara Giovanna. 2011. “Friulians.” In Ethnic Groups of
Other issues are that native Friulian speakers speak a num- Europe: An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 153–157.
ber of dialects, and less than half of teachers working in Fri- Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
ulian areas understand Friulian, though the University of
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 2, D–K.
Udine and other organizations provide ­Friulian-language Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
teacher training (Minority Rights Group International Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Italy: Friulians.”
2015). The Friulian language and literature are taught at World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, June
the Universities of Udine and Trieste. 19. https://minorityrights.org/minorities/friulians.
Ramieri, Emiliano, Andrea Barbanti, Marco Picone, Gianni Men-
chini, Enrico Bressan, and Elisa Dal Forno. 2011. “Integrated
Threats to Survival Plan for the Sustainable Management of the Lagoon of Mar-
ano and Grado.” Littoral 2010, Article 05008. https://coastnet​
There are no immediate threats to the Friulians, their lan- -littoral2010.edpsciences.org/articles/litt/pdf/2011/01/litt​
guage, or culture. Regional authorities provide announce- -05008.pdf.
ments in the Friulian language as well as Italian, even World Health Organization (WHO). 2018. “Regions for Health:
though they are not obliged to do so. In Udine province, Friuli Venezia Giulia, Italy.” http://www.euro.who.int/data
​/assets/pdf_file/0009/372168/rhn-friuli-venezia-giulia-eng​
90 percent of councils are committed to protecting the Fri-
.pdf?ua=1.
ulian language and culture, and 40 percent of the councils
provide bilingual Friulian and Italian road signs (Minority
Rights Group International 2015). Friulan-language teach-
ing is available in some primary and secondary schools in
Udine province, and in Gorizia and Trieste provinces, this
education is available upon request. A possible imped-
FULANI
iment to Friulian-language teaching is that there is no
Current Location West Africa and the Sahel
standardized Friulian grammar and a shortage of teachers
Current Population 25 million
that understand Friulian. It is often the case that knowl-
Language Fulfulde; French; English; Arabic;
edge of Friulian language and culture is of benefit to Fri-
Hausa
ulians, for many small and medium-sized businesses in
Interesting Fact In 2016, the Fulani were listed as
the Friulian-speaking area use only the Friulian language.
the world’s fourth-deadliest militant
This is especially true in manual industries and farming.
group according to the Global Ter-
There are also many Friulian-language radio stations and
rorism Index.
television programs. Friulian and bilingual Friulian-Ital-
ian magazines exist both in print and online, though there
are no daily or weekly Friulian newspapers. Textbooks and Overview
other books in the Friulian language are published by the The Fulani is an indigenous ethnic group living in the
Società Filologica Friulana, and the Union Scritôrs Furlans Sahel and West Africa. The Fulani speak a language called
(Friulian Writers Union) promotes Friulian-language lit- Fulfulde that belongs to the West Atlantic group of Niger-
erature and awards literary prizes for works published in Congo languages and has many different dialects. In North
Friulian. Several Friulian theater groups produce plays in Africa, where many Fulani live alongside the Hausa, around
Furlan too. Increasingly, the Friulians benefit from links half of the Fulani also speak Hausa. Similarly, in areas of
to other Rhaeto-Romance language communities in the Sudan where the Fulani live beside Arab cattle herders, the
South Tyrol and Dolomites areas and in Switzerland. Fulani now speak Arabic as well as Fulfulbe. Many Fulani
Despite the lack of threats to the Friulians, the Friulian children also speak English and French.
nationalist movement continues to call for the founding of The Fulani call themselves the Fula. Fulani is the
a separate Friulian area within Italy. As the Friulians are name given to the Fula by the Hausa people and subse-
one of Italy’s wealthiest national groups, their calls for self- quently used by others to refer to the Fula people. In
rule may come to fruition in the future. French-speaking nations, such as Senegal, the Fulani are
 Fulani 359

known as the Peul. The Fulani once had their own religion, The first Fulani were nomadic pastoralists that jour-
but today almost all Fulani are Muslims. One of the most neyed great distances to find water and grasslands for
religious Fulani groups is the Tukolor, who converted to their animals. In the 1670s, the Fulani began a campaign
Islam around the eleventh century and during the nine- of jihad against non-Muslim neighbors. This era of jihad
teenth century established an Islamic state that stretched lasted for around two hundred years and saw the establish-
into Mali. ment of jihad states, including Sokoto Caliphate. This state
was founded by the Islamic scholar Usman dan Fodio, who
in the late eighteenth century rose to prominence in Nige-
Population, Diaspora, and Migration ria, where the Fulani shared land with the Hausa. Later,
There are around twenty-five million Fulani people in in the nineteenth century, Fodio created a Fulani-Hausa
total (Levinson 1995), making the Fulani one of the larg- empire that extended from northern Nigeria through
est ethnic groups in the Sahel ecoclimate zone and West Niger, Benin, and Cameroon, conquering neighboring peo-
Africa. The Fulani live in the following countries: Mau- ples and assimilating them into Fulani society. As a result
ritania, Ghana, Senegal, Guinea, Gambia, Mali, Nigeria, of the Fulani conquest of the Hausa, many Fulani live in
Benin, Sierra Leone, Burkina Faso, Guinea Bissau, Cam- villages alongside the Hausa, and there is a history of inter-
eroon, the Ivory Coast, Niger, Chad, Togo, South Sudan, marriage and cultural exchange between the two peoples.
the Central African Republic, Liberia, Sudan, and Egypt. As well as the Sokoto Caliphate, the Fulani also established
In each of these countries, the Fulani are in the minority. another caliphate, the nineteenth-century Massina Empire
The Fulani are often described as the world’s most popu- located in what is now Mali. Together with the Sokoto Cali-
lous nomadic group, despite the fact that many Fulani live phate, the Massina Empire is credited with forming impor-
settled lives. tant trade routes across West Africa.
In West Africa, a major area of settlement for the Fulani As the Fulani traveled across Africa, they acquired large
is Futa Toro, a state established by the relatives of the mod- cattle herds and performed seasonal cattle drives from one
ern Tukolor Fulani group. pasture to another. Ever since, cattle has been an important
indicator of wealth among the Fulani.
The Fulani empire had no qualms about enslaving
Geography and Environment non-Muslims whom they captured, and so when British,
Many of the countries in which the Fulani live are located French, and German colonials arrived in Fulani territory,
in the ecoclimate zone known as the Sahel. The Sahel is they discovered a thriving slave culture that included
a semiarid region situated in western and north central slave raids and slave trading. Indeed, the Sokoto Cali-
Africa that extends from the Atlantic Ocean east through phate supplied slaves to the Ottoman Empire. Like many
northern Senegal and southern Mauritania; takes in the other African ethnic groups, the Fulani were involved in
Niger River in Mali; then continues on to Burkina Faso, the transatlantic slave trade, sourcing the slaves through
southern Niger, and northeastern Nigeria; then goes to raids and trading captives that they acquired during war-
south central Chad and finally into Sudan. The Sahel fare. Although the transatlantic slave trade ceased in the
forms a transitional zone between the Sahara Desert to the nineteenth century, in Africa, the trade continued well into
north of the Sahel and the humid savanna grassland to the the twentieth century. Indeed, in Nigeria, the trade did not
Sahel’s south. officially stop until the start of World War II.

History and Politics Society, Culture, and Tradition

The exact origins of the Fulani are unknown, though it is Fulani society is based around rituals and ceremonies, of
thought that they are descended from both North Africans which sharo is the most important, with the most ardent
and people from sub-Saharan Africa. One theory as to the practitioners of the flogging being the Jafun Fulani tribes
Fulanis’ origins is that they originated in East Africa, trav- of Nigeria. Sharo is an initiation into manhood that sees
eled north through Sudan and Egypt, went west along the males aged around fifteen years flogged in public as a test
Mediterranean coast to Morocco, and then migrated south of bravery. This rite is also seen by some Fulani as a pre-
around 700 CE to Mauritania. cursor to marriage, and others view the flogging as a
360 Fulani

Young Fulani men from Taneka Coco village, Benin, participate in sharo. Sharo is an initiation into manhood that sees teenage boys
flogged in public as a test of bravery. This rite can also be a precursor to marriage or viewed as a sporting event. (Jorge Fernández/
LightRocket via Getty Images)

competitive sporting event contested by clans. Sharo can be flogged). By acting as substitutes, these males will save
be held in honor of a dignitary such as a chief, to celebrate face on the part of both the unwilling boy and his clan.
a marriage, to mark the naming of a famous sharo expo- The boys that are about to be flogged are also accompanied
nent’s first child, or as a community event. Normally, sharo by their family and friends and are eyed with interest by
events last for one week and take place twice per year— local unmarried girls, who are eager to see which boys are
once during the dry season at corn harvesting time and willing to test their bravery. The flirtatious aspect of sharo
again during the Islamic festival of Id-el-kabir. Sharo may, also means that a boy is oftentimes willing to be flogged,
however, be enacted during the festival of Sallah that falls as he realizes that doing so allows him to display his cour-
at the end of the Muslim holy period of Ramadan. Sharo age to a girl he wishes to woo. The single girls consider it
may also be practiced at weekly markets. very important that a boy shows steadfastness in the face
The build up to sharo sees all the local Fulani people of pain, as the stoicism is thought to demonstrate the boy’s
(both male and female) gather in a market square along ability to protect a wife and children.
with other clans that may travel many miles for the occa- Before sharo starts, any boy that is to go through the
sion. As sharo is a special event, everyone wears their pain of public flogging is given pain-reducing drugs or
best clothes, and there is a general air of excitement and undergoes spells and enchantments that will help him
expectation. Music is played, crowds dance, and enter- withstand the trial. The boy will also be dressed in lucky
tainers walk among the people performing magic tricks. protective amulets. Next, men acting with mock fierceness
Next, all the women present start to dance, and the boys clear the ground that is to be used as the flogging arena.
that are about to be flogged are brought into the square Then, the first boy to be flogged is brought forward, and
together with their seconds (other males that are willing he strikes a defiant, macho, bare-chested pose. At the same
to act as substitutes should any of the boys decide not to time, the music that has been entertaining the gathered
 Fulani 361

Wodaabe Courtship
The Wodaabe, a subgroup of the Fulani, hold matchmaking events during which men dance to impress young women.
In the Wodaabe language, the festivities are called Gerewol, meaning “to line up.” Aptly, after the men dance, they line
up before the women, who then judge the men on their looks. Once a woman has selected the man whom she consid-
ers to be the most attractive dancer from another clan, she either sleeps with him or suggests marriage. The Wodaabe
are allowed to be married to two people simultaneously. Typically, a first marriage is arranged when the bride is still a
baby. Then, at the Wodaabe festival, a woman’s second marriage based on romantic attachment is established.

spectators swells and quickens in pace to signal the event that are reputed to quicken their healing, though even once
will start soon. The boy then crosses one of his legs over healed the wounds will leave scarring—men have also
the other and lifts an arm into the air while holding a mir- been known to be left with broken ribs after undergoing
ror. The boy uses the mirror to watch the girl he wishes to sharo. The man will not mind the resultant scars, however.
wed as a reminder of why he is undergoing the flogging Indeed, he will show the scars with great pride, as they serve
and also to check that his face remains composed during to demonstrate his bravery, masculinity, and worthiness to
the flogging. This is important, for if the boy reveals the marry. If the man had been unable to endure his flogging,
pain that he feels as he is flogged, he may not be allowed he would have lost the respect of all watching women and
to marry the girl of his choosing. Boys must also endure would not be allowed to woo the girl he desired as a wife.
the pain without flinching or crying so as to prove that The man that has been flogged returns to the scene of
they possess the bravery, strength of spirit, and stoicism his flogging about five days later, when the position of the
expected of an adult Fulani man. flogged and flogger are reversed. This time, the man that
Next, another bare-chested boy is brought forward. This was flogged will flog the boy that caned him, thereby mak-
boy holds a strong, flexible cane measuring about half an ing the flogger a man but also to exact a type of revenge.
inch thick. The boy holding the cane aims at the first boy Indeed, in recent years, a darker element has entered the
with great deliberation so as to hit a particularly tender sharo cultural tradition, as the flogging has been used to
point on the other boy’s rib area. The blows from the cane exact revenge. In this case, the victim of a crime will hit
are heavy enough to draw blood, yet the boy being hit must the wrongdoer with a stick that has been soaked in urine
declare his desire to receive harder, more painful blows. that makes the blows from the cane both extra sting-
Meanwhile, the boy wielding the cane is scrutinized by ing and potentially highly infectious. As a result of this
onlookers, who make sure the boy is not shirking from his ­vengeance-fueled sharo, authorities in northern Nigeria
duty of delivering painful hits. The boy being hit must not have sought to put an end to the tradition. However, the
arch his body away from the cane as it hits his body, nor cry Fulani consider the tradition to be an essential part of their
out in pain, grimace, or show any form of emotion other culture and will not countenance its abolition.
than bravery, lest he be labeled a coward by the rest of his In Benin, sharo differs in that it is a contest between
community. Indeed, it is almost requisite for the boy being two boys from different clans that each give and receive
hit to taunt the boy administering the cane by telling him three blows from a flexible tree branch. The boys and their
that his blows are not hard enough. The boy carrying out fathers specially select the stick to be used on the basis
the flogging must also sneer and goad the boy being hit so that it looks as though it will deliver painful blows. Before
as to increase the air of menace surrounding the flogging. the flogging starts, the boys’ fathers may also sharpen the
It is expected that any boy being flogged will be able to stick to make sure that it will inflict as much pain as pos-
endure the continual blows from the cane until the end of sible. During Benin sharo, one boy will strike his opponent
the ceremony. Once the ritual concludes, the now-man is three times and then roles are reversed so that the boy
congratulated by his family and friends and given gifts. that was flogged becomes the flogger. The boys know that
The single girls that have watched the ordeal with an eye they must not give any sign of the pain that they feel as
to marriage also congratulate the man. At the end of the they are flogged, as their clanspeople (that have gather as
ritual, the man’s wounds are covered with herbal pastes spectators) will decide which of them is the winner based
362 Fulani

on which of the two boys has shown the least discomfort medical costs, either partly or in full (Iro n.d.). As a result of
during their flogging. The winner is rewarded by having their poor health care, mortality is high among the Fulani.
white talc powder daubed on his skin and coins placed on There is a literacy gulf between the Fulani and non-­
his forehead. The victory also means that the victor is con- Fulani in areas in which the Fulani live; 40 percent of
sidered a man rather than a boy. Fulani have no education, and only 7 percent have any for-
Another important cultural aspect of Fulani society is mal mainstream or Koranic education (Iro n.d.). To ease
the concept of pulaaku (meaning Fulani pathways). This is this lack of Fulani education, the government of Nigeria
a code of politeness and good conduct followed by Fulani has introduced a nomadic education program that involves
men that contains a number of values fundamental to the introduction of mobile schools housed in collapsible
Fulani society: hakkilo (common sense, intelligence), mun- classrooms that can be dismantled quickly, packed away,
yal (reserve, stoicism), semteende (modesty), neddhaaku and transported by bulls or motor caravans.
(dignity), and cuusal (bravery). Other important tools in helping the Fulani become
Fulani society features a fairly rigid caste system, the literate are radio and television. Many Fulani have radios
roots of which stretch back to medieval times. The four that they take with them during herding, so the Nigerian
main castes are nobility, traders, artisans (such as black- government has introduced radio and television educa-
smiths, woodworkers, and dressmakers), and descendants tional programs. In especially rural areas, the government
of slaves. Fulani castes are endogamous, meaning individ- also supplies the radios, televisions, and electricity genera-
uals marry only within their own caste. tors needed to listen and watch the programs.

Health Care and Education Threats to Survival

In Fulani areas, hospitals and specialist doctors are located The Fulani consider the abandonment of pulaaku as the
in cities or large villages. Rural areas may have small clin- greatest threat to their culture. Many Fulani see the seden-
ics and dispensaries but are staffed with nurses. Often, tary Fulani of northern Cameroon as endangering Fulani
the drugs in the clinics are broad spectrum but are stored traditions, for these Fulani are thought not to teach their
inappropriately, meaning they become contaminated. children respect for pulaaku. The Fulani in northern Cam-
The Fulani nomadism leaves them exposed to allergies eroon are also thought not to pass on Fulani proverbs and
associated with dust, plants, and animals as well as bites cultural etiquette. Another threat to Fulani ways is that
and stings from bees, snakes, scorpions, mosquitoes, and today fewer and fewer children can speak Fulfude cor-
tsetse flies. The Fulani often drink polluted water that is rectly, but they are proficient in French and English.
infested with worms and parasite larvae. Another important threat to Fulani is society is the soil
The illnesses that effect the pastoral Fulani most fre- erosion and desertification endangering the Sahel. The
quently are malaria, bilharzia, meningitis, asthma, rabies, Sahel is increasingly affected by soil erosion and deser-
sleeping sickness, dysentery, and tuberculosis. The Fulani tification that is the result of population growth that is
also suffer from gangrene, liver flukes, hyperthermia, skin placing great demands on the land. Townsfolk and farmers
disorders, constipation, and exhaustion. Malaria is a par- remove trees and bushes to create farmland and to obtain
ticular problem for the pastoral Fulani, as the mosquitoes firewood, and livestock graze on the remaining grassland.
that carry the disease live in the grass and stagnant water When it rains, water runs along the land, removing soil,
pools visited by the Fulani. However, the Fulani rarely and the wind also carries off fertile topsoil, leaving the
use insecticides or mosquito nets that might reduce their land arid and infertile. The desertification is exacerbated
chance of catching the disease. by drought. All these factors together mean there is less
Unless these health issues become debilitating, the land on which the Fulani can graze their cattle. This in
Fulani prefer to employ traditional medical advice and turn results in the Fulani becoming more sedentary.
herbal remedies to ease symptoms. Problems arise, how- Another threat to Fulani nomadism is the increased use
ever, when the Fulani herders need critical care but cannot of motorized transport, which upsets the rhythm of tradi-
access a hospital because it is too far away and they lack tional Fulani life and renders redundant the need to take
transport. The cost of medical care is also prohibitive for cattle on long journeys to find grassland. The decrease in
the Fulani, with 61 percent of the Fulani paying their own available pasture is leading to violent conflict between the
 Fur 363

Fulani and other farmers. At the heart of the fighting, there Overview
are disagreements between Fulani herders and local farm- The Fur are an indigenous people of Sudan who give their
ers over the use of farmland, grazing rights, and water sup- name to the region of the country they inhabit—Darfur.
plies. Fulani herders often travel hundreds of miles with Darfur translates from Arabic as “home of the Fur.” The
their cattle in search of pasture and are often armed to pro- Fur speak the Fur language, which belongs to the Nilo-­
tect their animals. The Fulani herders then clash with local Saharan phylum. Some Fur also speak Arabic. The Fur are
farmers, who accuse the herders of damaging their crops Muslim, but vestiges of pre-Islamic beliefs remain evident
and failing to control their animals. The herders have also in Fur life.
been accused of committing rapes and armed robberies,
prompting the creation of anti-Fulani sentiment in some
parts of Nigeria and the start of a hashtag #fulaniherds- Population, Diaspora, and Migration
men, which trends on social media. There are around eight hundred thousand Fur people
In 2014, more than 1,200 people were killed in fight- divided into three main population Fur groups: the Kun-
ing between the Fulani and local farmers. According to the jara, Tunjara, and Daju (Shoup 2011). However, the recent
most recent Global Terrorism Index, this means the Fulani history of ethnic violence in the Darfur region means that
are the world’s fourth-deadliest militant group. In 2016, the Fur population figures are approximate because many Fur
Nigerian president Muhammadu Buhari, who is himself are internally displaced within Sudan or live as refugees
Fulani, ordered a crackdown on the Fulani in response to in Chad.
public outcry. The Fur living to the east of the Marrah Mountains have
experienced greater exposure to Islam and the Arabic lan-
See also: Hausa
guage than those living elsewhere. The Fur groups living
Further Reading
west of the mountains, including the Mima, Birgid, and
Adama, Ousmanou. 2017. “The Fulani.” In Etiquette and Taboos
around the World: A Geographic Encyclopedia of Social and Berri, resisted any attempts to replace the native Fur lan-
Cultural Customs, edited by Victoria Williams and Ken Tay- guage with Arabic and follow a version of Islam that incor-
lor, 95–101. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood. porates elements of pre-Islamic religious beliefs.
Iro, Ismail. n.d. “The Characteristics of the Fulani.” Gamji.com. The people living in the Darfur region, like most people
http://www.gamji.com/fulani3.htm. in Sudan, are geographically isolated from, and neglected
Levinson, David. 1995. Encyclopedia of World Cultures. Vol. 9,
by, Sudan’s national government that resides in the coun-
Africa and the Middle East. Boston: G. K. Hall & Co.
Mikailu, Naziru. 2016. “Making Sense of Nigeria’s Fulani-Farmer try’s capital, Khartoum. The relative peace that has existed
Conflict.” BBC, May 5. http://www.bbc.com/news/world​ at times between the various ethnic groups inhabiting the
-africa-36139388. Darfur region has been destroyed by the policies of the
Stokes, Jamie. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Sudanese government and by the people’s access to mod-
Middle East. New York: Facts on File. ern weapons (Minority Rights Group International 2015).
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
At the turn of the millennium, the brutal Janjaweed Arab
World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA:
ABC-CLIO. militia stated its aim to change the demography of Darfur
and empty the region of its African inhabitants, including
the Fur. To this end, in February 2004, the Janjaweed pre-
sided over a massacre at Tawila, in northern Darfur, that
saw more than 100 people murdered. In addition to the
slaughter, 350 females were kidnapped, and a further 100
FUR were raped. Many of the rapes took place in front of the
females’ fathers, who were then murdered. According to
Current Location Sudan
the leader of the Janjaweed, these crimes were committed
Current Population 800,000 to effect demographic change (Reeves 2017).
Language Fur In 2017, it was reported that UN data suggested that
Interesting Fact The Fur suffered what has been around three million people remained displaced from Dar-
described as history’s “most success- fur, and another three hundred thousand were living in ref-
ful genocide.” ugee camps in eastern Chad. These displaced and refugee
364 Fur

people were overwhelmingly non-Arab/African tribal In the mid-eighteenth century, the rulers of the Fur
peoples from Darfur, including the Fur (Reeves 2017). Kayra kingdom forced many non-Fur peoples, including
the Tunjur, Rizayat, Masalit, and Mararit, to join their king-
dom. In 1789, the Fur capital was established at al-Fashir at
Geography and Environment the southern end of the Darb al Arba’in. Toward the end of
Darfur stretches across an area of western Sudan some the eighteenth century, warrior-sultan Muhammad Tayrab
190,420 square miles in area. The region’s main towns are ibn Ahmad Bakr established a vast multiethnic realm and
Al Fashir and Nyala. extended Fur control to the province of Kordofan in the
Darfur consists largely of an arid plateau, though a east and westward to the Wadai Kingdom in Chad.
range of volcanic peaks called the Marrah Mountains rise By the start of the nineteenth century, most Fur were
up to 9,980 feet in altitude at the region’s center. The moun- Muslims belonging to the Sunni school of Islam. Ever since,
tains’ highest peak, Deriba Caldera, is the highest in Sudan. piety has been greatly prized by the Fur, who revere people
The Deriba Caldera has a temperate climate, high annual with the most religious learning. Islam spread throughout
rainfall, and permanent spring waters. Eastern Darfur is Fur society by way of fuqaha (students of religious juris-
covered with plains, sandstone hills, and low, sandy hill- prudence) and fuqara (members of Sufi associations). Rul-
ocks called goz. In many instances goz are waterless, so ers of the Fur Kayra kingdom offered financial rewards to
people can only live on them if they create water reservoirs Islamic mystics and students of Islam who had trained at
or boreholes that allow them access to water. Despite the Cairo’s al-Azhar University to settle in Darfur. As a result of
lack of water, goz may support rich, arable farmland. To these grants, throughout the nineteenth century, al-Fashir
the north of Darfur lies the Sahara Desert, which is home became home to a proliferation of privately owned reli-
to wadis that range from small, seasonal watercourses that gious institutions.
flood only during the wet season to large wadis that flood The Darfur sultanate continued until 1874, when it
often and flow from Darfur westward to Lake Chad. Many was annexed to Egyptian Sudan after the death of Sultan
of the wadis are alluvium rich but also have heavy soil that Ibrahim bin Muhammad Husayn. In 1881, a Fur rebel-
is difficult to farm. Western Darfur is characterized by rock lion developed against Egyptian rule that was in favor
covered with a thin layer of infertile, sandy soil that, while of Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi, a messianic Islamic
no good for agriculture, can be used to graze animals. religious leader who proclaimed himself the Mahdi, or
In recent years, environmental issues such as drought redeemer, of the Islamic faith. By 1883, Darfur was under
and lack of pasture have prompted ethnic Arab pastoral the control of pro-Mahdi factions, though at the same
nomads to settle on Fur farmland. This has in turn con- time, sultans belonging to the Kayra dynasty officially con-
tributed to the recent conflict that has blighted the lives of tinued to rule.
people living in the Darfur region. The Mahdi state fell to the British in 1898, prompting
a short-lived attempt to revive the state under sultan Ali
Dinar. Ultimately, the British recognized Ali Dinar as the
History and Politics ruler of an independent state and lauded Dinar’s ability
The Fur have lived in Darfur for thousands of years. In the to keep the French at bay within Chad. In 1901, Dinar
fourteenth century, the Fur were subjected to a slow incur- attempted to make the Rizayqat pay tribute to him, but
sion by Arab tribes, particularly the Juhaynah Bedouin the Rizayqat refused. As a result of this refusal, relations
and the Baggarah Bedouin. The repeated Arab incursion between the two peoples deteriorated, and in 1913, the
resulted in the Fur converting to Islam by the seventeenth Fur army invaded the Rizayqat. While the invasion caused
century. In addition, Darfur became a Muslim sultan- widespread destruction of Rizayqat society, the Rizayqat
ate, and Fur settlements became increasingly important defeated the Fur at Tumburko. Then, in 1914, when World
within the Arab world. For example, the Fur inhabited the War I erupted, Ali Dinar united with the Ottoman Empire,
strategically important Marrah Mountains, which were thereby incurring the ire of both the British and their ally
used by both Muslim pilgrims traveling from West and France. Ali Dinar was defeated and executed by the British
Central Africa on the route to Mecca as well as to travelers in 1916, leading to the annexation of Darfur, with most of
journeying along the Darb al Arba’in (Forty Days’ Road) the region going to Anglo-Egyptian Sudan while the west
that linked Sudan and Egypt. of the region was awarded to France.
 Fur 365

Sudan gained its independence in 1956, and ever since, course, the militia helped launch devastating assaults
it has faced problems associated with religion, language, against the opposition. To complicate matters further, in
and ethnicity. Over time, Fur society has become split 2003, the SLM and JEM began to fight between themselves.
between those Fur people that wish to assimilate with the In addition, the Sudanese government and Janjaweed tar-
River Arabs who are educated and speak Arabic, and those geted the Fur and other African farmers, killing the farm-
who prefer to live in isolation as a separate people. There ers in the tens of thousands and displacing millions more
are also some Fur who support the idea of reviving the within Darfur while forcing other to cross the Sudanese
Mahdi in the form of al-Sadiq al-Mahdi, the leader of one border into Chad.
of Sudan’s oldest political parties and Sudan’s last demo- The conflict’s most notorious incident occurred at the
cratically elected prime minister. town of Kailek, when Arab militias and local authorities
The social and political instability of Darfur caused con- colluded to besiege the town that was hosting displaced
flict to erupt numerous times. In the 1980s, mass violence people from the surrounding area alongside its local pop-
broke out that killed hundreds of people and forced many ulation. When humanitarian workers were able to access
more to flee to Chad, where they lived as refugees. During Kailek in 2004, they discovered many of the town’s inhab-
the 1980s, attempts by nomadic groups to occupy land in itants had starved to death, and others had succumbed to
the Marrah Mountains saw entire villages wiped out and disease. Humanitarian workers also learned that during
thousands killed on all sides. For example, some Bedouin the siege, women were raped repeatedly in front of their
groups moved on to Masalit territory in search of superior families, some children were kidnapped, and others were
grazing land for their animals. While the drought-stricken thrown alive into fires. According to Human Rights Watch,
herders endeavored to survive by intruding on the fertile these events together with other atrocities that took place
land of the central mountains, the Fur struggled to retain at Kailek amounted to crimes against humanity.
their land. In October 2005, the Sudan Liberation Army (SLA)
Long-held racial prejudices combined with these envi- divided into a two groups. One consisted of mainly Fur
ronmental issues led to the formation of an alliance of people and was headed by Abdel Wahid al Nur. The second
over twenty Arab nomad groups. These groups morphed group was led by Minni Arkou Minawi and was predom-
into militias who declared war against black and non-Arab inantly supported by the Zaghawa tribe. In 2006, interna-
peoples living in the Darfur region (Minority Rights Group tional commentators heralded as a major breakthrough
International 2015). In response to this declaration of war, for Darfur a peace agreement brokered by the African
the Fur formed militias their own. By 1989, five thousand Union. However, only Minawi’s faction signed the accord
Fur people and four hundred Arabs had died in fighting, and only then after experiencing pressure to do so from
tens of thousands of people were displaced, and forty thou- the United States and United Kingdom. Other major rebel
sand homes had been destroyed (Minority Rights Group groups that were closely aligned with the Fur and Masalit
International 2015). The conflict rumbled on throughout peoples snubbed the peace agreement. Without the accord
the 1990s, and by the year 2000, two main rebel factions of these various factions, the peace treaty failed. Indeed,
had emerged in Darfur—the mainly Fur and Masalit Dar- encouraged by the Sudanese authorities in Khartoum, eth-
fur Liberation Front (subsequently renamed the Sudanese nic fighting intensified in the weeks following the drawing
Liberation Movement or SLM) and the largely Zaghawa Jus- up of the peace agreement.
tice and Equality Movement (JEM), both of which aimed to Over the following months, the rebel groups fragmented
improve social, economic, and political life for the region’s further along tribal lines. During the renewed fighting, Fur
non-Arabs. In 2003, however, fighting in Darfur erupted civilians were singled out for mistreatment by Sudanese
again. Both the Sudan Liberation Movement and Justice government and the Janjaweed militia under the pretense
and Equality Movement attacked government forces and of destroying rebel factions. The international nongovern-
installations, including El Fasher airport. Ultimately, the mental organization Human Rights Watch, which con-
fighting killed between two hundred thousand and four ducts research and advocacy on human rights, assessed
hundred thousand people and displaced over two million the impact of the conflict on the Fur tribe in southern and
people (Minority Rights Group International 2015). western Darfur. It noted that Fur villages were attacked,
The Sudanese government turned to the Janjaweed (a causing the mass displacement of Fur civilians. Alleged
militia group of Arab nomads) for assistance, and in due summary executions of Fur men who had been rounded
366 Fur

by Sudanese and Arab militias were also reported. Accord- priorities would be the rehabilitation of existing health-
ing to Human Rights Watch, hundreds of Fur men suffered care facilities, increasing the number of trained healthcare
this fate (Minority Rights Group International 2015). professionals, and improving healthcare infrastructure.
Conflict in the Darfur region has been recognized as An extra $105 million would be needed to maintain the
genocide since 2004 by dozens of bodies, including the healthcare and nutritional provision over the next fifteen
U.S. Congress, the European Union Parliament, the U.S. years. In the meantime, the displaced people of Darfur suf-
Holocaust Memorial Museum, and Vad Yashem in Israel. fer from malaria, poor healthcare services, and the soaring
In 2008, President Obama declared the conflict a geno- prices of medicines, most of which have to be imported.
cidal campaign. Moreover, Obama referred to the Darfur Children in Darfur face many educational challenges:
genocide as a “stain on our souls.” From 2012 through to there are too few teachers, classrooms are overcrowded,
2016, there have been reports of renewed genocidal eth- and supplies of teaching equipment are severely limited at
nic violence targeting non-Arab/African peoples living in best. Secondary schools do not exist in camps for inter-
Darfur. This violence is alleged to include the use of chem- nally displaced persons, so young people living in the
ical weapons against civilians. In addition, reports of mass camps have no training for any future profession.
rapes suggest sexual violence is being used as a weapon
(Reeves 2017).
Threats to Survival
The Fur have suffered what has been called the most suc-
Society, Culture, and Tradition cessful genocide in history (Reeves 2017). Today, the Fur
The Fur are Muslim and long ago adopted Arab names living in western Sudan are dominated politically, militar-
and, to a degree, dress. Fur society is matrifocal, meaning ily, and economically by militias bent on their eradication.
mothers are the head of families and fathers play a lesser Additionally, Fur displaced peoples and refugees are una-
role in the home and in childrearing. For this reason, Fur ble to return to their properties, as militia members and
daughters and their daughters’ husbands typically sur- their families now inhabit these. One of the long-term
round elders. effects of conflict in the Darfur region is a changing pat-
Traditionally, the Fur are a settled farming people who tern of land distribution. Previously settled Fur farmers no
grow food for subsistence and to sell. The main Fur crop is longer possess farmland, so for any long-term settlement
dukhn (millet), which the people use to make their staple to land disputes to be achieved, redistribution of this farm-
food, a thick porridge called asida. Even though the Fur land will be essential. Only redistribution of this land will
are Muslim, dukhn beer is an important part of the peo- allow Fur families currently residing in refugee camps to
ple’s culture. return to their traditional land and be able to farm.
The Fur live in stone structures called Tora. These
See also: Bedouin; Dinka; Marsh Arab; Nuba; Nubian
dwellings are a unique feature of the Darfur landscape,
for they comprise dry-stone frontages with flat roofs and Further Reading
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Sudan: Fur.” World
are surrounded by encircling walls that hold two opposing Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, June 19.
doorways. The Fur often built fortified towns called fashir. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/fur.
These fortifications gave their name to the capital of the Reeves, Eric. 2017. “Darfur, the Most ‘Successful’ Genocide in a
Kayra kingdom, al-Fashir, meaning “the Fort.” Century.” HuffPost, May 13. https://www.huffingtonpost.com​
/entry/darfur-the-most-successful-genocide-in-a-century​
_us​_58​fa0eb9e4b086ce58980fe3.
Health Care and Education Shoup, John A. 2011. “Fur.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and the
Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup, 100–
In 2013, the World Health Organization (WHO) announced 103. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
that $150 million would be needed over the next two to World Health Organization (WHO). 2013. “Millions Face Health
three years to establish basic healthcare and nutritional Care Crisis in Darfur.” Humanitarian Health Action, April 30.
services in Darfur in the wake of recent conflict. Key http://www.who.int/hac/crises/sdn/darfur_30april2013/en/.
 G

GAGAUZ many speak Gagauz dialects or a third national language

too. The Gagauz are Orthodox Christians.
Current Location Eastern and Southern Europe
Current Population 219,300
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Language Balkan Gagauz (Balkan Turkic);
According to the 2014 Moldova census, 147,500 Gagauz
Gagauz dialects; Russian; national
languages live in the Gagauz autonomous region of Gagauz Yeri in
southern Moldova (Minority Rights Group International
Interesting Fact The Gagauz flag features a pale blue
field, a yellow design on the hoist,
2018). Here, the Gagauz live in twenty-seven villages
and a white circle with a red and grouped in and around the cities of Ceadîr-Lunga, Vul-
white wolf ’s head centered in it. caneşti and Comrat and make up 83 percent of the region’s
population (Svanberg 2011). There are 32,000 Gagauz liv-
ing in southern Ukraine (especially around Odessa and
Overview Zaporizhia), 12,000 Gagauz residing in Russia (mostly in
The Gagauz (plural: Gagauzlar), also called the Gagauzi, the Rostov and Tyumen regions as well as in Moscow and
Gagaus or Gokoguz, are a Turkic people of Eastern Europe. St. Petersberg), up to 5,000 inhabiting northern Bulgaria
Most inhabit the people’s autonomous territory of Gagauz (particularly in Kavarna, Varna, and Balchik), and around
Yeri (or Gagauzia) in southern Moldova, with significant 3,000 in southern Romania (especially in Dobrogea).
Gagauz communities also found in southern Ukraine, Smaller Gagauz communities live in Georgia, Estonia,
Russia, Romania, Bulgaria, Turkey, Greece, various cen- Latvia, Belarus, Uzbekistan, and Kazakhstan. Approxi-
tral Asian countries, and elsewhere. The Gagauz speak a mately 15,000 Gagauz live in the Edirne area of Euro-
Turkic language called Balkan Gagauz (or Balkan Turkic) pean Turkey, 3,500 live in villages surrounding the town
that is closely related to Turkish and belongs to the Orguz-­ of Nea Zichni in Macedonia, and a number of Gagauz
Bulgar group of South Turkic languages. Over time, there make up the majority population of the Greek city of Nea
have been many Slavic, particularly Bulgarian and recently Oresteida. Around 2,000 Gagauz have immigrated to the
Russian, additions to this language. Most Gagauz living in United States, and a handful live in Canada and Brazil
Moldova also speak Russian as a second language, and (Svanberg 2011).

367
368 Gagauz

As 70 percent of the world’s Gagauz people live in Mol- however, resulting in the Gagauz revolt of 1848. This upris-
dova, the Gagauz do not consider themselves a minority ing was met by brutality by officials, and the first sparks of
within Moldova but rather as a people with a right to their the Gagauz desire for autonomy began to flicker.
own national territory (Minority Rights Group Interna- When World War I erupted, the Gagauz homeland
tional 2018). In Moldova, while the majority of Gagauz live became a battleground, with fighting intensifying after
in rural areas, the number of urban Gagauz has recently Romania united with the Allies in 1916. As a result, many
increased. Gagauz caught up in the war died during fighting, from
disease, or from malnutrition.
During agricultural reforms of the early twentieth cen-
Geography and Environment tury, a number of Gagauz moved to Kazakhstan because
The Gagauz sometimes refer to their homeland as Gagau- Romanian agricultural landlords known as boyars moved
zia. This proposed republic is located in the valleys of the into Gagauz areas and tried to force the Gagauz to conform
Prut River and the Jalpug River in southeastern Moldova into Romanian culture. Then, during the 1920s and 1930s,
and southern Ukraine. The land is particularly suited the boyars refused to build roads to Gagauz farms in case
to wine production, with white wine being the Gagauz they were used by the Red Army to transport troops and start
national drink. a new war. This lack of roads made it very hard for Gagauz
farmers to transport their wine and prompted many Gagauz
to migrate to Uzbekistan during the 1930s. Meanwhile, dur-
History and Politics ing the Russian Revolution, Gagauz living under Russian rule
The origins of the Gagauz are disputed and clouded by demanded national rights, a move that saw Gagauz leaders
national aspirations. For example, Bulgarians claim the punished, resulting in another Gagauz rebellion.
Gagauz are Turkic Bulgarians, and similar Greek sources After the Soviet annexation of Bessarabia in 1940, areas
argue the Gagauz are Turkified Greeks. Another theory as in which the Gagauz lived were divided between the Mol-
to the origins of the Gagauz suggests their ancestry can be davian and the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republics (SSRs),
traced back to the Balkan Seljuk Turks or the Bolgars and and Gagauz farms and vineyards were collectivized. Under
Cumans, nomadic pre-Islamic Turkic peoples that inhab- Soviet rule, the Gagauz were subject to attempts to make
ited the Balkans and areas around the Black Sea. Some them assimilate into Russian culture, including, in 1957,
researchers believe that Gagauz traditions are descended the introduction of the Cyrillic script in schools along with
from those of the Kay-Ka people who established a small pupils being taught Russian. Although this move was sus-
republic in northeastern Bulgaria around 1256 CE, at pended in the 1960s, there were long-lasting ramification,
which time the Kay-Ka converted to Orthodox Christian- for today around 73 percent of Gagauz consider Russian
ity. In 1398, the early Gagauz were overrun by the Turks their second language and most Gagauz political elite speak
and took on the Turkic language and culture, but they Russian (Minority Rights Group International 2018).
refused to adopt Islam. The Gagauz’s rejection of Islam During the Soviet era, the Gagauz were the largest Tur-
resulted in the people suffering much persecution under kic population not to have its own territory, though they
the Turks while also suffering persecution from the Bul- were recognized as a distinct nationality. As a result of
garians for adopting Turk culture. their lack of territory, under Soviet rule, Gagauz ethnic
In the second half of the seventeenth century, outbreaks identity was undeveloped. However, in the late 1980s, the
of war forced many Gagauz to leave the Balkans and head glasnost policy of increased political and social openness
to Russia. The refugees settled north of the Danube River resulted in a rapid rise in Gagauz nationalism within Mol-
delta in the historical region of Bessarabia. During the dova that was spearheaded by the Gagauz People’s Move-
period 1750–1846, Gagauz that had remained in the Bal- ment, a campaign consisting of activists from the Gagauz
kans also moved to Bessarabia to escape repression and intelligentsia and other ethnic minorities.
persecution and took up animal husbandry and cattle In 1990, Gagauzia attempted to become a Soviet repub-
farming to survive. However, Bessarabia became Russian lic separate from Moldova. The move was unsuccessful,
in 1812, meaning the Gagauz were expected to assimilate however, and the area remains under Moldovan control.
into Russian society. Russia also urged the Gagauz to set- Then, in 1991, a referendum was held that saw 95 percent
tle in the northeast of Bessarabia in the area that is now of Gagauz vote in favor of independence, only for Moldo-
northeastern Romania. The Gagauz rejected assimilation, van authorities to proclaim the ballot illegal. During 1992
 Galician 369

and 1993, Gagauz paramilitary units sporadically clashed orientation of central government. Nonetheless, the area
with Moldovan authorities. is heavily reliant on subsidies from central government
In early 1994, the Moldovan parliament recognized because it has little in the way of industry or other sources
Gagauzia as an autonomous region on the basis that the of employment except for agriculture. The Gagauz fear
people had a self-determined ethnicity and territory. The that Moldova’s further integration with the European
law also sanctioned Gagauz self-determination if Moldova Union will worsen their already low living standards
ever changes its status as an independent state. Today, and instead favor trading with Russia. Accordingly, the
Gagauzia has its own legislation and constitution. Gagauz tend to be pro-Russia and anti–European Union.
In 2014, the Gagauz regional government held two refer-
enda. The first resulted in 98.5 percent of Gagauz voting
Society, Culture, and Tradition in favor of closer ties with the Russian-backed Eurasian
The Gagauz economy is based on white wine production, Economic Council rather than fostering closer ties to the
farming, and cattle rearing. Gagauz society and culture European Union (Coffey 2015). The second vote saw 98
revolve around the grape growing year and wine produc- percent of Gagauz (Coffey 2015) vote in favor of deferred
tion periods. Another important element of Gagauz life is independence that would see Gagauzia automatically
Orthodox Christianity, a religion to which the Gagauz have become independent if Moldova loses its national sov-
adhered for centuries. ereignty, for example, by uniting with Romania, or
Gagauz culture is reviving with a recent proliferation of enters the European Union. While Moldovan authori-
Gagauz theaters, musical ensembles, and folklore groups ties declared the ballots unconstitutional attempts to
as well as Gagauz newspapers, books, and social media. destabilize national foreign policy, Russia supported
the results, which were reported widely in the Russian
media. Only time will tell what effect the Gagauz prefer-
Health Care and Education ence for Russia over the West will have upon the future
Language is of central concern to Gagauz education. of Gagauzia.
Gagauz has been taught in schools since the 1980s, and
See also: Azeri; Chuvash
since 1996, a Gagauz alphabet consisting of 32 letters has
Further Reading
been taught in Gagauz schools and colleges as well as the
Coffey, Luke. 2015. “Is Gagauzia Next on Russia’s List?” Al Jazeera,
Comrat State University. Educational programs are gener- March 21. https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2015​
ally lacking in Gagauz lower and higher schools, and some /03/gagauzia-russia-list-150318052557225.html.
subjects are taught only in Russian or Romanian. Thus, Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Moldova: Gagauz.”
students’ language knowledge can determine which sub- World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, Janu-
jects they study. For this reason, many Gagauz students opt ary. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/gagauz.
Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development
to study in Turkey because Turkish and Gagauz are fairly
(OECD). 2003. Reviews of National Policies for Education:
mutually understandable. It is also the case that Gagauz Southern Europe. Vol. 2, FYROM, Moldova, Montenegro,
pupils face an acute shortage of textbooks, especially those Romania, Serbia. Paris, France: OECD Publications.
printed in Russian, and school buildings are often in a Svanberg, Ingvar. 2011. “Gagauz.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe: An
state of disrepair. Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffery E. Cole, 159–162. Santa Bar-
Gagauz living in Moldova live in an arid climate, and bara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
water reserves have high mineral content. These condi-
tions result in Gagauz children suffering from kidney, res-
piratory, and digestive problems. However, the healthcare
provision in Gagauzia is far below that in the rest of Mol-
dova, meaning the Gagauz can lack access to doctors and GALICIAN
other healthcare providers.
Current Location Spain
Current Population 2.8 million
Threats to Survival Language Galician; Castilian Spanish
Gagauzia is the poorest region of Moldova, a situation Interesting Fact Galicians are the only Iberians not of
that many Gagauz blame on the Westward/European Latin descent.
370 Galician

Overview in the Galician Uplands and has a rugged coastline inter-

Galicians are a national, cultural, and ethnolinguistic group rupted by deep inlets known as rias. The coastline lies on
whose homeland is Galicia, an autonomous community in the Atlantic Ocean to the west and the Bay of Biscay to the
northwestern Spain. The name Galicia derives from the north. Today, Galicia is considered by many people to be
name of an ancient Celtic tribe, the Gallaeci. The Galicians the seventh of the original Celtic nations, together with
are descended from the Celts as well as Germanic tribes. Eire (Ireland), Kernow (Cornwall in England), Mannin
This Celtic heritage is evident in the traditions of Galicia (the British Crown dependency of the Isle of Man), Breizh
and the physical appearance of Galicians who often have (Brittany in France), Alba (Scotland), and Cymru (Wales).
pale complexions, red or blond hair, and light eyes.
The Galicians speak two Romance languages: the native
History and Politics
Galician, which is an Indo-European language of the West-
ern Ibero-Romance branch similar to Portuguese, and A Celtic tribe called the Gallaeci were the first people to
Castilian Spanish. In the Galician language, the Galician inhabit the northeast of the Iberian Peninsula. The Gal-
people are called galegos, while in Castilian Spanish, the laeci were conquered by the Romans in 137 BCE, leading
Galicians are known as gallegos. to most of the Celtic peoples, save those living high in the
The Galician national flag, which is also the regional area’s uplands, adopting the Latin language and culture of
flag of Galicia, takes the form of a white field featuring a the Romans. The early inhabitants of the region began to
diagonal pale blue stripe. The flag of the Galician national- convert to Christianity around 100 CE, when missionaries
ist movement is the same as the Galician national flag but arrived from Italy.
also includes an additional five-pointed red star. Galicians In the fourth and fifth centuries, the Roman Empire
living in northern Portugal have their own flag, the Tras os began to decline in strength, leaving the Iberian region
Montes, which is a tricolor featuring bands of green, red, open to invasion. For example, in 411, a Germanic tribe
and black with two black mountains in the center. called the Suevi entered the region and established a king-
dom. Another Germanic people, the Visigoths, then over-
ran the Suevi in 585. The Visigoths settled in northern
Population, Diaspora, and Migration Iberia and mixed with the Suevi and Celtic inhabitants. A
There are 2.8 million Galicians, more than 90 percent of significant number of Germanic peoples settled in the area
whom speak Galician. More than half of the 70,000 peo- during the Visigoths era, but, nevertheless, the region’s cul-
ple living in the neighboring autonomous communities ture retained its Celtic character.
of Asturias and Castile and León, near the borders with The Moors, a Muslim North African people, invaded
Galicia (an area known as the Franxa Exterior), also speak Iberia in 711–712 and overran the parts of Spain ruled
Galician. A further 550,000 Galician speakers live in other by the Visigoths. Christian knights contained the Moors
parts of Spain (Minority Rights Group International 2017) to lowland areas while also forming their own Christian
as well as in Europe (especially Portugal, France, and Ger- mountain kingdom known as Asturias. After a while, this
many) and Latin America (particularly in Chile, Paraguay, kingdom began to enlarge as the Christians reclaimed
Argentina, and Brazil). There are thought to be around 1.5 land taken by the Moors, including Galicia. In 866, these
million Galicians living in Latin America (Minahan 2002). reclaimed areas were united with the kingdom of Leon
Demographic imbalances have resulted from the fact that and then in turn incorporated into the kingdom of Castile,
it tends to be young Galician men that emigrate from Gali- which was freed from Moorish control in 1037. In 1157,
cia in search of work. the whole of Leon, including Galicia, became an inde-
pendent state before reuniting with Castile once more in
1230. During this time, the early Galicians lived in rugged
Geography and Environment uplands, and their geographical isolation meant that they
Galicia is situated in the far northwest of Spain just north of developed their own unique culture that was influenced
Portugal and has a temperate climate. The area consists of by their Celtic, Germanic, Latin, and Iberian heritage. As
four provinces (La Coruña, Lugo, Orense, and Pontevedra). part of this cultural development, during the fourteenth
The capital of Galicia is Santiago de Compostela, a center century, the Galician language transformed into the lit-
of religious pilgrimage for Christians. Galicia mainly lies erary language of Iberia as the Galicians developed a
 Galician 371

The Camino de Santiago

The Camino de Santiago (Way of St. James) is a network of pilgrimage routes that terminate at the tomb of St. James in
Santiago de Compostela. The most popular route is the 500-mile-long Camino Francés from Saint-Jean-Pied-de-Port
in France to Santiago. Other routes come via Spain and Portugal. The Camino de Santiago began after the discovery of
St. James’s tomb in 814. The number of pilgrims walking the routes led to many churches and hospitals being built in
Galicia. During the fourteenth century, the pilgrimage decayed as wars, epidemics, and natural disasters interrupted
the walk. However, it was revived in the nineteenth century.

literary tradition rich in poetry. Despite being geograph- Castilian as the language of choice for the upper classes.
ically remote, the Galicians, who were devoutly Roman Despite this cultural revival, by the 1890s, Galicia was
Catholic, retained links to the rest of Europe through the experiencing an economic crisis that Galicians blamed on
Catholic pilgrims that traveled to the shrine of St. James the centralized Spanish government in Madrid. The Gali-
located at Santiago de Compostela. Over time, Santiago de cians’ anger at the centralized government led to a rise in
Compostela developed as the cultural heart of Galicia and Galician nationalism that saw Galicians petition for their
a center of pilgrimage for Catholics across Europe. economic independence and a Galician parliamentary
In 1495, the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon merged, structure (cortes) that had operated briefly until the start
resulting in Galicia losing much of its autonomy, and from of the nineteenth century. The area’s financial difficulties
1495, Galicia was administered by a representative assem- increased the flow of Galician migrants to South America,
bly of the Kingdom of Galicia called the Junta del Reino de especially to Brazil, where Galicians found they could inte-
Galicia. Galicia attempted to secede from Spain in 1640, grate easily among Portuguese-speaking Brazilians.
but this attempt failed when Castilian troops entered At the start of the twentieth century, Galicia was one
Galicia and crushed an attempted uprising. This failure of the most traditional and conservative regions of Spain.
to secede and the defeat by the Castilians led to Galicia’s This traditionalism together with the area’s inability to
financial and cultural decline. By the eighteenth century, develop financially meant it was largely ignored by the
Galician had been relegated to the ranks of a peasant dia- Spanish government, which focused on industrializing
lect, as the middle and upper classes had adopted Castilian other parts of the country. Frustrated by the government’s
as their preferred language and culture. At the same time, disregard, in 1931, the Galicians appealed for autonomy
the Galician custom of dividing land among heirs (mini- from Spain’s new republican authorities, and in 1932, a
fundios) had, over time, resulted in highly fragmented Galician parliament was established. Galician nationalism
agricultural landownership that proved in the long run to grew following the creation of the parliament through to
make farming difficult and resulted in highly dispersed, 1936, but it was overtaken by the outbreak of the Spanish
impoverished rural communities. As a result of these Civil War that occurred between 1936 and 1939. In 1936,
difficulties, many Galicians decided to migrate to South the Galician public vote overwhelmingly backed the idea
America. of a Galician nation, but the result of the vote was later
At the start of the nineteenth century, France attacked annulled by the strongly centralist government of Spanish
Spain during the Peninsular Campaign, that is, the part dictator General Franco, despite the fact that Franco was
of the Napoleonic Wars fought on the Iberian Peninsula himself a Galician. Franco wanted Galicia to stay within
during which the French fought the British, Spanish, and Spain so that the region would support his Fascist regime,
Portuguese. The resulting political unrest afforded the but in actuality, most Galicians sided with the anti-Fascists
Galicians the opportunity to create their own independent that opposed Franco. When Franco proved victorious in
state. This autonomy was short-lived, however, because 1939, the Galicians were severely punished for support-
by the end of the Napoleonic Wars, Galicia was soon back ing the anti-Fascists, for the Galicians found their culture
under Castilian rule as part of the Bourbon monarchy. was repressed and their language was banned, with people
During the mid-nineteenth century, Galicia had come forbidden to speak Galician and no Galician appearing in
to enjoy a cultural renaissance that saw Galician replace print.
372 Galician

Galician culture began to revive during the 1950s In the 2001 elections, the Bloque Nacionalista Galego
despite these official controls with the printing of (Galician Nationalist Party) won seventeen seats in the
­Galician-language books. This reemergence of the Gali- Galician Parliament, making it the second-largest party
cian language in print accompanied an upsurge in Galician ahead of the Spanish Socialist Party (PSOE). In elections
nationalism. By the 1960s, Galician nationalism was wide- in 2005, the Bloque Nacionalista Galego lost four seats
spread and strengthened further by the continuing neglect but managed to form a coalition government with the
of Galicia in terms of industrialization. Unlike the rest of socialists.
Spain, Galicia failed to industrialize or modernize, and by
the mid-1970s, the average Galician income was half that
of the average Spanish income (Minahan 2002). Unhappy Society, Culture, and Tradition
at their region’s failure to develop economically, the Gali- Despite the fact that Galicia has long been one of Spain’s
cians became increasingly violent in their protests, and in poorest regions, partly due to the people’s farmland inher-
retaliation for the protests, Franco’s government embarked itance traditions, farming remains one of the chief occu-
on an authoritarian clamp down of the Galicians that saw pations for Galicians. Many Galicians also work in service
many nationalist leaders arrested en masse and tortured, industries, tourism, and fishing. One of the iconic symbols
and then they would vanish without trace or die myste- of Galicia is the many thousands of old granaries (horreo)
riously (Minahan 2002). It was only when Franco died that were used to store grain. Though the word horreo is
in November 1975 that the Galicians were able to escape derived from Latin, historians believe the horreo are Celtic
punishment. in origin. Very few horreo are used today, but they are an
The death of Franco allowed Spain to establish a demo- unofficial symbol of Galicia reflecting that wheat was an
cratic government that, in 1980, granted autonomy to Gali- important crop for Galician farmers. Wheat is also a staple
cia. Nonetheless, repression of the Galicians continued, for of Galician cuisine, being used to make local dishes such as
in 1981, a Galician priest was imprisoned on charges of empanada gallega—a savory pastry filled with tuna, pork,
slandering the Spanish police after quoting a single line or vegetables. Another common Galician ingredient is sea-
of a history book detailing Franco’s treatment of the Gali- food, with a popular Galician dish being boiled octopus
cians. Despite this crackdown on Galician free speech, the seasoned with paprika and rock salt (pulpo a la gallega).
Galician language was further cemented in the people’s The Galicians’ Celtic heritage is evident in their cultural
lives when, in 1983, Radio Televisión Galega was estab- traditions, including the playing of bagpipes and tambou-
lished, and Galician began to be taught in schools. rines. Additionally, Galician people are known through-
By the end of the 1980s, Galicians had forged strong ties out Spain for their adherence to superstitions and pagan
with other Celts living in France and the United Kingdom. traditions, many of which hark back to the people’s Celtic
These bonds gave the Galicians the confidence to appeal heritage. For instance, the Galician ritual of the queimada
for greater autonomy, and in 1988 and 1989, a number of (meaning “burn”) is widely considered Celtic in origin,
Galician nationalist groups became violent in the search though some historians think it may be a nineteen-century
for greater Galician freedom and, ultimately, the creation invention created to reflect the people’s Celtic ancestry.
of a Galician state within Europe. In 1989, a bomb planted During a queimada, musicians chant incantations while
by Galician nationalists caused a death, leading most Gali- banging tambourines and lighting a bright blue flame to
cians to call for autonomy through peaceful means. Since cast away evil spirits and confer magical powers on every-
this time, Galicians have avoided violence when calling for one taking part in the ritual. The word queimada can also
independence. refer to a Galician drink consumed during the ritual that
During the 1990s, Galicia became increasingly urban- consists of Galician augardente (meaning “water fiery,”
ized, though the region’s population continued to decrease a generic alcoholic drink) combined with coffee beans,
as people migrated to wealthier areas of Spain and abroad. sugar, lemon juice, and cinnamon.
By 1998, 94 percent of Galicians spoke their native lan- Galicia is home to almost a hundred annual festivals,
guage every day (Minahan 2002), and while the region’s many of which have pagan origins. The most famous of
largest cities remained Spanish-speaking, young Galicians these festivals is the Noche de San Juan. This festival is held
began to take pride in speaking Galician as a mark of their in June to celebrate the summer solstice and is marked by
ethnicity within an increasingly federal Europe. the lighting of bonfires, parades of witches, and jumping
 Galician 373

over fire. People that jump over the bonfires are said to be Galician and Castilian Spanish. The teaching of Galician
purified and protected from evil, while those that hope is also a compulsory part of adult education and teacher
to see their wishes come true will write their wishes on training, with measures in place to promote knowledge
a piece of paper that they then throw on to the bonfire at of Galician among teachers. The number of hours of
midnight. The burning of the pieces of paper is reputed to Galician-­language teaching varies in secondary schools.
release the wish from the past, allowing it to come true. In preschool, Galician is compulsory for native speakers,
The Galicians’ belief in magic and superstition extends though only about 20 percent of preschool pupils actually
to the people’s belief in folk magic. For instance, the town receive the majority of their nursery education in Galician,
of Muxia is home to a boulder called the Pedra dos Cadris and 44 percent of preschoolers are partly taught in Gali-
that attracts many visitors who hope to be cured of vari- cian (Institut de Sociolinguistica Catalan n.d.).
ous ailments. According to tradition, anyone that passes In primary school and the first years of secondary
beneath the boulder nine times will be cured of back or education (from the ages of six to fourteen), between
kidney pain and rheumatism. Galicians also visit natural 64 percent and 89 percent of students are taught partly
baths such as the Ourense Thermal Springs located next in Galician, and Galician is a compulsory subject in all
to the Minho River. The springs’ water is mineral-rich and schools. At the final stage of secondary education, virtu-
reputed to cure many medical conditions, including stress ally all pupils learn Galician for three to four hours a week.
and kidney stones. In Galicia, Galician is an official language of higher edu-
cation. Galician is used at the region’s three universities,
and some students wishing to enter a Galician university
Health Care and Education are tested to see how competent they are in the language.
The Galician Healthcare Service (Galician: Servizo Galego Two Galician universities offer degree courses in Galician,
de Saúde, SERGAS) is the publicly funded healthcare sys- with these courses taught entirely in Galician (Institut de
tem of Galicia, Spain. Healthcare policy and funding is Sociolinguistica Catalan n.d.).
the responsibility of the Ministry of Health (Consellería
de Saúde), a department of the Galician regional gov-
ernment of the Autonomous Community, the Xunta de Threats to Survival
Galicia. As of 2012, Galicia was home to 14 secondary Galician is predominantly spoken in rural areas among
care trusts and hospitals, 493 primary healthcare centers older and poorer Galicians. Few Galicians living in towns
located in seven areas, and 111 emergency healthcare claim Galician as their mother tongue, although almost all
centers. These facilities were staffed by 36,000 healthcare Galicians can understand Galician. Most Galician speak-
professionals, including 7,300 physicians, 3,600 primary ers marry other Galicians, so there is hope that the Gali-
care providers, and 3,700 secondary care practitioners cian language will survive. Other pointers to the survival
(Valera Ray 2012). of Galician include the fact that the Galician government
In Galicia, as in the rest of Spain, education is the right runs radio and television broadcasts in Galician, and
of all children regardless of their heritage. Basic school- the advertising shown on Galician television channels is
ing consists of primary school and compulsory second- entirely in Castilian. Galician does not fare so well in print
ary education (Educación Secundaria Obligatoria or ESO) media. Although under a 1991 agreement the Galician gov-
for pupils aged six to sixteen years of age. At the end of ernment offered grants to newspapers and Galician press
their secondary education, pupils receive a certificate agencies to encourage them to raise the profile of Galician,
of education. Under law, the promotion and teaching of only 5 percent of the total newspaper output is in Galician
Galician is the responsibility of the Xunta de Galicia (the (Minority Rights Group International 2017), with Galician
­decision-making body of the Galicia government), which confined to the writing of death notifications, reviews of
also regulates the education system. Galician is taught at regional culture, and opinion pieces. There are, however,
all levels of education, and it is considered the right of a number of Galician-language quarterly publications
every Galician child to receive his or her initial education covering religious life, culture, and economics. There are
in the child’s native language. Galician is a compulsory also some Galician-language computer programs, and the
part of all nonuniversity education, and by the time a child Galician government has financed a version of WordPer-
finishes school, he or she must be equally competent in fect that offers a spellcheck option in Galician.
374 Garifuna

While the survival of Galician as a language seems likely, with Garifuna music and dance. Nowadays most Garifuna
the recent referendum calling for Catalans’ independence speak their own tongue as well as Spanish and at least one
from Spain may influence the Galicians. Only time will tell other language. This other language is usually the official
whether the Galicians will follow in the footsteps of the language of the country in which the Garifuna live. Some
Catalans and call for total autonomy, and if so, what the Garifuna also speak Igñeri, an Arawakan dialect histori-
results will be of such a vote. cally spoken by the Island Caribs of the Lesser Antilles that
is a combination of Arahuaco, French, Swahili, and Bantu.
See also: Basque; Catalan; Occitan; Welsh
Though Igñeri proper became extinct around 1920, a ver-
Further Reading
sion of Igñeri is still sometimes spoken by the Garifuna.
Institut de Sociolinguistica Catalan. n.d. Galician (Gallego) in
Spain. https://www.uoc.edu/euromosaic/web/document​/gallec
/an/i1/i1.html.
Miguélez-Carballeira, Helena, ed. 2014. A Companion to Gali- Population, Diaspora, and Migration
cian Culture. Woodbridge, UK: Tamesis. The current Garfiuna population stands at around two
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: hundred thousand to five hundred thousand people (Mayr
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 2, D–K.
2014). Most Garifuna live in coastal areas of Belize, Gua-
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Spain: Galicians.” temala, Honduras, and Nicaragua, but there is also a sig-
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. nificant Garifuna diaspora living in the United States and
http://minorityrights.org/minorities/galicians. Canada.
Valera Ray, Manuel. 2012, March. “Galicia: Innovation in Health­ Although the Garifuna have assimilated into the dom-
care.” http://ec.europa.eu/research/innovation-union/pdf inant Creole culture, they have managed to preserve their
​/active-healthy-ageing/20120306_rey.pdf.
traditions in the main. Today, Garifuna communities in
rural areas who follow subsistence lifestyles also earn
incomes growing crops and fishing. In contrast, Garifuna
living in urban areas often have professional occupations.
Many Garifuna also live on money sent from relatives liv-
GARIFUNA ing abroad.
Garifuna who migrate from Belize to the United States
Current Location Belize, Guatemala, Honduras,
Nicaragua
often find that they do better in their new country than
other Central American immigrants because they have
Current Population 200,000–500,000
English as a first language and a 90 percent literacy rate.
Language Garifuna; Igñeri; Spanish; among
For this reason, Belizean Garifuna living in the United
others
States often enter into further education and earn higher
Interesting Fact The Garifuna are descended from
incomes through taking administrative jobs.
shipwrecked slaves.

Overview Geography and Environment

The Garifuna (often referred to historically as the Black In the Caribbean, the Garifuna live along the eastern coasts
Caribs or Fighting Caribs), are an indigenous Afro-­ of Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. These Car-
Caribbean people. Though commonly referred to as Gari- ibbean lowlands have diverse terrain, including mangrove
funa, the Garifuna refer to themselves as the Garinagu, with swamps, tropical rainforests, river valleys, coastal plains,
the term Garifuna used to denote the culture and language and grasslands featuring pine trees and palm trees.
of the Garinagu. The Garifuna language is a Carib-Arawak
language that contains loan words taken from Carib and
European languages. Garifuna contains an unusually high History and Politics
number of loan words because of the people’s tumultuous The Garifuna are the descendants of West African slaves
past involving colonization, war and migration. In 2008 who washed ashore on the Caribbean island of Bequia
UNESCO declared the Garifuna language a Masterpiece (today part of St. Vincent and the Grenadines) around
of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity together 1635 while being transported to plantations in the New
 Garifuna 375

World. The slaves, along with Maroons (Africans who had prisoners of war. In April 1797, the exiles were transported
escaped from slavery in the Americas), found refuge on on British ships to the deserted Honduran Bay Island of
the island and started families with the indigenous Kalin- Roatan located in the Caribbean Sea. Here, the Black Car-
ago (Carib) people. An Afro-indigenous culture developed ibs flourished as the Garifuna, successfully growing the
on the island, and the people soon became known as the cassava that would go on to become a staple of the Gar-
Black Caribs, or Garifuna. ifuna diet. From Roatan, many Garifuna migrated to the
The Garifuna united with the indigenous Kalinago to Caribbean mainland to start fishing villages in Belize, Gua-
form a fierce fighting force that for over a century managed temala, Honduras, and Nicaragua. Meanwhile, a number
to resist efforts by Europeans to colonize the area. Indeed, of Garifuna moved to mainland Honduras, where they
so robust was the Black Caribs’ defense of their land that became affiliated to Spain, settling in the Spanish fortress
British and French authorities recognized St. Vincent as town of Trujillo and helping to see off British pirates and
one of several so-called neutral islands (along with Domi- military attacks.
nica, St. Lucia, and Tobago), meaning the island remained According to Garifuna tradition, the first Garifuna
the preserve of the Caribs. arrived in what was then British Honduras (now Belize) on
For a time, however, the Garifuna lived peacefully November 19, 1802. The anniversary of this date, known as
alongside French settlers who had landed on St. Vincent Settlement Day, is a Belizean national holiday marked by
in the late seventeenth century. This peace was shattered the playing of drums, dancing, and much ceremony. Later
by the coming of the British, who entered into conflict in the nineteenth century, the Garifuna, together with
with the Garifuna. The conflict with the British lasted until other Caribs, sided with the Royalists during the Spanish
1796, when improved British armaments forced around American Wars of Independence (1808–1833), meaning
five thousand Black Caribs to accept permanent exile as that after the Central Americans broke with Spain, the

A young Garifuna man dances to traditional drums at Sambo Creek, Honduras. Typically, Garifuna drums are made from cedar,
mahogany, and deerskin. (Barna Tanko/Dreamstime.com)
376 Garifuna

Garifuna faced accusations of treason and became highly A second wave of Garifuna migration occurred in 1937
marginalized in postindependence Honduras. Honduras in the wake of the Tiburcio Carias Andino dic-
The Garifuna faced a backlash after the Spanish Amer- tatorship, during which time the Garifuna faced indis-
ican Wars of Independence, so they migrated to coastal criminate beatings and other forms of persecution and
areas of nearby Nicaragua, Guatemala, and Belize. In Belize, discrimination. During this period, twenty-two Garifuna
the first settlement was established at Dangriga, which men living in San Juan were made to dig their own graves
today is still home to Belize’s largest Garifuna population. before being executed on false charges of treason. The
rest of San Juan’s Garifuna community escaped to Belize,
where they established the village of Hopkins. Here, on
Miriam Miranda the relatively remote coast, the Garifuna spoke their own
Miriam Miranda is a Honduran activist who advo- language and followed traditional Garifuna lifestyles,
cates for the human and environmental rights of with men fishing and pursuing artisan activities while
the Garifuna people. For years, Miranda has striven women grew crops. The Garifuna traded the resulting
to defend Garifuna land and cultural rights. As an fish, crafts, and crops along the Central American coast.
activist in a country with one of the most violent and Meanwhile, in Belize, during the early years of the twenti-
repressive governments toward activists, Miriam eth century, Garifuna men worked as loggers on mahog-
has received death threats and suffered attacks and any sites and sought work on American banana farms in
imprisonment. Guatemala and Honduras. More than a hundred banana
Miriam was born in the Garifuna coastal village farms sprung up along the coast of Central America, with
of Santa Fe, but she grew up on a Honduran banana the Garifuna responsible for the sowing of banana plants
plantation where her family had migrated in search and the loading of bananas for export. Banana companies
of employment. After returning to Garifuna terri- soon started to expand their trading areas with bananas
tory on the Atlantic Coast, Miriam became a leader shipped from Punta Castilla, Tela, La Ceiba, and Cortes in
of the Black Fraternal Organization of Honduras Honduras; Livingston and Puerta Barrios in Guatemala;
(OFRANEH), which defends indigenous land rights and Belize City (the capital city of the former British Hon-
and natural resources, including encroachments by duras and now the largest city in Belize). The incomes that
oil palm producers, drug traffickers, mining com- the Garifuna earned from this employment allowed them
panies, hydroelectric projects, and mass tourism— to live in nearby towns. However, the Garifuna’s reliance
threats that have intensified since Honduras’ 2009 of the banana industry meant that they faced unemploy-
coup d’état. The Honduran government has sided ment when blights affected banana harvests. In the face
with large companies to appropriate Garifuna ances- of unemployment, many Garifuna men living in Belize
tral lands and resources. became merchant sailors working fruit company boats or
Miriam believes the key to Garifuna resistance migrated to the United States.
is integrating the people’s defense of their territory
and culture. Therefore, OFRANEH teaches the Gar-
ifuna culture, language, and spirituality in Garifuna Society, Culture, and Tradition
communities. As a result of her advocacy, Miriam The Garifuna maintain their own religious beliefs consist-
has been imprisoned, beaten, and kidnapped. In ing of African, Amerindian, and Catholic elements. One of
2015, OFRANEH was a factor in the Inter-American the most important aspects of Garifuna religion is Gubida,
Court of Human Rights finding in favor of Garifuna a concept revolving around the belief that dreams and rit-
communities, deciding that the Honduran govern- uals can lead to altered states of consciousness, allowing
ment had violated their collective ownership rights spirits to possess practitioners. The Garifuna consider it
and failed to provide judicial protection and ade- essential to maintain a spiritual connection to their ances-
quate consultation to the Garifuna. tors, so it follows that the most celebrated Garifuna rituals,
Miranda can be followed on Twitter at @ dugu (or Feeding of the Dead), is related to death. Dugu is
baraudawaguchu. a form of spiritual communication in which the extended
family of a deceased person congregates to give thanks
 Garifuna 377

and promote spiritual and physical well-being. The week- Cassava is an important element in Garifuna life and
long dugu ceremony is led by a buyei (high priest) who is traditionally grown by women who then make it into
communicates with ancestral spirits via messengers called bread. Women are highly valued in Garifuna society, and
yuhuru. A ritual known as a mali then takes place. This not just because they are expected to be in charge of
consists of hypnotic singing and dancing and is intended farming cassava and other crops while men concentrate
to placate the ancestral spirits to whom the dancing is ded- on hunting and fishing. Garifuna society is matrilineal,
icated. At the end of the ritual, everyone who has taken and women are renowned for showing decisive leader-
part in the mali goes to the sea to collect fish that is then ship in social matters. Cassava is also used to make the
made into the favorite dishes of the ancestors. Everyone Garifuna’s favorite drink, hui, that is flavored with gin-
then attends a requiem mass. Another important Garifuna ger and sugar. Other traditional Garifuna foods include
death ritual, the Amuyadahani (“Bathing the Spirit of the coconut milk, plantain, garlic, basil, black pepper, and
Dead”) occurs some months after a funeral. This ritual is banana. A typical Garifuna dish, serre, consists of fish
intended to nourish the dead and sees the deceased’s fam- boiled in coconut milk and served with hudut (mashed
ily perform religious songs, and then the oldest family plantain).
member takes a gourd, fills it with water, and throws it into
a pit, all the while entreating the dead person to bathe.
According to Garifuna beliefs, the spirits of the dead Health Care and Education
continue to exist among the living, providing guidance and Around 72 percent of the Garifuna are illiterate or semi-­
protection. Therefore, the Garifuna consider it important illiterate, as Garifuna settlements generally lack educa-
to honor the dead in lavish, dramatic style. To symbolize tional facilities. Indeed, only 10 percent of the Garifuna that
this principle, when a Garifuna person dies, a lit candle, a finish elementary school continue their studies (Garifuna.
crucifix, and a glass of water are placed next to the corpse. com n.d.). On the whole, Garifuna live in poor sanitary
These items symbolize that the deceased’s soul is still alive. conditions. Traditionally, Garifuna live in huts featuring
As the soul of the dead is still alive, family members are walls made from mud, palm, sugarcane, and cement, and
discouraged from crying aloud in mourning in case this the ceilings are made of straw and zinc. In recent years, the
disturbs the deceased’s spirit. Garifuna have increasingly started to live in more modern
The spiritual aspects of Garifuna life have led to the accommodations to improve living conditions. Garifuna
Garifuna developing a rich variety of dance and music. A villages lack basic infrastructure, including clinical facili-
popular Garifuna music style is punta rock, which orig- ties, and it is estimated that approximately 78 percent of
inated in the 1970s and sees modern guitars blend with Garifuna children aged under twelve years suffer from
traditional rhythmic drumming and singing patterns. malnutrition, with around 30 percent dying before their
A favorite Garifuna dance, John Canoe, is performed at second birthday (Garifuna.com n.d.).
Christmas and sees masked dancers display the skills of
warrior slaves while mocking their British supervisors.
The Garifuna also like to sing tales (úraga) at large gath- Threats to Survival
erings. These melodies combine African and Amerindian The Garifuna have managed to preserve many of their
elements and are repository of the history and lore of traditions as well as their language. This is despite facing
the Garifuna, including references to important aspects periods of discrimination and assimilation into Creole
of Garifuna life, such as fishing, canoe construction, the and European culture. The Garifuna have maintained their
building of mud houses, and cassava growing. The songs customs and individuality through steadfastly maintain-
tend to be satirical and sung communally. Drumming is ing their heritage and history of successful antislavery
central to Garifuna music, with drums made from cedar, resistance. Recently, however, the Garifuna have increas-
mahogany, and deerskin. Garifuna drumming harks back ingly become associated with the Creole populations that
to styles found on St. Vincent and in West Africa but also are dominant in areas in which the Garifuna live. This
incorporates elements of American blues music and son increased assimilation has come about through a mutual
cubano, a style of music and dance that originated in east- African ancestry and the younger generations’ tendency to
ern Cuba during the nineteenth century. interact with each other.
378 Garo

Over the years, the Garifuna have had to contend with GARO
negative stereotyping. On the one hand, the Garifuna have
been portrayed as rural, simple, and unsophisticated. In Current Location India; Bangladesh
contrast, the Garifuna have also been portrayed as blood- Current Population 2 million–2.5 million
thirsty savages. For instance, the Garifuna united with the Language Garo; English
Kalinago (Caribs) living in St. Vincent, Dominica, and Trin- Interesting Fact Garo society is one of the world’s few
idad to protest against the Disney Corporation’s portrayal remaining matrilineal societies in
of Caribs as cannibals in the popular film series Pirates which inheritance is passed down
of the Caribbean. Indeed, the president of the National the female line.
Garifuna Council of Belize, Michael Polonio, forwarded a
letter protesting against the films’ vilifying of the Caribs.
Overview
The chief of Dominica’s Carib community also demanded
that the films’ scripts be revised to show the Caribs in a The Garos (also called the Achik, Achik Mande, Abeng,
better light. Many Garifuna are dismayed that the myth of Awe, or Garrow, among other names) are a Tibeto-Bur-
Carib cannibalism continues to be perpetuated and dis- man people living in India and Bangladesh. The Garos
seminated, even though anthropologists agree that there is speak the Garo language, which is part of the Bodo branch
little evidence to support claims that Caribs were cannibals. of the Bodo-Naga-Kachin group of Sino-Tibeto languages.
Garo people also read and write English. A complex Garo
See also: Lenca; Mayan; Miskito; Otomi; Pech; Roma religious system called Songsarek exists. However, the
Further Reading majority of Garos belong to the Garo Baptist Convention,
Anderson, Mark. 2005. “Bad Boys and Peaceful Garifuna: Trans- a Protestant denomination of India and Bangladesh. Other
national Encounters between Racial Stereotypes of Honduras
Garos are Roman Catholic, Anglican, or Seventh-day
and the United States (and Their Implications for the Study of
Race in the Americas.” In Neither Enemies nor Friends: Lati- Adventists.
nos, Blacks, Afro-Latinos, edited by Anani Dzidzienyo and
Suzanne Oboler, 101–116. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Cokos, Brie. 2017. “Saturated in Life.” Belizean Journeys. http://​ Population, Diaspora, and Migration
www​.belizeanjourneys.com/features/lifedeath/newsletter​ The Garo population is estimated at between 2 million and
.html.
Garifuna.com. n.d. “Garifuna.” http://www.garifuna.com.
2.5 million people (Minahan 2016). The Garos’ mountain-
Gumicio, Juan Carlos. 2005. “Garifuna.” In Encyclopedia of the ous homeland extends across the western districts of the
World’s Minorities, edited by Carl Skutsch, 487–488. New northeast Indian state of Meghalaya and into neighboring
York: Routledge. parts of Bangladesh. Most Garos live in the East and West
Higman, B. W. 2011. A Concise History of the Caribbean. Cam- Garo Hills.
bridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Leonard, Tom. 2005. “Disney Accused of Bad Taste over Carib
Cannibals in Pirate Movie.” The Telegraph, February 15.
http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews​/centralamer- Geography and Environment
icaandthecaribbean/1483583/Disney-accused​-of-bad-taste- Meghalaya is located in northeast India, where it is bor-
over-Carib-cannibals-in-pirate-movie.html. dered by the Indian state of Assam to the north and
Mayr, Renate Johanna. 2014. Belize: Tracking the Path of Its His-
northeast and by Bangladesh to the south and southwest.
tory: From the Heart of the Mayan Empire to a Retreat for Buc-
caneers, A Safe-Haven for Ex-Pirates and Pioneers, a Crown Meghalaya lies on a mountainous plateau—the name
Colony and a Modern Nation. Zurich, Switzerland: Lit Verlag. Meghalaya derives from the words megha (meaning “of the
Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Belize: Garifuna clouds”) and alaya (meaning “abode”).
(Garinagu).” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous In western Meghalaya, the Garo Hills rise abruptly
Peo­ples. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/garifuna​-garinagu. from the Brahmaputra River valley before merging with
Naturelight Productions. 2017. “The Garifuna.” Southern Belize.
the Khasi Hills and the Jaintia Hills. The southern faces
com. http://www.southernbelize.com/hist_garifuna.html.
Taylor, Christopher. 2012. The Black Carib Wars: Freedom, Sur- of the Meghalaya plateau, which overlook the Bangladesh
vival, and the Making of the Garifuna. Jackson, MS: Univer- lowlands, are especially steep. Many rivers and streams
sity Press of Mississippi. flow from the plateau, and in so doing, they create deep,
narrow valleys. The most important of the valleys is the
 Garo 379

Umiam-Barapani, which provides much of the hydroelec-

tric power to the Assam and Meghalaya states.
Meghalaya has a generally mild climate. The state is
home to one of the world’s wettest regions, Cherrapunji,
which receives an average annual rainfall of around 450
inches during monsoon season (May to September). In
winter (December to February), Meghalaya’s climate is
fairly dry. Meghalaya is covered in dense forests contain-
ing pine, bamboo, oak, and magnolia. Meghalaya has a
rich variety of wildlife, including elephants, tigers, leop-
ards, monkeys, peacocks, and parrots.

History and Politics

The Garos’ traditional lack of a written language means much
of their early history is unknown. According to the peo-
ple’s folklore, the Garos migrated to Meghalaya from Tibet
around 400 BCE under the leadership of the Garos’ national
hero, Jappa Jalimpa. Once the Garos had crossed the Brah-
maputra River, they settled in nearby valleys before fleeing
to ­forest-covered mountains to escape attacks by enemy peo-
ples. In the writing of India’s Mughal era (1528–1857), the
Garos are characterized as bloodthirsty headhunters inhab-
iting jungle hills. The Garos’ fierceness meant they were
able to see off potential incursions by Indian authorities.
However, their warrior nature meant the people, who were
divided between chieftainships called nokmas, often fought A Garo man in Meghalaya, India. The Garos’ mountainous
among themselves. The Garos were also almost constantly homeland stretches across the western districts of Meghalaya
into neighboring parts of Bangladesh. (IndiaPictures/Universal
involved in fighting with peoples living on local lowlands. Images Group via Getty Images)
In the eighteenth century, the lowlands surrounding the
Garo homeland came under British rule. In 1872, the Brit-
ish sent battalions into Garo land to bring it under British the state of Assam was reorganized. The reorganization
control. The Garos, led by their legendary leader Togan saw the creation of an autonomous Meghalaya state within
Nengminja, tried to ward off the British, but the Garos Assam that functioned as the homeland of the Garos, Kha-
were soon defeated because their spears and shields made sis, and Jaintias. In 1972, the Indian government awarded
little impact on the British. In 1835, the British incorpo- Meghalaya full statehood. Since this time, tension between
rated the Garo homeland into the British province of the various tribal inhabitants has increased, with tribes
Assam, though treaties signed by both parties allowed the calling for the division of Meghalaya into smaller states
Garos some autonomy. Subsequently, areas inhabited by based on ethnicity and language. Some Garos took up
the Garos were divided into multiple districts. The Garos, arms in their fight for an independent state and separation
who had always resisted the idea of assimilation with low- from the populous Khasis. As a result of the Garos’ armed
land peoples, tried to prevent the inclusion of their land rebellion, the Garos have been in conflict with the Indian
with the state of Assam by launching demonstrations and military since the 1990s.
protests. When India gained independence, the majority of
Garo land was made part of the new state of Assam, with
the rest made part of Muslim Pakistan as part of East Ben- Society, Culture, and Tradition
gal. The Garos and other peoples continued to protest at Garo culture is tribal and based on clans. Garo society is
the classification of their land, and so, from 1969 to 1970, one of the world’s few remaining matrilineal societies, with
380  Gilaki and Mazandarani

inheritance passed down through the female line and clan Threats to Survival
titles taken from the mother. When sons reach puberty, At present, many Garos call for the creation of an inde-
they leave the family home to spend time in communal pendent Garo state, the Republic of Achikland, which
dormitories, where they are taught how to act as a Garo could house the united Garo people. Only time will tell
man. After this training for manhood, a Garo man marries whether the Garos’ demands are met.
before moving to live with his wife’s family. When a Garo
woman wishes to marry, she chooses her partner and then See also: Bhil; Gond; Khasi; Naga; Tharu
arranges for her brother to kidnap her intended (Leeming Further Reading
2010). Although Garo society is matrilineal, it is not tra- Das, Manosh. 2017. “Meghalaya Health Coverage for All.” The
ditionally matriarchal. Therefore, men make all decisions Times of India, April 5. https://timesofindia.indiatimes​.com/
city/​ shillong/meghalaya-health-coverage-for-all​ / article​
governing society, and men also manage all property, even
show/​58022347.cms.
if the property is owned by women. However, the increas- Leeming, David A. 2010. Creation Myths of the World: An Ency-
ing spread of Christianity among the Garos means that clopedia. 2nd ed. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
men and women are increasingly treated as equals. Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the
Traditionally, the Garos follow the animist Songsarek Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
religion. Today, however, most Garos are Christians belong- Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa Bar-
ing to the Garo Baptist Convention. This is one of the old-
bara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
est church groups in northeast India and was founded Pyrtuh, Phrangsngi. 2016. “How Sick Is Meghalaya’s Health Sys-
by American Baptist missionaries. Many Christian Garos tem?” Raiot, January 11. http://raiot.in/how-sick-is​-megh​
continue to pray to animist spirits and maintain animist alayas​-health-system.
traditions, including animal sacrifice. The most populous
Garo festival, Wangala, is a harvest festival that runs over
several days. The festival is dedicated to Misi Saljong, the
sun god, and celebrates the role of the sun in ripening
crops. By celebrating the harvest, the Garos give thanks for GILAKI AND MAZANDARANI
their food. In the past, the Garos’ language is not written.
Current Location Iran
Consequently, oral history and folklore are very important
Current Population 6 million
to the Garos. Today, the Garo language is written. As such,
it is used as the language of education and administration Language Gilaki; Mazandarani
alongside English. Interesting Fact In general, Gilaki women marry
at an older age than other Iranian
women.
Health Care and Education
Health care in Meghalaya is notorious for its staff short- Overview
ages and lack of resources. In particular, health centers The Gilaki and Mazandarani are two closely related peoples
in rural areas run without proper facilities and medical living in Iran. The peoples speak the Gilaki and Mazanda-
supervision. Additionally, staff are often not trained to use rani languages that are Indo-European and belong to the
medical equipment and diagnostic machines, which in any Mazneki (or Tabari) language family. While the languages
case are often broken (Pyrtuh 2016). In 2017, Meghalaya’s are related to Persian, they are more closely related to Bal-
state authorities signed an agreement with an insurance uchi, Talysh, and Kurdish. The Gilaki and Mazandarani are
company to provide comprehensive and universal health Baha’i Muslims.
insurance cover to all residents of Meghalaya. The scheme
should provide all residents with comprehensive health
services, including specialist and outpatient treatment as Population, Diaspora, and Migration
well as care for illnesses such as diabetes and heart disease, The Gilaki and Mazandarani live in Iran on the southern
depending on individuals’ level of cover (Das 2016). coast of the Caspian Sea. According to the 2002 Iranian
The Garos have one of India’s highest literacy rates. This census, the Gilaki and Mazandarani consist of six million
is a legacy of the people’s long history of mission education. people who reside in the Iranian provinces of Gilan and
 Gilaki and Mazandarani  381

Mazandaran. The Gilaki live in Gilan province, and the were overrun by Arabs who converted the inhabitants of
Mazandarani live in Mazandaran province (Shoup 2011). the provinces to Islam and renamed the unified provinces
There is also a significant Gilaki and Mazandarani dias- as Tabaristan. In the eleventh century, however, the Saljuq
pora living abroad, especially in the United States. Turks divided Tabaristan into the two provinces of Gilan
and Mazandaran again. Previously, the inhabitants of
Tabaristan had been favorably inclined toward the Alids
Geography and Environment (dynasties descended from Ali ibn Abi Talib, the son-in-
The Mazandaran province is located on the southern coast law of the Islamic prophet Mohammed), with several Alid
of the Caspian Sea and is bordered by the provinces of dynasties having ruled parts of Mazandaran from 864
Golestan, Semnan, Tehran, Qazvin, and Gilan. Mazandaran BCE until 1597, when Shah Abbas I of Persia, the fifth
is divided into a coastal plain and mountainous areas, with Safavid king of Iran, defeated them. When Shah Abbas I
the Alborz Mountain Range running parallel to the Cas- took control of Gilan and Mazandaran in 1597, Twelver
pian Sea coastal plain. Sea breezes and local winds from Shia Islam came to dominate the provinces. In contrast,
the southern and eastern coasts of the Caspian Sea have Gilan was ruled directly by a central government led
created sandy hills that form a low natural barrier between by the Ilkanid Oljaytu, the eighth ruler of the Ilkhanid
the sea and plain. The Alborz Mountains are character- dynasty (r. 1304–1316). Despite centralized control, local
ized by many isolated valleys, and unlike the rest of Iran, dynasties were able to survive in Gilan, as were the Han-
Mazanderan is home to many rivers that run from the bali madhhab and the Shafa’i Sunni madhhab (school of
mountains to the sea. The climate of Mazandaran prov- Islamic thought and jurisprudence). Meanwhile, Zaydi
ince is generally moderate to subtropical, with the Alborz Shi’ism (theologically, one of the Shia sects closest to
Mountains experiencing snowfall in winter. Hanafi Sunni Islam) proved influential in eastern Gilan
Gilan province has a humid subtropical climate and and in Mazandaran.
experiences Iran’s heaviest annual rainfall. The province In the nineteenth century, the inhabitants of Mazan­
contains forested sections of the Alborz Mountains and daran played an important part in the Babi movement.
also stretches down to the coast of the Caspian Sea. The This religion evolved from Twelver Islam and asserted
coastline attracts large numbers of domestic and interna- that a human imbued with special, transcendent knowl-
tional tourists and is also used to grow rice. edge might be the bab, or gateway to God. In 1844, Mirza
In 1990, approximately fifty thousand people died Muhhamad ‘Ali declared that he was the bab and then pro-
when an earthquake devastated parts of Gilan province. nounced that he was also the mahdi (spiritual guide) that
The Gilan and Mazandaran provinces both suffer from would either bring renewal in the form of the mujaddid (a
frequent flooding that destroys property and can result in messianic reformer able to restore the Islamic community
people drowning. Sea flooding along Iran’s Caspian coast to a state of purity) or pave the way for the return of the
is particularly serious when torrential rain combines with Hidden Imam. The Hidden Imam is the twelfth imam of
strong winds, causing huge waves to land onshore. When Twelver Islam, a descendant of the Prophet Mohammed
this occurs, people are killed, homes are destroyed, farm- through his cousin Ali and his daughter Fatimah, who did
land is washed away, and infrastructure, including ports, not die but assumed a type of spiritual existence known
electricity stations, and telephone networks, are damaged. as occultation, and who will return at the end of time as
the messianic Mahdi. ‘Ali’s followers participated in rebel-
lions against the Persian authorities, leading to ‘Ali’s cap-
History and Politics ture and execution in 1850. ‘Ali’s father, who was born in
The history of the Gilan and Mazandaran provinces date Mazandaran, went on to develop the Baha’i faith that the
back to before the founding of the Persian Empire under Gilaki and Mazandarani follow today.
the rule of Cyrus the Great between 576 and 530 BCE. From 1917, there was an active Gilan Bolshevik move-
Both Gilan and Mazandaran provinces were conquered ment that founded the short-lived Soviet Republic of
by the Macedonian leader Alexander the Great (r. 336– Gilan. The Gilaki and Mazandarani also participated in the
323) and then subsequently ruled by regional dynasties Iranian uprisings of 1920 and 1921. The Bolshevik revolts
before being amalgamated with the Persian Parthian and enabled the Persian Cossack Brigade, a Persian army cav-
Sassanid dynasties. In 644 BCE, Gilan and Mazandaran alry unit modeled after the Cossack units of the Russian
382  Gilaki and Mazandarani

army, to overthrow the Qajar dynasty in 1925 under the they claim to belong to one of Iran’s recognized religions.
leadership of the Mazandarani Reza Khan. In 1925, Reza Baha’is are the religious minority most affected by this
Khan became the new shah of Iran as Reza Shah Pahlavi. condition because their religious code prevents them from
However, in 1979, the Pahlavi dynasty was overthrown misrepresenting their faith. In 1991, a government memo-
during Iran’s Islamic Revolution. Since the revolution, the randum concerning the Baha’is instructed that they should
Gilaki and Mazandarani have faced extensive religious be expelled from university, either during the admission
repression and discrimination in Iran, resulting in many process or during the course of their studies. As a result
of the people moving overseas. of government restrictions like this, the Baha’i Institute
for Higher Education was founded in 1987, but many of
the founders were subsequently imprisoned. According to
Society, Culture, and Tradition the Baha’is, hundreds of Baha’i students are stopped from
The focus of Gilaki and Mazandarani society and culture enrolling at university every year despite meeting entrance
is adherence to the Baha’i faith that evolved from the Babi requirements. Baha’i students who manage to enroll are
movement. This faith teaches that Bahāʾ Allāh and his usually dismissed from university once their faith is dis-
forerunner, the Bāb, were manifestations of God. Followers covered (Ceasefire Centre for Civilian Rights, Centre for
of the Baha faith, known as the Bahāʾīs, believe that the Supporters of Human Rights, and Minority Rights Group
founders of all the world’s great religions have been man- International 2018).
ifestations of God acting as part of a divine plan intended
to educate the human race.
The Gilaki living on the northern side of the Alborz Threats to Survival
Mountains raise livestock, while those living on the plains The Baha’is have managed to survive repression by the
of the Caspian Sea are farmers, growing rice, cereals, Qajars, Ottomans, and successive Iranian governments.
tobacco, and tea. Some Gilaki are involved in tourism, fish- While Iran’s constitution guarantees religious freedom,
ing, the caviar trade, and silk production. these rights are extended only to Islam and three other
Gilaki and Mazandarani women have less traditional recognized religions—Christianity, Judaism, and Zoroas-
family patterns than other women from Iranian minor- trianism. Therefore, practitioners of other faiths, including
ities. However, Gilaki women usually wed at twenty-two Baha’i, have no guaranteed religious freedom. Baha’is in
years of age, which is later than Mazandarani women. Iran are also banned from preaching to non-Baha Mus-
This difference is most likely due to Gilaki women find- lims. In Iran, followers of the Baha’i faith such as the Gilaki
ing employment once they finish primary education. That and Mazandarani face vilification, arrest, and execution
both Gilaki and Mazandarani women tend to be better for their beliefs. Additionally, they are often charged with
educated, enjoy a higher social status, and are more eco- “threatening public morality or national security resulting
nomically active than women from other Iranian ethnic in long prison terms and even death sentences” (Cease-
groups is reflected in that tend to have children later in fire Centre for Civilian Rights, Centre for Supporters of
life than women from other minorities in Iran. This in turn Human Rights, and Minority Rights Group International
means Gilaki and Mazandarani societies have relatively 2018). So difficult are living conditions for Baha’is such
old age structures (Torabi and Baschieri 2010). as the Gilaki and Mazandarani that many have left their
homeland and migrated to the United States. Other threats
facing the Gilaki and Mazandarani include that of deadly
Health Care and Education earthquakes and floods.
In Iran, ethnic minorities, including the Baha’is, are mar-
ginalized from accessing health care, education, and other See also: Kurd; Talysh; Turkmen
basic services. Areas in which such groups live tend to be Further Reading
underdeveloped with higher levels of poverty and poorer Ceasefire Centre for Civilian Rights, Centre for Supporters of
Human Rights, and Minority Rights Group International.
health.
2018, March. “Rights Denied: Violations against Ethnic and
Iranian law guarantees all Iranians the right to receive Religious Minorities in Iran.” https://minorityrights.org​
an education. However, entrance requirements prevent /wp-content/uploads/2018/03/Rights-Denied-Violations​
religious minorities from registering at universities unless -against-ethnic-and-religious-minorities-in-Iran.pdf.
 Gond 383

Shoup, John A. 2011. “Gilaki and Mazandarani.” In Ethnic Groups plateau of southern central India. Many Gonds inhabit the
of Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by Satpura Hills, Maikala Range, and the Son-Deogarh high-
John A. Shoup, 108–110. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. lands or the Bastar plateau. Other Gond tribes live in the
Torabi, Fatemeh, and Angela Baschieri. 2010. “Ethnic Differ-
ences in Transition to First Marriage in Iran: The Role of
Garhjat Hills of northern Orissa. Many Gond tribes are
Marriage Market, Women’s Socio-Economic Status, and Pro- isolated because they live in the rugged Abujhmar Hills.
cess of Development.” Demographic Research 22 (January These highland groups practice jhum (traditional slash-
8): 29–62. https://www.demographic-research.org/volumes/ and-burn agriculture) on hill slopes. Gond villages are
vol22​/2/22-2.pdf. moved periodically. In addition, the commonly owned
land of each Gond clan contains many village sites occu-
pied in rotation. However, the Bisonhorn Maria Gond
group live on flatter land, and their farmlands are more
permanent. An especially important aspect of Muria Gond
GOND villages is the ghotul (a sort of youth dormitories) in which
unmarried boys and girls live and where they receive
Current Location India
training in community duties and sex education.
Current Population 9 million
Language Gond; Marathi; Hindi; Telugu
Interesting Fact The ancient Gondwanaland super- Geography and Environment
continent is named after the Gond- The upland areas inhabited by the Gonds tend to be two
wana region of central northern
thousand to three thousand feet high with some sum-
India; the name derives from the
mits over four thousand feet high. The Gond homeland is
Sanskrit for “forest of the Gonds.”
drained by the headwaters of some of India’s major riv-
ers, including the Narmada, Tapti, Son, Mahanadi, and
Overview Godavari. In many areas, the hills are covered in dense
The Gonds, also called the Gondis, Gondas, Koi, Koitur, forests, which when combined with highland terrain, can
or Koyathor, are an indigenous people of central India. make communications difficult. Gond land experiences
The Gonds speak a variety of different mutually unintel- high temperatures from February to September, with June
ligible Indo-Aryan languages such as Marathi as well as temperatures often exceeding 104°F. In the summer, there
Hindi and Telugu, depending on which language prevails are monsoon rains, with rainfall amounts varying from
in their locale. Only around half of all Gonds speak their forty-seven inches to over sixty-three inches in the south-
own language, which belongs to the Dravidian language east of the Gond homeland. The weather becomes cool and
family and is related to Andhran and Telugu. Despite the dry in late September.
dwindling number of Gond speakers, the language is an Pressure from the India government has caused Gond
important unifying factor in Gond society. farmers and cattle herders to preserve forests and adopt
Many Gonds identify as Hindu but still worship Gond new ways of farming and livestock raising. In many
gods and goddesses. In recent years, a minority of Gonds instances, these new working methods have yielded
have converted to Islam. better results for the Gonds. Some Gonds also follow a
­hunter-gatherer lifestyle that sees them live off the forest
by hunting wild animals and gathering woodland fruit and
Population, Diaspora, and Migration nuts. In Assam, Gonds work on tea plantations.
The Gonds are the largest tribal group of central India
with a population of around nine million people (Mina-
han 2012). The Gonds live in the central Indian states of History and Politics
Madhya Pradesh, eastern Maharashtra, western Orissa, According to Gond legend, their mother abandoned the
Chhattisgarh, and northern Andhra Pradesh. Most Gonds Gond gods before the goddess Pavarti rescued them. After
live in villages as farmers and cattle herders. their rescue, Shiva, Pavarti’s consort, imprisoned the gods
The Gonds are a hill people who are typically associated in a cave. The gods were then rescued by the Gond hero
with the uplands of the Deccan Peninsula, an expansive Pahandi Kapar Lingal, who released the gods in four groups
384 Gond

that lay the foundations for the numerous divisions of the the Gond language and culture can prevail in the face
Gond people. Researchers believe, however, that the Gonds of the increasing threat of language loss and cultural
settled in the eastern Madhya Pradesh historical region of assimilation.
Gonwana (or Gondwanaland) at some point between the
ninth and thirteenth centuries. Starting in the fourteenth
century, Gond dynasties reigned over four Gond king- Society, Culture, and Tradition
doms in central India. The Gonds also became the ruling The Gonds are a tribal people whose culture closely follows
class in much of central India. Gond rule ended in most the calendar of the agricultural year. Community celebra-
parts, however, when, in 1592, Muslim invaders overran tions chime with important times of the farming year, such
areas ruled by the Gonds. The Marathas conquered most as the harvest, while other events run parallel to the chang-
remaining Gond enclaves in the 1740s when they invaded ing seasons. Music and dance are important elements of all
from the west. By the time British rule in India began at the Gond celebrations.
start of the nineteenth century, only a very few Gond terri- The Gond religious belief system involves numerous
tories had survived. By the end of the nineteenth century, gods and goddesses that the people worship and to whom
the Gonds were reduced to living in scattered tribal com- they make offerings and sacrifices of appeasement. While
munities. The British colonial authorities tended to clas- the head of individual households normally conducts
sify the Gonds as hill tribes and ignored them in favor of family rituals such as naming ceremonies and birth rites,
the more productive tribes living on fertile lowland plains. sacrifices are performed by devari (village priests), who
Although representatives of British rule were sent to gov- also oversee various village rituals. Some deities have spe-
ern the Gonds, on the whole, British agents remained at cific things that should be sacrificed to them. For example,
a distance from Gond society, with the Gonds allowed to numerous female deities have chickens, goats, and male
carry on much as they had before British rule. After India’s buffalo sacrificed in their honor. Every nine or twelve years,
independence from Britain in 1947, Indian authorities the Gonds sacrifice a pig to the god Narayan Deo during a
categorized the Gonds as a Scheduled Tribe, which means ritual called Laru Kaj, which is intended to cure sickness
a tribe needing special assistance and help with develop- by appeasing the demon of disease. During this ceremony,
ment. Today, the Gonds are classed as a Scheduled Tribe the pig is made to eat rice before its penis is scalded with
in all states except Uttar Pradesh and Assam. In these two hot water. The pig is then killed either through suffoca-
states, the Gonds are listed as a Scheduled Caste, a classifi- tion or by being crushed by men standing on its stomach
cation that the Gonds resent, preferring instead to be listed (Rothenberg 2017). More usually, however, rituals involve
as Tribal. offerings of fruits, nuts, and flowers.
Since the 1960s, the Gonds have increasingly suffered The most important Gond deity is known by both
from anti-Gond discrimination and land loss. In addition, the Hindu name Bhagwan or the Gond name Bara Deo.
some Gonds found themselves in indentured servitude The people do not, however, worship Bhagwan/Bara Deo
working for lowland landowners as virtual slaves (Mina- directly. The Gonds also worship spirits, including ances-
han 2012). In response to these issues, Gond activism tral spirits, who they believe watch over them to ensure
increased rapidly in the 1970s. In the 1980s and 1990s, tribal rules are followed correctly. The Gonds believe
the Gond protests about their living conditions and loss of that ancestral spirits punish anyone who does not fol-
land became increasingly violent, and subsequently, many low tribal rules properly. Each Gond village has its own
Gond factions have formed with the aim of easing Gond village-guardian spirit and village-mother spirit that are
problems. The Gonds have also worked to unite with other worshipped during celebrations. Gonds also venerate fam-
Indian tribal peoples to gain their support. ily and household gods, the gods of the field, and cattle
In 1992, a Gond political party, the Gondwana Gantara gods. The Gonds also think that spirits inhabit the hills,
Party, was founded and set about instituting plans to help rivers, lakes, and trees of their homeland. In addition to
the Gonds develop. Today, Gond activism is particularly believing in various deities and spirits, the Gond feel that
strong among Gond students, who demand their people every Gond clan has its own Persa Pen, a high god that
have the same rights as other Indians. A radical student protects clan members. A Persa Pen is considered gener-
Gond political party, the Gondwana Sena, has called for ally benevolent but may occasionally become dangerous.
the creation of a Gond state within central India, where It is the job of the katora (clan priest) to tend the shrine
 Gorani 385

of a Persa Pen. Many Gonds believe that when a Pardhan live on less fertile land in remote areas. The people’s lack of
(professional storyteller) plays his fiddle, the power of a education, especially low levels of literacy, further reduce
Persa Pen is subdued. their economic activity, and they may be tricked in busi-
Traditionally, the Gond language has no written liter- ness deals by unscrupulous business partners. Another
ature, but it is rich in oral tradition consisting of myriad issue affecting the Gonds is the problem of increasing
poems, folktales, and songs. When Gond is written down, assimilation as the number of Gond speakers decrease and
the people use scripts borrowed from Telugu or other local more Gonds instead speak the language dominant in their
languages. surroundings.
On the plus side, the fact that the Gonds are listed as a
Scheduled Tribe in most states means that there are fixed
Health Care and Education quotas for Gonds in regard to government jobs. Addition-
The Gonds often ask soothsayers and diviners to decipher ally, there is a growing number of Gond political parties,
the cause of illnesses and suggest remedies. Gonds believe and elections are held in which only Scheduled Tribe
evil spirits and the will of the gods cause most illnesses members can be nominated, thereby increasing Gond
and bad luck. According to Gond beliefs, deities such as political representation.
Shitala Mata, the goddess of smallpox, and Narayan Deo,
See also: Bhil; Naga
the demon of disease identified with the sun, are able
Further Reading
to ward off disease if sacrifices are made in their honor.
Hardenberg, Roland. 2007. “‘The Hut of the Young Girls’: Tran-
Occasionally, the Gonds turn to magicians and shamans sition from Childhood to Adolescence in a Middle-India
for healthcare advice. Gond magicians employ spells to Tribal Society.”  In Childhoods in South Asia, edited by Deepak
control the actions of the deity that is causing a particular Kumar Behera, 65–81. New Delhi, India: Dorling Kindersley.
health condition. Meanwhile, Gond shamans enter trances Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the
to give voice to the demands of the offended deity so that Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
People Groups of India. 2018. “Gond.” http://www​.people-
the cause of illness can be determined. In some instances,
groupsindia.com/profiles/gond.
the Gonds also use herbal remedies or seek help from Rotherberg, Jerome. 2017. Technicians of the Sacred: A Range of
Western-style medical facilities. Poetries from Africa, America, Asia, Europe, and Oceania. 3rd
In late 2017, it was reported that WaterAid India would ed. Oakland, CA: University of California Press.
be helping the Gonds living in Madhya Pradesh who are Tribhuwan, Robin D., and Benazir D. Patil. 2009. Body Image,
particularly affected by illnesses caused by dirty water and Human Reproduction and Birth Control: A Tribal Perspective.
New Delhi, India: Discovery Publishing House.
poor sanitation.
Gond death rituals vary depending on what causes a
person’s death. For example, Gonds who die from leprosy,
cholera, or smallpox are buried, and Gonds who die from
other reasons are usually cremated (Tribhuwan and Patil
2009). GORANI
Literacy among the Gonds is below the Indian average
(People Groups of India 2018). Few Gond children go to Current Location Kosovo; Albania; Macedonia
school regularly, and girls rarely continue their education Current Population 10,265
past primary school age. There are, however, professional Language Našuski; Serbian; Bosnian; Albanian
Gond colleges providing training for employment, and Interesting Fact Many Gorani work abroad for eleven
other educational institutions offer lower pass marks in months of the year.
examinations for the Gonds so that Gond students have a
better chance of progressing in education.
Overview
The Gorani (or Goranci or Našinci) are a people living in
Threats to Survival an area of Europe sometimes called the Gora region. This
The Gonds face issues of exploitation and discrimination. area encompasses a triangular section of the disputed ter-
They also suffer from land loss or are sometimes made to ritory of Kosovo, Albania, and Macedonia. The Gorani
386 Gorani

are named after the Gora region, which in turn derives its Albania. Instead, they consider themselves as Bosnian, due
name from the Slavic word for “mountains.” to their shared Slav Muslim identity, or Turkish because
The Gorani speak a language called Našuski, meaning the Ottoman Turks brought Islam to the Balkans.
“our speech.” This is a Slavic language similar to Macedo-
nian. Many Gorani living in Kosovo also speak Serbian or
Bosnian as a second language, and Gorani living in Alba- Geography and Environment
nia are bilingual, with Albanian as second language. Kosovo is encircled by Albania to the south and south-
The Gorani are Muslim, and so they share the Islamic west, by Macedonia to the southeast, Montenegro to the
faith of Kosovo’s two million Albanians; yet they maintain west, and Serbia to the north, northeast, and east. The Gora
the Slav identity and language of Kosovo’s former Serb rul- region that extends across parts of Kosovo, Albania, and
ers. The ethnic identity of the Gorani is extremely complex Macedonia is mountainous and forested.
and disputed.

History and Politics

Population, Diaspora, and Migration The origins of the Gorani are disputed, though one the-
Exact Gorani population figures are unknown. The Gorani ory suggests that they originated as the Bogomil (meaning
population in Kosovo is thought to have declined follow- “dear to God”), a neo-Gnostic Christian sect that material-
ing the Kosovo War (1998–1999) that resulted in Kosovo ized in the First Bulgarian Empire. The Bogomils followed
declaring independence from what is now Serbia. While a doctrines imported from the Paulicians (a sect found in
2008 report by Reuters notes the Gorani population as being Armenia and Asia Minor) and a Slavonic movement want-
around 18,000 (Robinson 2008), according to the 2011 ing to reform the newly established Bulgarian Orthodox
Kosovo census (that excluded North Kosovo), the Gorani Church. The Gorani are thought to have migrated to the
community consisted of 10,265 people, meaning the peo- Gora region between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries.
ple made up around 0.58 percent of the total population of During the eighteenth century, the Gorani converted
Kosovo. The Gorani live in the Gora region of Europe, most to Islam but retained their Slavic language. Then, in 1815,
especially in mountainous southern Kosovo. In general, the Albanians began to settle in around Prizren. During the
Gorani community is concentrated throughout the Dragash First Balkan War (1912–1913), the Serbian army seized
municipality, where the Gorani make up about 26 percent Gora, causing some Gorani to flee to Turkey. Then, dur-
of the municipality’s residents. Here, the Gorani predomi- ing World War I, Gora was taken by the Central Powers
nantly live in the town of Dragash and the surrounding (Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and
villages. Smaller Gorani communities exist scattered across Bulgaria). The region was allocated to Bulgaria until May
Kosovo, principally in the municipalities of Prizren, Mitro- 1916 and then to the Austro-Hungarians until October
vica, Mitrovicë North, Priština, and Pejë (EKMIKosovo n.d.). 1918. After 1918, Gora was integrated into the Kingdom
The largest Gorani community outside of the Gora of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes. In 1925, the border between
region or Balkans exists in Germany, where Gorani migrant Serbia and Albania was fixed according to a decision by the
workers take seasonal work and send their money back to League of Nations. As a result of the border demarcation,
their families. There are also sizable Gorani communities thousands of Gorani now found they were living in Alba-
throughout Western Europe and in the United States. nia. In a 1939 census of Yugoslavia, the Gorani were catego-
Exact Gorani population figures from before the start rized as non-Slavs, a description also applied to Albanians
of the Kosovo War are unavailable because previous sur- and Turks. Subsequently, in 1949, ethnic Albanian officials
veys did not include Gorani as a separate group but rather who had roles in the Yugoslav government launched a pol-
included the Gorani in the “Muslim” group that also icy to force the Gorani to assimilate. As part of this policy,
included the Bosniak community. After the war, many the Gorani were made to Albanianize their names.
Gorani fled Kosovo for Serbia, Macedonia, and Western During the Kosovo War, many Gorani supported the
Europe. Gorani out-migration from Kosovo continues, Serbs. Following the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia, the
mostly for economic reasons. United Nations Interim Administration Mission in Kosovo
It has been well documented that many Gorani feel (UNMIK) took control of the Autonomous Province of
stateless, for they do not feel part of Kosovo, Serbia, or Kosovo and Metohija. During this period the Gora region was
 Gorani 387

disestablished, and a new municipality, Dragash, was created Traditionally, the Gorani practice animal husbandry,
that saw Gora united with neighboring Albanian-­inhabited but during the twentieth century, this tradition died out.
Opolje. The new municipality had an Albanian-majority The practice expired because during the 1970s, Gorani
population. After the NATO bombings, Albanian attacks on men began to move abroad to find work in a form of labor
Gora resulted in a number of Gorani deaths. migration called na gurbet or u pecalbu. In Albanian-­
Meanwhile, at the start of the 1990s, Serbia had declared majority areas of Kosovo, many Gorani are able to operate
the Gorani a Serbian minority. This claim was partly due small businesses because the security situation is gener-
to the fact that it strengthened Serbia’s claim to Kosovo, ally safe. However, the Gorani unemployment rate runs at
which at the time Serbia was struggling to retain. Through- 50 percent, which compares unfavorably with the general
out the 1990s and into the 2000s, the war in Kosovo and unemployment rate of Kosovo that is around 45 percent
NATO intervention in the Gora region led to increasing (EKMIKosovo n.d.). This high unemployment rate may
numbers of Gorani leaving their homeland. More recently reflect the fact that Gorani communities tend to live in
the Gorani have been approached by a number of coun- remote, rural, and underdeveloped areas.
tries offering the people citizenship. For example, Mace- The Gorani mark the start of the spring with a holiday
donia offered the Gorani citizenship as did Bulgaria. Many called Ðurevdan (St. George Day) that occurs annually on
Gorani living in Albania applied for Bulgarian passports May 6. This day is also recognized by Kosovan law as the
because they wished to live within the European Union, of official national day of the Gorani. Traditional Gorani folk
which Bulgaria is a member. music includes the kolo (circle), a two-beat dance focused
Recently, the key Gorani political party has been on foot movements that is performed in a circle. This dance
Gradanskainicijativa Gore (GIG), which has participated is often accompanied by instrumental music played on a
in both the general elections and the Dragash municipal variety of instruments. Weddings are extremely impor-
elections. The party does not operate outside of Dragash tant to the Gorani, with people willing to spend their life
and so has limited support. Bosniak parties such as the savings on one nuptial event (Dordevic Crnobrnja 2016).
VAKAT coalition and the StrankaDemokratskeAkcije The weddings contain many rituals, including the danc-
(SDA) have also represented the Gorani community. The ing of the kolo in the center of the bride’s village and the
Gorani have one guaranteed seat in the Kosovo Assembly, bride riding horseback around her home village and to the
and it nominates two members of the Consultative Coun- groom’s home—this part of the wedding can take hours
cil for Communities (CCC) that is part of the Office of the to complete if the bride and groom do not live near each
President of Kosovo and comprises minority community other.
and government representatives. The CCC has the consti- The Gorani language is closely related to the Slav lan-
tutional mandate to act as a forum for the government to guage spoken in the western part of Macedonia, though
consult with ethnic communities and help communica- it differs from other Slav dialects spoken in Kosovo. The
tion between minorities. language is not standardized, and there has been little
academic research into the language. The lack of a stand-
ardized language is one of the reasons that the Gorani are
Society, Culture, and Tradition unable to demand language rights. Consequently, while the
Elements such as culture, religion, language, and ethnicity size of the Gorani population in Dragash meets the legal
are intertwined for the Gorani, leading to various nations requirements for a language to be recognized as an official
trying to claim the Gorani as their citizens. For instance, language at the municipal level, at the moment, this status
the Gorani are sometimes considered Serb because they has not been awarded to the Gorani language. Despite the
speak a Serbian language, and others view the Gorani as lack of standardization, speakers of Serbian, Croatian, and
Bulgarian or Macedonian because their language is a var- Bosnian can generally understand the language.
iant of Bulgarian or Macedonian. Another theory posits
that the Gorani are Slav, Illyro-Albanian, or Aromanian,
while yet another contention is that, like Bosnians, the Health Care and Education
Gorani are Muslims that happen to speak a Slav language. The Gorani access healthcare services provided by Serbia.
Historically, the Gorani were Orthodox Christians before Generally, the Gorani do not experiences any major diffi-
converting to Islam. culties in accessing such services, though the Gorani who
388 Greek

do not speak Serbian or Bosnian can experience commu- identifying as Bulgarian while others are allied to Macedo-
nication problems with healthcare staff. nia or Serbia. Many Gorani that lived in Kosovo before the
The Gorani are underrepresented in the Kosovo civil war have moved to neighboring countries in an attempt
service, with only 0.1 percent of all civil servants in Kosovo to leave behind postwar poverty and unemployment. Of
being Gorani, including teachers. For this reason, many those Gorani that remain in Kosovo, some feel margin-
Gorani are educated outside of their homeland because alized because they do not understand the Albanian lan-
the Gorani lack a curriculum or school programs in the guage used by the new Kosovo authorities. As a result of
Gorani language in Kosovo. Most Gorani children living in the Kosovo authorities using Albanian, many Gorani now
the Dragash, Mitrovica, and Mitrovicë North municipal- consider speaking Serbian an impediment because it
ities go to school in Serbia, and Gorani children in other excludes them from participating in Kosovo society.
parts of Kosovo often attend schools where they are taught
See also: Bosniak; Bulgarian; Macedonian; Pomak
in the Bosnian or Albanian language, with the schooling
Further Reading
being provided by the Kosovo government. In Dragash, the
Cheresheva, Mariya. 2017. “Sofia Claims Kosovo’s Gorani as ‘Bul-
government has tried to persuade Gorani parents to enter garian Minority.’” Balkan Insight, November 27. http://www​
their children into the Kosovo state education system. .balkaninsight.com/en/article/sofia-claims-kosovo-s-gorani​
Most Gorani receive tertiary education at the university -as-bulgarian-minority--11-26-2017.
in Mitrovica or other regional university. However, a 2010 Dordevic Crnobrnja, Jadranka. 2016. “Crisis, Migrations, Cul-
report on the Gorani related that low numbers of Gorani ture on the Influence of the Economic and Political Crisis on
Migration Patterns of Gorani People and Changes to Their
women continue their education beyond the compulsory
Culture.” In Cultures of Crisis in Southeast Europe. Part 1: Cri-
learning (EKMIKosovo n.d.). ses Related to Migration, Transformation, Politics, Religion,
In Kosovo, the Gorani are part of a segregated educa- and Labor, edited by Klaus Rother and Asker Kartari, 85–101.
tion system. In areas of Kosovo in which the Gorani live, Ethnologia Balkanica 18. Berlin, Germany: Lit Verlag.
education is in Serbian and is administered and funded by EKMIKosovo. n.d. “Community Profile: Gorani Community.”
the Serbian Ministry of Education. The schools attended European Centre for Minority Issues Kosovo. http://www​
.ecmikosovo.org/uploads/Goranicommunity1.pdf.
by the Gorani also follow a Serbian curriculum that differs
Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Kosovo: Gorani.”
from the curriculum used in other schools in Kosovo. World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples,
March. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/gorani.
Robinson, Matt. 2008. “Slow Exodus Threatens Kosovo’s Moun-
Threats to Survival tain Gorani.” Reuters, February 11. https://www.reuters.com​
There are multiple threats to the Gorani. For example, the /article/us-serbia-kosovo-gorani-idUSL114647620080211.
Steinke, Klaus. 2016. “Identity Problems of the Gorani in Eastern
Gorani have also been hit hard by the global economic
Albania and Kosovo.” In The Palgrave Handbook of Slavic Lan-
downturn, with the result that many Gorani work abroad guages, Identities and Borders, edited by Tomasz Kamusella,
for eleven months of the year and send home the money Motoki Nomachi, and Catherine Gibson, 360–375. Basing-
they earn. This situation has been worsened by the fact that stoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Albanians have boycotted Gorani businesses because the
Albanians consider the Gorani as having collaborated with
Serbs in the matter of the Kosovo War. This view is born of
the fact that some Gorani politicians were pro-Serb during
the war, and the fact that many Gorani speak Serbian and
receive a Serbian education has heightened the Albanians’
GREEK
mistrust of the Gorani. That the Gorani receive little in the
way of state financial assistance has also exacerbated the Current Location Greece
Gorani’s financial hardship. The Gorani tend to have little Current Population 12 million
faith in the criminal justice system to protect their rights, Language Greek
and as they have little say in state politics, the Gorani feel Interesting Fact The Greeks call themselves the
excluded from political participation. Hellenes, after the mythical figure
The Gorani live in state of uncertainty. They are of Hellen (the king of Phthia and
divided in terms of national allegiance, with some Gorani grandson of the Titan Prometheus).
 Greek 389

Overview to the south lies the Mediterranean Sea, and to the west
The Greeks (also called the Ellines or Hellenes) are the is the Ionian Sea. Greece’s land borders lie with Albania to
indigenous inhabitants of a large area of Europe, though the northeast, the Republic of Macedonia to the north, and
most live in their home country of Greece. Greeks speak Bulgaria and Turkey to the northeast. Greece also contains
the Greek language. Many Greeks also speak the languages thousands of islands, of which the largest are Crete and
of the countries in which they live or only use the language Evia. Major Greek island groups include the Dodecanese
of their adoptive country. Greeks belong overwhelmingly and Ionian islands.
to the Eastern Orthodox Church. Greece’s coast is deeply indented by gulfs, and much
The name Greek derives from the name of Greek of the land comprises hills and rugged mountains inter-
migrants to Italy called the Graeci that was later applied rupted by numerous lakes, rivers, and wetlands. The
to all residents of Greece. From the fourth century, the highest mountain in Greece is Mount Olympus. To the
Greeks were called the Romaioi (meaning “people of southwest of Mount Olympus are the Meteora complex of
Rome”) in reference to the fact that some Greeks came huge rock formations. In Greece’s north, along the coun-
from the Eastern Roman Empire (or Byzantine Empire). try’s border with Bulgaria, there are the heavily forested
In Turkey, the Greeks are still called the “Rums.” The name Southern Rhodope Mountains. Greece is also home to
Hellenes derives from the Greek mythical figure of Hellen many dormant volcanoes, including those on the islands of
(king of Phthia and grandson of the Titan Prometheus) Kos and Santorini. Wildlife found in Greece includes bears,
from whom all Greeks are said to be descended. Similarly, wolves, and jackals. The waters around Greece are home to
the Greeks call Greece Hellas. That the name “Hellenes” whales, dolphins, seals, and numerous fish species.
has pagan connotations meant it fell out of favor for a time. Greece’s main environmental problems include indus-
Today, however, Greeks take pride in the name Hellenes trial smog and air pollution from vehicle exhausts, sea and
because it recalls their illustrious ancestors. freshwater pollution caused by industrial pollutants, agri-
cultural chemicals and sewage, overfishing, and deforest-
ation. The main causes of loss of biodiversity in Greece
Population, Diaspora, and Migration are related to land clearance, farming, fishing, transport,
The worldwide Greek population is estimated at 12 mil- tourism, and industry. Recently, Greece’s growing tourism
lion people. Around 10 million Greeks live in Greece, and industry has had a significant impact on Greece’s envi-
roughly 580,000 Greeks live on the Mediterranean island ronment, especially in sensitive coastal areas, where roads
of Cyprus. There are also Greek communities throughout have been constructed leading to tourist destinations and
Eastern Europe. For example, around 100,000 Greeks who excessive water consumption during the dry period puts
have maintained their Greek language and culture live in pressure on water resources. Overpumping occurs as a
Georgia, and large Greek communities have assimilated result of water overconsumption and causes the irrevers-
in Russia and Ukraine. Over 500,000 Greeks have settled ible salinization of groundwater aquifers. The tourism
in Western and Central Europe, especially in Germany, industry also produces a large quantity of solid waste that
which has over 300,000 Greek inhabitants. Around 46,000 local authorities find difficult to manage (European Envi-
Greeks (the descendants of ancient Greek settlers who ronment Agency 2017).
arrived in Sicily and the Bay of Naples) live in Italy. Only
around a third of the Greeks living in Italy speak Greek, for
most have adopted Italian as their main language (Haar- History and Politics
mann 2015). Greek communities also exist in Australia Archaeologists believe Greece has been inhabited since
and North America. Greeks living outside of their home- prehistoric times. However, Greek history is generally
land are often known by a hyphenated name, for example, considered to begin with the emergence of the Hellenes
Greek-Australian or Greek-American. during the second millennium BCE. In 6500 BCE, the
Greeks living on the plain of Thessaly on the Aegean coast
became the first people to practice farming anywhere in
Geography and Environment Europe. It is likely that the inhabitants of Thessaly were
Greece is the southernmost country of the Balkan Penin- taught about agriculture by migrants from Turkey, for at
sula. To the east, Greece is bordered by the Aegean Sea, this time, Asia and Europe were linked by a land bridge.
390 Greek

The introduction of agriculture led to Greece becoming resulting in frequent disorganized Greek rebellions against
wealthy by 5000 BCE. the Ottomans. By the nineteenth century, however, the
From the eighth century BCE, Greeks began to colo- Ottoman Empire had become much weaker.
nize areas throughout the Mediterranean region. By the Seizing the opportunity, in 1821, the Greeks began
fifth century BCE, Greeks had organized themselves into their War of Independence, a pivotal event that led to
numerous independent states called poleis (singular: polis), the Greeks declaring their independence. After the war,
including Athens, Sparta, Ephesus, and Marseilles (now in Greece extended its territory into the Ionian islands, Thes-
southern France). Each polis made its own laws and had saly, Macedon, Crete, and the Aegean. From 1919 to 1922,
its own dialect, currency, and government. The poleis Greece also made a failed attempt to advance into Turkey.
fought both among themselves for power and internally Greece reached its present structure in 1947 having been
over styles of governance, such as democracy versus oli- occupied by German Nazi forces during World War II.
garchy. However, when necessary, the poleis united to repel Following the war, a violent civil war ensued (1944–1949)
invading Persians. The Peloponnesian War (431–404 BCE) between Greek communists and Western-backed Greek
between Athens and Sparta led to the decline of Greece. government forces.
Consequently, in the fourth century BCE, Macedonia took The Greek civil war occurred in two stages. The first
control of Greece, first under king Philip II (359–336 BCE) stage began only months before the Nazi occupation of
of the Argead dynasty and then under Philip’s son, Alex- Greece ended in 1944. Greek resistance to Nazi occupa-
ander the Great. When Alexander died in 323 BCE, the tion had been conducted mainly by two Greek guerrilla
Greek mainland divided into leagues ruled by Macedonian forces, the communist EAM-ELAS (Ethnikón Apelefthero-
governors. tikón Métopon–Ethnikós Laïkós Apeleftherotikós Strátos,
In the second century BCE, Greece became part of the National Liberation Front–National Popular Liberation
Roman Empire. The numerous Greek leagues and poleis Army) and the EDES (Ellínikos Dímokratikos Ethnikós
were permitted to run themselves under close Roman Strátos, Greek Democratic National Army). After erad-
supervision. The eastward expansion of the Roman icating all of its political and guerrilla opponents save
Empire introduced Greek polis-style administration as for the EDES, EAM-ELAS established a provisional
far east as Afghanistan. Over time, the Greek language government in the Greek mountains that rejected both
spread throughout the Mediterranean region, and Greek the Greek king and his government-in-exile. When the
culture became a favorite of the ancient Romans, who Nazis withdrew from Greece, the communists and roy-
enjoyed Greek literature, history, philosophy, and archi- alist Greek guerrillas united to form an uneasy coalition
tecture. The Romans also made Greek a central feature of government. The government disintegrated soon after
the Roman educational system. By the fourth century CE, its creation, however, when the communists refused to
the Roman Empire began to decline. In 324, the Roman disband their guerrillas. With some difficulty, the British
emperor Constantine divided the empire in half, with the managed to suppress the civil war, but only after EAM-
eastern half centered on Greek Byzantium, which was ELAS had overrun most of Greece except for Athens and
renamed Constantinople (and is now called Istanbul, the Thessaloníki. In 1946, a Greek general election was held
capital of Turkey). In the fifth century, the Western Roman in which the communists and their followers refused to
Empire collapsed following invasions by Germanic tribes. vote. Consequently, a royalist majority was elected, lead-
Thus, Constantinople became the new focus of the Roman ing to the reinstatement of the Greek king. In 1946, a full-
Empire, which became known as the Byzantine Empire. scale guerrilla war began.
Gradually, the Byzantines took control over Greece. Their The commitment of defending Greece again was too
control lasted until the Franks attacked Constantinople in great for the British, so the task was taken on by the U.S.
1204, thereby beginning an era called Frankokratia (“rule government with the announcement of the Truman Doc-
of the Franks”). However, the Franks fought among them- trine (a U.S. foreign policy aimed at countering Soviet geo-
selves as well as against the Serbs, Albanians, and Turks, political expansion). By the end of 1947, the communists
leaving their empire irreversibly weakened. In 1453, Con- had proclaimed a provisional government in the moun-
stantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks. Subsequently, the tains of north Greece. The communist rebellion lasted until
Greeks stayed under Ottoman rule for almost four hun- 1949, when the United States helped the Greek army clear
dred years. Greece suffered greatly under Ottoman rule, rebel mountain bases. When the communists announced
 Greek 391

the end of the fighting, many remaining communist Greece’s financial difficulties are over, some financial com-
rebels fled to Albania. The civil war left a lasting bitterness mentators are doubtful.
between sections of Greek society. Ultimately, the civil war
resulted in a Greek government inclined toward broadly
Western ideals, though many Greeks continued to hold Society, Culture, and Tradition
anti-Western feelings. Greece is a country with a diverse culture that is influ-
The 1950s saw Greece become a member of the North enced by its location between the East and the West as
Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). Membership of well as by its history of occupation. The Greek language
NATO gave the Greeks a sense of security, though domes- forms an independent branch of the Indo-European lan-
tic Greek politics were riven with internal strife that, dur- guage family. Greek is written using the Greek alphabet,
ing the period 1950 to 1974, saw fierce debate over the role though other writing systems have previously been used.
of the Greek monarchy. In 1967, a military coup ousted The Greek alphabet developed from the Phoenician script
the Greek government and ended the Greek monarchy. and subsequently served as the basis of the Latin, Cyril-
The junta collapsed in 1974 after Turkey invaded northern lic, Armenian, Coptic, and Gothic writing systems, among
Cyprus. Also, during this period, a movement emerged to others.
downgrade the use of the katharevousa language (a purist The Greek language is an intrinsic part of both Western
form of modern Greek that until 1976 was Greece’s official culture and Christianity. Ancient Greek literature includes
written language) used in schools and administration. In works that are hugely influential in Western literary his-
1976, modern Demotic Greek (or Dimotiki) replaced kath- tory, including Homer’s epic poems of the Iliad and Odys-
arevousa as Greece’s official language. sey. Many of the Western world’s foundational texts in
Since 1975, Greece has operated as a democratic repub- science, astronomy, math, and Western philosophy were
lic. In 1981, Greece joined the European Economic Union written in Greek, including the works of Plato and Aris-
and embarked on a process of European integration that totle. The Christian New Testament was written in Koiné
saw the country adopt the euro currency. In 2010, Greece Greek (Biblical Greek). In ancient times, Greek served as
was plunged into the worst economic crisis in Greek his- the lingua franca of the Mediterranean region as well as
tory as a result of the country having joined the Eurozone western Asia and elsewhere. In time, the language became
(the monetary union of countries using the euro as cur- the official language of the Byzantine Empire. Modern
rency) on the basis of inaccurate data. To ease the finan- Greek is the official language of Greece and Cyprus and a
cial crisis, Greece asked for emergency loans from the minority language in several other nations that are home
European Union (EU) and International Monetary Fund to a Greek diaspora. Today, Dimotiki (modern vernacular
(IMF). Greece received three successive packages loans Greek) is Greece’s language of education and administra-
to the tune of billions of euros. The loans came at a price, tion. Most regions of Greece have their own local spoken
however, for the Greek government had to implement dialects of modern Greek as well as their own regional
drastic austerity measures, with the aim of improving how accents.
Greece managed its public finances. Greece was made to Between 95 percent and 97 percent of Greeks are East-
modernize its methods of collating financial statistics, to ern Orthodox Christians. In Greece, the church is called
lower trade barriers to increase its exports, and to reform the Church of Greece. The Eastern Orthodox Church is
its pension system. At the same time, as Greek pension autocephalous (self-governing) and headed by an arch-
payments were cut, employees were made to pay higher bishop based in Athens who has jurisdiction over all of
pension contributions, and employers had to limit the Greece save for Crete, the Dodecanese Islands, and the
number of employees taking early retirement. The auster- monastic communities of Mount Athos that are gov-
ity measures forced the Greek government to reduce its erned by the Ecumenical Patriarchate based in Istanbul.
spending while also increasing taxes. As a result of such Roughly 5 percent of Orthodox Christians in Greece are
measures, the Greek economy shrank by a quarter, leading Old Calendarists (also called members of the Church of
to a huge rise in unemployment, especially among young True Orthodox Christians of Greece). These are Eastern
Greeks. The combination of austerity and unemployment Orthodox Christians who maintain their own churches
led to rioting on the streets of Greece. While the Greek that are separate from the Church of Greece and refused
prime minister, Alexis Tsipras, has declared the worst of to accept the Eastern Orthodox Church’s adoption of the
392 Greek

Gregorian calendar in 1923. Instead, the Old Calendarists if a jealous person directs that evil at them, causing the
use the Julian calendar proposed by Roman emperor Julius afflicted person to feel ill. To be released from the curse,
Caesar. Old Calendarists also oppose the Eastern Ortho- the sufferer should consult an expert who will pray for
dox Church’s ecumenicalism, including the Patriarch of his or her release from the evil eye. To avoid the evil eye,
Constantinople’s participation in the World Council of Greek believers wear a talisman in the form of a blue bead
Churches as well as attempts by the Patriarch of Constan- painted with an eye symbol. Similarly, Greeks believe spit-
tinople to forge closer links between the Eastern Orthodox ting chases away the devil and bad luck, and so when a
Church and the Roman Catholic Church (Thomopoulos Greek person hears bad news, he or she will spit three
2012). times while saying, “Ftou, ftou, ftou.” Greeks also believe
Most Greeks are named after a saint. An important tra- that hobgoblins called kallikantzari live underground for
dition sees everyone named after a saint celebrate his or most of the year but emerge aboveground from Christ-
her name on the day devoted to the saint after whom they mas to Epiphany (January 6), during which time they play
are named, their “saint name day.” To Greeks, name days tricks on humans. To make the hobgoblins return home
are more important than birthdays and see the person cel- on Epiphany Day, Greek priests sprinkle homes with holy
ebrating their name day given gifts by their friends and water.
family. Another important Greek tradition is that of the Another Greek tradition sees adults make bracelets
long engagement that can last for many years to symbolize called martis from plaited red and white string that are
a couple’s commitment to each other. given to children on March 1. According to Greek folklore,
Carnival or apokries is an important Greek festival if children wear the martis, then spring sunlight will not
comprising two weeks of feasting that starts on the Sun- burn their faces—martis represents the desire that Greek
day of the Last Judgment or Sunday of Meat Fare (the third children should have rosy cheeks and a pale complexion.
Sunday using the Lenten Triodion) and ends on Clean The martis are worn until midnight mass is held for the
Monday (Kathari Deutera, the first day of the Lent). Carni- Orthodox Easter. This is traditionally a time when bonfires
val is a party time that probably derives from the ancient are set ablaze, and once the bonfires are lit, the children
Greek worship of Dionysus, the god of wine and feasting. take off their matris and throw them into the bonfires so
Easter is the most important Greek celebration. On Good that they may be consumed by the flames.
Thursday or Good Saturday, women dye eggs red and bake An unusual event is held in the Greek town of Tyr-
Easter buns. On Good Friday, which is a day of mourning, navos, where an annual phallus festival, called Clean (or
Greeks decorate statues of the tomb of Christ with flowers Dirty) Monday, occurs on the first Monday of Lent. Phallic
before parading the statues around local streets. On the parades and festivals were a common feature of the cult of
evening of Holy Saturday (Megalo Savato), Greeks dress in Dionysus, and in ancient Greece, an annual March pageant
their finery to visit church. saw a giant phallus paraded through the streets of Athens.
Other dates important to Greeks include Greek Inde- The Tyrnavos festival is a pagan fertility festival during
pendence Day, which is celebrated on March 25 to mark which visitors are grabbed and placed over a pot of spin-
the Greeks’ declaration of the Independence War against ach soup called bourani while they are teased by having
the Ottomans in 1821. This date also marks the religious a ceramic penis lodged between their legs. Visitors must
feast of the Annunciation of the Virgin Mary. Every Octo- also kiss the phallus and drink a local spirit called tsipouro
ber 28, Greeks celebrate the day when the Greek dictator from the phallus’s tip.
Ioannis Metaxas (1871–1941) resisted the Italian invasion The traditional Greek diet consists of red meat, fruit
of Greece during World War II. To mark the day, Greeks and vegetables, and grains, olive oil, nuts, cheese, fish, and
place a Greek flag in their windows, and children and red wine. At New Year, a cake called vasilopita that is ded-
armed forces participate in parades. icated to Saint Basil is prepared. Saint Basil is akin to a
Despite their Christianity, Greeks are highly supersti- Greek equivalent of Santa Claus, for he brings gifts to chil-
tions. While Greek superstitions vary geographically, there dren on the first night of the year. Inside the vasilopita is a
are some universal superstitions shared my Greeks. For gold coin, and whoever finds this coin is considered lucky
example, many Greeks believe in the evil eye (mati). This for the rest of the year. In Greek villages, the household-
is particularly true of rural Greeks. According to Greek ers reserve some cake for their livestock and fields, and
superstition, people can suffer the evil eye (matiasma) on the Greek islands, a piece is given to fishing boats and
 Greek 393

grain mills. In some parts of Greece, including the island health, mainly in the form of out-of-pocket expenses (i.e.,
of Crete, village women make koliva to feed the souls of health insurance, buying medicines). Since 2009, roughly
the dead on St. Basil’s Day, (January 1). On this day, the 2.5 million Greeks (those who have been unemployed for
local priest visits every home, sprinkles the houses with more than two years and their dependents as well as self-­
water, and blesses them by making a sign of the cross with employed individuals who could no longer afford to pay
a sprig of basil. for health insurance) lost their health insurance coverage.
Traditionally, cremation does not occur in Greece This meant they were no longer able to access public health
because the practice is forbidden by the Orthodox Church. care. However, in 2016, new laws were introduced to secure
Consequently, the issue of running out of grave space and provide health care for all Greeks. The last available
occurs in Greece, leaving some Greek families to rent a data for Greece shows that, in 2014, Greece had 346 acute
crypt where bodies lie temporarily. Greece’s rapid urban hospital beds per 100,000 people, which was below the EU
growth has resulted in cemeteries being encircled by average of 394 per 100,000. Greece is, however, among the
buildings without room to expand. For this reason, Greek EU countries with the most computed tomography (CT)
graves now tend to be rented on a three-year lease with a and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scanners. Most of
set of escalating prices for any additional years of rental. these are used in the private health sector and so tend to be
The costs are deliberately prohibitive to deter long-term concentrated in urban areas. Greece’s doctor–patient ratio
rentals, meaning that grave space can be reused. Greek is the highest in the European Union: 625 per 100,000 pop-
law forbids human remains from being kept outside of ulation in 2014 (compared with an EU average of 350 per
the boundaries of a cemetery, so bones have to be kept in 100,000). Most of the medics are specialists rather than
an ossuary. Here, relatives can visit the bones, and family general practitioners and there are shortages of medics
members may occasionally remove the bones from their working in rural areas. Greece’s primary health care faces
box so that a priest can bless them. The cost of ossuary problems with patient access, the continuity of care, and
rental space in Greece is also increasing, however, meaning the coordination of services. Rural areas in particular lack
that the remains of people whose families cannot afford to healthcare facilities (Economou et al). In Greece, herbal
pay for ossuary space are thrown into a mass grave called a medicine and venduzes (cupping) are used alongside
digestive pit. Digestive pits are not necessarily the answer Western medicine, especially in rural areas.
to Greece’s grave space problem, however, as they too are Education in Greece is coeducational and free from
filling up (Williams 2017). preschool through to university. School is compulsory for
children ages six to fifteen years. Children attend dimo-
tiko (first to sixth grade), gymnasio (seventh to ninth
Health Care and Education grades), and lykio (tenth to twelfth grades). Lessons are
The main causes of death in Greece are cardiovascular taught in Demotic Greek, though English is also taught
diseases, cancer, and strokes. Mortality for those aged less in state-funded schools. After school, students can enroll
than sixty-five years is constantly above the European in state-sponsored career schemes to enter vocations
Union average (28.4 and 19.2 per 100 000 in 2014). Greece that include the priesthood, armed forces, fire services,
has shown the least improvement on premature death and police. Greece’s universities offer undergraduate and
from coronary heart disease among EU member states, postgraduate courses. For many recent years, Greece has
possibly because the Greeks have high rates of smoking experienced a brain drain as graduates move abroad after
and obesity. Cancer accounts for a quarter of all deaths in graduating in search of jobs.
Greece. Though cancer rates in Greece are slightly lower
than the EU average, Greece has among the highest death
rates for men from lung cancer (62 per 100,000, with an Threats to Survival
EU average of 54). There are no immediate threats to the Greeks, though
Greek health expenditure as a percentage of the gross Greeks living in Greece continue to feel the impact of
domestic product (GDP) is lower than the EU average. Greece’s economic crisis, including high unemployment,
This is due largely to Greece’s economic crisis that has worsening personal finances, and the erosion of public
caused the country’s health expenditure to fall by a fifth services. On a positive note, the Greek language contin-
since 2010. In contrast, Greeks spend high amounts on ues to be spoken, and Greek culture thrives, reflecting the
394 Guarani

people’s illustrious past yet continuing to evolve as Greece Most Guaranis are Roman Catholic, though there is
maintains its position as a modern nation. also a growing number of Protestant Guaranis. Guaranis
living in rural areas tend to hold pre-Christian spiritual
See also: Armenian; Pomak
beliefs.
Further Reading
Economou, C., D. Kaitelidou, M. Karanikolos, and A. Maresso.
2017. “Greece: Health System Review.” Health Systems in
Transition 19 (5): 1–192.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
European Environment Agency. 2017. “Greece Country Brief- Population estimates suggest there are around 320,000
ing: The European Environment—State and Outlook 2015.” Guaranis living in northern Argentina, southern Brazil,
Countries and Regions, September 27. https://www.eea​ Paraguay, Uruguay, and Bolivia (Minahan 2013). In Bra-
.europa.eu/soer-2015/countries/greece.
zil, there are around 51,000 Guaranis living in seven states
Haarmann, Harald. 2015. “Greeks.” In Native Peoples of the
World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contempo- of Brazil; this makes the Guaranis Brazil’s most populous
rary Issues, edited by Steven Danver, 316–321. Vol. 2. London: indigenous people (Survival International 2010). The
Routledge. Guaranis of Brazil are divided into three groups: Kaiowá,
Thomopoulos, Elaine. 2012. The History of Greece. Santa Barbara, Ñandeva, and M’byá. The largest of these groups is the
CA: Greenwood. Kaiowá, whose name translates into English as “forest peo-
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
ple.” Traditionally, Guarani villages consist of several large
World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA:
ABC-CLIO. communal houses that are inhabited by between ten and
fifteen families.

Geography and Environment

The traditional range of the Guarani people is in
GUARANI ­present-day Paraguay between the Uruguay River and
Current Location Paraguay; Brazil; Argentina; Bolivia; lower Paraguay River, the Misiones Province of Argentina,
Uruguay southern Brazil, as far north as Rio de Janeiro, and parts of
Current Population 320,000 Uruguay and Bolivia.
Language Guarani
Great swaths of Guarani land in Brazil has been cleared
to make way for cattle ranches and sugarcane plantations
Interesting Fact The epic multiaward-winning film
The Mission (1986) tells the story of
needed by the country’s biofuels market. Indeed, some
a Spanish Jesuit priest sent to con- estimates suggest as much as 95 percent of Guarani land in
vert the Guaranis to Christianity. Brazil has been cleared to make way for the biofuels indus-
try, sugarcane, and soya plantations (Vidal 2016). The
deforestation has left the much of the Guaranis’ Brazilian
Overview homeland infertile. In addition, in Brazil, many Guara-
The Guaranis are an indigenous ethnic group spread nis have been made to live on small reservations that are
across a large area of South America. The Guaranis consist now massively overcrowded. For example, the Dourados
of several groups who are related linguistically and cultur- reserve is home to twelve thousand Guaranis who live on
ally. These groups are often known by various local names. land little more than twelve miles square (Survival Inter-
The Guaranis speak the Guarani language, which national 2010). The wider environmental consequences
belongs to the Guarani branch of the Tupi-Guarani lan- of deforestation has damaged the habitats of fish and ani-
guage family. Approximately half of all Guaranis speak only mals, meaning it is harder for the Guaranis to hunt and
Guarani, but the rest of the Guaranis also speak Spanish of fish the animals they rely on for food, while at the same
Portuguese depending on which country they inhabit. In time, the Guaranis of Brazil lack spare land on which to
addition, in Paraguay, another five million people speak grow crops. For these reasons, malnutrition is a major
Guarani either as a first or second language because it is problem for Guaranis in Brazil, with a number of Guarani
the country’s official language. children reported to have starved to death.
 Guarani 395

History and Politics Empire situated in the Governorate of the Río de la Plata)
The earliest Guaranis inhabited eastern Paraguay and prompted the enslavement of the Guaranis. European
adjoining areas of Brazil and Argentina. The original male settlers also married Guarani females, and it is the
Guarani practiced slash-and-burn agriculture, meaning descendants of these marriages that make up the majority
that they had to relocate their settlements every five or of today’s Paraguayan population. Under the Spanish colo-
six years. The Guaranis were aggressive and took captives nial regime, the Guaranis were obliged to work under the
as sacrifices because the Guaranis thought eating their encomienda labor scheme that was akin to slavery and to
prisoners of war would grant them magical powers (Gan- pay tribute their Spanish rulers.
son 2003). During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, Jesuit missionaries entered Guarani land in 1585, and
some Tupi speakers migrated inland to the Río de la Plata soon a Jesuit college was constructed in Asuncion. The
(known in English as the River Plate, the river and estuary Jesuits did not agree with the encomienda system under
formed by the confluence of the Uruguay and the Paraná which the Guaranis lived and protested against the prac-
Rivers), where they became the Guarani of Paraguay. The tice to the Spanish. In response to the Jesuit protests, in
Guaranis first encountered Europeans in 1537, when Span- 1608, Spanish king Philip III granted the Jesuits permis-
ish conquistador Gonzalo de Mendoza led an expedition sion to colonize the area around Asuncion and convert the
through what is now Paraguay to the Brazilian border. On Guaranis to Christianity. While most Guaranis did convert
his way back, de Mendoza made contact with the Guaranis to Christianity and adopted a sedentary lifestyle, the Jesu-
and established a settlement at Asuncion, which is now the its did not force the Guaranis to become more European
capital of Paraguay. The first Spanish government of the and allowed the people to retain their indigenous tradi-
area known as Guayra (a historical region of the Spanish tions, including the growing of yerba mate (UNESCO

Guarani women sing in Pantanal, Paraguay. In Paraguay, Guarani culture is alive and well. Elsewhere in South America, however, the
future of the Guaranis is not assured. (Julian Peters/Dreamstime.com)
396 Guarani

1992–2017). The first Jesuit mission was built on Guarani and orchards became overgrown, and the missions and
land in 1610 and provided the Guaranis with protection churches fell into a state of decay. Subsequent national
from Portuguese slave hunters who had started to oper- wars of independence saw the total ruination of the mis-
ate in Guarani areas. Indeed, so many Guaranis sought sions, and by 1814, fewer than eight thousand Guaranis
sanctuary at the mission that twelve more missions were inhabited areas in which missions had been located.
quickly constructed to provide the Guaranis with protec- In 1848, Paraguayan president Carlos Antonio Lopez
tion from slavers. Ultimately, the missions protected some declared the Guaranis citizens of Paraguay, meaning that
forty thousand Guaranis from enslavement by the Por- the Guarani could abandon the encomienda labor system
tuguese (Minahan 2013). However, in 1629, a combined under which they had existed during Spanish colonialism
force of slavers and pirates from Sao Paolo stormed one of (Danver 2013). The descendants of the Guaranis that had
the missions and abducted several thousand Guaranis who lived in the missions migrated to forest and plain areas.
had sought protection there, later trafficking the abductees During the early to mid-twentieth century, various
as slaves. In less than two years, slavers had destroyed all Paraguayan dictators sought to isolate the country from
but two of the Jesuit missions, and in excess of sixty thou- outside influences, and this helped protect the Guarani
sand Christian Guaranis had been kidnapped and sold language and culture. In 1993, UNESCO added the Jes-
into slavery in Sao Paolo and Rio de Janeiro. In response uit missions were declared as part of the patrimony of
to these attacks, the Jesuits asked for and received per- humanity on account of the missions’ artistic worth and
mission from the Spanish to arm the Christian Guaranis. place in the socioeconomic history of the Rio de la Plata
Thus, when the next slaver attack came, the attackers were region. In 2006, 1,500 Guarani leaders from Paraguay, Bra-
met by an armed Guarani resistance. By 1732, a resolute zil, Argentina, and Uruguay met at the site of the ruined
Guarani militia had formed comprising some seven thou- Mission Sao Gabriel to commemorate the Guaranis who
sand Christian Guaranis divided between thirty missions. died protecting missions or who were enslaved or mis-
While the militia offered protection from slavers, it could treated. This meeting also allowed the Guarani leaders
do nothing to stop disease, and in 1734, a smallpox epi- to cement bonds between their various groups and unite
demic killed thirty thousand Guaranis. A second epidemic in seeking to protect their historic rights and prevent
of the disease killed a further twelve thousand Guaranis national governments from attempting to snatch their
is 1765. traditional lands.
In 1750, Spain and Portugal signed a treaty that trans-
ferred the land on which stood seven Jesuit missions on the
Uruguay River from Spanish control to Portugal. On being Society, Culture, and Tradition
granted the land, the Portuguese closed the missions and Guarani culture is a blend of indigenous customs and tra-
expelled the Guaranis who were living in them. The Guara- ditions together with elements of European culture, par-
nis refused, however, and so began seven years of conflict ticularly that of Spain and Portugal.
between the Portuguese and the Guaranis that became Most modern Guaranis are farmers, though some hunt
known as the Guarani War. Thousands of Guaranis died or fish. On the whole, Guaranis have assimilated into
in the fighting before the Jesuits managed to secure a royal mainstream society; this is especially true of the Guaranis
decree that returned control of the land previously inhab- living in Paraguay, where most of the population claims
ited by the missions to the Spanish. In 1767, however, the Guarani heritage and virtually everyone speaks Guarani
Jesuits were themselves expelled from the land by a royal alongside Spanish. The Guarani language used to be con-
edict. The missions were handed over to clergy belonging sidered as a language for peasants, but today, the peo-
to other religious orders but were governed by the Spanish ple take pride in speaking their native tongue (Minahan
viceroy, that is, the representative of the Spanish monarch 2013). The Guarani language is spoken across Paraguay,
of the territory. The missions declined rapidly after the where it is the official language together with Spanish.
changeover, and an official census of 1801 revealed that Guarani is also spoken in Corrientes province of Argen-
only forty-five thousand Guaranis remained living near tina and is a regional language in Brazil. Today, Guarani is
missions (Minahan 2013), with the people having taken the only indigenous language in the Americas spoken by a
with them cattle, sheep, and horses. Soon Guarani fields significant nonindigenous population.
 Guarani 397

In recent years, a number of Roman Catholic Guaranis introduce sexually transmitted diseases to their commu-
have begun to convert to Protestantism and have joined nities, and a combination of emotional stress and alcohol
evangelical Protestant sects. The Guaranis are a very makes them turn violent, creating social tension (Survival
spiritual people, with a prayer house being located in most International 2010).
Guarani settlements. Settlements also have their own indi- There is little current information on Guarani educa-
vidual religious leader whose authority is based on respect tion. According to the director of curriculum at the Para-
rather than formalized power. guayan Ministry of Education, of all the twelve thousand
schools in Paraguay, only fifty-four teach Portuguese, and
all but one teaches the Guarani language. This is because
Health Care and Education the country’s 1992 Constitution enshrined Guarani as
Over the last thirty years, health care in Paraguay has equal to Spanish. Ever since, primary schools have taught
experienced a marked improvement. During the 1970s lessons in the Guarani language (Romero 2012).
and 1980s, the Paraguayan authorities began a vacci-
nation campaign for infants against diseases, including
diphtheria, pertussis (also known as whooping cough), Threats to Survival
tetanus, and measles. In addition, during the 1980s, the In Paraguay, most people are Guarani to some extent, and
number of nurses relative to the population doubled, so the people are unlikely to become extinct. In other
meaning that 60–70 percent of the population could countries of South America, however, the future of the
access health care. At the same time, however, Paraguay’s Guaranis is not so assured. Perhaps the main threat to the
healthcare budget decreased when the country experi- Guaranis’ survival is the increased risk of their losing their
enced an economic downturn, meaning there was a lack traditional lands and the emotional and economic cost of
of medical supplies available to government health ser- land loss. The problem is particularly acute in Mato Grosso
vices, fewer doctors working in rural areas, and a general do Sul, Brazil, where the Guaranis once occupied forests
breakdown in health infrastructure. Since the 1980s, how- and plains totaling around 13,5136 square miles but are
ever, Paraguay’s health services have improved, with the now squeezed onto small areas of land surrounded by cat-
life expectancy for men in Paraguay being ­seventy-three tle ranches and fields of soya and sugarcane. Some of the
years and for women seventy-eight years old (DiTrolio Guaranis in this area have no land at all on which to live
2006). and instead live in squalid conditions camped by road-
In Brazil, the Guaranis have suffered large-scale loss of sides. Sugarcane plantations became established in Brazil
their ancestral lands, resulting in the people suffering mal- during the 1980s and rely heavily on indigenous laborers.
nutrition and despair. Indeed, such is the depth of hope- The indigenous workers often receive pitiful wages and
lessness felt by Brazilian Guarani communities such as the work under harsh conditions, as demonstrated in 2007
Apy Ka’y that many tribespeople have committed suicide. when Brazilian police raided a sugarcane alcohol distillery
It has been estimated that around one thousand mostly only to discover eight hundred indigenous workers toiling
young Guaranis have killed themselves over the past dec- and “living in subhuman conditions” (Survival Interna-
ade throughout Brazil. This is a suicide rate several hun- tional 2010).
dreds of times higher than the average Brazilian suicide At present, numerous new sugarcane plantations and
rate, and it is without equal among all other Latin America alcohol distilleries are planned for Mato Grosso do Sul,
indigenous peoples (Vidal 2016). many of which will be built on the Guaranis’ ancestral
Other societal health problems occur when Guarani land. The Guaranis in Mato Grosso do Sul suffer racism,
men are forced to find employment on plantations, mean- discrimination, and harassment from the police, with one
ing they are absent from their homes for long periods estimate suggesting that over 200 Guaranis are in prison
of time. This impacts Guarani health because the men with little or no access to legal advice or interpreters. The
have sex while away from their partners and catch sexu- Brazilian Guaranis have responded badly to their lack of
ally transmitted diseases. Often, the men turn to alcohol land, and since 1986, more than 517 Guaranis have com-
for solace while away from their communities leading to mitted suicide, the youngest suicide victim being nine
alcoholism. When the workers return home, they often years of age (Survival International 2010). Indeed the
398 Guaymi

Guaranis’ extremely high suicide rate is unequalled in the GUAYMI

whole of South America (Survival International 2010).
Crowded onto tiny reservations, many Guaranis have Current Location Panama; Costa Rica
tried to recover small sections of their ancestral land. The Current Population 280,000
Guaranis call these areas retomadas (meaning “retakings”), Language Guaymi; Spanish
but farmers and ranchers who now occupy Guarani land Interesting Fact The Guaymi are Panama’s most
are fiercely opposed to the idea of the Guarani reclaim- numerous indigenous group.
ing any of their ancestral lands. Indeed, the farmers and
ranchers have been known to hire gunmen to defend what Overview
they consider to be their territory, with myriad Guarani
The Guaymis are an indigenous Central American ethnic
killed while trying to reclaim their land, and ranchers have
group found mostly in Panama but also in Costa Rica.
had the wives of Guarani men who reclaim land raped as a
They are called the Ngobes, Ngobe-Bugles, Ngawbes, and
warning to other Guarani thinking of doing the same (Sur-
Ngabers, among other names. Some Guaymis dislike the
vival International 2010).
name Guaymi, as they associate the name with colonial-
Some Brazilian Guarani activists believe that in ten
ism, and instead prefer to be called the Ngobes, Ngabes, or
years the Guarani will have vanished from Brazil through a
Ngobe-Bugles. However, Guaymi is the name traditionally
process of what has been called slow genocide (Vidal 2016).
used to refer to the ethnic group collectively.
The Guarani in Brazil face being killed, raped, intimidated,
The Guaymis speak the Guaymi language, which
harassed, and made to work in terrible conditions. Despite
belongs to the Chibchan language family. Some young
all this, however, the Guaranis in Brazil maintain pride in
Guaymis also speak Spanish. There are some Roman
their culture, and they hope to regain their ancestral lands
Catholic and evangelical Protestant Guaymis, and in recent
despite the fact that the courts usually side with wealthy
years, a minority have joined the Baha’i faith. However, in
farmers and ranchers.
the main, Guaymis adhere to the people’s traditional reli-
See also: Matis gious beliefs. The Guaymi live much as their ancestors did,
Further Reading but this means that by today’s standards, they are consid-
Danver, Steven, ed. 2013. Native Peoples of the World: An Ency- ered to live in poverty. The Guaymis do not identify with
clopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues. 3 vols. any one ethnicity or linguistic group but rather consider
London: Routledge.
themselves part of the community in which they live.
DiTrolio, Rebecca. 2006. “Project Paraguay People.” Asuncion
Christian Academy. http://www.projectparaguay.com​/peo​ple​
.htm. Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Ganson, Barbara Anne. 2003. The Guarani under Spanish Rule
in the Rio de Plata. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. The Guaymi population is estimated to be around 280,000
Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An Ency- people. Traditionally, the Guaymis live in small villages in
clopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. the jungle areas of Panama’s western provinces of Bocas
Romero, Simon. 2012. “An Indigenous Language with Unique del Toro, Veraguas, and Chiriqui. However, many Guaymis
Staying Power.” New York Times, March 12. http://www​.ny​
have migrated to other areas of Panama in search of work.
times​.com/2012/03/12/world/americas/in-paraguay​-indige​
nous​-language-with-unique-staying-power.html. In Costa Rica, the Guaymis inhabit the indigenous south-
Survival International. 2010, March. “Violations of the Rights ern town of Conte.
of the Guarani of Mato Grosso do Sul State, Brazil.” https://​
assets.survivalinternational.org/documents/207/Guarani​
_report_English_MARCH.pdf. Geography and Environment
UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 1992–2017. “Jesuit Missions of Veraguas is located in central western Panama and is the
La Santísima Trinidad de Paraná and Jesús de Tavarangue.” only Panamanian province bordered by both the Atlan-
http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/648.
tic and Pacific Oceans. Chiriqui is located on Panama’s
Vidal, John. 2016. “Brazil’s Guarani Indians Killing Themselves over
Loss of Ancestral Land.” The Guardian, May 18. https://​www​ western coast. The province features several climate types
.theguardian.com/environment/2016/may/18/brazils​-gua​rani​ ranging from hot and humid lowlands to the cool and
-indians-killing-themselves-over-loss-of-ancestral​-land. moist highlands. The province is home to Fortuna Forest
Reserve. Bocas del Toro province consists of the Bocas
 Guaymi 399

del Toro Archipelago, Bahía Almirante (Almirante Bay), of Colombia. As part of newly independent Colombia,
Chiriquí Lagoon, and the adjacent mainland. The prov- the Guaymis saw encroachments on their land and many
ince is bordered by the Caribbean Sea to the north, Limón Guaymis made to work as forced labor. In response to these
Province of Costa Rica to the west, Chiriquí Province to threats the Guaymis moved to higher altitude jungle areas.
the south, and Ngöbe-Buglé Comarca to the east. Bocas In 1903, Panama split from Colombia. In 1972, the
del Toro province is home to two national parks, Isla Bas- Panamanian constitution instituted a clause requiring
timentos National Marine Park and La Amistad Interna- the government to establish reserves called comarcas for
tional Park. The Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute the country’s indigenous peoples. However, this policy
has a research station on Colón Island to the northwest of was not implemented universally. The Guaymi reserve, the
Bocas Town. Ngäbe-Buglé comarca, was founded in 1997 and is the larg-
Logging and slash-and-burn agriculture by other farm- est and most populous of Panama‘s three comarcas indí-
ers have resulted in the erosion of Guaymi ancestral lands. genas. The creation of the reserve gave the Guaymis some
This land loss has forced many Guaymis to leave their vil- respite from the threat of loggers and missionaries bent on
lages in search of work. As migrant workers, the Guaymis converting the people. The Guaymi leadership maintains
generally take the poorest paid, most dangerous jobs. In that the land allotted to their comarca covers too little of
addition to land erosion, development projects such as the the people’s ancestral land and that many Guaymis have
Cerro Colorado mining project and the construction of to live outside the reserve. The Guaymis believe the gov-
dams endanger Guaymi ancestral lands. In some cases, the ernment has withheld land rights to some areas of their
creation of dams has also created unhealthy dam reser- ancestral land because of interest from mineral mining
voirs populated by dead trees. Previously, these trees pro- companies (Minority Rights Group International 2015).
vided food for a wide variety of fish and freshwater shrimp In the late twentieth century, the Guaymis began to
living in the undammed rivers. The fish and shrimp were unite to fight against proposed development projects that
once a source of income for the Guaymis, but as the fish would imperil their land. However, their tendency not to
and shrimp have died since the dams began operating, the identify as a united ethnicity or language group but rather
Guaymis’ income from fish has disappeared. as individual communities inhibited the people’s ability to
protest cohesively. In March 2017, it was reported that the
Barro Blanco hydroelectric dam had flooded the Guaymis’
History and Politics sacred river, the Tabasará River, allowing water into their
Spanish explorers first discovered Guaymi tribes at the homes. The affected communities of Kiad, Nuevo Palomar,
start of the sixteenth century. Each of these tribes was a dis- Quebrada de Caña, and Quebrada de Plata claim they were
tinct entity with its own language and leader. The Guaymi not consulted about the flooding of their land. The Guay-
tribe living in the Veraguas region and led by Chief Urraca mis complained that around five hundred people were
became renowned for fending off Spanish incursions onto affected directly by the flood but that it also impacted the
their land before forcing the Spanish to sign a peace treaty whole Ngäbe-Buglé Comarca. The Tabasará River, which
in 1521 that recognized the people’s independence and was once a sacred Guaymi ceremonial site, is now sub-
land rights. At some point, Chief Urraca was betrayed and merged too. There had been years of fierce resistance to the
sent across the Atlantic, only to escape and return to the dam’s construction, and presently residents of the flooded
mountains, where he reunited with people and led them communities are requesting that the dam’s water level be
against the Spanish. Ultimately, the Spanish so feared the reduced to the boundary of their territory, in line with the
tribe led by Urraca that they left the people alone until law (Barnett 2017).
Urraca’s death in 1531. This tribe together with other
Guaymi peoples united in the face of Spanish colonialism
but simultaneously remained split between tribes living in Society, Culture, and Tradition
lowland areas and those inhabiting the tropical forests in Guaymi culture and society is only very slightly influenced
Chiriqui and Veraguas. The Guaymis never capitulated to by the Spanish influence prevalent in Central America.
the Spanish, who came to fear entering Guaymi territory. Most Guaymis are subsistence farmers or work as farm lab-
When Spanish colonialism ended and the colonies became orers on ranches, plantations, or large farms. As Guayami
independent, the Guaymi areas came under the control areas tend to have rugged terrain and limited transport
400 Guaymi

links, the people have limited employment opportunities. children, including young Guaymis, do not always go to
As a result of this lack of employment, the Guaymis have to school. There are several reasons for this nonattendance,
enter the cash economy and make money where they can, including families needing the children to earn money,
so Guaymis working on ranches and farms tend to harvest lack of schools, insufficient government funding of availa-
bananas or pick coffee. Some Guaymi women make money ble schools, and poor transport links between schools and
by selling their handcrafted goods. Guaymi villages. Only 18 percent of people aged between
The Guaymis have a long oral tradition. The Guaymis fifteen and nineteen in the Ngobe-Bugle comarcas go to
do not have a literary tradition because it is only recently school beyond sixth grade, compared to Panama’s national
that a Guaymi writing system has been devised. average 65 percent. The people’s lack of education and gen-
While some Guaymis converted to Roman Catholicism eral inability to speak Spanish leaves the Guaymis unaware
during the Spanish colonial era or have more recently of their civil rights and unable to follow official channels
joined Christian evangelical churches, the majority of when threatened by outside forces or suffering some mis-
Guaymis follow the people’s traditional religion. Guaymis fortune (Minority Rights Group International 2015).
that follow the people’s traditional religion are permitted
to practice polygamy, while those that have converted to
Christianity practice monogamy. Threats to Survival
The Guaymi religion is ritualistic and focuses on beliefs The Guaymis toil on Panama’s sugar, coffee, and banana
in spirits and witchcraft. Music is a major component of plantations under worse conditions than their nonindig-
Guaymi rituals, with the Guaymis making their own musi- enous counterparts. Often, they do not receive the basic
cal instruments out of seashells, animal bones and skin, rights provided by the country’s labor code, such as a min-
turtle shells, and wood. To prepare for religious rituals imum wage, social security benefits, and employment ter-
and other important events, the Guaymis paint their faces mination pay. In addition, Guaymi children are frequently
and file their teeth into fangs. One of the most important employed as child labor in agricultural areas. Migrant
Guaymi traditions is the all-male guro ritual that is held Guaymi families often leave their isolated reserves to
to mark a pubertal boy’s reaching adulthood. Little is earn money. At harvest time, owners of sugarcane, coffee,
known about the specifics of the guro, though it is thought banana, melon, and tomato farms often pay according to
to involve the boy being taken deep in the jungle, where the volume of produce harvested, so many Guaymi farm
he undergoes physical tests set by elder Guaymi men, the laborers bring their children to the fields so that they too
passing of which enable the boy to show his adult physical- can collect produce and earn an income.
ity and endurance. Development programs such as dam construction
threaten Guaymi culture by destroying Guaymi sacred
sites. For example, Kiad is an important Guaymi cultural
Health Care and Education and ceremonial center because it is home to ancient petro-
The Guaymis live in remote, inaccessible areas with inade- glyphs containing the wisdom of the people’s ancestors.
quate social services. Despite Panama’s improving health- However, these rocks have been submerged by dam water,
care provision, it remains difficult for indigenous people thereby destroying part of Guaymi history. With the pros-
living in remote areas to access medical attention. Even pect of increasing numbers of dams being built in Panama,
when clinics are built in areas inhabited by indigenous the threat to Guaymi culture and land will likely increase
peoples, doctors may be available for only a few days each too. Protestors demonstrating against such constructions
week. The incidence of death from disease among the face severe police repression (Minority Rights Group
indigenous people of Panama is far higher than for the rest International 2015).
of the Costa Rican population. In Panama, indigenous peo-
See also: Bribri; Guna
ples have limited access to clean water, and diarrhea is the
leading cause of death among indigenous children. Further Reading
Barnett, Tracy L. 2017. “A Wall in Their River: Flooded Ngäbe
Though the Panama government is committed to chil-
Communities Continue to Fight Dam.” HuffPost, March 30.
dren’s rights and welfare, these do not benefit the Guaymis. https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/a-wall-in​-their​-river​
While the Panamanian constitution provides free compul- -flooded-ngäbe-communities-continue_us​_58dc2a84e​4b0fa​
sory public education up to the ninth grade, indigenous 4c​095985a5.
 Gujarati 401

Hassig, Susan, and Lynette Quek. 1996. Cultures of the World: states of Rajasthan to the northeast, by Madhya Pradesh to
Panama. Tarrytown, NY: Marshall Cavendish. the east, and by Maharashtra to the south. Also to the south
Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An Ency- of Gujarat are the Union territories (Indian administrative
clopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Panama: Guaymi
divisions) of Diu, Daman, Dadra, and Nagar Haveli.
(Ngobe-Bugle).” World Directory of Minorities and Indige- Gujarat comprises several distinct regions: Saurashtra,
nous Peoples, June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities​ mainland Gujarat, Kutch, and northern Gujarat. Saurash-
/guaymi-ngobe-bugle. tra (or the Kathiawar Peninsula), makes up much of Guja-
rat state. The region is home to low hills and marshes that
jut into the Arabian Sea. In the east of the region, there
lies the bay known as the Gulf of Khambhat (or the Gulf of
Cambay). The bay divides the Kathiawar Peninsula from
GUJARATI southeastern Gujarat. The Gulf of Kutch lies in western
Saurashtra, which is renowned for extreme daily tides,
Current Location Worldwide which may mean the region has high potential for tidal
Current Population At least 50 million energy production. To the east of the Gulf of Khambhat,
Language Gujarati mainland Gujarat is home to the highly industrialized
Interesting Fact Mahatma Gandhi, considered the cities of Ahmedabad and Surat. The vast Kutch region is
founding father of the Indian state, composed of mud flats and salt marshes. Part of the Rann
was a Gujarati. of Kutch, a seasonal marshy saline clay desert, is situated
in the Thar Desert bioregion that extends from Gujarat to
Overview Sindh province. Northern Gujarat is hilly and home to a
mostly tribal population.
The Gujaratis (also sometimes spelled Gujeratis or Guja-
Around 10 percent of Gujarat is covered in dry, decid-
rathis and also occasionally called the Guzratees) are an
uous forest and scrub (Jha 2011). The forests support a
Indo-Aryan ethnic group living in parts of northwest India
range of wildlife, including lions. Other parts of Gujarat
and neighboring Pakistan as well as elsewhere. The Guja-
are home to mangrove wetlands.
ratis speak Gujarati, a western Indo-Aryan language that
In 2001, an earthquake occurred south to southwest of
developed from ancient Sanskrit. Gujarati is one of India’s
the village of Chobari in Kutch District. The quake killed
twenty-two official languages. Other languages spoken in
around 20,000 people and injured another 167,000. The
Gujarat include Hindi, Urdu, Marathi, Bhil, Punjabi, and
earthquake also destroyed almost one million homes as
English. Most Gujaratis are Hindu, though others are Mus-
well as most local infrastructure, including water supplies,
lim, Jain, Parsee, or belong to another religion.
clinics, schools, and communications. The earthquake
came after the region had already suffered two consecu-
Population, Diaspora, and Migration tive years of severe drought. Much of Gujarat’s climate is
Most Gujaratis live in the northwest Indian state of Guja- classed as semiarid or arid, so the demand on water for
rat and neighboring parts of Pakistan. According to the economic activities such as farming puts a strain on the
2001 census, the state’s population is estimated to com- water supply. The lack of water and unsuitable climatic
prise 50.671 million people (Jha 2011). However, a world- conditions means agriculture has failed to develop in
wide Gujarati diaspora exists, with many generations of Gujarat, so while the state has expanses of wasteland, this
Gujaratis living in the United Kingdom, Africa (especially land is not yet farmed.
Uganda, Kenya, South Africa, Malawi, and Tanzania), In 2010, the Central Pollution Control Board of India
Southeast Asia (particularly Singapore), North America, declared Gujarat to be the most polluted state. Air and
the South Pacific (especially Fiji), and New Zealand. water pollution from coal dust, the accumulation of haz-
ardous waste, and the contamination of land and rivers
have accompanied Gujarat’s increasing industrialization.
Geography and Environment Much of the water that is available to Gujaratis is undrink-
Gujarat is bordered to the northwest by Pakistan’s Sindh able because it is overly saline and contains excess nitrates
province, by the Arabian Sea to the southwest, by the Indian and fluoride. In 2012, India’s Central Pollution Control
402 Gujarati

Board declared Gujarat’s Sabarmati, Khari, and Amlakhadi During this period, many local leaders established trea-
Rivers the most polluted rivers in India. ties with the British that allowed the leaders to keep con-
Since 1946, authorities have discussed plans to harness trol of their areas. From 1818, while some parts of Gujarat
the power of the Narmada River to ease the state’s frequent were under direct British control, most were ruled as
water shortages and droughts. In 2017, the Government of princely states. At the same time, the Portuguese contin-
Gujarat gave the go-ahead for the sluice gates of the Sardar ued to rule a number of coastal settlements in Gujarat.
Sarovar Project dam on the Narmada River be shut, as this Anti-British feelings resulted in many Gujaratis partici-
would increase the dam’s height by impounding water in pating in the Indian independence movement. In 1915,
the dam’s reservoir. The closure of the gates would, how- the Gujarat-born independence leader, Mahatma Gandhi,
ever, raise the water level of the Narmada upriver from the founded an ashram (Hindu hermitage) in Ahmedabad.
dam, thereby destroying hundreds of villages and, in turn, Local activists joined Gandhi’s movement, which later
displacing many thousands of people. came to prominence with the creation of the Congress
Party. The partition of British India saw many Mus-
lims moved to Pakistan while Hindus and members
History and Politics of other faiths migrated to India. As both Pakistan and
In the fourth or fifth century BCE, a sizeable clan called India transitioned to independence the upheaval created
the Gujars appeared in northern India. The Gujars may tension that resulted in massacres and other forms of
have been an offshoot of the White Huns (or Hephthalites, extreme violence occurring along Gujarat’s border with
nomadic tribes from Central Asia). In Sanskrit, the Gujars Pakistan. Following Indian independence in 1947, all
were called the Gujara; hence, the state name Gujarat trans- ­Gujarati-speaking parts of India were absorbed into the
lates as “abode of the Gujars.” The Gujars soon became part new Indian nation with the multitude of princely states
of the advanced Indus Valley civilization. The civilization incorporated into Bombay state. The north of Bombay
flourished for over 3,000 years before being succeeded by state comprised Gujarati-speaker while the south was
several Hindu kingdoms linked to Central Asian indige- home to Marathars (Marathi-speakers). In 1956, Sau-
nous groups, including the Gujar Bhoomi and Gujar Man- rashtra and Kutch joined Gujarat as part of Bombay state.
dal. During the eleventh century, Muslims invaded Gujar Soon, however, calls for the creation of an independent
areas, which, in 1298, became part of the Islamic sultan- Gujarat state and a Marathi state by Gujarati nationalists
ate of Delhi. Toward the end of the fourteenth century, an called the Mahagujarat Movement, and Marathi nation-
independent Muslim Gujarati sultanate arose. For the next alists, the Samyukta Maharashtra, resulted in 1960 in the
450 years, a succession of sultans and emperors ruled the division of Bombay state on linguistic lines. The creation
Gujars. During this time, Gujarati ports became impor- of the independent states of Gujarat and Maharashtra did
tant Indian Ocean trade centers, leading to many non-­ not stop the ethnic tension, however, for over the follow-
Gujaratis settling among the Gujaratis. For instance, when ing decades, Gujarat was the scene of violence between
Portuguese explorers arrived on the coast, they acquired the state’s Hindu majority and Muslim minority. The
coastal lands, and in 1612, the Mughal ruler Jahangir most infamous example of this tension is probably the
gave the East India Company rights to build a factory and riots that are widely considered to have stemmed from
trading port in Surat. The company administered most of the 2002 Godhra train burning, an incident in which 59
Gujarat through local princes. During the British colonial people died in a fire on a train near Gujarat’s Godhra rail-
era, the princes continued to rule while paying tribute to way station, the cause of which has not been proven con-
the British. In 1668, the British obtained Bombay, which clusively. The victims of the fire included Hindu pilgrims
was located at the southern tip of Gujarat. Subsequently, returning from a religious ceremony at the disputed Babri
Bombay became the focus of regional government and Masjid (a mosque demolished in 1992 by Hindu nation-
commerce. In 1758, the Marathas overran much of Gujarat alists). Following the Godhra train burning Hindu mobs
while extending their empire northward. rampaged, attacking Muslim neighborhoods and destroy-
After the second Anglo-Maratha War (1803–1805), ing their property because they blamed Muslims for the
much of Gujarat came under British rule as part of a train burning. The riots lasted for three days and resulted
regional government called the Bombay presidency. in rapes, robberies and the deaths of over 1000 people,
 Gujarati 403

most of whom were Muslim. The riots are now considered communities that do eat meat tend to live separately from
some of the worst in Indian history (Jha 2011). vegetarian Gujaratis.
Gujarat is an extensively industrialized state so many
Gujaratis work in industries such as textile manufacturing,
Society, Culture, and Tradition petrochemicals, and pharmaceuticals. Animal husbandry
Gujarati culture is closely allied to Hinduism with and dairy farming are also important in Gujarat for the
many  Gujarati traditions stemming from the religion state has been India’s largest producer of milk since the
including Gujarati dance and music. Gujarati Muslims 1970s (Jha 2011). Agriculture revolves around the growing
have helped shape the architecture and arts of Gujarat with of tobacco, cotton and groundnuts but for environmental
Hindu temples and Muslim mosques exhibiting elements reasons, agriculture is unable to develop in Gujarat.
of both cultures. Jains (followers of Jainism, an ancient reli- In general, Gujarati men are allowed greater freedom
gion of peace and renunciation) have influenced Gujarati than women. Gujarati women tend to have to act modestly
culture greatly. Jains have also influenced the design of because a woman’s honor is inextricably linked to her fam-
temples across Gujarat and helped develop a distinctive ily’s reputation. Regardless of a family’s wealth or class,
style of Gujarat art. Gujarati Jains also have a long history of Gujarati women are expected to be devoted wives and
creating religious manuscripts adorned with painted illus- mothers. It is their role to support their husband, perform
trations. Today these manuscripts are central to the annual acts of religious devotion, run the household and rear chil-
Paryushana festival celebrated by the Svetambara Jains. The dren. In some especially conservative Hindu or Muslim
Gujarati language is based on ancient Sanskrit and has a communities, women may be subject to purdah, a tradi-
literary heritage stretching back to around 1000 CE. tion that means women live in general seclusion and wear
In Gujarati society, castes and social class are interwo- a veil called a ghunghat—often this takes the form of the
ven. The top tier of the hierarchy belongs to wealthy land- long end of a sari (pallu) or a long scarf called a dupatta. A
owners called brahmins, who make up around 4 percent woman holds the fabric across her face when in the pres-
of the Gujarat population. Other members of the upper ent of older male relatives such as her father-in-law. Under
class include the rajputs (warrior class) and the banias purdah women are largely restricted to staying at home.
(traditional traders). The middle strata of society consist Communities that practice purdah see it as a sign of a
of wealthy peasants and entrepreneurs, the patidars, who family’s social status and wealth, because purdah prevents
comprise around 12 percent of the population. Around 25 a wife from having to perform housework with servants
percent of the population are classed as kolis. This group employed to perform menial duties. Though purdah is not
consists of poor peasants, fishermen, crafters, and labor- especially common in Gujarat, married Gujarati women
ers. Another 14 percent of Gujarat state’s population con- are expected to be devoted, obedient wives. Any suspi-
sists of tribal peoples called adivasis collectively. The tribal cion of sexual impropriety is taboo for a woman because
peoples include the Bhils, Gaits, and Chaudharis and tend women who lose their husbands (whether through divorce
to live in eastern hilly parts of Gujarat. The adivasis differ or widowhood) are considered to have lost their value.
from the Gujarati people in terms of religion, employment There are also taboos surrounding menstruating women,
and kinship structures. Gujarat state recognizes these who are considered ritually polluting.
groups as scheduled tribes, meaning they are recognized The overriding principles of Gujarati clothing are that
as being disadvantaged historically. As such, they receive clothes should display modesty (this is particularly true of
certain benefits in politics and education. In recent years women’s clothes) and care should be taken when dressing
upper-caste Gujarati students have protested against col- as this indicates self-respect. Gujarati women’s clothes tend
lege places being reserved for adivasis and scheduled to be brightly colored and richly embroidered. The tradi-
tribes. Outside of the Gujarati social hierarchy are groups tional garment worn by Indian women is the sari, a long
including cleaners (bhangis) and road sweepers (dheds). rectangle of cloth that is wrapped and folded around the
Muslim Gujaratis are also outside of the caste system. They body. In Gujarat, the highly ornate, embroidered section of
tend to live as poor peasants or farm workers (Duschin- the sari called the pallu is typically folded over the shoul-
ski 2005). Social exclusion can occur along dietary lines der and across the chest, rather than across the woman’s
for Gujaratis are overwhelmingly vegetarian. Therefore, back as occurs in other areas of India. The sari is partnered
404 Guna

by a blouse called a choli. Gujarati women also wear out- See also: Bhil; Gond; Naga
fits called a lehenga choli (or ghagra choli) that is an open- Further Reading
backed choli paired with an ankle-length billowing skirt. Appa, Gautam. 2014. “Gujarat’s Troubling Environmental
Typically, this outfit is accessorized with a long scarf called Record.” South Asia@LSE (blog), April 4. London School of
an odhni (or dupatta), and lots of jewelry. Another acces- Economics and Political Science. http://blogs.lse.ac.uk​/south​
asia/2014/04/04/gujarats-troubling-environmental​-record.
sory worn traditionally by Gujarati women is a bunch of
Duschinski, Haley. 2005. “Gujaratis.” In Encyclopedia of the
keys and a ring holder worn at the waist. Many Gujarati World’s Minorities, edited by Carl Skutsch, 530–532. New
women also wear a red bindi (dot on the forehead) and/or York: Routledge.
sindoor. Sindoor is a red cosmetic powder applied to the Gujarat Infrastructure Development Board (GIDB). 2015.
scalp along a woman’s hair parting. Traditionally Gujarati “Health.” http://www.gidb.org/health-introduction.
men wear a dhoti. This is a piece of white cotton that is Jha, Sadan. 2011. “Gujarat.” In India Today, edited by Arnold
P. Kaminsky and Roger D. Long, 290–294. Vol. 1, A–K. Santa
wrapped around the waist like a skirt. Men often wear a
Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
dhoti with a shirt, jacket and turban. Many Gujarati men Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the
also wear Western-style trousers. Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Williams, Victoria. 2017. “Gujarat.” In Etiquette and Taboos
around the World: A Geographic Encyclopedia of Social and
Health Care and Education Cultural Customs, edited by Ken Taylor and Victoria Wil-
liams, 110–116. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood.
Gujarat is home to a range of healthcare facilities includ-
ing 1,072 primary health centers and 253 community
health centers that provide primary, secondary and ter-
tiary healthcare to rural Gujaratis. The state also has 106
urban family welfare centers, 25 subdistrict hospitals and
25 district hospitals. Some of these facilities are run by GUNA
non-­governmental organizations, others are managed by
Current Location Panama; Colombia
trusts or municipal corporations. There are also 20 private
specialist medical facilities run by doctors themselves. Current Population 300,000
Much of Gujarati population seeks treatment from private Language Guna
practitioners (GIDB 2015). Interesting Fact The Gunas have one of the highest
Children in Gujarat can attend private or state-run incidence of albinism in the world.
schools. In general, Gujaratis prize education. The literacy
rate for banias runs at 100 percent because the people see Overview
education as extremely important for successful trading. The Gunas are an indigenous people of Panama. Before
However, while in theory Gujaratis have access to educa- 2010 the Gunas, were called the Kunas, though historically
tion and healthcare, this is not universal and many Gujara- they were also called the Cunas. The Gunas speak the Guna
tis suffer from malnutrition and low levels of literacy. language that is part of the Chibchan language family. In
the Guna language the Guna refer to themselves as the Dule
or Tule, meaning “people.” In the Guna language, the lan-
Threats to Survival guage is referred to as Dulegaya, meaning “­people-mouth.”
Gujarat is an increasingly urban, industrialized part of Most Gunas also speak Spanish while those who comes
India. However, this economic development has not neces- into contact with tourists also speak English. Almost all
sarily led to improvements in Gujaratis’ standard of living. Gunas are Christian with half being Protestant and half
Human development indices (elements that measure lev- following Catholicism. However Christian Gunas maintain
els of social and economic development) in such areas as traditional Guna beliefs alongside Christianity.
gender equality, education, healthcare and nutrition. Many
Gujaratis suffer a severe shortage of drinking water and
their homeland is increasingly polluted. The effects of the Population, Diaspora, and Migration
2001 earthquake continue to overshadow the development There is some discrepancy surrounding the total Guna
of Gujarat. population. For example, while one source states that the
 Guna 405

population stands at around 300,000 (San Blas Islands) most Gunas were farmers, were active in marine trade or
another suggest the figure is closer to 65,000 (Minahan produced ceramics, fabric or ornaments made from bone
2013) or 45,000 (Guidi and Guerra 2011). The highest and shell. There was also a well-defined Guna class-system
concentration of Gunas occurs on the 49 major islands that saw Guna chiefs carried around in hammocks by their
of San Blas Islands that lie off the Panamanian Coast in subjects.
the Caribbean Sea. The islands are home to approximately Europeans first visited the Gunas 1510. At first the
50,000 Gunas. In Panama, Gunas inhabit three politically Gunas welcomed the visitors but soon became hostile to
autonomous reservations as well as Panama City, Colon outsiders when the Spanish started to mistreat the Gunas
and other cities. There are also a few small Guna villages and take them as slaves. To escape both the Spanish and
in Colombia. the Caito, the Gunas began to migrate northwards. Ulti-
Traditionally there are two Guna groups: the Mountain mately, the Gunas settled in the Darien district of Panama.
Gunas and the San Blas Gunas, though since the 1960s, the Here, the people made contact with European pirates and
two groups have had little contact with each other. coastal traders operating along the Isthmus of Panama. In
1787, the Gunas signed a trade deal with the Spanish that
allowed the Gunas to trade coconuts. Today, coconuts are
Geography and Environment still the Gunas’ most important cash crop.
The Guna homeland is sometimes referred to by the Gunas At the start of the nineteenth century, pressure for
as Guna Yala, meaning Guna Land (or Kuna Yala, Kuna land from a growing population resulted in many Gunas
Land). Guna Yala, was known previously as San Blas, and being forced from the most fertile areas of their homeland.
is an indigenous province in northeast Panama. Guna Yala To avoid both growing conflict over land and increasing
is bounded on the north by the Caribbean Sea, while to numbers of disease-bearing insects on the Panamanian
the south it is bordered by Darién Province and Emberá-­ mainland, in the mid-1850s whole Guna villages moved
Wounaan, to the east by Colombia, and to the west by the to San Blas Islands off Panama’s north coast. Once settled
province of Colón. Guna Yala takes the form of a narrow on the islands the Gunas could reach passing trade ships
strip of land around 232 miles long as well as an archipel- more easily and felt protected from the abuses of the grow-
ago of 365 coastal islands of which about fifty are inhabited. ing Latino population that had evolved on the mainland
The environment is very important to the Gunas from a mixed indigenous and European ancestry. However
because virtually every Guna earns a living from nature, in the late nineteenth century the Gunas revolted against
whether through working in eco-tourism, farming, weav- government abuses. The revolt, which was focused on the
ing cloth or fishing, while every Guna family owns a small sandy San Blas Islands and the craggy San Blas Mountains,
parcel of land on the mainland that allows them to grow continued for many decades. Then in 1903 under pressure
coconuts, manioc, cocoa, yucca, corn and bananas. The San from the United States, Colombia granted independence to
Blas Islands on which many Gunas live are very low lying Panama. After independence the Panamanian authorities
and so at risk of flooding during storms and through cli- tried to impose a new national culture on the Gunas. The
mate change. Since 2004 the sea level around the islands imposition of outside culture caused the Gunas to rebel
has risen by 4 inches. This rise was compounded in 2008, again. This time, however, the Gunas were supported by
when a series of giant waves lasting fourteen days straight the United States and were able to negotiate with national
flooded most of the islands, destroying schools, subsist- government for their homeland to receive semiautono-
ence crops, and the Gunas’ traditional wood and straw mous status. In 1938, the Guna homeland was recognized
homes (Guidi and Guerra 2011). officially as a reserve while in 1945 a Guna constitution
was instituted.
From the 1960s to the 1980s, the Guna population
History and Politics increased by 60 percent resulting in the Gunas trying
Little is known of Guna history. In the past the largest Guna to claim land on the Panama mainland. Consequently
population existed around Colombia’s Gulf of Uraba while in 1972, the boundaries of Guna Yala were increased to
smaller groups lived further north in Panama. The vari- include parts of the mainland. Since the 1990s, however,
ous Guna communities fought between themselves often increasing numbers of Latino squatters on Guna land has
as well as fighting the nearby Caito people. At this time, led to violence and demonstrations.
406 Guna

A Guna woman on Isla Aguja, San Blas Islands, Panama, stands with her handmade appliquéd fabrics, or molas. Women are typically the
main earners in Guna families, deriving their income from producing molas. (Hel080808/Dreamstime.com)

Society, Culture, and Tradition a small gold nose ring. Tourism is also important to the
Guna economy. Tourists are allowed on only a few of the
Guna culture is traditional yet influenced by modern Cen-
San Blas Islands, but on these islands, the Gunas provide
tral America. Guna descent is bilateral meaning people
visitors with food and accommodation, while on Chichime
trace their ancestry through both the male and female
Island the Gunas operate a tourist hostel. Most tourists
line. Guna marriage is matrilocal and extended families
arrive on the islands by boat from Colombia or Panama.
are common. On the San Blas Islands, a community leader
Although the Gunas are overwhelmingly Christian, the
called the Sahila governs the Gunas. The eldest Guna lead-
people maintain pre-Christian rituals and traditions. For
ers reside on the island Acuadup, from where they make
instance, chants are very important to the Gunas for they
all the major decisions that affect all the other islands on
accompany Guna festivals and ceremonies. There are three
which the Gunas live. The Gunas on Acuadup also arrange
main types of Guna chant related to history, politics and
trades and marriages between the various communities.
religion.
The Gunas survive by fishing, hunting wild game and
foraging for fruits, especially coconuts and plantains. Guna
women are the main earners, deriving their income from
producing molas—appliqued fabrics used to decorate Health Care and Education
clothes. Guna women also make, wear and sell long strings Traditionally, Guna healers use chants and herbal medi-
of beads that are won wrapped around the wrists and cines to treat patients but since the 1970s, the Gunas have
ankles. The beads are part of the women’s traditional out- been able to access modern health clinics established
fits that consist of a printed blouse decorated with molas, throughout Guna areas. Studies have shown that the
a mid-length, printed fabric skirt, a headscarf, beads and Gunas have low average blood pressure and do not suffer
 Gwich’in 407

Albinism
Albinism is an inherited genetic condition that reduces the amount of melanin pigment in a person’s skin, hair, or eyes.
Albinism occurs in all racial and ethnic groups. Most children with albinism are born to parents who have normal
coloring for their ethnicity. There are different types of albinism, and the amount of pigment in the eyes varies. Vision
problems are frequently associated with albinism. Reports suggest there are hundreds of Guna albinos. There has been
no official census, but the founder of the local S.O.S. Albino organization asserts 1 in 150 Guna children are albino.

age-related increases in blood pressure that are common has not declared how this will happen, how much such an
in the West. Guna death rates from cardiovascular disease operation will cost or who will bear the expense (Guidi
and cancer are also low in the Gunas. The Gunas’ longev- and Guerra 2011).
ity is sometimes explained by their large consumption
See also: Guaymi; Marshallese; Torres Strait Islanders;
of cocoa beans. The Gunas have a high incidence of albi-
Tuvaluan
nism. According to Guna mythology, albinos (or sipu) are
Further Reading
a separate race responsible for defending the Moon from
Guidi, Ruxandra, and Robert Guerra. 2011. “Climate Change
a dragon that tries to eat the moon during lunar eclipses. Threatens a Caribbean Tribe’s Home and Future.” The Atlan-
Guna mythology also suggests albinos should venture out- tic, January 14. https://www.theatlantic.com/international​
side only on the night of a lunar eclipse. /archive/2011/01/climate-change-threatens-a-caribbean​
Guna children attend schools that are part of the Pan- -tribes-home-and-future/69379.
ama formal education program. Lafforgue, Eric. 2015. “The Kuna: The Endangered Last Tribe of
the Caribbean—In Pictures.” The Guardian, June 26. https://​
www​.theguardian.com/artanddesign/gallery/2015/jun/26​
/the​-kuna-the-endangered-last-tribe-of-the-caribbean-in​
Threats to Survival -pictures.
There is little elevation in the San Blas area thus the Gunas Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An Ency-
are threatened by rising sea levels brought about by cli- clopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
mate change. The Gunas fear permanent flooding will force San Blas Islands. 2017. “About the Guna Indians.” https://sanblas​
-islands.com/kuna-indians.
them from the islands they have regarded as their home
for centuries, and that they will have to relocate their entire
population to the only other land in their territory—the
forested mainland. The Smithsonian Tropical Research
Institute (STRI) has reported that, since 1910, the average
sea level around Guna Yala has risen by around 6 inches GWICH’IN
and presently is increasing by approximately 3/4 of an
inch per year. The San Blas Islands rise very little above Current Location Canada; United States
the sea and a conservative estimate by the STRI suggests Current Population 10,000
the islands will be under water in less than fifty years’ time Language English; Gwich’in
(Guidi and Guerra 2011). Meanwhile, Guna communities Interesting Fact The Gwich’ins are the northernmost
have resorted to landfill consisting of gravel from nearby Athabaskan people.
riverbeds and coral reefs, to keep the land above the sea.
Ultimately, however, the rising sea will probably force most
Guna people to move to the mainland where they will live Overview
in the forest that is part of their territory. Some Gunas are The Gwich’ins, also called the Gwitchins or Kutchins, are a
worried about how much this relocation will cost in mon- First Nations people of Canada and an Alaska Native peo-
etary terms. While the Panamanian government has dis- ple. The name Gwich’in translates to English as “one who
cussed the need to help the Gunas if they start to migrate dwells in” or “the inhabitant of.” The Gwich’ins speak Eng-
to the mainland in the next 10 to 15 years, the government lish as well as two main dialects of their own language that
408 Gwich’in

is part of the Athabaskan language family. The majority of Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Gwich’ins are Anglican or Roman Catholic, though Chris- The Gwich’in population measures some 10,000 peo-
tian Gwichi’ins often combine the people’s traditional reli- ple. The Gwich’in live in fifteen communities in Canada’s
gious beliefs with Christianity. Northwest Territories and the Yukon Territory as well as
in northern Alaska. Gwich’in communities include the
Northwest Territories communities of Aklavik, Tsiige-
htchic and Fort McPherson, Old Crow in the Yukon and
Sarah James Arctic Village, Beaver, and Chalkyitsik in Alaska. The
Sarah James (b. 1946) is a native Gwich’in from Gwich’ins that live in Old Crow are sometimes referred to
Arctic Village, Alaska. She is the chairperson of the as the Vuntut Gwitchin (meaning “people of the lakes”).
Gwich’in Steering Committee and a board member Old Crow is located 80 miles north of the Arctic Circle
of the International Indian Treaty Council. She has where the Crow and Porcupine Rivers meet making the
traveled extensively and won numerous awards for settlement the most northerly Yukon community. Tra-
her leadership and activism for indigenous rights ditionally the Gwich’ins live in bands linked by language
and on environmental issues. and culture as well as a clan system that operated across
James did not go to school until she was ten years Gwich’in territory.
old because of her family’s nomadic lifestyle. Six
years later, the Bureau of Indian Affairs sent her to
an Indian boarding school located in Oregon. After
Geography and Environment
living in San Francisco for two years, James returned
to Arctic Village, which is today a Gwich’in commu- The traditional Gwich’in homeland lies above the Arctic
nity comprising cabins, a school, and other facilities. Circle extending to the tree line in the northernmost areas
James learned how best to publicize Gwich’in of North America. The territory stretches across the Mac-
issues and helped create the Gwich’in Steering kenzie drainage basin and the northern tributaries of the
Committee, a grassroots association devoted to Yukon River as well as north-central Alaska. The northern
caribou preservation. Her direct approach to activ- edge of the homeland borders Inuit territory that extends
ism attracted national recognition, and in the from the Brooks Mountain Range and the Coleville region
1990s, she was invited to appear on television news of Alaska to the Mackenzie Bay region of the Yukon.
programs for CNN and CBS, among others. Around Recently proposed oil and gas exploration on Gwich’in
the same time, she traveled to South and Central land will have a profound effect on the Gwich’in. While the
America, where she spoke about being part of an people may find employment on rigs, drills, and pipelines
underprivileged community and the need to pre- and the region might experience an economic windfall
serve caribou. from the sale of the resources, a disaster such as an oil spill
In the late 1990s, James led gatherings at the U.S. would devastate the Gwich’in environment including local
Capitol, where she called for the protection of cari- caribou herds that are so important to the people. Other
bou and for the preservation of the Arctic National animals potentially threatened by drilling include species
Wildlife Refuge (ANWR). In 2002, she shared the of bear, lynx, moose, walrus, and seal as well as migratory
Goldman Environmental Prize with Jonathon Solo- birds including peregrine falcons.
mon and Norma Kassi. The trio received the prize
for their work to protect the Porcupine caribou
calving and nursery grounds of the ANWR from History and Politics
planned oil exploration and drilling. James and her The history of the Gwich’ins is unknown because the peo-
colleagues felt oil and gas exploration would disturb ple did not have a written language with which to record
the life cycle of the Porcupine caribou that had long their past. At the same time the people’s oral history con-
been at the heart of Gwich’in culture. sists mainly of myths and legends. It is known, however,
You can learn more about James at https://grist​ that traditionally the Gwich’ins controlled a great deal of
.org/article​/james1. territory covering swathes of Canada and Alaska to the
south of the Inuit homeland. The area’s dense forests and
 Gwich’in 409

caribou herds provided the seminomadic Gwich’ins with In 1960, the Canadian government awarded these
food, shelter and resources for tool making. so-called Treaty Indians with Canadian citizenship.
Early Gwich’ins were divided into several bands each Gwich’in land claims were recognized in Alaska in 1972
of which was linked to a particular area allied to a river. and in 1990 the Gwich’ins, along with other associated
Scottish explorer Alexander MacKenzie, who was search- groups, entered into talks with the provincial and national
ing for an overland route to the Pacific Ocean, investigated government of Canada to acquire their own autonomous
Gwich’in land in 1789. MacKenzie’s trip was unsuccessful territory.
but one of the main rivers of the Gwich’in homeland was
named after him.
For centuries the Gwich’ins acted as go-betweens in Society, Culture, and Tradition
trade deals between the Inuits and more southerly peoples. Organizations such as the Gwich’in Social and Cultural
European traders soon began to dominate trade in the Institute aim to preserve and promote the people’s tradi-
area and so the Gwich’ins began to travel to trading posts tional knowledge and language. Today, however, Gwich’in
outside of their land to acquire the goods they desired. In culture is influenced by Inuit culture as well as m
­ odern-day
1840, Fort McPherson was founded as a trading post on Canadian and American culture. Traditionally the peo-
Gwich’in land close to the Peel River. Then, in 1847, the ple’s culture is strongly linked to the environment and its
Hudson Bay Company founded Fort Yukon. While the resources. For instance, the Gwich’ins created snowshoes
Gwich’ins resented the incursion into their land they wel- and birch bark canoes to live among the harsh winter
comed the trading possibilities provided by the new trad- conditions of their homeland and used sleds to transport
ing post and recognized that some things could only be goods over snow as part of their seminomadic lives rather
acquired from the Europeans. However in the 1850s the than the more common toboggans of subarctic regions. The
Gwich’ins caught smallpox and other European diseases Gwich’ins made great use of local natural resources includ-
from the settlers that greatly reduced their population— ing caribou populations—eating the animals’ flesh, making
in 1800, the Gwich’in population measured around 5,000 their skins into clothes and using caribou bones as tools
people but by 1900 the figure was nearer 1,300 people. and sewing needles. Hunting, trapping and fishing remain
Anglican and Roman Catholic missionaries began to visit very important to the Gwich’in lifestyle and economy with
the Gwich’ins in an attempt to convert them to Christian- modern Gwich’ins dividing their year into hunting, trap-
ity. The Gwich’ins converted to Christianity and missions ping and fishing periods along with periods of seasonal
became established throughout Gwich’in land. In addi- work for wages. Gwich’ins continue to consider the natural
tion, Protestant missionary Archdeacon Robert McDonald world with great reverence and although most Gwich’ins
(1829-1913) created the first Gwich’in writing system that are Christian, nonetheless they believe in animal spirits, the
he used to translate the Bible, hymnals and prayers into spiritual importance of the caribou, and spiritual beings.
Gwich’in with the texts still in use today. The Gwich’ins also revere the cultural hero-­trickster, Dot-
In 1867, an outbreak of influenza killed a further 1,000 son’Sa or Raven. Although Dotson’Sa is regarded as a kindly
Gwich’ins, and this was followed by a scarlet fever out- figure bent on helping the Gwich’ins navigate the world, he
break in 1897 that further reduced the Gwich’in popula- is also thought to play tricks on people.
tion (Minahan 2013). The next year the Klondike gold rush Music features heavily in Gwich’in culture. The people
began that resulted in thousands of outsiders moving on to play fiddle music and jigs, and drumming is highly cultur-
Gwich’in land. The migration of the gold prospectors was ally significant being ever-present at Gwich’in gatherings.
characterized by outsiders snatching Gwich’in land, abus- The Gwich’ins also perform such traditional dances as the
ing the Gwich’ins and generally coming into conflict with Duck Dance and the Rabbit Dance. The Gwich’in also par-
the area’s indigenous people. The outsiders also brought ticipate in Dene games such as Stick Pull in which compet-
with them more diseases such as different strains of influ- itors reach down into a river, grab a fish such as a pike and
enza that further decimated the Gwich’in population with throw it on to the shore.
influenza outbreaks occurring in 1921 and 1928. Also in The Gwich’in language, which is one of the official lan-
1921 the Canadian government signed treaties with the guages of the Northwest Territories, is divided into two
Gwich’ins that demarcated the people’s land and gave them main dialects with one spoken in Alaska and the other
rights to hunt and fish. spoken in Gwich’in territories in Canada. According to
410 Gwich’in

UNESCO the Gwich’in language is severely endangered a greater threat to the Gwichi’ins survival is potential oil
because less than 400 Gwich’ins speak the language. drilling. Since the 1980s, supporters and opponents of oil
The 2011 Canadian census reported there were only 375 exploration on Gwich’in calving grounds have lobbied U.S.
Gwich’in speakers alive today but bodies including the politicians over the issue. However in 2017 the US Senate
Gwich’in Social and Cultural Institute and Gwich’in Lan- passed the Tax Cuts and Jobs Act, which authorizes the
guage Centre are working alongside language experts and sale of oil and gas leases in a section of the Arctic National
speakers of the language to ensure the language survives. Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) on Alaska’s North Slope, the
coastal plain that faces the Arctic Ocean. This will allow
energy companies to search for, and extract, oil and gas
Health Care and Education
from the frozen ground.
Recent data shows one-third of Gwich’in children are Though the coastal plain where oil drilling might
either overweight or obese while 33 percent of Gwich’in occur represents only a small section of the vast refuge,
women are overweight (with a body mass index of 26–30) environmentalists describe this section as the ANWR’s
and 47 percent are obese (with a body mass index of over most environmentally sensitive section as it is where
30). These results have led to concerns that the Gwich’in around 40,000 porcupine caribou calves are born annu-
may contract diseases (diabetes, heart disease and can- ally. The Gwich’in consider the porcupine caribou sac-
cers) associated with nutrition transition (a shift in diets rosanct and their calving grounds are considered the
and energy expenditure that coincides with economic and most sacred of spaces by the Gwich’in who refer to
social changes) (Kuhnlein et al. n.d.). Researchers stress the as Iizhik Gwats’an Gwnadaii Goodlit, meaning “the
the need to address the high rates of obesity among the sacred place where life begins.” Apart from being sacred
Gwich’in by increasing their access to quality nutritious land, the caribous are also the most important source of
foods and indoor recreational programs that will allow Gwich’in food, supplying Gwich’in communities with
them to be active throughout the winter. energy, protein, vitamin A, iron, zinc, and fatty acids.
For much of the twentieth century, Gwich’in education Therefore any threat to caribou breeding is a worry to
was conducted in residential schools operated by the reli- the Gwich’in. It is, however, the people’s spiritual connec-
gious sector and where children endured harsh regimes tion to the caribou that makes drilling such a concern
that saw some pupils suffer sexual and physical abuse. for the Gwich’in who see the proposed industry not just
Pupils at these schools were also forbidden to speak their as an attack on their way of life but also an attack on the
native languages. Community leaders have blamed these Gwich’in as a people.
regimes for the high rates of alcohol, smoking, drug abuse,
family violence and criminal activity within the Gwich’in See also: Aleut; Chukchi; Haida; Inuit; Sami; Yupik
community (Kuhnlein et al. n.d.). Today, Gwich’in children Further Reading
learn in English but also take Gwich’in language classes. Dinero, Steven C. 2016. Living on Thin Ice: The Gwich’in Natives
of Alaska. New York: Berghahn.
Gwich’in children are taught about Gwich’in culture and
Kuhnlein, Harriet V., Margaret McDonald, Dina Spigelski, Eliza-
history, land claims, Gwich’in geographical settlement beth Vittrekwa, and Bill Erasmus. n.d. “Gwich’in Traditional
patterns, traditional family structures and hear stories Food for Health: Phase 1.” http://www.fao.org/tempref​
from elders. Only around half of all Gwich’in children in /docrep/fao/012/i0370e/i0370e04.pdf.
the Northwest Territories graduate from school, however, McFadyen Clark, Annette. 2007. “Gwich’in.” Historica Canada,
with some commentators viewing the low graduation rate March 13. http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en​/article
/gwichin.
as the legacy of past residential education.
Meyer, Robinson. 2017. “The GOP Tax Bill Could Forever Alter
Alaska’s Indigenous Tribes.” The Atlantic, December 2. https://​
www.theatlantic.com/science/archive/2017/12/senate-tax​
Threats to Survival
-bill-indigenous-communities/547352.
While the Gwich’in language is endangered measures are Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An Ency-
being taken to try to ensure the language’s survival. Perhaps clopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
 H

HADHRAMIS Yemen, there is a significant Hadhrami diaspora residing

around the Indian Ocean basin in an area stretching from
Current Location Yemen the Horn of Africa to the Swahili coast of Southeast Africa
Current Population 1.3 million–1.5 million to South India and Sri Lanka as well as in ports on the Per-
Language Hadhrami; Adeni dialect, Arabic; sian Gulf and the Red Sea. There are also some Hadhrami
English communities in Indonesia.
Interesting Fact In the 1960s, the Hadhrami homeland
became the world’s first Marxist Arab Geography and Environment
republic.
Yemen’s Hadhramaut governate is located in the southeast
of the Arabian Peninsula on the Gulf of Aden. The region
Overview is hilly and arid but lies on a sandy coast on the Arabian
The Hadhramis (also called the Hadharem, Hodromis, or Sea. The region reaches higher elevations at the Hadh-
Hadramawtis, among other names) are a people inhab- ramaut Highlands that give way to the Arabian Desert.
iting the Hadhramaut governate of Yemen (sometimes Hadhramaut also has an inland valley containing a partly
called South Yemen). The Hadhramis speak their own dia- seasonal watercourse, the Wadi H.ad.ramawt. The wadi runs
lect. This is closely related to dialects of the South Arabic parallel with the coast before flowing southeastward to the
language group. The Hadhramis also speak the Adeni dia- sea. The wadi’s lower reaches have a perennial flow and are
lect of Yemeni Arabic as well as Arabic and English. Most called the Wadi Masīlah. Hadhramaut’s higher areas con-
Hadhramis are Sunni Muslim. There are also a significant tain alluvial soil that allows for extensive agriculture, mostly
number of atheist and nonpracticing Hadhramis, a legacy the growing of wheat and barley, dates, alfalfa, millet, and
of the Hadhramis’ history of living in a Marxist state. This tobacco. In 2015, hundreds of people in Hadhramaut lost
is unusual for a people living in the Arab world. their homes after their houses and local infrastructure were
destroyed by a cyclone, a tornado, and floods.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
The Hadhrami population is estimated at 1.3 million to History and Politics
1.5 million people (Minahan 2016). They are divided by Little is known of the Hadhramis early history, though
many tribal groups. In addition to the Hadhramis living in historians believe the Hadhramaut region has been

411
412 Hadhramis

inhabited for millennia. In the first millennium BCE, safeguard the port at Aden, which was the most impor-
Yemen was divided between the Hadhramaut kingdom tant British port located east of Suez as well as a British
and the Qataban kingdom. At some point before 800 BCE, military base. Under the British, the tribes were incorpo-
the ancient kingdom of Sheba had its capital at Marib in rated into a single Protectorate of Aden that had its own
Hadhramaut. The Hadhramis were incorporated into the colonial authority. Following Turkey’s defeat in World
Himyarite kingdom that thrived between 100 BCE and War I, Yemen gained independence and was ruled by the
525 CE. Around 400, the Hadhrami incense trade, which feudal Zaydi family that claimed all of historical Yemen,
had helped the Hadhramis become regionally important, including Hadhrami areas located within British-held
was diverted to a new sea route using the port of Aden and areas of Hadhramaut. In 1935, the British rejected Yem-
the Red Sea. The opening of this new route meant that the eni demands and made Aden a separate crown colony.
inland trade routes of the Hadhramis became disused. The In 1959, tribal states in western Hadhramaut joined with
neglect of the Hadhrami trade routes began the downfall the Federation of South Arabia that was organized by the
of the Himyarite kingdom, which in time dissolved into British. However, British moves to establish various tribal
many small tribes. states along with a separate colony of Aden met with
In 525, Christian Abyssinians overran Hadhramaut strong resistance from the sophisticated residents of Aden
to protect the Christians living there. The Abyssinians (the Adenis), who feared being dominated by reactionary
destroyed the last vestiges of the Himyarite kingdom Hadhrami leaders.
and converted any non-Christian survivors to Christi- At around this time, Aden’s population of one hundred
anity. Nearby rulers, opposed to having local rulers from thousand people was 75 percent non-Yemeni Arab and 20
Africa, asked the Persians to help drive the Abyssinians percent Hadhrami, with the rest of the inhabitants being
from the region. Around 570, the Persians took control British, Somali, Indian, or Pakistani (Minahan 2002). The
of Hadhramaut. Under the Persians, Hadhramaut’s irriga- people of Aden called for the creation of an independent
tion system fell into ruin, resulting in many of the region’s Aden state and saw the emergence of two rival nationalist
inhabitants migrating to settle throughout Arabia and the organizations, the Front of the Liberation of South Yemen
region to decline further. From 638 to 732, Muslim tribes (FLOSY) and the National Liberation Front (NLF). Then,
from Arabian Desert areas invaded Hadhramaut. Conse- in 1963, British plans to incorporate Aden into the Feder-
quently, many Hadhramis converted to Islam and enlisted ation of South Arabia ignited a rebellion in Aden that saw
in the Arab armies that conquered North Africa and Aden declared independent. This move prompted the Brit-
Europe. In the mid-eighth century, a religious leader from ish to send troops into Aden, with the outcome being that
Iraq introduced the Hadhramis to the Ibadhi school of Aden became part of the Federation of South Arabia and
Islam. In 951, however, Sunni Muslims of the Shafa’i school the proviso that Aden could separate from the federation
of Islam invaded the Hadhramis, causing the Hadhramis after seven years if it wished. This compromise sparked
to abandon Ibadhism and adopt Sunni Islam. almost immediate conflict between the Hadhramis and the
In 1538, Ottoman Turks established nominal rule over Adenis that included terrorist attacks launched by FLOSY
the Hadhramis. In 1630, local Hadhrami rulers asserted and NLF against the British and federation representatives.
their power while remaining under Ottoman rule. The Many Hadhramis became involved in the fighting because
Hadhrami rulers remained hostile to the outside world they hoped the violence might lead to the eventual mod-
throughout the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. In ernization of their region (Minahan 2002).
1809, Wahabis from the inland deserts of Saudi Arabia In 1967, the British withdrew from all of the Federa-
invaded Hadhrami areas and, in so doing, destroyed local tion of South Arabia apart from Aden, which soon became
mosques, burnt Hadhrami documents, and polluted Hadh- the focus of fighting between nationalist groups and the
rami wells. Although the Wahabis soon left the area in the British as well as infighting among the various national-
face of a threat from Egypt, the destruction wrought by the ist organizations. Ultimately, NLF defeated its rivals, took
Wahabis caused many Hadhramis to flee to the Arabian control of Aden, and declared South Yemen independent.
Peninsula or to Muslim areas of India, where they lived as South Yemen’s new Marxist-oriented authorities tried to
mercenaries. repress all tribal affiliations within South Yemen and erad-
Between 1882 and 1914, the British signed protectorate icate the area’s tribal cultures. As part of this antitribalism
treaties with the nineteen tribes living in Hadhramaut to drive, the NLF overthrew many Hadhrami tribal rulers.
 Hadhramis 413

The group then imposed a regimented lifestyle on the peo- confederacy’s leadership. This uprising became part of the
ple and nationalized the local economy. ongoing Yemen Civil War.
From 1970, North and South Yemen developed in very
different ways; North Yemen became an Arab republic in
the style of Egypt, while South Yemen became increasingly Society, Culture, and Tradition
Marxist as the Democratic Republic of Yemen. In response Hadhrami society consists of numerous tribal groups that
to the NLF’s Marxism, many of the Hadhramis that lost share a common South Arabian culture. Today’s Hadhramis
their possessions under the NLF’s nationalization policies are descended from members of the Hadhrami tribes. A
fled to North Yemen. Following a border war with North separate Adeni minority within Hadhrami society com-
Yemen, South Yemen allowed the Soviets to use the for- prises the descendants of non-Yemeni Arabs who settled
mer British naval base in Aden. Over time, the NLF gov- in Aden during its time as a British colony. Another of the
ernment came to be dominated by Hadhramis, who saw legacies of British rule over parts of Hadhrami society is
themselves as Bedouin socialists (Minahan 2002). Under that Hadhrami women enjoy far more freedom and educa-
this regime, the Hadhramis allowed the people to continue tion than many women in Arab countries (Minahan 2002).
to follow Islam, though the form of Islam the Hadhramis Most Hadhramis speak the people’s own dialect, the
followed became increasingly liberal. At the same time, Adeni dialect of Yemeni Arabic, as well as Arabic. The
the H­ adhrami-dominated government ruined the South Hadhrami dialect contains many anachronisms, regional
Yemeni economy and came to be despised by the urbane variations, and archaic words. Many Hadhramis, particu-
Adenis, who viewed the Hadhramis disparagingly as larly the Adenis, also speak English.
Bedouin socialists (Minahan 2002). The vast majority of the Hadhramis are Sunni Muslims
In 1986, an unsuccessful coup attempt that resulted of the Shafa’i school. In the north of the Hadhrami home-
in the deaths of ten thousand people tried to topple the land, many Hadhramis adhere to an Islamic sect called
Marxist government (Minahan 2002). Then, in 1989, the Ibadhism. The customs and traditions of all Hadhramis are
government publicly admitted that their Marxist policies similar, however, and the various Islamic groups worship at
had not worked. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union each other’s mosques.
in 1989, the government of South Yemen agreed to unite
with North Yemen, a union that occurred in May 1990. By
this stage, the South Yemen economy was in such tatters Health Care and Education
that it was fully absorbed into that of North Yemen. How- Years of civil war are taking a terrible toll on Yemen.
ever, the Hadhramis, especially Hadhrami women, who According to the United Nations, twenty-two million Yem-
enjoyed much greater freedom than the women of North enis are in need of humanitarian help, two million are dis-
Yemen, resisted moves by North Yemen to make them placed, and at least ten thousand have died. The country’s
adopt less liberal, controlling ways. The regional differ- healthcare system is in tatters, so Yemenis make dangerous
ences between South and North Yemen eventually led to cross-country journeys to hospitals run by nongovern-
civil war that resulted in the deaths of ten thousand people mental organizations (NGOs) or spend their life savings
in ten weeks of conflict (Minahan 2002). In 1991, the dis- on acquiring help from private clinics. Many of Yemen’s
covery of oil on Hadhrami land provided the Hadhrami hospitals are closed or only partly working, with adminis-
nationalists with a firm economic base. In 1994, Hadhrami trators having to choose between buying medical supplies
demonstrations erupted in light of death sentences passed or fuel for use in generators. Doctors and other medical
down on Hadhrami nationalists and declining Hadhrami workers at public hospitals have not been paid since 2016.
living conditions caused by cuts in state funding. Infectious diseases, including cholera and diphtheria, are
Since the start of the twenty-first century, the Hadh- rampant because the water is untreated. To make matters
ramis have in general resisted the idea of South Yemeni worse, a Saudi-led coalition has blockaded Yemen’s airports
independence in favor of the creation of an independent and ports to stop supplies from reaching rebel groups, but
Hadhramaut. In 2011, the region’s main nationalist group, the blockade also delays or diverts aid shipments intended
the Hadhramaut Tribes Confederacy, announced Hadh- for Yemenis (Strochlic 2018). Overall, Yemen’s healthcare
ramaut’s autonomy. However, in 2013, the regional leader system is on the brink of collapse. Continuous fighting,
was killed, prompting the Hadhramis to rebel against the heavy bombardment, and air strikes prevent people from
414 Hadza

accessing health care while increasing the pressure on the region starts to suffer fallout from the war in the form of
few functioning medical facilities. Although Hadhramaut deteriorating services and infrastructure.
may not bear the brunt of the fighting, access to health
See also: Asiri; Bedouin; Muhamasheen; Swahili
care is still deteriorating in Hadhramaut. The war has
Further Reading
caused many of Yemen’s doctors to flee the country or to
Freitag, Ulrike. 2003. Indian Ocean Migrants and State Formation
start working in better-equipped private hospitals. Conse- in Hadhramaut: Reforming the Homeland. Leiden, the Neth-
quently, Yemen has a shortage of health professionals. erlands: Brill.
According to the United Nations, Yemen’s education Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
system, like the health system, is on the brink of collapse nic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 2, D–K. West-
due to the combined effects of the ongoing civil war, polit- port, CT: Greenwood Press.
Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
ical division, and chronic underfunding. Consequently, in
nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa Bar-
2018, approximately two million Yemeni children were bara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
not in school. Further, almost four million primary school Schlein, Lisa. 2018. “UNICEF: Education a Major Casualty of
children cannot access education because of an acute Yemen’s War.” Voice of America News, September 16. https://​
shortage of teachers. Roughly 67 percent of public school www.voanews.com/a/education-a-major-casualty-of​-yem-
teachers across Yemen have not been paid for nearly two en-s-war/4573629.html.
Strochlic, Nina. 2018. “The World Has Left Yemen to Die.”
years and have had to find other forms of employment to
National Geographic Magazine, August. https://www​.national​
survive. geo ​ g raphic ​ . com/magazine/2018/08/dispatches ​ - yemen​
Yemen also suffers from a shortage of educational facil- -health​-crisis.
ities. UNICEF reports that over 2,500 schools have been
damaged or destroyed by the civil war, and others are used
as shelters for displaced people or have been occupied by
armed groups seeking shelter. UNICEF warns that chil-
dren who are not in education face many dangers; boys
are at risk of being forced to fight as child soldiers, and
HADZA
an estimated 2,600 boys have already been made to join Current Location Tanzania
armed groups. Meanwhile, UNICEF warns that girls who
Current Population 1,000
are not in school are usually married at an early age. In
Language Hadzane
2016, three-quarters of the women in Yemen were married
Interesting Fact The Hadza have the most diverse gut
before the age of eighteen years, and 44.5 percent had been
microbes of any people on earth.
married before the age of fifteen years (Schlein 2018).

Overview
Threats to Survival The Hadza people are indigenous nomadic hunter-­
Since the start of the twenty-first century, the Hadh- gatherers living in the hinterland of Tanzania’s Lake Eyasi.
ramis have generally resisted the idea of South Yemeni The Hadza refer to themselves as Hadzabe. The Hadza
independence in favor of the creation of an independent speak a language called Hadzane, which is one of Tanza-
Hadhramaut. While the Hadhramis traditionally tend to nia’s two languages belonging to the click-based Khoisan
identify with particular tribes or regions, the concept of language family. As only the Hadza speak Hadzane, speak-
a shared Hadhrami national identity is increasingly sup- ing Hadzane is used as a criterion when deciding which
ported. How the Yemen Civil War affects the Hadhrami people are Hadza. Non-Hadza people rarely speak more
aim of establishing an independent Hadhramaut state, than a few words of Hadzane.
called Al-Jūmhurīyah al-Hadhramūt (Republic of Hadh-
ramaut) or the Dawlat Earabiat min al-Hadhramūt (Arab
State of Hadhramaut), while fostering a sense of Hadhrami Population, Diaspora, and Migration
identity is as yet unknown. It is likely, however, that the There are around one thousand people living in northern
spreading effects of Yemen’s devastating civil war are likely Tanzania who self-identify as Hadza (Crittenden n.d.). Of
to impede the Hadhramis’ moves for independence as the these, roughly three hundred are nomadic people who
 Hadza 415

follow a hunter-gatherer lifestyle in which they collect The Isanzu also occasionally kidnapped Hadza people and
over 90 percent of the food they eat. These Hadza live in sold them into slavery.
the savannah around Lake Eyasi. The remaining Hadza live Hadza women were also abducted by the Datoga, lead-
in semisettled Hadza camps located outside villages. These ing to battles between the two peoples. At the same time,
Hadza practice a mixed subsistence lifestyle, meaning they Hadza members would kill Datoga cattle. Despite the skir-
supplement their gathered food with bought food. mishes, however, intermarriage between the Hadza and
All Hadza people live below 1,700 meters and complain Datoga occurred fairly frequently. Today, the Datoga is a
of feeling too cold if they live above this altitude (Marlowe fast-growing tribe that lives on land bordering Hadza terri-
2010). tory. During the dry season, aggression builds up between
the two peoples, as the Datoga use Hadza watering holes
for their livestock, thereby placing significant pressure on
Geography and Environment water resources in an area that is already prone to water
Typically, the Hadza live in the dry savannah woodland shortages.
around Lake Eyasi, which is located in the eastern Rift Over the years, there have been many attempts to make
Valley in northern Tanzania. The vegetation consists of the Hadza live in permanent settlements. In 1927 and 1939,
grasses, baobab trees, and acacia trees as well as thorny the British colonial government tried to force the Hadza to
bushes. The plains are broken up by rocky outcrops. Lake become farmers at fixed locations, but the Hadza rejected
Eyasi is a salt lake, and the Hadza often face water short- the settled agricultural lifestyle and left the settlements
ages because surface water is scarce. Water shortages are a soon after arriving. In 1965, the Tanzanian government
particular problem during the dry season that runs from attempted to escort the Hadza under armed guard to a
late June to October. Apart from Lake Eyasi, the Hadza’s village settlement built by missionaries that was equipped
only other reliable surface water comes from the Yaida with a school and clinic. After a few weeks at the settle-
swamp. In recent years, commercial poachers have been ment, many Hadza had died, probably because living in
attracted to areas in which the Hadza live because game one village allowed diseases such as respiratory infections
animals, including elephants and rhinoceros, populate and measles to be transmitted more easily. The Hadza that
these areas. survived the outbreak of illnesses left the settlement as
soon as they could. The government made a final attempt
at settling the Hadza during the mid-1970s. This attempt
History and Politics also failed, leaving the Hadza to return to their nomadic
The Hadza are not closely related to any other people. hunter-gatherer way of life.
Indeed, genealogists have found that the Hadza are so Today, less than half of all Hadza people still follow
unique at the gene level that they may be one of the pri- the hunter-gatherer lifestyle. Since the 1960s, the Hadza
mary origins of humankind. According to the Hadza, how- population has steadily increased, but at the same time,
ever, their people originated from a giraffe’s neck before the Hadza have had to start living within a smaller area
traveling down a baobab tree and landing on earth. as other tribes encroach on their land. The growing pop-
The Hadza are thought to have inhabited Tanzania’s ulation together with a smaller territory means the Hadza
Lake Eyasi region for the last fifty thousand years. Tra- population density has also increased. In response to the
ditionally, the Hadza are nomadic, migrating with the squeeze on Hadza land resources, in 2011, the Tanzanian
seasons in search of items that will fulfill their imme- government created a Hadza reservation. The Hadza now
diate requirements. Thousands of years ago, the Bantu have land rights to one thousand square miles, though
people expanded their land, resulting in many of Africa’s this territory is a quarter of the size of the Hadza’s original
­hunter-gatherer peoples ceasing to exist because domestic land area.
cattle herds began to graze on the land previously inhab-
ited by the free-roaming antelope that the hunter-­gatherers
hunted. The Hadza survived this Bantu encroachment, but Society, Culture, and Tradition
around two thousand years ago, Maasai warriors began to Hadza society does not feature clans or similar family
encroach on Hadza land from the northeast, and Isanzu groups. However, as Hadza lineage is traced through both
agriculturalists started to settle on Hadza land to the south. parents, most Hadza consider themselves related to each
416 Hadza

other. Female cousins refer to themselves as sisters, while laborers, hunting guides for safari tours, or guards to scare
male cousins consider themselves brothers. Traditionally, wild animals from farms. The Hadza do not generally buy
the Hadza people frequently change their names, but in and sell items nor trade items. The Hadza dress in animal
recent years, when asked for a family name by representa- skins taken from the animals killed by the men. The men
tives from the Tanzanian government or missionaries, the wear the fur of small mammals or baboons, while women
Hadza have used the first name of a child’s father as the wear impala skins.
child’s surname. The Hadza have a reputation for not caring about the
The Hadza traditionally live in nomadic camps of short-term future. They do not tend to conserve food sup-
around twenty adults and their children. Hadza camps are plies and often play a game of chance in which they gamble
very basic, consisting of grass shelters that take only a few away their possessions. Similarly, Hadza do not have any
hours to construct. A group will live in the grass shelters for concept of personal landownership. In addition, Hadza
ten days to a month before moving on to a new area. There communities have no political structure and are not par-
are a variety of reasons why a Hadza camp may choose to ticularly hierarchical, though elder members are accorded
move on, including a change in the weather, to search for respect. One manifestation of this respect sees camps
water, or to find a new food source. When a camp moves named after the eldest male in the group, who will usually
in search of food, the people will set up camp near the site be in his fifties or sixties.
of a fresh kill, if the animal killed is sufficiently large to Hadza social groups are not binding; adults are free to
provide enough food for several days. join other family groups when they wish. At the center of a
Hadza men and women are allocated different jobs. The group there will typically be sisters, one of whom is married
men hunt for animals such as zebras, impalas, wildebeest, to the group’s eldest male. To be considered an adult man
buffalos, and lions using bows and poisoned arrows. They eligible for marriage, a man must kill five baboons. Once a
also collect honey from wild bees. The Hadza eat a variety Hadza couple is married, they may remain together forever
of animals, including game animals, mice, and cats, but they or for a short while. There is no stigma attached to ending a
consider baboons to be the best meat. Conversely, the Hadza relationship, and either the husband or wife may terminate
avoid eating reptiles. Hadza women and children scavenge a union by physically abandoning his or her partner.
edible roots, baobab fruit, berries, and seeds. These food- The Hadza language, Hadzane, uses clicks, and for that
stuffs are important because, though Hadza men are profi- reason, it is often grouped together with the San languages
cient hunters and the Hadza enjoy eating meat, around 80 of southern Africa; However, Hadzane is not strongly related
percent of the Hadza diet is vegetarian (Briggs 2009). More to San languages. Neighboring peoples such as the Maasai
settled Hadza tend small plots on which they grow maize and Sakuma do not speak the same language as the Hadza,
and sweet potatoes. Occasionally, the Hadza are also able to and the relationship between the Hadza and their neigh-
persuade the Tanzanian government and nongovernmental bors can be hostile. The Hadza’s dislike of living in close
organizations (NGOs) to give them donations of maize. proximity to non-Hadza people is one of the reasons that
The Hadza diet is the subject of international academic they have resisted becoming a sedentary people, despite
study because the diet exemplifies how ancient humans ate the efforts of the Tanzanian government, which has imple-
and sourced their food. Hadza meals are viewed as a last mented a systematic policy of increasing sedentarization
link to the ancient diets involved in human evolution and for the country’s indigenous nomadic peoples since 1964.
show how the human digestive system developed, includ- The Hadza have been described as a people without
ing human gut bacteria known as the microbiome. The religion, and past attempts by missionaries to convert the
medical world believes that gut bacteria play an important Hadza to Christianity have failed. Anthropologists agree,
role in the function of the human immune system and that however, that the Hadza do share a collective cosmology
having a rich gut bacteria population lowers the risk of dis- that focuses on the sun, moon, stars, and Hadza ances-
ease. At present, it is thought that the Hadza’s diet provides tors. The Hadza do not, however, have any equivalent to a
them with the richest and most diverse human gut micro- religious leader, places of worship, or organized religious
biomes in the world (Saladino 2017). meetings. In addition, the Hadza do not practice witch-
Very few Hadza have jobs outside of their camps. Those craft nor have faith in shamans or medicine men. They do,
Hadza that do have jobs live close to villages and either however, believe that other neighboring peoples practice
work in the growing ecotourism sector or are hired as witchcraft and have cursed the Hadza in the past.
 Hadza 417

Health Care and Education pastoralists and farmers have begun to block the migra-
The Hadza live very seasonal lives; during the dry season, tion routes used by game animals, making it harder for the
they live outside, and during the wet season, they live in Hadza to reach the animals they hunt. The Hadza also face
huts made of tree branches and grass. In addition to out- increased risk of water shortages, as neighboring cattle
door living, the Hadza also live at low (though increasing) farmers and agriculturalists have started to fence off water
population densities and are traditionally nomadic. All sources.
these factors taken together mean that the Hadza may Another consequence of the decimation of the elephant
experience a lower rate of disease transmission than their and rhinoceros populations by commercial poachers is
pastoral and agricultural neighbors. In addition, the Hadza that the open areas that were once trampled by elephants
diet is extremely well balanced, so they do not suffer from are now increasingly overgrown by thorny plants that
malnutrition. Indeed, the Hadza are much healthier than grow densely when they are not trampled by large, heavy
neighboring peoples. animals. The extra density of the thorns deters grazing
The Hadza do, however, suffer from malaria, yellow animals from feeding in Hadza areas, so there are fewer
fever, diarrhea, eye and respiratory infections, tuberculosis, animals for the Hadza to hunt. Similarly, the wild plants,
and sleeping sickness, which they catch from the tsetse fly. on which the Hadza feed, do not grow because they are
The Hadza’s outdoor hunter-gatherer lifestyle also means denied space by the dense thorns.
that they suffer from such injuries as broken bones. There Another threat to the Hadza comes from tourists, who
are few hospitals on Hadza land, and those that do exist are have introduced alcohol and alcoholism to the Hadza.
usually one to two days’ walking distance from most Hadza Also, due to their history of living in isolated camps, the
camps. Sometimes a small team of healthcare experts visit Hadza’s immune systems are often unable to cope with
the Hadza camps located close to the villages of Mangola diseases such as measles and tuberculosis that they catch
and Barazani. from tourists.
Approximately 20 percent of Hadza under age fifty have In recent years, as a reaction to these emerging threats
attended school for a year or less. In contrast, 60 percent of to survival, the Hadza have become increasingly aware of
Hadza under the age of thirty have been in education for a how to communicate globally via social media and new
year or less. Two schools have been built near Hadza land, technology. They have learned to communicate in this
though neither offer is exclusively intended for Hadza way partly to carve out an image of themselves as a self-­
pupils nor teaches a special curriculum for the Hadza. A identified indigenous people to join with other indigenous
primary school built in Endamagha by missionaries espe- groups fighting for indigenous rights. In a further effort
cially for the Hadza now mainly educates students from to safeguard Hadza society, they have representatives on
other tribes, with only one-third of the students being the Pastoral and Indigenous Non-Governmental Organi-
Hadza. Increasingly, Hadza children attend school for zation (PINGO) forum, a Tanzanian organization compris-
long periods of time—in the past, Hadza children would ing over fifty indigenous peoples that aims to preserve the
generally run away from school to return to their home lifestyles of pastoralists and hunter-gatherers. Belonging
camps. While some Hadza value their children’s formal to PINGO also means that the Hadza are having to work
education, many Hadza consider it pointless for their chil- with other indigenous Tanzanian peoples to enhance their
dren to learn to read and write English and Swahili, as the chances of survival.
children will not need the languages when they go back to
See also: Akie; Maasai; San; Swahili
their camps. In addition, some Hadza fear that the children
will lose out on gaining a “Hadza education” that sees the Further Reading
children acquire knowledge of their own language, culture, ­Briggs, Philip. 2009. Northern Tanzania: The Bradt Safari Guide
with Kilimanjaro and Zanzibar. 2nd ed. Chalfont St. Peter,
and hunter-gatherer skills.
UK: Bradt Travel Guides.
Crittenden, Alyssa. n.d. “Hadza Fieldsite in Tanzania.” Cul-
Threats to Survival ture and the Mind. http://www.philosophy.dept.shef.ac.uk​/
culture&mind/people/crittendena.
Commercial poachers have started to hunt the game ani- Lee, Richard B., and Richard Heywood Daly, eds. 1999. Cam-
mals on which the Hadza feed. This leaves the Hadza at bridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers. Cambridge,
increasing risk of food shortages. Similarly, neighboring UK: Cambridge University Press.
418 Haida

Levi, Jerome M., and Elizabeth Durham. 2015. “Indigeneity and neighborhoods such as Hydaburg. The seat of the Haida
Global Citizenship.” In Indigenous Education: Language, Cul- national government is located on Haida Gwaii. Until
ture and Identity, edited by James W. Jacob, Sheng Yao Cheng, recently, most Haida living on Haida Gwaii were fishermen
and Maureen K. Porter, 395–428. Heidelberg, Germany:
Springer Science + Business Media.
or loggers inhabiting the villages of Masset, Port Clements,
Lockwood, Georgina. 2014. “A Short History of an Ancient Tribe: and Queen Charlotte as well as the settlements in Old Mas-
The Last of the True Hunter-Gatherers.” Africa Geographic set, Skidegate, Sandspit, and Tlell.
Magazine, Issue 2 (July 11). http://magazine.africageographic​ Today, Haida Gwaii attracts many scientists and tour-
.com/weekly/issue-2/a-short-history-of-an-ancient-tribe. ists, who come to study or enjoy the islands’ rugged, moun-
Marlowe, Frank W. 2010. The Hadza: Hunter-Gatherers of Tanza- tainous landscape; fjords; and groups of mortuary totem
nia. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Saladino, Dan. 2017. “Trying the Hadza Hunter-Gatherer Berry
poles. The Haida village of Ninstints on Anthony Island
and Porcupine Diet.” BBC News Magazine, July 23. http://​ has been classified as a UN World Heritage Site because it
www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-40686373. is home to many mortuary totem poles that illustrate the
artistry of the Haida.

Geography and Environment

HAIDA Haida Gwaii (meaning “island of the people”) is an archi-
pelago consisting of two large islands, Graham Island to
Current Location Canada; United States the north and Moresby Island to the south, as well as more
Current Population 4,000 than one hundred smaller islands. The total landmass of
Language English; Haida Haida Gwaii is around 3,861 square miles. Haida Gwaii is
Interesting Fact The first Haida-language film, Edge separated from the mainland by water that extends at least
of the Knife, was released in 2017. forty-three miles in every direction. The landscape of the
archipelago is dominated by temperate rainforests featur-
Overview ing giant Sitka spruce trees, western red cedars, and west-
The Haida are an aboriginal ethnic group of North Amer- ern hemlock. The islands are also home to black bears, but
ica, most particularly Canada. They have their own national the caribou that used to live on the islands are now extinct.
government, the Council of the Haida Nation, which has The water surrounding the islands is rich in marine mam-
been a member of the Coastal First Nations (a coalition of mals such as sea lions as well as fish, shellfish, and seabirds.
nine British Columbia First Nations) since 2000.
English is the main language spoken by the Haida,
though a small number of Haida also speak the traditional
History and Politics
Haida language. The language, which is also known as The Haida settled on the Queen Charlotte Islands and in
Haida, is historically spoken on the Haida Gwaii (formerly Alaska over eight thousand years ago. The survival of the
the Queen Charlotte Islands) and parts of the Alaskan Pan- early Haida depended on the people’s good stewardship of
handle. The language has two distinct dialects: Masset and the land, and the Haida have respected the land ever since.
Skidegate. The first recorded European contact with the Haida is gen-
erally thought to have occurred in 1774, when the Spanish
explorer Juan Pérez interacted with the Haida on Haida
Population, Diaspora, and Migration Gwaii, though he did not venture ashore. The British cap-
The current Haida population is not known for sure. Some tain George Dixon instigated a sea otter fur trade with the
Haida authorities suggest the population stands at 4,000 Haida in 1787. It was also around this time that the Haida
(Wisdom of the Elders 2017); however, other sources began to cultivate potatoes. The Haida also traded sea otter
suggest there are 2,500 Haida living along the bays and pelts with China, but the sea otter fur trade ended around
inlets of Haida Gwaii in British Columbia and 2,000 more 1830, superseded by land-based fur operations.
Haida living in other parts of British Columbia and else- The advent of the Hudson’s Bay Company (a retail com-
where (Gessler et al. n.d.), such as Southeast Alaska, espe- pany that had its origins in the fur trade) also affected
cially on the southern half of Prince of Wales Island, in Haida trade, for, in the 1830s, the company established a
 Haida 419

fur-trading post at Fort Simpson, near the mouth of Nass

River. This trading post became a central trading location Guujaaw
for the Haida and other aboriginal traders for the next Born Gary Edenshaw of the Raven clan in Masset,
forty years. In 1858, the Haida also started to trade in Vic- an abandoned village of Skedans, Guujaaw, who was
toria, British Columbia, having been attracted there by the not educated on a reservation, received his Haida
local gold rush. name (meaning “Drum”) at a potlatch. By being
In 1862, the Haida living in Victoria were caught up in educated away from a reservation, Guujaaw escaped
the smallpox epidemic that had arrived in the town aboard the “Sixties Scoop”—the placing of indigenous chil-
the steamship Brother Jonathan. Smallpox devastated the dren with nonindigenous families. Because Guujaaw
nearby Haida communities and led to villages being aban- was able to remain part of the Haida community as
doned and the near collapse of Haida society. Another a youngster, he was able to learn traditional Haida
strike against Haida culture occurred in 1885, when the activities.
traditional Haida potlatch was prohibited under the Pot- In 1974, Guujaaw was involved in the creation of
latch Ban, legislation forbidding the practice of the pot- the Council of Haida Nations, which united Haida
latch, a gift-giving feast that acted as a form of economic clans so they could as speak as one on Haida matters.
system and helped cement communities. The Potlatch Guujaaw served as the council’s president until 2012.
Ban destroyed financial relationships among the Haida In 1985, Guujaaw was among the Haida activists at
and their trade partners while also removing an impor- the center of the battle for control of Lyell Island (in
tant element of Haida culture. The ban was supposedly the Haida Gwaii archipelago). The activists set up a
implemented because the federal government considered blockade intended to stop a foresting company from
it a reckless, anti-Christian waste of personal property. The exercising timber rights on the island. The blockade
ban was also an assimilationist strategy, for both the gov- was the first of many high-profile acts that led to the
ernment and supporters of the ban did not understand the designation of Gwaii Haanas National Park in 1993.
symbolic significance or communal economic value of the Two years after the blockade, the southern portion
potlatch. The Potlatch Ban was lifted in 1951. of another island in the Haida Gwaii archipelago,
Over time, the Haida became expert canoe makers, Moresby Island, became the Gwaii Haanas National
fashioning canoes from the giant red cedars that grow Park Reserve and Haida Heritage Site, which is
on Haida Gwaii. The boats were extremely maneuverable administered jointly by the Haida and the federal
and beautiful and were highly prized by the chiefs of other government.
nations living along the coast. Each Haida village had its Although best known for his Haida advocacy,
own canoe makers who worked on constructing new craft Guujaaw is also an artist and has worked with Haida
throughout the autumn at sites where red cedars grew. The artist Bill Reid on several projects, including The
canoe makers would then wait for a sufficient amount of Raven and the First Men, a sculpture inspired by a
snow to fall before using the snow to sledge the roughly Haida creation myth. In 2006, Guujaaw was awarded
hewn canoes out of the woods to the beach. They then the Buffett Award for Indigenous Leadership in rec-
towed the canoes to their village, where they spent the ognition for his long-term work toward the political
winter finishing the boats. In springtime, flotillas of new and cultural advancement of the Haida.
canoes would sail from the villages as they headed for the
mainland. If these vessels were able to survive navigating
the treacherous Hecate Strait (the strait between Haida
Gwaii and the British Columbia mainland that is especially By the end of the eighteenth century, the Haida had
prone to storms), they were considered able to withstand learned how to rig sails from foreign sailors visiting their
any weather conditions. lands. This enabled the Haida to equip their largest canoes
When the canoes arrived at Nass River, in British with multiple canvas sails attached to cedar wood masts.
Columbia, they were traded to coastal tribes. The first The sails made the canoes extremely fast and maneuver-
Europeans to encounter the Haida were so impressed by able, making them perfect for raiding. Indeed, during the
the canoes that they would draw them alongside the crests period 1780–1830, the Haida proved to be fierce, daring
of the canoes’ owners. warriors who attacked British, American, Spanish, and
420 Haida

engaged in fighting with other indigenous nations, using

large seagoing canoes for raid expeditions as far south as
Washington State, they did not enter into violent confron-
tations with the Europeans settlers. Nonetheless, by 1915,
the Haida population had decreased to 588 people because
they had contracted smallpox and other diseases from the
settlers. Once the smallpox epidemic had passed, the sur-
viving Haida grouped together in two villages, Skidegate
and Old Masset, on Graham Island. Today, these are major
Haida settlements.
At some point after the Haida moved to Graham Island,
the Haida began to base their economy around the forest
industry and commercial fishing. Since the 1930s, however,
diminishing fish stocks and forest resources have forced
the Haida to find new income sources. Today, many Haida
work in the tourism and secondary wood manufacturing
industries or sell their arts and crafts.

Society, Culture, and Tradition

The Haida are highly skilled wood carvers who specialize
in carving mythical figures and depictions of historical
events. Traditionally, the carvings are colored red, black,
and blue or green. The Haida use their carving skills to
create canoes, ceremonial masks, house fronts, bent-
wood boxes, tools, and, most famously perhaps, mortuary
totem poles. Mortuary totem poles are erected for people
of importance or high rank, such as a chief, and act as
both a tomb and a gravestone. This type of pole has a cav-
A Haida totem pole in Duncan, British Columbia, Canada. Haida ity carved into the top into which a burial box is placed
totem poles are carved with figures representing clan lineages. (also known as a grave box) that contains the remains
(Meunierd/Dreamstime.com) of the esteemed person. When a Haida person dies, his
or her remains are placed in a highly ornate chest that
is kept in the community’s mortuary house. After a year,
the remains are then placed inside an undecorated box
Russian trade ships. While the Haida did sometimes suffer that is put in the cavity of the mortuary pole. To allow
casualties during the raids, they were often successful and enough room for the cavity to be carved into the log used
killed the sailors on the ships they raided (Jones 2004). It to make the pole, the log is inverted so that the cavity
was through raiding that the Haida were able to acquire can be carved into the wide end of the pole; therefore, the
weapons such as cannons and canoe-mounted swivel guns tapered end of the pole is fixed into the ground. The burial
that they used to attack neighboring peoples, including the box containing the human remains is hidden from sight
Coast Salish. by a frontal board, which is a board made of cedar wood
It was not until the start of the twentieth century that attached to the front of the pole. This board is designed to
European settlers began to populate Haida Gwaii in sig- resemble a large chest and is decorated with carvings or
nificant numbers. According to estimates by the Council illustrations, including the person’s ancestral crest. Some-
of the Haida Nation, the precontact population of Haida times more wooden planks and rocks are placed on top
Gwaii was in the tens of thousands, a number supported by of the frontal board to prevent the board from moving in
early fur trader records. Although the Haida had previously high winds.
 Haida 421

Health Care and Education The quality of life for many First Nations has long been
In late 2016, the new Haida Gwaii Hospital and Health linked to their natural environment and the successful
Centre opened. The hospital serves the people living in stewardship of their natural resources. The land and marine
Haida Gwaii and the surrounding communities, providing resources of Haida Gwaii are protected through the Gwaii
health care for patients and services for patients’ families. Haanas National Park, the Gwaii Haanas National Marine
The hospital was built to enable people living in smaller Conservation Area Reserve, and the Haida Heritage Site.
settlements to access health care. The hospital offers home While great attention has been dedicated to the conser-
and community care, acute care, and residential care beds vation of Haida Gwaii’s natural resources, changes to the
as well as a labor, delivery, and recovery suite. The facil- area’s ecosystem have occurred, including the extinction of
ity also provides diagnostics, laboratory and pharmacy sea otters and sharp falls in abalone and herring stocks.
services, and mental health and addictions programs. The Such environmental changes upset the area’s natural bal-
infant mortality on Haida Gwaii is significantly higher ances and cause unemployment among the Haida, many
than that for British Columbia as a whole—13.9 percent of whom are employed in primary industries. In response
and 3.7 percent, respectively (Markey 2012). to environmental change, the Archipelago Management
In the past, aboriginal children across Canada, includ- Board, composed of representatives from the Council of
ing Haida children, were made to leave their families the Haida Nation, Parks Canada, and Fisheries and Oceans
to attend church-run government-funded residential Canada, has developed a management scheme intended
schools. These schools have been cited as a reason for the to restore and protect the ecosystems of Haida Gwaii. In
near extinction of the Haida language and have been called particular, efforts are being made to protect the Pacific
a form of “cultural genocide” because sending children to herring, which is an essential food source for people living
these schools was intended to assimilate the children into on the northern Pacific coast and is vital to Haida Gwaii’s
mainstream society while destroying their grasp of their economy and Haida culture.
native language and culture. In addition, many Haida Another issue facing the Haida is that their population
people who went to these schools report being abused at is aging and they have a declining population base because
school, and they experience lingering trauma as adults younger Haida are migrating from villages to find work
(Collinson 2017). elsewhere. The aging population is also an influence on
In 2012, 48.7 percent of Haida people aged twenty- the survival of the Haida language. On the whole, younger
five years to sixty-four years living on Haida Gwaii had Haida speak English, and the number of older Haida that
been to high school, compared with 61.8 percent of the speak their native language is decreasing. In 2014, both the
population of British Columbia. However, 69.9 percent Haida dialects (Masset and Skidegate) were nearly extinct.
of ­eighteen-year-old Haida had not graduated from high There were only nine living Haida people fluent in both
school, compared to 27.9 percent of pupils in British dialects, and another thirteen people that could under-
Columbia (Markey 2012). stand the dialects somewhat (Gessler et al. n.d.). The Old
Village Council and Skidegate Band Council support initi-
atives aimed at ensuring the dialects survive, but whether
Threats to Survival that aim can be achieved is yet to be seen.
The Haida face a number of socioeconomic issues. For
See also: Aleut; Gwich’in; Yupik
instance, they have high levels of unemployment, and those
Further Reading
Haida that are employed tend to work in primary industries,
Collinson, Pansy. 2017. Haida Eagle Treasures: Traditional Sto-
such as fishing, that are in decline. As a result of the decline ries and Memories from a Teacher of the Tsath Lanas Clan.
of primary industries, the Haida are increasingly turning to Alberta, Canada: Brush Education.
other employment sectors, such as tourism. However, those Fedje, Daryl W., and Rolf W. Mathewes. 2005. Haida Gwaii:
Haida that wish to start their own businesses face higher Human History and Environment from the Time of Loon to
setup costs because of the geographical isolation of Haida the Time of the Iron Peoples. Vancouver, Canada: UBC Press.
Gessler, Trisha, Dorothy Kennedy, and Randy Bouchard. n.d.
settlements. The Haida also have lower levels of education
“Haida.” The Canadian Encyclopedia. http://www​.thecanadi-
than other people living in British Columbia. This limits anencyclopedia.ca/en/article/haida-native-group.
their ability to set up businesses and access technology, Jones, David E. 2004. Native North American Armor, Shields, and
which, in turn, can make it difficult to establish businesses. Fortifications. Austin: University of Texas Press.
422 Hani

Markey, Sean. 2012. Economic Development on Haida Gwaii: Geography and Environment
“Ounces not Pounds.” Paper prepared for the Action Canada
Northern Conference, Haida Gwaii, September. http://www​ Yunnan province is located on China’s southwest border.
.actioncanada.ca/wp-content/uploads/2014/04/Haida-Gwaii​ Yunnan is bordered by the Tibet Autonomous Region to
-Economic-Development-EN-Oct-2012.pdf. the northwest, Sichuan province to the north, Guizhou
Tindall, D. B., Ronald L. Trosper, and Pamela Perreault, eds. 2013. province to the east, and the Zhuang Autonomous Region
Aboriginal Peoples and Forest Lands in Canada. Vancouver, of Guangxi to the southeast. To the south and southeast,
Canada: UBC Press.
Yunnan is bordered by Laos and Vietnam, and to the
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Life Customs around the World: From
Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. southwest and west, Yunnan shares a lengthy border with
Wisdom of the Elders. 2017. “History of the Haida Tribe.” http://​ Myanmar. Yunnan is home to many mountains and pla-
discoveringourstory.wisdomoftheelders.org/history-of-the​ teaus and is separated by the Ailao Mountain Range into
-haida-tribe. two distinct regions—the canyon region to the province’s
west and the Yunnan-Guizhou (Yungui) Plateau region to
the east. The province’s three major rivers—the Salween
(Nu), the Mekong (Lancang), and the Black (Lixian)—
flow through deep mountain valleys. The river currents
HANI are too fast for navigation but have the potential to be
used to generate hydroelectric power. The eastern Yungui
Current Location China Plateau region, stretching from the Ailao Mountains to
Current Population 1.5 million–2.2 million the Guizhou-Guangxi border, is separated from Sichuan
Language Hani by the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang). Streams on the pla-
Interesting Fact The Hani have the worst quality of
teau’s western edge drain into the Red (Yuan) River, which
life of China’s official minorities as flows along the eastern Ailao Mountains before entering
well as the lowest life expectancies the Gulf of Tonkin via Vietnam. Yunnan is also home to
and the highest infant mortality many lakes, including Lake Dian in Kunming and Lake
rates. Erhai in Dali.
Despite its tropical latitude, parts of Yunnan province
have a moderate temperature. As much of the province is
Overview at high elevation, summers are cool, and winters are mild,
The Hani (also called the Haw, Haqniq, Hounis, Eoni, or thereby allowing farming to happen throughout most of
Wonis) is an ethnic group living mostly in the Chinese the year. Other parts of Yunnan are hot with high humid-
province of Yunnan. There are also smaller Hani groups ity, but the mountain tops can experience freezing winds.
living in Vietnam, Laos, and Myanmar. The Hani speak the Yunnan is influenced by rain-bearing monsoon winds
Hani language, which belongs to the Loloish (or Yi) branch emanating from both the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Most
of the Tibeto-Burman languages. Hani is related to the of the province’s rain falls between May and October.
Akha, Yi, and Lahu languages that are also spoken in the Yunnan has tropical, subtropical, temperate, and alpine
region. Most Hani follow the people’s traditional animist growing zones. Thousands of plant species growing in
religion, though there are smaller numbers of Christian the province, including many species of medicinal herbs
and Buddhist Hani. as well as ornamental plants such as azaleas, camellias,
roses. Around half of Yunnan is forested. After a period
of extensive, unchecked logging that devastated the prov-
Population, Diaspora, and Migration ince’s forests, Yunnan’s forest cover has increased since the
The total Hani population is estimated at between 1.5 mil- 1990s after conservation programs established protected
lion (Minahan 2014) and 2.2 million (Formoso 2005) peo- forests and nature reserves while also promoting reforest-
ple. Approximately 80 percent of the Hani live in China’s ation. Yunnan is also home to a variety of animals, includ-
Yunnan province (Formoso 2005). Most Hani live in scat- ing monkeys, bears, elephants, and porcupines. Some
tered villages across the counties around the lower reaches of these animals, such as the black snub-nosed monkey
of Yunnan province’s Yellow River and in highlands around (Rhinopithecus bieti) and the Hoolock gibbon (Hylobates
the Mekong River. hoolock), are protected by the state.
 Hani 423

History and Politics Most Hani areas existed in a state of evolution as they
The exact origins of the Hani people are unknown. One morphed from involvement in the basic economy of vil-
theory suggests the Hani are descended from the Qiang, lage communes to a feudal landlord economy. Addition-
who migrated south from the Tibetan Plateau at some ally, Hani peasants began to feel rebellious because they
point before the third century. Another theory suggests the were resentful of the very high taxes imposed on them and
Hani are descended from the Heyis tribe that lived in an enforced by officials of the Chinese government via local
area to the south of the Dadu River in what is now China’s chiefs and landlords. At the start of the twentieth century,
Sichuan province during the third century BCE. According many Hani joined groups sought to overthrow the Qing
to Hani legend, the Hani are descended from the people dynasty, whom they despised, and took part in the Taiping
that split from the Yi fifty generations ago to become a dis- and Hui revolts. To escape retribution by officials, many
tinct tribal group. Hani fled south to the highlands between China, Laos,
According to ancient Chinese texts, from the fourth to Burma (Myanmar), and Thailand, where they continued to
the eighth centuries, some Hani moved south to the area grow opium poppies.
around the Mekong River, where Hani chiefs paid tribute The Hani’s hatred of the Qing dynasty led to their
to the Chinese Tang dynasty. In return, the Hani chiefs becoming part of the new Chinese Communist Party.
were allowed to act as landlords over most of the area’s fer- Before World War II started, conflict erupted several times
tile land. However, most Hani lived as peasant farmers and between the Communist Party and Chinese government
sharecroppers on plantations. By the seventh century, the troops. Postwar, the tension between the Communist Party
Hani had come to build terraced rice paddy fields on the and Chinese government troops escalated into the Chinese
sides of steep mountain slopes. After the Mongols overran Civil War, which the communists won in 1949. Follow-
China at the start of the thirteenth century, the Mongol ing the communists’ victory, communist squads entered
Yuan dynasty founded a prefecture in Yunnan exclusively Hani areas to overthrow the local chiefs and landlords.
for the Hani and other ethnic groups. This move was part of the communist policy of elevating
In 1368, the Ming dynasty overthrew the Mongols. The the peasant classes under communist land reforms that
Ming returned to the system whereby local chiefs and started in 1952.
landlords exercised control, a system of indirect rule called The communist victory also meant that the Hani
tusi. From 1644 to 1911, under the Manchu-­dominated received recognition as a minzu (“nationality”), which gave
Qing dynasty, court officials superseded the chiefs and the Hani the freedom to develop their language, greater
landlords. The abolition of the earlier landlord system led equality with other peoples, and regional authority. In
to the exploitation of Hani peasants by court-sanctioned 1957, Chinese authorities established several autonomous
landlords, who appropriated large tracts of the best, most counties. Consequently, the Hani gained greater control
fertile land. In contrast, in some Hani areas, a system of over the administration of their homeland, though deci-
communal landownership evolved that saw the land sions were still made by communist officials. The commu-
owned by villagers. Following the Opium War (1855, a nists oversaw the reopening of the Hani’s ancient terraced
trade dispute between the Qing dynasty and the British), fields that had been abandoned over the centuries. This
the Qing encouraged highland Hani to produce opium, was one element in the improvements to Hani agriculture
which authorities then taxed heavily. that occurred under communist rule. In addition, the com-
In addition to growing crops on communal land, the munists also improved the Hani’s access to education.
villagers also owned paddy fields and tea plantations. Over
time, however, private landownership predominated, with
landlords and rich peasants owning the best farmland, tea Society, Culture, and Tradition
plantations, paddy fields, and forests. In contrast, Hani peas- Traditionally, the Hani are a rural, agricultural people.
ants were exploited by the landlords and wealthy landown- Hani villages are typically located in areas with abundant
ers, who trapped the poor peasants in a cycle of debt slavery forests and water sources and fertile hillside land that is
and forced them to pay exorbitant taxes. By the start of the terraced for farming. Traditional Hani houses are made
nineteenth century, some Hani communities had become from straw, soil, bamboo, and wood around a scaffold
wealthier and more developed than others. However, the structure. The ground floor of a house is used for housing
poorest Hani were among the poorest people in China. livestock and furniture, while human inhabitants live on
424 Hani

the first floor that consists of three rooms with a square The Hani language is spoken in two major dialectal
fire pit in the center that is constantly burning. A house’s groups: the Ha-Ya and Hao-Bai. Ha-Ya consists of five
second floor is covered with fireproof earth. Such houses regional dialects, and Hao-Bai comprises two distinct
are warm in winter but cool in summer. dialects. Together, these dialects are called the Bi-Ka lan-
The Hani’s staple foods are rice, corn, and wild vegeta- guages, and they are considered dialects of Hani because
bles from which the people make soup. A unique celebra- the Chinese government classifies speakers of these dia-
tory dish, Baiwang, involves adding salt to the blood of a lects as ethnic Hani.
pig, goat, or dog so that the blood congeals. The congealed
blood is then grilled on charcoal alongside pork, radishes,
garlic leaves, and chili peppers before being topped with Health Care and Education
peanuts. The Hani drink warm wine and teas. According to the Chinese government’s quality of life
The Hani revere the water buffalo because, according index (eight factors, which include employment rates,
to Hani folklore, the sky god, Abo-Momi, sent a water literacy, and so on, that indicate people’s life quality), the
buffalo to the earth to teach humankind that grass and Hani score the lowest of all the official minorities at just
trees must be planted to allow crops to grow elsewhere. 38.3 percent, while the average for minorities in China is
If humans planted the grass and trees, they would be able 62.7 percent. The Hani also have China’s worst life expec-
to eat every other day. However, the water buffalo was for- tancy and infant mortality rates (Minahan 2014).
getful and told the people to plant crops rather than trees Since 1949, public hygiene has greatly improved in Yun-
and grass so that they could eat twice per day, every day. nan. In earlier times, diseases such as trachoma, smallpox,
The humans obeyed the water buffalo by planting crops malaria, measles, and bubonic plague were widespread,
everywhere. This made Abo-Momi angry with the water but they have been brought under control. Additionally,
buffalo, whom Abo-Momi sent back to earth to help the the iodization of water ended the high incidence of goiters
Hani to farm the land. Today, when a Hani man dies, his in Yunnan.
water buffalo is slaughtered, and the resultant corpse is In recent years, China’s market-oriented economy has
buried with him so that the animal can assist the man in priced health care beyond the budget of many rural Chi-
the afterlife. nese people. While all people in Yunnan have basic med-
In general, the Hani adhere to their traditional animist ical insurance issued to them by the government when
beliefs that hold dear ancestral spirits. As part of this ances- they turn eighteen years of age, this coverage does little
tor worship, the Hani hold many rituals that they believe to reduce costs for expensive medicine and surgery. In
appease their ancestors as well as the gods of heaven, their 2015, Yunnan’s provincial government launched a univer-
village, and the dragon tree, which the Hani consider the sal health insurance scheme aimed at extending basic paid
ultimate protector of humans. coverage to Yunnan’s most remote areas and also estab-
According to the Hani calendar, October is the start of a lished a database of ailments facing those who register
year. To mark the occasion, the Hani celebrate their ances- for the scheme so that healthcare resources can be better
tors for five to six days. Families kill roosters that they then allocated in the future. The new health insurance scheme
cook outside their homes. Every family member (except is designed to supplement the existing basic insurance by
girls who are soon to wed) eat a piece of the chicken. After- encouraging rural people to spend money in the present to
ward, three rice balls are given to the clan elders along save money on future healthcare costs.
with some cooked chicken. Women who married in the However, health care in Yunnan remains inadequate
last year gather in fields on the outskirts of their village at best. While health care provided by clinics exists in all
to talk about married life, a meeting from which men are Yunnan’s counties, modern hospitals are only located big
excluded. Another major Hani celebration occurs in June. cities. There is increasing demand for health staff, hospital
At this time, roosters and goats are sacrificed to the god beds, and modern medical equipment. Overall, China has
of heaven and the god of grain. In autumn, the Hani carry a shortage of healthcare professionals, with only 1.5 doc-
out building work dedicated to the god of heaven. To mark tors per 1,000 people, meaning the average doctor spends
this occasion, the Hani sacrifice a bull outside their front up to four minutes with each patient (Ni 2011).
doors. Afterward, the bull’s meat is shared by the Hani as a Recently, around 70 percent of water samples taken
symbolic sharing of the god’s gifts. across Yunnan failed to meet water quality standards,
 Haratine 425

with most contaminated by human and animal fecal mat- Wang, Ge. 2016. Pains and Gains of Ethnic Multilingual Learners
ter. This contamination increases the risk of spreading in China: An Ethnographic Case Study. Singapore: Springer.
waterborne diseases such as dysentery and such diarrheal
illnesses as rotavirus infections. Safe water and access to
sanitation are not evenly distributed throughout rural
China, and in many areas, there is an absence of covered
sewage systems. Yunnan’s poor, remote villages have live-
HARATINE
stock being reared within the villages. The villages’ lack of Current Location Mauritania; Western Sahara
covered latrines results in animal and human feces being (Morocco and Sahrawi Arab Demo-
stored in open pits in people’s backyards. During the rainy cratic Republic); Morocco
season, the pits overflow, resulting in excrement running Current Population 1,355,000
into the village streets. Villagers then have to walk through
Language Arabic; Wolof; Soniké; Pulaar;
the waste. Consequently, diarrheal rates peak during the Hassaniyya
rainy season (Ni 2011).
Interesting Fact Around half of all Haratines live in
Traditional Hani education is provided by community de facto slavery.
elders and witches (Mopi), who teach children through
song and drama during meals, while working, and during
festivals and worship. Yunnan tends to have one of China’s Overview
highest illiteracy rates. Recently, there has been a move to The term Haratine (also spelled Haratin) is used to describe
improve the education level of adults in Yunnan via a cam- people of black African origin living in Mauritania, Western
paign against illiteracy that teaches basic Chinese vocabu- Sahara (a disputed region of northwest Africa under the joint
lary through short, intensive courses. While an effort has control of Morocco and the self-proclaimed Sahrawi Arab
been made to spread the knowledge of indigenous writ- Democratic Republic), and Morocco. The Haratines’ dark
ten languages, overall, ethnic minorities in Yunnan tend skin tone means they are sometimes called Black Moors. In
to receive a poor education. That said, since 1979, special Mauritania, they are sometimes referred to as assimilated
educational quotas have given the Hani bonus points in blacks. Haratines speak a variety of languages: in general,
national matriculation exams. Additionally, the entrance the Haratines speak Hassaniyya, which is a hybrid of Arabic
score for ethnic minority students wishing to enter tertiary and Berber, while in Mauritania, they speak Arabic, Wolof,
education is lower than for students from mainstream Soniké, and Pulaar. The Haratines adhere to Sunni Islam
backgrounds (Wang 2016). with which they combine elements of Sufism.
There is no consensus on the meaning of the term Hara-
Threats to Survival tine. Some sources suggest the term derives from an Ara-
bic words for freedom, farm worker, or plowman. Other
The Hani have experienced improvements to their health,
sources consider it to have evolved from a Berber word for
education, and agricultural output. However, the Hani
a dark-skinned person.
remain one of China’s poorest and least developed people,
and while their healthcare system has improved, it remains
inadequate. Population, Diaspora, and Migration
See also: Akha The Haratine population is estimated at 1,355,000. It is
Further Reading thought that around half of all Haratines live in de facto
Formoso, Bernard. 2005. “Hani.” In Encyclopedia of the World’s slavery (UNPO 2017). While some commentators clas-
Minorities, edited by Carl Skutsch, 546–547. New York: sify the Haratines as a social class, in Mauritania and
Routledge. Morocco, Haratines are considered a distinct ethnic group
Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Cen- (Fadiga-Stewart 2011). The Haratines make up around 40
tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
percent of the total population in both Mauritania and
Ni, Angela. 2011. “Meeting Rural Water and Sanitation Needs in
Yunnan, China.” Speaking of Medicine (blog), April 4. PLOS Morocco. Some Moroccan village populations are 80 per-
Blogs. https://blogs.plos.org/speakingofmedicine/2011/04​/04/​ cent Haratine (Fadiga-Stewart 2011). Haratines mainly
meet​ing-rural-water-and-sanitation-needs-in-yunnan​-china. live in Saharan oases in Mauritania and southern Morocco.
426 Haratine

Geography and Environment all French colonies, but these bans had little effect on the
Mauritania is located on Africa’s west coast. The country Haratines because the thousands of West African slaves
has a vast, empty landscape comprising mostly desert, arid that fled their masters after the 1906 law were returned to
plains, sandstone plateaus, and cliff-like ridges. Isolated their owners by French authorities (UNPO 2017). Those
peaks that are rich in minerals rise above the plateaus. One Haratines that remained slaves were given technical free-
of the country’s most notable landmarks is the Guelb er dom when Mauritania gained independence from France
Richat, a very wide, deeply eroded dome consisting of con- in 1960.
centric rings of sedimentary rock. Another prominent fea- In the postcolonial era, Mauritania witnessed increased
ture is Kediet ej Jill, near the city of Zouîrât. This mountain urbanization and population movement that broke down
contains such rich reserves of iron ore that its magnetic the slave system to a degree and caused some districts of
field prevents compasses from functioning in its vicinity. the country’s capital of Nouakchott to become a haven for
Since the mid-1960s, Mauritania has experienced escaped slaves. In 1974, the escaped slaves helped form
worsening desertification as a result of long-term, severe the emancipation movement El Hor (The Free), which
drought. Mauritania has also become increasingly urban argued that emancipation was impossible without the
as nomads, farmers, and Haratines move to cities. Fol- enforcement of antislavery laws. El Hor also argued that
lowing a Sahelian drought that lasted from 1968 to 1974, emancipated slaves needed support to gain their economic
many thousands of Haratines migrated from the desert to independence. To this end, El Hor called for land reform
Mauritania’s Atlantic port of Nouadhibou and its capital, and for help to establish Haratine agricultural cooper-
Nouakchott, because their masters could no longer sup- atives. El Hor’s demands brought the movement into
port them. confrontation with the Mauritanian government. Conse-
quently, by the start of the 1980s, many of El Hor’s leaders
had been detained, tortured, and exiled (Minority Rights
History and Politics Group International n.d.).
The majority of Haratines are descended from the Fulani, In 1980, Mohamed Khouna Ould Haidalla came to
Soniké, Bambara, and Wolof peoples that used to inhabit power in Mauritania after a military coup. The new gov-
Western Sahara. In the third century, many members of ernment began to undermine El Hor while appearing to
these groups fled south to the Senegal River area to escape satisfy the movement’s demands. This policy hampered
Berber settlers. Members of these communities that the creation of potential political links between various
remained in their homeland were enslaved by the Berbers black African opposition groups within Mauritania. Con-
and, later, by the Moors. It was under Moorish rule that the sequently, El Hor found their political power undermined.
Haratines converted to Islam. The Haratines also devel- In 2003, the Mauritanian government again moved to
oped a Moorish Arab ethnic identity and began to speak abolish slavery but again failed to enforce the ban. Fol-
Hassaniyya. From the eleventh century, the enslavement of lowing the 2007 elections, the government passed new
the Haratines greatly intensified, as during this time, Arab legislation criminalizing slavery in Mauritania. Antislav-
areas became more stable, which allowed slavery and caste ery campaigners welcomed the new law but stressed the
systems to become entrenched. In the seventeenth century, need for authorities to enforce the law for it to have any
the Haratines were made to serve in the ʿAbīd al-Bukhārī, effect. At the same time, Haratine activists suggested it was
the elite army of the Moroccan ruler Ismāʿīl. necessary for such issues as land reform and the ability of
By the time France colonized Mauritania in the early Haratines to be able to sue former masters be addressed
twentieth century, some Haratines had been freed from if true emancipation were to occur. In 2011, the first suc-
slavery under an Islamic law that states masters should cessful prosecution under the 2007 antislavery legislation
free slaves after five generations of slavery. Some Haratines occurred in a case involving the enslavement of two young
had also gained freedom through marriage. Under French children.
rule, there were few actual improvements to Haratine life, That same year, demonstrations led by the movement
despite the imposition of the 1901 Circulaire Ponty that Touche pas à ma nationalité (Don’t touch my national-
abolished the right of a master to pursue and recover a ity) erupted against a new government census to cate-
slave. In 1905, French colonial authorities abolished slavery gorize national identity documents. Critics argued the
in Mauritania. The following year, slavery was abolished in census increased racial discrimination and deprived black
 Haratine 427

Mauritanians, including the Haratines, of their citizenship.

Moreover, Haratines objected that the census recognized Biram Dah Abeid
only four ethnic groups within Mauritania—Moorish, Biram Dah Abeid is a Mauritanian human rights
Soninké, Fulani, and Wolof—and failed to mention the advocate, former slave, and president of the anti-
Haratines. Under pressure from human rights groups, in slavery nongovernmental organization Initiative
2015, the Mauritanian government adopted a stronger pour la Résurgence du Mouvement Abolitionniste
antislavery law that replaced the 2007 legislation. The new (IRA, Initiative for the Resurgence of the Aboli-
law denounced slavery as a crime against humanity and tionist Movement). In recent few years, Abeid has
increased the penalties for the crime of slavery. The law received numerous human rights awards, including
also defined in detail what constituted slavery, suggested the United Nations Human Rights Prize (2013) for
harsher penalties for officials that failed to investigate alle- his work on behalf of enslaved Haratines and the
gations of slavery, and allowed human rights groups to 2013 Front Line Award for Human Rights Defenders
press charges on behalf of slaves. at Risk for his work to change the culture regarding
slavery in Mauritania.
Abeid has repeatedly been imprisoned for his
Society, Culture, and Tradition antislavery protests and support of the Haratines.
Traditionally, male Haratines work in farming while In 2014, Abeid and several fellow activists were
women work in domestic slavery. In rural Mauritania, arrested while participating in abolitionist protests
masters own communities of Haratines that are perma- in Mauritania. He was subsequently charged with
nently on call for work whenever they are required. From membership of an unrecognized organization and
early childhood, Haratines work as camel and goat herders with participating in an unauthorized assembly.
and perform menial duties. The majority of Mauritania’s Later, he was held without bail. Despite international
domestic slaves are Haratine women and children. As slave calls for Abeid’s release, in 2015, he was sentenced to
status is matrilineal, female Haratine slaves tend to serve two years in prison. Abeid was released in 2016, only
the same families as their mothers and grandmothers. to be rearrested in August 2018 and then released in
Typically, Haratine slaves sleep and eat in the same part of December that year.
a household as their masters’ animals.
Haratine slaves in Mauritanian are not chained. Instead,
their slavery results from economic and psychological
dependence on their masters. Since the Haratines consider Mauritania was home to approximately 904 public and pri-
slave ownership to be endorsed by Islam, questioning vate healthcare facilities, including 25 hospitals, 634 health
Haratine slavery is considered synonymous with question- posts led by nurses, and 105 healthcare centers led by doc-
ing Islam. Additionally, some Haratine slaves believe that tors (WHO 2017). Infectious diseases such as HIV/AIDS,
slavery in this life will bring rewards in the afterlife. tuberculosis, and hepatitis B are particular problems, and
In Mauritania, women are considered minors, and cardiovascular diseases and diabetes are becoming serious
Haratine female slaves face greater difficulty in escaping public health issues. According to the World Health Organ-
servitude. As much of the country’s economy is informal, ization (WHO), 70 percent of females between ages fifteen
those Haratine female slaves who find employment are and forty-nine in Mauritania are at risk of experiencing
usually exploited and receive low pay. Typically, this work female genital cutting (FGC). Women from marginalized
involves trading at markets or opening a small shop. Poor groups who live in poverty and generally lack health care
Haratine women often leave their children with relatives to are deemed most at risk. Therefore, Haratine women are at
try to find domestic work in Nouakchott. particular risk of FGC (UNPO 2017).
Freed Haratines face discrimination is every sphere of
life, including health care and education. Although children
Health Care and Education in Mauritania are entitled by law to six years of compulsory
In Mauritania, health care is available to 33.6 percent of schooling, enslaved Haratines normally do not receive any
the population. There are 0.034 practicing physicians education and are usually illiterate. For this reason, many
and 0.7 midwives and nurses per 1,000 people. In 2015, freed Haratines are unable to find work. Haratine women’s
428 Haratine

lack of education means they are usually unable to prevent opened the National Solidarity Agency for the Fight
their children from being taken into slavery (UNPO 2017). against the Vestiges of Slavery, for Integration, and for
the Fight against Poverty, and in Nouakchott, slavery is
increasingly socially unacceptable. The Beydanes (or
Threats to Survival White Moors, Mauritania’s ruling elite) fear a change in
Mauritania is consistently ranked as “the worst place in Mauritania’s social order would accompany an end to
the world for slavery, with tens of thousands [of people] Haratine slavery and that, subsequently, they would have
trapped in servitude across the country” (Minority Rights to perform menial work themselves or pay appropri-
Group International n.d.). Although slavery is illegal, the ate wages for work carried out (Minority Rights Group
practice is sustained by the systematic marginalization of International n.d.).
the Haratines. The Mauritanian government does little to Some Haratines seek to increase Haratine politi-
protect the Haratines, leaving them exposed to exploita- cal power. As part of this effort, they have attempted
tion and discrimination. The situation is especially bad to gain allies among Mauritania’s sizable population
for Haratine women, who face twofold discrimination on of Afro-­ Mauritanians (black Muslims who are not
account of both their gender and ethnicity. enslaved) on the grounds that, like the Haratines, the
Haratine adults and children are bought and sold as Afro-­Mauritanians are discriminated against because of
slaves. The masters of their parents also enslave Haratine their dark skin. However, the two groups are not neces-
children. In most cases, Haratine women cannot choose sarily natural allies. Although Afro-Mauritanians struggle
their marriage partners, and some masters dispossess for equality in education, employment, and politics, they
Haratines of their ancestral property. Many Mauritanian scorn the Haratines because of their slave origins. The
Haratine slaves are isolated by a lack of education, illiter- Afro-Mauritanians also regard the Haratines with suspi-
acy, and economic dependency, meaning they do not con- cion because they are linked with the Beydanes, who, dur-
template a life outside slavery. ing the 1980s and 1990s, committed ethnic cleansing of
In 2014, the UN special rapporteur on contemporary the Afro-­Mauritanians and used Haratine soldiers to kill,
forms of racism noted that roughly 50 percent of Haratines torture, or deport them.
live as bonded laborers and domestic servants in de facto Meanwhile, the Haratines are suspicious of the Afro-­
slavery. Despite Mauritania’s adoption of a stringent anti- Mauritanians, who have a history of slave ownership
slavery law in 2015, as of 2018, only two people have been themselves and ally with the Beydanes on occasion. There
convicted under this law, and the “sentences passed down is continuing frustration among Haratine activists that the
by the Special Court were extremely lenient” (Minority Haratines share a language and culture with their masters
Rights Group International n.d.). and that some Haratines are reluctant to reject their link to
Haratines, whether emancipated or slaves, face con- the ruling class.
tinuing discrimination and marginalization throughout
Mauritania. Mauritanian authorities continue to repress See also: Berber; Burakumin; Fulani; Muhamasheen;
civil rights groups, especially the antislavery organiza- Saharawi
tion IRA-Mauritania (officially Initiative pour la Resur- Further Reading
gence du mouvement Abolitioniste, or the Initiative for Fadiga-Stewart, Leslie. 2011. “Haratine.” In Slavery in the Modern
the Resurgence of the Abolitionist Movement), whose World: A History of Political, Social, and Economic Oppres-
activists are detained and intimidated (Minority Rights sion, edited by Junius P. Rodriguez, 300–303. Vol. 1. Santa
Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Group International n.d.). To force the Mauritanian gov-
Heath, Elizabeth. 2010. “Haratine.” In Encyclopedia of Africa,
ernment to end Haratine slavery and imprison slave own- edited by Anthony Kwame Appiah and Henry Louis Gates Jr.,
ers, IRA-­Mauritania members hold sit-ins in front of the 549. Vol. 1. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
country’s ministerial buildings, stage hunger strikes, and Minority Rights Group International. n.d. “Mauritania: Hara-
hold marches in urban areas. In 2015, IRA-Mauritania was tines.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples.
awarded the Human Rights Tulip, an annual prize awarded http://minorityrights.org/minorities/haratin.
Okeowo, Alexis. 2014. “Freedom Fighter.” The New Yorker, Sep-
by the Dutch ministry of Foreign Affairs to those who pro-
tember 8. https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/09​/08​
mote and support human rights in innovative ways. /freedom-fighter.
The Mauritanian government has begun to acknowl- Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO). 2017.
edge the effects of slavery. In 2013, the government “Member Profile: Haratin: Initiative for the Resurgence of the
 Hausa 429

Abolitionist Movement (IRA-Mauritania).” http://unpo.org and its tributaries before stretching into Niger and Benin.
​/downloads/2342.pdf. Hausaland is located just south of the Sahara Desert and
World Health Organization (WHO). 2017. “Country Coop- has a landscape consisting mainly of dry savannah with
eration Strategy of the World Health Organization with
Mauritania 2018–2022.” http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream​
fertile land found alongside rivers.
/handle ​ / 10665/259896/9789290234012-eng.pdf;jsession​ An area inhabited by the Hausa in Nigeria and Niger
id=078ED7EA4CA63EE0B3687F74E349EFA1?sequence=1. is called Kasan Hausawa (Lower Hausaland) or Arewa
(meaning “northern” in Hausa). Arewa stretches across
multiple adjacent provinces of Nigeria and Niger. Much of
the Hausa homeland is prone to drought.

HAUSA History and Politics

Current Location West Africa The Hausa are one of sub-Saharan Africa’s oldest popu-
Current Population 40 million–50 million lations. According to Hausa folklore, the Hausa migrated
Language Hausa; English from the northwest in ancient time before settling along
Interesting Fact The Hausa flag features five horizon-
the tributaries of the Niger River, where the Hausa estab-
tal stripes of red, yellow, blue, green, lished an advanced civilization that, unusually for a
and brown. sub-Saharan civilization, was predominantly urban.
During the period of the 900s to 1200 CE, the Hausa
Bakwai kingdoms (the seven kingdoms of Biram, Daura,
Overview
Gobir, Kano, Katsina, Rano, and Zaria that are some-
The Hausa are an indigenous ethnic group that lives times described as the true Hausa states) united. Before
throughout West Africa, most especially in Nigeria. They the unification, the seven Hausa states along with their
consist of seven subethnic groups unified by the Hausa seven Banza Bakwai, or outlying satellites (Zamfara,
language, which belongs to the West Chadic group of Kebbi, Yauri, Gwari, Nupe, Kororofa, and Yoruba), lacked
the Afro-Asiatic family. Many Hausa also speak English a central authority, did not unite in wars of conquest, and
because it is the official language of Nigeria, where many were frequently subjected to invasion by outsiders. Over
Hausa live. The majority of Hausa are strict Sunni Muslims, time, Hausa land became the southern end of the trans-­
but some Hausa living in remote areas practice Maguzawa, Saharan trade routes that enabled the Hausa to trade with
the people’s traditional religion. North Africa. In the 1300s, Arab traders arrived in Hausa
areas and introduced Islam. By the end of the century the
Hausa were one of Africa’s major trading powers, export-
Population, Diaspora, and Migration ing slaves, leather, gold, fabric, salt, kola nuts, animal skins,
The Hausa are one of the most populous West African eth- and henna.
nic groups, with the total Hausa population estimated at In the seventeenth century, the Fulani began to move
between forty million and fifty million people (Minahan into Hausa areas. The Fulani refused to pay tribute to the
2016). Most Hausa live in northern Nigeria, but there are Hausa, and in 1801, they overran the Hausa in Sokoto as
also large Hausa communities in Niger, Ghana, and Benin. part of a jihad led by Uthman dan Fodio. The Fulani cre-
Smaller numbers of Hausa live in Togo, Burkina Faso, ated many sultanates on Hausa land and enforced Islam on
Cameroon, Ghana, and Sudan. those Hausa that were not yet Muslim. At the same time,
Hausa ethnic groups extend across the ancient states however, the Fulani adopted the Hausa language and many
of Kano, Gobir, Zaria, Biram, Katsina, Daura, and Rano. aspects of Hausa culture. In time, the Fulani and Hausa
There is also a significant Hausa diaspora living in the intermingled and intermarried to such an extent that the
United Kingdom and the United States. word Hausa came to describe both the original Hausa
people and the Fulani aristocracy that had adopted Hausa
ways. Some Hausa did not enjoy living with the pastoral
Geography and Environment Fulani, who they considered unsophisticated. In response
The Hausa homeland, Hausaland, extends across West to life under the Fulani, these Hausa migrated west and
Africa’s upland plains that are drained by the Niger River north.
430 Hausa

The Hausa village of Bkonni near Tahoua, Niger. While most Hausa today live in the countryside or small towns, they also have a long
tradition of residing in cities like Kano and Sokoto in Nigeria. (Sergey Mayorov/Dreamstime.com)

By the 1880s, Hausa dominance in West Africa started the southern Christian Nigerians preferential treatment.
to wane for three main reasons: the decline in the slave In 1953, a wave of Hausa nationalism arose amid a general
trade, changing politics, and the arrival of European colo- African anticolonial movement. Subsequently, Hausa lead-
nial powers. In 1885, Britain took control of southern ers threatened to secede from Nigeria.
Hausa states, and France took over the northern states in In 1960, newly independent Nigeria was presided over
1899. British authorities admired the Hausa and so ruled by a Hausa-dominated government opposed by southern
them indirectly. This allowed the Hausa to maintain their Nigerian Christians. In 1966, however, a coup overthrew
feudal traditions and social structure (Minahan 2002). the Hausa government, and an Igbo regime was installed.
In 1914, Northern Nigeria was united with the Southern Consequently, the Hausa sought secession from Nigeria
Protectorate of Nigeria, thereby creating the Nigeria colony. because they resented being dominated by the Igbo, a tribe
While Christian tribes in southern Nigeria modernized they had once enslaved. Ultimately, however, the Hausa
quickly, possibly because they had received a missionary were persuaded to remain part of Nigeria through the
education, the Hausa maintained their feudal ways. Soon creation of a federation consisting of three autonomous
educated southern Nigerians began to move to the north, regions.
where they filled colonial administrative roles spurned by In the 1980s, Muslim fundamentalism took hold among
the proud and largely uneducated Hausa, a situation that the Hausa and reignited Hausa nationalism. This combina-
created economic, ethnic, and regional tensions. During tion of religious fundamentalism and nationalism resulted
the 1950s, the Muslim north of Nigeria made efforts to in periodic outbreaks of ethnoreligious violence across
catch up with the south in terms of modernization, but Hausaland. In 1999, a Hausa-dominated state adopted
they found that they were already decades behind the strict Islamic sharia law, thereby setting off ethnoreligious
south. The Hausa became resentful at the economic dis- conflict that continued into 2000. The violence left hun-
parity between north and south Nigeria, and Hausa leaders dreds of people dead and thousands of Christians seeking
began to complain that British colonial authorities showed refuge in the south and in police compounds.
 Hausa 431

In 2011, southern Nigerians again dominated the Nige- especially those in rural areas, believe in witchcraft and
rian government. In response, a growing number of Hausa sorcery.
sought the creation of the Arewa Republic (the Islamic
Republic of Arewa or the Islamic Republic of North-
ern Nigeria), an independent Hausa state. This demand Health Care and Education
for change came amid a volatile backdrop of increasing Nigeria has too few nurses, midwives, and doctors to
nationalism, resentment at perceived Hausa marginaliza- deliver health care to its growing population. Major health
tion, and the growing influence of Islam in the region. concerns for Nigeria’s population include malaria, HIV/
AIDS, tuberculosis, and high birth rates. At present, there
are several schemes in place to tackle these issues by pro-
Society, Culture, and Tradition viding family planning and reproductive health advice,
Today, most Hausa live in rural locations or in small immunization programs, polio and malaria prevention
towns. They also have a long tradition of inhabiting cities, schemes, and maternal health care.
including the Nigerian cities of Kano and Sokoto. Hausa Yankan gishiri is a Hausa health tradition that involves a
society is highly stratified, with social divisions based on cut being made in either the anterior or posterior wall of a
people’s jobs, wealth, client-patron relationship, birth, and pregnant woman’s vagina by a folk midwife (or even a bar-
so on. The Hausa are organized into patrilineal clans that ber) using a penknife, razor blade, or shard of glass. If the
practice exogamy (members must marry outside of their midwife cannot see an obvious vaginal obstruction that is
clan). Hausa men are allowed to have more than one wife, causing a labor to be prolonged, she will insert an imple-
with the basic Hausa family unit involving a compound ment into the woman’s vagina and then cut the wall of the
inhabited by an extended family. It is typical for Islamic vagina randomly to ease the birth. Fear of undergoing yan-
Hausa households to practice gender segregation. Women kan gishiri is one of the main reasons Hausa women are
are expected to cover their heads and are restricted to parts reluctant to go to hospital when in labor. Although trained
of the compound that only a husband may enter. Muslim physicians do not normally perform yankan gishiri, preg-
Hausa women can be stoned to death if found guilty of nant women know that a practitioner may be called in by
adultery, and men who commit adultery with another a hospital to perform the procedure if a labor is deemed
man’s wife are flogged or beheaded in public (Badru 2011). prolonged. Women that experience yankan gishiri often
The Hausa language is the lingua franca of West Africa. give birth to stillborn babies.
The language is divided into three main dialects: North- Apart from the psychological trauma of undergoing
ern Hausa, Eastern Hausa, and Western Hausa. There are yankan gishiri, women also suffer a range of physiological
also numerous Hausa subdialects. Hausa dialects and consequences from the procedure. These include exhaus-
subdialects contain many Arabic influences as a result tion and uncontrollable urinary and fecal incontinence. If
of the people’s Muslim faith. Almost all Hausa are Sunni a woman develops a obstetric fistula (a hole between the
Muslim, though many include pre-Islamic traditions and vagina and rectum or bladder), she is likely to be accused
rites with Islam. Islam governs Hausa daily life, and the by her husband of suffering from a sexually transmitted
people pray five times per day (Minahan 2002). Hausa disease brought about by having committed adultery (Wil-
who are not Muslim follow the traditional Maguzawa reli- liams 2017).
gion. Maguzawa revolves around the worship of numerous Traditionally, Hausa areas lag behind Christian areas
spirits called boki or iskoki (singular iska) that inhabit the of Nigeria, where there is a history of missionary educa-
landscape, sky, water, cities, trees, and the like. The huge tion. Millions of children in Hausa areas have received no
influence of Islam on the Hausa has diluted the original mainstream education, but they have attended Koranic
meaning of the Maguzawa spirits, so they are now identi- schools. Today, there is a growing belief that children
fied as al-jannu (singular jinn) or by the Westernized term need to receive a broader education. To this end, some
genie. The iskoki are divided into two main categories: children in northern Nigeria go to schools where they are
the white iskoki who are considered good and the black taught prayers, math, Hausa, English, and social sciences.
iskoki who are bad. Followers of Maguzawa believe iskoki Some pupils finish secondary school and then continue
can be summoned by playing certain drumbeats and then to tertiary education. This change of attitude to education
they reveal themselves via chosen humans. Many Hausa, comes in the face of the advent of the extremist group
432 Hazara

Boko Haram, whose name translates from Hausa as “West- the Hazarah, Hezareh, Kewari, and Berberi, among other
ern education is forbidden.” Boko Haram has killed thou- names. The Hazaras speak a Persian language called Haz-
sands of people in recent years during a brutal campaign aragi that is closely related to Dari Persian and borrows
of violence and kidnappings. words from Turkic and Mongol languages. Many Hazaras
also speak Dari. Most Hazaras follow a type of Shia Islam
known as Twelver, though many are followers of the Ismaili
Threats to Survival sect. There are a small number of Sunni Muslim Hazaras.
The Hausa live in an area rife with volatile ethnoreligious
tension exacerbated by nationalism and political segrega-
tion. In Nigeria, rivalry between the Igbo and Hausa con- Population, Diaspora, and Migration
tinues to simmer, with non-Hausa peoples resentful of the A lack of census information on the Hazaras means that it
Hausa’s previous political and religious dominance. The is very difficult to give population figures for them. How-
presence of sharia law has influenced twenty-first century ever, estimates put the Hazara population at between 2.7
Hausa nationalism and makes a Hausa reconciliation or million (Minority Rights Group International 2015) and
compromise with neighboring peoples increasingly unlikely. over 8 million (Minahan 2014). Before the nineteenth cen-
See also: Fulani; Igbo; Tiv tury began, the Hazaras made up 67 percent of Afghani-
stan’s total population, making them the country’s largest
Further Reading
ethnic group. Today, however, the Hazaras are thought to
Badru, Pade. 2011. “Hausa.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and the
Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup, 116– make up between 10 percent and 20 percent of Afghani-
120. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. stan’s people (Minahan 2014).
Lebling, Robert. 2010. Legends of the Fire Spirits: Jinn and Genies Most Hazaras live in Afghanistan’s Hazarajat region
from Arabia to Zanzibar. London: I.B. Tauris & Co. (also known as Hazarestan, meaning “land of the Hazara”)
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth- around the town of Bamiyan in central Afghanistan. Other
nic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 2, D–K. West-
Hazaras live in the Paropamisus and Badakhshan Moun-
port, CT: Greenwood Press.
Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth- tains. There are also Hazara communities in the Jauzjan
nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa Bar- and Badghis provinces of western Turkestan (an area of
bara, CA: Greenwood. Central Asia positioned between Siberia, Tibet, India,
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the Afghanistan, the Caspian Sea, and the Gobi Desert). A
World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA: small number of Hazaras who follow the Ismaili faith live
ABC-CLIO.
in the Hindu Kush mountains. Recently, conflict has forced
many Hazaras away from their traditional territory to live
on the fringes of their homeland, close to Iran and Paki-
stan. In eastern Iran, Hazara communities can be found in
Khorasan province, and in Pakistan, they live in the border
HAZARA city of Quetta. Small groups of Hazaras can also be found
Current Location Afghanistan; Pakistan; Iran; in Tajikistan, Turkey, Australia, New Zealand, and through-
elsewhere out the European Union and North America.
Current Population 2.7 million–over 8 million
Language Hazaragi; Dari
Geography and Environment
Interesting Fact Around 80 percent of girls in Haz-
Hazarajat lies in the central highlands of Afghanistan
arajat go to school, compared to 10
percent of girls in other parts of
between the Koh-i Baba Mountains and the western end
Afghanistan. of the Hindu Kush. Hazarajat is mountainous and features
many mountain passes, some of which are blocked by
snow for many months each year. Many rivers rise in Haza-
Overview rajat, including those that run through Helmand, Harirud,
The Hazaras are a people of mixed Mongol and Turkic Kabul, Morghab, and Panjab. During spring and summer
origins indigenous to Afghanistan. They are also called months, Hazarajat is home to green pastures, but winters
 Hazara 433

can be very severe. The area is also characterized by lakes, the two Anglo-Afghan Wars (1839–1842 and 1878–1979).
valleys, and caves. During the reign of Abdur Rahman, the Emir of Afghani-
stan (r. 1880–1890), the Hazaras were classified as infidels,
and as such, they could be killed or enslaved with impunity.
History and Politics Eventually, a jihad broke out that saw government forces
The Hazaras’ early history is unknown. Many Hazaras attack the Hazaras. Many thousands of Hazaras were mur-
believe they are descended from the Mongol soldiers of dered in the fighting, and a failed Hazara uprising on 1893
Genghis Khan and slave women kept in a garrison in cen- resulted in the mass killing and enslavement of entire Haz-
tral Afghanistan during the siege of Bamiyan in the thir- ara districts. To escape the bloodshed and enslavement,
teenth century. However, other theories propose that the many Hazaras fled to land ruled by the British or Persians.
people descend from the subjects of the Kushan Empire, The Pashtun people enslaved some Hazara refugees, and
who built the famous statues of Buddha carved into the even though slavery was outlawed in Afghanistan in 1919,
cliff sides at Bamiyan. Most researchers, however, believe the Pashtun kept some Hazaras as slaves until after World
that the Hazaras descend from ancient Mongols and Turks. War II.
The first written mention of the Hazaras appears in After World War II, the Hazaras were subjected to reli-
a chronicle by Barbur (1483–1530), the founder of the gious persecution, harassment, and economic deprivation
Mughal dynasty on the Indian subcontinent. Other reports by various neighboring peoples. As a result of this mis-
of the Hazaras appear in sixteenth-century reports writ- treatment and discrimination, Hazara nationalism grew
ten by the court officials of the Safavid ruler Shah Abbas. throughout the 1960s and 1970s, as the people aimed to
At some point, the Hazaras converted to Shia Islam. The win economic and cultural parity with other peoples living
exact date of this conversion is unknown but most likely in Afghanistan. The famous Buddhas of Bamiyan statues
occurred under Mongol rule in the fourteenth century. came to symbolize the Hazaras’ fight for equality. In 1973,
Some researchers, however, suggest the Hazaras converted the Afghan monarchy was ousted, and then a violent coup
during the sixteenth century, when they were heavily occurred in 1978 that resulted in a communist regime tak-
influenced by Shia Persian Safavids. ing power in Afghanistan. The following year, Soviet forces
Over time, the Hazaras garnered a reputation for being invaded Afghanistan to shore up the communist govern-
fierce warriors who expelled invaders that entered their ment. This invasion split the Afghan society because some
land from the east and west. In 1737, Nader Shah, the Shia of the country’s indigenous groups fought against the Sovi-
Muslim Persian leader, took control of the Hazara home- ets while others sided with them. At the same time, many
land and supported the fellow Shia Muslim Hazaras against of the ethnic groups fought among themselves as well as
neighboring Sunni Muslim groups, such as the Pashtun, for or against the Soviets.
who regarded the Hazaras as heretics. Subsequently, the During the fighting, the Hazaras managed to free some
Hazara region of Hazarajat region was annexed to the land of their land, and in 1980s, the Afghan government allowed
controlled by the Pashtun ruler Ahmad Shah Durrani. them to govern themselves in highland communities in
When Shah Durrani died in 1773, the Pashtun-influenced exchange for not attacking government or Soviet forces.
Afghan Empire governed land that stretched from eastern In 1982, the new fundamentalist Islamic regime of Iran
Iran to parts of India and Pakistan. In the eighteenth and began to interfere in Hazara politics, pitting Hazara groups
nineteenth centuries, the growing influence of the Pash- against each other. Many thousands of Hazaras died as a
tun increased discrimination against the Shia Hazaras, result of the ensuing internal conflict that became known
who were forced off fertile lowland areas of the Afghan as the Hazar-Afghan War. The fighting devastated life in
Empire and exiled to the infertile highlands of the Haza- Hazarajat and left tens of thousands of Hazaras displaced
rajat Mountains. (Minahan 2014).
At the start of the nineteenth century, Europeans Soviet forces departed Afghanistan in 1989, leaving
and Persians became interested in Hazara land. In 1809, behind a country deeply riven by ethnic and religious
an Afghan ruler agreed to allow the British to help him divides. Thousands of Hazaras migrated to Iran and Paki-
against the intruding Persians and Russians. However, the stan and subsequently were unable to return to their
Hazaras did not cede their land to either the Afghanistan or homeland because of continuing hostilities. Then, in the
the British. They fought to maintain their territory during mid-1990s, the Sunni Islamic fundamentalist Taliban
434 Hazara

regime (consisting of mainly ethnic Pashtuns) took con- in Quetta, where they are persecuted as both heretics and
trol of almost all of Afghanistan, including Hazarajat. The as an ethnic minority, facing bombings, arson attacks, and
Taliban enforced Sunni Islam on the Hazara—forcing men other assaults that have, in the main, been ignored by the
to grow beards, secluding women, and banning entertain- Pakistani government (Minahan 2014).
ment, including sports, television, and music. Deemed
religious heretics by the Taliban, the Hazaras were espe-
cially targeted by the new regime, forcing many thousands Society, Culture, and Tradition
of Hazaras to move to camps in Iran and Pakistan. Haz- The Hazaras are set apart from their neighbors by their
ara women especially suffered under the Taliban, as they religion, mixed heritage, customs, and traditions. At the
banned from accessing education and health care and same time, however, the Hazaras share cultural elements
from working. The women were also made to abandon with the Persians, Mongol peoples, and various ethnic
their traditional costume of brightly colored floral dresses, groups of Central Asia.
felt boots, and beaded headdresses and forced to adopt the Traditionally, the Hazara only married within their
burka. population, shunning outsiders and wedding their first
In 1995, the Taliban announced their intention to exter- cousins. In general, Hazara society favors the nuclear fam-
minate all Hazaras, and Taliban supporters were urged to ily, with husbands considered the head of the family. When
kill any Hazaras they found, as this would not be consid- a husband dies, however, his wife or the eldest woman of
ered murder because the Hazaras were classed as heretics the family becomes the head of the family. If a Hazara mar-
(Minahan 2014). As the Taliban proceeded to take control riage is polygamous, the oldest wife succeeds the deceased
of most of Afghanistan, Hazaras were frequently massa- husband until the family’s eldest son reaches maturity.
cred, and there were also reports of Hazara women being Around one-third of Hazaras are pastoralists, and oth-
raped. The Taliban also decided to destroy the Buddhas ers are seminomadic, taking their herds of sheep from
of Bamiyan on the pretext that the statues went against lower lands to highlands that are treeless and therefore
Islamic teaching by depicting human likenesses. The stat- make good pastureland. Hazara herders pitch camp in
ues’ destruction was condemned both by the Hazara and yurts (circular tents made from horsehair). Other Haz-
the international community. aras live sedentary lives in fortified villages of flat-roofed
The downfall of the Taliban government in 2001 follow- houses constructed from stone or mud. The villages are
ing bombardments in response to the 9/11 terrorist attacks usually built overlooking narrow valleys in which the peo-
ended the worst abuses against the Hazaras. By this time, ple farm rotating crops of barley, wheat, beans, vegetables,
however, much of Hazarajat was in ruins. The area’s econ- and fruits, including cucumbers. There are also some Haz-
omy had been devastated, and opium poppies were the ara that earn an income from trade. Where poverty and
only crop that would grow in the region’s ruined valleys. discrimination have forced the Hazara people to leave
Despite the poverty of Hazara areas and the people’s highland areas, the people often go to work in the Afghan
general lack of human rights, many Hazaras have risen to capital of Kabul as day laborers. The Hazaras’ willingness
prominence in the emerging Afghan democracy. Today, to accept unskilled work has given the people a reputation
many Hazara activists focus on the plight of Hazaras living for being hard-working. However, at the same time, the

The Buddhas of Bamiyan

The Buddhas of Bamiyan were sixth-century statues of the Buddha that were carved into a cliffside in the Bamiyan
valley in Afghanistan’s Hazarajat region. In 2001, the statues were destroyed by the Taliban after they denounced
them as pre-Islamic idols. In 2003, UNESCO declared the Bamiyan valley a World Heritage Site. The Buddhas’ recon-
struction has been mooted, but the reconstruction would cost millions of dollars that Afghanistan cannot afford.
Additionally, some experts argue there are too few original pieces of the statues available with which to authentically
recreate the statues.
 Hazara 435

Hazara are regarded as having a low social status, which

leads to increasing levels of prejudice against them. Jalila Haider
The Hazaras are famous for their music, poetry, and Jalila Haider is a human rights attorney and founder
proverbs. Hazara poetry and music are usually based on of We the Humans–Pakistan, a nonprofit organiza-
folklore that has been passed down orally through the gen- tion that works to improve the lives of vulnerable
erations. Hazaras often memorize poems and recite them women and children. Haider specializes in defend-
to children, who then learn the poems. ing women’s rights and provides free counseling and
Most Hazaras follow the Imami branch of Shia Islam legal services to poor women on matters that include
that is known in English as Twelver. This Shia sect believes extrajudicial killings, domestic violence, sexual
that a succession of a dozen imams led Islam after the harassment, and property law. Haider was the first
death of the Prophet Mohammed, beginning with ʿAlī female Hazara attorney, and she was recently named
ibn Abī T.ālib, the Prophet’s son-in-law. Other Hazaras are on the News Women Power 50 list of Pakistan’s most
Ismaili. Despite the Hazaras’ adherence to various forms influential women. In 2014, Haider was chosen as an
of Islam, the people continue to hold unorthodox beliefs. Atlantic Council Emerging Leaders of Pakistan Fel-
These include a fear of the evil eye and superstitions sur- low. In 2016, she became a Swedish Institute Young
rounding various animals. Hazaras also believe in ghosts Connectors of the Future Fellow.
and in the existence of a parallel spirit world. Haider is a member of the Faiz Foundation,
which promotes peace through cultural unity, and
Health Care and Education an active member of the Baluchistan Youth Forum,
There is a general lack of healthcare facilities in Hazara- which works with the Center for Research and
jat, as the area was deliberately kept undeveloped, with no Security Studies to promote secularism, civil order,
roads, hospitals, clinics, or schools. and social harmony in Baluchistan and elsewhere.
Many Hazaras are illiterate, but in recent years, the Haider is also a member of the National Commis-
Hazaras have worked hard to rectify this situation by mak- sion of Justice and Peace, which strives to enact laws
ing education more accessible (Minahan 2014). Until the for minorities within Pakistan. In recognition of
1980s, those Hazaras who went to school were taught in her work, Haider’s community nominated her as an
Persian or Arabic, but a movement has recently begun that independent election candidate for Pakistan’s 2013
aims to increase teaching in Hazaragi and to make it the general election. In 2018, Haider led a mass hunger
language of literacy. strike lasting several months to protest the targeted
Hazara families are increasingly keen to educate their killings of the Hazara.
daughters. UN officials report that since the collapse of the Haider can be followed on Twitter at @Advjalila.
Taliban, aid agencies have hurried to build schools in Haz-
ara areas and have succeeded in attracting qualified female
teachers for the Hazara girls (Minority Rights Group Inter- Hazaras fear the rising power of local warlords, who may
national 2015). As a result, around 80 percent of girls in pose a direct threat to the security of Hazara communi-
Hazarajat go to school, compared to only 10 percent of ties. Increasing levels of ethnic tensions between Hazaras
girls in other parts of Afghanistan. and nomadic Kuchis over land rights also threaten these
communities.
Threats to Survival See also: Aimaq; Baluch; Pashtun
Since the overthrow of the Taliban, life for the Hazaras in Further Reading
Afghanistan has significantly improved. Hazaras are rec- Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East and Cen-
ognized as an ethnic minority in the Afghan constitution tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Afghanistan: Haz-
and are entitled to full Afghan citizenship. While only
aras.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples,
two Hazaras won seats in Hamid Karzai’s initial Afghan June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/hazaras.
cabinet, in the most recent Afghan parliamentary elec- Stokes, Jamie. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the
tion, Hazaras won 25 percent of the seats. Nonetheless, Middle East. New York: Facts on File.
Hazaras still face prejudice in many parts of Afghanistan.
436 Hezhe

HEZHE in the region. Some parts of the ecoregion’s temperate for-

ests are home to endangered tigers and Amur leopards as
Current Location China; Russia well as bears and deer.
Current Population 5,000 The Sungari River lies in the Heilongjiang and Jilin
Language Mandarin Chinese; Hezhe provinces in northeast China. The Sungari is the largest of
Interesting Fact A policy of genocide by the Japanese
the tributaries of the Amur River. It joins the Amur River
reduced the Hezhe population by up below the Chinese town of Tongjiang, some distance north
to 90 percent. of Khabarovskin, in far eastern Russia. The Sungari rises
in the Changbai Mountains on the border between Jilin
and North Korea. The river’s upper course flows north
Overview
before flowing out onto the Northeast Plain north of Jilin.
The Hezhe (also sometimes called the Nanai, Nani, Sam- At Fengman, the river is dammed as part of a massive
agir, or Yupibu, among other names) live on the border of hydroelectric project. The Sungari is frozen from Novem-
China and Russia. Most Hezhe in China speak Mandarin ber until March and reaches its maximum flow during
Chinese as their first language, while those living in Siberia the summer. The thawing of mountain snow from May
speak Russian. However, some also speak the Hezhe lan- together with summer rains until August means that the
guage. The majority of the Hezhe adhere to Tibetan Bud- river frequently floods, sometimes with devastating con-
dhism, with which they combine many of their traditional sequences. The Sungari is an important waterway that is
shamanistic rituals. In Russia, the people are called the navigable by steamships upstream as far as Harbin.
Nanai, while in China they are called the Hezhe. Yakutia, also called Sakha or Yakut-Sakha, is an auton-
omous republic of far northeast Russia located in north-
Population, Diaspora, and Migration east Siberia. The republic comprises the basins of the
The Hezhe are one of China’s smallest officially recognized Lena, Yana, Indigirka, and Kolyma Rivers that flow into
ethnic groups. Their population is estimated at around the Arctic Ocean. The republic also includes the New Sibe-
five thousand people. The Hezhe live in Manchuria, China, rian Islands archipelago situated between the Laptev and
and beside the Amur River in eastern Siberia, where they East Siberian Seas. The New Siberian Islands lie north of
reside mainly in the Amur Oblast, Khabarovsk Kraj, and eastern Siberia in the Arctic Ocean. The islands divide the
the Yakutia Autonomous Republic (also called the Sakha Laptev Sea to the west from the East Siberian Sea to the
Republic). More specifically, most Hezhe live alongside the east. The Dmitry Laptev Strait separates the New Siberian
Sungari (or Songhua) River, the largest tributary of the Islands from mainland Siberia.
Amur River. Chemical pollution of the Amur River has seriously
affected the Hezhe who live along the river. In 2005, an
accident at a chemical factory released toxic benzene and
Geography and Environment nitrobenzene into the Songhua River in China, which in
The Amur River is the longest river in the Far East, only turn polluted the Amur River in Russia. The pollution
ranking behind the Yangtze and Huang Ho (Yellow River) was so serious that fishing in the river water was banned
among the longest rivers in China. The headwaters of the for a time. Forest fires have also reduced the forest cover
Amur River rise in mountains located in Siberia, Mongo- around the Amur River. This deforestation has resulted in
lia, and China’s Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. The a change in the climate and hydrological patterns of the
main river flows east and southeast to form most of the Amur River area, and it has also greatly reduced the num-
border between China’s Heilongjiang province and south- ber of ­forest-dwelling game animals in the vicinity. The
east Siberia. At the Russian city of Khabarovsk, the river loss of game animals has hampered the Hezhe’s ability to
heads northeast before emptying into the Pacific Ocean. gather food (Korshunova et al. 2013).
The Amur River travels through an area called the
Amur-Heilong ecoregion. This region includes huge areas
of grassland, unbroken taiga biome (snow forest), and History and Politics
some of the world’s best-preserved temperate forests. Wild Little is known of the Hezhe’s origins. It is thought that they
ginseng, long treasured for its medicinal uses, also grows are partly descended from the Sushi (or Sushen), who are
 Hezhe 437

mentioned in Chinese chronicles written during the sec- Hezhe settlements located in Manchuria experienced
ond and first centuries BCE as living along the Amur River. intense territorial pressure once the Han Chinese were
In common with other Tungusic peoples, the Sushi were allowed to settle in Manchuria after 1878. Traditionally
regarded as vassals of the Chinese Empire. Consequently, living in isolated, scattered settlements at a distance
the Sushi paid taxes and tributes to the Chinese authorities from neighboring peoples, the Hezhe suddenly found
but did not live under their direct rule. Later, the nomadic themselves living amid millions of ethnic Chinese, who
Nuzhen tribe of Tatar horsemen rampaged through the flooded into Hezhe land, often displacing the Hezhe
northern boundaries of the Chinese Empire. The Hezhe and other indigenous peoples. In so doing, the Chinese
trace their direct origins to the Nuzhen. The Nuzhen first appropriated the most fertile farmland and fishing
came under direct Chinese rule in the seventh century CE areas.
during the Tang dynasty. Soon the Hezhe came under the Throughout the first decades of the twentieth century,
control of the Manchu state of Balhae. In 926, the Hezhe many Hezhe assimilated into Chinese and Manchu cul-
were overrun by the Khitans, members of a Mongol people ture. In 1931, Japanese soldiers overran Manchuria and
that ruled Manchuria and parts of north China. tool control of the area, thereby igniting a protracted war
The Hezhe clans living to the south (the Nanai) remained between China and Japan. Japanese rule over the Hezhe
closely affiliated with a nearby Tungusic Manchu people, was brutal in the extreme. The Japanese adopted a pol-
then called the Jurchen. During the seventeenth century, icy of anti-Hezhe genocide that saw the Hezhe herded
the Manchu headed south to overrun the Chinese Empire into Japanese concentration camps. The genocidal policy,
and reign as the Qing dynasty. The Hezhe were then incor- together with food shortages, the loss of their traditional
porated into the Manchu military “eight banner” system hunting and fishing grounds, and opium addiction, took a
(Qing military divisions into which all Manchu house- massive toll on the Hezhe population. According to some
holds were placed) alongside other Tungusic peoples. Chinese estimates, between 80 percent and 90 percent of
The Qing allowed Hezhe chiefs administrative powers. the Hezhe died under Japanese rule. Certainly, only around
However, the Hezhe chiefs used their power to exploit the three hundred Hezhe survived the Japanese concentration
Hezhe poor, thereby creating a feudal society split between camps (Minahan 2014).
a ruling elite and peasants. The Qing dynasty prevented Post–World War II, the Chinese Civil War (1927–1950)
ethnic Han Chinese from settling in Manchuria. Instead, revived, resulting in a communist victory. The Chinese
only the Manchu, Hezhe, and other Tungusic peoples from communists encouraged ethnic minority culture and
the region were permitted to stay there and maintain their helped to resettle Hezhe that had survived Japanese rule.
separate languages and cultures. Gradually, the Hezhe recovered from Japanese genocide,
In the 1640s, Russian Cossacks began to explore the and their population has increased.
Amur River region. The terms of the 1689 Treaty of Ner- During the 1960s and 1970s, the communists encour-
chinsk, signed by the Russian and Chinese, established aged Hezhe agriculture, and many Hezhe were resettled
that the Hezhe belonged to China and the related people on collective farms. During the twenty-first century, the
later called the Nanai belonged to Russia. Qing adminis- Hezhe became one of China’s officially recognized ethnic
trators tried to impose their authority on the Hezhe by tax- minorities. This status permitted the Hezhe certain ben-
ing Hezhe villages. However, this tactic proved successful efits, including the right to produce more children than
only in areas where Chinese farmers lived among Hezhe their Han Chinese neighbors.
villagers.
At the start of the nineteenth century, the Manchu
dynasty began to wane. The loss of Manchu authority Society, Culture, and Tradition
prompted the Russians to return to the Amur region. The Hezhe culture is a Tungusic culture related to that of the
Russians began to trade with the local peoples and then Manchu living in the same region. Similarly, the Hezhe
settled in the area to the north of the Chinese border. language is a Tungusic language belonging to the southern
Subsequently, the Amur and Ussur regions, long held by Nanai language group. Traditional Hezhe culture focuses
the Chinese, were incorporated into the growing Russian on river fishing, for most Hezhe villages are built beside
Empire. This move divided the Hezhe and Nanai even the Sungari River. Additionally, traditional Hezhe clothes
further. are made from sturgeon skin and deer hide.
438 Hezhe

The Hezhe are famous for their fish skin clothes, espe- Important Hezhe festivals include the God Deer Festival
cially their loose-fitting dresses. To make the fish skin and the Wurigong Festival. The God Deer Festival occurs
clothes, the Hezhe dry the skin of a silver carp or chub on the third day of the third lunar month and the ninth day
and then remove the scales and hammer the skin with a of the ninth lunar month. To mark the occasion, the Hezhe
wooden mallet, as this makes the skin soft to touch. Next, dance and pray to the deer god to exorcize ghosts, bring
they sew the skin together using threads made from silver good luck, ensure a good harvest, and ward off misfortune.
carp skin. Although few Hezhe wear fish skin clothes today, The three-day Wurigong Festival is held semiannually in
fishing continues to be the main Hezhe activity. Raw fish the fifth or sixth lunar months. Wurigong (meaning “fun
flesh (especially that of sturgeon or carp) is the staple food day”) is a sporting tournament during which people com-
of the Hezhe. The Hezhe also eat raw fish skin, roe, and soft pete in activities that include swimming, boating, net cast-
fish bones. Sometimes the Hezhe mix raw fish with rice ing, and fish forking.
vinegar, shredded potato, caraway, and bean sprouts. The
Hezhe also cook fish by toasting thin slices of on fires.
Hezhe summer dwellings are semicircular and tend to Health Care and Education
be made from birch bark. The Hezhe’s winter homes are There is little information available on Hezhe health care.
constructed so that they partly subterranean, as this keeps However, it is thought that the Hezhe, including nomadic
in the heat and offers protection from icy winds. The chim- Hezhe, have access to modern medical and educational
neys and fireplaces of many of these homes vent smoke facilities that are available. However, it is known that the
under sleeping areas and then out via a tall chimney. In health situation in northern Russia and in adjacent parts
addition to fishing, under the influence of Chinese neigh- of the Far East is less than ideal. According to official data,
bors, many Hezhe now grow grain and raise pigs. the poor-quality drinking water is the main cause of mass
Hezhe culture is rich in oral tradition. Favorite Hezhe outbreaks of gastrointestinal infectious diseases, including
pastimes include storytelling and singing. The people also hepatitis A, across the area. Poor sanitation and hygienic
have a literary tradition, with readings of some Hezhe conditions in many of the northern settlements, together
epics lasting for several days. Hezhe embroidery is a highly with overcrowded dwellings and a lack of a centralized
developed art featuring geometric and floral patterns with water supply, secure sewage systems, or organized waste
which the people decorate their clothes, shoes, and tobacco management, lead to the spread of infections. For exam-
pouches. The Hezhe also produce carved wooden furniture ple, two-thirds of Russian northern territories (including
and metal products. Yakutia) report a high incidence of bacterial dysentery.
The Hezhe practice a fusion of Tibetan Buddhism and Studies have shown there is a direct correlation between
their traditional shamanistic belief system. In this belief incidents of giardiasis (an infection of the small intestine)
system, the Hezhe pay particular reverence to Doonta, in Yakutia with cysts found in drinking water.
the bear, and Amba, the tiger, while also worshipping the In 2002, an outbreak of typhoid in Yakutia was caused
spirits of the sun, moon, mountains, water, and trees. by the contamination of the drinking water supply sys-
The Hezhe believe that shamans have the power to drive tem by sewage water. Yakutia and Khabarovsk Kraj also
out evil spirits by making offerings to the gods and say- have a significant prevalence of Shigella flexneri (the most
ing prayers. A form of Hezhe totem pole called idol poles communicable form of bacterial dysentery). Khabarovsk
are part of Hezhe folk culture and historically adorn each Kraj also has a high rate of gastroenteropathy caused by
Hezhe village. The Hezhe believe that every individual has the norovirus. Yakutia also has high rates of toxoplasmo-
three souls—one that dies with the body and two that sur- sis parasitic infection and diphyllobothriasis caused by
vive. One of these surviving souls is reincarnated, while the tapeworms. Clonorchiasis (or Chinese liver fluke disease)
other acts as a guiding spirit. At the center of Hezhe is the is endemic in the Amur River basin area. The disease is
Amur River, from which the Hezhe believe their ancestors caused by eating raw, salted, pickled, smoked, marinated,
came and that they believe serves as a guide to the afterlife. dried, partially cooked, or poorly processed fish. Of 719
The Hezhe also venerate fire, which is personified as an old cases of clonorchiasis registered in Russia from 2009 to
woman. Young Hezhe children are taught not to go near 2011, 659 cases were found in the Far Eastern regions and
fire so as not to scare the elderly lady. 544 cases in Amur Oblast (Dudarev et al. 2013).
 Himba 439

The dialect spoken by the Hezhe in China (the Sungari Otjiherero, which is a Bantu language belonging to the
dialect) is mostly spoken by older Hezhe, though there Niger-Congo language family. The Himba are related, both
have been attempts to teach the dialect in school in areas culturally and historically, to the Herero people living in
inhabited by the Hezhe. central Namibia and Botswana. The Himba maintain their
own native religious beliefs involving spirit and ancestor
worship.
Threats to Survival The name Himba was first applied to the people at the
The Hezhe and the Hezhe culture almost became extinct end of the nineteenth century, but the United Nations
during Japanese occupation during World War II. How- declared the Himba an indigenous people only as recently
ever, since the late 1940s, the culture has revived and now as the late 1990s.
flourishes. Nevertheless, the Hezhe language is endangered
because young Hezhe speak Mandarin Chinese as their
first language. Population, Diaspora, and Migration
See also: Manchu; Nanai The UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)
has noted the unreliability of Himba population fig-
Further Reading
Dudarev, Alexey A., Vitaliy M. Dorofeyev, Eugenia V. Dushkina, ures, though estimates suggest there are between fifteen
Pavel R. Alloyarov, Valery S. Chupakhin, Yuliya N. Sladkova, thousand and twenty-five thousand (Friedman 2013) or
Tatjana A. Kolesnikova, Kirill B. Fridman, Lena Maria Nils- twenty thousand to fifty thousand Himba people (Lange
son, and Birgitta Evengard. 2013. “Food and Water Security 2012). The Himba live in small widely scattered commu-
Issues in Russia III: Food- and Waterborne Diseases in the nities in an isolated area of northwestern Namibia called
Russian Arctic, Siberia and the Far East, 2000–2011.” Interna-
the Kunene Region as well as on the opposite side of the
tional Journal of Circumpolar Health 72: 21856. doi:10.3402
​/ijch.v72i0.21856. Kunene River in southern Angola. The Himba homeland is
Korshunova, Natalia, Hironobu Katsuyama, Masashi Demura, known locally as Kaokoland.
Hideji Tanii, Midori Katsuyama, Sri Ratna Rahayu, Nikolay
Anatoljevich Bogdanov, Lyudmila Vasilyevna Solokhina, and
Kiyofumi Saijoh. 2013. “Posttraumatic Stress Disorders in the Geography and Environment
Nanai after Pollution of the Amur River: Ethnocultural Anal-
Kaokoland is a rugged mountainous area measuring
ysis.” Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine 18: 346.
Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Cen- around twenty thousand square miles. The area extends
tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. south to north from the Hoanib River to the Kunene River
West, Barbara A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and that makes up the border of Namibia and Angola. The
Oceania. New York: Facts on File. Baynes Otjihipa Mountains lie in the north of the region,
and the Hartmann Mountains lie in the east. The soil in
Kaokoland is dry and rocky, especially to the south, for
here the land borders the Namib Desert. There are, how-
ever, several rivers in the region as well as waterfalls, the
HIMBA most notable of which are the Ruacana Falls and the Epupa
Falls that are formed by the Kunene River.
Current Location Namibia; Angola
Northern Kaokoland tends to have lusher vegetation
Current Population 15,000–25,000 than the south and is home to green valleys such as the
Language Otjiherero Marienfluss and Hartmann Valley. Kaokoland is home
Interesting Fact The Himba operate a unique kinship to desert elephants, black rhinoceros, kudus, ostriches,
system that is both matrilineal and giraffes, springboks, and mountain zebras. In the 1980s, a
patrilineal. severe drought killed almost all Himba cattle, devastating
the Himba’s pastoralist lifestyle and forcing the people to
Overview become refugees in the Namibian town of Opuwo. Since
Himba (or OvaHimba) are an indigenous people living in the 1990s, life for the Himba has improved, with many
Namibia and Angola. The Himba speak a dialect called Himba now living in nature-protected areas.
440 Himba

History and Politics or to rely on handouts from relief agencies. At the same
Little is known about Himba history. It is theorized that time, a new front opened up in the border war between the
the Himba may have migrated to their homeland around Namibian nationalist group the South West Africa People’s
three hundred years ago as part of a mass migration of Organisation (SWAPO) and the South African army. The
people who all spoke the Otjiherero dialect and traveled war restricted the Himba’s mobility and saw many Himba
together through Angola to central Namibia. injured by land mines.
In the nineteenth century, raids by cattle thieves During the 1990s, the Namibian government proposed
from southern Africa drove some Himba to migrate to the construction of a hydroelectric dam at Epupa on the
Angola. Once there, the Himba migrants joined the Por- Kunene River. Himba leaders were vociferously opposed to
tuguese army to fight the cattle raiders before returning the proposal because the dam’s construction would flood
to Namibia. In the 1920s, South Africa forced the Himba the Himba’s dry season grazing land and their burial sites.
to live in a designated homeland, where they were banned So outspoken were the Himba leaders that they garnered
from herding animals, foraging for wild foods, trading, or much international interest to their cause. Some younger
cultivating gardens. Some reports state that during this Himba people supported the proposed dam, however, for
period the Himba were so hungry that they resorted to they felt it would offer them work and help the Himba
eating the hides on which they slept (Lange 2012). homeland become more developed.
From 1979 to 1982, a severe drought decimated Himba Then, in 2007, it was confirmed that a smaller dam pro-
herds and turned many of the people into wage laborers, ject known as the Baynes Dam might be built. Although
forcing them to move to nearby towns, to forage for food, smaller than the Epupa dam, the Baynes project would
still flood the land of one hundred settled Himba and two
thousand seminomadic Himba, as opposed to the one
thousand and five thousand, respectively, threatened by
the Epupa development (Minority Rights Group Interna-
tional 2015).
Recently, the Angolan and Namibian governments have
decided against the Epupa dam and instead favor an off-
shore gas-to-power project and dam sites elsewhere on the
Kunene River.

Society, Culture, and Tradition

The Himba are seminomadic pastoralists who make a
living by rearing and herding cattle and smaller animals.
They also grow and sell crops grown in their gardens. They
follow a subsistence lifestyle in which the people eat many
wild foods. The Himba are extremely successful pastoral-
ists, and their cattle herding methods have allowed them
to become relatively prosperous by local standards.
The Himba operate a unique kinship system referred
to by anthropologists as double descent. Unlike other
peoples, the Himba trace their lineage through both their
mother and father and so have a dual heritage, one matri-
lineal and one patrilineal. Wealth in the form of cattle and
other commodities is passed down through the matrilin-
eal line, but religious and political offices are handed down
A Himba woman in Namibia wears a traditional hairstyle. The through the father’s line.
hair is braided and then covered with an ochre paste called Living in relative isolation has allowed the Himba to
otjize. (Dmitry Pichugin/Dreamstime.com) retain many of their traditional ways, including their
 Hindi 441

traditional way of dressing, for which they people are government-run mobile schools where the pupils learn
well known in Africa. To protect themselves from the sun, English.
Himba women make a paste from butterfat, ochre, and
herbs that they smear over their skin. The women’s skin
then takes on a reddish color that the Himba believe sym- Threats to Survival
bolically unites the red color of the earth with the red of Since the 1990s, the Himba have been at the center of
the blood of life. domestic and international interest, as they face the threat
Himba women also wear a distinctive braided hairstyle. of the controversial Epupa dam development. Many com-
Their hair is woven into braids and then covered with mentators and some Himba people opposed the project on
otjize, a type of ochre paste. Girls who have not yet reached the grounds that it would flood their land and culturally
puberty wear their hair in two hair braids, while Himba important graveyards, thereby all but destroying their way
women wear more than two braids. Unmarried Himba of life. As recently as 2010, the governments of Namibia
men wear their hair in a single braid that flows backward and Angola were in favor of constructing a dam down-
from the crown of the head, whereas married Himba men stream from Epupa, the Baynes Dam. While the construc-
tie their hair in a sort of turban. Traditionally, the Himba tion of this dam is expected to have a limited impact on
are always topless, but they wear animal skin loincloths the Himba, the true impact of the dam’s construction is as
along with jewelry made from leather and shells. Himba yet unknown.
women also wear beaded anklets that protect them from See also: San
snakebites.
Further Reading
Both Himba boys and girls are circumcised prior to Friedman, John T. 2013. “Himba.” In Native Peoples of the World:
puberty, as this is thought to make them marriageable. An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues,
During the circumcision, boys are encouraged to remain edited by Steven Danver, 38–39. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
silent, but girls are urged to scream. As soon as a Himba Lange, Karen E. 2012. “Mind, Body and Soul: The Power of Heal-
girl is born, her future husband is decided, but the couple ing Proves to Contribute to the Survival of Himba Culture.”
do not marry until the girl reaches her teenage years. In National Geographic Learning Reader: Gender Roles: A
Cross-Cultural Perspective, 29–32. Boston, MA: Wadsworth
The Himba revere the god Mukuru, and they also prac- Cengage Learning.
tice ancestor worship. The Himba believe that Mukuru is Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Namibia: Himba.”
often busy, so their ancestors function as Mukuru’s repre- World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, June
sentatives. Each Himba family keeps alight an ancestral 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/himba.
fire that they use to communicate with Mukuru and their Popovic, Mislav. 2009–2016.“Himba People.” TraditionsCustoms.
ancestors. The family member responsible for keeping the com. http://traditionscustoms.com/people/himba-people.
fire alight is considered very important within their family.

Health Care and Education

Himba women believe that the spirits of the dead and of HINDI
fierce animals enter their bodies to cause illness. Therefore,
Current Location India
when a Himba woman falls ill, she consults a female healer
who performs an exorcism to remove the spirit that is the Current Population 350 million
source of the illness. Language Hindi; English; Hindustani; Hinglish
Namibia’s Ministry for Basic Education, Sport, and Interesting Fact Hindi words used in English include
Culture has directed resources to the country’s minor- shampoo, veranda, and dungarees.
ity groups, including the Himba. This has led to signifi-
cant improvements in Himba health care and education. Overview
Some Himba welcome such developments as dam con- The Hindis (also called the Hindustanis, Hindawis, or
struction, as they feel these would bring investment to Khari Bolis) are India’s largest ethnic group. The Hindis
Himba areas, thereby hastening improvements to Himba speak the Hindi language and most also speak English, for
schools and healthcare facilities. Himba children attend both languages are the official languages of India. Hindis
442 Hindi

also understand Hindustani, a constructed language that is a serious issue because the area’s groundwater is used
combines Hindi with Urdu. Most Hindis belong to the for farming in India, Nepal, Pakistan, and Bangladesh. A
Hindu faith, though there are large numbers of Muslim major worry is that some of the plain’s groundwater con-
Hindis as well as small Jain and Buddhist Hindi minorities. tains hazardous levels of arsenic that has been drawn up
from aquifers by irrigation pumps. Some of the water
also has a high salt content, which makes the water taste
Population, Diaspora, and Migration unpleasant and is not good for farming. Fluoride and iron
The Hindi population of India roughly consists of 350 are also found in the plain’s water supply along with con-
million people. The Hindis dominate central and north- taminants from fertilizers and pesticides (Padma 2016).
ern India. There are, however, no exact boundaries of the
Hindi homeland, so interpretations of the Hindi region
vary. The Hindis are divided into several subgroups that History and Politics
are themselves split into regional groups and subgroups. The origins of the Hindis hark back to an early civilization
In the widest sense, the term Hindi refers to all speakers of inhabiting the Indus Valley around 3400 BCE. The Hindis’
Hindi languages. There is a global Hindi diaspora. cultural and religious traditions date back to the Vedic
era, which lasted until the 500s BCE. From circa 550 BCE,
many independent Hindi kingdoms and states prolifer-
Geography and Environment ated across the Hindi homeland. In the third century BCE,
Most Hindis live in an area of India sometimes called the these states and kingdoms were united under the Maurya
Hindi Belt (or Hindi Desh or Hindi-Urdu Region). This Empire. Under the Maurya Empire’s successor dynasty, the
region, sometimes called Hindustan, forms the heartland Guptas, the Hindis flourished in terms of the arts, sciences,
of India. The Hindi Belt is a linguistic region in north cen- and philosophy.
tral India where Hindi is widely spoken. The term Hindi In the tenth and twelfth centuries, the Hindis were
Belt is also sometimes used to describe the nine Indian invaded by peoples from the Iranian Plateau. These incur-
states that have Hindi as an official language and that are sions brought most of the Hindis under the control of the
home to a Hindi-speaking majority. These states are Bihar, Muslim Delhi sultanate and, later, the Mughal Empire. The
Chhattisgarh, Haryana, Himachal Pradesh, Jharkhand, Mughals oversaw a time of Hindi cultural and economic
Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Uttarakhand, and Uttar development that was also characterized by religious har-
Pradesh and National Capital Territory of Delhi. mony. In the fifteenth century, the Mughal Empire was
The geography of the Hindi Belt is varied, for it includes threatened by neighboring states. These threats greatly
the flat Indo-Gangetic Plain that stretches across the north destabilized the Mughals. In addition, from early in the
of the region, the Vindhya Range of mountain ridges, high- sixteenth century, Europeans started to arrive in India’s
lands and plateau escarpments of west central India, and port cities before slowly exploring the country’s interior.
the densely wooded hills of Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh The Europeans took advantage of India’s internal conflicts
that separate the region from West Bengal and Odisha. The and the destabilization of states to create coastal colonies.
Indo-Gangetic Plain covers some 630 million acres of fer- This marked the beginning of Europeans’ diplomatic ties
tile plain that contains the northern regions of the Indian with peoples living in the Indian heartland, as several
subcontinent, including most of north and east India, European nations established bases in India.
eastern Pakistan, all of Bangladesh, and Nepal’s southern The British were the most successful at forging dip-
plains. To the north, the plain is edged by the Himalaya lomatic and trading links with the peoples living in the
mountains, which feed the region’s many rivers. The plain Indian interior (Minahan 2012). During the eighteenth
becomes progressively drier toward the west, where it inte- century, the British took control of many parts of India
grates with the Thar (Great Indian) Desert. through a combination of diplomacy and aggression. The
The Indo-Gangetic basin is one of the world’s most land ruled by the British came under the control of the
important freshwater resources and home to the larg- British East India Company, an English company estab-
est surface water irrigation system. However, the Indo- lished to oversee the exploitation of trade with India and
Gangetic Plain is increasingly contaminated. The plain’s elsewhere. By 1856, the British East India Company con-
groundwater is also depleting through overextraction. This trolled most of India. In 1857, the Sepoy Mutiny (or India’s
 Hindi 443

First War of Independence) challenged the East India ability to overcome regional, cultural, and economic divi-
Company’s control of central India. The mutiny resulted sions to bring about a common cause. At present, Hindi
in India being brought under direct British rule. Dur- activists strive to standardize the Hindi language across
ing this period, the British maintained diplomatic links the people’s vast homeland while also trying to emphasize
with regional states, usually via a British representative an overriding Hindi culture.
assigned to local governments.
In 1867, religious and linguistic conflicts between Hin-
dus and Muslims swept through Hindi areas. Each side Society, Culture, and Tradition
advocated the use of their version of the Hindi-Urdu lan- Hindi culture and language dominates the interior of cen-
guage, Hindustani, the use of which tended to be divided tral and north India. While the Hindis are the most pop-
along religious lines. Toward the end of the nineteenth cen- ulous of India’s ethnic groups, they are united by their
tury, British rule in the Hindi region was characterized by dialects and common culture. Hindi is spoken by around
a rapid development in infrastructure. At the same time, 350 million people and is the official language of many
there was also a regional economic decline that resulted states outside the Hindi Belt. The language is also the sec-
in most Hindis living in poverty. Also, under the British, ond language of an additional 350 million people across
there was a continuous and increasing tension between India. This makes Hindi India’s most widely spoken lan-
Hindus and Muslims that manifested as periodic out- guage (Minahan 2012). The Hindi language has evolved
breaks of communal violence in Hindi areas. The Indian from its status as the official language of the Mughals and
independence movement was also split along religious the British colonial administration of India. Recently, the
lines, as many Muslims called for the creation of a distinct idea of a Hindi ethnic group has won support, with the
Muslim homeland. concept based on Hindi being a unifying source alongside
Following World War II, the British granted independ- the Hindis’ shared history and religion.
ence to secular yet simultaneously mainly Hindu India as Hindi originated from local dialects at some point
well as to the mostly Muslim regions in the far west and after the start of the tenth century CE. During the reign
east of northern India. India’s independence led to mil- of the Mughal Empire, which used Persian as its official
lions of Muslims migrating from India to Pakistan, while, language, Hindi borrowed many Persian and Arab words.
at the same time, there was an exodus of Hindus from Originally, Hindi was written in a form of Persian script.
newly established Pakistan to India. The separation of Later, many Hindi writers refused to write in the Per-
India and Pakistan caused mass violence that often swept sian script and adopted a revised Devanagari script—­
through Hindi land. The establishment of independent Devanagari being the Indian alphabet used to write the
India also saw a standardized form of Hindi become the ancient Sanskrit language. When Hindi was adopted as
official language of the Indian Union. The language was an official language of India in 1947, Persian and Arabic
also adopted as an official language by the majority of elements of the language were eliminated, and many San-
India’s states. skrit words were introduced. Although nationalists in both
During the 1950s and 1960s, coastal areas of northern India and Pakistan claim the two languages are separate,
India started to modernize. However, most of the Hindi the Urdu language, which is used widely in Pakistan, is
homeland, save for urban areas and the environs of the basically the same language as Hindi.
Indian national capital of New Delhi, continued to be Hinglish (or Indian English) is a hybrid linguistic vari-
­poverty-stricken. The development of some Hindi areas ety in which people use both Hindi and English words in
was also hampered by corruption by absentee landlords. one sentence. This manner of speaking is gaining in popu-
The 1956 States Reorganization Act resulted in the division larity among Hindis in India and elsewhere. This linguistic
of Hindi land between many states. phenomenon has developed as a result of globalization,
Since the 1980s, government incentives together with the rise of online communication, the growth of India as
economic reforms have helped Hindi areas develop eco- a base for call centers, and the huge popularity of Hindi
nomically. Recent prosperity has led to new calls for the cinema (commonly called “Bollywood”). It is likely that
recognition of a Hindi homeland as a separate region of hundreds of millions of Indians speak Hinglish as a sec-
India. Traditionally, however, the Hindis have failed to act ond language. Whereas speaking English in India usually
in a unified manner, something that has hindered their signifies the speaker’s modernity or wealth, Hindi is used
444 Hindi

to display pride in India, the speaker’s community, and his rivers. The point of confluence of all three rivers is sacred
or her family. to Hindus. The location and timing of each year’s festival
Most Hindis adhere to the Hindu religion that origi- are determined astrologically by the position of the sun in
nated in north central India. The religion is considered relation to the moon and Jupiter. The rotational location
one of the oldest of the world’s major religions. According system of Kumbh Mela means that the festival is held in
to Hindu beliefs, an individual should experience sixteen each location once every 12 years, except for Kumbh Mela
rituals, called samskarars (or sanskars), throughout his or at Allahabad that takes place once every 144 years.
her life. The first of these rituals occurs before a person is Traditionally, most Hindu people die at home. When
conceived. Although Hindu scriptures explain the rituals death is imminent, the family of the individual is notified,
of childhood, the specifics of the rituals vary regionally and the person is placed in the bedroom or in the doorway
and between castes. of the home with his or her head facing toward the east. A
Hindus believe that every member of their religion is lantern is lit near the sick person’s head, and he or she is
duty bound to ensure the continuance of the Hindu faith, encouraged to focus on repeating mantras. Meanwhile, the
and so shortly after a Hindu couple is married, a prayer family keeps vigil over the sick person until he or she dies,
for conception called Garbhadana is recited to ask that the all the while singing hymns, reading holy texts, and pray-
couple fulfill their obligation to become parents. The cere- ing. If the Hindu person cannot die at home, the family still
mony celebrates through prayers, chants, and invocations performs the same rituals, even if they are in a Western
the physical union of the husband and wife through sexual hospital. However, wherever possible, Hindu families will
intercourse as a means to bring forth a Hindu soul through endeavor to take a sick person home to die. If the person is
conception and birth. Hinduism views marriage as a mile- unconscious or dies suddenly, a family member will chant
stone on the journey to adulthood and has clearly defined a mantra in the person’s ear, holy ash or sandalwood paste
roles for husbands and wives. From a spiritual perspective, is daubed on the forehead, and milk or holy water is tipped
marriage is a prerequisite for a Hindu, for without a mar- into the person’s mouth; deceased men will also be shaved.
riage partner, they will be unable to enter the life stage of All the while, Vedic scriptures are chanted.
a householder, Grishasth ashrama, nor will they be able to Hindus consider death, like birth, to be a highly pollut-
have children. For a Hindu person not to have a child, par- ing experience. For this reason, the icons of deities that are
ticularly a son, is a serious issue, as without offspring, an kept in the home are usually removed when a person dies.
individual can find no release from the cycle of reincar- As death is viewed as extremely polluting, it is very impor-
nation that follows the pattern of birth, death, and rebirth. tant that the deceased’s family performs postdeath rituals
Thus, Hindu people feel great pressure to marry. correctly, as only this will allow the spirit of the dead to
An important Hindu pilgrimage, Kumbh Mela, occurs move on to the afterlife, where it will unite with ancestors.
annually in northern India. The pilgrimage brings As soon as a Hindu person dies, he or she is considered to
together Hindu people who wish to cleanse themselves of have become a ghost (preta), and if funeral rituals are not
sin by bathing in a holy river and praying for redemption. performed in the right way, it is thought that the preta will
Many Hindus also travel for Kumbh Mela in the hope of intrude upon the living by staying with them and causing
receiving spiritual guidance and blessing. For most Hin- them mischief. For this reason, Hindu death rituals are
dus, participating in Kumbh Mela is a life-changing expe- intended to change a preta into an ancestral spirit known
rience. Kumbh Mela is the biggest religious gathering in as a pitri.
the world, as demonstrated by the fact that, in 2013, over Most Hindus are cremated after death, as this method
eighty million people attended Kumbh Mela when the of corpse disposal is considered the most efficient way for a
festival was held in Allahabad (Williams 2017). The exact soul to leave the physical body. Cremation is the last of the
location of Kumbh Mela varies between four of the holi- Hindu samskaras (rites of passage); cremation is known as
est Hindu sites in India: the banks of the Godavari River antyeshti samskara, or the final reincarnation.
in Nashik, the Shipra River in Ujjain, the River Ganges
in Haridwar, and the confluence of the Ganges, Yamuna,
and mythical Saraswati Rivers in Allahabad (also called Health Care and Education
Prayag). The fabled Saraswati River is said to be invisible Because of income inequality, poor Hindis do not have
and to flow underground, where it joins the other two adequate access to health care. Additionally, the cost of
 Hmong 445

health care causes many Hindis to land in poverty. Simi- Prinja, Shankar, Panos Kanavos, and Raj Kumar. 2012. “Health
larly, poor Hindis are less likely to use health services. The Care Inequities in North India: Role of Public Sector in Uni-
distribution of healthcare services in Hindi areas also var- versalizing Health Care.” Indian Journal of Medical Research
136 (3): 421–431.
ies between rural and urban areas. For example, in 2007, Raza, Wameq A., Ellen Van de Poel, Pradeep Panda, David
in Madhya Pradesh, there was one doctor per 7,870 rural Dror, and Arjun Bedi. 2016. “Healthcare Seeking Behaviour
people as opposed to one doctor per 834 people in the among Self-Help Group Households in Rural Bihar and Uttar
region’s urban areas. Additionally, studies have found that Pradesh, India.” BMC Health Services Research 16, no. 1 (Jan-
90 percent of unqualified healthcare providers in Madhya uary 4): 1. doi:10.1186/s12913-015-1254-9.
Pradesh worked in the rural communities (Prinja et al. Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA:
2012). Studies also show that gender is a determinant for ABC-CLIO.
Hindis seeking health care, for men and boys are more
likely to receive treatment for acute ailments compared
to rural Hindi females. These inequalities in health care
contribute to the fact that girls aged under five years have
a higher mortality rates than boys of the same age group
(Raza et al. 2016).
HMONG
The India Constitution (2002) declares that the state Current Location Laos; Vietnam; China; United States;
will provide free, compulsory education as a fundamen- France
tal right to children between the ages of six and fourteen Current Population 5.5 million
years. Hindi children have access to schools that teach in
Language Hmong dialects
Hindi and English. Middle-class Hindi parents tend to
Interesting Fact The Hmongs are divided into four
like their children to be educated in English because they
main subgroups based on the
believe fluency in English suggests intellectualism and appearance of the people’s clothing:
modernity, and it will also improve children’s employment the White Hmong, Striped Hmong,
prospects (LaDousa 2016). Red Hmong, and Black Hmong.

Threats to Survival Overview

There are no imminent threats to the Hindis. The Hindis The Hmongs, also called the Man, Mong, Hmung, and
are the largest ethnic group in India, and they are increas- Mioas, among many other names, are a tribal people of
ingly united in their attempt to establish a Hindi home- Laos, Vietnam, and China. The name Hmong translates
land. The rise of Hinglish and the preference of Hindi as “free,” in reference to the people’s independence when
parents for their children to learn English may endanger living in their remote mountain homeland. The Hmongs
the Hindi language in the long term. That said, the huge speak a number of dialects that belong to the Hmongic
number of people that speak Hindi as a first or second lan- branch of the Sino-Tibetan language family. Most Hmongs
guage should ensure its continuance. follow their own traditional animistic belief system,
See also: Gujarati; Oraon; Sikh; Tripuri though some Hmongs are Buddhist or Christian.
Further Reading
Kaminsky, Arnold P., and Roger D. Long, eds. 2011. India Today: Population, Diaspora, and Migration
An Encyclopedia of Life in the Republic. Vol. 1, A–K. Santa
Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. The total Hmong population is unknown, with some esti-
LaDousa, Chaise. 2016. Hindi Is Our Ground, English Is Our Sky: mates suggesting the number is around 5.5 million people
Education, Language, and Social Class in Contemporary India. (Minahan 2012) while others suggest the figure is over 6
New York: Berghan Books. million (Wilson Owens 2007). There are several possible
Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the
reasons for the disparity in figures, including the fact that
Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Padma, T. V. 2016. “The Indo-Gangetic Basin Is Getting Dirt- in countries such as Laos, the Hmongs are displaced inter-
ier Faster Than It Is Disappearing.” The Wire, September 2. nally, travel frequently, and hide from officials for fear of
https://thewire.in/environment/indo-gangetic-basin​-arsenic. persecution.
446 Hmong

Traditionally, the Hmongs live in northern Laos and the Miao (meaning “savage”), but they generally left the
Vietnam as well as southwestern China. However, as a Hmongs to govern themselves, save for making them pay
consequence of the Hmongs’ alliance with the United a yearly tribute.
States during the Vietnam War, many live in the United However, in the eighteenth century, the Chinese
States (especially in California, Minnesota, and Wiscon- changed track and tried to rule the Hmongs, leading to
sin), France, and parts of Southeast Asia. It has been esti- renewed fighting and, ultimately, in the nineteenth cen-
mated that there are approximately 6 million Hmongs in tury, the migration of many Hmongs into Southeast Asia,
China (where they are called the Miaos); 788,000 Hmongs where they settled in remote mountainous locations. In
in Vietnam; 315,000 Hmongs in Laos; 124,000 Hmongs the mid-nineteenth century, the Hmongs that remained in
in Thailand; and 2,000 to 3,000 Hmongs living in Myan- China were forced to pay more taxes and work as forced
mar. The Hmong population of the United States is put at laborers by the Manchu Qing government. They revolted
around 250,000, with 8,000 Hmongs living in France and against this treatment but were defeated by government
1,800 Hmongs in Australia. Most Hmongs in the United troops. Indeed, it has been estimated that only around 30
States arrived from Laos or via refugee camps in Thailand percent of the Hmongs in China at this time survived the
(Wilson Owens 2007). Hmongs tend to not enjoy mixing fighting, with survivors fleeing to Laos, Vietnam, Myan-
with other ethnic groups, preferring to stay among their mar, and Thailand.
own kind in Hmong areas. Soon the French colonial period of Southeast Asian his-
tory began. The French introduced important cash crops
to the area, including cotton and coffee. However, opium
Geography and Environment proved the most lucrative crop for the Hmongs, leading
Laos, which covers around ninety-one thousand square the French to establish a monopoly on opium production
miles, is landlocked and shares borders with Thailand to in Indochina at the end of the nineteenth century. On the
the west, Myanmar to the northwest, China to the north, whole, however, the upland location of Hmong settlements
Vietnam to the east, and Cambodia to the south. The held little interest for the French, so colonial authorities
Hmongs living in highland areas practice slash-and-burn left the Hmongs to their own devices, save for demand-
agriculture on fertile, shallow soil. The climate of Hmong ing taxes and requiring they work as laborers. Neverthe-
areas tends to be tropical, with a rainy season extend- less, the Hmong revolutionary hero Chao Bat Chay led a
ing from May to November and a dry season spanning rebellion against the French between 1919 and 1921. In
December to April. The Hmongs face natural hazards, response to the rebellion, the French established a Hmong
such as floods, droughts, deforestation, and soil erosion, as autonomous zone on the border of Laos and Vietnam. The
well as the danger of encountering unexploded land mines creation of this independent territory created a mutual
left behind after conflict. trust between the French and the Hmongs, who became
pro-French.
After World War II, Laotian and Vietnamese nation-
History and Politics alists opposed French rule in Southeast Asia. The pro-
According to Hmong oral history, the people originated in French Hmongs, however, preferred the idea of being
northeastern China between five thousand and six thou- ruled by the French rather than other local ethnic groups
sand years ago. The early Hmongs were known as the Jiuli and operated as pro-French guerilla groups until France
and frequently engaged in conflict with the Han Chinese, withdrew from the region in 1954. The U.S. government,
who continually encroached into Jiuli land. In the wake which had provided the French with military equipment,
of their defeat in one particularly brutal battle, the Jiuli stepped in to help anticommunist groups in the area,
decided to move southward to the lower Huang He (Yel- including the Hmongs, who became American allies in
low River) basin in central China, where they founded a an ever-increasing conflict. The United States withdrew
new kingdom. This realm flourished until the Han Chinese from the region in 1973, leaving their Hmong allies at
again attacked the Hmongs, leading to a war that saw the the mercy of the vengeful communist regimes of Laos
near annihilation of the Hmongs around 2200 BCE. Sur- and Vietnam. In the wake of the U.S. withdrawal, many
vivors of the conflict scattered across south and southwest Hmongs migrated to even higher upland areas or moved
China. Over time, the Chinese came to call the Hmongs abroad. Those Hmongs that remained in previously
 Hmong 447

French-ruled areas of Southeast Asia earned money by

growing opium.
Continuing Hmong resistance to communist authorities
in Laos has resulted in an increasing number of displaced
Hmongs residing in refugee camps both in Southeast Asia
and elsewhere.

Society, Culture, and Tradition

As the Hmongs have suffered thousands of years of conflict
and displacement, they are divided into multiple groups
that correspond to the appearance of their clothing (the
White Hmong, Striped Hmong, Red Hmong, and Black
Hmong). The Hmongs are further divided into patrilineal
clans, the activities of which are overseen by tribal leaders
and governed by rules of etiquette and religion. Tradition-
ally, a Hmong female is given her own clan name as well as
a first name at birth. Once a woman marries, however, nei-
ther name is used. This is because a woman is considered
to belong to her husband and her husband’s family after
marriage. Thus, a wife is only referred to by her husband’s
name once she is wed.
Most Hmongs practice the Hmong animist religion
in which the people worship ancestors, house spirits, evil
spirits, and nature spirits that reside in mountains, trees,
water, caves, and winds. There are also increasing numbers A Hmong girl wears a traditional headdress in Bam Na Ouan,
of Buddhist and Christian Hmongs because the people Laos. In Laos, the descendants of the Hmongs who supported
the United States during the Vietnam War live in hiding in jun-
have migrated to areas in which these faiths are prevalent.
gles rather than face persecution by authorities. Other Hmongs
Some Hmongs have also converted to Chao Fa, a national- in Laos are displaced internally due to constant movement to
istic religion that developed in the 1960s. avoid government attacks, leaving them without access to shel-
The Hmongs consider nature spirits responsible for ter, food, and health care. (Kobby Dagan/Dreamstime.com)
causing physical and mental harm to people in the guise
of sickness, nightmares, and death. Another aspect of the
Hmong religion is shamanism. Hmongs feel shamans are Rice is an essential Hmong food that is eaten at every
able to mediate between the material and spirit worlds meal alongside meats, fish, and vegetables. On special
through rituals to heal, see into the future, and control occasions, Hmongs enjoy roast pork and pork soup, fruit,
events. The Hmongs appease the spirits by burning paper boiled eggs and egg rolls, spiced meat, vegetables, rice, and
money and sacrificing animals. salad. Traditionally, the Hmongs do not drink beverages
The Hmongs consider pregnancy a sacred yet fragile with their meals but rather imbibe zaub tsuag (vegetable
state, and, traditionally, pregnant Hmong women do not soup). However, in Laos, Hmongs drink wine on special
tell others about their pregnancies for fear that evil spir- occasions such as the New Year and at weddings.
its will endanger the pregnancies and cause spontane-
ous abortions. Once a Hmong baby is born, a necklace is
immediately placed around the infant’s neck to protect Health Care and Education
him or her from harm. Similarly, Hmongs do not coo Hmongs consider illness the result of external natural
over babies in case jealous spirits harm the baby. Instead, forces, such as accidents, contagions, metaphysical imbal-
Hmongs call babies “ugly” so that spirits do not become ances (similar to the concept of yin/yang), weather, stress,
resentful, thereby protecting the babies. bad behavior, angry spirits, spells, and curses. Hmongs
448 Hmong

believe the liver is the center and regulator of all emotions The Hmongs are also disadvantaged when it comes to
and plays a crucial role in maintaining well-being. Some- education. For example, highland indigenous commu-
times the Hmongs ascribe illness to a person having lost nities such as the Hmongs are among the poorest people
their soul. In such cases, a soul calling ceremony is per- in Thailand. The Hmongs have low rates of participation
formed to cure the sick person, during which a chicken is in education, and those Hmong children that do attend
boiled to divine whether the soul will return and, if so, in school are taught in poorly equipped, understaffed facil-
what condition it return. ities. In Thailand, there are no schools that teach Hmong
Traditionally, the Hmongs use home remedies for such children in Hmong languages.
common aliments as colds and aches as well as arthritis
and fertility problems, but they seek help for serious health
issues from folk medicine doctors (usually women), ritual Threats to Survival
healers, and shamans (usually male). The Hmongs believe The Hmongs face continuing suppression and oppression
medicine doctors and ritual healers are guided by helping in their homeland, especially in Laos, where descendants
spirits, while shamans are esteemed as spiritual healers of the Hmongs who supported the United States during the
who provide health care by entering the spirit realm, where Vietnam War live in hiding in the Laotian jungles rather
they negotiate with the spirits over the health of patients. than face persecution by authorities. Other Hmongs in
Most Hmong families also have one family member who Laos are displaced within the country because they rarely
specializes in herbal remedies that are administered as remain living in one location for longer than three weeks;
teas or balms. The Hmongs also practice other healing otherwise, they face frequent military attacks. This inter-
methods, including massage, coining/spooning (whereby nal displacement means that the people are constantly in
a silver spoon or coin is rubbed on an affected area), and need of shelter, food, and health care.
cupping (the application of a negative suctioning cup on The Society for Threatened Peoples reports that, on
the skin). Hmongs often wear accessories such as red neck- December 13, 2006, more than four hundred Hmongs
laces, white bracelets, and red or white strings on their surrendered to the Laos military, only to be bundled onto
wrists, necks, or ankles that are considered beneficial to trucks and driven away. The fate of these Hmongs is still
health and also have a spiritual element. Christian Hmongs unknown. Many thousands of Hmongs from Laos have
also pray when seeking treatment for medical issues. fled to Thailand because they fear they will be snatched
In Laos, Hmongs have minimal contact with modern away by authorities, raped, imprisoned, or killed. In March
medicine because they do not venture into urban areas and 2007, a report to the UN Human Rights Council stated that
therefore do not have access to medical facilities. Hmongs more than eight thousand Hmong refugees were living in
living in Laos often use opium to treat muscle aches and a makeshift camp in Thailand and that significant num-
injuries, a treatment that can lead to opium addiction. bers of Hmong refugees from Laos were hiding elsewhere
Elsewhere, Hmongs frequently cannot afford health in Thailand (Minority Rights Group International 2017).
services, even in life-threatening situations. Hmongs living In Thailand, however, the Hmongs, along with other
in the United States often do not access health care because groups such as the Karen, struggle to survive financially
they are mistrustful; for instance, female Hmongs often in the face of land development and landownership rights
refuse examinations by male doctors. This is particularly controversies. Also, Hmongs in Thailand are threatened
true of mammograms, smear tests, and rectal examina- culturally by the large number of ethnic Thais that have
tions that are not performed in their homelands. moved into Hmong areas (Minority Rights Group Inter-
The Hmongs’ traumatic experiences of war have neg- national 2012). In 2001, Thai authorities began to register
atively impacted the physical and mental health of the highland indigenous peoples who had not yet been granted
people. For example, many Hmongs have witnessed or Thai citizenship (including the Hmongs) in an effort to
experienced bombings, rape, starvation, displacement, and reduce the number of stateless minorities within the coun-
discrimination, and almost all have lost loved ones during try. This program was only partially successful, however,
or because of conflict. U.S. studies have shown high rates of for as of 2016, around one hundred thousand indigenous
depression among the Hmongs and that the people expe- people, including Hmongs, remained without any national
rience difficulty in adjusting to life in the United States citizenship. This lack of citizenship partly results from the
(­Wilson Owens 2007). people’s lack of comprehension in regard to the registration
 Hopi 449

process and officials’ lack of understanding about how Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
the verification process works. Without national citizen- World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA:
ship, Hmong communities cannot access state resources ABC-CLIO.
Wilson Owens, Christine. 2007. “Hmong Cultural Profile.” Eth-
such as health care and education, their ability to travel is noMed, May 1. https://ethnomed.org/culture/hmong/hmong​
curtailed, and they have difficulty in claiming land rights. -cultural-profile.
Hmong females that do not have citizenship are also more
vulnerable to trafficking and sexual exploitation (Minority
Rights Group International 2012).
In Thailand, land rights are a continually contentious
issue, as recent Thai forest conservation policies have alien-
ated the Hmongs from their traditional territories. In addi- HOPI
tion, a 2014 government decree called the Return Forest
Policy sought to reclaim forests from those considered to Current Location United States
have encroached on the land, thereby categorizing indige- Current Population 14,000
nous forest dwellers as trespassers on protected lands. As a Language Hopi; English
result of this policy, Hmong land was confiscated and the Interesting Fact The Hopi have a high rate of albin­
residents threatened with imprisonment and fines. Indig- ism, with around 1 in 200 Hopis
enous hill tribes such as the Hmongs also face increased being albino.
levels of tourism in their homeland. While tourism brings
the people much-needed income, it negatively affects their Overview
culture, for its renders locals, who are not in control of The Hopi are an indigenous ethnic group inhabiting the
tours or how they are promoted, as tourist attractions. southwestern United States. The Hopi are bilingual, speak-
Another issue facing the Hmongs is the loss of their ing English as well as their own language. The Hopi lan-
languages. Many older Hmongs do not speak English guage belongs to the Uto-Aztecan language family but is
but are also not literate in any Hmong dialect. In addi- unrelated to any other Pueblo language.
tion, ­American-born Hmongs are increasingly not fluent The name Hopi is an abbreviated form of the name
in Hmong languages either. Some efforts are being made that the people call themselves, Hopituh Shi-nu-mu, which
to stop this language loss by offering Hmong-language translates from the Hopi language as “the peaceful people.”
classes to younger people in the United States. Some U.S. The designation Hopi is applied to anyone who follows the
universities also offer university-level courses in Hmong Hopi spiritual laws and customs, the Hopi Way, a concept
languages. In relation to the total Hmong population of rooted in Hopi spirituality, morals, and ethics.
the United States, however, there are few Hmong-language
resources available to keep alive the Hmong languages.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
See also: Karen; Khmer; Mon The Hopi population is thought to number around four-
Further Reading teen thousand people (Minahan 2013). The Hopi reser-
Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the vation is located in northeastern Arizona and consists of
Pacific. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. twelve autonomous villages atop three mesas spread across
Minority Rights Group International. 2012. “Struggle for Con-
approximately 1.5 million acres of land (Minahan 2013).
trol of Resources in South East Asia Feeds Ethnic Conflict,
Displacement and Threatens Livelihoods of Minorities and The mesas are called First Mesa, Second Mesa, and Third
Indigenous Peoples, New Global Report.” Minority Rights Mesa. The Hopi villages of Hanoki (or Tewa), Sichomovi,
Group International, June 28. http://minorityrights.org/2012​ Walpi, and Polacca are situated on First Mesa. The Second
/06/​28/struggle-for-control-of-resources-in-south-east​-asia​ Mesa is located ten miles west from First Mesa and where
-feeds​-ethnic-conflict-displacement-and-threatens​-live​li​ the villages of Mishongnovi, Sipaulovi, and Shungopavi
hoods​-of-minorities-and-indigenous-peoples-new​-global​
can be found. The Third Mesa is located on the western
-report.
Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Laos: Lao Sung.” edge of the Hopi reservation and is home to the villages of
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. Hotevilla, Kykotsmovi, Oraibi, and Bacavi. Several of the
http://minorityrights.org/minorities/lao-sung. Hopi villages are connected by Arizona State Route 264.
450 Hopi

Most Hopi live in traditional stone pueblos located on diseases introduced by the Europeans and from the raids
top of the mesas, though some prefer to live in modern conducted by Spanish treasure hunters.
housing at the base of mesas. Each of the three mesas on In 1629, thirty Roman Catholic Spanish monks arrived
which the Hopi live has its own Hopi dialect. in Hopituskwa, where they built a church and missionary.
Despite the monks’ best efforts, most Hopi did not convert
to Christianity. The Hopi’s refusal to change religion led to
Geography and Migration their persecution at the hands of the Spanish, who confis-
The Hopi homeland, known as Hopituskwa by the Hopi, cated the Hopi’s belongings and made them work as forced
is arid tableland (high altitude plateaus) dotted with cacti. laborers. The Spanish treatment of the Hopi soured the
The climate hot and sunny with little rainfall—around relationship between the Hopi and the colonists and, when
eight to ten inches annually (Eugene 2000). Despite the the Pueblo people living in the Rio Grande area revolted
land exhibiting desertlike conditions, the Hopi are able to against their Spanish rulers in 1680, the Hopi helped. This
farm on the land, growing crops that include corn, wheat, was the first recorded incidence of a union between the
peaches, apricots, beans, melons, sunflower seeds, and area’s Native peoples. The Hopi also attacked the Span-
squash. Some crop fields are located near natural springs ish settlements built near Hopituskwa and destroyed the
or other water sources, but the Hopi typically rely on dry Catholic churches that had been built there.
farming techniques as well as seasonal rains that water The attacks caused the Spanish to lose control of the
their crops. In addition to farming, the Hopi also raise cat- region, but by the start of the eighteenth century, Span-
tle, sheep, and goats. ish friars had begun to build new places of worship. In
response to this rebuilding work, the Hopi moved from
their villages and resettled on top of mesas, which the
History and Politics Spanish were unable to reach. The Hopi stayed atop the
The Hopi are descended from an ancient Puebloan peo- mesas throughout the eighteenth century, unaffected by
ple that inhabited the same area where they currently the wider world.
live. From around the 1100s to the 1400s, the Puebloan Over time, the Hopi came to develop trade links with
peoples built large apartment-like complexes in northeast- neighboring Navajo to whom the Hopi sold corn and meat
ern Arizona and northwestern New Mexico. At the start and traded hides. Despite forging trade links, the Navajo
of the 1600s, however, they abandoned their settlements. continually encroached on Hopi territory by allowing
The reason this is not known for certain, but it could be their sheep to graze on land belonging to the Hopi. This
that they began to suffer from a shortage of water in the encroachment often ended in violence between the Hopi
area. Once they left their settlements, the Puebloans split and the Navajo.
into two groups: the Zuni and the Hopi. The Hopi then set Following the Mexican-American War (1846–1848),
up four new settlements that included the town of Oraibi. Americans moved into Hopi areas, and eventually the Hopi
It has been claimed that Oraibi is the oldest continually came under the control of the Bureau of Indian Affairs, an
occupied village in the United States (Gilbert 2006). By the agency within the U.S. Department of the Interior that
1540s, Oraibi had become a large town and was home to had established itself in Santa Fe, New Mexico. In 1850,
up to three thousand people. four Hopi leaders went to Santa Fe and asked the Bureau
Europeans first made contact with the Hopi in 1540, of Indian Affairs to protect the Hopi against the Navajo.
when Spanish explorers entered into land owned by the In response, U.S. authorities constructed Fort Defiance in
Hopi and Zuni. The Hopi welcomed the Spanish visitors Arizona to deal with the Navajo threat to the Hopi. Then,
and provided them with information and directions to in 1858, Mormon missionaries entered Hopi land. The
help them with their travels. When the Spanish settled Mormons established good relations with the Hopi, and in
in the vicinity, they kept their camps far from Hopi areas, 1875, the first Mormon church was built on Hopi land.
and the Spanish did not visit the Hopi often. In addition, By the end of the nineteenth century, the Hopi had
Spanish soldiers were not stationed on Hopi land, as the experienced much societal change and modernization,
land did not provide access to the Rio Grande region including the building of the first schools on Hopi land.
where Spanish colonies were located. Between 1519 and In addition, the Hopi reservation was founded in 1882 on
1650, many thriving Hopi settlements were decimated by 2.5 million acres of land encircled by Navajo reservations
 Hopi 451

(Gilbert 2006). Also during the 1880s, the U.S. government involved in conservation projects. Some Hopi also sell
decided to divide Native peoples by religions, with the their handcrafted items, including silver jewelry, baskets,
Hopi allocated to the Baptists and Mennonites. In 1893, a rugs, pottery, and katsina dolls.
Mennonite minister, Rev. H. R. Voth, attempted to eradicate The Hopi preform many rituals and customs while fol-
the Hopi Way and replace traditional Hopi spirituality with lowing a set of spiritual laws that are part of the Hopi Way.
Mennonite Christianity. Unsurprisingly, the Hopi loathed From very early in life, Hopi children are integrated into
Voth, who was later replaced, but despite his removal, the tribal society through a number of rituals, including var-
Hopi revile Voth to this day (Minahan 2013). ious naming rites, though the specifics of how the rituals
In 1924, Native Americans were declared U.S. citizens are conducted may vary slightly between villages. When a
and thus were accorded more rights and opportunities. Hopi child is born, he or she spends the first nineteen days
During the period of the 1940s through to the 1970s, the of life inside the family home, secluded from the world
Navajo continued to encroach on Hopi land. This intrusion with his or her mother and cared for by a female elder, usu-
caused the Hopi to complain to state and federal authori- ally the paternal grandmother, who washes the baby every
ties, who tried to establish joint-use areas of land as well as five days using soap made from yucca. Traditionally, the
to define each people’s territory. These measures failed, and home is kept dark by a blanket or quilt draped across the
so the arguments between the Hopi and Navajo over land doorway and windows. Then, very early in the morning on
and water rights continue still. the baby’s twentieth day of life, the infant undergoes one of
the several naming rites he or she can expect to encounter
as a member of Hopi society.
Society, Culture, and Tradition As Hopi society is matrilineal, babies are considered
The Hopi base their world on the agricultural cycle. In born into their mother’s clan. When a Hopi baby is twenty
mid-April, they plant corn, their most important crop, in days old, however, he or she receives a childhood name, or
the fields located on the mesas. A second batch of corn is tsakotungwni, from the clanswomen on the father’s side,
planted in May or June. Hopi cornfields can vary in size, in particular the father’s aunts and grandmothers. This
from half and acre to more than eleven acres (Gilbert baby naming ritual is called the tipos’asna. Part of the cer-
2006), and usually belong to individual clans that pass emony involves the baby’s head being ritually washed in
the fields down through the generations via the female yucca suds by the clanswomen as they pass a tsotsmingwu,
bloodline. or mother corn, over the infant. To perform the washing,
The Hopi consider their territory to be sacred and each female relative brings with her a small jug of water
view themselves as custodians of the land. Indeed, to be to use during the ceremony. The mother, who for twenty
Hopi and follow the Hopi Way, one has to follow a path of days prior to the tipos’asna has abstained from eating meat,
peace with all things in accordance with the teachings of salt, and animal fats, is also washed in clean water. Once
the Hopi creator and caretaker of the world, Maasaw, the mother and baby have been washed, the baby is dressed,
Earth Guardian. According to Hopi beliefs, when humans and his or her face is daubed with white cornmeal.
first emerged into the world, they asked Maasaw where Corn is central to the Hopi religion and culture, for the
they should live. In response, Maasaw gave the Hopi a bag tribe has grown white, blue, red, and yellow varieties of the
of seeds, water, and a digging stick and told them that their grain since ancient times. The corn used in the tipos’asna
lives would be hard but that the items he had proffered is either collected at harvest time or shortly before the
would provide them with a long life. For this reason, the birth of the baby. The mother corn employed during the
Hopi are determinedly self-sufficient and rooted in the tipos’asna is an unblemished ear of corn featuring kernels
earth. along its length—sometimes two ears of corn are used
That said, Hopi culture is extremely adaptable, and in the ceremony, in which case the ears are referred to as
the people today are able to stay in touch with their tra- mother and grandmother. This corn represents the sym-
ditions while also embracing elements of contemporary bol of the mother (or mother and grandmother), as it is
American living. The Hopi’s willingness to maintain their both sustaining and nourishing. The baby’s family regards
traditional connection to the earth while embracing the the ear(s) of corn used in a baby’s tipos’asna as a sacred
new is reflected in their employment, for while many Hopi memento of the infant’s childhood, though some families
are farmers and raise cattle, others work in tourism or are use the mother corn in cooking at a later date.
452 Hopi

When the baby has been dressed and shown the mother are said along with entreaties that the baby’s parents may
corn, he or she is placed on the knee of the paternal grand- have more children. As the feast draws to a close, the baby’s
mother, who strokes the mother corn across the baby’s chest mother and maternal relatives present the baby’s paternal
and then wraps the baby in a quilt that she either made relatives with piki and other edible goodies to show their
herself or bought especially for the occasion. The giving of gratitude to the paternal relatives for providing the baby
quilts often accompanies the tipos’asna ceremony. In earlier with names.
times, it was common for the baby’s paternal grandfather to Many Hopi people, especially older Hopi women, con-
weave the quilt, and the baby would receive only one quilt sider the baby naming ceremony to be extremely impor-
as a mark of having undergone the tipos’asna. However, a tant to Hopi society, as the ceremony not only provides
baby today may receive many quilts from those who have a baby with an individual identity but also cements the
gathered to be part of the ceremony, and it is not unheard baby’s place in the family and Hopi society in general.
of for a baby to receive around ten quilts as tipos’asna gifts. When a Hopi child reaches eight or ten years of age, he
Once the paternal grandmother has wrapped the baby or she is initiated into way of the kachina (also written as
in the quilt, she next says blessings aimed at conferring on katsina), which are generally benevolent spirit beings that
the child a long and healthy life. As all the gathered clan- personify things in the real world. For this initiation, the
swomen confer a name on the baby during the ritual, the child is guided by his or her ceremonial godmother or god-
tipos’asna ends with many names being given to the baby father, an elder person that is selected to guide the child
that reflect affiliations within the father’s clan. Indeed, it is through the rite who is not considered by the clan to be
quite usual for a Hopi baby to receive between eight and associated with the child’s biological parents. The kachina
ten names at the tipos’asna, though, the baby’s extended ceremony is a rite of passage; it is a form of ritual rebirth
family and village members will usually only use one of during which the child has his or her hair ritually cleansed,
these names when referring to the child. Meanwhile, in and the child receives one or more katsintungwi names. If
preparation for the tipos’asna, a stew of corn on the cob the child initiate is a girl, the girl receives a name reflecting
and cedar leaves cooked in water is made and served to her godmother’s clan. If the child is a boy, he is given names
any guests (usually only close friends) who may visit. alluding to the clan of his godfather. The names that the
Once the baby has received the names and gifts, the child receives during the kachina ceremony connect him or
mother and paternal grandmother take the baby to the her to their godparents as well as to the tribe beyond their
eastern boundary of the village so that he or she may salute immediate family. This in turn helps connect the child to
the dawn. The baby is presented to the sun, and prayers are their wider society and provides the child with insight into
said to the Father-Sun, Taawa, so that the baby will receive their place within that society and the kinship network of
Taawa’s benevolence as he or she grows up. The mother the Hopi people. Traditionally, katsintungwi names received
and paternal grandmother also reiterate all the names by Hopi children were only used during ceremonies. Today,
given to the baby during the tipos’asna, and then the trio however, many Hopi identify themselves by using both
returns home to enjoy a ritual feast with other relatives, their childhood names and initiation names.
friends, and villagers. This feast consists of mutton that has When Hopi children become adults, they are awarded
been butchered by the father’s family for the occasion and additional names during a Marawtungwni or Wuwsimtung-
stewed with hominy, a food consisting of dried white or wni ceremony. Hopi children are known by their child-
yellow corn kernels. The mother’s family provides piki, a hood names until they enter religious society (females
type of thin bread made from blue cornmeal, as well as enter Maraw society, and males join Wuwtsim society), so
a traditional baked corn dessert called pikami. This pud- when they gain names conferred by their new godparents,
ding is a vital part of the celebration and is made from they not only gain new ceremonial parents but also forge
finely ground white cornmeal into which is stirred dried new ties between their own family and the wider Hopi
sprouted wheat, sugar, and water. community.
Before the feast begins, a piece of pikami is dipped in
the hominy stew and then placed in the baby’s mouth. Then
everyone else starts to eat. During the feast, a male relative Health Care and Education
of the baby offers a piece of food to the family’s spiritual The Hopi Health Care Center is located on the Hopi Res-
leaders and ancestors, and additional prayers for the baby ervation to provide health care to people from both the
 Hui 453

Hopi and Navajo tribes. The site was selected for its cen- See also: Apache; Comanche; Zuni
tral accessibility, with most people being able to reach the Further Reading
center within thirty-five to forty minutes. The center offers Eugene, Kaye. 2000. “Hopi Fight for Survival and Peace in the
primary and preventative medical services and is equipped New Millennium.” Cultural Survival, March. https://​www.cul​
with a birthing unit and surgical adult and pediatric units tural​survival.org/publications/cultural-survival​-quarterly​
/hopi​-fight-survival-and-peace-next-millennium.
staffed by twelve doctors. The center also provides general
Gilbert, Sakiestewa Matt. 2006. “Hopi.” In Encyclopedia of
medical care, eye care, dentistry, and surgical follow-up Immigration and Migration in the American West, edited by
treatments, plus pediatric and obstetric services. People Gordon Morris Bakken and Alexandra Kindell, 304–308.
suffering from major trauma, conditions requiring imme- Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
diate surgery, and high-risk obstetric patients are trans- Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An Ency-
ported from the center to other health centers, including clopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
University of Arizona. 2017. “Hopi Health Care Center.” Center
the Tuba City Indian Medical Hospital, the Chinle Hospi-
for Rural Health. http://crh.arizona.edu/programs/flex/cahs​
tal, and the Phoenix Indian Medical Center (University of -list/hopi.
Arizona 2017). Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
Hopi leaders actively promote education to their peo- World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA:
ple because they consider education the best way to ensure ABC-CLIO.
the survival of their tribe. In 2000, the Hopi Tribal Council
agreed to give $10 million to Hopi educational programs,
and it established the Hopi Education Endowment Fund
(Gilbert 2006). Many young Hopis leave their villages
to attend college and university, but they return to their
HUI
villages once they have graduated in the belief that their
Current Location China
knowledge will benefit their people.
Current Population 10.6 million
Language Mandarin Chinese
Threats to Survival Interesting Fact A Hui woman is not permitted to
The Hopi have managed to maintain their old ways while marry a non-Hui, but a Hui man
may wed any Muslim woman or
also adopting many aspects of modern American society
a woman who vows to become
and culture. The Hopi’s extended family and clan system
Muslim.
create a stable support system for the people. The Hopi
maintain their culture by performing their ceremonies
and customs, and their language continues to be spoken Overview
widely. In addition, Hopi farmers continue to raise crops The Hui, also known as the Hui-Hui, Huais, Hweis, Pan-
through dry farming techniques despite their homeland’s thay, Tonggans, T’ung-kan, Dungans, or Chinese Muslims,
meager rainfall. In short, the Hopi have existed for millen- are an ethnoreligious group living in China and other parts
nia and have carried on their ancient way of life for over of Asia. The name Hui is the abbreviated form of Huihui,
two thousand years. There seems little reason that their the generic name given to China’s Muslims during the
culture should not prevail for years to come. Ming and Qing Dynasties. The Hui speak Mandarin Chi-
However, one issue on the horizon emerged in Decem- nese, though some Hui communities also speak Arabic,
ber 2017. U.S. president Donald Trump is expected to Turkish, Central Asian, and Persian words as well as other
announce the substantial reduction of two Utah national Chinese dialects. Almost all Hui are Sunni Muslims.
monuments, Grand Staircase-Escalante and Bears Ears, Some researchers hypothesize that the Hui are virtually
to allow greater opportunities for land development and indistinguishable from China’s Han majority, while others
mining industries. In response to this threat, a coalition of suggest that it is difficult to make generalizations about the
five Utah Native tribes with ties to this land—the Hopi, the Hui as they are geographically diverse, have slightly differ-
Navajo Nation, the Ute Mountain Ute, the Ute Indian Tribe, ent historical backgrounds, and experience life differently,
and the Pueblo of Zuni—has sworn to oppose any changes depending on where they live. It is for these reasons that
to the areas around the monuments. some academics suggest that the Hui should not be seen
454 Hui

as a single, unified ethnic group. That having been said, it In December 1920, the powerful Haiyuan earthquake
is possible to describe certain Hui social conventions and occurred in the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, trigger-
taboos, much of which has been greatly influenced by Islam. ing a series of landslides that killed an estimated two hun-
dred thousand people and creating numerous new lakes.
Ningxia is rich in natural resources, including quartz
Population, Diaspora, and Migration sandstone, phosphorus, flint, copper, iron, barite, and a
The Hui are the third-largest ethnic group in China with clay stone called Helan stone. The area is also home to nat-
a population estimated at around 10.6 million people ural gas and oil deposits.
(Minahan 2014). Most Hui live in Ningxia Hui Autono-
mous Region and the Zhongyuan, but there are also Hui
communities located in Beijing, Inner Mongolia, Hebei, History and Politics
Hainan, and Yunnan. While some Hui living in cities such Muslim merchants and sailors from Arabia and Persian
as Shanghai or Beijing are culturally and religiously indis- brought Islam to the Chinese during the eighth century. By
tinguishable from the majority Han Chinese population, the end of the ninth century, there were established Muslim
many cities in China have a significant Hui minority pop- groups in many parts of China. The name Hui (or Hui-Hui)
ulation consisting of close-knit communities. This is espe- first appears in Chinese documents from the Northern Song
cially true in the northern provinces of Ningxia, Gangsu, dynasty written between 960 and 1127 CE. During the thir-
and Quinghai. teenth century, many Muslim Arabs, Turks, and Persians
The Hui are also found on the frontier between China fled the Mongol conquest of their territory and migrated
and Myanmar and in the Central Asian nations of Kazakh- to the remote south of northern China’s Alashan Desert.
stan, Uzbekistan, and Kyrgyzstan as well as in Thailand The refugees married Han Chinese, Mongol, and Uyghur
and Taiwan. Outside of China, the Hui are known by a women and over time assimilated into local society, taking
variety of names. For example, in Russia and Central Asia, up Chinese cultural traditions while finding work as arti-
the Hui are called the Dungan, which is the name given to sans, traders, and academics. However, although the refu-
the descendants of Chinese Muslims who migrated to the gees assimilated, they did not give up their Muslim religion
Russian Empire (present-day Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan) and spread Islam throughout parts of China.
in the 1870s and 1880s. During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, the Hui
began to come together as a unified people, combining ele-
ments of Han Chinese traditions with Middle Eastern and
Geography and Environment Central Asian rituals. They also started to intermarry with
The Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region is bordered by the the Han, a societal change that resulted in the Hui’s physi-
provinces of Shaanxi and Gansu and the Inner Mongo- cal features changing to resemble those of the Han. In the
lia Autonomous Region. The region is relatively arid but fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the Muslim refugees
has a diverse landscape featuring forested mountains and living in the Alashan Desert spread out from the desert
hills, tablelands, and deserts, including the Tengger Desert region and converted their neighbors to Islam. The Mus-
of Shapotou; flood plains and basins carved by the Yellow lims of the Alashan area had lived only nominally under
River make for the region’s best farmland. Irrigation allows Chinese rule and now established their own Muslim state
the people to grow goji berries (or wolfberries) throughout ruled by a Hui sultan, a situation that irritated successive
the region. Chinese rulers.

Goji Berries
The goji berry, or wolfberry, is the fruit of two related species of boxthorn native to Asia. The boxthorn is part of
the nightshade family, Solanaceae, which also includes potatoes, tomatoes, eggplants, and tobacco. Goji berries are
reputed to boost immunity and brain activity, to protect against heart disease and cancers, and to increasing longevity.
Goji berries contain vitamins C, B2, and A; iron; selenium; and other antioxidants.
 Hui 455

In 1644, the Manchu conquest of China allowed the influences grew throughout China. The Hui revolted in
Hui to try to throw off all claims on them by non-Muslim 1873 and 1895, with both rebellions quashed by imperial
Chinese rulers. However, in 1648, Manchu soldiers entered forces, slowing the progress of Islam in China.
the Alashan region, and after long and bloody conflict, the The China Rebellion of 1911 allowed the Hui to affirm
Manchu were able to subjugate the Hui. The Hui did not their Islamic character. Hui rebels led by local Muslim war-
take to being ruled by the Manchu and frequently rebelled. lords drove Chinese authorities out of Ningxia, which had
In 1785, the Manchu authorities decided to finish off Hui become the Hui stronghold, and subsequently established
resistance and set imperial troops on the Hui, who were an independent Hui government headed by a sultan. How-
subsequently massacred in such numbers by the state ever, fighters loyal to the newly formed Chinese republic
forces that the Alashan region was left underpopulated invaded the Hui state by playing the Muslim warlords
(Minahan 2014). Those Hui who were not slaughtered fled against each, causing much infighting among the Hui. At the
the region by journeying to other areas of China as well start of the twentieth century, China entered into civil war
as Southeast Asia. Once the Manchu determined that they as the weak Chinese republican government tried to fend
had ended all Hui attempts at insurrection, they stopped off the communist influence sweeping across the country.
massacring the people. As a result of this end to the killing, The government courted an influential Hui clan called the
a small number of Hui returned to their former home in Ma that was based in Ningxia. Throughout the 1920s and
the Alashan region. At the same time, the Manchu resettled the 1930s, the Chinese government held only nominal sway
members of the Han population from overpopulated parts over Ningxia, and a separate Ningxia province was created
of eastern China to Hui areas of the Alashan Desert. in 1928 to both provide the Huis with a degree of inde-
During the nineteenth century, the Hui rebelled against pendence and to ensure the thankful Hui remained loyal
the ruling Qing dynasty. The Huis living in Yunnan province to the government. Once the Hui province was created, the
in southern China also entered into violent conflict with people formed a militia that fought off marauding warlords
the Han majority population. Further fighting between the and various political cliques. Many young Hui also enlisted
Hui and the Han erupted in 1855, when miners from the in a private provincial armed force loyal to the Ma.
two ethnic groups started a rivalry that escalated into vio- The Chinese central government took control of
lence that saw many Hui massacred by the Han. This mas- Ningxia in 1936, but it treated the Hui with more leniency
sacre led to a general Hui rebellion against the Han that than before. Eager to keep the Hui on their side during the
spread throughout Yunnan province and only ended when civil war, the government also allowed the Hui to follow
the rebels were defeated in 1873. Meanwhile, another Hui Islam with more freedom than previously. The govern-
rebellion, this time in northern China’s Shanxi province, ment’s communist opposition also tried to woo the Hui,
spread to neighboring areas such as Gansu as well as to the but the communists’ antireligious attitude alienated the
Muslim Uyghur people living in Xingjian. The two Mus- Hui greatly. Nonetheless, in 1949, the communists won the
lim groups—the Hui and the Uyghurs—rebelled together Chinese civil war, and the Hui and other groups rebelled
in the face of local repression and discrimination. As the against their new rulers. In 1953, one Hui group living in
imperial forces were busy quieting the Taiping rebellion in the Alashan region attempted to rise up against the com-
eastern China, the Muslim revolt (now referred to as the munists to create a separate Hui state that was to be called
Panthay Rebellion) was able to continue into the 1870s. the Chinese Islamic Republic, but this rebellion was rap-
Thousands of people died in the rebellion, and many oth- idly quashed. The Chinese communists went on to dissolve
ers were left displaced. The rebellion also had a lasting the Ningxia province, leaving the Hui as the only Chinese
effect on the Hui, who even now have a distrust for official- minority group without their own designated homeland
dom. After the revolt, the Hui were not allowed to work in within China.
political positions and became a despised minority. In the 1950s and more especially during the Chinese
Over the years, the Han Chinese have launched numer- Cultural Revolution of 1967 to 1977, the majority of Hui
ous indiscriminate attacks on the Hui, and a general mosques were shut, and Hui religious leaders were made
intolerance of Islam developed in China. The assaults by to parade through the streets with pigs’ heads tied to their
the Han and the anti-Islam feelings have caused the Hui necks. Hui women were also made to marry non-Hui men
to periodically revolt in many areas of China. Hui discon- (Minahan 2014). Strict Chinese Communism ceased at the
tent increased as antigovernment Western and Japanese end of the 1970s, and so minority groups were permitted
456 Hui

greater independence. New laws governing religion that they will drink only flowing water or water from a clean
came into effect in 1993 allowed the Hui to practice their source. Similarly, the Hui will not bathe, wash clothes,
religion with a freedom they had not known for many or pour dirty water near sources of drinking water. Also,
years. before and after every meal, the Hui wash their hands in
In the twenty-first century, the Hui have not benefited running water.
as much as other groups from China’s economic devel- One of the most well-known treats the Hui present to
opment. Hui incomes are less than the Chinese national guests is Gaiwan tea (tea served in lidded cups). Drinking
average, and they earn considerably less than people living Gaiwan tea is a Hui cultural practice that can be traced back
in the southeast of China. In modern China, their remains to the Tang dynasty (618–907 CE). The Hui make their Gai-
some unease between communists and Muslims, with gov- wan tea using jasmine tea mixed with ingredients that may
ernment policies permitting the assertion of religious and include longan, dried persimmon, medlar, and jujube as
ethnic identities while also encouraging assimilation. In well as sesame and sugar candy. These ingredients are then
addition, Chinese authorities have struggled to balance the added to melted snow or spring water. When serving the
need to allow religious minorities the right to follow their tea to a guest, the Hui host first fills the guest’s cup with
faith while maintaining the country’s atheism. At the same boiled water to show the guest that the tea is fresh rather
time, the Chinese government has celebrated the Hui’s eth- than tea left by someone else. The Hui host then pours
noreligious identity while also fearing that radical Islam the  water from the cup, places the dry tea ingredients in
may infiltrate some of the country’s Muslim groups as well the cup, and then pours boiling water into the cup on top
as the wider society, despite government efforts to prevent of the dry ingredients. The Hui host will use two hands to
this situation from occurring. give the cup to the guest, as this is a sign of respect. The
guest will then drink the tea, leaving the lid on the cup but
leaving a small gap so that they are able to drink. When
Society, Culture, and Tradition welcoming a guest to their home, a Hui host will often serve
Today, modern Hui have similar physical features to Chi- the guest Gaiwan tea as well as homemade cakes and candy
na’s majority Han population, but they are distinguished accompanied by fruit. Most Hui have a sweet tooth, with
by their distinctive dress that is influenced by Islam. Many their preference for sweet foods likely related to their Arab
Hui men wear traditional hats, which are small, brim- heritage. When a guest visits a Hui home, it is customary for
less, and usually colored white, though some men wear all the host’s family members to come welcome the guest. If
black hats. Other Hui men wear pentagonal, hexagonal, the guest has traveled from afar, once the visit is completed,
or octagonal hats. Alternatively, Hui men may not wear a he or she will be escorted out of the Hui village or town.
hat but instead wrap their heads in white towels or lengths The Hui eat beef and mutton, but they consider the eat-
of fabric. This variation in headwear reflects the various ing of some other meats to be taboo. For instance, the Hui
branches of Islam to which the men adhere. Hui men tend consider pigeons to be sacred and do not eat them except
to wear double-breasted white shirts, which some sport under certain circumstances. For example, if pigeon is
together with white trousers and socks. included in medicine, it may be fed to someone who is ill
Hui women normally wear white hats with rounded as long as an imam (the leader of worship at a mosque)
brims and veils. Young Hui girls wear green veils trimmed has blessed the medicine. In general, the Hui also consider
with golden thread and embroidered with floral patterns. it taboo to eat dog, horse, donkey, mule, animals that kill
Once a Hui woman has married, she will traditionally their prey, and blood. The Hui also do not eat any animal
adopt a black veil that covers her head and shoulders. that has been killed by non-Hui people or that has died
Elderly Hui women wear white veils that hide their heads naturally. Moreover, the Hui tend to only eat meat from
and backs. Hui women usually wear side-opening clothes. animals that have been killed by a Hui cook or by an imam.
Those worn by young Hui girls and married women are It should be noted that although the Hui are greatly
decorated with threads and embroidered flowers. influenced by Islam and are referred to as Chinese Muslims
Hui cuisine varies by location. Hui people living in the and that they live in areas that tend to have many mosques,
Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region typically eat food made it does not necessarily follow that all Hui are practicing
from flour, while in Gansu and Qinghai, the Hui prefer Muslims. Indeed, some Hui living along China’s south
foods based on cereals and potatoes. The Hui people tend coast eat pork (which is forbidden in Islam), and many
to be very particular about what they drink. For example, Hui people do not fast during the Muslim holy month of
 Hui 457

Ramadan. This being said, Hui people are often offended if wants to marry a girl from another ethnic group, such as
asked whether they believe in a Hui religion because they the Han, it is made clear to the girl that she must gain an
take great pride in belonging to the world religion of Islam, understanding of Hui culture and convert to Islam. The
even if they do not adhere to every facet of Islamic life. marriage will not be allowed to go ahead if the girl does
The influence of Islam on Hui society is evident in not fulfill these criteria. At a marriage feast, the couple is
the three major festivals enjoyed by most Hui people: served eight or twelve dishes. The number of dishes served
Hari Raya Puasa, Eid Al-Adha, and Mawlid an-Nabi. The must be even because this symbolizes that the new couple
three-day Hari Raya Puasa (Fast Ending Festival) is widely will be paired together forever. Hui funerals do not involve
celebrated among Chinese Islamic communities during many rituals or customs. One of the few Hui funeral taboos
Ramadan. On the festival’s first day, families get up early is that mourners must not wail, as this is viewed as show-
to clean the mosques and courtyards, thereby creating an ing contempt for the dead.
atmosphere of cleanliness and comfort. All the participat- Because of the Hui’s heritage, in some areas, the Hui
ing Hui people then dress in their best clothes and hang up speak Mandarin that also includes Arabic, Turkish, Cen-
colorful lanterns. tral Asian, and Persian vocabulary. The resultant way
Eid al-Adha, the feast of sacrifice, fidelity, and filial of speaking, known as Hui speech (Huihui bua) is not a
piety, is usually celebrated seventy days after Hari Raya language as such but is a distinct mode of expression of
Puasa. To mark the occasion, the Hui sacrifice strong ani- both Hui ethnicity and religion. The Hui living in areas
mals and divide the resultant meat into three lots. One lot bordering regions of China often use the dialects of other
is presented to close family members; the second is given local ethnic minorities. Although Hui speech includes ele-
to relatives, friends, and neighbors; and the final portion ments of Arabic, this does not mean that the Hui necessar-
is given to the poor. Hui elders boil the meat and then the ily speak or understand Arabic. Indeed, many Hui recite
children bury the bones underground, covering them with Islamic scriptures in Koranic Arabic, as they cannot read
soil. Many Hui families also feel it is correct at this time or write Arabic.
to invite imams into their houses to recite the Koran and
partake of food.
The third festival, Mawlid an-Nabi, which takes place Health Care and Education
on twelfth day of the third month of the Islamic calen- The Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, where the majority
dar, commemorates the birthday and death anniversary of Hui live, is one of China’s poorest provinces. National
of the Prophet Mohammed. On this day, Muslims visit surveys have revealed that tuberculosis has been at higher
the mosque to recite the Koran, send blessings to Prophet than endemic levels in the province for many decades.
Mohammed and his family, and attend lectures on the The Ministry of Health of the People’s Republic of China
life of Mohammed given by imams. The Hui also donate believes that five million people in China currently have
cereal, oil, meat, and money to the local mosque. The Hui tuberculosis, with 80 percent of the cases being found in
also consider it right to perform voluntary work and char- poor rural areas, including the Ningxia Hui Autonomous
itable deeds on this day. Region. Despite the disease having been prevalent in
The Hui typically follow a fairly puritanical lifestyle and these areas for many years, there is very little published
tend not to tell jokes (especially jokes about food), smoke, literature pertaining to tuberculosis in the Ningxia Hui
drink alcohol, gamble, or take part in fortune-telling activ- Autonomous Region apart from a small number of local
ities. Also, young Hui people are not allowed to socialize government documents and brief reports. Among the Hui,
with older group members—Hui elders sit in special seats, the lowest incidence of tuberculosis occurs in people from
while children and younger people sit on the edge of seats infant to nineteen years old. In general, the occurrences
or on benches. Other proscribed behavior includes sitting were higher in men than in women, especially in people
or stepping on thresholds because, according to Muslim over age s­ ixty-five years (Yang et al. 2012).
lore, Prophet Mohammed used the threshold as his pillow. Hui communities usually have separate primary and
It is also taboo in Hui society to employ certain foods as secondary schools for their children rather than schools
similes. For example, a Hui person would not say that the that allow Hui children to study alongside non-Hui chil-
reddish skin of a chili was as red as blood. dren. The curriculum at Hui schools is expected to be the
The Hui tend to discourage their people from marrying same as at non-Hui schools. The Hui tend not to favor the
outside of their ethnic group. If, for example, a Hui man idea of girls studying with boys. During China’s Cultural
458  Hutu and Tutsi

Revolution, authorities closed Hui single-sex schools, not had to do this. As they are geographically diverse, the
but these were reopened in 1987. The closure of the girls’ Hui are less concentrated and therefore less threatening to
schools is said to have harmed female Hui education and authorities than, say, the Uyghurs. In addition, the Hui also
literacy for generations of Hui females whose parents have no wish for independence and so seem less of a threat
would not allow the females to study at coeducational to the Chinese government.
schools. The topic of female education continues to be con- Although the Hui continue to be genial to outside Mus-
troversial among the Hui (Dillon 1999). lim businesses and the number of Hui participating in
Islam is on the rise, they may need to be careful of a shift in
attitude by the Chinese authorities. Recently, it has become
Threats to Survival increasingly difficult for Hui to apply for passports, and
Traditionally merchants, many Hui are financially success- their religious education has been restricted in some areas.
ful, and it is thought that their religious participation is Such measures many suggest that the Chinese government
growing now that the people are allowed to practice their aims to control any threat of Hui nationalism that may
religion openly. At the same time, however, the Hui are arise in the future.
generally assimilated into mainstream Chinese society, for
See also: Dai; Mosuo; Uyghur
they speak Mandarin and have adapted their religious tra-
Further Reading
ditions to fit local customs. One of the most visual exam-
Dillon, Michael. 1999. China’s Muslim Hui Community: Migra-
ples of the Hui’s ability to follow their religion yet fit into tion, Settlement and Sects. Richmond, UK: Curzon.
Chinese society is the mosque of Xi’an, which is reputed to Dörrer, Kiyo. 2016. “The Hui—China’s Preferred Muslims?” DW:
be one of the largest and oldest mosques in China. ASIA, September 12. http://www.dw.com/en/the-hui-chinas​
The number of practicing Hui Muslims is rising. In -preferred-muslims/a-36699666.
recent years, there has been a marked increase in the num- Gladney, Dru C. 1996. Muslim Chinese: Ethnic Nationalism in the
People’s Republic. Harvard East Asian Monographs 149. Cam-
ber of Hui women wearing the hijab headdress, and the
bridge, MA: Harvard University Press for the Council of East
number of Hui making the hajj pilgrimage to Mecca is also Asian Studies at Harvard University.
increasing. One of the reasons for this increased partici- Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East and Cen-
pation is improved communication between the Hui and tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
other Muslim groups. In addition, the worldwide influence Williams, Victoria. 2017. “Hui.” In Etiquette and Taboos around
of Islam is being felt in China through both the Hui return- the World: A Geographic Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural
Customs, edited by Ken Taylor and Victoria Williams, 126–
ing from the hajj and telling their fellow Hui of the people
129. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
they have met and through increased business relation- Yang, Yu Rong, Donald P. McManus, Darren J. Gray, Xiao Ling
ships between the Hui and the Middle East. Wang, Shu Kun Yang, Allen G. Ross, Gail M. Williams, and
Trade between China and the Middle East is proving Magda K. Ellis. 2012. “Evaluation of the Tuberculosis Pro-
increasingly important to the Chinese. To attract Arab busi- gramme in Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, the People’s
ness, the capital of the Ningxia Hui Autonomous Region, Republic of China: A Retrospective Case Study.” BMC Pub-
lic Health 12: 1110. https://bmcpublichealth.biomedcentral​
Yinchuan, has been greatly improved by the authorities. A
.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2458-12-1110.
new $3.7 billion Islamic theme park called World Muslim
City is being built, and the city’s street signs are written in
Arabic. It should be noted, however, that these alterations
have generally been made to improve business relation-
ships rather than as a sign of religious tolerance (Dörrer
2016). HUTU AND TUTSI
Hui Muslims play an important role as mediators in trade
Current Location Rwanda; Burundi
between the Middle East and China. Many Hui understand
Arabic, having worked in Dubai or other parts of the Mid- Current Population 6 million
dle East, and therefore have knowledge and insight that is Language Rwanda-Rundi; French
invaluable in strengthening trade relations. Although other Interesting Fact Following the Rwandan genocide
ethnoreligious minorities such as the Uyghurs have faced involving the Hutu and Tutsi, it is
repressive measures, such as being made to hand in their now illegal to discuss ethnicity in
passports to authorities, the more assimilated Hui have Rwanda.
 Hutu and Tutsi  459

Overview of Africa’s Great Lakes region during the tenth century as

The Hutu, also called the Wakhutu, Bahutu, or Abahutu, are part of the Bantu territorial expansion. As the Hutu live
a Bantu ethnic group indigenous to Rwanda and Burundi. as settled small-scale farmers, they soon began to clear
The Tutsi, also called the Batusi, Tussi, Watussi, or Watutsi, forests to make way for crops. They used the felled trees
also live in Rwanda and Burundi. The name Tutsi trans- for building materials, firewood, and charcoal, with which
lates as “cattle-herders.” This name was first recorded dur- they smelted iron. However, clearing the forests for farm-
ing the nineteenth century. Both the Hutu and Tutsi speak ing meant there was land newly available to pastoralists
the Rwanda-Rundi language, which is a member of the such as the Tutsi, who had migrated from Ethiopia. The
Bantu subgroup of the Niger-Congo language family. The Tutsi probably originated from the intermingling of the
language is subdivided into the Kinyarwanda and Kirundi Ugandan Hima people and the Hinda cattle herders with
dialects. A standardized version of Rwanda-Rundi is one Bantu aristocracy. In the fifteenth century, the Tutsi moved
of the official languages of Rwanda and Burundi, as is to Rwanda, where they settled on land cleared by the Hutu
French, which many Hutu and Tutsi also speak. Most Hutu and used it for cattle grazing. At this point, Hutu society
and Tutsi are Christian, though some Hutu maintain ani- was based around clans, and kings (bahinza) ruled over
mist beliefs. A minority of Tutsi are Muslim. limited domains.
During the seventeenth century, the first Tutsi kingdom,
Nyiginya, was established and continued to grow. In the
Population, Diaspora, and Migration nineteenth and twentieth centuries, Nyiginya expanded to
The total Hutu population of Rwanda and Burundi is include a host of political and social institutions. Although
around 6 million, meaning about 85 percent of the popu- Nyiginya was fairly small, it managed to take over the mul-
lation in both nations is Hutu (Shoup 2011). There are also tiple Hutu kingdoms through a combination of both vio-
approximately 2 million Hutu refugees in the Democratic lence and through establishing a lord-vassal relationship.
Republic of Congo, Tanzania, and Uganda (Walker 2017). Each new kingdom was ruled by a Tutsi mwami (king),
The Tutsi population of Rwanda and Burundi is approxi- and eventually the Tutsi established two large kingdoms,
mately 2.5 million; they make up around 14 percent of the Ruanda and Urundi.
population in these countries (Shoup 2011). By the end of the nineteenth century, all Hutu king-
doms were under Tutsi control. The Tutsi imposed social
classes based on cattle ownership on their subjects, result-
Geography and Environment ing in the agricultural Hutu being classed as inferior. The
Rwanda and Burundi are landlocked countries in Africa’s Tutsi also imposed a requirement that marriage should
Great Lakes region. Rwanda is bordered by Uganda to the involve cattle in bride-price negotiations, which again
north and Tanzania to the east. Burundi borders Rwanda put the Hutu at a disadvantage. Under the Tutsi, a social
to the south. Much of Rwanda is highly elevated, with the system called ubuhake was put in place, whereby shebuja
landscape dominated by mountains in the west and savan- (patrons) were bound together with their garagu (clients),
nah to the east. There are also many lakes, swamps, and to whom they would give cattle as rewards for services,
plains throughout the country. Rwanda’s climate is tem- such as giving away crops. Ubuhake was an unfair system
perate to subtropical. Burundi is bordered by Tanzania to because it allowed patrons to end a contact at will, some-
the east and south and by the Democratic Republic of the thing that would force their clients to return all the cattle
Congo to the west. Burundi’s southwest border abuts Lake they had received back to their patron as well as giving
Tanganyika. Burundi’s land is mostly used for farming or the patron any goods they had produced (Shoup 2011). It
as pasture. In rural areas, settlement growth has led to was, however, possible for a Hutu to become a Tutsi. This
deforestation, soil erosion, and habitat loss. could be achieved by performing a service to the king, who
would then enact a ceremony called guhutura (“to shed
Hutu status”). A Hutu person could also marry into Tutsi
History and Politics society, though any resultant children would take on the
The history of the Hutu and Tutsi is inextricably entwined, identity of their father. A Tutsi could also become a Hutu if
and some researchers assert that the differences between they became poverty-stricken.
the two peoples are based on social classes and economics Toward the end of the nineteenth century, Germany
rather than ethnicity. The Hutu migrated to the Highlands incorporated Ruanda and Urundi into German East Africa
460  Hutu and Tutsi

(as the Ruanda-Urundi territory). After World War II, thousand fled to other countries. Then, in the 1990s,
Ruanda-Urundi became a  Trust Territory  of the  United conflict between the Hutu and Tutsi saw seven hundred
Nations, and in 1962, the region became the separate thousand people (both Hutu and Tutsi) migrate elsewhere
nations of Rwanda and Burundi. (Shoup 2011). In 2003, talks aimed at calming the political
In 1911, the Germans helped the Tutsi defeat a Hutu situation in Burundi began, and since then, two Hutu have
revolt. Then, in 1916, German East Africa was awarded to been elected president of Burundi.
Belgium. European colonists did not understand the basis In Rwanda, the Rwandan Revolution resulted in a
of the Hutu-Tutsi relationship because it did not fit with large Tutsi diaspora forming in Uganda. From there, the
the European idea of ethnicity (Shoup 2011), and so they Tutsi launched several cross border assaults on the Hutu
instituted the idea that the Hutu and Tutsi were physically with little impact. In 1963, however, the Uganda-based
different. The Tutsi were considered nobler, taller, and Tutsi managed to overrun a Hutu military installation
more advanced than the Hutu, who were shorter and had from which they stole weapons. The Tutsi then launched
darker skin and wider noses than the Tutsi. Under colo- an ill-fated invasion of the Rwandan capital of Kigali,
nial rule, the social differences between the Hutu and Tutsi which resulted in the deaths of one hundred thousand
were intensified. This situation was exacerbated by the way Tutsi (Shoup 2011). Following the invasion, the Rwandan
in which the Belgians favored the Tutsi over the Hutu and president was ousted, and a Hutu general, Juvenal Habya-
employed them to run tea and coffee plantations that used rimana, was installed as head of a totalitarian dictatorship.
Hutu labor. Two years later, Habyarimana formed the Mouvement
In Rwanda, however, the Hutu were educated by Chris- Révolutionaire National pour le Développement (MRND),
tian missionaries, and they began to demand equality and he imposed a strict quota system in which 9 percent
with the Tutsi. Subsequently, the Hutu demand for equal- of the jobs could go to Tutsi, who were also barred from
ity resulted in the Europeans beginning to side with the becoming officers in the Rwandan military. Hutu soldiers
Hutu over the Tutsi. In 1957, a band of Hutu scholars pub- were also forbidden to marry Tutsi women.
lished the Bahutu Manifesto, which called for the end of In 1991, Rwandan authorities established a program
Tutsi control over the Hutu and equal rights for the Hutu. that completely separated the Hutu from the Tutsi, and any
The Tutsi refused the Hutu demands, responding that the Hutu found to have contravened the system was dubbed
Hutu-Tutsi relationship was that of client-patron. Subse- a traitor. The MRND also formed a youth wing called the
quently, in 1959, the Rwandan Revolution broke out dur- Interahamwe as well as a youth militia focused on Habya-
ing which many thousands of Tutsi, including the last Tutsi rimana’s wife, Agathe Kanziga, who was at the heart of a
king, were killed, and two hundred thousand Tutsi fled to powerful Hutu clique. Despite the overtly discriminatory
neighboring countries. In 1961, the Hutu, together with policies of the MRND, France supported the party because
the Belgians, declared the kingdom of Rwanda obsolete. French authorities feared its influence in Francophone
Rwanda became independent the following year. Mean- Africa might wane if the English-speaking Tutsi Rwandese
while, in Burundi, the Hutu continued living under Tutsi Patriotic Front (RPF) gained power. In 1993, Habyarimana,
control. Kanziga, and her clique drew up plans to cleanse Rwanda
In 1961, Burundi became separate from the ­Rwanda- of the Tutsi. The Interahamwe were armed and trained to
Burundi colony before gaining its own independence in kill Tutsi, and Rwandan officials collected the names and
1962. After independence, the Burundi king announced addresses of Tutsi in Rwanda.
that the country would become a constitutional mon- After Habyarimana’s plane was shot down in 1994, as
archy and that the Hutu would be represented in parlia- he returned from signing a peace treaty with the RPF, the
ment. However, when a Hutu was elected prime minister, period of history commonly known as the Rwandan gen-
the king refused to install him in the position, leading to ocide began. In one hundred days, between five hundred
mass Hutu revolts. The Burundi authorities responded to thousand and eight hundred thousand Tutsi and mod-
the uprising by killing many Hutu, especially members of erate Hutu were murdered by the Rwandan military and
the Hutu intelligentsia. Although the uprising failed, it did the Interahamwe, with most murders committed using
lead to a military coup that ousted the Burundian king. machetes and clubs. The Interahamwe targeted Tutsi
During the 1970s, the Hutu rebelled again. This time some women especially, branding them as seductresses and
two hundred thousand Hutu died, and one hundred witches who used their wiles to spy on Hutu men. As a
 Hutu and Tutsi  461

result of this depiction of Tutsi women, multiple reports of though Tutsi women are permitted to marry Hutu men.
Hutu men murdering their Tutsi wives surfaced. In such cases, any resultant children are considered Tutsi.
Eventually, the RPF defeated the Rwandan army, and While many Hutu live in urban areas, most are farm-
the Hutu government fled to Zaire (now the Democratic ers that reside in small compounds composed of buildings
Republic of the Congo). Meanwhile, Kanziga and her clique made from reeds and grass that are surrounded by fences.
were assisted by France and evacuated from Kigali by the The Hutu diet is rich in starches but low in protein and
French military during the UN-brokered rescue of “white fat. The most commonly eaten foods are cereals, bananas,
non combatants” (Shoup 2011). Following the RFP defeat sweet potatoes, and beans. Hutu eat fish and meat infre-
of the Rwandan army, the Interahamwe spread rumors of quently. If the Hutu eat meat, it will most likely be goat.
Tutsi reprisals against the Hutu, causing around 1.7 mil- The Hutu make beer from cassava and bananas. Today,
lion Hutu to flee to Zaire. the Tutsi still farm animals, including cattle, goats, and
The new Rwandan authorities attempted to recon- sheep, but they also farm the land, growing cash crops that
cile the Hutu and Tutsi. Approximately 130,000 Hutu include tea and coffee. The Tutsi diet is traditionally based
were arrested for their alleged involvement in the Rwan- around the consumption of milk and butter. They also
dan genocide and made to await trial in Tanzania by the enjoy bananas, beans, beer, mead, and honey.
UN-backed International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda. People in Rwanda tend to wear European-style clothes.
The tribunal began proceedings in 1996 and indicted 93 In rural Rwanda, women wear long garments that cover
people, of whom 62 individuals were convicted of com- their legs. The traditional Rwandan dress for women is
mitting war crimes, acts of genocide, rape, and using hate a silk garment called an umushanana. Traditionally, the
media. The tribunal closed in 2015, by which time it had umushanana was worn by older women and consisted of a
become the first international court to convict people of wrap skirt gathered at the hips with a sash draped over one
the crime of genocide as well as the first to recognize rape shoulder. Today, the umushanana is worn as a one-piece
as a method of committing genocide. outfit that resembles an Indian sari and is usually reserved
The presence of over one million Hutu in the Demo- for formal occasions. The traditional Burundi garment is
cratic Republic of Congo led to problems in the country a fabric wrap called a pagne that is worn by girls, women,
and resulted in the downfall of its president, Mobutu Sese and older men living in the rural parts of the country. The
Seko. Hutu groups formed a state in Kivu province in the pagne is worn over dresses, blouses, and shirts. Burundian
Democratic Republic of Congo, where they recruited and women also wear scarves to cover their heads. The Tutsi
trained an army. The Hutu were also involved in the civil tend to favor Western clothes, with traditional dress worn
war that tore through the Democratic Republic of Congo only by dancers who perform on ceremonial occasions.
between 1994 and 1998. Today, many Hutu live as refugees The main Hutu crafts are basketry, weaving, pottery, and
in the east of the Democratic Republic of Congo. Mass blacksmithing. The Tutsi are also known for their pottery
graves containing the skeletons of Hutu and Tutsi killed and basketry as well as beadwork.
during the Rwandan genocide have been discovered as The majority of Hutu and Tutsi are Christian, particu-
recently as April 2018. larly Roman Catholic. Some Hutu, including those that
identify as Christian, maintain animist beliefs and worship
a benevolent god called Imana. The Hutu also believe in
Society, Culture, and Tradition witchcraft, sorcery, and ghosts.
Rwandan society is hierarchical, and great emphasis is
placed on social etiquette that demonstrates respect and
social rank. The Hutu often marry young (around puberty Health Care and Education
for girls and at age seventeen for boys). A bridegroom’s Many people in Rwanda suffer posttraumatic stress disor-
father must pay a bride-price in the form of cattle, goats, der (PTSD), depression, and anxiety caused by witnessing
and beer to the bride’s family as a sign of esteem. Hutu killings, seeing mutilated bodies, or as a result of assault.
husbands and wives are allowed sexual freedom; husbands Common medical conditions among the people include
are permitted to have more than one wife, each of whom headaches, coughs, malaria, chronic pain, and HIV/AIDS,
should have her own compound (Diagram Group 2013). and there are also high rates of disability due to violence
Tutsi people tend to marry among their own people, experienced during fighting, postconflict imprisonment,
462  Hutu and Tutsi

or in refugee camps. The repetitive, cumulative nature of Hutu have returned from the Democratic Republic of
the trauma experienced in Africa’s Great Lakes region, Congo to find Tutsi inhabiting their old houses, something
characterized by episodes of persecution, attack, and dis- that adds to ethnic tension. Should the Hutu-Tutsi conflict
placement, has had a profound effect on people’s health erupt again, individuals on both sides will be endangered.
(Rieder and Elbert 2013).
See also: BaTwa; Hutu and Tutsi
After independence, the Rwandan government estab-
Further Reading
lished a system of free compulsory education for children
Adekunle, Julius O. 2007. Culture and Customs of Rwanda. West-
aged seven to twelve years. Since the Rwandan genocide, port, CT: Greenwood Press.
there has been no free education in Rwanda, which has The Diagram Group. 2013. Encyclopedia of African Peoples.
resulted in Rwanda having an extremely high level of illit- Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
eracy. The fighting also destroyed many schools. There is Rieder, Heide, and Thomas Elbert. 2013. “Rwanda—Lasting
also an acute lack of teachers in Rwanda. Recently, there Imprints of a Genocide: Trauma, Mental Health and Psycho-
social Conditions in Survivors, Former Prisoners and Their
has been a move for English rather than French to be the
Children.” Conflict and Health 7: 6. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih​
language of education in Rwanda. .gov/pmc/articles/PMC3620568.
Shoup, John A., ed. 2011. Ethnic Groups of Africa and the Middle
East: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Threats to Survival Walker, Luke. 2017. “Rwandan Genocide.” World without Gen-
Africa’s Great Lakes region has a long history of conflict, ocide, February 21. http://worldwithoutgenocide.org​/geno-
cides-and-conflicts/rwandan-genocide.Williams, Victoria.
and it is now illegal to mention ethnicity in Rwanda. The 2017. “Hutu and Tutsi.” In Etiquette and Taboos around the
Rwandan government claims this ban prevents further World: A Geographic Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Cus-
conflict, but critics suggest the rule prevents real reconcil- toms, edited by Ken Taylor and Victoria Williams, 132–136.
iation and represses simmering tensions. Recently, many Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood.
 I

ICELANDER 36,000 Icelanders live in Canada, with around 28,000 of

these living in Winnipeg (Haarmann 2015). However, at
Current Location Iceland; Canada present, most Icelandic migration flows from Iceland to
Current Population 356,000 other Nordic nations. Traditionally a homogenous peo-
Language Icelandic ple, today around 10 percent of Iceland’s population are
non-Icelanders (Skaptadóttir 2011). Since much of Ice-
Interesting Fact Icelanders believe so firmly in elves
that road construction projects land is uninhabitable, Icelanders tend to live in a nar-
are sometimes stopped for fear of row coastal strip in the country’s southwest. Around
disturbing the huldufólk (“hidden two-thirds of Icelanders live near the Icelandic capital of
people”). Reykjavik, with the rest inhabiting small, scattered settle-
ments (Haarmann 2015).

Overview
Icelanders are the indigenous people of the European Geography and Environment
island nation of Iceland. The term Icelander also covers the Iceland is located in the North Atlantic Ocean on the
island’s small number of nonindigenous inhabitants. Ice- Mid-Atlantic Ridge, a continually active divergent tec-
landers speak the Icelandic language. This is a North Ger- tonic plate boundary located along the floor of the Atlantic
man language stemming from Old Norse. Most Icelanders Ocean between Europe and North America. Iceland’s long
are members of the evangelical Lutheran National Church coastline is bordered by the Greenland Sea to the north,
of Iceland. A growing minority of Icelanders follow the Old the Norwegian Sea to the east, the Atlantic Ocean to the
Norse religion, Ásatrú. With Iceland’s increasing number south and west, and the Denmark Strait to the northwest.
of immigrants, other Christian denominations are becom- The strait separates Iceland from Greenland. Parts of Ice-
ing prevalent. land are covered by glacial ice and cooled lava. The gla-
ciers reflect that Iceland lies very close to the Arctic Circle,
which almost touches Iceland’s northernmost peninsula.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration Vatnajökull (the Vatna Glacier) is both the Iceland’s larg-
The Icelander population on Iceland comprises around est glacier and the largest glacier in Europe. Vatnajökull
320,000 people (Skaptadóttir 2011). Approximately is located in southeast Iceland, where it covers around

463
464 Icelander

Iceland’s location on top of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge. The

Orri Vigfússon ridge passes through Þingvellir national park. Iceland’s
Orri Vigfússon (1942–2017) is remembered for volcanic nature also makes it home to geysers, natural hot
brokering international fishing rights buyouts with springs, and lava fields. When the Eyjafjallajökull volcano
governments and corporations in the North Atlan- erupted in April 2010, it caused six days of major air traffic
tic, thereby preventing the destruction of regional disruption across western and northern Europe. Iceland
commercial salmon fishing. Toward the end of the harnesses the power of its many rivers and waterfalls to
twentieth century, the once plentiful wild salmon provide cheap hydroelectric energy.
populations of the North Atlantic fell to danger- Iceland has a subpolar oceanic climate that results in
ously low levels. This affected not only the delicate cold winters and cool summers. However, Iceland’s win-
regional ecosystems but also the rural communities ters are milder than many locations on similar latitudes
that depended on salmon fishing. In the 1990s, Vig- because of the Gulf Stream that keeps Iceland’s coastal
fússon began a multinational enterprise to buy out areas temperate all year. Animals found on Iceland include
the fishing rights of the commercial salmon fishers sheep, horses, Arctic foxes, mink, seals, and reindeer.
whose overfishing was responsible for the decline in Polar bears sometimes reach Iceland by traveling to the
salmon numbers. Through his work, Vigfússon pre- island on icebergs from Greenland. Birds that include puf-
vented the decimation of the North Atlantic’s wild fins, skuas, and kittiwakes nest on Iceland’s cliffs. Because
salmon population and safeguarded the livelihoods of the many species of fish living in the waters around Ice-
of Icelandic fishing communities. land, the fishing industry is a major part of Iceland’s econ-
In response to the dwindling number of salmon omy. Commercial whaling occasionally occurs in Iceland’s
in his native Iceland, Vigfússon founded the waters.
­Iceland-based North Atlantic Salmon Fund (NASF). Iceland’s natural beauty makes it popular with tourists.
Since 1989, NASF has raised millions of dollars to However, while this tourist boom has added to the island’s
buy the rights from commercial salmon fishers economic prosperity, it has also subjected the country’s
across the North Atlantic, effectively paying fishers environment to unprecedented strain. Consequently,
not to fish. NASF has also brokered fishing agree- environmental conservation is a high priority in Iceland
ments with national governments and persuaded because the country relies on natural resources for much
individual governments to match NASF funding of its economy. Given the Icelandic economy is highly
and to change their national fishing policies. Vig- dependent on fishing and the exportation of seafood, the
fússon also promoted viable economic alternatives sustainable harvesting of sea resources is also an economic
to salmon fishing, including harvesting snow crabs priority. For this reason, fishing quotas have been set to
and lumpfish caviar. Subsequently, the North Atlan- ensure Icelandic fishing is sustainable. In general, Iceland-
tic’s salmon fish stocks have improved dramatically. ers are concerned with conserving their natural environ-
In 2004, Time magazine named Vigfússon as a Euro- ment. Iceland has also taken a strong stance against ocean
pean hero. In 2007, Vigfússon received the Goldman pollution. Consequently, Iceland’s waters are among the
Environmental Prize. world’s cleanest. Despite this environmentally conscious
attitude, Iceland has some pressing environmental con-
cerns. For example, loss of vegetation by wind erosion is
a serious environmental issue for Iceland. Since 1907, the
3,200 square miles; the average ice thickness is in excess Icelandic Soil Conservation Service has fought against soil
of three thousand feet. The glacier extends across a rugged erosion, and it aims to revegetate parts of Iceland. Iceland
mountain range that includes Iceland’s highest summit, contains some of Europe’s few remaining wilderness areas,
Hvannadals Peak. There are numerous active volcanoes but pressures on these areas from the tourist and hydroe-
throughout the glacier, the meltwaters of which feed lectric and geothermal energy industries are increasing. As
hundreds of rivers, including the Thjórs, Skjálfandafljót, demands from these industries grow, Iceland is having to
Jökulsá á Fjöllum, and Jökulsá á Fljótsdal. The volcanoes, balance nature conservation with the industrial exploita-
which reach deep into Earth’s interior, are the result of tion of the country’s renewable energy sources.
 Icelander 465

History and Politics approximately one-third of Icelanders migrated to North

In the late eighth century, the first settlers to Iceland arrived America. Some of the emigrants formed New Iceland, the
in the form of Irish monks and priests who established largest Icelandic population outside of Iceland, in Mani-
isolated communes. The Irish settlers were followed by toba, Canada. Icelandic national identity constructed
Norwegian settlers who arrived between 870 and 930. On during the late nineteenth century idealized farms as the
their travels to Iceland, the Norwegians stopped in Britain, bedrock of Icelandic culture because this contrasted with
where they acquired slaves. Consequently, Icelanders have the desperate lives of landless Icelandic day laborers. Dur-
some Celtic Scottish ancestry. Icelanders call this period of ing this time, Danish merchants operating in Iceland’s
immigration landnámsöld (“age of settlement”). In time, coastal areas were portrayed as a negative influence on
the British/Celtic slaves were freed and entered into social Iceland’s language and people.
contracts with the Scandinavian settlers. After this, the In 1944, Iceland achieved full independence, with the
two populations merged to create a Scandinavian/Celtic Althing voting for independence while Denmark was
ethnic fusion that remains the basis for Icelanders. under German occupation during World War II. Icelan-
In 930, the Icelanders established the Althing, Europe’s dic was subsequently made the new republic’s official
oldest parliament. The parliament took the form of a coun- language. In the immediate postwar period, Iceland expe-
cil of clan representatives that adjudicated on matters of rienced substantial economic growth as its fishing became
local mutual interest. The clan chiefs and their followers increasingly industrialized. The Marshall Plan, a U.S.
met at the Althing in Þingvellir each June and passed leg- initiative to aid postwar Western Europe, also benefited
islation while also socializing and conducting trade. Iceland. During World War II, Iceland was occupied first
In 1000, the Althing agreed to allow Christianity to be by British troops and then by American forces. After the
adopted as Iceland’s national religion. Some early Icelandic war, U.S. troops returned to Iceland as the NATO-backed
Christians combined Christianity with the Viking beliefs Iceland Defense Force (IDF) and remained throughout the
of local religious cults that focused on numerous Norse Cold War. The last U.S. troops withdrew from Iceland in
deities, including Odin, Frigg, Thor, Loki, and Freyja. Over 2006. The following year, Iceland became the location for
time, Viking paganism vanished, though elements of the a NATO base.
cults continue in the folklore and traditions Icelanders In the 1970s, Iceland was involved in the disputes that
still hold. became commonly known as the Cod Wars—disputes with
As a seafaring people, the Icelanders strove to colonize the United Kingdom over Iceland’s extension of offshore
the North Atlantic; hence, in the tenth century, the first fishing limits. In 1986, Iceland hosted a summit between
settlers to arrive on Greenland set sail from Iceland. In the the United States and the Soviets that made some progress
eleventh century, Icelanders were part of the Viking par- in the superpowers’ nuclear disarmament. After the down-
ties that sailed to the Americas. fall of the Soviet Union, Iceland was the first country to
In 1262, a Norwegian king annexed Iceland. Conse- recognize the independence of Estonia, Latvia, and Lith-
quently, Icelanders were made to pay taxes and pledge uania. Throughout the 1990s, Iceland developed a foreign
allegiance to Norway. In the fourteenth century, Norway policy focused on humanitarianism and peacekeeping. For
and Denmark unified. Over time, Denmark became domi- this reason, Iceland provided aid to various NATO inter-
nant in the union and rose to power over Scandinavia and ventions in Bosnia, Kosovo, and Iraq.
the Baltic area. In the 1480s, Iceland became the western- In 1994, Iceland joined the European Economic Area,
most part of the Kingdom of Denmark. Although, Iceland an agreement allowing the free movement of people,
was granted limited home rule in 1785, it remained part goods, services, and capital within the European Single
of Denmark until 1918, when it became a sovereign state Market. Iceland’s involvement in the international econ-
within Denmark. omy increased further after 2001, when Iceland’s recently
Until the nineteenth century, most Icelanders existed deregulated banks raised huge amounts of external debt
as smallholders, though many also participated in the sea- that contributed to an increase in Iceland’s gross national
sonal fishing industry. Toward the end of the nineteenth income. Following the privatization of Iceland’s banking
century, landless Icelandic peasants moved to Iceland’s sector, Iceland sought to base its economy on interna-
coastal villages to work in fishing. Around the same time, tional banking and financial services. This move allowed
466 Icelander

Iceland to quickly become more prosperous. However, the important to Icelanders; in 1980, they elected the world’s
global financial crisis hit Iceland hard, resulting in massive first democratically elected female president, Vigdís
emigration from Iceland. Recently, Iceland’s finances have Finnbogadóttir.
been bolstered by a surge in tourism. Although the majority of Icelanders consider them-
Icelanders are intensely proud of their self-sufficiency selves religious and 80 percent are members of the
and independence. As such, although Iceland is allied to National Church of Iceland, religion plays only a minor
the European Union (EU) via the European Economic part in Icelanders’ daily lives (Skaptadóttir 2011). The
Area and the Schengen Agreement (a treaty that has National Church of Iceland is an evangelical Lutheran
largely removed internal European border checks), Ice- denomination, the Lutheran Church having supplanted
land is not an EU member state. In 2009, Iceland applied the Catholic Church in Iceland during the sixteenth cen-
for EU membership, but the application proved controver- tury under the rule of the Danish monarchy. A small but
sial among Icelanders leading the Icelandic government to increasing minority of Icelanders follow the Old Norse reli-
freeze the application. gion Ásatrú, which was revived in 1973. Ásatrú does not
have a fixed religious theology but instead tends toward
pantheism. The religion is legally recognized as a revival
Society, Culture, and Tradition of the pre-Christian Nordic beliefs held by early settlers on
The establishment of an independent Iceland tapped into Iceland.
Icelanders’ nationalistic ideologies that had been awak- Folklore and superstition have always played a major
ened by the leader of the Icelandic independence move- part in Icelanders’ lives Folktales are passed down through
ment, Jón Sigurðsson (1811–1879), an expert on Icelandic the generations by oral tradition. Many superstitions and
history and sagas. The sagas are the most famous form of tales of witchery are connected to landscape features such
Icelandic literature; they are prose narratives that are usu- as cliffs, hills, and bogs. During the seventeenth century,
ally based on Icelandic historical events of the ninth, tenth, Iceland’s isolated Strandir region was the site of intense
and eleventh centuries. Sigurðsson’s birthday, June 17, is witch hunts that saw many Icelanders accused of witch-
now celebrated as Icelandic National Day. craft. Today, some Icelandic farmers refuse to plough
Icelanders consider their language an essential part of Álagablettir (“enchanted patches”) for fear of disturbing
their ethnic identity because it connects them to their his- the huldufólk (“hidden people,” elves) that live within the
tory and land. As written Icelandic has changed little over fields. Fear of upsetting the huldufólk can also undo road
time, modern Icelanders are able to read sagas written dur- construction projects. Traditionally, Icelanders believe
ing the Middle Ages (Skaptadóttir 2011). In the 1960s, Ice- supernatural beings protect their country from invasion;
landic authorities restricted American broadcasts from the the four landvættir (“guardian spirits of the country”) said
NATO base to prevent the English language and American to protect Iceland include a mountain giant, a poison-­
culture from diluting the Icelanders’ connection to Icelan- spitting dragon, a giant eagle, and a ferocious bull.
dic. Under Icelandic legislation (Act 45/1996 on names, lög Icelandic lullabies are particularly dark. For example, a
um mannanöfn), there is a list of government-approved popular Icelandic lullaby, “Sofdu unga ástin mín” (“Sleep
names from which Icelanders should pick their babies’ My Young Darling”), is taken from a nineteenth-century
names. If parents do not wish to name their baby any of play in which a mother throws her baby into a waterfall.
these names, they may seek permission for another name The lullaby is imbued with loss and longing and clearly
from the Icelandic Naming Committee. alludes to infanticide. Although Icelandic lullabies are pop-
Today, Icelandic society is secular and liberal. For ulated by looming shadowy figures, phantoms, and general
example, births outside of marriage are not stigmatized. melancholia, the songs also stress that a child is safe when
Additionally, in 2006, the Icelandic parliament voted indoors. The dark nature of Icelandic lullabies hints at the
unanimously to grant same-sex couples the same rights ancient Icelandic custom of bera út, which saw unwanted
as heterosexual couples in regard to such issues as adop- children abandoned in the wilderness to die of exposure.
tion and parenting. In 2010, the Icelandic parliament Babies killed in this way were usually suffering from some
amended the marriage law to make it gender neutral, kind of deformity or illness. Alternatively, the babies’ par-
thereby making Iceland one of the first countries to legal- ents could not afford to rear them or did not want a baby of
ize same-sex marriages. Gender equality is extremely that particular sex. Bera út was so important to Icelanders
 Igbo 467

that when the country converted to Christianity, Iceland- common language and culture. However, Iceland’s increas-
ers insisted on keeping the tradition. ing integration into the global economy and international
Iceland is home to variety of foods. One Icelandic political sphere, along with the growth of tourism and
national dish is Þorramatur, which consists of a buffet of increasing immigration, means Icelanders are having to
cured meats and fish served with rúgbrauð (a dense, dark reevaluate what it means to be an Icelander.
rye bread), butter, and brennivín (an Icelandic liquor made
See also: Faroese
from potatoes and caraway). Þorramatur is usually eaten
Further Reading
as a tribute to traditional Icelandic culture during the
Haarmann, Harald. 2015. “Icelanders.” In Native Peoples of the
ancient Nordic month of þorri (in January and February), World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contem-
especially at the midwinter feast of Þorrablót. Meat dishes porary Issues, edited by Steven Danver, 323–325. London:
sometimes included in Þorramatur include hrútspungar Routledge.
(pickled ram testicles), kæstur hákarl (fermented shark), Skaptadóttir, Unnur Dís. 2011. “Icelanders.” In Ethnic Groups of
and singed sheep heads. Other traditional Icelandic dishes Europe: An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 191–194.
Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
include hangikjöt (smoked lamb) and slátur (sausages
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
made from sheep entrails). World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA:
ABC-CLIO.

Health Care and Education

Iceland has a universal healthcare system paid for mostly
by general taxation. A significant amount of government
spending is assigned to health care. Senior and disabled
Icelanders receive discounts on their personal health IGBO
expenses. According to the World Health Organization
Current Location Nigeria
(WHO), Icelanders have a high life expectancy (eighty-one
Current Population 25.2 million
for males and eighty-four for females). The leading causes
Language Igbo
of death among Icelanders are cardiovascular diseases.
Iceland’s education system is loosely based on that of Interesting Fact Some Igbo believe they are des-
Denmark. There are four levels of schooling in Iceland— cended from the lost tribes of Israel.
preschool, compulsory, upper secondary, and higher—
with schooling mandatory for children ages six to sixteen Overview
years. Most schools are funded by the state and overseen by The Igbo are an ethnic group living mainly in southeast-
the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture. Icelanders ern Nigeria. Historically, the Igbo have been referred to
can leave school at age sixteen or can continue until they as the Iboe, Ibo, Ebo, Eboe, Eboans, and Heebo, while the
reach age twenty. The arts are important to Icelanders; Igbo refer to themselves as the Ń.dí. Ìgbò. The Igbo are pre-
even the smallest villages have a music school. dominantly Christian, though some are Sunni Muslim or
Jewish; others follow the Igbo religion, Odinani. The Igbo
speak the Igbo language that is part of the Niger-Congo
Threats to Survival language family and has many dialects. The Igbo national
There are no direct threats to the Icelanders. Icelandic flag is a tricolor consisting of horizontal bands (red, black,
culture and language is protected and nurtured by bodies and green), a gold stripe, and a rising sun from which
such as the Ríkisútvarpið (RÚV, Icelandic National Broad- eleven rays emanate.
casting Service), Iceland’s national public service broad-
casting organization, which promotes Iceland’s language,
history, and cultural heritage. Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Although there is a growing disparity between Ice- The Igbo are a Bantu people and the third-largest ethnic
land’s rich and poor, Icelanders have a strong, unified eth- group in Nigeria (Minahan 2002). The Igbo are also one
nic identity that is fostered by the fact that all Icelanders of the largest ethnic groups in Africa with a population of
have equal access to health care and education and share a approximately 25.2 million people (Minority Rights Group
468 Igbo

International 2017). The Igbo population is concentrated Some Jewish Igbo claim that the Igbo are descended
in the Nigerian states of Abia, Anambra, Enugu, and Imo. from Jacob, the patriarch of Judaism. A popular Igbo
The Igbo are loosely categorized into five main cultural migration legend tells that Gad, the seventh son of Jacob,
groups: the Onitsha to the north of Igboland, the Owerri had three sons who migrated to present-day Igboland.
in the south, the Ika to the west, the Cross River to the Gad’s sons, Eri, Arodi, and Areli, are said to have begotten
east, and the Abakaliki to the northeast. The Igbo are sur- clans, established kingdoms, and founded towns that still
rounded on all sides by other indigenous peoples, includ- exist in southeastern Nigeria, including Owerri, Umul-
ing the Warri, Ijaw, Tiv, and Ibibi. There are also numerous eri, Arochukwu, and Aguleri. Those Igbo that believe the
Igbo subgroups linked by kinship, clan ties, and village migration story claim that the Igbo are the Jews of West
affiliations. Igbo communities are autonomous and retain Africa and as such are descendants of at least one of Isra-
a strong ethnic identity. Most Igbo live in villages consist- el’s lost tribes. There may be some truth to the tale, for in
ing of scattered compounds, though there are also some the eighth century BCE, Assyrians invaded Israel’s north-
Igbo villages in which the compounds are grouped closely ern kingdom, forcing ten tribes to flee. Historians say it is
together. Compounds usually take the shape of a cluster of probable that these tribes did travel west to Africa, where
huts, each of which represents a separate household. the dispersed Jews became “lost” through a process of cul-
Outside of Nigeria, there are significant Igbo communi- tural assimilation and forced conversion to other religions.
ties in the United Kingdom and other European countries During the seventeenth century, European slave traders
as well as in North America. contacted the Igbo, and one Igbo group, the Aro, devel-
oped a lucrative commercial trade network with the Euro-
peans through which slaves that the Aro snatched from
Geography and Environment other Igbo communities were sold. In the eighteenth cen-
The indigenous homeland of the Igbo is often referred to tury, other Igbo groups united to capture slaves from other
as Igboland and straddles the lower Niger River. Igboland indigenous ethnic groups living farther north to ensure
is also known as Biafra. Most of the area in which the that slavers did not target the Igbo. This new degree of Igbo
Igbo live is covered in savannah and rainforest. The area’s unification led to the establishment of a united Igbo mon-
low-lying deltas and riverbanks flood heavily during the archy throughout Igboland as Igbo people came together
rainy season, making the land very fertile. Nigeria’s south- seeking protection and a way to avoid slavery.
east coast is made up of low plains punctuated by sand- During the early nineteenth century, Christian mis-
bars and mangroves. Coastal currents often cause large sionaries began to enter Igboland and found the Igbo
sand deposits to build up in the area’s natural harbors, and particularly receptive to Christian teaching and, most
so the harbors need dredging frequently. Moving inland especially, the education offered by missionary schools. By
from the southeast coast, land becomes increasingly high, the 1830s, Christianity had become widespread through-
and in some parts, such as the Udi Hills, escarpments have out Igboland, and the missionary schools led to the cre-
formed. Along Nigeria’s border with Chad, the land is ation of an educated elite comprising school-taught Igbo
mountainous with several plateaus. children. In 1884, the British gained control over Igboland,
and in 1885, the British consolidated the region as the Oil
Rivers Protectorate governed by the British Royal Niger
History and Politics Company, for whom many Igbo worked in administrative
The origins of the Igbo are uncertain, though the general and financial positions. Eventually, the Igbo enthusiasti-
consensus among historians is that the Igbo originated as cally adopted European culture and education and soon
a people between four thousand and five thousand years surpassed the formerly more advanced coastal tribes. As
ago in the area where the Benue River flows into the Niger a result of their adoption of European ways, the Igbo were
River. Here, the early Igbo divided into around two hun- favored by the British and given positions in local govern-
dred individual tribes (Minahan 2002) that were united ment and the military. At the same time, significant Igbo
by a common language and customs. The early Igbo were settlements grew up along the coast of Igboland and in the
targeted by Muslim slave traders, who invaded Igbo land Muslim north of Nigeria.
from the north, and by other indigenous peoples living in In the 1920s and 1930s, the Igbo began to abandon
coastal areas. their traditional clan structure and came to consider
 Igbo 469

themselves one united people. Then, in the 1940s, the Igboland (Minahan 2002). Northern Igbo who were unable
Igbo became increasingly politically active with the to escape were killed by the security forces and civilians.
creation of the first nationalist groups, such as the Ibo This level of violence led many Igbo to believe that their
Federal Union, that sought to safeguard Igbo interests people could only survive if Igboland seceded from Nige-
in multicultural Nigeria. In 1953, the British estab- ria, and, in May 1967, the Igbo leader Odumegwu Ojukwu
lished three regional governments in Nigeria, the Igbo declared the Eastern Region an independent state that
controlled the Eastern Region, the Yoruba governed would be known as Biafra (taking its name from the Bight
the Western Region, and both the Muslim Fulani and of Biafra, the part of the Atlantic Ocean that bordered the
the Hausa oversaw the Northern Region. Soon anti- newly created state). Gowon refused to acknowledge Bia-
Igbo demonstrations broke out in the Muslim Northern fra’s secession, however, and the Nigerian military invaded
Region because the people of the north felt the Igbo had Biafra, leading to fierce conflict. While countries such as
undue influence over the British colonial government. the Soviet Union supplied Gowon’s army with weapons,
Anti-Igbo rioters tracked Igbo and hunted down and the suffering of the Igbo people, who were starving and
attacked Igbo living in Kano, killing 53 people and injur- injured as a result of the fighting, led to airlifts of food
ing a further 245 (Minahan 2002). and medical supplies from other countries, including Côte
Toward the end of the 1950s, Nigerian independence d’Ivoire, Gabon, and Tanzania. In addition, France supplied
approached, and the Igbo sided with the National Coun- the Igbo fighters with weapons.
cil of Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC), which soon In the beginning, the Biafra troops held their own
became the vehicle for Igbo nationalism. Eventually, the against the more numerous Nigerian federal forces, but
NCNC formed a coalition with the Northern People’s Con- they were outnumbered. As the Biafra fighters fought back
gress (NCP), which was backed by the Hausa. This coali- during 1968 and 1969, civilians were dying of starvation
tion led Nigeria to independence in 1960, but soon after in the hundreds of thousands (Minahan 2002). The Igbo
the country gained independence, ethnic rivalries intensi- fighters finally surrendered in January 1970, thereby end-
fied between the three regions, especially as the Igbo began ing the bloodiest war in African history (Minahan 2002),
to lose their privilege as the Hausa took up an increasing during which it is estimated that one hundred thousand
number of positions within the federal government. By Igbo were injured in fighting and a further five hundred
the mid-1960s, ethnic and political tension was endemic thousand to two million Igbo civilians died from starva-
in Nigeria. Part of the ethnic friction arose because tion as a result of Nigerian forces blocking food supply
Igbo nationalism had grown in strength; the people felt routes. After their defeat, the Igbo were further margin-
aggrieved at their loss of status, and they saw the Nigerian alized within the government, though Gowon did try to
oil industry (that had started in the Igbo-controlled East- reintegrate the Igbo into Nigerian society.
ern Region in 1958) begin to boom. In 1976, Nigeria was divided into a number of states to
In January 1966, Igbo army officers staged a coup try to dilute growing nationalism. In addition, the Nige-
prompted by Igbo resentment of the dominance of the rian military government banned all political activism and
Hausa-controlled Northern Region and the use of oil rev- seemed to give a significant number of government posi-
enue from Igboland to fund projects in Hausa areas. The tions to Muslims from Nigeria’s north while also prioritiz-
coup removed the Muslim-dominated Nigerian govern- ing projects focused on the north.
ment, which was replaced by a new government led by an During the 1980s, the growth of Islamic fundamen-
Igbo president. The coup resulted in bloody violence in the talism in northern Nigeria intensified regional tensions
country’s north as the Hausa people turned on the Igbo. within the country, and ethnic rivalries took on religious
In July 1966, a countercoup took place that saw Muslim’s overtones. In 1986, Nigeria joined the Organization of
from northern Nigeria oust the Igbo-headed government Islamic Conferences (OIC), which led to widespread pro-
and kill several Igbo leaders. The coup hoped to install tests in Igboland. The following year, tensions increased as
a neutral president, Yakubu Gowon (a Christian from Muslims living in Nigeria’s north called for the establish-
the north), but before he could act in earnest, a wave of ment of sharia law and Islamic courts across the nation. In
anti-Igbo rioting occurred across the Northern Region. response, the Nigerian government declared that although
The rioting killed tens of thousands of Igbo, and millions the country would remain secular, sharia law could be
of Igbo who had been living in the north fled south to adopted in Muslim-majority states.
470 Igbo

In 1990, religious and ethnic tensions worsened when other separatist leaders had been released. In October
Christian soldiers attempted to stage a coup. The coup 2007, Uwazuruike was released from jail, and he continued
failed, and the coup leaders were executed. Nonetheless, to call for the re-creation of the independent Igbo state of
Igbo nationalism continued in the face of the Muslim- Biafra.
dominated military and the annulment of Nigeria’s pres-
idential elections in 1993. Then, in 1995, Odumegwu
Ojukwu declared himself king of the Igbo, but this claim Society, Culture, and Tradition
was rejected by the Oha-na-Eze, the highest authority in Traditionally, the Igbo are subsistence farmers that grow
Igboland, which asserted there was no king of Igboland. staple crops, including yams, cassava, taro, maize, melons,
Odumegwu Ojukwu then called on the Igbo to elect a okra, pumpkins, and beans. Today, fewer Igbo farm, but of
civilian president for Nigeria, but Odumegwu Ojukwu’s those that still do farm, the men are responsible for grow-
authority was severely challenged by younger Igbo nation- ing yams while women grow the other crops. According to
alists, causing a number of nationalist factions to arise. Igbo tradition, land is communally owned by individual
Igbo politics remains fractured and has impeded their kinship groups and may be used by individuals for farming
struggle for an autonomous state ever since. and building on. The Igbo keep livestock as a status symbol
In May 1997, the International Crisis Group (ICG) as well as for use in sacrifices. The chief Igbo exports are
reported that the electoral process had failed in Igboland palm oil and palm kernels (the edible seed of the oil palm
and that an election was poorly directed and massively fruit). Trading, local crafts, and wage labor are also essen-
rigged (Minority Right Group International 2017). Such tial to the Igbo economy.
accusations boosted the position of the separatist group The traditional religion of Igboland centers on the
Movement for the Actualisation of the Sovereign State of ­Creator-God Chineke, or Chukwu. The Igbo believe they
Biafra (MASSOB), which claimed the Igbo would never can reach the creator through contact with other deities
achieve their political aims with federal Nigeria. Neverthe- and spirits that take the shape of natural objects, particu-
less, the level of support for the MASSOB was questiona- larly the god of thunder (Amadioha). The Igbo believe that
ble, with many Igbo not wishing to publicly associate with their ancestors protect the living and are responsible for
the Igbo separatist movement. rain, good harvests, fertility, and good health. The Igbo
Anti-Christian riots that had first flared in the early make shrines (mbari) in honor of the earth spirit. Some
1990s continued into the twenty-first century. Hundreds of of these are decorated with tableaux; others hold wooden
Christians who were mainly Igbo were killed and injured in figures representing ancestors. In addition to shrines,
the ongoing violence, which worsened considerably when Igboland is home to many churches as well as mosques.
a Christian was beheaded for allegedly defacing a copy of The Igbo consider birth, marriage, and death to be the
the Koran. During the 2000s, there was continued violence three most important life events. In Igboland, marriage
between Christians and Muslims. When the United States (igbankwu) is a communal event involving whole commu-
entered Afghanistan following the 9/11 terrorist attacks, nities, with the wedding service varying between villages.
local Muslims targeted Igbo and other Christians living in Typically, when a marriage proposal is accepted, a bride-
northern Nigeria. The northern Nigerian Muslims consid- price settlement (Ika-Akalika) is established. The groom
ered the American actions as an attack by Christians on all and his father and elders visit the bride’s family, bringing
Muslims and attacked the Christian minorities in revenge. with them wine and kola nuts, which are then presented to
In 2005, Chief Ralf Uwazuruike, the leader of MAS- the bride’s father. Next, a meal is served, and the bride-price
SOB, and other alleged MASSOB supporters were arrested is negotiated between the fathers of the bride and groom.
and charged with treason (Minority Rights Group Inter- In most cases, this price is symbolic and includes the pro-
national 2017). Then, in 2007, a now elderly Odumegwu vision of kola nuts, goats, chicken, and wine. Once the
Ojukwu contested the Nigerian presidential elections and bride-price is agreed upon, a feast is held attended by the
finished sixth. Because of widespread electoral irregular- bride’s and groom’s families, and the groom’s family hands
ities during the voting, Odumegwu Ojukwu claimed that over the items agreed to in the bride-price settlement.
it was even more important that the Igbo seek independ- Weddings take place at the bride’s compound, where
ence. Throughout 2007, demonstrations occurred as Igbo the guests welcome the couple and invite them in front of
protested Uwazuruike’s continued imprisonment when the families. The ceremony begins with the bride serving
 Igbo 471

Burying the Placenta

When an Igbo baby is born, the placenta is taken to his or her family home, where it is washed gently before being
buried. The Igbo view soil as redolent of fertility and life. Consequently, the Igbo believe it is important that the pla-
centa is buried in the ground or on land owned by the family to demonstrate ownership of the placenta. This act is also
thought to connect the child to his or her Igbo ancestry. After the placenta is buried, the baby’s family plants a tree
on top of the burial spot to symbolize that the place is a site of continuing life.

boiled eggs to the guests; the eggs symbolize the bride’s is that this traditional health care has a long history in
ability to earn money. The bride’s father then fills a wooden Igboland and, over the years, has helped the people dur-
cup (iko) with palm wine and passes it to the bride while ing times of hardship. Igbo folk medicine clearly sets out
the groom sits among the guests. Traditionally, the bride how to care for the sick and who should provide the care.
will then pretend to search for the groom while being dis- Today, in Igboland, folk medicine not only coexists with
tracted by guests. Once she has found the groom, the bride Western medical care, but people, particularly the lower
offers the cup to him, and he sips the wine. In a traditional classes, often prefer folk medicine to Western medicine
ceremony the drinking of the wine symbolizes that the (Nwankwo 2014).
couple is now married. After the ceremony, the newlyweds Traditional Igbo healers are responsible for performing
dance together as guests throw money at them. Today, a healing ceremonies, religious rituals, and other ceremo-
Christian marriage service usually follows the traditional nies intended to ensure the safety and health of the Igbo
Igbo wedding. people. There are various types of traditional Igbo healers
Like traditional Igbo weddings, Igbo birth celebrations that each has their own specialty. For example, the Dibia
also vary from village to village. Usually, however, on the Afa is a diviner who diagnoses ailments, the Dibia-Ogwu
eighth day after birth, a male child is circumcised. Then, on is a medicine man that acts as a physician, a Dibia-­
the twenty-eighth day, all Igbo babies undergo a naming mgborogwu na-nkpa akwukwo is an herbal medicine spe-
ceremony. cialist, and a Dibia-Okpukpu sets broken bones.
The Igbo regard death as the passage of a person from Each folk medicine practitioner has their own form
the world of the living to the spirit world. Usually, a corpse of treatment that uses medicinal herbs, massage, prayers,
is buried in the village of the deceased after a wake has special foods, and dancing. Flogging is often prescribed
taken place. During the funerals, relatives and friends of to cure mental illness. Some folk medicine practitioners
the deceased pay their respects by singing and performing also practice magic and exorcism as part of their healing
traditional dances. To a degree, however, Christian death routines. One reason the Igbo turn to folk medicine rather
rituals have superseded many Igbo death customs. than Western health care is because folk medicine practi-
tioners can be accessed night and day, as they live among
the people. Also, folk treatments are affordable and may be
Health Care and Education paid for by payments in kind.
Recently, a shortage of physicians, nurses, and medical The Igbo enjoy high literacy rates that have enabled
training educators has been reported in Igbo areas, so them to become civil servants and entrepreneurs. The edu-
although Igboland has healthcare facilities, including hos- cation is not confined to men; many Igbo women engage
pitals, psychiatric facilities, dental clinics, pharmacies, and in business and local politics.
residential care homes, these facilities lack staff (Aham- In Enugu State, in southeastern Nigeria, there are over
Okoro 2017). one hundred primary schools, thirty secondary schools,
Folk medicine remains one of the mainstays of Igbo and five tertiary colleges. Most of these establishments are
health care despite the introduction of Western medicine funded and run by the government, but there are several
into Igboland and the effects of globalization, Western edu- private nursery, primary, and secondary schools in the
cation, and mixing with people from other cultures. One state. Enugu State is also home to the Enugu State Univer-
of the reasons the Igbo continue to practice folk medicine sity of Science and Technology (ESUT), formerly known as
472 Igorot

the Anambra State University of Science and Technology; Oduah, Chika. 2013. “Nigeria’s Igbo Jews: ‘Lost Tribe’ of Israel?”
the Institute of Management and Technology (IMT); Our CNN, February 4. http://edition.cnn.com/2013/02/01/world​
Saviour’s Institute of Science, Agriculture and Technology /africa/nigeria-jews-igbo/index.html.
Widjaja, Michael. 2000–2016. “Education.” Igboguide.org.
(OSISATECH); and the Eha-Amufu College of Education https://www.igboguide.org/HT-chapter7.htm.
(Widjaja 2000–2016). In recent years, however, it has been
reported that the number of qualified teachers who speak
Igbo has decreased. This means that Igbo children have
less access to teachers that speak their indigenous lan-
guage, something that may affect both the children’s edu-
cation and the survival of Igbo as a language. IGOROT
Current Location The Philippines
Threats to Survival Current Population 1 million–2 million
Language Igorot dialects
As a primarily Christian minority living in a Muslim-­
majority country that is experiencing a rise in Islamic Interesting Fact If Igorot rice terraces were laid end
to end, they would stretch halfway
fundamentalism, the Igbo face the increasing risk of perse-
around the earth.
cution. In August 2017, UN human rights experts deplored
an ultimatum ordering the Igbo in the north of Nigeria to
leave their homes. The ultimatum was issued in June 2017 Overview
during a press conference by the Arewa Youth Consultative The term Igorot (or Cordillerans, Ygorot, or Igorotte) is the
Forum, a political and cultural association of leaders in collective name applied to several Austronesian indige-
northern Nigeria that has been associated with the Arewa nous peoples of the Philippines. The name Igorot (mean-
People’s Congress (APC), a militant group established to ing “mountaineer” in Tagalog) was previously considered
protect the interests of the Hausa-Fulani people. derogatory but is now accepted by the people as the name
The United Nations also condemned a Hausa-language of their shared ethnicity. The Igorots speak seven dialects.
hate song and audio message being circulated online that These dialects form the Cordilleran group of the Ilocano
urged northern Nigerians to demolish Igbo property and languages that make up part of the Malayo-Polynesian
kill any Igbo that refused to leave their property. The United language family. Most Igorots are animists who believe in
Nations called on the Nigerian government to be vigilant a multitude of gods and goddesses. There is also a grow-
against such incitement to violence to prevent the height- ing number of Roman Catholic Ingorots, though these still
ening of tensions between Nigeria’s various ethnic groups. maintain some traditional religious beliefs.
Whether these tensions increase will determine the future
for the Igbo in Nigeria and whether they ultimately achieve
the establishment of an independent Igbo state.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
The Igorots live in the Cordillera Central mountain region
See also: Edo; Fulani; Hausa; Ijaw of Luzon, in the Philippines. The people’s total popula-
Further Reading tion is estimated at between one million and two million
Aham-Okoro, Sussie U. 2017. Igbo Women in the Diaspora and people (Minahan 2016). The Igorots divide into multiple
Community Development in Southeastern Nigeria: Gender,
Migration and Development in Africa. Lanham, MD: Lexing-
groups, including the Kalinga, Bontoc, Ibaloi, Gaddang,
ton Books. Ifugao, Isneg, Kankanay, and Tinguian.
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 2, D–K.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Geography and Environment
Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Nigeria: Igbo.” The Igorot homeland occupies the Cordillera Central, the
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples.
central mountain chain on the island of Luzon, the largest
http://minorityrights.org/minorities/igbo.
Nwankwo, Ignatius Uche. 2014. “Resilience of Folk Medicine and most populous island in the Philippines. The Cordil-
among the Igbos of Nigeria.” European Scientific Journal 10, lera Central is the highest mountain range in the Philip-
no. 36 (December): 177–187. pines. It includes Mount Pulag, the highest mountain on
 Igorot 473

Luzon at 9,587 feet, as well as three thermally active volca- Americans broke the traditional Igorot system of the col-
noes. Much of the Ingorots’ homeland is covered in grass- lective resource ownership. Ultimately, much Igorot land
lands, but the areas with the highest altitude are covered in was either lost or ruined when American mining com-
tropical pine forests, except in the north of the range where panies supported by the government appropriated Igo-
montane rainforests dominate. Many ancient rice terraces rot land (including Igorot farmland) and polluted local
are also evident across the region. For much of the year, rivers. Despite the advent of mining in Igorot areas, the
the climate of Igorot land is cool and experiences heavy Igorot homeland remained largely undeveloped, allowing
fog and cloud cover. the Igorots to live in isolation. At the same time, however,
There are two major environmental issues affecting the international companies took charge of natural resources
Cordillera Central. First, dam projects have resulted in the in Igorot areas, leaving the Igorots increasingly impover-
flooding of river valleys. This destroys natural habitats and ished. In 1937, foreign mining companies began a gold
forces people to abandon their homes to seek refuge else- rush on Igorot land that caused thousands of outsiders to
where. Second, deforestation for mining projects destroys settle in the Cordillera Central.
the area’s forests. Mining is extensive because the moun- In 1946, the Philippines became independent.
tains of the Cordillera Central contain large amounts of Around the same time, lowland Christians began to set-
gold, iron, and copper. tle on the most fertile Igorot land. This migration con-
tinued into the 1970s and resulted in the Igorots being

History and Politics

The Igorot homeland has been inhabited since 3000 BCE,
when people began to settle in the high altitude parts of
Luzon. The Igorots probably migrated from southern
China to Taiwan before settling in their homeland in the
Philippines, where the Igorot culture and society devel-
oped in isolation. The early Igorots built elaborate terraces
that acted both as areas for rice growing and defenses
against intertribal warfare. Civil war and headhunting soon
became endemic to the Igorot homeland and deterred low-
land peoples from trying to conquer the Igorots. During
the 1500s, however, Spanish conquistadors did manage
to partly overrun the Igorots. Spanish barracks were con-
structed on land bordering Igorot areas to protect Chris-
tian converts from Igorot attacks. However, in general, the
Igorots kept the Spanish in check for over three hundred
years, and some Igorots only came into contact with the
Spanish as late as the mid-nineteenth century. Because the
Igorots escaped Spanish colonization, the people escaped
Spanish influence and so were able to maintain their pre-
colonial Malay language and culture.
In 1898, Spain ceded the Philippines to the United
States. Subsequently, U.S. soldiers landed in the Cordillera
Central, where they pacified the Igorots and ended the
people’s headhunting custom. The Americans also pro-
vided the Igorots with health care, agricultural schemes,
and markets where they could sell their rice and other
An Ifugao woman in Banaue, Philippines. The Ifugao are one of
produce. In the early nineteenth century, American set- the nine Igorot groups. Igorot is the collective name for several
tlers introduced corporate mining to Igorot areas and Austronesian indigenous peoples of the Philippines. (Rangzen/
issued land titles to some Igorot chiefs. In doing so, the Dreamstime.com)
474 Igorot

forced to live in tribal pockets of land. The loss of their independence, with the ultimate aim of creating an Igorot
traditional lands mobilized the Igorot to unite to defend state called Kordilyera or Cordillera.
their remaining land. As part of this united front, in the
late 1970s, the Kalinga Igorots blocked the creation of a
hydroelectric dam on the Chico River that would have Society, Culture, and Tradition
flooded their villages. The Igorot resistance against the There is a degree of variation in Igorot social systems and
Chico River scheme roused the Igorots’ fighting spirit culture. In general, however, the Igorots divide roughly
and resulted in many joining guerilla groups operating into those that grow wet rice in upland areas and those
in the Philippines. Throughout the 1980s, the Igorots that practice shifting cultivation to grow dry rice in lower
called for the removal of lowland settlers from Igorot altitude rainforest locations. The importance of farming to
land while also pressing for Igorot self-rule. As part of the Igorots is such that their lives tend to revolve around
this Igorot nationalist movement, some Igorots joined the agricultural calendar. The Igorots derive much of their
the Cordillera People’s Liberation Army (CPLA) that food from the forest, including meat from wild pigs, deer,
was affiliated with the Communist New People’s Army and birds as well as wild mushrooms and fish.
(NPA, the armed wing of the Communist Party of the The Igorot do not practice clan systems but rather kinship
Philippines) and called for the government to end its systems that typically involve ambilineal descent (in which
involvement in Igorot areas. To this day, the NPA con- individuals are affiliated either to their father’s or mother’s
tinues to fight against the Philippines’ government and family, and descent passes either through the mother or
is considered a terrorist group by U.S. authorities and father). Igorot children decide whether they wish to join their
the European Union on account of its violence against mother’s or father’s lineage—Igorot girls usually choose to
civilians (West 2009). join their mother’s side of the family, while boys opt for their
In 1987, the Cordillera Autonomous Region was insti- father’s lineage. Because Igorots can choose their lineage,
tuted, but in 1991, the Philippines’ government annulled Igorot family structures tend to be extremely convoluted.
the region. For much of the 1990s, the government was Igorots maintain their own religious beliefs whether
largely disinterested in the region except for giving min- they are animist or nominally Christian. Although these
ing companies increased land rights as well as permission religious beliefs vary slightly between Igorot subgroups,
to remove people inhabiting land they wished to own. in general, all Igorots believe in at least one Creator-God,
Toward the end of the decade, the government started to called Lumawig by the Bontoc, as well as a host of ancestral
heed tribal concerns, and in 1997, the Philippines’ presi- spirits and deities that they believe exist in all things, both
dent, José Ramos, signed the Indigenous People’s Rights living and inanimate. As part of their worship, the Igorots
Act. This act awarded land rights to communities rather practice animal sacrifice.
than individuals, prevented tribal leaders from selling The Kalinga practice an unusual funeral rite that sees
ancestral lands, and made it necessary for mining com- the people bury their dead in fetal positions inside hang-
panies to consult with indigenous peoples before mining ing coffins attached to cliff faces high above ground. There
their land. The act also required indigenous peoples to be are several reasons for this unusual practice, including the
responsible for preserving the biodiversity of their lands. belief that being buried in this way positions corpses closer
However, while the act went toward preserving indigenous to their ancestral spirits, that it avoids corpses being bur-
lands, new mining laws opened tribal lands up to interna- ied in damp soil where they will rot quickly, that it prevents
tional mining corporations, thereby endangering indige- dogs from eating the corpses, and that is keeps corpses out
nous people’s homelands. of the reach of headhunters, who might steal the heads of
Throughout the 1990s, young Igorots began to move the dead as trophies. Prior to burial, deceased Kalinga are
to cities or abroad in search of better education and jobs. sat on a wooden sangadil (“death chair”), tied with rattan
This prompted Igorot leaders to call for greater autonomy and vines, and covered with a blanket. The corpse is then
and financial incentives to keep young Igorots living on positioned facing the main door of the house so that rel-
Igorot land. In 2001, President Gloria Arroya promised to atives can visit it to pay their respects. The corpse is then
help the Igorots by financing development projects and smoked to prevent it from decomposing quickly. A vigil for
infrastructure in Igorot areas. However, some Igorots con- the deceased is then held for a number of days. After this,
tinue to call for Igorot self-rule and a referendum on Igorot the corpse is removed from the sangadil and placed in the
 Ijaw 475

coffin. Before burial, the corpse is fixed in a fetal position, DeMello, Margo. 2014. Inked: Tattoos and Body Art around the
wrapped in another blanket, and tied with rattan leaves. World. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
The coffin is then taken in a procession to the burial site. Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
nic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 1, A–C. West-
Kalinga men and women also practice batok, a type of port, CT: Greenwood Press.
ritual tattooing. After killing enemies, Kalinga warriors Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
are tattooed with facial tattoos, denoting that they have nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa
reached a high warrior status. According to tradition, the Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
more tattoos a Kalinga warrior sports, the more frighten- West, Barbara A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and
ing he will appear in battle, and the more attractive he will Oceania. New York: Facts on File.
seem to Kalinga women. The Kalinga also believe tattoos
are able to fight disease, promote fertility, and delay aging.

Health Care and Education IJAW

The Philippines’ recent rapid economic growth has led to a
significantly improved healthcare system. However, not all Current Location Nigeria
people in the Philippines have experienced these changes, Current Population 3 million–14 million
and the country’s health system remains fragmented. Language Izon
While maternal and child healthcare services have been Interesting Fact The Ijaw have lived in Nigeria’s Niger
upgraded, there are deep inequities between regions, Delta region since before the fifth
social groups, and ethnicities. Many Filipinos continue to millennium BCE.
die from conditions that include tuberculosis, HIV, cardio-
vascular disease, and dengue. Overview
In the Philippines, several government agencies are The Ijaws (also called the Ijo, Ezon, and Uzo, among
involved with the Department of Education, which cov- other names) are a Bantu people indigenous to Nige-
ers elementary, secondary, and nonformal schooling. The ria. The Ijaws speak a language isolate called Izon that
country has good literacy rates. Recently, many young Igo- belongs to the Niger-Congo language phylum. Almost
rots have left their villages to attend high school and col- all Ijaws are Christian. An Ijaw minority follows a tradi-
leges in urban areas. Igorot parents are largely supportive tional religion that involves ancestor worship and belief
of this migration and work hard to pay for their children’s in water sprites.
education.

Population, Diaspora, and Migration

Threats to Survival Ijaw population estimates vary widely. For instance, one
The Philippines’ profound Christian beliefs together with estimate suggests there are between three million and
encroaching modernity threaten Igorot tradition. This is five million Ijaws (Minahan 2016); another estimate puts
the case with the Kalinga custom of hanging coffins, for the number at fourteen million people, or 10 percent
young Kalinga are abandoning the tradition and instead of the Nigerian population (Shoup 2011). The Ijaws live in
have started to bury relatives in cemeteries. However, per- the Niger Delta region of Nigeria in the River, Delta, and
haps the greatest threat to the Igorot is the destruction of Bayelsa states. There are over forty Ijaw subgroups, includ-
their homeland through deforestation and land clearance ing the Akassa, Defka, Nemba, and Okrika.
for mining projects. Only time will tell whether calls for
Igorot independence will come to fruition.
Geography and Environment
See also: Aeta
The Ijaw homeland, Ijawland, is located in Nigeria’s Niger
Further Reading
Deere, Kiki. 2014. “The Hanging Coffins of Sagada, Philippines.” Delta region. Numerous branches of the Niger River cross
Rough Guides, January 15. https://www.roughguides.com the region, which is characterized by flat coastal plains and
​/article/hanging-coffins. mangrove swamps that lie along the Bight of Biafra.
476 Ijaw

In the 1950s, oil was discovered in the Niger Delta. was controlled by the British. In 1914, the British Oil Riv-
Drilling for oil has left indigenous groups living in the area ers Protectorate came under British rule. During this time,
exposed to toxic pollution. In 2015, the UN special rappor- many Ijaws converted to Christianity and took up Western
teur for minority issues visited Nigeria and expressed con- education to enhance their employment opportunities.
cern at the impact of oil spills on the land inhabited by the Oil was discovered in the Niger Delta in 1958, prompt-
country’s indigenous peoples. Later that year, the Nigerian ing oil companies to partner with successive Nigerian
government announced the creation of a trust fund to pro- governments with little regard for how this affected the
viding an estimated $1 billion to decontaminate the Niger peoples living in the area. In 1960, Nigeria gained inde-
Delta. The project was set to launch in 2016, but as of 2017, pendence from Britain before becoming a republic in
the cleanup operation had not begun because, according to 1963. From 1967 to 1970, the Biafra War affected all of
the Shell Oil Company involved in the cleanup, staff mem- southern Nigeria, although the Ijaws did not back the Igbo
bers were threatened with violence by groups demanding drive for independence. Later, the Ijaws themselves began
a greater share of regional national oil revenues (Minority to rebel because they felt that they had not benefited
Rights Group International 2018). financially from oil extraction on their land. Since this
time, the Ijaws have continued to be in conflict with the
Nigerian government. There are two main reasons for the
History and Politics continuing conflict: first, the Ijaws believe the Nigerian
The origins and early history of the Ijaws is unknown. government has not passed the benefits of the oil indus-
The Ijaws claim to have inhabited their homeland for over try on to their region, and second, the Ijaws are angry at
seven thousand years. Because their language belongs to the environmental damage oil exploration has had on Ijaw
the Niger-Congo language phylum, some Ijaws believe fishing.
their people originated in Upper Egypt, but others con- In recent years, the Shell Oil Company has become
sider South Africa as their birthplace. What is known is caught up in the Ijaw conflict with the Nigerian govern-
that the Ijaws have lived in the Niger Delta region since ment, for Ijaw rebels have taken over Shell oil rigs and
before the fifth millennium BCE. The region was inacces- kidnapped Shell staff. In 2010, Ijaw politician Goodluck
sible to the other nearby peoples, so the Ijaws were able Jonathan was sworn in as president of Nigeria, having
to remain isolated. The Ijaws were also able to maintain been elected in part due to threats of further violence by
their own identity because as a fishing people, they did young Ijaws (Shoup 2011).
not compete for land with the agricultural Bunue-Kwa
communities. Indeed, the Ijaws and Bunue-Kwa traded
with each other—the Ijaws exchanged dried and salted Society, Culture, and Tradition
fish for Bunue-Kwa farm produce such as yams. The loca- Around 95 percent of Ijaws are Christian (Shoup 2011),
tion of the Ijaw homeland provided direct access to the especially Protestant. The rest of the Ijaws follow the
sea, and so they were able to trade seashells with inland people’s traditional religion. The Ijaw traditional religion
peoples. revolves around ancestor worship. The Ijaws believe their
During the twelfth century, a number of Ijaw states ancestors watch over them, and so the ancestors should
evolved. Then, in the sixteenth century, the Ijaw began to be offered food. The Ijaws also revere water sprites called
develop powerful centralized kingdoms. Before this, in owuamapu.
the fifteenth century, the Ijaw started to come into contact Water spirits are at the basis of the Iria ceremony, a
with European traders. Soon the Ijaw became the interme- coming-of-age ritual for girls performed by Nigerian
diaries in the slave trade, raiding the African interior for tribes, including the Okrika. The girls involved in the Iria
captives to meet the European demand for slaves. ceremony, known as iriapu, are usually between fourteen
In the 1830s, the British suppressed the Ijaw slave trade, and sixteen years old and, therefore, considered marriage-
a move that caused the Ijaw financial hardship. Between able. The ceremony is often regarded as a celebration of
1884 and 1894, the Ijaws lived under British colonial rule, the biological maturity of female adolescents and usually
with Ijaw land becoming part of the British Oil Rivers Pro- consists of four elements: isolation, instruction, transition,
tectorate in 1885. By 1902, all states in which the Ijaws lived and celebration, though the order in which the elements
had become incorporated into the Niger Delta region that occur and specific details of the ceremony vary. According
 Ijaw 477

to Okrika mythology, the Iria ceremony harks back to a less than fifteen years old account for around 45 percent
time when the tribes were widely dispersed, and girls had of Nigeria’s population, the country’s education sector is
to be ritually washed of the taint of incest so that they under immense pressure. At the same time, however, 40
could marry their own brothers. Gradually, this myth was percent of Nigerian children aged six to eleven years are
replaced with a more elaborate one in which girls were not in education. Nonattendance occurs for several rea-
said to form enchanted romances with water sprites from sons, including families needing their children to work
whom, during the Iria ceremony, they must be separated on farms, cultural or religious reasons, or because fami-
in order to marry mortal men. Many of the songs that the lies cannot afford books. Nigerian authorities have imple-
iriapu learn during Iria focus on finding love with a water- mented measures to increase the number of children in
borne lover. The songs deliberately call to mind the water education while also improving school facilities, which in
spirits because the Okrika believe that for the girls to sepa- some areas do not have toilets, running water, or electricity
rate from their water lovers, they must first summon them (UNICEF n.d.).
by name.
Another ritual in which Okrika females take part is
fattening room seclusion. This is a secular rite of passage Threats to Survival
experienced by girls belonging to several Nigerian tribes In the 1990s, Ijaws began to form armed rebel groups to
living in the country’s southeastern Cross River region. participate in their conflict against the Nigerian govern-
Nigerian culture values plump women, as they are seen as ment. It has been widely reported that Ijaw militants have
the embodiment of alluring, fertile, feminine beauty. Thus, also committed violent acts against oil company repre-
it is traditional in these tribes for prospective brides and sentatives in retaliation for what they consider the oil
first daughters to undergo a process of deliberate fattening industry’s role in damaging Ijaw fishing grounds. Ijaws are
as preparation for marriage, sponsored by their parents or frustrated that while outsiders become wealthy through
by their fiancés. Inside the fattening room, a girl is fed six exploiting oil on Ijaw land, the Ijaws live in abject poverty
meals per day that usually consists of rice, yams, cassava, on ground ruined by pollution. As a result of their frustra-
beans, plantains, fish, and meat. In addition to these foods, tion and resentment, some Ijaws call for Ijaw autonomy,
females also eat traditional medicines made from herbs the creation of an independent Niger Delta Republic, and
and leaves to aid digestion. The aim of the massive food Ijaw control of environmental resources on their land. Ijaw
consumption is to achieve a well-rounded figure; therefore, nationalism has been further fueled by the rise of militant
to ensure the result is achieved, the girls are encouraged Islam in northern Nigeria, as this has exacerbated cultural
to sleep a lot and forbidden from exercising, as this would and religious tensions within the country.
work off the calories needed to attain a fuller figure. When See also: Annang; Edo; Igbo; Tiv
participating in the ritual, Ijaw girls may have brass coils
Further Reading
called impala placed around their legs. The impala limit Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations.
the females’ ability to move and so protect them from male Vol. 3, L–R. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
water spirits who may try to carry them away. When Ijaw Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
girls leave seclusion, they must perform a dance in front of nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa
twelve thousand spectators in celebration (Williams 2017). Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Nigeria: Delta
Minorities.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous
Peoples. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/delta-minority​
Health Care and Education -groups.
The Ijaws live in poverty in a region lacking in infrastruc- Shoup, John A. 2011. “Ijaw.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and the
ture, where health care is rudimentary at best. Increasingly, Middle East: An Encyclopedia, John A. Shoup, 129–131. Santa
the Ijaws suffer from health issues relating to environmen- Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
UNICEF. n.d. “Education.” https://www.unicef.org/nigeria​/child​
tal pollution connected to the oil industry (Minahan 2002).
ren_1937.html.
At present, the quality of education in Nigeria is low, Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
and pupils perform poorly in key subjects. Nigeria’s rapid World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA:
population growth has placed great strain on the coun- ABC-CLIO.
try’s public services and infrastructure, and as children
478 i-Kiribati

I-KIRIBATI Geography and Environment

The Republic of Kiribati is an island nation in the central
Current Location Kiribati Pacific Ocean that consists of thirty-three coral islands
Current Population 108,000 divided among three island groups: the Gilbert Islands, the
Language English; I-Kiribati (Gilbertese) Phoenix Islands, and the Line Islands. The island groups
Interesting Fact The i-Kiribati homeland is the only stretch into the eastern, western, northern, and southern
country located within all four hemispheres. This makes Kiribati the only country in the
hemispheres. world located within all four hemispheres.
The thirty-three islands of Kiribati, of which only twenty
Overview are inhabited, are scattered over a vast area of the Pacific
The i-Kiribati, also known as the Gilbertese, i-Tungaru, or Ocean about twice the size of Alaska (Ives 2016). Coconut
Kiribatese, are the indigenous inhabitants of the Republic palms are a dominant feature of the islands’ landscapes,
of Kiribati, a Pacific nation commonly referred to as Kir- and together with foods foraged from the ocean and reefs,
ibati. The people prefer to be called the i-Kiribati rather coconuts are a main food resource for the i-Kiribati. The
than the Gilbertese, as the latter name derives from the i-Kiribati eat the flesh of the coconut and gather the sap to
way in which locals pronounce Gilberts—the nation’s use in cooking and as a sweet, alcoholic drink. Breadfruit,
colonial era name was the Gilbert Islands. The i-Kiribati pandanus, and Cyrtosperma chamissonis (a coarse plant
speak English, which is the nation’s official language, as similar to taro) are also grown on Kiribati.
well as I-Kiribati (or Gilbertese). This indigenous lan- Pacific island nations such as Kiribati are among the
guage belongs to the Oceanic branch of the Austronesian places most physically and economically vulnerable to cli-
language family. Most i-Kiribati are Christian, either Prot- mate change and extreme weather. Much of Kiribati lies
estant or Roman Catholic, though some are Mormon or no more than six feet above sea level, and with the latest
adhere to the Bahāʾī faith. climate models suggesting that the world’s oceans may
rise by five to six feet by 2100, the very existence of the
­i-­Kiribati is threatened. For example, research suggests
Population, Diaspora, and Migration that half of the village of Bikenibeu (population 6,500)
could be drowned by 2050 by a combination of rising sea
The i-Kiribati population is estimated to measure some
levels and storm surges (Ives 2016).
108,000 people (Minahan 2012), and Kiribati is increas-
ingly overpopulated. Parts of South Tarawa (the nation’s
capital and largest settlement) have some of the world’s History and Politics
highest population densities, exceeding those of large Kiribati was settled by migrants from Micronesia (proba-
cities such as New York and Hong Kong (Mitchel 2017), bly from the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu) between 3000
despite the fact that there are few tall buildings on South and 1300 BCE. Although the islands that make up Kiribati
Tarawa and other areas of the atoll are only as wide as a are widespread geographically, the islands known as Tun-
sports field. The population of Kiribati is expected to garu did not remain isolated but rather saw many visitors
increase further. Moderate projections estimate the popu- come from Tonga, Fiji, and Samoa, some of whom stayed
lation of South Tarawa will increase by 72 percent by 2050; in Kiribati. The Tongans, Fijians, and Samoans married
at the same time, 55 percent of the atoll will be suscepti- the original settlers, and over time, a distinct i-Kitribati
ble to flooding from rising sea levels and damaging storm culture evolved.
surges. Other predictions suggest that over the next thirty In the sixteenth century, Europeans began to sail near
years, the population of Tarawa will increase from 50,000 Kiribati, and British and American ships visited Kiribati
people to over 80,000 people (Mitchel 2017). during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. Thomas
As a result of the increasing population density, many Gilbert, a British sea captain who traveled around the Kir-
i-Kiribati are living in crowded homes, some of which ibati archipelago in 1788, named the islands the Gilbert
show damage from past storms. These i-Kiribati refuse to Islands as he sailed from Australia to China. Soon, West-
abandon their damaged homes for the simple reason that ern whaling and merchant ships and slave traders began
they have nowhere else to live. to visit Kiribati, and in so doing, they introduced diseases
 i-Kiribati 479

to the i-Kiribati as well as guns. The diseases and firearms matters. Northern chiefs and southern assemblies partici-
devastated the indigenous population. pate in all levels of Kiribati politics and hold great sway over
In 1837, British settlers, mainly missionaries and the i-Kiribati, who naturally respect older men (West 2009).
administrators, began to settle on Kiribati, and the islands’ Most i-Kiribati houses and boats are made from local
tribal rulers agreed to Kiribati becoming a British protec- materials such as tree trunks. The majority of the i­ -Kiribati
torate along with the Ellice Islands in 1892. British author- rely on fishing and subsistence farming for their food, with
ities based in Fiji administered the two sets of islands, and in vegetables, coconuts, taro, breadfruit, sweet potatoes, and
1916, the islands became a crown colony called the Gilbert pandanus grown for food. The i-Kiribati earn cash by pro-
and Ellice Islands. The lifestyle and culture of the i-Kiribati ducing copra, the dried flesh of the coconut from which
changed very little under British colonial rule, and their rel- coconut oil is extracted. Those who do not farm or fish
ative geographical isolation meant their culture remained tend to work in local government or tourism.
undiluted by outside influences throughout much of the The majority of the i-Kiribati are Christian, with 55
twentieth century. During World War II, however, the Japa- percent of the i-Kiribati being Roman Catholic and 36
nese invaded many of the islands. Then, in November 1943, percent being Protestant (Soboslai 2012). A small number
U.S. Marines landed on Tarawa, the largest of the Gilbert of ­i-Kiribati are Seventh-day Adventists, members of the
Islands. The ensuing Battle of Tarawa saw the Japanese sur- Church of Latter-day Saints, or followers of Bahāʾī. The
render, but not until they had destroyed much of Tarawa. i-Kiribati are highly religious and consider attending church
Post–World War II, some of the islands of Kiribati were and enacting church ceremonies and festivals extremely
used by the British and Americans to test nuclear weap- important. In addition to religious observance, these cer-
ons despite demonstrations by the i-Kiribati. In the 1960s emonies also act as social gatherings that bring the people
and 1970s, the i-Kiribati sought separation from the cul- together. Although they are Christian, the i-Kiribati main-
turally dissimilar Ellice Islanders, leading the British to tain some pre-Christian philosophies, believing in spirits
grant Kiribati self-rule in 1971. Then, in 1978, Kiribati (anti) and the power of sorcery. The i-Kiribati also have a
was separated from the Ellice Islands and given internal rich folklore that is steeped in myths and legend related to
self-governance. The following year, the islands became the ocean. According to the i-Kiribati creation myth, the
independent and were renamed Kiribati. world was created by a giant spider called Nareau, who then
During the 1980s and 1990s, rising sea levels caused by formed the anti, beings who were half-anti, and then, lastly,
global warming began to affect the islands. In 2008, Kiri- humankind. The i-Kiribati pre-Christian gods and god-
bati authorities petitioned Australia and New Zealand to desses took the form of animals or other natural entities
accept the i-Kiribati as permanent refugees should sea lev- and were regarded as totems of i-Kiribati communities.
els rise to engulf the islands. Music and dance are also important to the i-Kiribati.
Typically, i-Kiribati folk music is based around chants
accompanied by body percussion. Today, seated choruses
Society, Culture, and Tradition of men normally perform i-Kiribati folk music, with the
The culture of the i-Kiribati is Micronesian but has also singers accompanied by the playing of guitars or a wooden
been influenced by the cultures of Melanesia and Polyne- box instrument called a boaki. The box is made so as to
sia. Modern i-Kiribati maintain their traditional culture, produce a reverberating tone when struck by the seated
which is based around the ocean, religion, and family. The chorus. Ukuleles are also popular among the i-Kiribati,
i-Kiribati trace their ancestry through both parents, unlike having been introduced to the people by Europeans. Tradi-
kinship in other parts of Micronesia that tend to be mat- tional i-Kiribati dance includes arm and head movements
rilineal. Villages in Kiribati have different social structures reminiscent of fishing, sailing, and martial arts as well as
depending on whether the village is in the north or south hand slapping, foot stamping, and clapping. When they
of the country. In the north of the country, villages are led perform, the i-Kiribati wear costumes handmade from
by chiefs who inherit the title, and villagers are ranked in local materials, such as the leaves of the pandanus, which
importance according to how closely they are related to are used to fashion skirts, tops worn by women, and mats
the chief. Villages in the south of Kiribati are organized worn by men. Other items worn while dancing include
democratically. They are run by elected assemblies of elder armbands, belts, garlands, and headdresses made from
men who meet in communal buildings to discuss societal flowers, leaves, seashells, and beads.
480 i-Kiribati

The i-Kiribati have a long history of fighting in ritu- a result of global warming. If this environmental change
alized duels. Traditionally, the duelists wore armor made does occur, the i-Kiribati will be forced to leave their
from coconut fiber and entered into combat to settle mat- islands. Kiribati is poor and relies on international aid, so
ters of honor or disputes. Over time, these duels evolved it lacks the finances necessary to fortify the nation against
into a type of martial art. the effects of climate change. According to United Nations’
research, some 77 percent of i-Kiribati accept that their
people will most likely need to leave their homeland if sea
Health Care and Education levels rise, and 95 percent of those i-Kiribati questioned
In 2011, Kiribati’s public health spending was 8 percent of said they had already been a victim of a natural disaster
its gross domestic product (GDP), the equivalent of $177 (Mitchel 2017).
per person. Healthcare facilities in Kiribati are adequate If sea levels do rise, scientists believe the series of cause-
for routine medical care, but they are of varying quality ways that connect the islets that make up Kiribati’s capital
and hard to access because the islands have poor transport and most populated area, South Tarawa, will be washed
and communication links. As of 2006, Kiribati health care away, thereby crippling the country’s already struggling
consisted of one large, central hospital that took referrals economy. In addition, the islands’ coral reefs (that have
from three smaller hospitals, nearly twenty private health already been harmed by warming sea temperatures) will
centers, and seventy government-backed dispensaries. be degraded further, removing the protective properties
Tungaru Central Hospital, located on Tarawa, provides of the reefs and allowing stronger waves to slam into the
medical services for all islanders. islands’ coastlines. Stronger waves hitting the coasts will
A survey conducted between 1997 and 2010 found that increase erosion and lead to land being washed away, thus
there were 38 doctors and 371 nurses and midwives per disrupting the food supply. Fiercer waves will also remove
100,000 Kiribati islanders. In addition, qualified health some of the reefs that are home to the fish that are a major
professionals attended 80 percent of births during the food resource for the i-Kiribati. Higher temperatures and
period 2007–2012. In 2012, 91 percent of one-year-old associated changes to rainfall patterns will increase the
children had been immunized against measles. Meanwhile, prevalence of such diseases as dengue fever and ciguat-
the most recent survey, conducted between 2000 and 2011, era poisoning. Ciguatera poisoning is the most common
found that Kiribati has 21 pharmacists per 100,000 people. form of algal-induced seafood poisoning and is caused
In 2011, 66 percent of i-Kiribati had access to a safe water by consuming contaminated tropical sea reef fish such
source, and 39 percent used adequate sanitation facilities. as grouper, snapper, and barracuda. This medical issue is
Most of the medicines available to the i-Kiribati are bought related to climate change because changing sea tempera-
from Fiji in bulk by the government. American phar- tures cause infected fish to migrate to new areas, and as the
maceutical companies also provide supplies of urgently infected fish look and taste normal, they may well be eaten
needed medicines (Commonwealth Health Online 2017). by unwary by islanders.
Kiribati ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child Even before sea levels rise to levels that might obliterate
in 1995, thereby making a public commitment to children’s Kiribati, scientists assert that rising sea levels will worsen
rights to education. The Ministry of Education, Training and erosion and increase the contamination of freshwater
Technology (METT) runs Kiribati’s education system, which by saltwater. In response to these fears, Kiribati authori-
covers primary and secondary education as well as tertiary ties have drawn up contingency plans for the future. The
institutions, which include the Tarawa Teachers’ College, government encourages the islands’ inhabitants who
the Marine Training Centre, and the national Library and have work skills to think about migrating under the pol-
Archives. In Kiribati, the first six years of formal education icy of “migration with dignity.” The government has also
take place in primary schools, of which there are ninety-one acquired around six thousand acres of land in Fiji, an
across the whole of Kiribati (Shipman 2015). island over one thousand miles away, as a potential sanctu-
ary for islanders (Ives 2016). Fiji is less vulnerable to rising
sea levels, as it lies higher above sea level and its coastline
Threats to Survival is more stable.
There are major fears that Kiribati will be inundated and Packing up and moving an entire nation will not be easy,
made uninhabitable should sea levels continue to rise as however, and many i-Kiribati are skeptical of the need to
 Ingush 481

prepare for something that is not certain and may not occur INGUSH
for several decades to come. Rural ­i-Kiribati and those who
are less educated tend to be the most skeptical of the need Current Location Russian Federation
to migrate. This is probably because they do not have the job Current Population 413,016
skills needed to move away and because they are extremely Language Ingush
religious and believe God will protect them from disaster.
Interesting Fact In 1944, the Soviets deported the
In November 2017, President H. E Taneti Maamau seemed
entire population of the Ingush
to back this belief, telling a climate conference held in Ger- administrative center of Nazran and
many that his government aimed to embark on a twen- dumped the deportees in northern
ty-year plan to shore up Kiribati and develop the country’s Kazakhstan.
resilience with the help of the international community.
The president suggested that instead of abandoning Kiri-
bati, the nation’s uninhabited islands would be marketed
Overview
as tourist resorts to attract foreign investors who could The Ingush are a people indigenous to the North Caucasus.
develop luxury, eco-friendly resorts devoted to diving, fish- The Ingush speak the Ingush language, which belongs to
ing, and surfing, thereby providing the finances needed to the Nakh branch of the North Caucasian language family.
build defenses against rising sea levels (CBS 2017). Whether The Ingush are Sunni Muslims of the Shafi School. The
foreign investors will be attracted to a country likely to be name Ingush derives from the name of the first Ingush vil-
drowned in the near future is yet to be seen. How such lage reached by the Russians, Angusht. The Ingush refer
investment will affect i-Kiribati culture is also unknown. to themselves as the Ghalghay, from ghal (“fortress”) and
ghay (“inhabitants”).
See also: Anutan; Chamorro; Kanak; Marshallese;
Nauruan; Samoans; Tongan; Tuvaluan; Yapese
Further Reading Population, Diaspora, and Migration
CBS. 2017. “As Climate Change Threatens Islands, Kiribati’s Pres- There are no current population figures for the Ingush.
ident Plans Development.” CBS News, November 20. https://​ A 2002 national census recorded there were 413,016
www.cbsnews.com/news/climate-change-kiribati-president​
Ingush living in the Russian Federation (Minority
-taneti-maamau.
Commonwealth Health Online. 2017. “Health Systems in Kiri- Rights Group International 2015). Most Ingush live in
bati.” http://www.commonwealthhealth.org/pacific/kiribati​ Ingushetia, a federal Russian republic situated in the
/health_systems_in_kiribati. North Caucasus region. Before the 1992 Ingush-Osset
Duhaime-Ross, Arielle. 2016. “The Tiny Nation of Kiribati Will War, 60,000 Ingush lived in North Ossetia, and several
Soon Be Underwater—Here’s the Plan to Save Its People.” Vice thousand Ingush inhabited Grozny prior to the Chechen
News, September 22. https://news.vice.com/article​/doomed-
War (1994–1996). Many thousands of Ingush live in
by-climate-change-kiribati-wants-migration-with​-dignity.
Ives, Mike. 2016. “A Remote Pacific Nation, Threatened by Rising Central Asia, especially in Kazakhstan, as well as else-
Seas.” New York Times, World, July 2. https://www.nytimes​ where in the Russian Federation, the Middle East, and
.com/2016/07/03/world/asia/climate-change-kiribati.html. Turkey.
Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the The Ingush call themselves Ghalghay, which was origi-
Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. nally an Ingush clan name into which the Ingush are tradi-
Mitchel, Charlie. 2017. “The Angry Sea Will Kill Us All.” Stuff.
tionally divided: the Ghalghay, Kori, Metskhal, Dgharkhol,
https://​interactives.stuff.co.nz/2017/10/kiribati-the-angry​
-sea​-will​-kill-us-all. and Kist (Veppi). Today, however, the Kist (particularly
Shipman, Eastin. 2015. “Education in Kiribati.” Borgen Maga- those living in Georgia) are usually considered a separate
zine, March 13. http://www.borgenmagazine.com/education​ ethnic group.
-kiribati.
Soboslai, John. 2012. “Kiribati.” In Encyclopedia of Global Reli-
gion, edited by Mark Juergensmeyer and Wade Clark Roof, Geography and Environment
669–670. Vol. 1. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
West, Barbara A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and The Ingush live in an area of southern European Russia
Oceania. New York: Facts on File. located between the central Terek River and the main
stretch of the Caucasus Mountains. The Terek lowlands
482 Ingush

bound the area to the north, and the foothills of the Cau- in the fighting. When the Russian Revolution overthrew
casus are to the south. the czarists in 1917, the Ingush felt they had seen an end
to their impoverishment and neglect. The Ingush swept
down from their mountain homes to attack Russian, Cos-
History and Politics sack, and Ossetian settlements established on their land.
The ancestors of the Ingush have most likely inhabited Later the same year, Ingush representatives helped cre-
their homeland since the eighth millennium BCE. The ate an autonomous government of North Caucasus. They
early Ingush along with the Chechens and other minority also declared gazava (holy war) on the Terek Cossacks (a
groups lived as a larger ethnic group called the Waynakh Cossack army living near the Terek River). In late 1917,
(“our people”). While ordinarily inhabiting lowland areas, the Ingush took control of Vladikavkaz, but in 1918, they
when they felt endangered by invaders, the Waynakh were driven back to the lowlands of their homeland. The
would seek refuge in the high, inaccessible valleys of the relationship between the Ingush and Ossetians deterio-
Caucasus. In the sixth century CE, the tribes located in rated rapidly thereafter. The situation was not helped by
what is now Turkey converted to Christianity under the the fact that, as mainly Christians, the Ossetians had been
influence of the Romans. treated relatively well by czarist Russia and supported the
In the thirteenth century, the Mongols invaded nearby anti-Bolshevik White Army. In contrast, the Ingush backed
areas but were unable to conquer the mountains strong- the Bolshevik Black Army because the Bolsheviks vowed
holds to which they had forced the Ingush to flee. Then, in to redistribute Ingush land. In late 1918, the Ingush retook
the fifteenth century, the Turks and Persians vied for con- and plundered Vladikavkaz with Bolshevik help.
trol of the strategically important area that linked Europe The Bolsheviks reneged on their previous promises
to Asia. In the seventeenth century, the Ingush left their of creating a federation of Soviet independent states and
mountain homes to resettle in their lowland homeland soon began to merge Ingush land with the Soviet repub-
along the Terek River, where they had forged strong cultural lic. The Ingush homeland was incorporated in the newly
and defensive ties with the Chechens. For centuries, the formed Mountain Republic, but localized ethnic conflicts
Ingush and Chechens were considered a single entity, with brought about the breakup of the republic into smaller
the Ingush sometimes referred to as the Western Chech- states. Vladikavkaz soon became the focus of dispute
ens. At the end of the seventeenth century, some Ingush between the Ingush and Ossetians. In 1924, Soviet author-
converted to Islam, but the majority of Ingush maintained ities created a separate Ingush state that did not include
their Christianity until well into the nineteenth century. Vladikavkaz, which was instead united with Chechnya.
Russia had taken an interest in the Ingush homeland During the 1930s, the Soviets massacred the Ingush intel-
since the sixteenth century, when they sent Cossacks in ligentsia, banned the people’s language, and repressed
to build fortifications that would enable the Russians to Ingush religious traditions. This led to the Ingush joining
expand their territory into the North Caucasus. In 1748, a mass Muslim uprising in 1937 that was quickly defeated.
Vladikavkaz (now the capital of the Republic of North Osse- During World War II, the Soviets treated the Ingush so
tia-Alania) was founded as a fortification on Ingush terri- badly that many Ingush sided with Nazi Germany. Soviet
tory, thereby initiating Russian incursions into the area. leader Joseph Stalin held all Ingush responsible for assist-
In 1818, the Ingush rebelled against the Russians but were ing Germany, and in 1944, he ordered the entire popula-
unable to take control of the fortifications on their land. tion of the Ingush administrative center of Nazran to be
Between 1847 and 1860, the Ingush united with other local deported east on cattle trains. The deported Ingush were
Muslim groups to launch holy war against the Russians. then dumped and scattered across the steppes of northern
Most of the rebellious Ingush took little part in the holy Kazakhstan, where 25–50 percent of the deportees died of
war, but the Russians punished neutral Ingush as severely disease and starvation in brutal camps supervised by the
as those who actively rebelled. Over time, the Ingush KGB (Minahan 2002). Meanwhile, the dissolved Ingush
became increasingly poverty-stricken, something that led national territory of Prigorodny was transferred to the
to further rebellions. By the start of the twentieth century, neighbouring republic of North Ossetia. At the same time,
most Ingush were living as poor animal herders high in the Ossetians resettled vacant Ingush areas.
mountain valleys that the Russians refused to enter. In 1957, the Ingush were permitted to return to their
When World War I erupted in 1914, most Ingush sided homeland, which was not officially recognized as such
with their fellow Muslims, though few took any active part and included areas that had been part of North Ossetia.
 Ingush 483

However, Russians and Ossetians who had moved to the to send 2,500 extra troops into Ingushetia, where locals
Ingush homeland refused to leave, and in 1958, Christians reported soldiers acting brutally; human rights organi-
in the area began to attack the returning deportees. The zations warned that their presence could further inflame
attack killed many Ingush and caused such resentment an already volatile situation. A nongovernmental organi-
among the Ingush that the Ingush nationalist movement zation (NGO) also accused the Russians of overzealously
arose. policing Muslim militants by perpetrating arbitrary
In 1970, the Ingush called, unsuccessfully, for the return detentions, kidnappings, and torture (Minority Rights
of all their previous lands from North Ossetia. Soon the Group International 2015).
disharmony between the predominantly Orthodox Chris-
tian Ossetians and the Muslim Ingush took on overtly reli-
gious overtones. In 1975, the Soviets believed that around Society, Culture, and Tradition
half of all Ingush men belonged to banned nationalistic Today, Islam is central to Ingush life. Since the downfall
Sufi societies. To stop the Sufi brotherhoods, the Soviets of the Soviet Union, Islam has undergone a major revival
reopened some Ingush mosques so that the people could in Ingushetia, including the building of new mosques,
worship openly. In the late 1980s, Ingush nationalism Islamic cultural centers, and schools. Additionally, most
surged. Then, in 1990, ten thousand Ingush demonstrated Ingush men belong to Sufi brotherhoods.
for Ingush independence. At around the same time, Rus- Clans are very important to the Ingush, even those who
sians and Ossetians again attacked Ingush returning from live in urban areas. The Ingush believe clans influence peo-
Kazakhstan. After the collapse of the Soviet Union in ple’s public and personal lives. Today, Ingush clans tend to
1991, Ingush nationalism swelled, Ingush national borders be scattered and intermingled, but it is still the case that
were redrawn to those used before the Soviet era, and the families belonging to the same clans live in close proximity
Ingush homeland was declared an autonomous repub- to each other, either in the same neighborhoods or even on
lic within federal Russia as Ingushetia. Some Ingush also the same streets. The Ingush practice stringent clan exog-
claimed the traditional Ingush capital of Vladikavkaz. In amy, whereby marriage is allowed only outside their clans,
1992, Ingushetia officially separated from Chechnya but and each Ingush individual can trace his or her lineage to
lacked a lawful government. Later that year, conflict broke specific ancestors or ancestral villages.
out over Prigorodny, and then the Ossetians (backed by
Russia) drove sixty thousand Ingush from Vladikavkaz
and into squalid refugee camps (Minahan 2002). Health Care and Education
In 1997, Russia revoked the trading status of Ingushetia, In Ingushetia, primary health care consists of health sta-
an area that was already one of the poorest in the Russian tions and clinics that are part of district hospitals. Second-
Federation, which had no manufacturing infrastructure ary health care consists of district hospitals and central
and had the highest unemployment rates of any Russian district hospitals in regional areas. There are also some
people. This situation, coupled with an influx of refugees larger hospitals. In addition, Nazran is home to a cancer
from fighting in North Ossetia and Chechnya, led to food hospital, a maternity hospital, a cardiology hospital, and a
and housing shortages in Ingushetia. In 1999, the lead- tuberculosis hospital. However, some healthcare facilities
ers of North Ossetia and Ingushetia agreed that all refu- are housed in rented premises and have to relocate often.
gees should be allowed to return to their original homes, In theory, most healthcare services are free of charge and
though this had not yet been achieved in full. Later that provided by mandatory health insurance, but in reality,
year, another refugee crisis erupted when war restarted in many people pay for the majority of health services. In
Chechnya. general, the Ingush lack quality specialist health services,
While Ingush-Ossetian saw a time of peace for a decade and the hospitals are in poor condition and lack equip-
or so after the Prigorodny conflict, it did not last; in 2004, ment. There is limited health care for illnesses requiring
a siege on the Beslan school resulted in over three hun- high-technology treatment, such as cancer, heart disease,
dred deaths, and that attack along with others in North and neurological disorders. There is also very limited
Ossetia were blamed on the Ingush. In 2007, relations treatment available for children with physical or mental
between the Ingush and Russia rapidly deteriorated after disabilities. Rates of HIV/AIDS are on the rise in Ingushe-
a number of attacks on pro-Russian targets, including a tia, mainly because of drug addiction and unprotected sex
Russian schoolteacher. The attacks prompted Moscow (LandInfo 2012).
484 Innu

Recent data on Ingush education is hard to find. In 2004, Overview

there were 2,500 children enrolled at twenty kindergar- The Innu (also called the Naskapis, Montagnais or
tens and 64,000 pupils studying at primary and secondary ­Montagnais-Naskapis among other names), are an ethnic
schools in Ingushetia. The republic’s five higher education group living in Canada. The Innu, especially Innu elders,
institutions had 9,400 students (Turner 2006). speak the Innu language (also called Innu-aimun or
Innueimun). The language is unrelated to Inuit languages
Threats to Survival but instead forms part of the Cree-Montagnais-Naskapi
dialect continuum. Many Innu also speak French or Eng-
Ingushetia is one of Russia’s poorest republics, but since
lish. The majority of Innu are Christian, especially Roman
2002, it has benefited from Russian money. Nonetheless,
Catholic. Some also maintain traditional Innu spiritual
many Ingush are opposed to the perceived closeness of
beliefs. The name Innu means “people” in the Innu lan-
Ingushetia’s leaders to Moscow, and this has been a point
guage. This is the name most often applied to the group.
of both informal Islamic and formal party political oppo-
Some Innu still use one of two older names for the people:
sition within the republic. A clampdown on political oppo-
Montagnais (meaning “mountaineers” in French), which
sition is contributing to the rise of Islamic militancy in
is usually applied to Innu living in southern forested com-
Ingushetia as well as elsewhere in the North Caucasus.
munities, and Naskapi, which is the name sometimes
Radical Islamic insurgency has spread from Chechnya
applied to Innu living in infertile subarctic areas.
across the whole of the North Caucasus region. As a result,
militant attacks have become a frequent occurrence in
Ingushetia. Such regional instability is one of the reasons Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Ingushetia remains one of Russia’s poorest republics and The Innu population is estimated to comprise around
is home to very high unemployment and growing poverty. thirty thousand people (Minahan 2013). This figure
See also: Chechen; Ossetian includes three closely related tribes called the Naskapi,
Further Reading the East Main Cree, and the Montagnais. The Innu live
Gammer, Moshe. 2011. “Ingush.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe: An in eastern Canada in parts of Newfoundland’s Labrador
Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 194–197. Santa Bar- Peninsula and eastern Quebec. They call their homeland
bara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Nitassinan. Although the Innu are traditionally nomadic,
LandInfo. 2012. “Report: Chechnya and Ingushetia: Health Ser- most Innu communities today are largely sedentary, with
vices.” LandInfo, June 26. http://www.landinfo.no/asset/2322​
Innu communities dispersed across a vast area in remote
/1/2322_1.pdf.
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: locations. For instance, the Uashat and Mani-utenam
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 2: D–K. Innu live in and around Sept-Îles along the north shore
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. of the St. Lawrence River, while other Innu groups, such
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Russian Federation: as Matimekush-Lac-John and Kawawachikamach, who
Ingush.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peo- live around Schefferville, north of Labrador, are far more
ples, June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/ingush.
isolated. Innu communities in Quebec include Pessamit,
Turner, Barry, ed. 2006. The Statesman’s Yearbook 2007. Basing-
stoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. Kawawachikamach, Unamen Shipu, Essipit, Uashat mak
Mani-utenam (the collective name for the two Sept-Îles
Innu communities), Mashteuiatsh, Ekuanitshit, Nutash-
kuan, Pakua Shipu, and Matimekush-Lac-John. The most
populous Innu communities in Labrador are the Mushuau
Innu in Natuashish and the Sheshatshiu Innu that live in
INNU
Tshishe-shastshit. Typically, Innu hunting families are
Current Location Canada
scattered across a vast territory, so they have little aggre-
gate impact on resources.
Current Population 30,000
Language Innu; French; English
Interesting Fact The Innu of Davis Inlet have the Geography and Environment
world’s highest annual suicide rate: The Labrador Peninsula is located in eastern Canada. The
178 per 100,000 people. peninsula is bordered by the Hudson Bay to the west, the
 Innu 485

Hudson Strait to the north, the Labrador Sea to the east,

and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence to the southeast. The pen- Elizabeth (Tshaukuesh) Penashue
insula includes the region of Labrador, which is part of Elizabeth (Tshaukuesh) Penashue is an Innu
the Canadian province of Newfoundland and Labrador. It elder from Sheshatshiu First Nation. In the 1960s,
is also home to the regions of Saguenay–Lac-Saint-Jean, Penashue moved to an Innu Federal Reserve when
Côte-Nord, and Nord-du-Québec, which are part of the her people were encouraged to relocate to integrate
province of Quebec. The Labrador Peninsula consists of into settled Canadian society. The hunting and
a plateau interspersed with river valleys and mountain trapping equipment belonging to Penashue’s father
ranges. The Torngat Mountains, located in the north, was lost when the development of Churchill Falls
contain the peninsula’s highest peak, Mount Caubvick. required the creation of the Smallwood Reservoir.
The mountains also host Torngat Mountains National Subsequently, his work territory at Michikamau
Park, which is a haven for wildlife that includes caribou, Lake also disappeared.
black bears, wolves, foxes, polar bears, peregrine falcons, After being married to Francis Penashue in 1963,
and golden eagles. Torngat Mountains National Park is Penashue found settled life confining. The cou-
located in the province of Newfoundland and Labrador, ple tried to return to the traditional Innu lifestyle,
and the adjacent Kuururjuaq National Park is located but low-level military flying exercises performed
in the province of Quebec. Kuururjuaq National Park around Goose Bay were conducted over the land
is home to many types of fish, forest birds, and marine that the Innu used for hunting. This hampered
animals. the Penashues’ ability to recover their old life. In
Newfoundland and Labrador experience cold winters response, Elizabeth Penashue led opposition to the
and warm to cool summers. Temperatures in southern low-level flying. She also continued to promote the
Newfoundland rarely reach 0°F. However, western Labra- traditional Innu lifestyle and the Innu relationship
dor can be as cold as −40°F. Annual precipitation in the with nature by organizing a winter walks taking
area varies from fifty-five inches in the southern parts to in Goose Bay, Labrador. Penashue also organized a
about seventeen inches in the north of the Labrador Pen- canoe trip along the Churchill River that focused
insula. In northern parts, up to half of the annual pre- attention on problems that would arise from dam-
cipitation falls as snow. Storms that travel across Canada ming the Lower Churchill River.
and then up the Atlantic seaboard affect Newfoundland’s Penashue’s activism attracted public attention to
climate greatly, for warm air drawn in on the southern the Innu struggle and later became the subject of a
side of the storms contribute to high precipitation in the book (Marie Wadden’s Nitassinan) and a film (the
southern area. The northwesterly winds that follow each National Film Board’s Hunters and Bombers). Since
storm carry cold Arctic air. To the south, the cool air of 1996, Penashue has led organized treks deep into
the Labrador Current combines with warmer air over the Innu ancestral lands. In the winter, she guides a 150-
Gulf Stream to produce dense fog over the Grand Banks mile snowshoe trek and, in the summer, a month-
and along Newfoundland’s southern and southeastern long canoe trip on the threatened Churchill River to
coasts. highlight the importance of preserving Innu culture
Recent industrial and military developments have and identity.
brought changes to Innu lands. The Upper Churchill Falls You can learn more about Penashue at http://​
hydroelectric project flooded over five hundred miles of elizabethpenashue.blogspot.com.
central Labrador, much of which was used as Innu hunting
grounds, campsites, and burial grounds. During the 1980s
and 1990s, many Innu protested against low-level military
flight training over their hunting grounds. In 1994, the dis- developments, the Innu feel cut off from their traditional
covery of rich nickel deposits at Voisey’s Bay meant Innu lands. In 2013, the Innu First Nations of Uashat mak
lands and resources attracted outside industrial devel- Mani-utenam and Matimekush-Lac John launched a $900
opers, leading to some Innu opposing the development million suit against a mining company, claiming that the
while others demanded a percentage of any mining rev- company’s mines as well as its railway and deepwater port
enues. Today, the company that extracts nickel from the have caused environmental damage, displaced Innu com-
mine pays to the Innu. As a result of these environmental munities, and prevented the Innu from practicing their
486 Innu

traditional lifestyle. The case was due to go before the and inflexible in contrast to hunting roaming herds of
Supreme Court of Canada in November 2018. caribou. When beaver hats fell out of fashion during the
1830s, the change in taste ended a trade that the Innu had
been involved in two hundred years.
History and Politics Toward the end of the nineteenth century, timber com-
According to Innu folklore, the Innu were part of a pow- panies began to operate on Innu land, bringing with them
erful tribal confederation that controlled a vast area to many non-Innu settlers. The settlers appropriated most of
the south of what is now the Innu homeland. Around two the Innu’s most fertile land and exposed the Innu to a con-
thousand years ago, the Innu were forced to move north- stant stream of illnesses to which they lacked immunity.
ward as the result of frequent conflict with the Iroquois. Such was the devastating effect of the epidemics that the
Over time, the Innu adapted to living in forests as well as Innu population had fallen to just two thousand people by
the harsh climate of their new home. The Innu were organ- the late nineteenth century (Minahan 2013).
ized into seminomadic bands consisting of extended fami- Over time, the imposition of colonial borders had
lies. As nomads, the Innu learned to use and manage their resulted in the Innu being divided between English-­
resources, including making use of products made from speaking Labrador and French-speaking Quebec. In 1869,
their caribou herds. Innu land became part of the Northwest Territories before
At the end of the fifteenth century, European expe- becoming separate in 1895. While the Innu rejected the
ditions began to arrive in Innu coastal areas as Spanish, partition of their homeland, British, French, and Canadian
French, and English explorers charted the coast. In 1498, governments appropriated the land that they then shared
Italian navigator John Cabot was sent there by the English, between various mining and logging companies. In 1912,
the Portuguese Corte-Real family of navigators arrived in the Canadian government incorporated part of Ungava
1500, and Frenchman Jacques Cartier arrived in 1534. In within Quebec. Then, in 1927, Canada divided the area
1610, Henry Hudson and his English expedition arrived between Quebec and Labrador.
in the bay now called Hudson Bay. This expedition proved Following World War II, the Canadian government
to be the first Europeans to make contact with the Innu. forced the Innu to settle in permanent communities to
Around the same time, the French navigator Samuel de assimilate nomadic Innu groups as well as to clear Innu
Champlain made contact with Innu at the mouth of the land for farming or to extract resources. By the 1970s, most
Saguenay River in Quebec. Subsequently, the prospect of Innu adopted settled lives, thanks in part to subsidies paid
work in the French fur trade caused many Innu to settle by the Canadian government, much to the dismay of Innu
near the St. Lawrence River. From 1615, Roman Catholic activists who warned that the subsidies encouraged the set-
missionaries arrived on Innu land, thereby bringing Chris- tled Innu not to work. During the 1980s, the Innu started
tianity to southern Innu bands. In time, France and Brit- to call for the reinstatement of Innu cultural and linguistic
ain established large land claims in Innu areas and entered rights as well as to press for the resolution of  Innu land
into treaties with various Innu bands. At times, the Innu claims. Around the same time, studies showed that the
fought the Inuit, the Haudenosaunee, the Mi’kmaq, and Innu suicide rate was five times higher than the  average
the Abenaki. On the whole, however, the Innu were not a Canadian suicide rate (Minahan 2013).
warlike people. From the late twentieth century to the early t­ wenty-first
In the eighteenth century, smallpox contracted from century, the Innu have demanded a greater degree of
Europeans devastated Innu bands. Also in the eighteenth self-government, control over the natural resources located
century, frequent fighting in the United States between on their lands, and the right to limit the number of con-
France and Britain culminated in the French defeat dur- struction projects within their homeland. At present, two
ing the French and Indian War (in 1763), which resulted Innu tribal councils represent the Innu in Québec: Le Con-
in all Innu coming under nominal British rule, though the seil Tribal Mamuitun represents the Mashteuiatsh, Essipit,
change in administration had little effect on the Innu until Pessamit, Uashat, Mani-utenam, and Matimekush, and
the later in the 1800s. In the nineteenth century, the Innu Mamit Innuat represents the Ekuanitshit, Nutashkuan,
were occupied in the flourishing regional fur trade, though Pakua Shipu, and Unamen Shipu. The Innu’s Labrador com-
in some ways, the fur trade had an effect on the Innu munities are represented by the Innu Nation. The groups
because they found the trapping lifestyle too stationary continually advocate for their own land settlements and, in
 Innu 487

the main, oppose the construction of hydroelectric dams, Caribou are traditionally very important to the Innu,
roads, and mines on Innu land. They also want to limit the who make use of every part of the animal. Apart from
number of low-level military flights over their land. using caribou hide to make wigwams, Innu crafters dec-
orate caribou skins to make clothing and drums used in
celebrations and during sacred singing. Innu diviners also
Society, Culture, and Tradition used the cracks in burnt caribou shoulder blade bones to
Innu culture comprises the three main Innu groups: the foretell good game hunting locations.
Montagnais, the Naskapi, and the East Main Cree. The Innu hunters were judged on their ability to gift meat
three groups speak related dialects of the same language to those in their community. After a hunt, Innu communi-
and have a common culture that is shaped by the people’s ties hold a ceremonial feast (makushan), and they delight
different environments. For example, the poor soil and in the eating of caribou fat and marrowbone as well as
short growing season of many Innu areas means that the ceremonial drumming and the singing of sacred songs
Innu are traditionally hunter-gatherers rather than farm- to the animal spirits. Modern Innu see no contradiction
ers. Historically, the Innu in eastern and northern areas in believing in both a Christian God and animal spirits.
hunt game animals such as caribou, and Innu living in Moves by the Catholic Church to appropriate Innu spiritual
western areas hunt moose, beaver, and bear. The Innu also beliefs are welcomed by many older Innu but resented by
fish for eels, lake fish, and salmon and forage for roots, ber- younger Innu, who consider the Church’s use of these tra-
ries, and maple sap. Traditionally, the Innu travel by canoe ditions as a form of colonization or cultural appropriation
in summer and use snowshoes and toboggans during the (Minahan 2013).
winter. It is also traditional for Innu in the south to live in
wigwams made of birchbark; wigwams in the north tend
to be made from caribou hide. Health Care and Education
The Innu speak dialects of an Algonquin language. Years of colonialism and neglect by authorities have left
Depending on their location, bands also speak French or the Innu demoralized to the extent that they have the
English. During the late twentieth century, an Innu dic- world’s highest suicide rate as well as extremely high rates
tionary was published along with books and websites of alcoholism and drug abuse (Minahan 2013). The Cana-
covering Innu grammar and language structure. The Innu dian government has responded to such issues by funding
dialects are similar, but there are variances in how words village-based medical and well-being facilities, emergency
are spelled and written. For instance, some Innu com- medical evacuations to Newfoundland, plus housing,
munities may use syllabics, while others use Latin script. recreation, building infrastructure, and alcohol abuse
Modern Innu communities are often fluent in French or programs, clinics, and homes. Although the Innu have wel-
English. In the 2016 census, 10,490 Innu spoke Innu as comed some government policies, some Innu believe the
their mother tongue (Tanner and Parrott 2018). government continues to fail to address the root cause of
Most Innu are Roman Catholics. However, the Innu the Innu’s high suicide rate, that is, the importance of the
maintain spiritual beliefs that influence their tribal society. Innu’s connections to the land. In 1993, the Innu of Davis
It is still the case today that Innu tribal elders are highly Inlet (Utshimassits) attracted international headlines after
respected both as spiritual leaders and civic dignitaries. a gasoline-sniffing epidemic occurred among their chil-
Before the coming of the Europeans, Innu religion focused dren. In 2001, the Canadian government, the government
on the reverence of animals, especially the caribou. Innu of Newfoundland and Labrador, and the Labrador Innu
shamans would perform Shaking Tent rites to communi- developed the Labrador Innu Comprehensive Healing
cate with animal spirits, and Innu hunters would appease Strategy, which was intended to tackle some of the prob-
animal spirits by proffering offerings of bones and skulls to lems facing the Innu. Then, in 2002, around 680 Innu from
trees. The arrival of European missionaries affected Innu Davis Inlet relocated to Natuashish, to the west of their
spiritual thinking dramatically. From the start, missionar- original community. In 2008, the residents of Natuashish
ies pervaded Innu culture, and Christian texts were trans- voted to ban alcohol from their reserve in the hope that it
lated accordingly. In the eighteenth century, missionaries would reduce the reserve’s alcoholism rates.
helped to develop a standard written Innu language while The Innu’s adoption of a sedentary lifestyle is also
continuing to convert the Innu to Christianity. impacting the people’s health. Although the northern Innu
488 Inuit

and the Eastern James Bay Cree still hunt despite living in and suicide. At the same time, ironically, many Innu work
villages, in other areas, Innu diets have changed as people in nonprofessional jobs in healthcare facilities, shelters,
switch from eating nutrient-rich foods that provide high and treatment programs located in their villages (Samson
levels of protein and fat (especially fatty acids) as well as and Pretty 2006). Typically, isolated Innu settlements are
vitamins and minerals (particularly vitamin C and sele- considered by many young Innu as the sites of personal
nium) to diets high in carbohydrates and saturated fats tragedies that magnify feelings of loss. Unemployment is
but low in essential nutrients. The health implications of another problem facing the Innu.
the Innu’s new diets have led to a wide range of ailments: On the plus side, several programs exist that aim to help
the excess consumption of energy and fat causes obesity, Innu culture survive. For instance, the Nametau Innu pro-
high sodium intake results in high blood pressure, greater ject aims to pass traditional Innu knowledge from Innu
intake of saturated and trans fats leads to heart disease, elders to Innu youngsters. In addition, since 1985, the
and the consumption of refined sugars leads to diabetes Uashat mak Mani-utenam have hosted an annual summer
and dental cavities among the Innu. In recent years, studies music festival called Innu Nikamu. Also, the Innu language
have found that 57 percent of Cree women living in Quebec is spoken widely and supported by programs such as the
are obese, with a BMI of more than thirty. Another study Innu Language Project.
found that 75 percent of Mushuau Innu women fell into
See also: Gwich’in; Inuit; Mi’kmaq; Yupik
the obese BMI category, making them the most obese of all
Further Reading
the northern aboriginal communities surveyed (Samson
Hanrahan, Maura C. 2002. “Identifying the Needs of Innu and
and Pretty 2006). Inuit Patients in Urban Health Settings in Newfoundland and
A problem that prevents some Innu from accessing med- Labrador.” Canadian Journal of Public Health/Revue Cana-
ical help is that middle-aged and senior Innu either do not dienne De Sante’e Publique 93 (2): 149–152. http://www.jstor​
speak English or are shy of doing so, something that seri- .org/stable/41993462.
ously hampers their ability to access health care or receive Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An
Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
correct diagnoses. Additionally, many Innu feel disoriented
Philpott, David F. 2016. “First Nations Assessment Issues.” In
in urban areas and so feel very uncomfortable when using Leadership of Assessment, Inclusion, and Learning, edited
urban healthcare facilities. The fact that these facilities are by Shelleyann Scott, Donald E. Scott, and Charles F. Web-
large and lack signs in the Innu language adds to their diso- ber, 305–326. Cham, Switzerland: Springer International
rientation when using the facilities (Hanrahan 2002). Publishing.
In recent years, provincial records reveal that less than Samson, Colin, and Jules Pretty. 2006. “Environmental and
Health Benefits of Hunting Lifestyles and Diets for the Innu
50 percent of Innu attended high school. Researchers
of Labrador.” Food Policy 31: 528–553.
have discovered that Innu children tend to receive a sub- Tanner, Adrian, and Zach Parrott. 2018. “Innu (Montagnais-
standard education as a result of teachers speaking Eng- Naskapi).” The Canadian Encyclopedia, August 8. https://​www​
lish rather than the Innu language and of being culturally .the​canadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/innu​-mon​tag​nais​
insensitive. A high rate of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder -naskapi.
and associated social issues also inhibited Innu pupils’
educational attainment (Philpott 2016).
There have recently been moves to improve Innu edu-
cation by producing teaching materials for use in kin-
dergartens and on social studies courses that specifically INUIT
include the Innu. There are also negotiations between the
federal government and Innu leaders to allow the Innu to Current Location United States; Canada; Greenland;
take control of the school system in Innu areas. Russia
Current Population 100,000
Language English; Russian; Danish; Inuit
Threats to Survival dialects
The sedentation of the Innu and their becoming detached Interesting Fact Inuit living in Greenland are citizens
from their land has caused a loss of their self-esteem, of Denmark but not of the European
which manifests in alcohol abuse, child gasoline sniffing, Union.
 Inuit 489

Overview
The Inuit are members of an ethnic group living in Arctic
areas of the United States, Canada, Greenland, and Russia.
Most Inuit in Canada and the United States speak English.
Siberian Inuit speak Russia, and those in Greenland speak
Danish. Some Inuit also speak dialects belonging to the
­Eskimo-Aleut language family. Most Inuit are nominally
Christian, particularly Roman Catholic or Anglican, though
many maintain traditional Inuit spiritual beliefs. The Inuit
refer to themselves as the Inuktiut (“the people”). The word
Inuit is plural; an Inuit individual is called an Inuk. In the past
the Inuit were called the Eskimo. The word Eskimo stems
from Algonquin phrases used to describe the Algonquin’s
northern neighbors and used by Europeans to denote all Arc-
tic peoples. The term Eskimo is now considered derogatory.

Population, Diaspora, and Migration

The total Inuit population contains around 100,000 peo-
ple (Minahan 2013). In 2011, Statistics Canada estimated
that 59,440 people in Canada self-identified as Inuit. Other
2011 research found that 73 percent of all Inuit in Can-
ada live in Inuit Nunangat, and around 50 percent of all
Inuit live in Nunavut. Other major concentrations of Inuit Inuit girls in Greenland wearing traditional dress. The Inuit live
in the United States, Canada, and Russia, as well as in Greenland.
exist in Nunavik in northern Quebec, Nunatsiavut on the (Hel080808/Dreamstime.com)
northeast coast of Labrador, and in Inuvialuit, the western
Arctic region comprising Yukon and the Northwest Terri-
tories (Freeman 2015). Most Inuit live in fifty-three com- unusual times of the year and scare off narwhal. The fish
munities found throughout Inuit Nunangat. in Inuit waters are also changing; Pacific salmon, not nor-
There are eight major Inuit groups: the Labradormiut, mally found in the Arctic east of Alaska, have been found
the Nunavimmiut, the Baffin Island, the Iglulingmuit, the in unusual areas. Changes to the Arctic environment also
Kivallirmiut, the Netsilingmiut, the Inuinnait, and the affect Inuit culture, as the people feel more vulnerable
Invialuit. and less isolated when there is less ice. At the same time,
increasing numbers of companies linked to extractive
industries as well as scientists and environmentalists have
Geography and Environment begun to appear in the Inuit homeland, leaving many Inuit
The Inuit homeland, Inuit Nunangat, encompasses all wary of outsiders’ influence on their land (Struzik 2012).
the land, water, and ice of the Arctic. The term may also
refer to Inuit land in Alaska and Greenland. Inuit Nunan-
gat comprises 35 percent of Canada’s land and 50 percent History and Politics
of the country’s coast (Canada.ca 2018). In general, Inuit The Inuit’s ancient ancestors probably migrated to North
land consists of flat, barren tundra where all but the top American from Asia around four thousand years ago via a
few inches of soil remain frozen all year. land bridge that once stretched across the Bering Strait from
The retreat of summer sea ice caused by rising temper- Siberia to Alaska. About 2000 BCE, the Inuit separated from
atures is affecting the Inuit. Some communities report ice the Aleuts; the Aleuts migrated southward, while the early
so thin that hunters cannot stand on it to shoot migrat- Inuit, the Thule Inuit, spread out across the Arctic Circle.
ing narwhal, which in turn reduced the people’s food sup- Between 1000 and 1400 CE, the Thule Inuit migrated to the
plies. Additionally, exceptional numbers of orcas arrive at Arctic regions of North America, with groups scattering to
490 Inuit

modern-day Alaska, Greenland, and northern and Arctic

Sheila Watt-Cloutier Canada. Today’s Inuit share a consistency of culture and lan-
Sheila Watt-Cloutier was born in Nunavik, Canada, guage because they descend from this single mass migration.
in 1953. As an educational administrator for the The Inuit lived isolated in the Arctic regions for centu-
Kativik School Board, Watt-Cloutier began initia- ries, meeting only a few other subarctic peoples with whom
tives to improve the education of Inuit pupils as well they traded furs. The Inuit were, therefore, amazed when, in
as to address issues such as alcohol and drug abuse the sixteenth century, Europeans arrived in their homeland.
among Inuit students. Subsequently, Watt-Cloutier The majority of Inuit first encountered Europeans in the
was an important contributor to the 1992 Nuna- 1770s, when explorers from Britain, Spain, and Russia made
vik Educational Task Force Report that provided their way to the Arctic. The arrival of Christian missionaries
numerous recommendations to reform the Nunavik in the eighteenth century resulted in the Inuit converting
educational system, including the necessity of cul- to Christianity. However, although missionaries and Arctic
tural preservation and the development of commu- explorers knew of the Inuit, they were mostly ignored by
nity infrastructure. national governments. Indeed, many Inuit remained remote
From 1995 to 1998, Watt-Cloutier served as from the outside world until the start of World War I.
part of the Makivik Corporation, the Inuit land At the beginning of the twentieth century, the Inuit
claims organization. In 1995 and 1998, she was also experienced a decline in some of their traditions, includ-
elected president of the Inuit Circumpolar Coun- ing blood feuds and infanticide, which resulted in the Inuit
cil (ICC) Canada. As president, she served as the population growing throughout the 1920s and 1930s. It
spokesperson for Arctic indigenous peoples dur- was only in the 1950s that Inuit lives began to change in
ing the negotiation of the Stockholm Convention earnest, for this was when well-meaning, if misguided,
that limited the manufacture and use of pollutants authorities started to move nomadic or seminomadic
that contaminated Inuit subsistence foods. In 2002, Inuit communities to planned housing projects equipped
Watt-Cloutier became the international chair of with healthcare facilities and schools. In general, the Inuit
the ICC, a position she held until 2006. In this role, accepted their new lives, but this left them open to adopt-
Watt-Cloutier presented the Arctic Climate Impact ing the ills of modern society, most especially alcoholism,
Assessment (ACIA), the first multidisciplinary poverty, and the breakdown of the family (Minahan 2013).
assessment of the impact of climate change on the In the 1960s and 1970s, Inuit activists mobilized their
Arctic. In 2005, Watt-Cloutier, together with Inuits people to recognize that they had been ill-treated in the
from across Canada and Alaska, filed a petition to past and demanded recompense. For example, in 1971,
the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights the Inuit Tapirisat of Canada (now the Inuit Tapitiit Kana-
(IACHR), arguing that greenhouse gas emissions tami) formed to lobby for Inuit land claims, Inuit self-­
from the United States violated Inuit cultural and government, and to represent connected issues, such as
human rights. social, political, and environmental concerns.
Since leaving the ICC, Watt-Cloutier continues In Canada, the Inuit gained control of their homeland
to advocate for the Inuits through lectures and by in 1999, when a new territory, Nunavut, was officially rec-
addressing conferences, including the 2009 UN Cli- ognized. In 2005, the people of Nunatsiavut, in Newfound-
mate Conference. In 2015, she published her book land, and Labrador, Canada, became self-governing after the
The Right to Be Cold about her life and the impact implementation of the Labrador Inuit Claims Agreement and
of climate change on the Inuits. Watt-Cloutier has the Labrador Inuit Constitution. Today, annual Inuit confer-
received many honors, including the 2004 United ences take place where the people gather to share experi-
Nations Environment Programme’s Champion of ences and seek solutions to issues affecting their people.
the Earth Award, the 2006 Officer of the Order of
Canada, and the 2015 Right Livelihood Award.
You can learn more about Watt-Cloutier at
Society, Culture, and Tradition
https://www​.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/arti​ Inuit culture revolves around the people’s traditional occu-
cle/sheila-watt​-cloutier. pations of hunting and fishing and was shaped by the
harsh climate of the Inuit homeland.
 Inuit 491

Traditionally, the Inuit migrated seasonally from one individual, for many people may hold the same name. This
camp to another. Large regional groups were separated into in turn means that, in principal, all Inuit sharing the same
smaller seasonal groups, with winter camps (bands) com- name are in effect the same person.
prising around one hundred people and summer groups In Inuit culture, names and souls are closely linked to
of fewer than a dozen members who engaged in hunting. mystical forces, and atiq names are often considered soul
Modern Inuit have adopted many types of food, including names. Indeed, an Inuit baby is not considered a complete
fruits, vegetables, and milk, which are transported long dis- person until it receives its atiq name, as the name brings
tances. The distances results in the food costing more, and with it a spiritual essence through a form of reincarna-
it tends not to be fresh. A 2005 report revealed 68 percent of tion. Consequently, in the Upernavik district of Greenland,
Inuit adults in Inuit Nunangat ate country food (traditional babies given the name of a dead relative are sometimes
Inuit foods), including seal, whale, duck, caribou, fish, and referred to as makeqqiut, meaning “resurrected.” The Inuit
berries (Freeman 2015). The Inuit have a tradition of shar- concept of the soul is more akin to the Western concept
ing country food with other families. Modern Inuit life has of a guardian angel rather than the Christian concept of
adopted so that snowmobiles have replaced traditional dog a soul. This is because namesakes are thought to protect
sleds, rifles have replaced harpoons when hunting, and those named after them over generations.
modern housing has supplanted traditional igloos. An atiq ceremony sees a shaman baptize a baby to pro-
Since the 1970s and 1980s, there has been a revival of vide the child with spiritual protection. The shaman also
traditional Inuit customs. The Inuit believe that names assigns the baby at least one Inuit name; in Kangersuatsiaq,
are an essential component of a baby’s makeup and hold in Greenland, babies receive the names of several deceased
a mystical significance that reveals a child’s personality, relatives. It should be noted that not all Inuit families name
character, abilities and attributes that will become evident their children at separate formal naming ceremonies, for
as a child grows up. As Inuit culture considers names to some families may name their baby at a Christian baptism.
be so highly important, some Inuit hold a naming rite Each of the names an Inuit baby receives during an atiq
called the atiq (meaning both “name” and “spirit”) cere- ceremony holds a special significance, but the primary
mony when a baby is a few days old. The number of days function of the names is to shape the infant’s destiny and
after birth by which the ceremony must occur varies. For commemorate important members of society. The Inuit
example, the Qiqiqtamiut Inuit of Belcher Islands, Canada, believe that by conferring the name(s) of a dead person or
believe that a baby should receive its atiq name within five thing on a baby, the infant appropriates some of the char-
days of birth, while the Cumberland Sound Inuit living in acteristics or powers associated with the person or thing so
the Arctic waterway in Nunavut, Canada, feel three days is they become part of the baby’s identity.
correct. Meanwhile, in Greenland, babies tend to be named The atiq name is often accompanied by an English-­
immediately after they are born. In Greenland and Arctic language name too. However, although nearly all Inuit
Canada, babies tend to be named by their grandparents have legal names based on English-language naming tra-
rather than their parents. ditions, among themselves, Inuit tend to use native names.
Such is the importance of the atiq name in Inuit culture Thus, in Inuit society, names ensure the endurance of the
that when a stranger encounters a child, it is usual for the lives of individuals, families, and communities as names
stranger to ask, “Kinamik atirqarpit?” which translates as, are passed from one generation to another regardless
“Whom do you have as an atiq?” The atiq name conferred on of gender. An Inuit may also choose to change their atiq
an Inuit child is usually the name of a deceased family mem- name through a ritualized renaming procedure, but such
ber, most often a cherished older relative such as a grand- a renaming will render the individual a different person.
parent. The Inuit believe that by using the name of a dead
relative, the child receives the relative’s spirit. Once a baby
receives its atiq name, it received the sauniq (“bone”), the Health Care and Education
title of the person after whom the baby is named. Through Since the Inuit were forced to move to permanent set-
this process, the baby is thought to acquire the character of tlements, many have lacked adequate housing and over-
the sauniq and thereby keep alive the sauniq’s memory. All crowding. Consequently, many Inuit suffer health issues,
babies that share a namesake also enjoy a special name- including respiratory infections, tuberculosis, obesity, and
sharer connection. Thus, in this way, no name is held by one diabetes. Indeed, the 2016 rate of tuberculosis infection
492 iTaukei

among Inuit living in Inuit Nunangat was three hundred Constitution of the Republic of Fiji, all Fijian citizens
times the rate for Canadian-born non-Inuit (Canada.ca are classed as Fijian, but the indigenous inhabitants are
2018). Inuit communities also have higher rates of youth known as iTaukei. The Fijian language spoken by the
suicide than the rest of Canada. iTaukei, called Fijian Bau, belongs to the Central Pacific
branch of the Malayo-Polynesian language family. The
iTaukei also speak English. Most iTaukei are Christian, fol-
Threats to Survival lowing Methodism, Roman Catholicism, or some form of
The Inuit have made gains in self-government, transport, Protestantism.
and other fields. However, challenges that include environ-
mental issues, loss of culture, and overcrowding remain
issues facing the Inuit.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
The iTaukei people are classed as Melanesian but also
See also: Aleut; Gwich’in; Yupik have Polynesian heritage. The iTaukei population meas-
Further Reading ures around seven hundred thousand people (Minahan
Canada.ca. 2018. “Map—Tuberculosis in Inuit Nunangat.” Can- 2012).They are indigenous to all parts of Fiji, except the
ada.ca, April 10. https://www.canada.ca/en/indigenous​-ser​
island of Rotuma. In 2005, the iTaukei made up slightly
vices​-canada/services/first-nations-inuit-health​/dis​eases​
-health​-conditions/tuberculosis/tuberculosis​-resources-first​ more than half of the total population of Fiji. The iTaukei
-nations-inuit-aboriginal-health-health​-canada/map-tuber​ live side by side with other ethnic groups in Fiji, includ-
culosis​-inuit-nunangat.html. ing Indians, the Rotuman people, and minority commu-
Freeman, Minnie Aodla. 2015. “Inuit.” The Canadian Encyclope- nities that include Caucasians, Chinese, and other Pacific
dia, March 4. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en​ Islanders.
/article/inuit.
There is a large iTaukei migrant community in New Zea-
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
nic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 3, D–K. West- land. In 2001, the iTaukei were the fifth-largest Pacific eth-
port, CT: Greenwood Press. nic group living in New Zealand, but this figure decreased
Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An Ency- by 8 percent during the years 1996 to 2001(University of
clopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Fiji n.d.).
Struzik, Ed. 2012. “As Arctic Ice Melts, Inuit Face Tensions
with Outside World.” Yale Environment 360, October 1.
https://e360.yale.edu/features/as_arctic_melts_inuit_face​ Geography and Environment
_tensions_with_outside_world.
Fiji is an island nation in Melanesia located in the South
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA: Pacific Ocean about 1,100 nautical miles northeast of New
ABC-CLIO. Zealand’s North Island. Fiji’s nearest neighbors are Vanu-
atu to the west, New Caledonia to the southwest, New
Zealand’s Kermadec Islands to the southeast, Tonga to
the east, Tuvalu to the north, and the Samoas and France’s
Wallis and Futuna to the northeast.
Fiji is an archipelago consisting of more than 330
ITAUKEI islands, of which 110 are permanently inhabited. Most
of these islands were formed through volcanic activity
Current Location Fiji
around 150 million years ago, and geothermal activity still
Current Population 700,000
occurs on the islands of Vanua Levu and Taveuni.
Languages Fijian Bau; English Fiji’s two major islands are Vanua Levu and Viti Levu,
Interesting Fact Many young iTaukei serve in the which is home to the nation’s capital and chief cruise
British army. port, Suva. Fiji has one of the most developed economies
in the Pacific because it has plentiful forest, mineral,
Overview and fish resources. Fiji’s terrain consists of mountain
The iTaukei are the main indigenous people of the Fiji ranges, lush rainforest, rivers, waterfalls, reef lagoons,
Islands in the southern Pacific Ocean. According to the and beaches.
 iTaukei 493

History and Politics

Migrants from western Melanesia known as the Lapita first
settled in Fiji around 3,500 years ago. Then, around 1,000
years after the Lapita, another wave of Melanesian migrants
arrived, this time originating from Southeast Asia (most
likely from Indonesia). Later, around 1500 BCE, Polynesian
migrants started to arrive in Fiji, where they mixed with the
Melanesians. During the tenth century CE, the Tu’i Tongan
Empire was established and soon ruled over Fiji, strength-
ening the Polynesian influence on the traditions and lan-
guage on Fiji. Around the thirteenth century, the Tongan
Empire began to falter, resulting in Fiji being ruled by var-
ious local chiefs. Soon the islands fell into lawlessness, as
tribal wars erupted and the islands were raided by people
from other parts of Pacific. In addition, Samoan and Ton-
gan boat builders arrived on the Fijian islands to fell trees
from which they made their double-hulled canoes (drua).
In Fiji, the start of the nineteenth century was charac-
terized by more tribal warfare, encroachments by Tongan
raiders, and advances by Europeans. The first European
settlement in Fiji was created at Levuka in 1820. The set-
tlement is considered to be Fiji’s first town. Subsequent to
the creation of Levuka, Christian missionaries began to
settle on the Fiji islands, despite the frequent outbreaks of
tribal warfare on the islands. Amid this conflict, in 1817, a An iTaukei man performs a traditional greeting of bula, the
local word for “hello.” The Fijian language spoken by the iTaukei,
local warlord called Seru Epenisa Cakobau established the
Fijian Bau, belongs to the Malayo-Polynesian language family.
first Fijian nation-state, which he relinquished to the Brit- (Rafael Ben Ari/Dreamstime.com)
ish in 1874. The following year, measles, which had been
introduced to Fiji by the Europeans, killed a third of the
population (Minahan 2012). In the 1960s, the United Kingdom entered into talks
In 1876, the British governor of Fiji, Sir Arthur about the creation of an autonomous Fijian government,
­Hamilton-Gordon, banned the sale of Fijian land to noneth- but these talks were complicated by the growing enmity
nic Fijians. This policy still exists today. That same year, the between ethnic Fijians and the islands’ Indian population.
British began to establish sugar plantations on Fiji but did Nonetheless, in 1963, indigenous Fijians, including the
not recruit Fijians to work on the plantations. Instead of iTaukei and all women on the islands, were released from
recruiting Fijians, in 1879, the British authorities brought colonial rule. However, talks aimed at agreeing to a schedule
indentured Indians to Fiji to labor on the fields. In total, for the transition to Fijian independence were hampered
around sixty-one thousand Indians were brought to Fiji as by demands of Fijians and Indian Fijians. In 1970, a com-
plantation workers (Minahan 2012). In 1897, the British promise was reached that saw Fiji become an independent
missionary Hannah Dudley started education and welfare country. The first postindependence Fijian elections were
programs among Fiji’s Indian population, which consisted won by the Alliance Party, which mainly consisted of Indian
of plantation workers and “free” laborers. The indentured Fijians who subsequently nationalized Fiji’s sugar industry.
laborer scheme remained in Fiji until 1916, by which time Soon tensions between ethnic Fijians and Indian Fijians
the number of Indian Fijians living in Fiji was roughly the resulted in political instability, and in 1987, the Indian
same as the population of ethnic Fijians. While ethnic Fiji- Fijian elected as the country’s leader was overthrown in a
ans lived as farmers, laborers and fishermen, Indian Fijians coup overseen by the Fijian military. In 1990, a new Fijian
were urbanized. constitution was enshrined that established ethnic Fijians
494 iTaukei

as the dominant presence in Fijian politics. The new consti- at the village and district levels. Primary health care is
tution did not prevent further political unrest, however, for mainly provided by nurses, and secondary and tertiary
military coups occurred again in 2000 and 2006. The coups medical care are provided by three divisional hospitals.
were followed by long periods of political instability. Two of these hospitals are specialized national hospitals.
The national referral clinic for skin diseases, leprosy, and
tuberculosis is located at Tamavua Twomey Hospital in the
Society, Culture, and Tradition capital of Suva. In Fiji, skin diseases such as scabies and
The iTaukei culture is greatly influenced by the cultures impetigo are most widespread among the iTaukei popula-
of Polynesia and Melanesia. Traditionally, certain items tion. The reason for the prevalence of skin diseases among
are revered by the iTaukei, including the tabua, a sacred the iTaukei is not certain but may be linked to the iTaukei
whale’s tooth that is displayed during celebrations, and the custom of having high numbers of children per family that
yaqona or kava, a drink brewed from the root of a type of inhabit single-room houses. The iTaukei also have higher
pepper plant (Piper methysticum). Prior to the arrival of incidents of other bacterial infections, pneumonia, strep-
Europeans in Fiji, yaqona was used by chiefs and priests tococcal and staphylococcal infections, and rheumatic
as a part of religious rituals. Nowadays, yaqona is not heart disease than other Fijians (Romani et al. 2015).
reserved exclusively for chiefs and priests but is an every- In Fiji, children are educated for free from ages six to
day element of iTaukei life. Yaqona is nonalcoholic, but its sixteen years. High school education may continue for five
effects vary from person to person and include dizziness years, though students may leave after three years with a
and light-headedness to mild euphoria. Fiji school leaving certificate, or stay on to complete their
Around 70 percent of the iTaukei are farmers (Mina- final two years of education and thereby qualify for ter-
han 2012), though increasing urbanization and the growth tiary education. There are three universities in Fiji: the Fiji
of Fiji’s tourist industry means increasingly fewer young National University, the University of the South Pacific,
iTaukei are working in agriculture. There is a long tradi- and the University of Fiji. Fiji National University is the
tion of young iTaukei serving in the British army, with the main public university, and the University of Fiji is home
iTaukei noted as serving with distinction. Today, young to the Centre for iTaukei Studies, which offers diplomas in
iTaukei take pride in joining the British army and consider iTaukei Language and Culture and Teaching iTaukei Lan-
it a good source of employment. guage, Literature, and Culture.
The iTaukei are almost all Christian and predominantly Schools are playing an important part in trying to
Methodist. In 2006, the Methodist Church in Fiji and increase racial harmony in Fiji, for schools traditionally
Rotuma had over two hundred thousand followers (World run by Indian Fijians now often have more iTaukei pupils
Council of Churches 2006). The Methodist Church in Fiji than Indian Fijian pupils. At the same time, however, by
and Rotuma backed several of Fiji’s coups but did not sup- sending their children to schools administered by Indian
port the 2006 coup. After the 2000 coup, the Methodist Fijians, iTaukei parents have less say in how their children
Church in Fiji and Rotuma took the leading role in organiz- are taught. To combat this issue, the Fijian government has
ing the formation of another Christian society, the Assem- stated its intention that in the future, all parents in Fiji will
bly of Christian Churches in Fiji (ACCF), which wished to be involved in the management of community schools.
help unite Fiji. Despite its leading role in the formation of Another move to increase ethnic and racial harmony in
the ACCF, the Methodist Church in Fiji and Rotuma is con- Fiji was the renaming of schools to remove any terms
sidered by some people to be anti-Hindu and anti-Muslim that suggested racial affiliations (such as Chinese, Fijian,
because it has objected to the constitutional protection of or Indian). Now Fijian schools have ethnic neutral names.
Fiji’s religious minorities and is backed by many influential Racial issues still occur in education in Fiji, however.
iTaukei chiefs as well as by iTaukei people living in rural For example, in 2013, plans to make every school teach
areas (Hindu American Foundation 2005). iTaukei and Hindi alongside English were met with resist-
ance from some quarters. The Fijian Teachers Association
opposed the move to make Hindi a compulsory language,
Health Care and Education arguing that only Fijian and English should be included
Fiji is divided into four administrative divisions and twenty in the schools’ curriculum. The association argued that
medical subdivisions. Primary health care is provided while everyone living in Fiji is Fijian and should therefore
 Izhorian 495

know the Fijian language of iTaukei, not all Fijians have Romani, Lucia, Josefa Koroivueta, Andrew C. Steer, Mike Kama,
Indian heritage and so should not have to learn Hindi. The John M. Kaldor, Handan Wand, Mohammed Hamid, and
association considered the teaching of English accept- Margot J. Whitfeld. 2015. “Scabies and Impetigo Prevalence
and Risk Factors in Fiji: A National Survey.” PLoS Neglected
able because it is the lingua franca of Fiji. Meanwhile, the Tropical Diseases 9 (3): e0003452. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih​
Sanatan Dharam Pratinidhi Sabha, Fiji’s largest Hindu .gov/pmc/articles/PMC4349858.
organization, suggested that it was important for all Fiji- Sharma, Akhila Nand, Steven J. Coombs, Subhas Chandra, and
ans to understand the various languages spoken in Fiji Manueli Sagaitu. 2015. “Fiji: Education from Colonial to
(Devi 2013). Modern Times.” In Education in Australia, New Zealand and
the Pacific, edited by Michael Crossley, Greg Hancock, and
Terra Sprague, 243–264. London: Bloomsbury.
University of Fiji. n.d. “iTaukei Corner.” https://www.unifiji.ac.fj​
Threats to Survival /itaukei-corner.
It seems as though Fiji is entering into a period of racial World Council of Churches. 2006. “Methodist Church in Fiji and
stability after many years of unrest. Schools are increas- Rotuma.” World Council of Churches, January 1. https://www​
.oikoumene.org/en/member-churches/methodist-church-in​
ingly careful to foster racial harmony, and the iTaukei lan- -fiji-and-rotuma.
guage is taught in schools and so will probably survive.
Similarly, political unrest is lessening too. After a series of
delays, a democratic election was held in Fiji on Septem-
ber 17, 2014, with the election declared credible by inter-
national observers. While some ethnic Fijians oppose the
government’s policy of classing all people in Fiji as Fijian,
IZHORIAN
thereby removing their ethnicity, the Fijian government Current Location Russia
claims that one of its top priorities is to enable the iTaukei
Current Population 266
landowners to benefit from their land by earning revenue
Language Russian; Izhorian
either individually or in groups. In June 2017, the Tokatoka
Interesting Fact Between 1929 and 1959, the Izhorian
o Namara iTaukei clan became the first landowning iTaukei
population decreased by 97 percent.
group to receive a government grant that encourages peo-
ple to development their indigenous land. Whether the
development of indigenous territory will prove beneficial
Overview
to the iTaukei will be proven in time, for it remains to be The Izhorians are a Finno-Ugric people indigenous to
seen whether receiving a new income with compensate for the section of the Baltic coastline located between parts
the iTaukei’s loss of heritage. of Estonia and Russia. The Izhorians speak Russian as
their first language. However, some Izhorians also speak
See also: Anutan; Kanak; Marshallese; Moriori; Samoans; the Izhorian language, which belongs to the northern
Tahitian; Tongan; Torres Strait Islanders group of the Baltic-Finnic languages. Most Izhorians are
Further Reading nominally Eastern Orthodox but tend to maintain pagan
Devi, Sally. 2013. “Teaching of iTaukei and Hindi to Be Compul- beliefs. As the Izhorian homeland was previously called
sory in Fiji.” RNZ, September 2. http://www.radionz.co.nz​ Ingria, Izhorians are sometimes called the Ingrians. The
/international/programmes/datelinepacific/audio/2567615​ Izhorians refer to themselves as the karjalain (“Karelian”)
/teaching-of-itaukei-and-hindi-to-be-compulsory-in-fiji.
Hindu American Foundation. 2005. “Republic of Fiji.” Hindus
or maaväki (“the Ingrian people”). The name Izhorian may
in South Asia and the Diaspora: A Survey of Human Rights. derive from the Russian name of the Neva River tributary,
https://www.hafsite.org/pdf/hhr_2005_html/fijiislands.htm​ the Izhora.
#_Toc137060289.
Lashley, Marilyn E. 2010. “Democracy by Coup: A Colonial Leg-
acy? Western Hegemony, Indigenous Sovereignty and Gov- Population, Diaspora, and Migration
ernance, in Multiethnic Fiji.” In Eternal Colonialism, edited
Most Izhorians live in northwestern Russia. According to
by Russell Benjamin and Gregory O. Hall, 169–198. Lanham,
MD: University Press of America. Russia’s 2010 census, the Izhorian population comprised
Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the 266 people, a decrease of 13 percent compared to the
Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. 2002 national census when 327 Izhorians were recorded.
496 Izhorian

In 2002, 177 Izhorians lived in Russia’s Leningrad Oblast had joined the Orthodox Church, migrated from Ingria
and 53 in St. Petersburg (MTÜ Fenno-Ugria Asutus 2016). to interior Russia because they feared persecution by
Census figures are not necessarily a good indicator of the Lutheran Swedes. The Izhorian migrants settled around a
Izhorian population, however, because Izhorians have tra- tributary of the Luga River, the Oredezh River, in the south-
ditionally been known to register as Russians, Estonians, west of the Leningrad Oblast. The Izhorians that remained
and Finns during census taking to escape persecution. in Ingria became partly assimilated with Lutheran Ingrian
Therefore, the actual number of Izhorians may be greater Finns, who had taken the place of the Izhorians that moved
than that recorded by officials (Red Book of the Peoples of to Russia.
the Russian Empire n.d.). Russia retook Ingria after the Great Northern War
(1700–1721, a conflict between czarist Russia and Swe-
den). During the Great Northern War, the Russian emperor
Geography and Environment Peter the Great united Ingria with Russia. To cement the
Traditionally, the Izhorian homeland is an area called union, the city of St. Petersburg was founded in 1703 on
Ingria that lies between Estonia’s Narva River and Lake the estuary of the Neva River as the new capital of the
Ladoga in northwest Russia. Izhorians live in villages in Russian Empire, where once had existed the town of Nyen
the north and northwest of Ingria; downstream from the (Nevanlinna). In 1704, local peasants were forced into
Luga River, which flows into the Luga Bay of the Gulf of serfdom, and in 1710, the Ingria region became a province
Finland; on the Kurgola and Soikkola Peninsulas; and of St. Petersburg. St. Petersburg’s location at the mouth of
in the Hevaha (Kovash) River system. These territories the Neva River, which flows from Lake Ladoga through the
belong to the Kingissep and Lomonossov districts of the western section of the Leningrad Oblast to the Gulf of Fin-
Leningrad Oblast. land, resulted in the mass immigration of ethnic Russians
Lake Lagoda is Europe’s largest lake and is an excellent to eastern Ingria. At the same time, the new city attracted
fishing ground, except for between October and April, many Izhorians, who found work as traders and wholesal-
when it is frozen. The land of Ingria is used for dairy farm- ers. Izhorian peasants also found that St. Petersburg pro-
ing and raising pigs and cattle. vided a market for their cattle, vegetables, and handicrafts.
Serfdom was abolished around St. Petersburg in 1861,
a move that allowed the people greater freedom of move-
History and Politics ment. While this meant more Izhorians were able to find
The Izhorians likely originated at the start of the second work in St. Petersburg, they also came under the growing
millennium CE, when their ancestors separated from influence of Russia and began to be influenced by Russia’s
the Karelians by migrating west and southwest from the language and customs. In general, the Izhorians coped
Izhora River basin or the Karelian Isthmus to the territory well with their changing fortunes, something that was
later called Ingria. At this time, Ingrian land belonged to noted by the Votes, some of whom assimilated with the
the Kievan Rus’, a federation of East Slavic tribes. From Izhorians. Indeed, in 1848, the Izhorian population was
the twelfth century, the Izhorians were forced to pay trib- estimated at 17,800; by 1897, this figure had increased to
ute to the Novgorod Republic and made to serve in the 21,700. In 1926, the Izhorian population had climbed to
Novgorodian military. Izhorian leaders acted as Novgoro- 26,137 (MTÜ Fenno-Ugria Asutus 2016).
dian vassals and over time became Russified. At the same Following the Russia Revolution of 1917, the Izhorians
time, Ingria became a frequent battleground for conflicts believed they would be able to flourish under Soviet rule.
between Novgorod and the republic’s neighbors, Livonia To start with, Soviet rule was beneficial to the Izhorians,
and Sweden. for the Soviets encouraged Izhorian entrepreneurship
In 1478, the Novgorod Republic united with the Grand and improved Izhorian education with the creation of an
Duchy of Moscow. This move resulted in some Izhorians Izhorian written language and the publication of Izhorian-­
being deported to the Russian interior during the 1480s, language books. During the late 1920s, however, the Izho-
with their place taken by ethnic Russians. Following the rians suffered under Soviet collectivization policies. The
Treaty of Stolbovo, a 1617 peace treaty that ended the Soviets also confiscated Izhorians’ land while deporting
Ingrian War between Sweden and Russia, Ingria came the Izhorians to Siberia, East Karelia, the Kola Peninsula,
under Swedish rule. Consequently, many Izhorians, who and Central Asia, particularly Kazakhstan. The Soviets
 Izhorian 497

were strongly atheist and repressed Izhorian Christianity. to legend, the music of the kannel (an Izhorian stringed
Soviet authorities also stopped Izhorian-language radio instrument) is able to calm the raging Baltic. Recently,
broadcasts and, in 1937, closed Izhorian schools. the construction of a major commercial port at Ust-Luga,
The Izhorian population was further reduced when located on the Luga River near the river’s entry into the
many Izhorians were killed during World War II. During Gulf of Finland, has come to seriously impede small Izho-
the final stages of the war, many Izhorians were evacu- rian boats navigating the Gulf of Finland. Consequently,
ated to Finland, only to be forcibly returned to the Soviet young Izhorians have formed fishing cooperatives with the
Union in 1945. Back under Soviet control, the Izhorians aim of keeping alive the Izhorian fishing tradition. Many
were scattered across central Russian oblasts while Rus- Izhorians follow a subsistence lifestyle, with their only
sians settled in Ingria. In 1956, the Izhorians were allowed modern technology being a cell phone (Skripnik 2016).
to return to their villages. However, events had taught the The Izhorians continue to adhere to pagan traditions
Izhorians to at least appear assimilated into mainstream despite a long history of Eastern Orthodoxy. While it is
Russian society. As a result of both their dispersal and often reported that the Izhorians have assimilated into
desire to appear assimilated, in 1959, the Izhorian pop- Russian society, some Izhorians argue that, in actuality,
ulation stood at 1,062, a decrease of 97 percent in thirty Izhorians are only nominally assimilated and simply do
years. The Izhorian depopulation had a devastating effect not expose their traditions to outsiders (Skripnik 2016).
on the Izhorian language; of the 1,062 people registered as Izhorians believe in spirits, traditional rites, and folk wis-
Izhorian in 1959, only 34.7 percent used Izhorian as their dom. For instance, at weddings, the people decorate a fir
mother tongue (MTÜ Fenno-Ugria Asutus 2016). tree that they then suspend from a ceiling. Fir trees are also
In 1964, it was recorded that only twenty-two Izhorian an important feature of Izhorian funerals; the people litter
villages existed, a figure that included four Vote-Izhorian the road taken by the hearse with fir branches. Later, rela-
villages and two Finnish-Izhorian villages. Similarly, in tives of the deceased retrieve the branches and keep them
1989, when it was discovered that the Izhorians formed the for forty days before burning them.
majority of the population on the Soikkola Peninsula, the The Izhorian language belongs to the Baltic-Finnic
Izhorians lived in just fifteen villages. It should be noted, branch of the Uralic languages, along with the Finnish,
however, that postwar Russian censuses are not necessarily Karelian, and Vepsian languages. The language is clos-
accurate indicators of Izhorian population decline. While est to Livvi Karelian and Eastern dialects of Finnish. The
the population had undoubtedly fallen as a result of World Izhorian language consists of four main dialects: Soikkola,
War II and life under Soviet rule, the Izhorians had real- Hevaha (Heva), Lower Luga, and Oredezhi. Soikkola is
ized that, to survive, they could not risk standing out as a predominantly spoken on the Soikkola peninsula, Hevaha
people. For this reason, some Izhorians listed themselves (Heva) is spoken by Izhorians living around the Hevaha
as Russians, Estonians, and Finns during censuses; thus, River system, and Lower Luga is spoken in Luga River
the actual number of Izhorians may have been somewhat downstream areas and on the Kurgola peninsula. Oredezhi
larger than that officially recorded (Red Book of the Peoples is now virtually extinct but was spoken in the south of the
of the Russian Empire n.d.). Leningrad Oblast and in some villages around the Oredezh
River.

Society, Culture, and Tradition

Traditionally, the Izhorians farm the land, but as their Health Care and Education
land is not naturally fertile, they are also fish and hunt for Hospitals in the St. Petersburg area are largely servicea-
food. The Izhorians are known for their enterprise, trad- ble. However, health care in Russia is underfunded, with
ing, and a variety of handicrafts. Izhorians living in the 17,500 towns and villages across Russia having no medical
towns of Toldoga and Kargal have a history of metalwork, infrastructure. Hospitals and clinics in rural areas are par-
and eastern Izhorian villages are known for their weaving. ticularly poor and have outdated and broken equipment,
In coastal areas, Izhorians practice carpentry when not a shortage of medicines and beds, and a lack of medical
fishing. specialists. In theory, Russian citizens are entitled to free
The sea is central to Izhorian culture. The Izhorians have universal health care. However, in reality, it is common for
created many songs and proverbs about the sea; according patients at state-run hospitals to bribe doctors to ensure
498 Izhorian

treatment. Additionally, patients’ families often have to Many Izhorians follow a lifestyle fairly untouched by
bring them food (Bennetts 2016). modernity. For example, in 2016, the inhabitants of the
Between 1932 and 1937, an Izhorian language based village of Vistino had to fight against a pack of wolves
on the Latin alphabet was taught in schools. In 1936, an attacking their village. However, as many Izhorians follow
Izhorian grammar textbook and dozens of Izhorian-­ a subsistence lifestyle reliant on the sea, they are threat-
language textbooks were published based on the Soikkola ened by the industrialization of ports, such as that at
dialect. Today, Izhorian-language courses are taught in Ust-Luga.
St. Petersburg, and Russia helps fund the publication of
See also: Karelian; Vep
­Izhorian-language textbooks. In the village of Vistino, Izho-
Further Reading
rian schoolchildren are able to study their native language.
Bennetts, Marc. 2016. “The Horror of Russian Healthcare.” The
Independent, December 2. https://www.independent.co.uk​
/news/world/the-horror-of-russian-healthcare-a7443121​
Threats to Survival .html.
Extermination, repression, and a degree of assimila- MTÜ Fenno-Ugria Asutus. 2016. “Izhorians.” https://eng​.fennou​
tion into Russian society have left the Izhorian popula- gria.ee/rahvad/laanemeresoome-rahvad/isurid.
tion depleted. Additionally, postwar Izhorians have little Red Book of the Peoples of the Russian Empire. n.d. “The Izho-
rians or Ingrians.” https://www.eki.ee/books/redbook/izhori​
knowledge of their native tongue; the number of Izhorian ans​.shtml.
speakers has fallen from 362 in 2002 to just 123 speakers Skripnik, Oleg. 2016. “The Izhorians, Forgotten Fishermen of
in 2010 (MTÜ Fenno-Ugria Asutus 2016). While some Russia’s Baltic Coast.” Russia Beyond, May 15. https://www​
Izhorian children learn the language at school, it is mainly .rbth​.com/politics_and_society/2016/05/25/the-izhorians​
older Izhorians that use the language. Izhorian culture is, -for​gotten​-fishermen-of-russias-baltic-coast_597367.
however, in a less precarious state, for there are Izhorian Waldman, Carl, and Catherine Mason. 2006. Encyclopedia of
European Peoples. New York: Facts on File.
cultural centers and museums.
 J

JEWS Population, Diaspora, and Migration

In 2017, the worldwide Jewish population was estimated
Current Location Worldwide to comprise 14,511,100 people. Israel was home to just
Current Population 14,511,100 under 6.5 million Jews, and the Jewish diaspora com-
Language Hebrew; Arabic; Aramaic; Ladino; prises slightly more than 8 million people (DellaPergola
Yiddish; national languages; dialects 2018). Outside of Israel, many Jews live elsewhere in the
Interesting Fact Jews are Yemen’s only indigenous Middle East (in Syria, Iran, and Yemen) and in Africa (in
religious minority. Egypt, Tunisia, Morocco, and South Africa) as well as in
Turkey, India, Europe, former Soviet States, and elsewhere.
According to Minority Rights Group International, today,
Overview fewer than 20,000 Jews live in Turkey, 600 of whom are
The word Jew can refer to both members of an indige- Ashkenazi Jews. Most of Turkey’s Jews live in Istanbul, but
nous Middle Eastern ethnic group and members of the there are around 2,500 Jews in Izmir. The remainder live
Jewish religion. The term derives from the Latin Iudaeus in pockets elsewhere. In Russia, there are around 229,938
or Iudaeum (meaning “the inhabitants of Judea”). This in Ashkenazi Jews and about 3,000 Mountain Jews, who live
turn is a transliteration of the Greek Ioudaios. The word mainly in Dagestan and Kabardino-Balkaria. Jews are dis-
Ioudaios derives from the Hebrew term Yehudi, meaning persed across the Russian Federation, with most living in
person from the Judea region of present-day Israel, which urban areas, especially Moscow and St. Petersburg. France
consists of Jerusalem and the Negev Desert. Jews speak is home to around 600,000 Jews. Around half the Jews in
many different languages in addition to Hebrew, which is France live in Paris. Other large Jewish populations exist in
part of the Northwest family of Semitic languages in the Marseilles, Lyons, Nice, Toulouse, and Strasbourg.
Afro-Asiatic phylum. Other important languages in Jewish While the Jewish population in Israel has recently
history and culture include Aramaic, Arabic, Ladino, and increased, it has decreased in other parts of the world. For
Yiddish. example, fewer than fifty Jews live in Yemen today, concen-
Most Jews follow the Jewish faith. However, people of trated around Raydah and the capital of Sana’a, whereas
Jewish ethnicity can belong to another religion or to no in ancient times, up to sixty thousand Jews inhabited the
religion at all. country (Minority Rights Group International 2018). The

499
500 Jews

migration of Yemeni Jews to Israel has recently slowed, Mediterranean coast in Syria, Israel, and Lebanon to fall by
however, because returning Jews have reported life in Israel up to 7.9 inches. This scenario would also see the Euphra-
to be culturally alien and socioeconomically difficult. tes carry 30 percent less water than it currently does, the
In India, there are three main Jewish communities: the Jordan River would carry up to 80 percent less water, and
Cochinis, the Bene Israel, and the Baghdadis. The popu- the flow of southern Turkey’s Ceyhan River would reduce
lation of these groups is declining due to immigration to by 40 percent (Mrasek 2008). A reduction in water levels
Israel and other countries. Cochin Jews have long main- may not only affect farming in the Fertile Crescent, but
tained trading and religious links with Middle Eastern there may be wider implications because many countries
Jews, and consequently, their immigration to Israel means in the region are prone to instability. These countries also
their number in India has reduced to a handful. Similarly, tend to have weak economies, so unrest combined with
there are now only a few hundred Baghdadis remaining migration caused by failing agriculture could result in
in India. conflict.
Many cities around the world, including Paris, Ven-
ice, and Seville, have a Jewish quarter, that is, a section of
the city traditionally inhabited by Jews. In Morocco, Jews History and Politics
inhabit walled neighborhoods called mallah. The early history of the Jews is complex because it com-
bines archaeology, religion, mythology, and historical data
recorded in numerous languages. According to Jewish,
Geography and Environment Christian, and Islamic teachings, the Jews are descended
Jews originated in the southwest of the Middle Eastern from Abraham (or Ibrahim) through his wife, Sarah. In
region commonly referred to as the Fertile Crescent. contrast, Egyptians are descended through Abraham/
Surrounded by desert and barren mountains, the region Ibrahim through his relationship with Hagar (Hajar).
stretches in an arc from Egypt’s Nile valley to the Medi- The early Jews were nomadic and lived in Egypt for many
terranean Sea’s east coast and northward to the Persian years. Thousands of years ago, the Jews left Egypt and set-
Gulf. The region covers Israel, Lebanon, and western Syria tled among established communities in Canaan, a region
and runs into southern Anatolia and then into Iran before that extends across what is now Jordan, the West Bank and
descending into modern Iraq and the area between the Gaza in Palestine/Israel, and parts of Syria and Lebanon.
Euphrates and Tigris Rivers. Traditionally, the region has Here, the Jews existed as a loose confederation of pastoral
unusually fertile soil as well as freshwater and salty wet- tribes that later turned to farming.
lands that allow many wild edible plants to grow. Around Archaeologists believe several waves of Jewish migra-
10,000 BCE, the region’s fertility provided the location tion occurred from 3500 to 1150 BCE before a unified
where humans first started to cultivate grains and cereals Jewish kingdom evolved around 1000 BCE. First, the tribes
as they transitioned from living as hunter-gatherers to set- came under the authority of one leader, Saul (ca. 1080–
tled agriculturalists. 1012 BCE), and then David (ca. 1005–930 BCE). Jews in
The agriculture of the Fertile Crescent depends on win- Morocco believe the first Moroccan Jewish settlement
ter rainfall, as the region receives around 90 percent of arose during the rule of King Solomon (970–930 BCE).
its rain between October and March. During this period, Some historians also believe Jews helped found the city of
moist Atlantic air arrives west via the Mediterranean. Carthage in 814 BCE. The first Jewish kingdom did not last
Additionally, abundant snowfall over Turkey’s Taurus long, and following Solomon’s death in 930 BCE, the king-
Mountains, the Zagros Mountains in Iran and Iraq, and dom was divided into the Kingdom of Israel to the north
the Golan Heights (a hilly area overlooking the upper Jor- and the Kingdom of Judah to the south. The two kingdoms
dan River valley) becomes spring snowmelt that raises the fought each other frequently, so when Assyrians invaded
water levels of rivers, whose waters are used to irrigate the Kingdom of Israel in 772 BCE, the Kingdom of Judah
farming in the Fertile Crescent. Some scientists believe did not intervene, even when the Assyrians transported
that global warming will destroy the area’s agriculture large numbers of Jews as prisoners to Mesopotamia. When
because it will alter rainfall patterns as well as the flow of the Babylonians destroyed Judah (587–586 BCE), they too
the region’s rivers. Even a small rise in temperature may took numerous Jews prisoner and moved them to the Mes-
cause the annual rainfall experienced along the region’s opotamian city of Babylon. In Jewish history, the period of
 Jews 501

captivity experienced by Jews in Babylon is known as the the Jews from Jerusalem and the destruction of the Sec-
Babylonian Exile. ond Temple. Once in exile, the Jews migrated across the
While many Jewish prisoners remained living in Baby- Middle East, North Africa, and the rest of the Roman
lon, others escaped captivity and fled to Egypt and North Empire, with the largest Jewish communities emerging
Africa. In 587 BCE, Jews established the Ghriba synagogue in Syria, Italy, and Anatolia (the westernmost part of Asia
on the Tunisian island of Djerba. Today, this is the world’s comprising much of modern Turkey). It was during the
oldest synagogue in continual use. period between Hasmonaean rule and the Jewish revolts
Following the fall of Babylon to the Persian king Cyrus that Jesus of Nazareth came to prominence as a teacher
the Great in 538 BCE, the relatively tolerant Persian and prophet whose followers regarded as the person to
authorities allowed exiled Judeans to return to Palestine. end Jewish suffering. Soon after Jesus’s execution by the
According to the Book of Ezra in the Hebrew Bible, con- Romans, his teachings formed the basis of the beliefs held
struction of Jerusalem’s Second Temple began around 537 by a small Jewish sect that later evolved into Christianity.
BCE. It is during the Babylonian Exile and the period of During the third century, Jews living in Roman prov-
Persian rule that the Jewish holy text, the Torah, and many inces (including Palestine) were permitted to become
Jewish customs came into being. Roman citizens. This benefited Jews by allowing them to
In 333 BCE, the Macedonian empire under Alexander participate in politics and the law. In the fourth century,
the Great conquered the Persians who had controlled the however, the Christian Roman emperor Constantine
Kingdom of Judah since Cyrus overran the Babylonians. removed this right because he desired all Jews to abide by
Following Alexander’s death in 323 BCE, the territory the state religion. While Judaism was still legal under Con-
rapidly changed ownership as Alexander’s successors stantine, this situation began to change under subsequent
fought for control of Persian territories. In 301 BCE, Pal- Roman emperors such as Justinian, who severely restricted
estine came under the control of the Ptolemaic dynasty (a the practice of Judaism.
Macedonian Greek royal family), resulting in the region In the sixth century, the kings of Yemen converted to
becoming increasingly Hellenistic (influenced by Greece). Judaism. Christians who refused to convert were slaugh-
Consequently, tension ensued between Hellenism and tered. In 525, the killing of Christians caused the king of
Judaism. Simultaneously, Jewish society began to split Ethiopia to intervene by overrunning Yemen. Meanwhile,
into two groups: the pious Hasidim and the more liberal major Jewish communities evolved in central and eastern
Hellenists. The social divisions were exacerbated when the Europe and around the Mediterranean Sea. The Jews that
Ptolemaic dynasty lost control over much of Palestine to settled in central and eastern Europe became known as
the Greek rulers of Syria, the Seleucids. the Ashkenazi Jews, taking their name from the medieval
The Jews headed by Judas Maccabeus launched a suc- Hebrew Askenaz (meaning Germany). Jews living in Med-
cessful revolt against the Seleucids. The ousting of the iterranean Europe came to be called the Sephardi Jews, a
Seleucids allowed the Jews to found their own state ruled name derived from Sepharad, the medieval Hebrew name
by the Jewish Hasmonaean dynasty headed by Judas Mac- for the Iberian Peninsula.
cabeus’s brother, Simon. The Hasmonaean dynasty was The Prophet Mohammed was greatly influenced by
Hellenistic and allied with the Roman Empire. Hasmo- Judaism (Shoup 2011). Initially, the prophet viewed Jews
naean rule was unstable and contributed to further splits and Christians as part of the wider community that
in Jewish society, which allowed an orthodox Jewish fac- also included Muslims. However, Jews living in Medina
tion called the Pharisees to emerge in opposition to the (or Madīnah, a city on the Arabian Peninsula) rejected
aristocratic Jewish Sadducees. The divisions within Jewish Mohammed’s influence. In response, Mohammed forced
society were halted when Roman general Pompey cap- the Jews living in Medina to leave the city, starting with
tured Jerusalem in 63 BCE. Under Roman rule, the Has- the Qaynuqa’ tribe, who were fierce critics of Mohammed.
monaean dynasty continued to reign until 43 BCE, when The Qaynuqa’ were followed by the Bani al-Nadir Jews
King Herod came to power in Judea with the backing of who had rejoiced in Mohammed’s defeat at the Battle of
the Romans. Uhud in 625. After Mohammed’s defeat to the Meccans
The Jews unsuccessfully rebelled against the Herodian (people of Mecca) at the Battle of the Trench at Medina
dynasty three times. The last of the rebellions, the Bar in 627, he turned on the area’s last remaining Jewish tribe,
Kokhba Revolt (132 CE), resulted in the Romans exiling the Qurayzah, whom he believed had assisted the Meccans.
502 Jews

Mohammed ordered the murder of Qurayzah men and the regardless of their race or religion. Subsequently, the 1856
enslavement of Qurayzah women and children. Hatt-i Hümayun (Imperial Edict) gave full equality to all
In general, Mohammed did not require Jews and non-Muslim citizens of the empire including the right to
Christians living in Arabia to convert to Islam, for Jews, serve in the Ottoman army. Opposition to these reforms
Christians, and Zoroastrians were considered ahl al-Kitab provoked a short war in Lebanon between the Druze and
(People of the Book), meaning they adhered to a religion the Christians.
that had been divinely revealed. These groups were also When sultan Abd al-Hamid II ascended the throne in
classed as ahl al-Dhimmah (People of the Pact) and as 1876, he started to undo the changes. Consequently, Jews
such were protected by Islamic authorities. Muslim rulers living in Arab areas of the Ottoman Empire began to
permitted Jews to run their own courts, and Jewish elders migrate. For example, many Syrian Jews migrated to South
were charged with running Jewish communities. From America in 1914, before the start of World War I. Other Jews
634 to 644, the Muslim caliph Omar allowed Jews to return moved to Egypt, which had a growing economy thanks to
to Jerusalem. Meanwhile, Muslim-majority cities such as British interest in Egyptian cotton. Soon Jews became an
Aleppo, Damascus, Cairo, and Baghdad became important essential part of Egypt’s glamorous, multinational khawa-
seats of Jewish culture. Jewish traders also began to operate jah (non-Egyptian society) based in Alexandria.
over a huge area—from China to England and throughout In Europe, the secular Zionist movement began to
the Sahara and Sahel, where they established important arise in the late nineteenth century, which was aimed at
oasis towns. In contrast, Christian-majority cities had providing the Jews with a homeland where they could live
much smaller Jewish populations than Muslim-majority free from persecution. The movement took its name from
cities (Shoup 2011). Mount Zion in Jerusalem because many Jews felt Palestine
In the tenth century, Jews started to be influenced by was the natural home of the Jews. However, not all Jews
other belief systems and the mystical interpretation of agreed, arguing that the Jewish homeland could be estab-
letter that, in the sixteenth century, would evolve into the lished in Africa, Europe, or South America (Stokes 2009).
esoteric Jewish tradition called Kabbalah. Throughout the Initially, Jews living in Muslim countries were unaf-
Middle Ages, Jews experienced outbreaks of anti-Jewish fected by Zionism. However, Turkey’s defeat in World War
activity within the Islamic world. For instance, from the I, together with many European countries gaining post-
thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries, the Jewish popula- war mandates over Middle Eastern countries, resulted
tion of Palestine fell steadily under the unstable rule of the in tension between Zionists and Arab nationalists that
Mamluks of Egypt. The Mamluks, like some other North affected Jews living in Muslim nations. In 1917, British
African dynasties, placed restrictions on the Jews during foreign minister Lord Balfour promised the Jews a home-
times of unrest, which also contributed to a decline in land in Palestine on the condition that the Jews would not
the number of Jews in Palestine. Nevertheless, many Jews impinge on the civil and religious freedoms of non-Jews
migrated to North Africa and the Middle East after they living there (Stokes 2009). Following the end of World
were expelled from Europe. For instance, following the War I in 1918, many European Jews migrated to the Mid-
Christian conquest of Iberia (Spain and Portugal) in 1492, dle East. For instance, the Jewish population of Palestine
around seven hundred thousand Jews from Spain sought rose from around twenty-four thousand in 1880 to fifty-six
refuge in the Ottoman Empire, especially the Balkans and thousand in 1918 (Shoup 2011). This increase in the Jew-
Anatolia (Stokes 2009). ish population resulted in Arab Palestinian riots in 1920
The recent history of the Jews begins with the Tanzi- that continued through the 1930s until 1936, when the
mat (or the Ottoman Reform Movement, literally mean- Arabs revolted against British rule. By this time, Jews were
ing “reorganization”) that evolved in the Ottoman Empire the third-­largest population group living in Palestine.
during the nineteenth century. Between 1839 and 1876, By 1939, more than 265,000 Jews had moved to Pales-
the Ottoman sultans ‘Abd al Majid I (r. 1839–1861) and tine to escape persecution in Nazi Germany and Austria
‘Abd al ‘Aziz (r. 1861–1876) began a series of social and (Stoke 2009). The Holocaust was a genocide perpetrated by
political reforms. In 1839, the proclamation known as the the Nazis, led by Adolph Hitler, against Jewish populations
Hatt-i Şerif Gülhane (Noble Edict of the Rose Chamber) and others in Europe between 1933 and 1945. The Nazis
was issued, guaranteeing security of life, property, and viewed the Jews as not just an ethnicity or religious group
honor to all people living within the Ottoman Empire, but as members of a Semitic race wishing to dominate the
 Jews 503

Aryan race of which the Germanic peoples were the most allowing most of the country’s remaining Jews to migrate
racially pure example. According to Nazi ideology, the to Israel.
Jews were the archenemy of the Aryans and so had to be Since the creation of the state of Israel, conflict has
exterminated. arisen between Israel and surrounding Arab nations.
When the Nazis entered western Poland in 1939, two- Israel has also faced criticism from many quarters over
thirds of Polish Jews (Europe’s largest Jewish community) its treatment of Palestinians and other non-Jews living on
came under Nazi control. Subsequently, Polish Jews were ­Israeli-controlled land.
placed in ghettos, where an estimated 500,000 Jews died
of starvation and disease. The Nazis’ invasion of the Soviet
Union in 1941 saw the Nazis launch a crusade against sup- Society, Culture, and Tradition
posed Jewish-Communists in which Jews and suspected The scattered nature of the Jewish people means Jews
Soviet collaborators were massacred. Elsewhere, the Nazis speak multiple languages. Hebrew, a Northwest Semitic
started to operate death camps. In 1942, the Nazis began language, is perhaps the language most associated with
to round up Jews across Western Europe before murdering the Jews. The Hebrew Bible is written in biblical Hebrew,
them at camps that included the Auschwitz-Birkenau com- which prevailed up until the third century BCE. In 1948,
plex, where around 1.1 million people (including 1 million biblical Hebrew was enshrined as one of the official lan-
Jews) were killed (Paulsson 2011). In total, the Holocaust guages of Israel. Around 200 CE, rabbinic Hebrew was
resulted in the murder of around 6 million Jews, along used to write religious texts. From the sixth to the four-
with Slavs, Roma, and members of various other groups. teenth centuries, medieval Hebrew evolved and saw many
Following World War II, many European Jews believed of its words appropriated into Arabic, Spanish, and Greek.
that the survival of the Jews depended on the creation of a During the nineteenth century, modern Hebrew developed
Jewish state. After the war, Britain transferred responsibil- from biblical Hebrew.
ity for supervising conflict between Arabs and Jews in Pal- During the third century, another Northwest Semitic
estine to the United Nations. In 1948, the British mandate language, Aramaic, replaced biblical Hebrew as the spoken
over Palestine ended, and Israel declared its independence. language of the Jews. Aramaic was extremely influential in
In 1950, Israel instituted the Law of Return, which allowed the development of rabbinical Hebrew, modern Hebrew,
all Jews to live as citizens of Israel. Afterward, Jews living and Yiddish. Yiddish developed in the tenth century as a
in Arab nations started to suffer increased discrimination, Germanic language written using Hebrew script. The lan-
and so the Jewish population of Israel soon swelled with guage was transmitted throughout the Jewish diaspora via
Jews from Egypt, Iraq, Tunisia, and Algeria migrating to the Ashkenazi Jews, who migrated from Germany across
Israel. Many wealthy Moroccan Jews headed to France Eastern and Central Europe to the United States and Israel.
and the United States. Between 1949 and 1950, the Israeli Orthodox Jews use Yiddish in everyday life instead of
government organized Operation Magic Carpet to trans- Hebrew, which they consider too sacred a language to use
port most Yemeni Jews to Israel. Later Jewish migrations in normal discourse.
occurred in 1984, when the Falasha (Ethiopian Jews) were Many Jews also speak Arabic. This is partly because of
airlifted to Israel to escape drought and conflict in Ethi- past Arab rule over Jews living in the Kingdom of Israel and
opia, and after the Persian Gulf War (1990–1991), when Jerusalem. Additionally, Arabic is prevalent throughout the
Syrian authorities relaxed the country’s visa restrictions, Middle East and Africa, where Jewish communities exist.

Holocaust Victims Buried in 2019

In January 2019, a funeral took place for six unknown victims of the Auschwitz concentration camp whose remains
had been donated to London’s Imperial War Museum in 1997. Through forensic analysis, the museum determined
that the fragments belonged to five adults and one child. However, the victims’ ages, gender, and other personal details
remain unknown. Around one thousand people attended the service at Bushey New Cemetery, in Hertfordshire,
En­gland, that saw the remains buried in a coffin with earth from Israel.
504 Jews

Another language spoken by Jews is Ladino, a Romance their daughters in a formal manner can opt for a brit banot
language that combines elements of Spanish, Hebrew, ceremony. Brit banot, literally meaning “the covenant for
Greek, and Turkish. Ladino evolved among the many daughters,” is a naming ceremony for females.
Sephardi Jews inhabiting Spain from the eight to the fif- Many laws, rules, customs, and rituals are enacted in
teenth centuries. the weeks before a Jewish wedding. In the past, Jewish
Many Jews eat kosher food. Kosher (“acceptable”) food marriages were arranged by youngsters’ parents, who
is prepared in accordance with the kashrut (Jewish reli- were assisted by a matchmaker called a Yenta. Some ultra-­
gious dietary laws). Among the kashrut’s numerous edicts orthodox Jewish communities still arrange marriages in
are prohibitions on the consumption of the flesh of cer- this way. When a Jewish marriage is arranged, the prospec-
tain animals (pork, shellfish, and most insects, except for tive groom is expected to ask the bride-to-be’s father for
some locusts) and the mixing of meat with dairy products. permission to wed his daughter. To seal the engagement,
Mammals and birds killed for food should be slaughtered the groom-to-be pays a dowry.
according to the shechita process, which involves severing The first of the rituals in which a newly engaged Jewish
the trachea, esophagus, and large blood vessels in an ani- couple participates is tena’im (or tenaim), which involves
mal’s neck quickly using an extremely sharp blade. the smashing of a plate or piece of crockery. The meaning
The traditional religion of the Jews is Judaism. Not all of this ritual is unknown, but the plate smashing proba-
Jews adhere to Judaism, though many nonreligious Jews bly symbolizes the destruction of the temples in Jerusalem
participate in Jewish customs. Some Jews practice a liberal while also demonstrating that once an engagement is bro-
form of Judaism, while others are ultra-orthodox. The lat- ken it cannot be remade, just as a smashed plate cannot be
ter try to live by the words of the Talmud (the main source repaired.
of Jewish religious law and theology) and the Torah as they A Jewish wedding may take place on any day of the
view them. Jewish religious communities are led by rabbis, week except the Jewish Sabbath, which starts at sunset on
who are individuals charged with ensuring the observance Friday and lasts until sunset on Saturday. A Jewish wed-
of Talmudic teachings and traditions. ding may also not be held on important days in the Jewish
One of the rituals most often associated with the Jews calendar, such as on Yom Kippur (the Day of Atonement,
is brit milah (sometimes called bris milah or abbreviated the holiest day of the year in Judaism) or at Rosh Hashanah
to bris), male circumcision, which is an initiation rite for (Jewish New Year). Orthodox Jewish weddings may occur
Jewish newborn males. The name brit milah is Hebrew for throughout the year, though the period between Pesach
Covenant of Circumcision (from brit meaning “the cov- (Passover) and Shavuot (a sad time of reflection) is typ-
enant” and milah “of circumcision”). Most Jewish people ically avoided. A Jewish marriage ceremony usually hap-
regard brit milah as extremely important because the cer- pens beneath a special canopy called a chupa (or huppah),
emony not only confirms a baby’s Jewish status but also which symbolizes a couple’s future home together. It is
represents the completion of the human body, enabling only when the bride reaches the chupa that the marriage
a boy to reach spiritual, emotional, and moral perfection. ceremony is considered underway. Most Jewish weddings
Brit milah ceremonies usually take place in a synagogue are held indoors, usually in a synagogue, under the super-
between sunrise and sunset on the eighth day after a baby vision of a rabbi.
is born. A Jewish wedding ceremony starts with the signing
Although circumcision is widespread in the Jewish of the Ketubah. This is the Jewish marriage contract that
community, some Jewish groups question the tradition, as establishes the legal terms of the marriage. The Ketubah
they feel circumcision is not an essential requirement for a is important, as it protects the bride by setting out the
male to be a Jew. Jews critical of the procedure argue that terms of her dowry. The signing of the Ketubah is accom-
though circumcision is an external sign of belonging to the panied by a ceremony called the Bedecken (“veiling”). This
Jewish faith, a baby’s Jewish identity is inherited through involves the groom placing a veil over the bride’s face to
its mother. An alternative circumcision-free ritual, brit sha- symbolize his determination to ensure she will always be
lom or bris shalom, is chosen by some Jewish parents. Brit clothed and safe.
shalom is often promoted by opponents of circumcision One of the most important parts of the marriage cer-
as a way to welcome a baby boy into the Jewish covenant emony is the giving of the wedding ring. The wedding
without a brit milah. Jewish parents that wish to name ring must be owned by the groom and must be in the
 Jews 505

shape of a complete, unbroken circle unadorned with Today, this custom extends to women too. Both men and
embellishments. women are also dressed in a gown called a kittel that Jews
The ceremony concludes with the groom stamping on wear at Yom Kippur.
a glass and saying “Mazel Tov!”—a congratulatory expres- Typically, Jews are buried after death. They are not nor-
sion conferring good luck. The breaking of the glass is a mally embalmed so that their corpse may return to dust
way to recall the destruction of the temples in Jerusalem, quickly. Similarly, Jews are not normally cremated, as cre-
just as a plate was broken in the lead up to the wedding. mation is at odds with the natural process of bodily decay.
Jews consider death a natural occurrence and feel that Some Jews also shun the concept of cremation because it
as the human body is a sacred vessel belonging to God, evokes memories of Nazi atrocities involving crematoria
corpses should be treated with respect. It is difficult to during World War II. When a Jewish person is buried, it
give an all-encompassing overview of every Jewish death is often the case that a sachet of Israeli soil, particularly
custom because Jews are not a homogenous group. In gen- soil from Jerusalem, will be included in the coffin with the
eral, however, the process of dying, burial, and mourning deceased.
within Jewish communities is as follows. Jewish funerals tend to be quite simple and short. The
When a Jewish person senses death is imminent, he or funeral, which may or may not be officiated by a rabbi and
she reiterates his or her belief in God by saying the prayer does not necessarily take place at a synagogue, focuses on
known as the Shema. Preparations for the burial of the honoring the deceased. The funeral consists of poetry and
deceased are made as quickly as possible after death. Jews psalm readings and the saying of a eulogy (hesped) that is
believe that when a person dies, the soul leaves the body, intended to show the deceased in a positive light but also
but the body retains its sanctity and so must be treated to be an accurate reflection of his or her life. The ceremony
with respect. If a Jew dies in his or her own home, the first ends with the saying of the El Mohle Rachamin. This is a
ritual to be performed involves the laying of the corpse on commemorative prayer imploring God to grant peace to
the floor to symbolize that the body has returned to the the soul of the deceased and to connect his or her soul to
earth. The family members and friends that are with the the people of Israel.
deceased then rip their clothing in an act known as keriah, After the funeral, pallbearers carry the coffin to the
which symbolizes their grief. The mourners then perform burial ground. The graveside ceremony is completed very
the Kaddish (“holy”), a prayer in praise of God. quickly, as it consists of only a small number of psalm read-
Jewish people show their esteem for the dead through a ings and a rendition of the Kaddish. When the bereaved
series of rituals and practices in the lead-up to the funeral return from the burial, they usually go to a family home
and burial. For example, as soon as a Jewish person dies, where mourning practices are observed; this is known as
it is considered important that the deceased is not left a mourning house or shiva house. The word shiva means
alone. Instead, a guard, or shomer (often a relative of the “seven” in Hebrew and refers to the seven days of mourn-
deceased), is stationed with the corpse from the time of ing that mourners are expected to observe—this does
death until the funeral and interment. Next, a group of vol- not include the Jewish Sabbath. During shiva, mourners
unteers from the local synagogue, called a Chevra Kadisha keep doors unlocked, refrain from having sexual inter-
(“holy society”), arrives to prepare the body for burial. The course, and avoid housework, cooking, and studying.
Chevra Kadisha purifies the corpse by washing it with water Mourners should also say the Kaddish three times each
in a ritual manner called taharah (“pure”). Male members day and receive visitors who wish to comfort them. Once
of a Chevra Kadisha wash dead males, and women mem- shiva is completed, another mourning period, sheloshim,
bers cleanse females. When the Chevra Kadisha washes a takes place thirty days after the death. During sheloshim,
body, they do so silently and in sections so that most of the mourners do not go out to fun events such as weddings
body stays covered when it is not being washed, thereby or birthday parties, nor do they listen to music. Instead,
preserving the corpse’s dignity. Next the corpse is dressed the bereaved continue to mourn in a low-key manner.
in a plain white shroud called a tachrichin, the simplicity Sheloshim usually ends with a memorial service for the
of which reflects that everyone is equal in death. Tradi- deceased.
tionally, deceased Jewish men are also wrapped in a prayer Once the mourning periods have ended, Jewish people
shawl called a tallit, the fringing of which is severed to are expected to remember their deceased friends and fam-
show that the men are now free from the laws of religion. ily. Communal memorial services are held at Yom Kippur
506 Jews

and on three pilgrimage events: Sukkot (a weeklong Jew- Health Care and Education
ish holiday), Passover, and Shavuot. At these times, Jew- In general, Jews accord high status to physicians. In Europe,
ish people light special candles to memorialize the dead. medicine was one of the few professions permitted to Jews
Another period of commemoration occurs on the anni- from the Middle Ages onward. Many Jews view a physi-
versary of the deceased’s death, yahrzeit. This anniversary cian’s duty to heal as running parallel with the individu-
occurs in accordance with the Hebrew calendar rather al’s duty to care for his or her personal well-being. This is
than the calendar used in the West. On the whole, yahrzeit because Jews believe they have received their bodies from
is not marked by any elaborate rituals, though to mark the God and so merely hold their bodies in trust. As such, Jews
yahrzeit of a parent, children should go to the synagogue believe they do not have full autonomy over their bodies.
to say the Kaddish. Therefore, Jews are not entitled to refuse health care, except
Shortly before the first anniversary of the death, the when there is a legitimate reason to do so. Jewish law con-
deceased’s family arranges for a tombstone to be placed siders the permission to practice medicine as a mitzvah
at the grave. According to tradition, anyone that visits the (requirement or commandment). Some commentators see
grave should place a small stone on the tombstone as a this requirement as part of pikuah nefesh, the rule that the
mark of respect for the dead. preservation of life overrides virtually all other religious
considerations.
Jews place great value on education, for education is
intertwined with Jewish spirituality. Jews are expected to
Sir Nicholas Winton study throughout their lives, not just when they are young.
Sir Nicholas Winton (1909–2015) was born to Jew- However, Jews’ access to education varies according to
ish parents in London, England. In 1938, Winton vis- where they live. According to Minority Rights Group
ited Prague to find that the area was overwhelmed International, in France, most Jewish children attend state
with refugees following Germany’s annexation of schools, with Hebrew offered as a foreign language in
the Sudetenland. Winton then traveled to Czechoslo- several French state high schools. Increasingly, however,
vakia, where he visited refugee camps. Winton soon Jewish children in France attend Hebrew day schools, and
realized that the children caught up in the refugee roughly 25 percent of school-age Jewish children attend
crisis needed to be rescued, and he appealed to the full-time Jewish schools.
British government to allow some Czech children
to enter Britain as refugees. The permission was
granted on condition that each child was matched Threats to Survival
to a host family who would care for the child until For much of their history, Jews have faced persecution,
he or she reached the age of eighteen years and that exile, and imprisonment, which has led to their people
each child had a guarantee of £50 paid by his or her becoming scattered throughout the world. Nevertheless,
family. Winton worked tirelessly to arrange host the Jews did not lose sight of their heritage, history, or tra-
families and raise funds to cover the children’s travel ditions. The creation of the state of Israel allowed Jews to
expenses. In total, Winton arranged for 669 children form a more cohesive community. However, the creation of
to come to the United Kingdom, most of whom were a Jewish homeland has resulted in continuing opposition
Jewish. from some Middle Eastern countries and has had serious
For many years, Winton’s actions were not well- ramifications for Palestinians.
known. However, in 1988, Winton appeared on the Jews face different threats according to their location.
British television program That’s Life!, where he was For example, in Yemen, in 2007, the Houthi movement
reunited with some of the children he had saved. threatened the Jews living in the Al-Salem village and
Winton subsequently received many honors, includ- ordered them to leave their homes. The Yemeni government
ing a knighthood, the Freedom of the Cities of both responded by relocating the threatened Jews and launching
Prague and London, and the Czech Republic’s high- an offensive against the Houthis. Amid escalating conflict,
est honor, the Order of the White Lion. authorities relocated the displaced Jews to Sana’a, where
You can learn more about Winton at http://www​ they were provided with housing. However, further attacks
.nicholaswinton.com. against Yemeni Jews continued in the form of murders and
violence following the 2011 Yemeni uprising and removal
 Jews 507

of President Saleh, who, in some ways, had presented him- In France, the number of anti-Semitic incidents,
self as the protector of Yemeni Jews. including desecrations of Jewish cemeteries, has risen
In the wake of Yemen’s political turmoil, there has been following the escalation of the tension between Israel
an upsurge in the numbers of Jews leaving Yemen. Jews and Palestine. In the 2000s, Jews were murdered in
that remain face growing hostility and harassment. A anti-Semitic killings. Jewish schools have been attacked
well-publicized example of this occurred in 2012, when a and Paris’ Jewish quarter has experienced gangs shout-
Jew was murdered after being accused of practicing witch- ing anti-Semitic slogans to intimidate Jewish residents.
craft. The lack of protection afforded to Jews became even In response, the French government has acted to pro-
more acute following the outbreak of the civil war in 2014. mote interfaith awareness in schools and to improve the
Large sections of Yemeni society continue to conflate the police’s monitoring of hate crimes. However, leaders of
Jewish faith with Zionism, which provokes hostility toward the nation’s right-wing political parties continue to deny
Jews. For this reason, some Yemeni Jews conceal their Jew- aspects of the Holocaust. The Consistoire Central admin-
ish identity and do not practice religious rituals outside isters Jewish worship and congregations in France and
of their homes. Yemeni Jews are caught between Zionists forms the main link between French Jews and the gov-
encouraging them to migrate to Israel and Hasidic Satmar ernment. The organization mostly represents Orthodox
Jews urging them to stay in Yemen. synagogues and trains rabbis, providing religious edu-
The Jews are Egypt’s oldest still-existing ethnoreligious cation and applying Jewish law in personal matters. The
group, yet Egypt’s Jewish community is close to disappear- Mouvement Juif Libéral de France (MLJF) represents the
ing. According to Minority Rights Group International, country’s liberal synagogues.
in 2015, there were fewer than thirty Jews in Egypt, with The Conseil Representatif des Institutions Juives de
most being elderly women. Egypt’s Jewish community France (CRIF), comprised of more than sixty Jewish asso-
faces discrimination by the state. For example, a 2015 ciations, battles against anti-Semitism, keeps the mem-
Jewish festival was cancelled when the Alexandria Admin- ory of the Holocaust alive, stands with Israel, and seeks a
istrative Court deemed it contradictory to Islamic tradi- peaceful end to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. The Fonds
tions. Additionally, important Jewish heritage sites have Social Juif Unifié (FSJU) provides finances for community
become derelict, with all of the synagogues in Cairo and education and cultural programs.
Alexandria reportedly closed or decaying due to lack of Indian Jews have tried to maintain their Jewish iden-
funds. However, the country’s Ministry of Antiquities has tity by rarely marrying non-Jews. Nonetheless, Jews in
announced that it will start to register Jewish antiquities in India face pressure to assimilate into the mainstream
an effort to protect them from theft and neglect. Indian society. Indian Jews also claim they face discrim-
Jews face anti-Semitism (hostility to or prejudice ination, especially in relation to religious practices, and
against Jews) in many countries. For instance, in Turkey, suffer sporadic anti-Semitism. Anti-Semitism in India
Islamist terrorists have recently bombed synagogues, kill- has intensified through threats and attacks by Islamic
ing both Jews and Muslims. Anti-Jewish feeling in Turkey terror organizations such as Lashker-e-Toiba, who have
is often exacerbated by events in Israel. For example, in denounced Jews as enemies of Islam. However, in recent
2017, the Trump administration’s recognition of Jerusalem years, the Bnei Menashe (comprising Mizo, Kuki, and Chin
as the capital of Israel reportedly led to anti-Israeli and people) living in northeast India have claimed Jewish eth-
anti-Jewish protestors attacking a synagogue. To engage nicity because they believe they are descended from the
with Turkish society and teach Turkish people about Jew- lost tribes of Israel. In recent years, the Bnei Menashe have
ish history and culture, a museum dedicated to the history gained thousands of converts and founded numerous
of Jews in Turkey has opened in Istanbul. synagogues.
Anti-Semitism also occurs in the former Soviet state of
See also: Copts; Druze; Mandean; Maronites; Roma;
Moldova. Here, anti-Semitic incidents include the desecra-
Samaritan
tion of Jewish graves and swastikas being drawn on the
walls of Jewish schools. There were also protests against Further Reading
DellaPergola, Sergio. 2018. “World Jewish Population, 2017.” In
Jews placing a menorah near a public statue in the capital
American Jewish Year Book 2017: The Annual Record of the
of Chisinau. Moldovan Jews have also experienced prop- North American Communities, edited by Arnold Dashefsky
erty restitution, with property owned by Jews later claimed and Ira M. Sheskin, 297–380. Cham, Switzerland: Springer
by the authorities. International Publishing.
508 Juhuro

Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Yemen: Jews.” World that between twelve thousand and thirty thousand Juhuro
Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. http://​ live in Azerbaijan, mainly in the country’s eastern districts.
minorityrights.org/minorities/jews-7. It is not possible to give exact figures for this immigration,
Mrasek, Volker. 2008. “The Not-So-Fertile Crescent: Climate
Change Threatens Cradle of Civilization.” Spiegel Online,
however. This is because Azerbaijan’s authorities do not
April 16. http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/the​-not​ record separate population figures for the Juhuro popula-
-so​-fertile-crescent-climate-change-threatens-cradle-of​-civil​ tion. For this reason, estimates of the Juhuro population
i​za​tion-a-547763.html. range from twelve thousand to thirty thousand.
Paulsson, Steve. 2011. “A View of the Holocaust.” BBC History, The Azerbaijani city of Quba, especially the suburb of
February 17. http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars​/geno​ Krasnaya Sloboda (or Qirmizi Qasaba), is home to the
cide/holocaust_overview_01.shtml.
Shoup, John A. 2011. “Jews.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and the
republic’s most populous Juhuro community. Krasnaya
Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup, 133– Sloboda is the only all-Jewish settlement located outside
140. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. of Israel. Krasnaya Sloboda was built in 1742, when the
Stokes, Jamie, ed. 2009. “Jews.” In Encyclopedia of the Peoples of khan of Quba allowed the Juhuro to found a community
Africa and the Middle East, edited by Jamie Stokes, 336–354. across the river from the city of Quba. The villagers were
New York: Facts on File. guaranteed freedom from persecution. In 1989, the city’s
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA:
population was estimated at 18,000. Today, however, the
ABC-CLIO. population has decreased to around 4,000 people because
of immigration to Israel, North America, and Europe.
Israel is home to between 100,000 and 140,000 Juhuro.
Many Juhuro also live in the United States, Canada, and
across the European Union (Minahan 2014).
JUHURO
Current Location Azerbaijan; Russian Federation Geography and Environment
Current Population 170,000 Azerbaijan lies in eastern Transcaucasia on the outer-
Language Juhuri (Juwuri; Judaeo-Tat); Tat; most areas of the Caucasus Mountains’ southern flanks.
Azeri; Russian; English It is bordered to the north by Russia, to the east by the
Interesting Fact The Juhuro village of Qirmizi Qasaba Caspian Sea, to the south by Iran, to the west by Armenia,
(or Krasnaya Sloboda) is the only and to the northwest by Georgia. The landlocked exclave of
all-Jewish settlement located outside Azerbaijan, Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic, is located
of Israel. southwest of Azerbaijan, where it is bounded by Armenia,
Iran, and Turkey. Azerbaijan also includes the enclave of
Overview Nagorno-Karabakh.
The Juhuro (sometimes written as Juhur and called the Azerbaijan has a wide variety of terrain as a result of
Ivri, Yehudi, Judeo-Tat, Caucasian Jews, Caucasian Moun- the country’s varying relief and drainage patterns, cli-
tain Jews, or Mountain Jews) are an ancient ethnic group matic variations, and changes of altitude. In lowland areas,
living in parts of Azerbaijan and the Russian Federation. steppe and semidesert landscapes prevail, while beech,
The people call themselves the Juhuro, but they are com- oak, and pine forests cover mountain slopes. At higher
monly referred to by outsiders as the Mountain Jews. The altitudes, alpine meadows dominate.
Juhuro speak a language called Juhuri, Juwuri, or Judaeo- Quba, where most Juhuro in Azerbaijan live, is the capital
Tat. Most Juhuro adhere to the people’s traditional Jewish city of the Quba Rayon. Quba is located on the northeastern
faith. However, there is an increasing number of nonreli- slopes of Mount Shahdag at an altitude of around 1,969 feet,
gious or nonpracticing Juhuro. on the right bank of the Kudyal (or Kodayar) River.

Population, Diaspora, and Migration History and Politics

The traditional Juhuro homeland is located in the Caspian It is likely that the Juhuro settled in the southern Cauca-
Sea region of the southeastern Caucasus in Azerbaijan and sus during the fifth century CE, having migrated from
adjacent parts of the Russian Federation. It is estimated southwestern Persia (Iran). According to Juhuro oral
 Juhuro 509

tradition, the ancestors of the Juhuro came from ancient centers because Juhuro who remained living in lowland
Israel after being forced to migrate to Persia as early as the areas were forced to convert to Islam.
eighth century BCE. One theory suggests that the Juhuro At the start of the 1200s, Central Asian Oghuz Turks
are descended from the lost tribes of Israel that left Israel overran Juhuro land. The Oghuz were followed by the
following the destruction of the First Temple. Some aca- second wave of invaders, the Seljuk Turks. The invasions
demics believe that the Juhuro may be descended from forced many Juhuro to flee north as waves of Turkic peo-
Jewish military soldiers that were posted to the eastern ples began to occupy the south of their region. In time, the
and northern slopes of the Caucasus as frontier guards Seljuk Turks came to rule over a vast empire where reli-
protecting the region against invasions by nomads from gious minorities such as the Juhuro were accepted. By the
the northern steppes. Another theory is that the Juhuro fifteenth century, the Juhuro had adapted the Tat language,
are descended from Turkic Khazars that adopted Judaism though they added many borrowings from Hebrew to it.
in the eighth century. The Juhuro also adopted the highland Caucasian clothing
In the fourth century CE, the ruler of the region then worn by the Turks.
called Caucasian Albania adopted Christianity as the state’s When they lived in lowland areas, the Juhuro had mainly
official religion. This move made the Juhuro a religious grown rice. Now living in highland parts, the Juhuro turned
minority in a largely Christian state loosely controlled by to growing wheat, barley, and fruit, especially grapes, from
the Persians. In 642, an invasion by Muslim Arabs in 642 which the Juhuro produced wine (an activity forbidden to
forced many Juhuro to seek refuge elsewhere. The Juhuro neighboring Muslim peoples). The Juhuro also raised silk-
survived numerous subsequent incursions into their terri- worms and grew tobacco. While they did not tend to eat
tory by settling in extremely isolated mountainous areas. meat, the Juhuro acquired a reputation from tanning ani-
Consequently, Juhuro strongholds became established in mal skins. In the 1580s, during conflict between the Shia
the high Caucasus. These later became Juhuro cultural Muslim Persians and the Sunni Ottoman Empire, the area

Juhuro men pray at a synagogue in Qrmz Qsb in the Quba district of Azerbaijan. Most Juhuro not only follow the main tenets of Judaism
but also enact customs and traditions practiced by other Jewish communities. (Oleksandr Rupeta/NurPhoto via Getty Images)
510 Juhuro

surrounding the Caspian Sea came under Ottoman occu- repression; Juhuro cultural events were banned as was the
pation. This caused many Juhuro to flee lowland areas and use of Hebrew. At the same time, Juhuro synagogues were
seek refuge in the Caucasus Mountains. In 1603, the Per- closed, and their rabbis were exiled to Siberia. Under the
sians returned to the region, but most Juhuro continued Soviets, a policy of Russification was implemented that
living in highland strongholds rather than return to the aimed to destroy the Juhuro way of life. This was especially
Caspian coast. true in Dagestan after the 1930s.
The collapse of the Persian Empire in 1747 led to the The repression experienced by the Juhuro under the
creation of numerous semi-independent khanates across Soviets caused hundreds of Juhuro families to flee Soviet
the Caspian region. The proliferation of states meant the Azerbaijan as well as adjacent areas of Dagestan to settle
Juhuro were frequently threatened by local tribes. As a in British Palestine, mostly in the city of Tel Aviv. However,
form of self-defense, the Juhuro developed a strong mili- Soviet restrictions soon ended this immigration to Pal-
tary tradition and gained a reputation for being a warrior estine. The restrictions on Juhuro migration remained in
people. place even after Israel’s creation as an independent state in
Toward the end of the eighteenth century, the Rus- 1948 and were only lifted in the 1970s after Israeli-­Soviet
sian Empire expanded into the Caucasus. This brought relations improved. From 1972 to 1978, approximately
a new threat to the Juhuro in the form of anti-Semitism. three thousand people, including many Juhuro, migrated
Between 1803 and 1828, the Russo-Persian Wars saw Rus- from Soviet Azerbaijan to Israel. Other Juhuro moved to
sia take control of the Caucasus. The Russians treated Jews North America, where they founded thriving communi-
living in the region brutally, though the Juhuro warrior ties, including in New York and Toronto.
tradition meant they were afforded a degree of respect In 1991, the downfall of the Soviet Union saw Azerbai-
by the Russian military. Under the Russians, the Juhuro jan regain its independence, while attempts continued to
resettled in lowland areas, living in villages and towns, assimilate non-Azeris. Since then, Azerbaijan’s Juhuro pop-
as they had when they lived in the highlands. In the low- ulation has continued to decline through immigration. For
lands, the Juhuro established aouls (separate neighbor- example, the population of Krasnaya Sloboda in northern
hoods inhabited only by Juhuro). In 1832, the first Juhuro Azerbaijan fell from eighteen thousand during the Soviet
religious meeting house was built in Baku (now the capi- era to just four thousand at the start of the twenty-first
tal of Azerbaijan). In 1896, this was reclassified as a syn- century (Parfitt 2003). Tempted by the opportunity to earn
agogue, and other synagogues were constructed in Baku high wages more easily, young Juhuro are moving abroad,
during the late nineteenth century. The synagogues were leading to fears that the Juhuro community may die out.
built by the growing number of Jews moving to the area
from elsewhere in Russia and from Europe in the hope
of working in the region’s newly booming oil industry. Society, Culture, and Tradition
In time, Baku became a center of Jewish Zionism within In the past, the Juhuro were a rural people consisting of
imperial Russia. farmers that grew grapes, rice, tobacco, and grain. During
From 1899 to 1920, Russia experienced a period of the Soviet era, the Juhuro were made to settle in communes
turmoil marked by war and revolution. In March 1918, and collectives, usually alongside other ethnic groups.
Armenian Christians invaded Azerbaijan and targeted the Starting in the 1970s, urbanization resulted in many
Juhuro as well as local Muslims. A few months later, during Juhuro living in urban settlements, and consequently,
the Russian Revolution, separatists declared Azerbaijan’s they adapted their culture to suit an urban environment.
independence and installed a democratic government. Today, a minority of Juhuro are still farmers. The major-
Under this government, Jewish periodicals were published ity of Juhuro now work as traders, carpetmakers, leather
in Yiddish, Hebrew, Juhuri, and Russian. At the same time, workers, or as tanners.
many Juhuro schools, clubs, societies, and cultural bodies Traditionally, the Juhuro are a particularly hospitable
opened. While many Juhuro lived in towns, Judaic restric- people, and hospitality remains an important element of
tions meant the Juhuro kept to themselves, eating their Juhuro life today. This hospitality is exemplified by the fact
own food and making their traditional religion the focus that every Juhuro home contains a special room dressed
of their community. Starting in 1920, however, the Soviet with the household’s finest carpets that is set aside for use
occupation of Azerbaijan initiated a period of Juhuro by guests.
 Juhuro 511

The Juhuro have a long musical tradition. Typical Children in Azerbaijan are entitled to nine years of free
Juhuro instruments include the tar (a string instrument) general education between the ages of six and fifteen years.
and the saz (a type of flute). The Juhuro have a rich oral Up until the twentieth century, most Juhuro were illiter-
tradition comprising folklore and folktales that are passed ate, passing their oral tradition on through generations of
down through the generations. Since the 1930s, many of Juhuro. Today, there are three schools in Krasnaya Sloboda.
the folktales as well as Juhuro poems and other literature
have been anthologized and published in both Juhuri and
Tat. Most Juhuro speak Tat, having adopted the language Threats to Survival
from the neighboring Tat people. Many Juhuro also speak The Juhuro are one of the world’s most isolated Jewish
Azeri or Russian. The Juhuro language, Juhuri, Juwuri, or communities. Increasingly, the Juhuro find that young
Judaeo-Tat, is a language belonging to the southwestern Juhuro leave their homeland for a better life elsewhere. In
Iranian language group. In the Caucasus, the use of Juhuri turn, this immigration means that the Juhuro are strug-
is in decline. There is, however, a large Juhuro community gling to survive.
in Israel that speaks Juhuri. Krasnaya Sloboda, the site of a declining Juhuro popula-
Traditionally, the Juhuro follow a form of Judaism that tion, is the last Juhuro stronghold in the Caucasus. For cen-
some commentators feel is pre-Talmudic. Today, most turies, Krasnaya Sloboda maintained its traditions despite
Juhuro not only follow the main tenets of Jewish faith being surrounded by Muslim communities. Traditionally,
closely, but they also enact customs and traditions prac- the Juhuro living in Krasnaya Sloboda are treated well by
ticed by other Jewish communities. Many Juhuro women the overwhelmingly Muslim population of Azerbaijan.
wear head scarves, and Juhuro synagogues often do not However, revenue from Azerbaijan’s vast oil reserves failed
contain a women’s section. Devoutly religious Juhuro men to reach the isolated Juhuro community. Since the fall of
do not shake women’s hands, and women are expected to the Soviet Union, however, there has been a mass exodus
use a mikvah, a ritual cleansing bath for women, which of Juhuro as members of the community head to Israel,
married Jewish women are required to use once per the United States, and Europe in search of work. The num-
month, seven days after the end of their menstrual cycle. ber of Juhuro elsewhere in the Caucasus is also decreasing
rapidly. For instance, the threat of Islamic fundamentalism
and the desecration of Jewish graves have caused thou-
Health Care and Education sands of Juhuro to leave Dagestan. Juhuro elders point out
Health care in Azerbaijan is provided by public and private that under the Soviets, the Juhuro had a collective farm
healthcare institutions and regulated through the Minis- and fruit juice factory, meaning that even though they
try of Healthcare. Many people in Azerbaijan profess little could not worship openly, the people at least had jobs.
faith in the country’s health care, though life expectancy Most Juhuro are not fluent in Juhuri. Instead, they know
has improved greatly over the last twenty-five years— Azeri and Russian as well as Juhuri. Young Juhuro living
from sixty years for men and sixty-six years for women in Israel and the United States are more likely to speak
in 1990 to sixty-nine years for men and seventy-six years Hebrew and English than they are Juhuri. It is thought
for women in 2015. Over the same period, deaths in child- that only in Quba is Juhuri still taught to most children.
birth also dropped from sixty-four to twenty-five per one Everywhere else, the future of Juhuri is in jeopardy, threat-
hundred thousand live births, while child mortality for ened by the national languages of the countries in which
children under five years old fell from twenty per one the Juhuro live and by Russian, which has become the
thousand children to seven. Despite these improvements, Juhuro lingua franca used between generations of Juhuro
many people in Azerbaijan distrust doctors and healthcare and by various Juhuro communities. Juhuri books, news-
institutions, which they consider corrupt and rife with papers, and textbooks are still available today however. A
malpractice. One of the perceived reasons for medical cor- Juhuro-language theater, the Theater of the Eastern Cauca-
ruption in Azerbaijan is that medics are poorly paid and sus, which was founded in the Dagestani city of Derbent in
so prone to bribery. In 2018, the Azerbaijani government 1923, was reestablished in Israel in 2001.
introduced compulsory health insurance in an attempt to On a more positive note, in recent years, some Juhuro
improve health care while also eliminating bribes (Kazi- that had immigrated have returned to Krasnaya Sloboda,
mova 2016). having earned money elsewhere. The returnees have built
512 Jumma

palatial houses that are often decorated with the Star of Chittagong Hill Tracts (CHT). The Jumma speak numer-
David. Krasnaya Sloboda has a new supermarket, a site ous languages and dialects, with many also speaking
specially for Juhuro weddings, and a mikvah. A Juhuro Bengali dialects and English. The Jummas belong to var-
beit midrash (Jewish study hall) has also opened, thereby ious religions, most especially Buddhism, Hinduism, and
allowing Juhuro teenagers to study the Torah. Jewish Christianity.
organizations have started to operate in Krasnaya Sloboda,
and their presence has rekindled interest in Jewish culture,
learning, and practice. A museum dedicated to the Juhuro Population, Diaspora, and Migration
is also planned for Krasnaya Sloboda. In addition, while The Jumma population consists of an estimated 800,000
Juhuro in Russia report that they have suffered racial dis- people divided into around sixteen different tribes, includ-
crimination, the Juhuro living in Azerbaijan do not tend ing the Chakma, Marma, Tripura, Tanchangya, Mro, Lus-
to experience discrimination. It seems, therefore, that hai, Khumi, Chak, Khiyang, Bawm, and Pangkhua. The
although the Juhuro face some threats to their survival, most populous tribes are the Chakma and the Marma,
they have managed to maintain their culture, traditions, which have approximately 350,000 members each (UNPO
and languages  for centuries and may well for centuries 2008). In Bangladesh, indigenous peoples lack legal rec-
to come. ognition in both the national constitution and in the
eyes of authorities. According to the Bangladesh govern-
See also: Azeri; Jews; Lezgin
ment, all people born in Bangladesh are Bengali (Cultural
Further Reading
Survival 2017).
Kazimova, Gulnur. 2016. “Azerbaijan’s Flawed Healthcare Sys-
tem.” Institute for War and Peace Reporting, October 19. Bangladesh authorities have long considered the CHT
https://iwpr.net/global-voices/azerbaijans-flawed​-health​care​ vacant land onto which Bengali settlers can relocate. Over
-system. the past sixty-five years, the Jummas have gone from being
Mikdash-Shamailov, Liya. 2002. Mountain Jews: Customs and virtually the only residents of the CHT to being a minority
Daily Life in the Caucasus. Jerusalem: The Israel Museum. population outnumbered by settlers.
Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East and Cen-
tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Parfitt, Tom. 2003. “Life Drains Away from Lost Tribe of Moun-
tain Jews.” The Telegraph, April 27. https://www.telegraph.co​
Geography and Environment
.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/azerbaijan/1428516/Life​ The CHT is located in southeast Bangladesh. The CHT
-drains-away-from-lost-tribe-of-Mountain-Jews.html. shares borders with Myanmar to the south and south-
Saffron, Inga. 1997. “The Mountain Jews of Guba.” Philadelphia east, India to the north and northeast, and Bangladesh’s
Inquirer, July 21. https://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories​
Chittagong district to the west. The CHT consists of three
/magazine/62_folder/62_articles/62_mountainjews.html.
ostensibly independent hill districts: Rangamati, Khagra-
chari, and Bandarban. The region’s landscape is home to
parallel mountain chains interspersed with fertile valleys.
This mountainous landscape means the region differs
from the rest of Bangladesh in terms of geographical fea-
JUMMA tures, farming practices, and soil conditions.
The CHT are craggy and steep, making it difficult for
Current Location Bangladesh inhabitants to grow food. To make best use of the land,
Current Population Around 800,000 the Jummas practice a type of shifting cultivation known
Language Bengali dialects; English locally as jhum, whereby they grow food in small areas of
Interesting Fact The name Jumma derives from jhum, land before moving on to another area. While they farm
the form of shifting agriculture the the new land, the land previously used is able to recover
people practice. its fertility.
In 2018, it was reported that illegal stone mining from
Overview streambeds across the Bandarban region were destroy-
The term Jumma (meaning “highlander”) is the collective ing the area’s biodiversity. The livelihoods of local ethnic
self-designation of the indigenous tribes of Bangladesh’s groups that depended on stream water for crop irrigation
 Jumma 513

and fishing as well as drinking and washing were also further Bengali migration and designating CHT a tribal
jeopardized (UNPO 2008). reserve. The Bengalis continued to migrate illegally, how-
ever, causing great overcrowding and, subsequently, ethnic
conflict in lowland areas. The area’s ethnic tension contin-
History and Politics ued for several decades, finally prompting authorities to
The CHT have been inhabited for millennia. The Chakma designate the region a totally excluded area from which
and the Marma migrated to the Arakan Hills in the Chit- general entry was forbidden.
tagong mountains during the thirteenth century, led by During the late 1930s, Jumma tribal leaders, encour-
Charkma Raja Marekyaja. The arrival of these tribes forced aged by Indian nationalists, campaigned for an independ-
some the area’s inhabitants to leave their homeland and ent tribal state on the basis that their people had little in
relocate in mountainous jungle areas. Once settled in the common with Bengalis in terms of culture, language, or
Arakan Hills, the Chakma and the Marma renamed them- religion. Wanting to keep the Jummas on their side dur-
selves the Khyungtha (“Children of the River”) while those ing World War II in case Japan invaded India, the British
previous inhabitants of the hills were called Thongtha promised there would be an autonomous tribal state if
(“Children of the Hills”). India gained independence. However, the violent turmoil
The Jummas lived in the remote, isolated CHT for many of India’s partition caused Britain to change its attitude
centuries. In 1666, however, they came under nominal about giving power to minority regions. Consequently,
Bengali control. In 1715, the Chakma ruler Jallal Khan Britain proposed adding the CHT to Muslim Pakistan,
attempted to establish a peace treaty with the Bengalis. something that dismayed many Jumma tribes, who pro-
However, in 1760, Jallal Khan ceded the region to Brit- tested; they would rather be part of secular India. Despite
ain. Rather than embark on a long campaign to placate the protests, in 1947, Britain made the CHT part of Paki-
the various local tribes, the British signed a treaty with stan. In response, several thousand Jummas migrated to
the Chakma king that created a tribal reserve on the CHT. India and Myanmar. In 1955, the Pakistani government
Soon, however, local people became angry at what they lifted all immigration restrictions for the CHT, resulting in
considered encroachment by the British, and from 1777 thousands of Bengalis entering the area from nearby low-
to 1780, the Chakmas attacked the East India Company lands. Then, from 1957 to 1962, the hydroelectric Kaptai
(a British company formed to exploit trade in India, East Dam was built on Jumma territory, flooding 40 percent of
Asia, and Southeast Asia). In 1787, the Chakma king, the land and displacing tens of thousands of Jumma. At the
Jan Baksh Khan, capitulated to the British, to whom he same time, around 50,000 Jummas fled to India to escape
pledged allegiance. Officially, the Chakmas came under forced relocation by Pakistan (Minahan 2002). Finally, in
direct British rule, but the British vowed not to interfere 1964, the CHT lost its tribal reservation designation.
in the administration of the CHT. Additionally, the Jumma When the Bengalis seceded from Pakistan in 1971 to
tribes did not become British citizens. Over time, relations create Bangladesh, the Jummas initially supported them in
between the Chakmas and British became friendlier, and their fight against Pakistani repression. However, the new
in 1857, when the unsuccessful Indian Mutiny against the Bangladeshi government urged Bengalis to move from the
East India Company occurred, the Chakmas sided with the overcrowded lowlands to the underpopulated CHT. This
British. In return, the British divided the CHT from the prompted the Chakma king to call, unsuccessfully, for CHT
rest of the Chittagong district. autonomy. Subsequently, the Jummas organized guerrilla
During the 1840s and 1850s, European missionaries groups to repel colonists entering the CHT. This provoked
started to arrive in the CHT. The missionaries enjoyed a Bengali colonists to attack unguarded Jumma villages,
degree of success in converting small pagan tribes, but resulting in thousands of Jummas fleeing to India. Then,
overall, only Hindu and Buddhist tribes took to mission- in 1980, a Bangladeshi military leader ordered the mas-
ary education. An educated Jumma minority soon arose sacre of three hundred Jummas in the Buddhist temple
that was central to ending the region’s widespread feudal (Minahan 2002). In 1984, when Bangladeshi representa-
violence. tives asserted there were no indigenous peoples of Bang-
At the end of the nineteenth century, Bengalis started ladesh, even moderate Jummas were prompted to side
to migrate to the region much, to the Jummas’ concern. with Jumma separatists. The situation worsened in 1988,
The British responded to Jumma anxieties by prohibiting when Bengali was made Bangladesh’s official language of
514 Jumma

education and administration and strict sharia law was animist belief. Animist Jummas worship gods associated
imposed nationwide. At the start of the 1990s, Jumma with fire, forests, and water.
leaders responded angrily when Bengali settlers repeatedly All Jummas celebrate the three-day Bizhu festival. Orig-
attacked their people. When forty thousand more Bengalis inally, this was a Chakma farming festival, but today, each
moved to the CHT, both Jumma leaders and international day of the festival is reserved for a different activity. The
human rights organizations accused national authorities first day is dedicated to housework, cleaning, and food
of committing virtual genocide. By the end of 1990, sev- preparation; the second day is reserved for bathing in riv-
enty thousand Jummas had fled to India, where 10 percent ers, wearing new clothes, and dancing; and the third day
of the refugees died in camps from disease and malnutri- sees Jummas attend social and religious ceremonies.
tion (Minahan 2002).
In 1992, the Bangladesh government, stung by interna-
tional criticism, opened negotiations with Jumma rebels, Health Care and Education
but talks collapsed when the Jummas demanded settlers The combination of living in a geographically isolated area
be removed from the CHT. Despite the collapse of nego- with rugged terrain and high transport costs means health
tiations, many Jumma refuges began to return home, only care is difficult for the Jummas to access. Additionally,
for a renewed Jumma rebellion to erupt, with many rebels medical staff are reluctant to work in a remote area prone
coming from the thousands of Jummas housed in Indian to conflict. Consequently, in the CHT, half of all positions
refugee camps. in government healthcare facilities are empty. Addition-
In 1997, the Jumma and the Bangladeshi government ally, hospitals have a limited number of ambulances at the
signed a peace treaty that included a clause demanding district level, and there are no ambulances at the subdis-
the disarmament of Jumma guerillas. The signing of the trict level.
accord was met by protests from both sides: Bangladeshi In CHT, figures for infant and child mortality and
nationalists denounced the new Jumma autonomy, and maternal health lag far behind Bangladesh’s national aver-
some Jumma factions were reluctant to disarm while oth- ages. Recently, partly due to the absence of healthcare
ers announced they would resume violence if the level of professionals, Bandarban has one of Bangladesh’s highest
Jumma autonomy agreed to in the treaty did not come to infant mortality rates at 63 deaths per 1,000 live births,
fruition. To date, ethnic violence and the loss of traditional against the national average of 49 deaths per 1,000 births.
Jumma territory continues despite the signing of the treaty. Mortality rates for children under age five years run at 85
deaths per 1,000 in the CHT, against a national rate of 64
deaths per 1,000 children. Malaria is a constant problem in
Society, Culture, and Tradition CHT and is the leading cause of the region’s child mortal-
There are various Jumma cultures. For example, the Bud- ity. In 2009, there were more cases of malaria and deaths
dhist Chakma, whose heritage is unknown and who have from malarial infection in the three CHT districts than
absorbed more Bengali culture than other Jumma tribes, the rest of Bangladesh combined. Nutrition is also a major
are historically associated with the Arakanese people of health concern in CHT, though the government does try to
Myanmar. The Chakma are related to another Buddhist safeguard the region’s fragile food supply. The main causes
Jumma tribe, the Marma, who are believed to originate of food shortages in CHT are rat infestations, restrictions
from Thailand. The Mro tribe, considered the original on farming, rising food prices, and shortages of plant seed
inhabitants of the CHT, are predominantly Buddhist, (IRIN 2011).
though a significant number of Mro people maintain ani- The Bangladesh government has undertaken initia-
mist beliefs. In contrast, the Tripuris are mostly Hindu and tives to fulfill its responsibility to ensure primary educa-
are part of a larger Tripuri population living in India. tion for indigenous children, including those studying at
There are also Jumma social variations. The Chakma are the 210 primary schools in CHT. The country’s Ministry
organized along very strong clan lines, but other Jummas of Primary and Mass Education has produced preschool
are organized more informally. The Jummas speak many textbooks in five indigenous languages and issued around
languages and dialects. Most can speak a form of Bengali twenty-five thousand books. However, indigenous rights
but not read or write Bengali. While most Jummas belong activists argue there is a shortage of qualified teachers in
to a major religion, nearly all maintain some degree of indigenous languages. Children in remote communities
 Jumma 515

in CHT cannot realize their full educational potential indigenous children such as the Jumma and so does not
because there are too few educational facilities available to protect them. As a result, indigenous children have been
them (IWGIA n.d.). abducted, and victims are often forced to convert to Islam
(Cultural Survival 2017). A lack of health care, high malar-
ial infection rates, and food shortages also threaten Jumma
Threats to Survival lives.
There are multiple threats to Jumma survival. For decades,
See also: Khasi; Tripuri
the Jummas have faced violent repression by the Bangla-
Further Reading
desh military. While the 1997 peace treaty ended some of
Cultural Survival. 2017, October 5. “Observations on the State
the worst military atrocities, both the Bangladesh army of Indigenous Human Rights in Bangladesh.” https://www​
and government-backed settlers continue to take ancestral .cul​tu​ral​survival.org/sites/default/files​/UPR​Bangladesh​2017​
Jumma land and destroy Jumma villages. In 2017, it was FINAL​.pdf.
widely reported that Bengali settlers burned down at least International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs (IWGIA). n.d.
250 Jumma houses. Tourism centers have also been con- “Indigenous Peoples in Bangladesh.” https://www.iwgia.org​
/en/bangladesh.
structed on Jumma ancestral land without the consent of
IRIN. 2011. “Health Indicators Lag in Chittagong Hill Tracts.”
the people. ReliefWeb, July 14. https://reliefweb.int/report/bangladesh​
In addition to land right issues, Jumma activists face /health​-indicators-lag-chittagong-hill-tracts.
arrest and harassment, and the general Jumma public Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
suffers waves of murder, torture, sexual assault, and rape nic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 2, D–K. West-
perpetrated by both the military and Bengali settlers. Addi- port, CT: Greenwood Press.
Survival International. 2018. “Jummas.” Survival International.
tionally, indigenous children, including Jumma children,
https://www.survivalinternational.org/tribes/jummas.
are subjected to extremely high rates of abduction and Unrepresented Nations and People Organization (UNPO). 2008.
trafficking. While the Bangladesh Children’s Act (2013) “Chittagong Hill Tracts.” UNPO, March 25. http://unpo.org​
combats trafficking in Bangladesh, it does not recognize /members/7867.
 K

KACHIN (Minahan 2012). Most Kachins live in Kachin State, the

most northerly state of Myanmar. This state borders south-
Current Location Myanmar; China; India ern China, where a Kachin minority called the Jingpo live
Current Population 1.7 million in the Dehong Dai-Jingpo Autonomous Prefecture of Yun-
Language Jingpho
nan. A small Kachin population also resides in northwest
India. In 2018, it was reported in the international press
Interesting Fact In recent years, it was reported that
that one in eight Kachins had been displaced because of
50 percent of Kachin youths are
addicted to drugs. persecution by Myanmar authorities (Crawford 2018).

Overview Geography and Environment

The Kachins, also called the Jingpaws, Singpos, Chingpaws, The Kachin homeland extends across a swath of Myanmar,
Marips, or Dashanhua, among other names, are an indige- India, and China. In northern Myanmar, the Kachin home-
nous ethnic group found in Myanmar, China, and India. The land covers Kachin State, which is bordered by China to the
Kachins speak many native languages that are normally north and east, by Myanmar’s Shan State to the south and
referred to collectively as Jingpho. These languages belong the Sagaing Region to the west. India also borders Kachin
to the Tibeto-Burman language family. Most Kachins are State to the west. Kachin State is ruggedly mountainous
Christian, especially Baptist, but maintain animist beliefs. and home to Myanmar’s highest mountain, Hkakabo Razi,
There are also a small number of Buddhist Kachins. which forms the southern tip of the Himalaya mountain
range. Hkakabo Razi lies within Khakaborazi National
Park. The park is entirely mountainous and is character-
Population, Diaspora, and Migration ized by broad-leaved evergreen rainforest. Kachin State is
The exact Kachin population is unknown because there also home to a large inland lake, Indawgyi Lake, one of the
has been a lack of reliable census data in Myanmar for largest inland lakes in Southeast Asia. The Indawgyi Lake
over sixty years. However, most estimates suggest there lies within the Indawgyi Lake Wildlife Sanctuary, which
are approximately 1 million Kachins in the Myanmar is home to a variety of animal species, including rare
(Minority Rights Group International 2015), with the total mammals and endangered bird species, including greylag
Kachin population measuring around 1.7 million people geese, Oriental darter, and purple swamphen. Waste from

516
 Kachin 517

a number of Kachin villages along the lake threaten the adopted Christianity, with the sons of Kachin chiefs sent
lake’s water quality, though the lake is refreshed annually to missionary schools. Soon a Christian-educated Kachin
by monsoon rains. minority evolved along with a new sense of Kachin
nationhood.
Until World War II, the British permitted the Kachins to
History and Politics maintain their own army and organization, and in return,
The Kachins’ ancestors originated on the eastern Tibetan the Kachins were loyal to Britain during the war, unlike
Plateau, and during the eighth century, they migrated the Burmans, who sided with Japan. Once Japan occupied
south and east to northern Myanmar and the jungle of Burma in 1942, Kachin guerillas trained by the British and
Yunnan Province in China. Americans parachuted into areas with Japanese troops to
When the Thai people known as the Shah invaded destroy Japanese communications. The Kachin guerillas
Kachin land in the thirteenth century, many Kachins fled became well known for their valor and tenacity and proved
to isolated mountain areas that they could defend. From to be the genesis of the future free Kachin army. Mean-
these mountain strongholds, the Kachins were able to while, the Burmans discovered that living under Japanese
repel the Mongol hordes when they invaded later in the rule was harder than living under British control, and so
same century. In the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, the they switched sides. As a result of the Burmans’ volte-face,
people dispersed across this expansive, rugged region and by 1944, Kachin territory was free from outsiders.
settled as distinct tribal groups that had their own cul- At the end of the war, the British started the process to
tures, dialects, and economies. The tribal groups never allow Burma’s independence. Convinced that the many
unified under a single leader and fought with each other small northern protectorates would be unable to sur-
frequently. The tribes did, however, unite when faced with vive as separate states, the British convinced the peoples,
outside threats. Over time, the Kachins developed a soci- including the Kachins, to form a Burmese confederation.
ety based around shifting agriculture and rice farming as However, the Kachins won the right to secession under
well as banditry and occasional raids that formed part of British protection after ten years, at their discretion. In
feudal wars. 1945, China invaded Kachin land only to leave in 1947.
Ethnic Burmans migrated to Kachin territory during A boundary agreement between China and Burma was
the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, but fierce Kachin signed in 1960.
resistance to the Burmans meant the Burmans were only Soon after Burma gained independence in 1948, the
able to take control of the area’s lowlands and river valleys. new government annulled states’ autonomy and integrated
In 1766, the Chinese sent an army to occupy Kachin land autonomous Kachin land into neighboring provinces.
while conquering the peoples of Yunnan Province. How- The government then decreased the size of Kachin State,
ever, the Kachins retaliated fiercely against the Chinese, leaving many Kachins living outside of their homeland.
who only managed to conquer a small area to the east of This move outraged the Kachins, who rebelled, overran
the Kachin homeland. northern Burma, and captured the Burmese second city,
In 1886, the British, who the Kachins saw as their nat- Mandalay. Despite taking Mandalay, the Kachins made
ural ally against the Burmans and Chinese, gained control little headway politically. Subsequently, the Burmese mil-
of lowland Upper Burma. The various indigenous peoples itary launched a counteroffensive against the Kachins. The
living on the northern frontier at that time signed individ- British army, exhausted from their efforts in World War
ual treaties with the British, and the British made Kachin II, felt unable to help the Kachins, leaving the Kachins to
land a British protectorate. The British shut an area called be driven back to their mountain homeland in 1950. After
the Kachin Hill Tracts to in-migration by Burmese and this, multiple Kachin factions evolved that became allied
gave the area’s indigenous peoples considerable self-rule. with the Burmese communists, who brought weapons and
Over time, soldiers from Kachin tribes became pillars of aid to the Kachins via the Jingpo Kachins living in China.
the British army in Burma. Meanwhile, the border between In 1952, some Kachins, Karens, Burmese communists,
the Kachins and China remained fluid, with a great deal of and Shah formed an alliance and agreed to demarcate
in- and out-migration. their land throughout Burma. However, Christian Kachins
Under British rule, European and American missionar- who were anticommunist opposed the coalition and
ies began to visit the Kachins. Many of the Kachins readily started to operate in the opium trade to fund a separatist
518 Kachin

war. A decade after Burmese independence, the Kachins negotiate with the Burmese government. The government
informed the government that they intended to secede remained against Kachin independence, so the talks came
from the federation under the terms of the 1948 treaty. to naught. At the end of the 1980s, Christian members of
However, the Burmese authorities reacted by arresting the KIO formed an alliance with the Shah, who were also
Kachin leaders and occupying Kachin land. The Kachins fighting the government.
were alienated further in 1961, when the authorities made After Myanmar’s democracy movement was disman-
Buddhism the national religion, and then again in 1962, tled in 1988–1990, moderate Kachins who had previously
when military rule was imposed on Kachin territory and favored an independent Kachin territory within a feder-
Kachin autonomy was abolished. That same year, the ation of states over Myanmar’s brutal military regime
Burmese military (using U.S. helicopters and weapons became allied with the separatists. Over the next few
intended to fight the area’s drug trade) launched attacks years, the Myanmar regime launched renewed attacks that
on the Kachins. However, the Burmese soldiers suffered were defeated by the Kachins. Subsequently, the Kachin
several defeats and, retreating to a few military outposts, nationalists claimed a larger section of Myanmar, Greater
effectively left the Kachins to rule rural areas. Through- Kachinland, which extended past Kachin State.
out the 1970s, the Burmese military made little headway The KIO controlled the majority of Kachin State at the
into the mountainous, forested countryside. In the late start of the Kachin insurgency; however, this was not the
1970s, the Chinese stopped arming Kachin nationalist case after 1988, when the State Law and Order Restora-
rebels, resulting in the guerillas relying on the opium trade tion Council (SLORC, the military government of Burma)
to fund their fight. Then, in the early 1980s, the nation- started to agree to cease-fires with neighboring groups
alist Kachin Independence Organization (KIO) began to before deploying military forces against Kachin rebels.

Kachins perform a ceremonial dance in Chiang Mai, Thailand. Most Kachins live in northern Myanmar, as well as in southern China
and northwest India. In 2018, it was reported that one in eight Kachins had been displaced by the government of Myanmar. (Pixbox77/
Dreamstime.com)
 Kachin 519

Resultantly, by 1994, the KIO agreed to a cease-fire with All Kachins, whether or not they are Christian, maintain
the regime that allowed the KIO a degree of local admin- beliefs in spirits that can bring bad luck and good fortune.
istrative control in parts of Kachin State, though resources The Kachins believe spirits live everywhere and within all
were still overseen by the government’s State Peace and things, including the sun, moon, plants, and animals. The
Development Council (SPDC). most powerful of these spirits is Madai, who is a legendary
After 1994, economic projects began in Kachin State figurehead to the Kachins.
and the SPDC allowed the KIO a degree of autonomy that
enabled Kachin nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)
to develop. International NGOs also began to operate in Health Care and Education
Kachin areas. In subsequent years, however, unsustainable In recent years, there have been no medical facilities or
logging and mining damaged Kachin State’s natural envi- medicines available to the Kachins. Disease is widespread
ronment. During this time, there were reports accusing in Kachin areas, and 50 percent of Kachin youths were
Burma’s junta of exploiting the area’s resources by giving reported to be addicted to drugs. There have also been
permits allowing gold mining in the Hugawng Valley Tiger reports that the Burmese military sold Kachin children to
Reserve in northern Kachin State, which displaced thou- the Chinese for use in organ transplants (Minahan 2002).
sands of locals. Such activities seemed to “favor companies Recently, there have been reports “of Kachin parents being
and individuals connected to the regime” while also hav- offered free schooling for their children at Buddhist mon-
ing “an ethnic component [because] ethnic Burmans were asteries” as part of efforts to convert Kachin Christians to
encouraged to settle in [areas where] the mining and log- Buddhism (Minority Rights Group International 2015).
ging activities” took place (Minority Rights Group Interna-
tional 2015).
From 1997 to 2007, Burmese military activity in­ Threats to Survival
creased dramatically in Kachin areas. There were also re- Since June 2011, the situation in Kachin State has wors-
ports of increased human rights violations and atrocities ened. A cease-fire between the Kachin Independence Army
against the Kachins, including land confiscations, sexual (KIA) and the Myanmar government has been breached,
violence, and forcing the Kachins to work as slaves on fighting has increased, and civilians have been killed and
frontier construction projects. The SPDC also appointed displaced. As a result of the fighting, many Kachins strug-
ethnic Burmans to most administrative positions, leading gle to access essential services, and the government and
to the near eradication of the Kachin language in local military block humanitarian assistance.
officialdom. There have been multiple reports of the Myanmar army
In addition to human rights violations, the Kachins abusing civilians in Kachin State by perpetrating “extraju-
were targeted for their Christian beliefs, with reports sug- dicial killings, rape and sexual abuse, torture, indiscrim-
gesting Christian Kachins were subjected to religious con- inate attacks on civilians” and slavery (Minority Rights
version and discrimination by authorities because of their Group International 2015). Authorities and guerrilla sol-
religion. These included being rewarded financially, being diers alike stand accused of enslaving civilians and using
exempted from forced labor, and enjoying lower food them as human shields during conflicts. The natural
prices or greater educational opportunities for converting resources in Kachin further complicate the situation, as
to Buddhism. It was also reported that Burmese soldiers government officials try to exploit precious materials, such
were encouraged to marry Kachin women so that they as jade, for political gain.
could convert the women to Buddhism (Minority Rights In June 2018, it was reported that Myanmar authori-
Group International 2015). ties were denying journalists, aid agencies, international
observers, foreign diplomats, and politicians access to
Kachin State. Thousands of Kachins were reported to have
Society, Culture, and Tradition died in bombings and attacks perpetrated by the Myanmar
Traditionally, the Kachins practice shifting cultivation and military, the attacks having increased substantially since
grow hill rice. January 2018, after the same military forces had spent
Kachin authority is held by chiefs who are supported by months driving the Rohingya out from the west of Myan-
patrilineal clans. mar. Military forces were said to have used helicopters and
520 Kalasha

heavy artillery to bomb Kachin rebel positions, leaving Population, Diaspora, and Migration
thousands of Kachin civilians stranded in thick jungle after The exact number of Kalasha people is not known, though
fleeing the attacks. Kachin civilians claimed to have moved estimates suggest the Kalasha population measures
multiple times to try to reach safety, with some riding on between 3,000 (Mohiuddin 2007) and 6,500 (Abbas 2011)
elephants to reach refugee camps. The Myanmar military people. The Kalasha live in numerous villages located in
were also reported to be targeting the Kachin State’s amber several small valleys (including the Birr, Rambur, and
and jade mines that provide income for the Kachins and Bumburet Valleys) on the western side of Pakistan’s Chitral
also enable Kachin rebels to fund their rebellion and buy River. In general, the Kalasha live in harmony with their
weapons from abroad (Crawford 2018). Muslim neighbors, though relations are becoming increas-
See also: Rohingya ingly fractious.
Further Reading
Crawford, Alex. 2018. “Uncovered: ‘Worrying Evidence’ of New
Genocidal Campaign on Kachin Christian Minority in Geography and Environment
Myanmar.” Sky News, June 5. https://news.sky.com/story​ Chitral Valley is nestled in the foothills of the Hindu Kush
/uncovered-worrying-evidence-of-new-genocidal-campaign​ mountain range in Pakistan’s remote, mountainous north-
-in-myanmar-11395173. west region, close to the Afghanistan border. The Kalasha
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
homeland is subject to earthquakes and floods that destroy
nic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 2, D–K. West-
port, CT: Greenwood Press. villages, irrigation systems, and fields of crops. Kalasha vil-
Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the lages are remote and accessible only by single-track lanes
Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. that allow donkeys and jeeps through one at a time. The
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Myanmar/Burma: houses in which the Kalasha live are made of wood and
Kachin.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peo- mud and are very sparsely furnished, usually containing
ples, June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/kachin.
only a few cots on which the Kalasha sleep.
The Kalasha area’s unspoiled lush green valleys, snowy
peaks, and glacial rivers mean that the area has become a
tourist destination both for Westerners seeking to experi-
KALASHA ence Kalasha culture and also for Pakistan’s elite. The num-
ber of international tourists traveling to the Chitral Valley
Current Location Pakistan was hit hard by the 9/11 terrorist attacks, an earthquake in
Current Population 3,000–6,500
2005, floods in 2010, and fighting between the government
and militant groups such as the Taliban. An earthquake
Language Kalasha
and floods also hit the region in October 2015. Neverthe-
Interesting Fact Some researchers believe the Kala-
less, while these factors discouraged many foreign tourists
sha are descended from the soldiers
from venturing to Kalasha areas, in 2015, the Pakistan
of the ancient Macedonian ruler
Alexander the Great. Tourism Development Corporation estimated that fifty
million Pakistanis had traveled to the area the previous
year (Delmar-Morgan 2015).
Overview
The Kalasha (also known as the Kalash or the Nuristani)
are a secluded indigenous ethnoreligious people of Paki- History and Politics
stan. The Kalasha speak the Kalasha language, which is The origins of the Kalasha are a matter of conjecture. Some
part of the Dardic family of the Indo-Aryan branch. While anthropologists believe the Kalasha originated from the
a few Kalasha are Muslim, most Kalasha follow their own armies of Alexander the Great that conquered South Asia
unique religion. The Kalasha do not consider themselves around the fourth century BCE, meaning that the Kala-
Pakistani and refer to other Pakistanis as Punjabi. The Kal- sha have a mixed Indo-Aryan and Greek ancestry. Those
asha have been labeled the happiest community in Paki- who support this theory point to the Greek, Persian, and
stan, and Kalasha women have been described as the most Sanskrit words that appear in the Kalasha language. There
liberated of all Pakistani women (Chaudhry et al. 2017). are also similarities between Greek women’s traditional
 Kalasha 521

dresses and those worn by Kalasha women during festi-

vals. In addition, unlike most Pakistanis, the Kalasha are
fair, with blond hair and green or blue eyes. However,
other researchers and villagers are skeptical of this theory,
noting that Kalasha oral tradition makes no reference to
Alexander the Great. A more accepted theory is that the
Kalasha migrated to Pakistan from Afghanistan during the
second century BCE.
At one time, there were around one million Kalasha
who were part of a flourishing Kalasha society (Mohiud-
din 2007). Over the centuries, however, invading armies
entered Kalasha land, and other religions moved into Kal-
asha areas, which led to many Kalasha converting from the
Kalasha religion. Other Kalasha fled into the surround-
ing mountain passes, where they were generally left to
their own devices when the rest of what is now Pakistan
became the northwestern frontier of British colonial India.
In recent times, the Kalasha population has been greatly
reduced, as the Taliban have killed many Kalasha for fol-
lowing their own religion rather than Islam.

Society, Culture, and Tradition

Kalasha society lacks any form of political governance—
there are no Kalasha elected officials or tribal chiefs. While
priests are respected, there is no social hierarchy of Kal- A Kalasha girl in Chitral, Pakistan, wears traditional clothing.
Kalasha women have been described as the most liberated of all
asha priesthood. The main figure of authority within a
women living in Pakistan. (Grayscale Films/Dreamstime.com)
Kalasha village is the kazi, who is chosen by a village to
judge situations such as marriage proposals. The kazi also
presides over weddings, funerals, and village festivals. menstruation. During these times, women are sequestered
Another Kalasha official called a lambardar has a vaguely and live in a special hut called a bashali (also written as
defined position and deals mostly with issues related to a basali or bashleni). It is important to remember that Kal-
village’s relationship with national government. ash women experience far fewer periods in their lives than
The most distinctive element of Kalasha culture is the women in the West because Kalasha women tend not to
Kalasha religion. This religion is a unique form of poly- use birth control and so are pregnant (and therefore not
theistic paganism that has been influenced only slightly by menstruating) far more frequently than Western women.
Buddhism and Hinduism. The Kalasha religion involves For this reason, it is rare for a Kalasha woman to expe-
the worship of twelve gods and goddesses ruled by the pri- rience monthly menstruation—for Kalasha women, this
mary god Mahandeo. The Kalasha perform various types only happens when they start to menstruate as young girls
of ancestor worship and animal sacrifices (usually goat), or as they approach the end of their childbearing years.
give thanks to nature, and believe in saints, demons, and It is customary for a pregnant Kalasha woman to move
fairies. Kalasha myths and superstitions center around the out of her home and into the bashali shortly before she
relationship between the human soul and the universe, gives birth. The bashali is painted with animals and con-
a relationship that is revealed through music and dance. tains a shrine to Dezalik, the goddess of fertility, whom
Thus, the Kalasha perform songs and dances not only for the Kalasha believe protects women during the birthing
entertainment but also as a form of religious ritual. process. For the most part, the expectant mother is in
The Kalasha also follow long-held traditions sur- seclusion, though menstruating women are also allowed
rounding the female body, including pregnancy and to enter the hut. Kalasha women view entering the bashali
522 Kalasha

as a religious act intended to ensure the fertility and pro- alleviate pain, massage her perineum, and catch the baby
ductivity of the world. if the woman pushes prematurely. Throughout the birth-
At the back of the bashali, a representation of the Deza- ing process, the women inside the bashali offer walnuts to
lik stands on a shelf that is covered in ash and strewn with Dezalik so that she will ensure a quick and easy birth. After
walnut shells. Figures of Dezalik vary between bashali, the baby is born, beads are hung around the new mother’s
but sometimes the goddess is depicted in the form of an neck. Later on, if the baby is a girl, she is given the beads,
­eighteen-inch wooden triangle with an indented oval at the and if the baby is a boy, he will be given the beads to give
top representing the face of Dezalik and a diamond-shaped to his wife later in life.
hole in the center symbolizing the goddess’s vagina. Men- The baby’s umbilical cord is tied with part of a woman’s
struating women do not touch the figure of Dezalik until belt and cut with either a sharp rock or scissors donated
they have completed their menstrual cycle and only then by a charity such as UNICEF. The morning after the birth,
after they have ritually washed themselves. Kalasha women the placenta is buried under a holly oak tree. After this, the
believe Dezalik is their protector, and they throw walnuts, baby is put to the mother’s breast, and mother and baby
redolent of fertility, at statues of the goddess. stay together within the bashali for between twelve and
Some ethnographers claim that menstruating and twenty days (until all postpartum bleeding has ceased).
pregnant women are virtually forced to enter the bashali During their time within the bashali, other females within
because they are considered impure and must, therefore, be the building care for the new mother and her baby, and the
segregated from all other members of the Kalasha to pre- new mother only leaves the building at dawn and at night
vent their dangerous impurity from contaminating others. to urinate.
However, other ethnographers counterclaim, asserting that The Kalasha celebrate four major festivals connected
the Kalasha do not view pregnant women and those expe- with the seasons and the farming year, including the Joshi
riencing their period as impure and that women willingly (spring) festival at which much wine is drunk. Other Paki-
enter the bashali, for they see themselves as agents of cre- stanis view Kalasha culture with disapproval. Nonethe-
ation taking part in an ancient tradition. Though men may less, many Pakistanis, particularly men, flock to Kalasha
not enter the bashali and women do not discuss childbirth villages to experience the festivals and, most especially, to
or menstruation with men, the bashali is not hidden from look at the Kalasha women, whom they have a tendency to
view or otherwise kept separate from everyday life. Rather, stare at, make sexual advances toward, and generally make
the bashali is culturally central to village life and is located feel uncomfortable (Abbas 2011).
at the geographical heart of the village. The Kalasha live a mainly subsistence existence, eat-
The bashali is the only place where Kalasha women talk ing only what they produce, including many hundreds of
openly about childbirth, and menstruating girls learning pounds of goat butter.
about the process by witnessing older women give birth.
The bashali is also where women in labor receive spiritual,
emotional, and physical support as they experience Health Care and Education
childbirth. The Kalasha understand the importance of education and
Once a woman in labor enters the bashali, she sits qui- health. Although they consider themselves a healthy peo-
etly during her early contractions and only informs her ple, there is a collective Kalasha concern over their limited
family of the approaching birth when the contractions access to health care and higher education (Chaudhry et
intensify. The family then organizes the necessary supplies al. 2017). While the upbeat Kalasha approach to life means
for the woman, especially walnuts to offer to Dezalik (and that they do not tend to dwell on such issues, nongov-
to eat), wheat oil to put on porridge, and butter to give to ernmental organizations (NGOs) report that the Kalasha
the baby and to massage into the woman’s perineum (in demand improved health and educational facilities.
females this is the area between the vulva and anus). Mas- The main health issues facing the Kalasha are malnu-
saging this area of the body is said to reduce the amount of trition and anemia resulting from a diet lacking in protein.
tearing suffered by women during labor. Many Kalasha villages have water filtration and sanitation
Two of the pregnant woman’s female friends or rela- systems funded by overseas aid from the United Kingdom
tives accompany her to the bashali. These women talk the and also provided by NGOs such as UNICEF. Most Kala-
woman through her contractions, encourage her to walk to sha villages have midwives, something that highlights the
 Kalasha 523

belief in the importance of personal hygiene, especially in Another issue faced by Kalasha villagers is violent
regard to female reproductive health. The Kalasha consider attacks by Taliban militants and other groups. In recent
hygiene to be of the utmost importance, both for health years, Kalasha goatherds have been killed in mountain
reasons and for issues of personal dignity. This is especially pastures, something many Kalasha view as underscoring
true during childbirth and menstruation. To this end, Kal- the threat to their way of life. The Kalasha argue that if it is
asha women and girls attend hygiene promotion classes too unsafe for the goatherds to take their goats up to high
provided by UNICEF and the UNICEF partner organiza- pastures, then they cannot feed the goats that are central to
tion Islamic Relief. During these classes, females are given their culture and religion as both producers of butter and
personal hygiene kits that are paid for by charity donations as sacrifices. The Kalasha argue that they cannot take their
from the United Kingdom. goats to feed low down in valleys where it is safer, for low
In theory, the Kalasha have the same rights to education valley areas do not provide enough grazing land for goats.
as other Pakistanis. In reality, however, many Kalasha par- At the same time as their vital goat herds are being
ents remove their children from school because teachers threatened, the Kalasha face mounting religious disrespect.
try to force Kalasha children to study Islam while making Heated arguments have erupted after local Muslims have
disparaging pronouncements about Kalasha people. deliberately antagonized the Kalasha. For example, accord-
ing to Kalasha traditions, the Kalasha consider all sources
of spring water to be sacred. This means that the Kalasha
Threats to Survival never wash their clothes in local springs or bathe in spring
The location of the Kalasha homeland means the people water. However, there has been a surge in the number of
face an ever-present threat of natural disaster. The Kalasha, local Muslims who have begun to take baths and wash
are, however well used to dealing with earthquakes and their clothes at local springs. The Kalasha have asked their
floods, with Kalasha children taught at school about how Muslim neighbors to stop this new habit, but their appeals
to deal with such occurrences. Threats from humankind have been rebuffed and led to fighting between Kalasha
are, perhaps, far more worrying for the Kalasha, who fear and Muslim villagers. This fighting exemplifies the chang-
being overrun by invaders from Pakistan and Afghanistan. ing mood in Kalasha areas, as over the last ten years, a less
For this reason, many of Kalasha are migrating from their tolerant form of Islam has gained footing locally. The situa-
traditional homeland. In particular, young Kalasha are tion is not helped by an increase in the number of traveling
beginning to feel that traditional Kalasha villages are not Islamic scholars who journey around the area preaching
for them. and, according to the Kalasha, making their Muslim neigh-
One of the main threats to the survival of Kalasha soci- bors less tolerant of Kalasha culture.
ety is the number of Kalasha converting to Islam. In June Whether the Kalasha will survive is open to debate, but
2016, the Kalasha made international headlines when a in the past, the Kalasha have shown resilience in the face of
two-day riot erupted in Kalasha villages after a fifteen- natural threats while gaining a reputation for overcoming
year-old girl was apparently tricked into converting to challenges through a combination of positivity, persever-
Islam. According to local reports, the girl drifted away ance, and adaptability. This approach to life may well be
from her home and arrived at an Islamic seminary where necessary if the Kalasha are to survive with their religion
a cleric declared that she had converted. The girl, however, and culture intact.
returned to her village, saying she had been converted
against her will. When nearby Muslim villagers heard the See also: Aimaq; Baluch; Hazara; Pashtun; Turkmen
girl’s claim of being unwillingly converted, they began to Further Reading
attack Kalasha villagers with stones, arguing that conver- Abbas, Nosheen. 2011. “Pakistan: Kalash Valley of Wine and Fes-
sion to Islam cannot be undone. A judge agreed with this tivals under Threat.” BBC News, May 21. http://www.bbc.co​
view, thereby essentially severing ties between the girl and .uk/news/world-south-asia-13466250.
her family. Many Kalasha saw this case as symptomatic of Ali, Shaheen Sardar, and Javaid Rehman. 2001. Indigenous Peo-
ples and Ethnic Minorities of Pakistan: Constitutional and
the high number of Kalasha converting to Islam, and if the
Legal Perspectives. Richmond, UK: Curzon Press.
high conversion rate continues, they fear that the Kalasha Chaudhry, Fahad Riaz, Miriam Sang-Ah Park, Karen Golden,
religion, and therefore Kalasha society and culture, will and Iram Zehra Bokharey. 2017. “‘We Are the Soul, Pearl and
end within a few years. Beauty of Hindu Kush Mountains’: Exploring Resilience and
524 Kalenjin

Psychological Wellbeing of Kalasha, an Ethnic and Religious meaning the Kalenjin made up around 4 percent of the
Minority Group in Pakistan.” International Journal of Qualita- country’s population (Oyeniyi 2015). The Kalenjin con-
tive Studies in Health and Well-Being 12 (1): 1267344. https://​ sist of numerous small indigenous groups, including the
www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5328377/#CIT0082.
Craig, Tim. 2016. “A Little-Known Pakistani Tribe That Loves
Kipsigi, Nandi, Keiyo, Tugen, Pokot, Marakwet, Endorois,
Wine and Whiskey Fears Its Muslim Neighbors.” Washington Sabaot, Terik, and Okeik that live across Kenya, Uganda,
Post, August 16. https://www.washingtonpost.com/world​ and Tanzania. The Nandi and the Kipsigi are the most pop-
/asia_pacific/a-little-known-pakistani-tribe-that-loves-wine​ ulous of these smaller groups. Collectively, the Kalenjin are
-and-whiskey-fears-its-muslim-neighbors/2016/08/15​/9a84​ the most populous Southern Cushitic people (Shoup 2011).
83​aa-5273-11e6-b652-315ae5d4d4dd_story.html.
Delmar-Morgan, Alex. 2015. “Welcome to Chitral: Where
Pakistan’s Elite Goes to Play.” The Independent, June 20. http://
www​ . independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/welcome-to
Geography and Environment
-chitral​-where-pakistan-s-elite-goes-to-play-10334367.html. The Great Rift Valley runs north–south through Kenya. It
Mohiuddin, Yasmeen Niaz. 2007. Pakistan: A Global Studies is part of the Gregory Rift that extends from Tanzania to
Handbook. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Ethiopia comprising the eastern branch of the East Afri-
Timme, Daniel. 2015.“Reaching the Most Isolated after an Earth- can Rift System, one of the world’s most extensive rifts
quake.” UNICEF: Pakistan. http://www.unicef.org/pakistan​
/reallives_9731.htm.
(linear zones where the earth’s crust and mantle are being
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Life Customs around the World: From pulled apart) that stretches from Jordan to Mozambique.
Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. The Great Rift Valley is home to active volcanoes that make
the area’s soil fertile. The valley also contains many lakes,
including the vast Lake Turkana that occupies the valley’s
northern end. The Great Rift Valley has a mild climate,
with most rainfall occurring during the March to June
KALENJIN period and in October through November.
Increasingly, Kenyan pastoralists such as the Kalenjin
Current Location Kenya; Uganda; Tanzania face problems caused by drought. In 2011, the Kenyan
Current Population 4.97 million government declared a national disaster when the country
Language Kalenjin suffered its worst drought in decades, affecting over five
Interesting Fact The Kalenjin are famous for produc- million people. Severe drought returned to Kenya in 2017,
ing champion long-distance runners. causing the government to announce another national
disaster. During the 2017 drought, UNICEF reported that
Overview 2.6 million Kenyans faced food insecurity and the risk of
The Kalenjin are a Nilotic people indigenous to Kenya’s Rift famine. The risk of famine forced pastoralists in northern
Valley. Today, the Kalenjin also live in Uganda and Tanzania. Kenya to move their livestock in search of water and pas-
The Kalenjin speak the Kalenjin language, which belongs to ture. This in turn led to civil unrest because pastoralists
the Southern Cushitic groups, as well as many dialects that trespassed on private lands (Minority Rights Group Inter-
are not necessarily mutually intelligible. Most Kalenjin are national 2018).
Christian, though there are a growing number of Muslim
Kalenjin. Christian and Muslim Kalenjin combine elements
of Kalenjin traditional animist beliefs with organized religion. History and Politics
The various indigenous groups that comprise the The origins of the Kalenjin are uncertain. One theory
Kalenjin adopted the name Kalenjin as an umbrella term suggests that the Kalenjin originated in Ethiopia before
in the 1940s. Kalenjin is a Nandi word meaning “I say” or migrating to Mount Elgon on the Kenya-Uganda border.
“I tell you.” Another theory is that the Kalenjin originated in the area
surrounding the northern extremity of Lake Turkana
before migrating south around the lake’s eastern side
Population, Diaspora, and Migration around 500 BCE. In doing so, the Kalenjin either pushed
In 2009, the Kenyan national census recorded 4.97 mil- out or absorbed peoples already living on the land east of
lion Kalenjin (Minority Rights Group International 2018), Lake Victoria, including such hunter-gatherers such as the
 Kalenjin 525

Okiek. Like other Nilotic peoples, the Kalenjin were cattle collected thirty thousand illegal weapons from western
farmers, though the Okiek became famous for making pot- Kenya, prompting the Pokot and other communities to
tery that was traded throughout East Africa. complain that the government had failed to consult them
The early Kalenjin developed a warrior nature that gave about the collection. In response, thousands of pastoral-
them military power over neighboring peoples. Therefore, ist Kalenjin migrated from the region. The Pokot came
when waves of Bantu peoples began to arrive on Kalenjin to prominence again in 2006, when Pokot cattle raiders
land between 500 and 1000 CE, they were unable to unseat forced thousands of Samburu to move into camps and
the Kalenjin. Consequently, the Bantu had to develop their embarked on a spree of rape and murder. Similarly, in
agriculture around the Kalenjin. The Bantu immigrants 2008, the Endorois living around Lake Bogoria reported
brought with them tools and weapons made from iron, but that many hundreds of their community had fled raids
the Kalenjin did not start to use metal implements until by the Pokot.
after the eighth century. Between 800 and 1000, the Kalen-
jin began to trade with the Bantu, swapping skins and
other animal products for the Bantu’s farm produce. The Society, Culture, and Tradition
Kalenjin influenced the Bantu with whom they interacted, Most Kalenjin are pastoralists. The Marakwet, Tugen,
for the Bantu adopted the Kalenjin religion and the social Pokot, and Keyo are nomadic pastoralists, but even settled
custom of age sets. Kalenjin farmers keep cattle. However, highland-­dwelling
The Kalenjin faced their first real threat during the Kalenjin, such as the Nandi and Kipsigi, are predominantly
sixteenth century with the arrival of the Maa (ancestors farmers. Cattle plays a major role in Kalenjin life. Cattle and
of the Maasai). Following the Maa’s arrival, some Kalen- cattle products provide the Kalenjin with food (fermented
jin adopted the Maa cultural identity and language. In the milk called mursik is a staple Kalenjin food), clothes in the
seventeenth century, the Marakwet began to clear forests form of skins, and even housing, as Kalenjin homes are
to practice irrigated terraced farming. Around this time, traditionally made from cattle dung and vegetation. Cattle
some other Kalenjin were assimilated into the Bantu Luyia raiding is an important Kalenjin pastime.
people. The Kalenjin divide their society into tight-knit age
During the 1930s and 1940s, Kalenjin cultural iden- sets. Age sets see boys and girls born within certain years
tity began to strengthen. It was also during this period experience ceremonies together. Age sets form the basis
that some Kalenjin converted to Christianity following of Kalenjin society and politics, for the administration of
the arrival, in 1933, of British missionaries in Kalenjin Kalenjin villages revolves around the transition of males
areas. Part of the reason for the development of a distinct and females from one life stage to the next via ceremo-
Kalenjin identity was that the Kalenjin wished to separate nies and initiations. By experiencing life stages in age sets,
themselves from other peoples, such as the Kikuyu. By Kalenjin society is able to remain harmonious.
presenting as a united group, the Kalenjin were also better The Kalenjin consider boys and girls to be children
able to represent their interests to British colonial author- until they are around fifteen years of age. When Kalenjin
ities. During World War II, a radio announcer, John Che- reach this age, they are brought together and circumcised.
mallan, regularly signed off from his show with the word After a period of healing, circumcised boys are deemed
kalnejok, the plural of kalenjin. Schoolchildren adopted warriors (muren). This is the start of the boys’ age set.
the word, and it was soon applied to the movement aimed The boys remain warriors for fifteen to twenty years, after
at cementing Kalenjin cultural identity. British colonial which time they move on to their next life stage, when they
authorities supported the Kalenjin’s move to reinforce become elders (payyan). Once they are payyan, the males
their identity because this helped forge anti-Kikuyu sen- are considered adult men and so are permitted to wed.
timents during the Mau Mau uprising (1920–1963), a By developing sets of muren, the Kalenjin have groups of
revolt against white European colonist settlers in Kenya, young warriors ready to protect their cattle as well as to
the British army, and others by some Kikuyu, Meru, Embu, raid the cattle of neighboring peoples.
Kamba, and Maasai. The Kalenjin are polygamous, with the number of wives
Since Kenyan independence, the Kalenjin have expe- a man takes often dependent on his wealth. Polygamy is
rienced sporadic tension and conflict among Kalenjin considered as a way to maximize the reproductive capacity
subgroups. For instance, in 2006, Kenyan authorities of Kalenjin society.
526 Kalenjin

Around 44 percent of Kalenjin identify as Christian The Kalenjin view disease as either related to natural
(Shoup 2011) with the rest claiming to follow Islam. How- phenomenon such as mist or to a supernatural entity such
ever, despite professing to follow these religions, most as the shadows of the dead. Traditionally, the Kalenjin
Kalenjin retain beliefs in the people’s traditional religion. believe the psyche plays a part in causing illness, as does
This religion revolves around an omnipotent deity called the saying of curses. Some of these beliefs have the effect
Asis (or Cheptalel), who is associated with the sun and to of enhancing health and welfare. The Pokot have several
whom the Kalenjin pray before sunrise. Some researchers categories of traditional medical practitioners: the chepsa-
have theorized that the Kalenjin may have originated in ketian (a senior woman skilled in diagnosing diseases and
Egypt because Asis is akin to the Egyptian goddess Isis, the use of herbal medicine); the kokeogh (midwife); the
who was revered by followers of the sun god Re. Second- werkoyon (a seer who prevents and contains disease); the
ary to Asis is Elat, the ruler of thunder and lightning. The chepsokoyon (a female diviner combating witchcraft); and
Kalenjin also believe in spirits of the dead (oyik) who inter- the kapolokion (who specializes in treating mental illness).
vene in the lives of humans. The Kalenjin make offerings of Over the last few decades, the Kalenjin have become less
beer and meat to the oyik and use diviners called orkoik to isolated through improved transport links, such as road
contact the oyik for advice on how to live their lives. building. Consequently, beliefs in traditional health care
The Kalenjin have a strong oral tradition that sees the has started to wane. At the same time, diseases have been
people’s history and traditions passed down through sto- introduced to the Kalenjin that were previously absent
ries, proverbs, and song. At night, older Kalenjin sing and from their land.
tell stories to young Kalenjin to both entertain and educate Kenyan pastoralists tend to have low levels of educa-
the youngsters. tion coupled with high levels of illiteracy. Literacy levels
In the past, Nandi speakers lived as distinct groups, among the pastoralists is slowly improving, however. At
each speaking a separate Nandi dialect. At the start of the the same time, pastoralists are increasingly learning tech-
1950s, however, the dialects spoken by the Kalenjin were nical skills geared toward developing pastoral communi-
standardized. Today, linguists categorize all variants of ties (Ogachi 2011).
Kalenjin as Nandi languages.
The Kalenjin have gained international prominence for
producing a multitude of winning long-distance runners, Threats to Survival
including Olympic gold medal winner Kip Keino. Many Following Kenyan independence in 1963, Kenyan poli-
theories have been proposed for the Kalenjin ability to pro- tics have been dominated by the Kikuyu and Luo peoples.
duce top runners, including their high-starch diet, living at However, the Kalenjin gained great political sway when
altitude, and their particularly thin ankles and calves, like Danial Arap Moi served as Kenyan president from 1978 to
many Nilotic peoples. It has also been suggested that male 2002. During Moi’s time in office, some commentators felt
Kalenjin athletes are especially mentally tough from hav- Kalenjin interests were promoted ahead of the interests of
ing experienced the pain of circumcision. more populous peoples such as the Kikuyu.
Throughout the Great Rift Valley, distrust and enmity
remain strong between the Kalenjin and Kikuyu as a
Health Care and Education result of the fighting between the two sides (2007–2008).
Much of the Kenyan population lives in poverty. The peo- The Kenyan president Mwai Kibaki (in office 2002–2013),
ple face health challenges, including high maternal and who is a Kikuyu, did not overly promoted reconciliation
child mortality as well as infectious diseases such as HIV/ between the two peoples. It was recorded that the govern-
AIDS, tuberculosis, and malaria. Kenyan health authorities ment’s plan to assist the forty thousand people displaced
assert that the country’s healthcare provision suffers from by the fighting in regard to new homes, land, and money
too few staff and highlights that existing medical staff are favored displaced Kikuyu over displaced Kalenjin. Addi-
often undertrained and unevenly distributed throughout tionally, since many Kalenjin are unregistered, they are
the country. Kenya’s Ministry of Health claims it needs unable to receive official assistance.
seven thousand healthcare workers to provide adequate If fighting were to flare again between the Kalenjin and
essential medical care to the country’s population (Vujicic Kikuyu, there may be many more casualties. In the 2007–
et al. 2009). 2008, fighting involves bows and arrows, machetes, and
 Kanak 527

spears. Now, however, both sides are armed with guns in KANAK
preparation for renewed conflict (Jenkins 2016).
Another threat facing Kalenjin pastoralists is drought Current Location New Caledonia
caused by climate change. In recent years, pastoralists have Current Population 110,000
experienced rapidly worsening droughts. Many of the pas- Language Melanesian; French
toral communities are trying to cope with the consequences Interesting Fact There are more than three hundred
of global warming, but Kenyan authorities have yet to iden- Kanak tribes in New Caledonia
tify long-term strategies to support those suffering. The speaking twenty-eight different
situation for the pastoralists is exacerbated by the govern- Kanak languages.
ment’s failure to consult them on how to tackle the situation
and by the government’s policy of pushing pastoral com-
Overview
munities to settle in areas lacking resources. In turn, this
policy increases the likelihood of conflict arising over natu- The Kanaks (also spelled Canaque and known as the
ral resources such as water, pastureland, and food resources Kanakis, New Caledonians, or New Caledonian Melane-
followed by the internal displacement of pastoralists. sians) are the indigenous people of the New Caledonia
Some Kalenjin also the face the problem of forced archipelago. The Kanaks speak Melanesian Kanak lan-
eviction from their land. For example, in 2014, Kenyan guages belonging to the Melanesian branch of the Malayo-­
authorities created a task force to investigate the forced Polynesian language family. The name Kanak derives from
eviction of the Endorois from the Lake Bogoria National a Polynesian word for human, kanaka, which was used by
Reserve, including the land rights of the Endorois, how to Europeans as a derogatory word for Pacific Islanders but
reimburse them for the loss of their traditional land, and has, since the 1960s, been reappropriated by islanders.
what level of compensation they should receive. However, Kanaks also speak French because French is the official
as of 2018, the task force has made little progress, and language of New Caledonia. Most Kanaks are Christian,
the Endorois have received little in the way of restitution particularly Roman Catholic.
(Minority Rights Group International 2018).
See also: Akie; Maasai; Ogiek Population, Migration, and Diaspora
Further Reading Kanaks live in the French territory of New Caledonia
Jenkins, Sarah. 2016. “Kenya: Kenya’s Legacy of Violent Ethnic (called Kanaky by the Kanaks) located in the Coral Sea
Politics and the 2007–2008 Postelection Crisis.” In Encyclope- between Australia and New Zealand. Kanaks also live in
dia of Modern Ethnic Conflicts, edited by Joseph R. Rudolph communities throughout French Polynesia, France, and
Jr., 305–323. Vol. 1, Armenia to Mexico. 2nd ed. Santa Barbara,
Australia. Some estimates suggest the Kanak population of
CA: ABC-CLIO.
Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Kenya: Pastoral- New Caledonia numbers around 110,000 people (Minahan
ists.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. 2012), while others suggest Kanaks make up 44 percent of
https://minorityrights.org/minorities/pastoralists. New Caledonia’s populations of 300,000 islanders, mean-
Ogachi, Ibrahim Oanda. 2011. Transforming Education and ing the Kanak population is closer to 132,000 people. In
Development Policies for Pastoralist Communities in Kenya New Caledonia, the Kanaks live alongside Europeans, Poly-
through the Integration of Indigenous Knowledge Systems.
nesians, Vietnamese, Indonesian, and Algerian migrants
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: Organization for Social Science
Research in Eastern and Southern Africa. (Australian Government n.d.). It has been reported that in
Oyeniyi, Bukola Adeyemi. 2015. “Kalenjin.” In Native Peoples of New Caledonia, there are more than three hundred Kanak
the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contem- tribes speaking twenty-eight different Kanak languages
porary Issues, edited by Steven Danver, 45–46. Vol. 1. London: (Carson 2016).
Routledge.
Shoup, John A. 2011. “Kalenjin.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and
the Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup, Geography and Environment
141–143. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Vujicic, Marko, Kelechi Ohiri, and Susan Sparkes. 2009. Working New Caledonia is a French overseas territory situated in
in Health: Financing and Managing the Public Sector Health the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The territory’s largest
Workforce. Washington, DC: The World Bank. island is Grande Terre, which is home to the territory’s
capital, Nouméa. Other parts of the territory include the
528 Kanak

Loyalty Islands, the Bélep Islands, and the Île des Pins. New settle in the area up until the eighteenth century. The local
Caledonia also includes a many uninhabited islets and chief usually gave land to the settlers, and they then lived
atolls. Most islanders live on Grande Terre. as a new clan.
New Caledonia is surrounded by a coral reef enclos- Europeans did not come across New Caledonia until
ing a large lagoon fed by rivers. In 2008, New Caledonia’s the end of the eighteenth century because the area lay to
lagoons, reefs, and associated ecosystems were declared the east of the sea routes normally followed by European
a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Many of New Caledo- ships. British explorer Captain James Cook espied the larg-
nia’s rocks have weathered to create red soil overlying est island of the archipelago in 1774 and named it New
the island’s large deposits of chrome and cobalt ore. New Caledonia, after the Latin name for Scotland (Caledonia).
Caledonia is also home to a quarter of the world’s nickel Cook also named the archipelago as a whole the Loyalty
deposits. Islands. The next European explorer to visit the islands
The Loyalty Islands consist of three main islands was Frenchman Antoine de Bruni, who claimed the islands
(Ouvéa, Lifou, and Maré) as well as many small islands, for France in 1793. The Kanaks did not welcome settlers;
the most significant of which is Tiga. These islands are nonetheless, in 1841, members of the London Missionary
made of raised coral plateaus, meaning there is little sur- Society landed on the islands. In 1853, France claimed the
face water because the land is porous. The islands receive islands, and French settlers began to arrive in 1863. The
rain all year, however, and December to March is especially French, ignoring that fact that the islands had an indig-
wet because this is when the region suffers from equatorial enous population, declared the islands uninhabited and
depressions, including frequent typhoons. Heavy rainfall designated the territory a penal colony that would become
also occurs in July and August. home to twenty thousand convicts.
New Caledonia has a rich plant life. The red soils support Other early French settlers included missionaries and
many drought-resistant shrubs, different types of rainfor- individuals bent on mining the islands’ nickel deposits.
est, mangroves, and savanna woodlands characterized by The French also brought in indigenous people from their
niaouli (cajeput trees). These trees are highly fire-­resistant Polynesian colonies to mine the nickel. The European
and survive in landscapes often cleared by bushfires. There and Polynesian settlers brought with them diseases from
are no native mammals on the islands except for several which the Kanaks had no immunity, and soon the Kanak
types of bat. The islands do not support frogs, malaria-­ population had reduced so greatly that the settlers out-
carrying mosquitos, or venomous land reptiles, though numbered them. In addition, the French broke down the
scorpions and centipedes are present. The islands are islanders’ traditional tribal divisions by labeling all Pacific
home to around a hundred bird species, including a flight- Melanesians as Kanaks, a term later adopted by the island-
less bird called the kagu. The area’s lagoons support a wide ers to present a unified national identity. In 1894, France
variety of marine life. disbanded the penal colony, and although some former
Agriculture in New Caledonia focuses on the produc- prisoners returned to France, others settled on the islands,
tion of yams, taro, and sweet potatoes. spreading disease among the indigenous population
once more.
French authorities found little use for the Kanaks, as
History and Politics the people were not adept at plantation farming, and so
Around 1500 BCE, an ancient people called the Lapita the French imported plantation workers from their other
settled in New Caledonia. The settlers remained isolated colonies. While this situation meant that the Kanaks
from other people except for contact with a few Polyne- were excluded from New Caledonian commercial and
sian seafarers and a wave of Polynesian migration that political life, it also meant that they were able to retain
occurred around the eleventh century. Over time, the their traditional village culture separate from the colo-
Lapita broke up into various tribes, each of which had its nizers. That the Kanaks and non-Kanaks lived separately
own dialect and culture. The tribes rigorously guarded but in close proximity to each other resulted in frequent
their tribal lands and the natural resources found on them, social unrest culminating in violence. Kanak rebellions
resulting in frequent conflict between neighboring groups. occurred often, and non-Kanaks living on the islands
The tribal warfare often ended in ritualistic cannibalism. lived in constant fear of being targeted by Kanak rebels
All the while, small numbers of Polynesians continued to (Minahan 2012).
 Kanak 529

The main causes of the Kanaks’ anger was that their clans each have a leader who is regarded as an elder brother
indigenous land had been settled on, the cattle owned by by clan members and who officiates all aspects of clan life.
settlers damaged Kanak gardens, and the French author- The Kanaks refer to their indigenous rituals and etiquette
ities had levied a head tax on them. In response to rebel- defined by clan membership as la coûtume (meaning “the
lions, the French razed entire Kanak villages and whole custom”). Kinship is also important to the Kanaks, for kin-
fields of crops, and individual rebels were either deported ship is the basis of marriage, commerce, friendships, and
or executed or had their land taken away. By the start of conflict.
the twentieth century, swaths of Kanak land had been Kanaks live in multigenerational households in which
confiscated by the French as punishment for rebellions, males and females eat and sleep separately. While house-
leaving the Kanaks with small land reserves. The Kanaks holds used to follow a subsistence existence by growing
were also coerced into forced labor, suffered from travel their own food, islanders today enjoy imported foods
limitations, and subjected to curfews. Major Kanak revolts such as rice and tinned meats. The Kanaks’ national food,
were quelled in 1917 and 1922, resulting in more land bougna, remains popular, however, and consists of lobster,
being given to French settlers. By 1936, the Kanak popu- chicken, or crab mixed with sweet potato, yam, banana,
lation had reduced to only twenty-nine thousand people and taro wrapped in a banana leaf.
(Minahan 2012). Recently, Kanak wood carvings of birds, snakes, and
During the 1950s the Kanaks saw other South Pacific turtles have become popular with tourists, as has the flèche
peoples move toward independence, so the Kanaks decided faîtière, a wooden carving resembling a small totem pole
to demand some form of administrative control for them- decorated with symbols.
selves. Many French people, who were embarrassed by A type of music called kaneka is very important to the
the level of destitution among the Kanaks, supported the Kanaks. Kaneka is rooted in Melanesian tradition but is
Kanak demands. However, fear of losing access to valua- the result of a brainstorming session among New Cale-
ble nickel deposits meant that France ultimately denied donian musicians that took place in 1986. The musicians
the Kanaks’ autonomy. In 1953, however, France did extend decided that a unified Kanak sound was needed to bring
French citizenship to everyone living in New Caledonia, together the islands’ hundreds of tribes in the face of a
whatever their origins. In the 1970s, the Kanaks experi- growing independence movement. The resulting sound
enced some population growth, but this was not sufficient fused the syncopated pilou rhythms found in local tribal
to stop the people from continuing to be a minority in their dances with influences spanning gospel, reggae, and zouk
homeland. Continuing frustration and resentment led to a (up-tempo Caribbean carnival music). As New Caledonia
major Kanak rebellion in 1978, during which some Kanaks continues to witness political tensions, kaneka has adapted
called for immediate independence. Then, in 1983, violence to reflect this unrest. Many kaneka songs feature distinc-
between proindependence Kanaks and pro-French Kanaks tive rhythms made from traditional bark-clapper instru-
erupted and continued sporadically for many years. Dis- ments, while younger bands, such as Gayulaz and Nayrouz,
mayed by the violence, Kanak leaders brokered a compro- include rap elements and auto-tuned vocals.
mise agreement to try to bring about resolution. Geography has helped define kaneka; the north of the
In 1990, Kanak nationalists announced that they had archipelago is characterized by protest songs, and to the
purchased the area’s largest nickel mine. Then, in 1998, south, melodies are influenced by hymns introduced by
the Noumea Accord was signed that set a timetable for a nineteenth-century Christian missionaries.
referendum on New Caledonia’s independence. The accord Today, most Kanaks identify as Roman Catholic as a
declared that broad independence be set in motion from result of French missionary activity on the islands. How-
2000 to 2014, with an independence referendum to take ever, Protestant groups, especially evangelical sects origi-
place by the end of 2018. nating from Australia and New Zealand, are increasingly
popular among the Kanaks.

Society, Culture, and Tradition

Kanak society is based around tribal affiliations and patri- Health Care and Education
lineal clans consisting of extended families. Several clans Medical facilities in New Caledonia provide good basic
form a tribe led by a single regional chief, and individual health care. The central hospital in Nouméa handles
530  Kanaka Maoli

routine and emergency admissions, but patients may have Australian Government. n.d. “New Caledonia.” Department
to travel to Australia for specialist care. In addition to the of Foreign Affairs and Trade. http://dfat.gov.au/geo/new​
hospital, Nouméa has three private clinics and several -caledonia/pages/new-caledonia-country-brief.aspx.
Carson, Emily. 2016. “Be More Pacific: Can Kaneka Bring New
pharmacists. Smaller islands are home to community clin- Caledonia Together?” The Guardian, February 5. https://www​
ics that provide basic care. .theguardian.com/music/2016/feb/05/kaneka-music-from​
Under French colonial rule, Kanak language and culture -the-south-pacific.
were suppressed in schools. Kanak children were taught Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the
that they were descended from the Gauls (ancient ances- Pacific. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
tors of the French) and forced to speak French. Today, var- Stone, Ruth M., ed. 2008. The Concise Garland Encyclopedia of
World Music. Vol. 1., Africa. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
ious Kanak dialects are taught in New Caledonian schools, West, Barbara A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and
and it is possible for students to earn a university degree Oceania. New York: Facts on File.
in the languages.
The French government has invested greatly in Kanak
education, but results, though improving, are well below
French national standards. Whereas Kanak high school
completion rates were as low as 15 percent, they are now
around 50 percent. However, this figure is still far below
KANAKA MAOLI
the French national high school completion rate, which Current Location United States
was 88.5 percent in 2016 (Armbruster 2017).
Current Population 530,000–550,000
Language English; Hawaiian
Threats to Survival Interesting Fact The Kanaka Maoli flag features
horizontal stripes in a repeating
As a French overseas territory, New Caledonia is the loca-
sequence of green, red, and yellow
tion of deep-seated divisions between the Kanaks and
with a central shield bearing crossed
its nonindigenous population. The main issue of divi-
paddles and a torch.
sion is the question of independence, and Kanaks also
feel aggrieved that they are socially and economically
disadvantaged. According to the Kanak Liberation Party, Overview
New Caledonia’s prison population has a Kanak majority The Kanaka Maoli, or Native Hawaiians (also called the ka
because the people suffer from twofold exclusion: they po’e Hawai’i, Kanaka, Hawai’i Maoli, or Hawaiians), are the
are often high school dropouts, and youth delinquency indigenous people of the U.S. state of Hawaii. Many Kanaka
results in imprisonment. Although the French settlers Maoli speak only English, though some are bilingual, for
that form the islands’ majority population enjoy European they speak both English and their indigenous language,
lifestyles, young Kanaks struggle to find employment, and Hawaiian (or ‘Ōlelo Hawai‘i). Hawaiian is a Polynesian
when they do find work, it tends to be low-skilled labor. language belonging to the Marquesic language group. The
French authorities have pledged to improve Kanak living Kanaka Maoli are Christian, with most people belonging to
conditions to the level of French citizens on the islands—a Protestant denominations and sects.
promise that Kanak leaders are monitoring closely. Only
time will tell whether independence will be enough to
reverse this situation, and if so, how quickly the situation Population, Diaspora, and Migration
will change. According to 2015 estimates, there are between 530,000
and 550,000 Kanaka Maoli, making the Kanaka Maoli
See also: Anutan; iTaukei; Marshallese; Moriori; Nauruan;
the third-largest ethnic group in Hawaii. Population
Tongan
figures for the Kanaka Maoli include many people who
Further Reading
are part Kanaka Maoli but self-identify as Kanaka Maoli
Armbruster, Stefan. 2017.“Kanak Youth Inequality Threat to New
Caledonia Independence Vote.” SBS News, May 2. https://​ and feel part of Kanaka Maoli culture. It may be that as
www.sbs.com.au/news/kanak-youth-inequality-threat-to​ few as 10,000 full-blooded Kanaka Maoli exist (Mina-
-new-caledonia-independence-vote. han 2016).
 Kanaka Maoli  531

The Kanaka Maoli tend to be concentrated in Hawaii’s thousand in 1778. This reduction in population was mainly
five counties, where they make up over one-fifth of the due to the prevalence of various diseases.
population. Outside Hawai’i, Kanaka Maoli predominantly During the 1820s, Christian missionaries led by Prot-
live in California and Alaska (Minority Rights Group estant Hiram Brigham began to arrive on Hawaii and
International 2015). converted most Kanaka Maoli to Christianity. The mis-
sionaries were granted land on which to build churches
by the Kanaka Maoli queen, Kaahumanu, and soon started
Geography and Environment to trade with the Kanaka Maoli. In so doing, they laid the
Hawaii is a volcanic archipelago consisting of eight large foundations for some of the Kanaka Maoli’s greatest family
islands and numerous islets located in the center of the fortunes.
Pacific Ocean. The archipelago lies just south of the Tropic Then, in the 1840s, a Kanaka Maoli constitutional mon-
of Cancer. The Kanaka Maoli argue that their traditional, archy was established that was recognized by both the
sacred grounds have been violated by bodies seeking United States and European nations. In 1893, U.S. residents
to exploit the geothermal power potential of the sacred (mostly sugar planters) and U.S. marines deposed the
Kilauea volcano on Big Island, while the construction Kanaka Maoli queen, Lili’uokalani, much to the anguish
of H-3 highway in the Halawa Valley has also exploited of her subjects. The following year, Hawaii was declared a
Kanaka Maoli land, according to Kanaka Maoli activists. republic. Then, in 1898, Hawaii was annexed to the United
The Kanaka Maoli also argue that developers and anthro- States. Once Hawaii became a U.S. territory, large numbers
pologists have disinterred the corpses of their ancestors of Asian and American workers were transported to the
from Kanaka Maoli burial grounds and that test bombing island to labor on the plantations. Around the same time,
of Kaho’olawe Island has been detrimental to the island. the United States began to establish military bases on
Hawaii. The Hawai’ian language was banned from schools,
along with traditional Kanaka Maoli religious rites.
History and Politics During the World War II, territorial governors placed
According to Kanaka Maoli oral history, the people orig- Hawaii under martial law. Postwar, Japanese and Kanaka
inated as migrants from the French Polynesian Marque- Maoli activists became involved in the local Democratic
sas Islands who traveled to Hawaii at some point between Party, which led to Hawaii being declared a state in 1959.
400 and 800 CE. The Marquesas migrants were followed In the late 1970s, the state’s Democratic Party tried to pac-
by waves of Tahitian immigrants to Hawaii, who arrived ify growing Kanaka Maoli nationalism by establishing the
between the twelfth and fifteenth centuries. Over time, Office of Hawai’ian Affairs (OHA), a semi-independent
separate migrant kingdoms became established on the self-governing body. However, many Kanaka Maoli felt that
larger islands, with wars occurring between the different as a state agency, the OHA was inherently conflicted. In
island kingdoms. 1993, the U.S. government apologized for the illegal inva-
In 1778, an expedition led by the British explorer Cap- sion of Hawaii during the nineteenth century. The follow-
tain James Cook encountered the Kanaka Maoli. This initial ing year, an interim Hawaiian government was established.
contact with outsiders led to the introduction of European In 2009, the fight for Kanaka Maoli self-rule gained
diseases such as smallpox that, within a century, reduced traction with the proposal of the Native Hawai’ian Gov-
the Kanaka Maoli precontact population from in excess of ernment Reorganization Act, sponsored by Senator Daniel
eight hundred thousand people to a population of fewer Akaka. The bill aimed to formally recognize the Kanaka
than thirty-nine thousand (Minority Rights Group Inter- Maoli as an indigenous people, much like American Indi-
national 2015). Contact with outsiders also resulted in the ans and the indigenous peoples of Alaska, and to also allow
Kanaka Maoli gaining access to firearms, something that the group to establish their own government. If passed,
led to the intensification of conflict between the Kanaka it would have created a process for the Kanaka Maoli to
Maoli island kingdoms. In 1810, however, King Kame- establish a government that could negotiate with the state
hameha I unified the island kingdoms into a single realm, of Hawai’i and the United States on issues that included
thereby ending Hawaii’s internal warfare. Despite the end housing, land use, and heritage preservation. However,
of interisland warfare, by 1885, the Kanaka Maoli popula- an opposing bill argued that the Akaka Bill is unconsti-
tion had dropped to seventy thousand from five hundred tutional because it would divide Hawaii on the basis of
532  Kanaka Maoli

race. President Barack Obama supported the Akaka Bill, U.S. population as well as lower levels of income and educa-
and even though the bill was meant to be reconciliatory, it tion (Minority Rights Group International 2015). The Kanaka
has been the subject of much controversy. In 2014, the U.S. Maoli are also not federally recognized as an American Indian
Department of the Interior announced it would hold hear- group. On a more positive note, however, a 2002 survey by the
ings to investigate the possibility of federal recognition for U.S. Census Bureau of Kanaka Maoli business owners discov-
the Kanaka Maoli as an Indian tribe. ered that the number of Kanaka Maoli grew by 49.4 percent
between 1997 and 2002, which was over three times the U.S.
national average for all businesses (Minority Rights Group
Society, Culture, and Tradition International 2015). With the defeat of the Akaka Bill, the
Traditionally, Kanaka Maoli society is feudal and divided struggle for Kanaka Maoli autonomy will most likely continue.
into three castes: alii (chiefs), maka’ainana (commoners), In recent years, a radical Kanaka Maoli national-
and kauwa (slaves). To mark their high status, alii wore ist movement, led mostly by Kanaka Maoli women, has
feathered helmets and capes. The alii also ruled over dis- emerged. Kanaka Maoli nationalists have generated dis-
putes, awarded land to loyal subjects, and built temples cussion of a large number of related issues affecting the
to gods, including Lono, god of farming; Ku, the war god; Kanaka Maoli, including what they consider the economic
Kanaloa, the god of water; and Kane, the god of light and exploitation of their people and homeland, pollution and
life. These temples were the location of various religious land misuse, and, most especially, the commercialization
rites, including human sacrifice; ceremonies worshipping and misrepresentation of Kanaka Maoli culture resulting
Pele, the volcano goddess; and the harvest celebration held from tourism. The U.S. military presence in Hawaii is also
in honor of Lono, the Makahiki Festival. a subject of much Kanaka Maoli discussion. Many Kanaka
Today, the annual Aloha Festivals celebrate the Makahiki Maoli are dependent on the military economically, but, at
tradition. The Aloha Festivals are a series of free cultural cel- the same time, the military occupies and pollutes great
ebrations that feature concerts, parades, ho’olaule’a (street swaths of the Kanaka Maoli homeland while also serving
parties), and other special events. Hula dancing and chanting as a launching pad for the U.S. operations abroad.
were frequently part of Kanaka Maoli religious rites, espe- The influence of the United States is far-reaching in
cially those held to worship Laka, the goddess of vegetation. Hawaii, and the complex ethnic makeup of the voting pub-
In the past, the Kanaka Maoli grew crops such as taro, lic in Hawaii may discourage U.S. politicians from going
root vegetables, breadfruit, coconuts, and sugarcane. Sea- out of their way to accommodate Kanaka Maoli rights.
weed and fish were also important Kanaka Maoli foods. Other minorities in Hawaii, notably Filipinos, fear that
Traditionally, Kanaka Maoli men and women ate sepa- gains for Kanaka Maoli self-government will impede their
rately. They also worked separately, with men building own progress, and the haole (white European) minority
canoes and women making tapa (bark cloth). tends to be resistant to any move toward compensating the
Kanaka Maoli for events in Hawaii’s colonial past.

Health Care and Education See also: Aleut; Haida

Kanaka Maoli have one of the worst rates of death and dis- Further Reading
ease of any ethnic group in the United States. They also Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa Bar-
have one of the highest rates not just of school failure
bara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
(their high school graduation rates run at around 36 per- Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “United States of
cent) but also of substance abuse, suicide, homelessness, America: Native Hawai’ians.” World Directory of Minorities
welfare dependency, and imprisonment. The Kanaka Mao- and Indigenous Peoples, June 19. http://minorityrights.org​
li’s lower level of education is reflected in their lower levels /minorities/native-hawaiians.
of income (Minority Rights Group International 2015). Peterson, Barbara Bennett. 2015. “Hawaiians.” In Native Peoples
of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Con-
temporary Issues, edited by Steven Danver, 205–206. London:
Routledge.
Threats to Survival Van Dyke, Jon M. 2008. Who Owns the Crown Lands of Hawai’i?
The Kanaka Maoli face higher levels of poverty, illness, home- Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press.
lessness, unemployment, and imprisonment than the general
 Kanuri 533

KANURI and Agriculture Organization (FAO) has declared the situ-

ation an “ecological catastrophe” and predicts that the lake
Current Location Nigeria; Chad; Niger; Cameroon could vanish this century. The lake’s disappearance would
Current Population 4 million prove disastrous for the people in Nigeria, Cameroon,
Language Kanuri Chad, and Niger, for whom the lake is a lifeline (Salkida
2012). The UN Environment Programme (UNEP) and the
Interesting Fact The Kanuri homeland is the heart-
land of the Islamic insurgency group Lake Chad Basin Commission (LCBC), a regional organ-
Boko Haram. ization that controls the use of basin water and related
natural resources, claim that the lake’s shrinkage is partly
caused by the ineffective damming and irrigation methods
Overview
employed by countries bordering the lake, including the
The Kanuri are an ethnic group found mostly in Borno diversion of water from the Chari River to irrigation pro-
State in northeast Nigeria as well as in parts of Chad, Niger, jects and dams in northeast Nigeria. As areas of Lake Chad
and Cameroon. The Kanuri speak the Kanuri language. dry up, many local farmers and pastoralists have migrated
Although the Kanuri are Sunni Muslim, they maintain to more fertile areas, where they compete for resources
some pre-Islamic traditions. The Kanuri call themselves with existing communities, or they have moved to towns
the Kanowri. The Hausa sometimes call the Kanuri the where they perform menial work or live as beggars. The
Beri-Beri, which the Kanuri consider derogatory. lake’s decline is causing tensions among communities liv-
ing around Lake Chad, as frequent conflict arises among
Population, Diaspora, and Migration the citizens of different countries over control of the lake’s
The estimated four million Kanuri live in Nigeria as well remaining water.
as parts of Chad, Niger, and northern Cameroon (Mose- To try to stop the lake from disappearing, plans have
ley 2011). The Kanuri consist of ethnic divisions such as been drawn up to build canals and a dam that will pump
the Kanembu and Yerwa, which in turn include many water uphill from the Congo River to the Chari River and
subgroups. then into Lake Chad.
The name of the Kanuri homeland, Bornu, is reputed to
mean “Home of the Berbers” (Minahan 2002). This reflects
History and Politics
that the Kanuri are more closely related to peoples in North
Africa than to their neighbors in Central Africa. Around 25 The Lake Chad area has been continuously inhabited since
percent of the Kanuri are urban and live in towns of more around 500 BCE, when Berber pastoralists settled in the
than ten thousand inhabitants (Minahan 2002). area after having been driven from North Africa by invad-
ing Arabs. The Kanuri are thought to be descended from
the Berbers, with some black African, Arab, and Saha-
Geography and Environment ran admixtures. Subsequently, the Berbers assimilated
The Kanuri homeland is found in the Lake Chad basin migrants from the Upper Nile region. By the end of the
located in central west Africa. The homeland is centered eighth century, the Berbers had established many city-
around Lake Chad, traditionally one of Africa’s largest states to the east of Lake Chad.
lakes. However, the lake’s surface area varies greatly—­ The dynasty founded at Kanem gave rise to the Sefwa
seasonally and annually. Despite high levels of evaporation, empire, from which the Kanuri trace their ancestry. The
Lake Chad is a freshwater lake. The lake contains many Sefwa were the ruling dynasty of Kanem, which at its
small islands, including the Bogomerom archipelago, as height covered most of Chad, parts of south Libya, eastern
well as reedbeds, mud banks, marshes, and swamps. While Niger, northeast Nigeria, and northern Cameroon. Kanem
the lake contains numerous fish species, the lake’s floating was also the terminus of trans-Saharan trade route via
islands are home to declining numbers of elephants, hip- the Kaouar oases that ran along the route of Libya’s great
popotamus, and crocodile as well as migrating birds such caravan trail. The trail allowed Arabs to bring Islam to the
as ducks and ruff. region during the tenth century. By the end of the eleventh
At present, the lake’s vegetation and water are disap- century, the Sefwa empire had converted to Islam and used
pearing through drought and desertification. The UN Food Arabic as the language of administration. The empire also
534 Kanuri

developed ties with many North African states, including held by European powers, the Europeans launched a mul-
Egypt. tinational force that defeated Rabeh in 1900. In 1902, the
In 1386, Kanem was invaded by nomadic attackers, Europeans divided Rabeh’s territory among themselves—
prompting the king of Kanem and thousands of his sup- Bornu became part of British Nigeria, Kanem became part
porters and refugees to flee to Bornu, to the southwest of of French Equatorial Africa, and other areas were incor-
Lake Chad. Traditionally, Bornu was ruled by the Sefwa porated in the German colony of Kamerun. Under the
dynasty. Eventually, the inhabitants of Bornu merged with British, Bornu became part of the Northern Nigeria region
the refugees from Kanem and in so doing created a Kanuri that was dominated by the Hausa and Fulani.
nation and language. Over time, Bornu regained control Although the British abolished slavery in Bornu, they
of Kanem and exerted a hold over trans-Saharan trade. allowed the Kanuri to maintain their traditional social
The Kanuri developed a commercial economy based on hierarchy that was essential to their social organization.
agriculture and animal husbandry. The Kanuri, who were Nonetheless, in the 1950s, nationalism began to arise in the
now an urban people living in cities and villages, also Kanuri who felt neglected by their regional government.
specialized in crafts, for which they held weekly markets. As a result of this neglect, Bornu was the least economi-
Bornu became an exporter of slaves and ivory as well as cally developed area in the region, and the inhabitants had
fabric and leather. At the same time, the Kanuri imported the worst literacy rates in Nigeria. In 1954, young Kanuri
Saharan salt and manufactured goods from Europe and nationalists founded the Bornu Youth Movement (BYM)
North America. Bornu’s wealth helped the Kanuri resist because they feared domination by the Hausa and Fulani
the growth of the Songhay empire to its west. At the height in the eventuality of an independent Nigeria and also
of its power, the Bornu-Kanem state ruled much of what despaired of what they considered the regional authorities’
is now Nigeria, Niger, Chad, Sudan, and Cameroon. Dur- misadministration. The most radical members of the BYM
ing this time, the Kanuri were ruled by king Idris Aluma, a called for the reunification of Kanem-Bornu, which would
mighty warrior leader, who, according to Kanuri tradition, have created a Kanuri-majority state.
won 330 wars as well as 1,000 battles (Minahan 2002). In 1960, Nigeria gained independence, leaving Bornu
When the Songhay empire fell to Moroccan invaders in as part of the Northern Nigeria region that was controlled
1591, the whole of the region was destabilized, allowing by the Hausa and Fulani. In 1964, a new railroad that the
the Tuareg and Tubu to attack Bornu from the northwest. Nigerian government had ordered constructed in a bid to
Simultaneously, Islamic jihadists began to displace rul- integrate the Kanuri into the new state was opened. How-
ers throughout the Sahel. In 1809 and 1811, the king of ever, the Kanuri remained loyal to local politicians and
Bornu was ousted by Fulani raiders, but each time, he was rejected the Islamism espoused by the Hausa and Fulani.
reinstated thanks to the backing of the Shehu, the leader By the mid-1960s, the Kanuri had become involved in
of Kanem. However, the balance of power had changed the increasing ethnic tensions sweeping through Nigeria.
so that the Shehu now held the greatest regional author- A 1966 military coup caused many Kanuri to flee from
ity. In 1823, British explorers arrived among the Kanuri. southern Nigeria as well as from cities such as Lagos and
Impressed by the sophistication of the Kanuri, in 1830, Kaduna. Kanuri nationalism continued to prevail among
the British established official diplomatic relations with the Kanuri until the 1970s, when the Nigerian government
Kanem-Bornu. In 1835, civil war broke out among the divided the country into ethnic states in an attempt to
Kanuri following the ousting of the Sefwa dynasty. After appease the country’s many ethnic groups. However, when
the civil war, a succession of ineffective leaders left the the Kanuri state of Borno was instituted in 1976, Kanuri
Kanuri seriously weakened. nationalism was fueled further. Kanuri separatists rebelled
In the 1890s, the Kanuri leadership was threatened by and called for the creation of an independent Kanuri state
a Sudanese slave trader, Rabeh Zobier, who enslaved the called Greater Kanowra that would encompass historical
Kanuri even though they were fellow Muslims. In 1893, Bornu plus parts of Niger and Cameroon. The separatists
Rabeh managed to overrun the Kanuri capital, and with were crushed by the Nigerian military, though the rebel-
his power over Kanem-Bornu assured, he created another lion was blamed on Kanuri living outside of Nigeria, espe-
Kanuri capital. Kanuri leaders appealed to European pow- cially the Kanembu refugees fleeing civil war in Chad.
ers for help in resisting Rabeh. The Europeans were initially At the start of the 1980s, a wave of Islamic funda-
slow to react, but once Rabeh began to encroach on land mentalism swept through Nigeria, leading to severe riots
 Kanuri 535

from 1982 to 1983. The riots, which had nationalist asso- tattooing prior to marriage. Usually, the tattooing is per-
ciations, continued intermittently until 1989. In the early formed without anesthesia using the thorns of Balanites
1990s, Germany’s reunification and an increase in African aegyptiaca, charcoal, and pigment from acacia seeds.
democracy led to a resurgence in Kanuri nationalism. In Traditionally, Kanuri society is divided into social
1992, the Nigerian government ordered the repatriation classes, at the top of which is the mai or shehu (similar
of Kanembu refugees who faced persecution in Chad. This to a king), whom his subjects regard as divine. Histor-
situation galvanized the Kanuri, who united as an ethnicity ically, slaves were at the bottom of the social scale, but
and fostered a Kanuri militant nationalist tendency. At the they were able to rise to positions of power and could be
end of the 1990s, many Kanembu returned to Nigeria from awarded land by the mai or shehu. Today, the lowest rung
Chad, settling on the shores of Lake Chad. In 2000, despite of Kanuri society is reserved for members of tribes the
an outcry from the state’s Christian minority, Borno Kanuri formerly took as slaves. The middle Kanuri class
adopted Islamic sharia law, which includes punishments contains non-Kanuri people. Unlike many African peoples,
involving amputation and flogging. the Kanuri are not overly concerned with kinship. Many
In recent years, Borno State has become the epicenter of Kanuri are farmers who trade farmed goods for dairy pro-
activity by the Muslim insurgency group commonly known duce from Fulani and Shuwa Arab pastoralists. The Kanuri
as Boko Haram, which aims to institute an Islamic cali- also have a long history of operating in trade. Today, many
phate in Nigeria. Boko Haram recruits most of its fighters Kanuri trade between Chad and Bornu State.
from among the Kanuri. Consequently, Boko Haram tends The Kanuri language belongs to the Western Saharan
to operate in areas with which the Kanuri are most famil- subphylum of the Nilo-Saharan language family. It con-
iar, particularly Borno State (BBC 2016). However, while tains elements of Arabic, Hausa, and other languages.
Boko Haram initially targeted non-Muslims, Western-style
education, and anything else they deemed un-Islamic, by
2015, it had started to indiscriminately attack Muslims Health Care and Education
and non-Muslims across Borno and Yobe States, Chad, The health situation in Borno State is critical. At least five
and Cameroon. Boko Haram has created havoc across hundred thousand people are either displaced or living in
Kanuri areas and also created a refugee crisis. In 2013, isolated enclaves outside the state capital, where they are
following fighting between Boko Haram and state forces, in urgent need of health care, safe drinking water, food,
Nigeria’s then president Goodluck Jonathan declared a and shelter. In 2016, a team from Médecins Sans Fron-
state of emergency in Northeast Nigeria. The rise of Boko tières (MSF) observed high levels of malnutrition among
Haram has also inhibited Borno State’s agricultural sector, the ten thousand residents of Borno State’s second-largest
leaving the state’s occupants to suffer acute food short- town, Bama, with around 15 percent of the town’s children
ages. While many Boko Haram fighters have been killed suffering from severe acute malnutrition. As many areas
and their weapons seized, it has outlived other northern of Borno State have been without medical care for two
Nigerian militant groups and has become entrenched in years, immunization programs have not been in operation
neighboring states. Indeed, the CIA believes the group has (Médecins Sans Frontières 2016). In 2018, the World Health
around nine thousand fighters as well as healthy finances Organization (WHO) united with the Borno State Ministry
and caches of weapons (BBC 2016). of Health and the National Orientation Agency (NOA) to
try to prevent the mass outbreak of diseases across north-
east Nigeria by launching healthcare information pro-
Society, Culture, and Tradition grams highlighting the importance of ensuring children
Kanuri social and cultural life are dominated by Islam. receive routine vaccinations where possible and providing
The Kanuri are Sunni Muslim, with birth, marriage, and tips on preventing the spread of diseases endemic to the
death ceremonies accompanied by readings of the Koran. region, such as meningitis, cholera, and malaria.
The Kanuri also uphold typical Islamic holidays and cele- Education in Borno State has suffered from insurgency
brations. However, the Kanuri maintain some pre-Islamic by Boko Haram. Boko Haram’s official name is Jama’atu
customs and superstitions, including the wearing of amu- Ahlis Sunna Lidda’awati wal-Jihad, which translates from
lets and charms to ensure healthy pregnancies and to ward Arabic as “People of the Sunnah (the practice and exam-
off the spirits of the dead. Many Kanuri practice ritual lip ples of the Prophet Mohammed’s life) for Preaching and
536 Karakalpak

Jihad Group.” Boko Haram is the name given to the group outsiders, economic downturn, and ethnic tension with-
by the Hausa-speaking residents of Maiduguri. The name out losing their identity. Many Kanuri continue to call for
is often translated from Hausa as “Western education the renewal of the Kanem-Bornu state in response to what
is a sin,” revealing the group’s anger toward non-Islamic they see as the Nigerian government’s failure to develop
education. and protect the Kanuri.
According to UNICEF, the rise of Boko Haram has
See also: Berber; Fulani; Hausa; Tubu
resulted in the closure of over 57 percent of Borno’s schools.
Further Reading
Since 2009, northeast Nigeria has seen over 2,295 teachers
BBC. 2016. “Who Are Nigeria’s Boko Haram Islamist Group?”
killed, and 19,000 teachers have become displaced. Around BBC News, November 24. https://www.bbc.co.uk/news​
1,400 schools have been destroyed, with most being unable /world-africa-13809501.
to reopen either because they are damaged or because they Maclean, Ruth. 2018. “Millions of People Need Urgent Help to
are located in unsafe areas (UNICEF 2017). In 2014, Boko Stave Off Famine in Lake Chad Basin.” The Guardian, Sep-
Haram made international headlines when it kidnapped tember 4. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development​
/2018/​sep/04/millions-of-people-urgent-help-stave-off​-famine​
276 schoolgirls from Borno State’s Government Secondary
-lake-chad-basin.
School in the town of Chibok. Médecins Sans Frontières. 2016. “Health Disaster in Borno State.”
Médecins Sans Frontières, July 20. https://www.msf.org​
/nigeria-health-disaster-borno-state.
Threats to Survival Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
Millions of people living in the Lake Chad basin are in Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 2, D–K.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
need of urgent help. Over two million people have been
Moseley, K. P. 2011. “Kanuri.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and the
displaced by insurgency and fighting, and five million peo- Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup, 145–
ple in areas where Boko Haram operate regularly go with- 147. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
out sufficient food. The uncertainty prevalent in the region Salkida, Ahmad. 2012. “Africa’s Vanishing Lake Chad.” African
means people who used to support themselves now lack Renewal, April. https://www.un.org/africarenewal/magazine​
access to the land they used to farm and waters they once /april-2012/africa’s-vanishing-lake-chad.
UNICEF. 2017. “More Than Half of All Schools Remain Closed
fished. Consequently, the people are dependent on outside
in Borno State, Epicentre of the Boko Haram Crisis in North-
help. For this reason, the European Union has pledged east Nigeria.” UNICEF, September 29. https://www.unicef.org​
€138 million ($151 million) of funding to the region. There /press-releases/more-half-all-schools-remain-closed-borno​
are also international calls for Nigeria and other countries -state-epicentre-boko-haram-crisis.
affected by the Lake Chad crisis to increase their financial
commitment to helping the region. While the Nigerian
budget minister has pledged $3 million to the humanitar-
ian response, there are no monitoring systems in place to
regulate how the money is spent (Maclean 2018).
Currently, more than eight hundred thousand people
KARAKALPAK
live in Lake Chad areas beyond the reach of the human-
Current Location Autonomous Republic of
itarian community (Maclean 2018). Military operations Karakalpakstan (Uzbekistan)
are causing thousands of these people to flee from their
Current Population 650,000
villages to overcrowded camps. Many of those who arrive
Language Karakalpak; Russian
at the camps are suffering from severe acute malnutrition.
Interesting Fact Environmental pollution has
Additionally, those who have fled Boko Haram and landed
resulted in 85 percent of Karakalpak
in Maiduguri are often returned to the towns from whence
children suffering long-term health
they came, leaving villages already lacking in services to problems.
cope with massive influxes of people. While some areas of
northeast Nigeria are fairly secure and ripe for redevelop-
ment, others continue to face a human crisis. Overview
On the plus side, the Kanuri retain a united ethnic The Karakalpak (also called the Qaraqalpaq, Karaklobuk,
identity. The Kanuri have survived subjugation by various Tudzit, or Tchorni, among other names) are a Central
 Karakalpak 537

Asian Turkic people living in the Central Asian country of occupies the western half of the Kyzylkum Desert, a vast
Uzbekistan. Almost all Karakalpak speak the Karakalpak plain covered with shifting sands. Central Karakalpakstan
language as their mother tongue. The language belongs to consists of the valley and delta of the low-lying Amu Darya
the Kipchak or West Turkic language family. Some linguists River. The west of Karakalpakstan includes the southeast
also consider the language a dialect of Kazakh. Many Kar- section of the Ustyurt Plateau, an undulating region char-
akalpak also speak Russian as a second language. Nomi- acterized by high, flat summits. The Karakalpakstan cli-
nally, most Karakalpak are Sunni Muslims. Some adhere to mate features hot summers, cool winters, and very little
the Hanafi school, and a minority follow the Sufi branch of rainfall.
Sunni Islam. The name Karakalpak derives from the black The Aral Sea has been central to Karakalpak life for cen-
caps the people traditionally wear. turies. However, Soviet disregard for the sea’s environment
Although the Karakalpak live in Uzbekistan, they have has left the inland sea severely damaged to the extent that
more in common physically and culturally with the neigh- it has shrunk to 10 percent of its original size and can no
boring Kazakhs than with other people in Uzbekistan. The longer support marine life. The shrinkage began in the
Karakalpak are the smallest Central Asian ethnic group, 1960s, when the Soviets diverted water from the two main
yet they have developed a strong sense of national iden- rivers that flowed into the Aral Sea to irrigate new cotton
tity. At the same time, however, there is some debate over fields. The Karakalpak realized there was a problem with
whether the Karakalpak are a separate people or a Kazakh the sea because the volume of water lessened, resulting in
subgroup. the sea becoming saltier and everything living in the sea
being poisoning. However, because cotton production was
booming, the Soviets refused to acknowledge that a prob-
Population, Diaspora, and Migration lem existed. Only after the downfall of the Soviet Union
The total Karakalpak population is estimated to include did authorities acknowledge issues with the Aral Sea.
up to 650,000 people (Minahan 2014). Approximately Today, authorities are trying to solve the Aral Sea’s
500,000 Karakalpak live in an autonomous republic within environmental problems by growing saxaul, a shrub-like
Uzbekistan, the Autonomous Republic of Karakalpakstan tree native to Central Asia deserts that tolerates dry, salty
(Minority Rights Group International 2015). There are also soil. As one adult saxaul tree can secure ten tonnes of
Karakalpak villages in Uzbekistan’s Ferghana Valley. Kar- soil around its roots, authorities hope the trees will stop
akalpak communities also exist in Kazakhstan, Afghani- the wind from picking up contaminated sand from the
stan, Turkmenistan, and Russia. dried-up bed of the Aral Sea. This would in turn prevent
Environmental and economic disasters have led to a the poisoned sand from traveling through the air, where it
huge number of Karakalpak leaving their homeland. Most causes health problems for locals. Authorities aim to cover
Karakalpak migrants resettle in Kazakhstan or elsewhere the entire area of the Aral Sea’s former bed with saxaul
in Uzbekistan. One result of this emigration is that the trees. However, estimates suggest it will take 150 years for
proportion of the Karakalpakstan population that is Kar- a saxaul forest to grow (Qobil and Harris 2018).
akalpak has significantly diminished in recent years. Some
estimates suggest that between 1995 and 2002, a sixth of
Karakalpakstan’s population migrated to Kazakhstan. History and Politics
Today, the Karakalpak are most likely a minority popu- In the thirteenth century, the Mongols overran the Aral
lation in their own state (Minority Rights Group Interna- Sea region. According to Karakalpak oral history, the
tional 2015). people’s ancestors were part of the Mongol invasion force
known as the Black Caps (hence the people’s name, Kar-
akalpak) who broke away from the Mongols to become a
Geography and Environment separate population. The Karakalpak often fought among
The Karakalpak homeland, Karakalpakstan, is located in themselves, something that left them distracted and open
western Uzbekistan to the southeast and southwest of the to invasion by outsiders. At various times, the Kazakhs,
Aral Sea in the lowest part of the Amu Darya basin (an Dzungar (western Mongols), and Bukharan (a Central
area of desert and semidesert stretching across Turkmen- Asian Jewish people) came to dominate the Karakalpak.
istan, Uzbekistan, and Afghanistan). East Karakalpakstan It is likely that at some point between the fifteenth and
538 Karakalpak

A Karakalpak yurt in Ayaz Kala Yurt Camp, Ayaz Kala, Uzbekistan. Although the Karakalpak live in Uzbekistan, culturally they have
more in common with neighboring Kazakhs than with Uzbeks. (Mel Longhurst/VW Pics/Universal Images Group via Getty Images)

sixteenth centuries, the Karakalpak formed a tribal con- soldiers led a Russian invasion of the area that resulted in
federacy with the Kazakhs because today the Karakalpak Central Asian states coming under Russian rule. In 1873,
and Kazakhs share very similar languages, customs, and the Russians annexed western Karakalpak areas while
material culture. leaving eastern Karakalpak communities under the rule of
At an unknown time, the Karakalpak divided in two. the khanate of Khiva. This later became a Russian protec-
One Karakalpak group, the Upper Karakalpak, settled in torate. The Russians interfered very little in Karakalpak life
the Ferghana Valley, and the other group, known as the until the start of World War I, when the Russians, desper-
Lower Karakalpak, settled around the Aral Sea. From the ate for soldiers, conscripted Central Asian peoples to serve
sixteenth to the eighteenth centuries, the Karakalpak liv- in labor brigades. The Karakalpak resisted conscription,
ing near the Aral Sea came under pressure from expand- and in 1916, they rebelled against the Russians, meaning
ing Kazakh populations to the north and the Bukharan to the Russians had to divert some troops from fighting in the
the east. This pressure caused some Karakalpak to move war to quell the rebellion. Fearing Russian revenge against
southwest to settle in the fertile Amu Darya River basin their people, many Karakalpak hid in the marshlands of
ruled indirectly by the Uzbek khanate of Khiva. In the late the Amu Darya delta.
seventeenth century, the Karakalpak made contact with Fighting between the Russians and the Karakalpak
Russian explorers and Cossack soldiers who were traveling ended after the conclusion of the Russian Revolution. Fol-
through Uzbekistan. lowing the revolution, several ethnic governments tried to
At the start of the nineteenth century, various Central take control of the Karakalpak before, in 1918, the Russian
Asian khanates and emirates stopped the Russians from Civil War spread to Central Asia and worsened the disorder.
colonizing the region. In the midcentury, however, Cossack Most of the Karakalpak supported the White Army because
 Karakalpak 539

they disapproved of the Bolsheviks’ atheism. In 1920, how- Following the end of the Soviet era, Islam has become
ever, the Bolsheviks occupied the Karakalpak homeland. central to Karakalpak community life. However, a legacy
Subsequently, the Soviets dissolved the region’s traditional of the Soviet era means only 78 percent of Karakalpak
territorial boundaries and instead divided the area on are practicing Muslims, 20 percent claim to be nonprac-
ethnic grounds. In 1925, an ostensibly autonomous Kar- ticing Muslims, and 3 percent identify as atheist. The
akalpak region was instituted that was subsequently incor- Karakalpak maintain some pre-Islamic traditions, most
porated into the Soviet Russian Federation before being especially entering into an altered mental state of reli-
made a section of Soviet Union as part of the Uzbek Social- gious ecstasy through dance and chanting, with many
ist Soviet Republic. Under the Soviets, the Karakalpak’s dervish orders, such as the Naqshbandi, Yasawi, Qaland-
Muslim faith was repressed. At the same time, however, the ari, Naqshbandi, and Kubrawiya, practicing in the Kar-
Karakalpak experienced great improvements to their edu- akalpak homeland.
cation, and their language and culture developed further.
During this time, a strong sense of Karakalpak ethnic iden-
tity developed that was able to withstand Stalin’s repressive Health Care and Education
measures from the 1930s to the 1950s. The Karakalpak suffer a number of illnesses specific to
In the 1950s, the Soviets decided to turn the area around their homeland, including respiratory diseases, tubercu-
the Aral Sea into a cotton-producing zone at the expense of losis, kidney problems, and diarrhea. The issues arise from
the region’s traditional farming and pastoralism. As part of exposure to the herbicides and pesticides with which
this ambition, in 1962 the Soviets diverted the Amu Darya Soviet authorities treated cotton crops. The chemicals ran
River to feed cotton plantations. This move led to the river off into the rivers and flowed through the cotton planta-
becoming heavily polluted by agrochemicals and caused tions before ultimately ending up in the Aral Sea where
the sea to shrink. The revelation in the 1980s of the extent they contaminated drinking water. The contamination was
of the health problems caused by the pollution galvanized exacerbated when the seawater was retreated. Addition-
the creation of a Karakalpak activist movement, which ally, as the Aral Sea dried up, toxic chemicals used to grow
sought a solution to the pollution problem. the cotton were left exposed on the seabed. Sandstorms
In the 1990s, after the collapse of the Soviet Union, then carried the chemicals through the air, resulting in
Uzbekistan became an independent republic that included their inhalation by the Karakalpak and other peoples
the Autonomous Republic of Karakalpakstan within its living in the area. Subsequently, the people experienced
borders. The Karakalpak defied the new Uzbek govern- a host of health problems, ranging from stunted growth,
ment by adopting the Latin alphabet because this allowed infertility, and lung and heart problems to increased rates
the Karakalpak to read the Turkish press. The Karakalpak of cancer.
also continued to campaign for a solution to the Aral Sea Indeed, one study found that between 1981 and 1991,
disaster. incidents of liver cancer among the people living around
the Aral Sea doubled. Another study discovered that at the
end of the 1990s, the infant mortality rate ran at between
Society, Culture, and Tradition 60  and 110 out of 1,000 births, a much higher rate than
Karakalpak culture maintains many elements that reflect the rest of Uzbekistan or Russia (Qobil and Harris 2018).
their Mongol, Turkic, and Caucasian heritage. Karakalpak At present, 66 percent of the Karakalpak suffer from throat
women are afforded high status, something that is uncom- cancer, typhoid, or hepatitis resulting from local pollution.
mon in Uzbekistan—the Karakalpak consider this one of Additionally, 1 in 10 Karakalpak babies dies before reach-
the few benefits of their Soviet past (Minahan 2014). ing his or her first birthday, and 85 percent of Karakalpak
Traditionally, Karakalpak life revolved around fishing children suffer chronic health issues caused by pollution
in the Aral Sea. The destruction of the sea means this is no (Minahan 2014).
longer the case. Instead, now two-thirds of the Karakalpak In Karakalpakstan, the Karakalpak language is used
are herders or farmers, and the rest live in urban areas. in all spheres of life, including state education. In Kar-
Karakalpak families are usually very large, though the akalpakstan, around 250 schools teach only in Karakalpak.
people’s typically high birth rates have reduced as the pro- In Karakalpakstan, 33 percent of schools teach in Kar-
portion of Karakalpak living in urban areas has increased. akalpak, and 29 percent are Uzbek-language schools. The
540 Karamojong

Constitutionally, Karakalpakstan can function sep-

Oral Ataniyazova arately from the Uzbekistan government as long as it
As an obstetrician, Oral Ataniyazova has fought complies with Uzbekistan laws. In reality, however, Kar-
to end the damage to public health caused by the akalpakstan’s autonomy seems little more than nominal.
shrinking of the Aral Sea, an issue that especially For this reason, some Karakalpak call for Karakalpakstan’s
affects women and children. In 1992, Ataniyazova full independence. Such demands have been muted, how-
established Perzent, the Karakalpak Center for ever, by the fact that Uzbeks control the flow of water into
Reproductive Health and Environment, to help the Karakalpakstan (Minority Rights Group International
women and children of her native Karakalpakstan. 2015).
Perzent offers a variety of educational and com- See also: Turkmen; Uzbek
munity programs that aim to raise public aware-
Further Reading
ness about the region’s environmental and health Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East and Cen-
problems. Perzent also performs scientific research, tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
provides family planning and medical advice, and Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Uzbekistan: Kar-
educates local people about such issues as sustain- akalpaks.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous
able agriculture and women’s and children’s rights. Peoples, June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities​
/karakalpaks.
With several rural branches, Perzent has also created
Qobil, Rustam, and Paul Harris. 2018. “Restoring Life to the Aral
an organic farm, a women’s clinic, and a publisher. Sea’s Dead Zone.” BBC News, June 1. https://www.bbc.co.uk​
As an expert on reproductive health, Ataniyazova /news/business-44159122.
has addressed numerous international organizations, Schlyter, Birgit. 2012. “Language Policy and Development in
including the United Nations. Today, Ataniyazova is Uzbekistan.” In Language Policy and Language Conflict in
chair of Perzent, but she has also broadened her work Afghanistan and Its Neighbors: The Changing Politics of Lan-
guage Choice, edited by Harold F. Schiffman, 176–207. Leiden,
to improve Uzbekistan’s human and environmental
the Netherlands: Brill.
health more generally. In 2000, Ataniyazova received
the Goldman Environmental Prize. In 2001, she
became involved with the Tashkent Pediatric Med-
ical Institute. And in 2009, she became a member of
the Parliament of the Republic Karakalpakstan.
KARAMOJONG
Current Location Uganda
rest of the republic’s schools are bilingual or teach in mul-
Current Population 475,000
tiple languages, including Kazakh, Turkmen, and Russian
(Schlyter 2012). Language Karamojong
Interesting Fact The Karamojong’s most popular
meal is cattle blood mixed with milk.
Threats to Survival
Ecological disasters have resulted in the Karakalpak being Overview
one of Uzbekistan’s most threatened minorities. Their posi- The Karamojong are an indigenous Ugandan people
tion will not improve without significant moves to tackle consisting of several small related groups. The Kara-
the environmental problems affecting the Aral Sea. The mojong speak the Karamojong language, an Eastern
sea’s destruction is in part responsible for out-­migration Nilotic language belonging to the Nilo-Saharan language
of the Karakalpak from Karakalpakstan, which in turn family. The name Karamojong derives from the phrase
lessens the Karakalpak’s say in the republic and their influ- Ekar ngimojong, which translates into English as “the
ence on the republic’s government. While Karakalpak and old men can walk no farther.” The Karamojong tend to
Uzbek are both official languages in Karakalpakstan, the either follow the people’s traditional animist beliefs or
Uzbekistan government has started to replace Karakalpak adhere to Christianity, most especially Catholicism or
place names with Uzbek-language names. Protestantism.
 Karamojong 541

Population, Diaspora, and Migration Since colonial times, authorities have treated the Kar-
The Karamojong live in the Karamoja subregion of north- amojong primarily as a security issue because the people
eastern Uganda. The Karamojong population consists of are infamous for raiding the cattle of other tribes. At the
around 475,000 people. Related groups, whose differentia- start of the twentieth century, the British (who were the
tion from the Karamojong is usually a result of haphazard ruling colonial power) tried unsuccessfully to end the Kar-
external ethnographic classification, include the Tepeth, amojong practice of cattle raiding by urging the people to
Labwor, Dodoth, Napore, Teuso, and Pokot. The Karamo- take up settled agriculture.
jong tend to be scattered across vast areas because the peo- The widespread introduction of automatic weapons to
ple disperse over a wide area in search of water. Uganda during the early 1980s means that the Karamo-
jong men who would traditionally conduct cattle raids on
nearby tribes using spears now use guns. This change has
Geography and Environment made Karamoja something of a no-go area, with the only
The Karamoja subregion occupies a semiarid area of north- people to enter the region being government forces sent to
eastern Uganda close to the country’s border with Kenya. punish the Karamojong for cattle raiding or relief agencies
The region is of interest to mining companies, who wish to who visit intermittently to distribute food during droughts
exploit the area’s reserves of gold and other minerals. and famines.
The soil in Karamoja is dry and sandy, meaning water Recently, the Ugandan government has endeavored to
quickly sinks into the ground. This makes farming almost disarm the Karamojong, but they have proven reluctant
impossible save for the limited growing of sorghum, pea- to discard their weapons. Part of the reason for this reluc-
nuts, millet, and gourds. As farming is very difficult, the tance is that the Karamojong feel they need to stay armed
Karamojong concentrate on animal husbandry, rearing to defend themselves against cross-border cattle raids
cattle, goats, sheep, and camels, many of which are raided from the Pokot and Turkana peoples of neighboring Kenya
from Kenya’s Turkana people. The aridity of the environ- and Sudan. In 2001, the Ugandan government pledged to
ment in which the Karamojong live means the people do protect the Karamojong from cattle rustlers in an attempt
not build permanent homes but rather follow nomadic to persuade them to disarm, and it also permitted the Kar-
lifestyles, traveling with their animals in search of water amojong to form their own armed border militias. The
and grazing land. initiative resulted in three thousand of an estimated forty
Northeastern Uganda suffers from ecological problems thousand Karamojong weapons being given up (Minority
that date from water development and disease control pro- Rights Group International 2015). However, the disar-
grams initiated in 1938. These initiatives led to overgrazing mament was accompanied by widespread allegations of
and environmental degradation that worsened sporadic abuses by the Ugandan armed forces against the Karamo-
droughts, famines, and crop failures. In recent years, the jong, including rape, torture, extrajudicial killings, and the
area’s chronic drought has been linked to climate change, destruction of property. Thus, the Karamojong have held
but the area has also suffered severe floods. For instance, on to their remaining weapons and continue to raid cat-
in 2007, Karamoja was hit by flooding caused by the heav- tle, resulting in many civilian deaths. The cattle raids have
iest rainfall in thirty years. The floods left large parts of been met by a strong-arm response by the Ugandan mili-
Uganda underwater, but Karamoja was one of the worst tary (Minority Rights Group International 2015).
hit areas, with flooding so bad that the area was cut off
entirely from food supplies.
Society, Culture, and Tradition
Cattle herding is central to Karamojong life, for it is the
History and Politics mainstay of the people’s economy and has great social and
Little is known of the Karamojong’s early years because cultural importance. Crop farming is a secondary eco-
their recorded history begins in the eighteenth century. nomic activity and is only undertaken in certain areas of
However, it is believed that the Karamojong originated in Karamoja where the environment allows. The Karamoja
the Nile River valley of South Sudan, and they migrated climate is so dry that they practice pastoral transhumance,
from there to Uganda during the seventeenth century. during which the people move their animals to neighboring
542 Karamojong

districts in search of water and grazing land for three to rituals, Karamojong men will eat the cattle’s roasted intes-
four months of the year. The availability of food and water tines, but women are not permitted to eat these parts. Tra-
is always a major worry for the Karamojong and influences ditionally, the Karamojong believe that all cattle belong
how they interact with neighboring ethnic groups. to their people by divine right. This belief is the basis for
Young Karamojong men consider cattle raids a rite of many violent confrontations between the Karamojong and
passage and as a way to increase their social standing. their neighbors.
In addition to rustling cattle, the Karamojong accumu- In addition to rustling cattle, another rite of passage
late cattle through patrilineal inheritance and marriage. into manhood (and requirement for marriage) is that
When a bride arrives at her husband’s dwelling, he is a young Karamojong man must wrestle the woman he
expected to assign cattle to exclusively feed her and her wishes to marry. If the boy wins the wrestling match, he is
children, with the number of cattle designated to the considered a man and is allowed to marry the woman he
woman and her children increasing as the woman pro- desires because he is felt strong enough to guard his wife.
duces more offspring. This transference of cattle from If he loses the wrestling match to the woman, he is not con-
the man’s to the woman’s side of the family marks her sidered a man and, typically, will marry a women from a
children as legitimate members of the man’s lineage. If different people who do not require the man to prove his
a marriage entails a bride-price, it will often be entirely strength in order to wed.
composed of cattle—any other gifts that may be offered Unlike most Ugandans, many Karamojong have not
as part of the bride-price are not considered as valuable adopted Western-style dress and instead wear their tradi-
as the cattle. tional outfit of a large red and black shawl. Karamojong
Such is the importance of cattle to the Karamojong that women accessorize this blanket-like garment with elab-
the people jealously guard their cattle. Karamojong men orate beadwork. There have been reports of government
sleep in the open so as to protect their herds, which are soldiers forcing Karamojong women to eat their beads as a
housed in camps surrounded by thorny hedges. Addi- way of promoting Western-style dress (Jones 2009).
tionally, even when the Karamojong are starving, cattle is
too valuable for the people to eat. Traditionally, the Kar-
amojong only kill their cattle for ritual purposes, such Health Care and Education
as an initiation ritual that sees a boy enter manhood by
The Karamojong have access to medical centers and health
­single-handedly slaughtering an ox provided by his father
care provided by nongovernmental organizations (NGOs).
or at the behest of tribal elders. Cattle will also be slaugh-
Although there are schools and church mission education
tered to appease the Karamojong god Ajuk. Karamojong
programs operating in Karamoja, Karamojong children
elders are considered to be in constant contact with Ajuk,
often do not attend school because they are needed to look
to whom they appeal for the protection of their people, the
after cattle.
health of their cattle, and success in cattle raids.
Although the Karamojong rarely slaughter their cat-
tle, they drink the animals’ milk and blood regularly.
The cattle’s blood is drawn from the neck of the animals Threats to Survival
without killing them. Then the blood is mixed with milk The Karamojong are, reputedly, Uganda’s most marginal-
to form the most popular daily meal of the Karamojong, ized minority, isolated “geographically, economically and
Ekyalakanu. The blood and milk mixture is stored in cur- politically,” and widely hated by their neighbors, who see
dled form. them as violent and basic (Minority Rights Group Inter-
When the Karamojong do kill their cattle, virtually national 2015).
every part of the animals is used: skins are used to make Food shortages caused by drought, famine, and floods
cloths and blankets, the scrota are made into bags, manure present direct threats to the Karamojong. When these
is used as a fertilizer, and the urine is used to curdle milk, events occur, food prices rise sharply, and unscrupulous
is mixed with mud to make building materials, and is used traders hoard supplies. Karamoja is the poorest and least
to clean wooden containers and gourds and to wash peo- developed part of Uganda, and such natural disasters are
ple’s hands (the Karamojong’s lack of water means they always accompanied by fears of widespread hunger and
often cannot wash their hands in water). During initiation outbreaks of disease. Climate change is a significant threat
 Karbi 543

to the Karamojong. In common with other East African KARBI

cattle herders, the Karamojong have experienced frequent
cycles of drought that have led to greater competition for Current Location India; Bangladesh; Myanmar
scarce grazing land, which has in turn caused an upsurge Current Population 800,000
in violence. The easy availability of guns in the region
Language Karbi; Assamese
means skirmishes over pasture are often fatal, with hun-
Interesting Fact In urban areas, the literacy rate for
dreds of deaths resulting recently.
Karbi females is around 10 percent
Traditionally, the Karamojong are treated badly by lower than the literacy rate for males.
other Ugandans, including the Ugandan government.
Authorities have tried to make the Karamojong disarm,
but the way in which the disarmament policy has been
Overview
implemented has attracted fierce criticism. In 2006 and The Karbis are an indigenous ethnic tribe of North India. In
2007, the UN Office of the High Commissioner for Human the past, the Karbis were sometimes called the Mikir. How-
Rights (OHCHR) reported grave human rights violations ever, the Karbis consider this term derogatory, although it
perpetrated by the Ugandan People’s Defence Forces (the is the official name of the tribe listed in the Indian Con-
national army), including the killing of civilians, rape, tor- stitution. Instead, Karbis prefer to be called the Karbis or
ture, inhumane treatment, and the destruction of prop- Arlengs. The Karbis speak the Karbi Barak language, which
erty. In late 2007, the OHCHR reported an improvement belongs to the Tibeto-Burman language family. The major-
in the Karamojong’s human rights situation (following ity of Karbis also have Assamese as a second language.
cooperation in terms of disarmament among Karamojong Most Karbis follow their traditional animist belief system.
communities and better training for the military), but the There is also a minority of Karbi Christians and Hindus.
OHCHR noted that those people responsible for human
rights abuses against the Karamojong had not faced pun-
ishment and condemned the armed forces’ freedom to Population, Diaspora, and Migration
practice “extra-judicial killings and torture” (Minority The Karbi population is estimated to comprise around
Rights Group International 2015). eight hundred thousand people (Minahan 2012). The Kar-
In addition to overcoming deep-seated anti-­ bis are concentrated in an autonomous district, the Karbi
Karamojong feelings, the Karamojong face the challenge Anglong, located in Assam state. The name Karbi Anglong
of finding new and sustainable ways to earn money that means “Karbi hills” or “the hills of the Karbi tribe.” There
are not so reliant on the climate and rustling cattle from are also large Karbi communities in the neighboring states
other tribes. Improving education and health facilities will of Arunachal Pradesh, Meghalaya, Mizoram, and Nagaland
also be necessary. as well as in adjacent areas of Bangladesh and Myanmar.
The Karbis are divided between several distinct regional
See also: Acholi; BaTwa; Turkana groups: the Chinthong, Ronghang, and Amri. Karbis liv-
Further Reading ing in lowland areas are called the Dumrali. These groups
GoVisitKenya. 2009–2014. “Karamojong People and Their Cul- divide into five clans (kur): the Terang, Teron, Ingti, Eng-
ture in Uganda.” http://www.govisitkenya.com/karamajong​ hee, and Timung.
-people.html.
Johannes, Eliza Mary, and Steven L. Danver. 2015. “Karamojong.”
In Native Peoples of the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups,
Cultures and Contemporary Issues, edited by Steven L. Danver,
Geography and Environment
46–47. London: Routledge. The Karbi Anglong is an administrative district of the
Jones, Ben. 2009. “Who Are the Karamojong?” The Guardian, northeast India state of Assam. The district is bordered by
February 17. https://www.theguardian.com/katine/2009/feb​ the Golaghat district to the east, the Morigaon district to
/17/karamojong-background.
the west, the Nagaon and Golaghat districts to the north,
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Uganda: Karamo-
jong and Related Groups.” World Directory of Minorities and the Dima Hasao district and Nagaland state to the
and Indigenous Peoples, June 19. http://minorityrights.org​ south.
/minorities/karamojong-and-related-groups. The landscape of the Karbi Anglong comprises flat
plains and hills. Traditionally, the Karbi tend to live on the
544 Karbi

Wet Rice Cultivation

Wet rice cultivation is the growing of rice in flooded fields called paddies. Wet rice cultivation is particularly suited to
the hot, wet parts of Asia because rice needs high temperatures to grow. In Asia, wet rice uses a small fraction of the
total land area, yet it feeds most of the rural people. Rice has been grown in its current growing areas for around two
thousand years, mainly in delta areas, floodplains, coastal plains, and terraced valleys. Most paddies flood during the
monsoon season, though some are watered by irrigation systems. The paddies are usually worked by families using
traditional tools or ploughs pulled by animals.

Mikir and Rengma Hills. Around 77 percent of the dis- History and Politics
trict is covered by dense tropical forest (Wildlife Trust of The Karbis were one of Assam’s earliest inhabitants. It is
India 2017). Few of the district’s hills are very tall, with the likely that the Karbis originated in western China before
highest peak being the Singhason Peak, which is around their ancestors migrated to India and Myanmar by fol-
4,462 feet tall. The district is home to numerous rivers and lowing rivers that led to the Brahmaputra, Chindwin, and
tributaries. A variety of minerals are also found in the dis- Irrawaddy Rivers. Over time, attacks by other tribes drove
trict, including limestone, china clay, and feldspar as well the Karbis northward to more isolated hilly areas, where
as coal. they settled in autonomous villages that formed a loose
Winter in the Karbi Anglong lasts from October to Feb- confederacy ruled by a king. It is difficult to speak with
ruary. During summer, the atmosphere is hot and humid, certainty about early Karbi history, however, because the
reaching temperatures of up to 89.6°F. The district’s aver- Karbis lack a written history.
age rainfall is about eight feet. At the start of the thirteenth century, the Ahoms (a Tai
The Karbi Anglong is an agricultural district. A variety people) migrated to the Brahmaputra Valley. Here, they
of crops are grown there, with rice being the most prev- forged trade links to the Karbis and made the Karbis pay
alent. Most farming follows the jhum (slash-and-burn) tribute to the Ahom kingdom. The Ahoms remained the
agricultural system. region’s supreme power for almost six hundred years. Nev-
The Karbi Anglong lies adjacent to the Kaziranga ertheless, over the centuries, the Karbis maintained their
National Park and includes five wildlife sanctuaries, two autonomy. At the start of the seventeenth century, some
elephant reserves (Kaziranga–Karbi Anglong and Dhansir- Karbis migrated into the Ahom kingdom located in Assam
Lumding), and seventeen District Council Reserve Forests in search of protection from neighboring warrior tribes.
(DCRFs), which are forests accorded a certain degree of From 1661 to 1662, Mogul forces from Bengal invaded
protection. Karbi Anglong’s forests consist primarily of Karbi land, causing many Karbis to flee from lowland areas
tropical semievergreen, moist deciduous, and wet ever- to seek sanctuary at higher altitudes.
green trees that are home to a range of threatened species, Throughout the eighteenth and early nineteenth cen-
including Asian elephants, Royal Bengal tigers, clouded turies, however, raids by violent Burman invaders unset-
leopards, and hoolock gibbons. Karbi Anglong is ecologi- tled the region. Consequently, the Karbis sought refuge
cally fragile, with a number of factors threatening the dis- from the unrest in the deep jungles and hills to escape
trict’s biodiversity. The main threat to the area’s wildlife is the invaders. Additionally, young Karbi women began to
habitat destruction caused by encroachment into forests, draw a black line called a duk that extended from their
the prevalence of jhum agriculture, and unplanned devel- foreheads to their chins. The women did this because they
opments. The loss of forest inhibits wildlife migration and believed the duk made them so ugly they would not appeal
leads to conflict with humans; this is especially true for sexually to the marauding Burman raiders. Eventually, the
elephants. The Karbis’ homeland has a large elephant pop- British drove the Burmans from the area before annexing
ulation, so human-elephant conflict is a major issue man- Assam in 1826. Slowly, the British exerted authority over
ifesting in the destruction of people’s crops and property the upland areas of the state inhabited by the Karbis and
and the deaths of elephants and humans (Wildlife Trust so came into contact with the Karbi king and tribal elders.
of India 2017). The Karbis rebelled against the British, however, when
 Karbi 545

the British tried to become more controlling, leading to the way for an eventual federation of tribal states that
periodic uprisings. Around the same time, missionaries would replace the state of Assam. The most militant Karbi
from Britain and the United States introduced modern, activists support this idea as only a stepping-stone to the
Western-style education to the Karbis, something that creation of an independent Karbi state. In 2009, Karbi sep-
helped the Karbis cement their identity toward the end aratist leaders called for the restoration of an independ-
of the nineteenth century. In the main, the British did not ent Karbi kingdom called the Kingdom of Karbi Longri or
allow the more populous lowland Assamese or Bengalis, Hemprek Kangthim.
of whom the Karbis were hugely distrustful, to settle on
Karbi land. In turn, the lowlanders considered the Karbis
uncivilized nomads. Society, Culture, and Tradition
During the 1930s, many of the Karbis’ mission-­educated The Karbi live divided among several distinct regions
leaders joined the growing Indian independence move- within their district, but they maintain their traditional
ment while calling for the strengthening of the Karbi eth- ties to the Karbi king and tribal hierarchies. Traditionally,
nic identity. During Japan’s invasion of northeast India in the Karbis comprise three regional groups that are divided
World War II, most Karbis stayed loyal to Britain, despite further into five clans (kur), each of which consists of mul-
the Japanese promising the Karbis autonomy in return tiple subclans. Members of the same clan are forbidden to
for their support. Following the war, however, the Karbis marry each other. While monogamy is the norm among
entered into negotiations with the British regarding the the Karbis, they are allowed to practice polygamy. Karbi
creation of an autonomous Karbi district. Karbi calls for society is patrilineal, for descent and inheritance passes
an autonomous homeland within Assam were swallowed down through the male line.
up by the turmoil of Indian independence, which occurred The Karbis maintain their traditional tribal hierarchy.
in 1947. In 1951, however, the new Indian government did The traditional Karbi king, called the Lingdokpo, exercises
establish a small Karbi district, though this failed to stop great authority in social and religious matters. Addition-
Karbi calls for autonomy. It was only in 1970 that the Karbi ally, every Karbi village is led by both a headman, the rong
Anglong was instituted after demands by militant Karbi sarthe, and a village council called the me.
groups (some of which had taken up arms) called for the The Karbis have a rich oral history that includes their
reunification of all Karbis living in northeast India. own version of the ancient Indian epic poem the Rama-
Since then, the Indian government’s attitude to the Kar- yana, called the Sabin Alun, which is passed down orally
bis has been at best indifferent. Authorities have also failed from one generation to the next.
to understand the people’s tribal culture (Minahan 2012), The Karbi language comprises three major dialects
thereby highlighting what the Karbis see as the cultural (Amri, Mikir, and Bhoi Mynri). The Karbi language is writ-
difference between themselves and mainstream Indian ten using the Latin alphabet, which the Karbi learned from
culture. The Karbis’ resentfulness at officials’ somewhat Western missionaries. Karbi Barak speakers also speak
neglectful attitude toward them has created several Karbi Assamese as a second language.
militant groups that aim to achieve Karbi autonomy. Karbi Until the 1950s, most Karbis practiced shifting jhum
militancy was exacerbated when the arrival of the cash agriculture. Now, however, the majority of Karbis grow wet
economy in Karbi areas forced many Karbis to relinquish rice in paddy fields. Ginger is also a major Karbi export.
their traditional lifestyles only to become unemployed. The Around 70 percent of Karbis maintain the traditional
Karbis’ economic downturn was accompanied by increas- Karbi belief system that centers around the supreme god
ingly poor living conditions, for Karbi areas lacked edu- Barithe, who rules the heavens. About 15 percent of the
cational and healthcare facilities, housing, and developed Karbis are Christian; the Bible was first translated into
agriculture; prices skyrocketed, and corruption became Karbi Barak in 1952. Consequently, many elements of
endemic (Minahan 2002). Christianity have become entwined with the people’s tra-
Since the 1980s, encroachment by non-Karbis (particu- ditional beliefs and worship of ancestors and nature. A
larly by Bengalis) onto traditional Karbi territory has gal- further 15 percent of Karbis are Hindu (Minahan 2012).
vanized support for Karbi autonomy among the Karbis. In Irrespective of religion, many Karbis believe in the exist-
response to these incursions, Karbi activists have forged ence of ghosts and evil spirits as well as reincarnation and
links with other tribal groups in Assam as a way to pave the veneration of ancestors.
546 Karelian

Health Care and Education Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the
Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Karbi Anglong is home to two civil hospitals, twenty public Sarma, Sarat. 2012. “Karbi Anglong Docs Flee in Extortion
health centers, six community health centers, and thirteen Wake.” The Telegraph, August 19. https://www​.tele​graph​india​
state dispensaries (Sarma 2012). In recent years, medical .com​/states/north-east/karbi-anglong​-docs​-flee-in​-extor​
staff working in remote parts of Karbi Anglong have fled tion​-wake/cid/393170.
following extortion calls by militants. Tokbip, Sobita. 2017. “Problem of Education in Karbi Anglong
District.” International Journal of Research—Granthaalayah
The Karbi Anglong has very poor infrastructure, includ-
5 (9): 91–94. doi:10.5281/zenodo.999252.
ing its educational facilities. Barriers to education among Wildlife Trust of India. 2017. “Kaziranga—Karbi Anglong Link
the Karbis include inadequate communication systems, Project.” Wildlife Trust of India. http://www.wti.org.in​
poor transport links, the misadministration of schools, /projects​/kaziranga-karbi-anglong-link.
and inefficient power supplies—even in the Karbi capital
it is common for there to be one hour of power followed
by an hour without power. Additionally, some Karbi chil-
dren cannot study at home because their parents are too
poor to afford solar lights or kerosene to light lamps. As KARELIAN
a result of these barriers to education, the Karbis have a
low literacy rate, and many Karbis leave school before they Current Location Russian Federation; Finland
finish their primary education, even though education is Current Population 220,000
free and compulsory under the Indian Constitution until Language Russian, Finnish; Karelian
the age of eleven years. Interesting Fact Russia’s treatment of the Karelians as
There is a significant difference in the educational well as Karelian nationalism inspired
attainment of Karbi boys and girls. The literacy rate for the Karelian Suite by Finnish com-
Karbi females is lower than that of male Karbis in both poser Jean Sibelius (1865–1957).
towns and rural areas. In 2011, the literacy rate for females
in urban areas of Karbi Anglong was 84.02 percent com- Overview
pared to the male literacy rate of 92.64 percent.
Karelians are a Balto-Finnish people living in the Russian
Federation and Finland in a homeland known as Karelia.
Karelians are also called the Karels, Karjala, Karjalazed and
Threats to Survival Korela, among other names. Most Karelians speak Russian
The Karbis fear their ethnic identity is in danger from or Finnish, though some speak the Karelian dialect, which
mass encroachment by outsiders from lowland Assam, belongs to the Finnic branch of Uralic languages but sub-
Bangladesh, and Nepal. The people are also aware of the divides into multiple dialects that are influenced by Rus-
environmental damage being wrought on their homeland. sian. In Finland, Karelians tend to be Lutheran, while those
Back in 2001, many Karbis marched through their capital in the Russian Federation are typically members of the
of Diphu to protest against the destruction of their natu- Orthodox Church.
ral environment. As incursions by outsiders increase, it is Karelians are related to other indigenous populations
unlikely this environmental exploitation will decrease. of the region, including the Finns, Ingrians, Livs, and Sami.
The Karbis’ continuing poverty and poor levels of
employment, education, and access to health care are
likely to foster continuing resentment of authorities, lead- Population, Diaspora, and Migration
ing to ethnic tensions as well as further calls for Karbi The total Karelian population is estimated to measure
independence. 220,000 people (Minahan 2002). Most Karelians live in the
See also: Bhil; Gond; Khasi; Naga; Tharu Russian Federation, where, according to the 2002 national
census, the Karelian population measures 93,344 people.
Further Reading
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: The majority of Karelians live in the Karelian Republic,
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 3, L–R. where 10 percent of the population is Karelian. Here, the
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Karelians live among a Russian-majority population but
 Karelian 547

also alongside Finns and Veps. The Karelian population in Empire took control of the Novgorod Republic and its
the Russia Federation has been declining steadily since the associated territories, including eastern Karelia. Around
turn of the twenty-first century because the people have the same time, Sweden expanded its empire eastward to
either assimilated into Russian society or migrated to Fin- overrun the Finns. However, the Karelians fought off the
land (Minority Rights Group International 2015). Swedes, preventing them from moving farther east for a
Several Karelian subgroups exist. These tend to be clas- time. The Swedes did gain control of western Karelia in the
sified by their location and include the Archangel Kareli- fifteenth century, though the Republic of Great Novgorod
ans, the Viena Karelians, the Olonet Karelians living in the retained its hold on eastern Keralia. The Russian takeover
Russian Federation, and the North and South Karelians of the Republic of Great Novgorod saw the Keralians that
who live in Finland. had lived under the Novgorodians form their own confed-
eration. Sweden conquered the rest of Keralia in 1617 but
kept this region separate from western Karelia.
Geography and Environment Soon thousands of Orthodox Keralians migrated to
The Karelian homeland, Karelia, is located in northern northern Karelia and Russia’s Valdai Hills from Lake
Europe. Karelia extends from the coast of the White Sea Lagoda to escape feudal taxation and conversion to Luther-
in northwestern European Russia to the Gulf of Finland. anism. Mass migration increased during the seventeenth
Most of the homeland lies on the Karelian Plateau and is century, with up to thirty thousand Keralians settling in
swampland, save for mountains in the west of the region. the north of the region and in Valdai Hills. The migration
Karelia is home to dense forests and over fifty thousand, of Orthodox Karelians was partly funded by the Russian
lakes including Europe’s two largest lakes, Lake Ladoga government (Minahan 2002). During the Napoleonic
and Lake Onega. Karelia is now divided, with most of the Wars, Sweden ceded western Karelia, the Aland Islands,
homeland being part of the Republic of Karelia in the and Finland to Russia. However, western and eastern Kare-
northwest of the Russian Federation. The rest of Karelia lia stayed divided by Russia’s internal border controls.
lies in Finland. Eastern Karelia was poor and underdeveloped and became
known as a destination for exiled political prisoners and
criminals. In contrast, western Karelia still maintained
History and Politics links with Finland and was considerably more developed
The Karelians are descended from nomadic tribal groups with a wealthier population.
that migrated from the Volga River area to the Karelian At the end of the nineteenth century, Karelian national-
Plateau during the eighth century, thereby displacing the ism began to grow. In response, Russia’s czarist authorities
indigenous Sami who moved northward. Tribes that set- pressed the Karelians to assimilate and limited Karelian
tled near Lake Ladoga and Lake Onega expanded north schooling and publishing. Karelian-language books were
along the Dvina River to the White Sea and then into smuggled across the Finland-Russia border, however, and
Finland. Karelian nationalism continued to develop underground.
The Karelians were mentioned in eighth-century Scan- During World War I, Karelian soldiers fought for Russia,
dinavian chronicles and in Russian reports of the ninth but in 1917, the downfall of czarist Russia threw Karelian
century. In these writings, the Karelians are considered as a society into turmoil, as imprisoned political prisoners,
northern forest-dwelling group inhabiting an area between criminals, and other exiles were suddenly free and roam-
the Baltic Sea and White Sea as well as around Lake Ladoga ing around the Karelian homeland. Karelian soldiers began
and Lake Onega. The Karelian populations were separate to desert the Russian army and took over the running of
tribal groups who were only linked by clanship. Karelia as civil authority dissolved.
From the ninth to the twelfth centuries, Karelians liv- In 1918, Karelian leaders voted to separate from Russia
ing in more southerly areas lived under the authority of and unite with Finland. However before this plan could
the Kievan Rus’ principality. Then, in 1323, a treaty split come to fruition, the Karelians were caught up in the Rus-
Karelia between Sweden and the Slav Novgorod Republic. sian Civil War, during which the Karelians fought against
Karelians living in eastern areas fell under Novgorod con- the Bolsheviks under the protection of Britain and Fin-
trol, adopted Orthodox Christianity, and lived as tree cut- land. In 1919, Karelian leaders declared their homeland
ters, farmers, and fishermen. In 1478, the growing Russian an independent state, and an eastern Karelian government
548 Karelian

was established consisting of representatives from White effort to revive the Karelian language and culture under cam-
Sea Karelia. In 1920, the eastern Karelian government paigns driven by the Union of Karelian People movement.
voted to leave Russia, prompting the Red Army to invade
the region and causing the eastern Karelian leaders to
flee to Finland. The following year, however, the Karelians Society, Culture, and Tradition
fought back and drove the Soviets from eastern Karelia, Traditional Karelian society is patriarchal and patrilocal,
which was subsequently declared an autonomous republic with married couples, joined through arranged marriage,
with a democratically elected government. However, the living in the husband’s community.
Red Army eventually overran the republic and classified Traditionally, Karelian life is closely associated with
Karelia as an autonomous republic within the Soviet Rus- farming, with the people practicing shifting cultivation.
sian Federation in 1923. The people lived on farmsteads that acted as both social
Stalin disapproved of Finland’s influence over the Kare- units and as localized power bases. On Karelian farm-
lians and decided to purge Finnish elements from Karelian steads, work is typically divided along gender lines; men
society. To this end, Karelian leaders were either killed, worked in the fields and forests, and women reared ani-
deported, or sent to Siberian labor camps; all books writ- mals and performed household duties.
ten in Finnish were destroyed; and the Karelians were Karelians have a very strong oral tradition consisting of
made to adopt the Russian Cyrillic alphabet rather than poetry and songs told by singers and bards using instru-
the Finnish-influenced Karelian language. Toward the end ments such as the harp-like kantele. Magic rituals are also
of the 1930s, the Soviets demanded western Karelia from very important to the Karelians and performed by tiettajat
Finland to unite all Karelians as part of the Soviet Union. (folk sorcerers). Karelia also has a strong shamanistic tra-
The demand resulted in the Winter War, which Finland lost dition that preserves Karelian folk music. One of the most
in 1940, prompting tens of thousands of Karelians to head performed Karelian traditions, especially among Ortho-
westward to escape the Soviets. During World War II, Fin- dox Karelians, is the performing of lamentations. These are
land joined with Germany in attacking the Soviets and lib- performed both for the dead at funerals and when a family
erated all Karelians but refused to join in any other German member leaves to join another family after marriage.
offensives. However, in 1944, the Soviets fought back, forc- Karelian skittles, or kyykkä, is an outdoor folk game for
ing Finnish soldiers as well as Karelian and Finnish civilians children and adults played by a large number of Kareli-
to flee. Consequently, the Soviets regained Karelian land. ans living in Finland. Many kyykkä tournaments are held
During the 1960s and 1970s, Karelians assimilated into annually and governed by the Finnish Skittles Association,
Russia society. In the late 1980s, the Russian government which is part of the Finnish Sports Federation.
acknowledged their mistreatment of the Karelians, and the
relaxing of Soviet life allowed the Karelians to rekindle their
ties to Finland, prompting a resurgence of Karelian nation- Health Care and Education
alism. Following the downfall of the Soviet Union in 1991, In recent years, there have been widespread improvements
Karelian nationalism accelerated, and Finland began to in the health of Karelians living in Finland. This improve-
fund Karelian economic and cultural initiatives. Later, in the ment is largely due to a reduction in cases of cardiovas-
1990s, there were calls from some Karelians, especially those cular disease and cancer. In contrast, the death rate from
living in underdeveloped eastern Karelia, for the Karelians to these conditions has increased in Russian Karelia. Tradi-
unite with Finland. More recently, there has been a concerted tionally, death rates in Russian Karelia are over twice as

Kyykkä
Kyykkä (or Karelian skittles) is an outdoor folk game for children and adults played by many Karelians living in Fin-
land. Kyykkä originated in Karelia many centuries ago among Karelians living in the area between the White Sea and
Lake Lagoda. At the start of the twentieth century, Karelian refugees left their homeland and fled to Finland, taking
kyykkä with them. Since then, the game has become hugely popular in Finland, and many kyykkä tournaments are
held every year. Kyykkä tournaments are governed by the Finnish Skittles Association, which is part of the Finnish
Sports Federation.
 Karen 549

high as those in the neighboring areas of Finland. These Overview

deaths from chronic disease are “at least partly attributed The Karens, also called the Kawthules, Kawthooleis, White
to very high smoking levels” among Russian Karelian men Karens, Sg’au, Yang, Ka-Kaung, and Kariang, are indige-
(McAlister et al. 2000). nous to the Myanmar-Thailand border area. The Karens
Finnish has long been taught in Karelian schools. In speak a variety of dialects that make up three broad group-
Russia, Karelian is only taught as an optional class. ings: central Karen, southern Karen, and northern Karen.
Most Karens practice Theravada Buddhism, which they
Threats to Survival often combine with animist beliefs. There are also some
Christian Karens.
The Karelians’ long history of migration, shifting national
loyalties, and border changes mean that Karelian society
is, to a degree, divided. This history has also resulted in the Population, Diaspora, and Migration
dissolution of Karelian folk culture. However, recent reviv- It is difficult to give accurate population figures for the
als of the Karelian language and traditions may reverse Karen because the most recent reliable census of the
this decline. Karen people took place in the 1930s. However, recent
See also: Izhorian; Sami; Vep estimates put the Karen population at around five million
Further Reading
people. Karen activists put the figure at closer to fourteen
McAlister, Alfred L., Tamara Gumina, Eeva-Liisaurjanheimo, million people (Minahan 2012). Traditionally, Karens live
Tiina Laatikainen, Mihail Uhanov, Rafael Oganov, and Pekka in small villages consisting of homes made from bam-
Puska. 2000. “Promoting Smoking Cessation in Russian boo and thatch. The villages are usually situated in forest
Karelia: A 1-Year Community-Based Program with Quasi-­ clearings. Today, however, numerous Karens inhabit towns
Experimental Evaluation.” Health Promotion International 15 and cities in Myanmar and Thailand. Many hundreds of
(2). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/31372975​_Pro​
mo​ting​_smoking_cessation_in_Russian_Karelia​_A_1​-year​
thousands of Karens also live in refugee camps, having fled
_community-based_program_with_quasi​-expe​ri​mental​ to Thailand from Myanmar to escape persecution by the
_evaluation. Myanmar authorities. Karen activists also claim that there
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth- are around fifty thousand Karen migrants living in North
nic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 2, D–K. West- America, Australia, and Europe (Karen.org n.d.).
port, CT: Greenwood.
Minority Rights Group International. 2015, June 19. “Russian
Federation: Karelians.” http://minorityrights.org/minorities​ Geography and Environment
/karelians.
Prina, Federica. 2016. National Minorities in Putin’s Russia: The Karens inhabit the hilly eastern border region of
Diversity and Assimilation. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. Myanmar and Thailand. They live mainly in Karen State,
Williams, Victoria. 2015. Weird Sports and Wacky Games around in Kayah State (also known as Karenni State), the southern
the World: From Buzkashi to Zorbing. Santa Barbara, CA: Shan State, Ayeyarwady Division, and Southern Kawtho-
Greenwood. olei as well as in western Thailand. Karen State, or Kawrho-
Wright, Evan Patrick. 2011. “Karelians.” In Ethnic Groups of
olei, takes the form of a strip of land that acts as a divider
Europe: An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 220–223.
Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. between the Thais and Burmese as well as between the
people and Myanmar’s Irrawaddy delta. The land of Karen
State is very mountainous and heavily forested.
In 2008, the worst natural disaster in Myanmar’s
recorded history, Cyclone Nargis, killed thousands of
KAREN Karens after its storm surge hit the densely populated
Irrawaddy delta. Relief efforts to help the people of the
Current Location Myanmar; Thailand
Irrawaddy delta were slow because, for political reasons,
Current Population 5 million–14 million Myanmar’s military junta initially resisted international
Language Karen aid. Then U.S. president George W. Bush condemned
Interesting Fact In the past, Christian Karens have Myanmar’s military rulers for their handling of the cata-
been crucified by the Burmese strophic cyclone, but Myanmar’s authorities only finally
authorities. accepted aid after India urged Myanmar to accept help.
550 Karen

about the people’s origins is that their ancestors arrived on

Ka Hsaw Wa the Myanmar-Thailand border from southern China dur-
In 1988, at age eighteen, Ka Hsaw Wa joined a ing the fifth century BCE.
nationwide protest against Burma’s military regime. An early Karen state grew up from a tribal federa-
Following the demonstration, Wa was arrested, tor- tion called the Thowannabonmi and flourished on the
tured, and, upon his release, forced to hide near the ­Myanmar-Thailand border until invading Burmans devas-
Thai border. There, Wa discovered human rights tated it in 1044. The Karens abandoned low-lying areas to
abuses had been committed and usually in relation the Burmans and sought refuge in the mountains, where
to the exploitation of natural resources. To doc- they remain to this day.
ument the abuses, Wa entered militarized areas, Throughout history, the Karens have been involved in
often at great personal risk. In 1995, Wa cofounded near continuous conflict with the Burmans, something
EarthRights International (ERI) with the intention that spurred the Karens to develop a strong sense of inde-
of exposing the link between human rights abuses pendence and national identity as well as a fierce military
and environmental issues in Burma (now Myanmar) tradition. In the thirteenth century, the Karens saw off an
and elsewhere. attack by the Mongols and then defeated invading Bur-
Since the 1990s, Wa has interviewed thousands of mese and Thai forces in the sixteenth and seventeenth cen-
victims of human rights before delivering his find- turies. Despite warding off these armies, many Karens who
ings to the international community. He has often had returned to live in lowland areas eventually became
provided the only information related to serious absorbed into Burmese society through the Burmese feu-
abuses against indigenous villagers perpetrated by dal tradition of forced assimilation. The Burmese also took
the Burmese army. Wa also trained a team of moni- away Karen lands in low-lying areas and faced repression
tors to document human and environmental abuses. in general from the Burmese.
Much of his work has focused on abuses linked to The British conquered Burma in 1826, an event that
the Yadana Gas Pipeline Project in the Andaman eased the pressure from Burmese. Karen tribal chiefs wel-
Sea. The pipeline traverses the Tenasserim rain for- comed the British as military allies and signed military and
est, which is inhabited by various peoples and home political treaties with the British that allowed the British
to rare and endangered wildlife. The information Wa to pick Karens as military recruits. Under British colonial
collected provided the basis for numerous reports rule, most Karen tribes remained autonomous, though
and a lawsuit that made legal history by being the under nominal British control. In addition, the Karens in
first case in which a U.S. judge granted jurisdiction highland areas were not included in British Burma. During
over a private company for human rights abuses the 1870s and 1880s, British missionaries began to arrive
abroad. in Karen areas and found their work was helped by the fact
Wa has received many honors for his work, that according to Karen folklore, the people’s true religion
including the Goldman Environmental Prize, the would arrive via a stranger from afar. Thus, the Karens were
Reebok Human Rights Award, the Conde Nast Envi- amenable to the missionaries and willingly converted to
ronmental Award (all in 1999), and the 2004 Sting Christianity in the belief that the conversion had been fore-
and Trudie Styler Award for Human Rights and the told. The missionaries also introduced modern education
Environment. He is currently the executive director in the form of missionary schools. The number of Chris-
of ERI, and he conducts global speaking tours high- tian Karens working in Burma’s education and colonial
lighting the oppression his people. institutions would significantly increase during the run-up
to World War II, and Burmans were almost totally excluded
from working in education, administration, or the military
under British colonial rule, thereby increasing the animos-
History and Politics ity between the Karens and Burmans. In 1881, the first
According to the majority of Karen folk history, the peo- Karen cultural organization was founded and became the
ple originated in a location to the north of Babylon around forerunner of Karen activist and military groups.
4,500 years ago. The people then traversed the Gobi Desert, By the 1930s, Karen soldiers made up in excess of half
which they call the River of Sand. Another Karen theory of the British colonial forces in Burma and had gained a
 Karen 551

reputation as excellent soldiers, having acted as guides

during the Anglo-Burmese Wars. Karen troops also played
an important role in reinforcing British colonial author-
ity by suppressing Burman rebellions in Lower Burma in
1886 and 1930–1932. The role of the Karen soldiers in con-
taining Burman nationalist insurgency against the British
increased the long-held hostility between the Karens and
Burmans. As a result of this enmity, frequent outbreaks
of violence between the two people broke out in lowland
areas, where the Karens and Burmans lived side by side.
In 1941, the Burmans supported the Japanese military
when they invaded British Burma because the Japanese
had promise them their independence if they aided them
against the British. To counter the Japanese, the British
promised the Karens, some of whom had retreated to
safety in India, their eventual independence in return for
their loyalty to Britain. Karen units were instrumental in
helping the Allies recapture Burma from the Japanese, but
the defeat of the Japanese was also helped by the fact that
Burma’s nationalist Thakin movement as well as the Burma
Independence Army (BIA) switched sides and stopped
supporting the Japanese. While many Karen hoped their A Karen woman with an elongated neck, Chiang Rai, Thailand.
people would be rewarded for their loyalty to the Brit- Women belonging to the two Karen subgroups, the Paduangs
and the Kayan, are well known for this traditional form of body
ish after the war, the British also switched allegiance and
modification. (Fabrizio Robba/Dreamstime.com)
began to support Burman calls for non-Burman areas of
Burma to be included in an independent Burman state.
Subsequently, after World War II, Karen calls for the crea- Over the years, many Karens have sought safety in
tion of their long-promised independent Karen state were Thailand. Their situation is worsened by the fact that
refused. they are not united as a people, being divided by religion,
Under pressure from British authorities, the Karens regional affiliations, tribalism, and language. The Burmese
agreed to the creation of their own independent state government continues to persecute the Karens by carry-
within a loose Burmese feudal system. The Karens were ing out forced migration policies in Karen areas, making
also assured they could have autonomy in the future if the Karens work as forced laborers and abusing Karen
they felt that their interests were not being served. There civilians.
followed a violent coup, and Burma’s new leaders refused
to honor the Karens’ independence agreement. Angered by
this, the Karens overran southern Burma and attacked the Society, Culture, and Tradition
Burmese capital city of Rangoon. The Burmese authorities The Karens are known for their hospitality and kindness,
called the Karen leadership to Rangoon under the pretense qualities they have determinedly maintained in the face of
of peace talks, but once in the city, the Burmese authori- hardship and conflict. Karen society accords women high
ties killed the entire Karen delegation. The newly leader- status, much higher than is typical for this area of Asia.
less Karen rebellion faltered, and the rebels were forced to This is possibly as a result of the years of conflict that have
retreat under fire from the Burmese. Nonetheless, in 1949, taken their toll on the number of Karen men. Elders are
Karen authorities declared the formation of an independ- also shown respect, as are teachers, doctors, religious fig-
ent Karen state, the Republic of Kawthoolei, but this was ures, and people who are educated.
soon overrun by Burmese government troops, forcing the Rice is the traditional staple crop of the Karens and is
Karens to flee to highland areas, where they continue to grown for eating rather than sale. The Karens also grow
struggle for independence today. vegetables and rear animals.
552 Karen

Both traditional and contemporary Karen music has a indigenous folk healing traditions, many of which involve
melancholy sound that is often attributed to the people’s herbs. Herbal medicine is important to people in Myan-
history of conflict and oppression. Christian Karens per- mar, as the people tend to lack funds to buy Western
form hymns that they learned from Christian mission- medicine, and the use of traditional treatments suits the
aries and then handed down through generations. Most anti-­imperialist, antimodernization ideals of the country’s
Christian Karens are Baptist, but there are also Catholic, authorities.
Anglican, and Seventh-day Adventist Karens. The tradi- Karens living in refugee camps are able to access health
tional religion of the Karens is animism, and the people care through clinics where nongovernmental organiza-
worship spirits. Several cave shrines at Kawgun in Karen tions (NGOs) provide treatments. There is also a small
State are around one thousand years old, thereby indicat- network of traditional Karen healers operating along the
ing the long history of spirit worship among the Karens. Myanmar-Thailand border that provides traditional Karen
Today, however, the majority of Karens practice Buddhism, health care to displaced Karens.
though Buddhist Karens often maintain animistic beliefs There is a movement toward reviving the ancient Karen
and practices. Buddhist monasteries exist in most Karen healing ways. There are, however, impediments to the
villages, with the monastery being the focus of community revival. For example, Christian Karens are often opposed to
life. Karen monks are both religious and community lead- traditional Karen herbalism, there is sometimes difficulty in
ers, who act as teachers, civil rights activists, traditional accessing healing plants, Karen refugees who have become
healers, and caregivers for orphans and displaced children. apathetic by life in the camps may be uninterested in seek-
In Thailand, the Karens are increasingly assimilated ing out cures, and young Karens are increasingly putting
into mainstream Thai society. Though the Karens may feel less store on tradition. In addition, NGOs often do not work
sadness at losing their culture, they realize that they are with local healers or encourage traditional practices, espe-
likely to receive better education, health care, accommo- cially Karen midwifery practices (Neiman et al. 2008).
dation and amenities such as safe water and electricity if Long-term Karen refugees who have inhabited camps
they are assimilated. for a while have sufficient contact with Western doctors
The women who belong to two subgroups of the Karens, to understand Western ways, making it easier for them to
the Paduangs and the Kayan, are well known for their tra- adjust should they move to Western countries. Refugees
ditional form of body modification: neck elongation. This who have not lived in refugee camps for long are more
is a type of voluntary bodily transformation that sees likely to be afraid of Western medical practices. NGOs run-
coils of brass placed around the females’ necks to give the ning clinics in Karen refugee camps include Médecins Sans
appearance of a stretched neck. This practice is customary Frontières (sometimes called Doctors without Borders in
in Thailand and Myanmar, where the traditional concept English), the American Refugee Committee, the Interna-
of female beauty considers a very long neck to be attractive tional Rescue Committee, and Malteser of Germany. These
and highly prized. The results of neck elongation can be so clinics provide health care, maternal and child health, con-
extreme that outsiders sometimes refer to the women that traception information, vaccinations and nutrition pro-
have undergone the process as “giraffe women.” It should grams as well as testing for HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis.
be noted, however, that the term neck elongation is slightly As in traditional Thai culture and Ayurvedic medicine,
misleading, as the women’s necks do not actually elongate the Karens believe food plays a key role in healing and
during the process of neck elongation. Rather, the brass maintaining good health. Many Karens prefer to eat bit-
coils that are placed around the females’ neck from shoul- ter or sour foods, particularly vegetables, which are often
der to chin at a young age force the chin upward while consumed as a preventative against ill health. The Karens
simultaneously forcing the ribs and shoulders downward, consider turmeric as beneficial to people both internally
thereby creating the impression of an extremely long neck. and externally, but at the same time, many foods are taboo.
For example, the Karens associate eating yellow fruit with
hepatitis and believe that if a person eats papaya, they will
Health Care and Education become ill with malaria. Pregnant Karen women are for-
Traditional Karen medicine borrows from both Indian bidden to eat spicy food.
Ayurvedic systems and traditional Chinese medicine. The The Karens suffer from a number of health issues. For
Karen living in the remotest areas also have a diversity of example, a 2009 investigation by the Centers for Disease
 Karen 553

Control and Prevention (CDC) concluded that refugee chil- undergoing vaginal examinations and because of male
dren in Myanmar are at relatively high risk of lead expo- medical staff being present during examinations.
sure while staying in refugee camps. Other investigations Education is highly valued in Karen culture. Karen chil-
have found that the Karens tend to experience stomach dren may start kindergarten at the age of two or three years
problems and diarrhea as well as gastric ulcers. The ulcers and attend school from the ages of five to twenty years,
result from the mental stress of their lives, either in camps though some children do not start school until they reach
or under a repressive political regime, as well as from a diet ten years of age. During adolescence, some Karen chil-
rich in hot chili peppers. Many Karens also have intestinal dren are made to stay at home to look after their younger
parasites. These include hookworm, which can contribute siblings, as this allows their parents to tend the fields. In
to iron deficiency, intestinal blood loss, and protein malnu- addition, it is sometimes necessary for Karen teenagers to
trition, and Giardia interstinalis, which causes a condition work in the fields alongside their parents. Armies invad-
called giardiasis that can result in violent diarrhea, excess ing villages and causing the people to flee can also disrupt
flatulence, abdominal cramps, and nausea. Karen education.
Malaria is another common Karen health complaint.
While malaria is rare in Thailand, it is rampant in places in
which Karen refugees live. Indeed, malaria is so widespread Threats to Survival
in some Karen areas that the people assume all fevers are In 2012, the Myanmar government signed a prelimi-
malaria, even though a person could be suffering from nary cease-fire with the Karen National Union (KNU)
dengue fever or any other kind of fever. Hepatitis A, B, and and its military wing, the Karen National Liberation
C are other common Karen complaints. The Karens are Army (KNLA). However, the Karen Human Rights Group
aware of hepatitis but do not fully understand the disease, (KHRG) reported that abuses against the Karens contin-
and there is little testing for it in refugee camps. Karens ued at the hands of both the Myanmar army and the Dem-
also often suffer from protein and vitamin deficiencies ocratic Karen Benevolent Army (DKBA). Indeed, while
caused by a diet consisting mainly of rice, salt, chilies, and fighting in Karen State was limited, the Myanmar author-
vegetables. In children, these vitamin deficiencies can be ities have cracked down heavily on certain Karen groups
evident by the children having light-colored hair. In rural living in northern Burma as well as against Muslim Karens
areas, pregnant Karen women, breastfeeding women, and in western and central Myanmar. In 2015, over two thou-
young children often suffer from thiamine deficiency. A sand Karen civilians were forced from their homes follow-
lack of thiamine can result in congestive heart failure in ing clashes between the Myanmar army and the DKBA
infants and children. near the Salween River. One report suggested the Myan-
According to the United Nations, Myanmar has the mar army hoped to gain control of land near the Salween
world’s lowest per capita spending on health care. Malaria, River for the location of a hydropower dam.
respiratory infections, diarrhea and anemia are all too In 2015, the Karen National Union/Karen National Lib-
common in Burma. The country is also affected by HIV/ eration Army (KNU/KNLA), KNU/KNLA-Peace Council
AIDS, tuberculosis, measles, and typhoid fever. Many peo- (KNU/KNLA-PC) together with the Democratic Karen
ple also suffer injuries from land mines. Benevolent Army (DKBA Benevolent) signed the Nation-
The infant mortality rate in Myanmar is high. Karens wide Ceasefire Agreement (NCA). The KHRG noted that
living in refugee camps receive family planning informa- the Karens’ freedom of movement had increased after the
tion; however, although some Karens choose to use contra- signing of the preliminary cease-fire, but there was con-
ception, many Christian refugees oppose birth control as tinuing militarization in Karen State, forced labor, and fre-
do the most traditional Karens, who consider children to quent sexual assaults, torture, and murders of Karen. The
be gifts from God. In the past, when illegal Karen migrant Karens also faced the risk of being injured by land mines
women gave birth in Thai hospitals, they underwent forced and unexploded bombs. Karen villagers also lived in fear
sterilization. For this reason, some Karen women are afraid of extrajudicial killings and land confiscation by Myanmar
of going to a hospital in case this happens to them too (Nei- soldiers (Minority Rights Group International 2017).
man et al. 2008). Another reason Karen women often prefer The Karens have sought the creation of their own
to give birth at home is that the women feel embarrassed at independent state within their homeland for over sixty
not having their legs completely covered by sarongs while years. Their struggle is one of the world’s longest-lasting
554 Kasaian

rebellions, and there seems little chance of their struggle as Kasaian. The Kasaians are made up of Luba and Lulua
ending anytime soon. tribespeople, for the two separate tribes were once united.
See also: Koryak; Mon; Naga; Rohingya
Further Reading Geography and Environment
Karen.org. n.d. “The Karen People.” Karen.org.au. http://www​
.karen.org.au/karen_people.htm. The Democratic Republic of the Congo is the second-­
Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the largest country on the African continent (after Algeria).
Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. It is located in Central Africa, where it is landlocked save
Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Myanmar/Burma: for a twenty-five-mile coastline on the Atlantic Ocean.
Karen.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peo- The DRC is bordered to the north by the Central African
ples. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/karen.
Republic and South Sudan; to the east by Uganda, Rwanda,
Neiman, Amy, Soh Eunice, and Parisa Sutan. 2008. “Karen
Cultural Profile.” EthnoMed, July 1. https://ethnomed.org​ Burundi, and Tanzania; to the southeast by Zambia; and to
/culture/karen/karen-cultural-profile. the southwest by Angola. To the west, there are the Ango-
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the lan exclave of Cabinda and Congo. The Kasai homeland is
World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA: located in the Kasai River basin, forming the DRC’s East
ABC-CLIO. and West Kasai provinces. The Kasai River is the main
southern tributary of the Congo River. The longest river
in the southern Congo River basin system, the Kasai River
has its source on the eastern slope of Angola’s Bíe Plateau.
Its headstream runs east and north to form the DRC-An-
KASAIAN gola border. This part of the river flows through deep
valleys and is home to spectacular rapids, waterfalls, and
Current Location Democratic Republic of Congo
sandbanks.
Current Population 11 million–13 million
The Kasai River flows through the swamp forests of the
Language Tshiluba (Luba-Lulua); French central Congo basin before entering the Congo River. The
Interesting Fact In 2017, over 1.4 million people were lower reaches of the Kasai River is studded with islands
internally displaced because of con- that flood during periods of high water. Seasonally and
flict in the Kasai region in which the
permanently flooded swamp forests grow along the lowest
Kasaians mostly live.
parts of the river’s valleys. Except for these swamp forests,
the vegetation around the Kasai River is mainly savanna
Overview mixed with forest. The forest becomes denser as the
The Kasaians (sometimes called the Kasaians of Luba Ori- Kasai flows toward the central Congo basin. Some Kasai
gin, the Luba-Kasai, the Western Luba, or the Luba-Lulua) valleys are home to extensive peat bogs and permanent
are an indigenous people of the Democratic Republic of swamps. Few biological studies on the Kasai region have
Congo (DRC). The Kasaians speak a Bantu language called been completed in recent years. It is known, however, that
Tshiluba or Luba-Lulua. The Kasaians also speak French hundreds of species of fish live in the area. The region is
as a lingua franca. Most Kasaians are nominally Christian, also extremely rich in frogs and aquatic insects. The Kasai
especially Roman Catholic. However, Christian Kasaians region has a tropical climate, except in the Angolan High-
combine Christianity with traditional Kasaian religious lands, which have a more temperate climate.
beliefs. Katanga province, bordered by Lake Tanganyika to the
east, Zambia to the south, and Angola to the west, contains
most of the DRC’s copper, cobalt, uranium, zinc, cadmium,
Population, Diaspora, and Migration silver, germanium, coal, gold, iron, manganese, and tin
There are between eleven million and thirteen million deposits.
Kasaians (Minahan 2016). Kasaian communities are con- The Kasaian homeland is experiencing deforestation
centrated in the DRC’s southern provinces of Kasai and due to logging activity and population growth, which leads
Katanga. Some Kasaian people live in Angola and Zambia to an increase in shifting cultivation and forests being con-
but are known by the name of their subtribes rather than verted into plantations. In addition to farming and logging,
 Kasaian 555

bushmeat hunting and mineral oil extraction also directly rural people. By this time, some Kasai had started to move
impact the forests and wildlife. Road building by logging to Katanga in search of jobs on Belgian-owned farms or
companies allows bushmeat hunters greater access to the in newly industrialized cities. During World War II, min-
heart of previously isolated forests, resulting in vulnera- eral production increased greatly to help the Belgian war
ble species such as gorillas, elephants, and leopards being effort. The increase in production caused the Luba-Kasai
hunted. The chimpanzee is also endangered because its to become even more urbanized.
forest home is being destroyed, and it is hunted and sold as Postwar, the Kasai became politicized and demanded
food in and around the Congo basin forests. reforms that would see the people have more control of
their homeland’s mineral wealth. Subsequently, Belgian
colonial authorities granted the Kasai some say in local
History and Politics politics and allowed them to own land. In 1957, the people
In the 400s, the Bantu settled in areas around the Kasai living in Belgium Congo participated in local elections for
River, where they founded multiple tribal states. During the first time. Seen as a prelude to the colony’s independ-
the eighth and ninth centuries, an elaborate Kasaian cul- ence, the elections caused old tribal and regional rivalries
ture emerged that revolved around mining and trading to surface. From these rivalries, the Congolese National
in slaves and ivory. During the fifteenth century, a local Movement (MNC) arose, based in the Kasai region. The
ruler, Kongolo, expanded his territory by conquering MNC proved influential in the Congolese independence
neighboring states. Kongolo’s son, Kalala Ilunga, united movement. In 1959, the MNC divided in two, with one half
the Kasaians under the auspices of the Luba Empire. The led by Patrice Lumumba from northern Kasai, who was
Luba Empire became very powerful, for it controlled land supported by the Luluas, and the other half of the MNC
in modern-day Democratic Republic of Congo, Zambia, headed by Albert Kalonji, a Luba-Kasai, who was more
and Angola. The empire also enjoyed good relations with moderate than Lumumba and enjoyed support from the
Portuguese colonialists, who arrived in Angola during the Luba-Kasai living in south and west Kasai. Soon violence
sixteenth century. The Portuguese exchanged fabric with erupted between the two MNC factions that engulfed the
the Luba in return for slaves and ivory. At the start of the whole of the Congo in civil war. The fighting caused over
seventeenth century, the Luba Empire was defeated by the one million Luba-Kasai to escape to South Kasai.
Kingdom of Lunda based in Katanga. The Luba Empire In 1960, Belgium Congo gained its independence, and
managed to break away from the Lunda kingdom, but the Katanga and South Kasai seceded. However, South Kasai’s
newly independent state soon disintegrated in the wake of independence was short-lived, for in 1962, Congolese sol-
civil unrest. What remained of the Luba-Katanga empire diers under the control of Patrice Lumumba invaded the
forced many Luba people to flee northwestward, where state, causing it to collapse. Lumumba had by now become
they established new states that ultimately broke apart the independent Democratic Republic of the Congo’s first
following territorial disputes. Meanwhile, a subtribe, the prime minister. In 1961, Lumumba was assassinated, and
Lulua, formed and established a new state in the north. the reorganized Congolese government set about invading
In the 1800s, a land dispute divided the Lubas into South Kasai. Thousands of civilians died during the inva-
the Luba-Kasai and Bene Lulua peoples. In the 1850s sion, and refugees who fled to Angola formed guerrilla
and 1860s, visiting Europeans reported that the area in groups that launched attacks along the Congo-Angola bor-
which the Luba lived was home to decaying empires but der for years to come.
rich in diamonds. In 1885, the Kasaian homeland was In 1965, a military coup installed a new Congolese
incorporated into the Belgian Congo. Mining companies leader, Mobutu Sese Seko (usually called Mobutu). West-
soon moved into the area to exploit its wealth of mineral ern fears that Congo’s huge natural resources would fall
resources. In 1895, African soldiers rebelled against the into the hands of the Soviets meant that the new leader
Belgians that had settled in Kasai, thereby threatening Bel- was backed by the West (especially France and the United
gium’s control of the region. States) despite widespread corruption and the repression
The Lubas, including the Kasai (or Luba-Kasai), adapted of Congolese civil liberties. In 1971, despotic Mobutu
to European culture, education, and urbanization rapidly. renamed Congo Zaire and tried to install a new form of
Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, the Luba expanded onto Zairean nationalism. Nonetheless, previous regional and
Lulua land. At the same time, the Lulua remained a mostly ethnic differences remained evident.
556 Kasaian

At the start of the 1970s, Kasaian nationalism renewed increasingly agitated. Soon Congo descended into ethnic
in the face of a ruined Zairean economy and endemic conflict that led to a war involving most Central African
corruption that had seen Mobutu seize businesses that he states and resulted in the collapse of Congo. In 2001, Kabila
then gave to his backers. At the same time, revenue from was assassinated and succeeded by his son, Joseph. Initially,
Kasai industrial diamond mines had vanished or been Joseph Kabila brought stability back to the country. Soon,
stolen, and the region was left without new infrastructure however, Kasaian leaders called for Congo to be replaced
(Minahan 2002). by a loose confederacy of autonomous states.
When the Cold War ended, many Western govern- In 2012, the Kasaians proposed an independent Kasai
ments lessened their support for Mobutu, who soon found state called the République Fédérale du Kasaï (Federal
his control over Zaire waning. This loosening of power Republic of Kasai) or the République du Grande-Kasaï
allowed nationalism to grow in Katanga. In 1990, this (Republic of Great Kasai). The proposed state would be
nationalism resulted in ethnic fighting when the Katan- one of Africa’s main diamond mining regions. In 2016,
gans attacked the Kasaians. The violence caused educated, Kasai descended into violence once more when the people
urban Kasains to flee for their lives back to Kasai. The rebelled against the national government. The rebellion
resulting refugee crisis led to a rise of Kasaian nationalism. broke out in 2016, in the aftermath of the government’s
The ethnic violence caused the two Kasaian peoples—the failing to recognize the authority of a traditional chief,
Luba and Lulua—to unite in the face of a common enemy, Kamina Nsapu, and placing its own candidate in power
and together they forged ahead with a nationalist move- instead.
ment. The Kasaian union was spurred on by the fact that Both Nsapu’s fighters (mainly child soldiers) and the
the Kasaians were one of Zaire’s poorest peoples, and they national army have been accused of widespread atrocities,
had a nostalgic longing to return to the peace they had including torture, mutilation by machete, decapitation,
known under Belgian colonial rule. gang rape, and mass murder. In 2018, the United Nations
In 1990, the Zairean authorities (under international warned that the fighting might be a prelude to genocide
pressure) permitted political opposition parties to form. against the Kasaians, for at least 5,000 Kasaians have been
One of these new political leaders was Etienne Tshise- killed in the Kasai region since 2016, and over 1.4 million
kedi, who was a Kasaian. However, several of Tshisekedi have become displaced. The United Nations advised that
colleagues sided with Mobutu in an attempt, they said, to the risk of further violence, abuse, and repression was very
prevent a Kasaian-dominated dictatorship. One of Tsh- high, with potentially devastating consequences for the
isekedi’s former colleagues became governor of Katanga, entire Kasai region (Nebehay 2018).
which led to attacks on Kasaians whose families had lived
in Katanga for generations. From 1992 to 1995, thou-
sands of Kasaians were expelled from Katanga, and others Society, Culture, and Tradition
died from disease or in concentration camps. This ethnic The Kasaians comprise the Luba-Kasai (Eastern Kasaians)
cleansing came despite Tshisekedi becoming president of and the Lulua (Kasaians). Traditionally, Kasaian culture is
Zaire in 1992. hierarchical, being divided into nobility, warriors, freemen,
In 1996, a government attempt to force Rwandan Tut- foreigners, and slaves.
sis from east Zaire caused the Tutsis living there to rebel The Kasaian language, Tshiluba (or Luba-Lulua), is a
against the Zairean government. Consequently, Ugan- Bantu language belonging to the Benue-Niger language
dan and Rwandan governments put a Katangan, Laurent group. The language comprises several dialects, including
Kabila, in charge of flushing out Tutsi rebels in Zaire. In Luba-Kasai, Luntu, Binji, Songye, and Mputu as well as
1997, however, the rebels overran Kasai, and the same many subdialects.
year, Kabila’s forces overthrew Mobutu and claimed most Most Kasaians are Roman Catholic. The Kasaians com-
of Zaire. Later, in 1997, Kabila declared himself president bine Christianity with pre-Christian traditions, including
and renamed Zaire as Congo. To start with, the Kasaians the worship of a supreme being that takes the form of a
supported Kabila in the belief that he could end the pov- sky or earth god. The Kasaians also venerate ancestor spir-
erty and corruption that blighted everyday Kasaian life. its, whom the Kasaians regard as both mythic and recent.
However, Kabila’s regime proved as corrupt as Mobutu’s. Alongside the ancestor spirits, the Kasaians worship nature
Disillusioned and poverty stricken, the Kasaians became spirits that they believe live in mountains and trees. The
 Kasaian 557

Kasaians hold many rituals that they feel improve fertil- persons in the DRC has more than doubled to 4.1 million.
ity, protect children, or ensure the people’s crops. Kasaian This is the highest number of internally displaced persons
rebels have also been reported to have held witchcraft or in Africa. A surge in violence in the Kasai and Eastern
voodoo rituals that they believe will make them invincible. regions has made over 1.7 million people flee their homes,
with over 1.4 million people fleeing the Kasai region. Dis-
placement is the main issue facing the Kasaians (UNICEF
Health Care and Education 2018). Those who flee their homes often resort to hiding
Across the Democratic Republic of Congo, two million chil- in the bush without shelter, drinking water, sanitation,
dren are suffering from severe acute malnutrition. In Kasai food, or medical care. Others end up living with their rela-
alone, over 770,000 young children are malnourished, and tives, who are already struggling to survive. In early 2018,
400,000 children are at risk of dying because of severe violence resulted in the displacement of 11,000 people
acute malnutrition. A further 10 percent of children under from the Mweka territory, and 35,000 people crossed into
age five years are in urgent need of treatment for severe Angola as refugees. Some Kasaian refugees have tried to
acute malnutrition. In addition to malnutrition, children in return to their homes, but they were forced back by Ango-
Kasai face a continuing health crisis because violence and lan authorities. Those Kasaians that do manage to return
displacement mean they do not receive their scheduled to their homes usually find them destroyed. Meanwhile,
vaccinations. Continuing conflict also destroys healthcare the UN High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) and
facilities, which in turn disrupts immunization programs, other bodies are struggling to find the funds needed for
meaning people in Kasai are even more susceptible to dis- necessary major reconstruction programs (Minority
eases. Individuals who are not displaced by conflict also Rights Group International 2018).
have difficulty accessing health care. According to UNICEF In Katanga province, local people, migrants, and refu-
and other groups, 224 village healthcare centers have been gees vie for resources and jobs. While the mining indus-
looted, burned, or destroyed, leaving hundreds of thou- try continues to attract migrants from Kasai, declining
sands of people without any health care (UNICEF n.d.). employment in the mining sector has caused ethnic ten-
In 2018, UNICEF increased its response in the Dem- sion. Outbreaks of diseases, including measles, malaria,
ocratic Republic of the Congo, focusing its efforts on and cholera, occur across the Democratic Republic of
the Kasai and Eastern regions. The main issues UNICEF Congo. Children face the violation of their rights, includ-
focused on was providing water, sanitation, and hygiene ing forced recruitment into conflict, killing, maiming, and
services. In areas affected by outbreaks of disease, efforts sexual violence as well as the loss of education. Many hun-
are being made to improve people’s access to primary dreds of thousands of children in Kasai continue to suffer
health care. Psychosocial support for children affected by from malnutrition. Many Kasaians continue to hope for
conflict is being provided, as is and support for children the creation of a Kasaian republic.
who are displaced, former child soldiers, and survivors of
sexual violence. Cholera prevention programs are being See also: Chewa; Hutu and Tutsi
implemented as well, including water purification, chlo- Further Reading
rination, and the construction of latrines. Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
In 2017, around five hundred thousand children in Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 2, D–K.
Kasai were unable to complete the school year due to con- Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing.
Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
flict. Fighting in the area has resulted in 416 primary and
nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa Bar-
secondary schools either being attacked or used for mili- bara, CA: Greenwood.
tary purposes. Additionally, about 100 schools have been Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Democratic Repub-
totally destroyed (UNICEF n.d.). lic of Congo: Kasaians of Luba.” World Directory of Minor-
ities and Indigenous Peoples. https://minorityrights.org​
/minorities/kasaians-of-luba-origin.
Threats to Survival Nebehay, Stephanie. 2018. “Conflict in Congo’s Kasai Could Be
Prelude to Genocide, U.N. Expert Warns.” Reuters, July 4.
In recent years, the humanitarian situation in the Dem- https://uk.reuters.com/article/uk-congo-violence-un​/con​flict​
ocratic Republic of the Congo has severely deteriorated. -in-congos-kasai-could-be-prelude-to-genocide​-u​-n​-expert​
Since the start of 2017, the number of internally displaced -warns-idUKKBN1JU1XG.
558 Kashmiri

UNICEF. 2018. “Democratic Republic of the Congo.” https://​ Kashmiris first settled in the United Kingdom in the
www.unicef.org/appeals/drc.html. late 1950s following the completion of the Mangla Dam
UNICEF. n.d. “Conflict in the Kasai, Democratic Republic of at Mirpur in Pakistani Kashmir. The dam’s construction
the Congo.” https://www.unicef.org/child-alert/democratic​
-republic-of-congo.
resulted in the destruction of hundreds of Kashmiri vil-
lages and caused roughly five thousand Kashmiris to
head to Britain, having received legal and financial assis-
tance from the British contractors who had built the dam
(Minority Rights Group International 2015). Over time,
the immigrants were joined by other Kashmiris, leading to
KASHMIRI the development of the sizable, rapidly growing Kashmiri
Current Location India; Pakistan diaspora in the United Kingdom.
In 2008, Indian authorities transferred forty hectares of
Current Population 7 million–9 million
forest to the Hindu organizers of an annual pilgrimage to
Language Kashmiri; English; Urdu
the Amarnath caves (a Hindu shrine located in Jammu and
Interesting Fact Kashmir’s Hazratbal Shrine is said
Kashmir). The land transfer prompted tens of thousands of
to contain the preserved hair of
Muslim Kashmiris to demonstrate on the streets of Srina-
Prophet Mohammed.
gar. The resultant clashes with police led to several people
dying and left hundreds injured. The many Kashmiri sepa-
Overview ratist groups united over the issue, accusing the authorities
The Kashmiris (sometimes spelled Cashmiris or called the of conspiring to settle Indian Hindus on the land to change
Keshur, Polugis, or Kacmiris, among other names) are an Kashmir’s demographics. The authorities later reversed the
ethnic group living in Kashmir, a region claimed by India decision (Minority Rights Group International 2015).
and Pakistan. The Kashmiris speak Kashmiri, a language
belonging to the Dardic group of Indo-Aryan languages.
The language is written using the Persian script. English Geography and Environment
is the second language of most Kashmiris. Many Kash- Kashmir is a region located in the northwest of the Indian
miris also speak Urdu. Most Kashmiris are Sunni Muslims, subcontinent. It is bordered to the northeast by China’s
though there is a small Shia Muslim minority. There are Uygur Autonomous Region of Xinjiang and to the east by
also some small Sikh, Hindu, Christian, and Tibetan Bud- the Tibet Autonomous Region. To the south are the Indian
dhist Kashmiri communities. states of Himachal Pradesh and Punjab. Pakistan is to
Kashmir’s west, and Afghanistan is to the northwest. The
north and west of Kashmir are administered by Pakistan
Population, Diaspora, and Migration and divided into three areas: Azad Kashmir, Gilgit, and
Population estimates for the Kashmiris range from Baltistan. Gilgit and Baltistan make up a territory some-
seven million (Minahan 2012) to nine million (Minority times called the Northern Areas. The south and south-
Rights Group International 2015). Most Kashmiris live east of Kashmir constitute the Indian state of Jammu and
in the state of Jammu and Kashmir, in India’s far north- Kashmir. The Indian and Pakistani areas are divided by a
west. The rest of the Kashmiris live in the Azad Kashmir “line of control” that was agreed in 1972 but which nei-
region, which is controlled and administered by Paki- ther country considers an international border. Since 1962,
stan. Many Kashmiris live elsewhere in India and Paki- China has controlled the northeast of Ladakh, which com-
stan, for Kashmiris once migrated from the crowded prises the easternmost part of Kashmir.
Vale of Kashmir to other parts of the subcontinent. Most of Kashmir is mountainous with deep, narrow val-
Northern districts of the Punjab regions of Pakistan and leys and high plateaus. The Jammu and Poonch plains in the
India are home to many clans descended from Kashmiri southwest are partitioned by the forests of the Himalayan
migrants. A large Kashmiri population also exists in the foothills and the Pir Panjal Range. To the north, there is the
United Kingdom. According to some estimates, almost larger, more fertile, and heavily populated Vale of Kashmir
half of all one million British Pakistanis are of Kashmiri that comprises the basin of the upper Jhelum River. Jammu
origin. and the Vale of Kashmir are located in the Indian state of
 Kashmiri 559

Jammu and Kashmir, and the Poonch lowlands lie mainly of getting caught in crossfire, thereby enabling the hangul
in Azad Kashmir. To the northeast of the Vale of Kashmir population to grow.
is the western section of the Great Himalayas, which rise
to 20,000 feet or higher. Farther to the northeast is Ladakh,
a mountainous plateau region that is divided by the Indus History and Politics
River valley. Northwest of the Himalayas is the Karako- The people living in the Vale of Kashmir were first men-
ram Range, which includes the second-highest peak in the tioned in ancient chronicles from the Buddhist Maurya
world, K2 (or Mount Godwin-Austen), which reaches an state dating from around 200 BCE. Later, the state became
altitude of 28,251 feet. The Kashmir region is located on part of India’s Hindu empires. The Vale of Kashmir was
the northernmost edge of the Indian-Australian tectonic located at the junction of numerous ancient empires, and
plate. This plate experiences subduction beneath the Eura- as a result, the area was frequently invaded by peoples from
sian plate, causing significant seismic activity within Kash- Central Asia, Mongolia, and Iran. In the fourteenth cen-
mir. In 2005, a powerful earthquake destroyed much of the tury CE, Aryan Muslim tribes from Central Asia overran
administrative center of Azad Kashmir, Muzaffarabad, as Kashmir. Their incursion meant that Islam, spread by Sufi
well as adjacent parts of India’s Jammu and Kashmir state saints, became prevalent throughout the region. Subse-
and Pakistan’s North-West Frontier Province. Kashmir’s quently, during the mid-fifteenth century, a Muslim Kash-
climate ranges from subtropical in the lowlands to alpine miri sultanate experienced a cultural peak. Many of the
at the highest altitudes. The region’s precipitation is var- Muslim sultans were tolerant of other religions operating
iable. It is heaviest in areas to the west and south of the within the kingdom, though some did persecute religious
mountain ranges that experience monsoon winds. minorities. The independence of the Kashmiris ended in
Kashmir has experienced deforestation caused by mili- 1586, when they were invaded by the Mughal Empire.
tary forces clearing vast tracts of forestland to build camps In the mid-eighteenth century, the Kashmiri state re­
and prevent militants from taking cover. The military also gained its independence before it was conquered again, this
uses the area’s forests as firing ranges. Growing urban- time by the Pashtuns. Then, in 1819, Sikhs from the Punjab
ization and illegal logging also contribute to Kashmir’s region, incorporated the Kashmiri homeland into their ex-
deforestation. When Indian and Pakistani armies were first panding empire. In 1845, the First Anglo-Sikh War erupted,
deployed to Kashmir, large-scale poaching of rare species, resulting in the Sikhs’ defeat. Gulab Singh, the Hindu ruler
including ibex and snow leopard, ensued. Initially, the ani- of Jammu located to the south of the Kashmiri homeland,
mals were killed for food, but they were then targeted for became an ally of the British, and in return, he was granted
their valuable furs. Political instability in Kashmir means rule of Kashmir. Kashmir existed as an autonomous princely
that illegal, environmentally damaging activities can occur state until 1858, when the region came under the suzerainty
as well as illegal logging and fishing. of the British Crown. In 1925, Gulab Singh’s great-grandson,
Uncontrolled mass tourism to Kashmir also impacts Hari Singh, became Kashmir’s ruler. He continued in power
the region’s environment by increasing air, water, and land during Britain’s withdrawal from India and the partition of
pollution, contributing to soil erosion, straining water the subcontinent between India and Pakistan that occurred
resources, and leading to loss of natural habitat. One spe- in 1947. As a result of its location on the new India-Pakistan
cies to benefit from the ongoing trouble in Kashmir is the border, Kashmir soon became the site of regional tension.
severely endangered hangul (or Kashmir stag), which has In 1939, the Muslims, led by Muhammad Abdullah
experienced a population increase in recent years. In Kash- (dubbed the “Lion of Kashmir”), formed the first Kashmiri
mir, the hangul lives mainly in the Zabarwan mountain political party, the Kashmir National Conference. Later,
range in the center of the Kashmir valley. When an anti-­ the Kashmiris began to rebel against their domination by
Indian insurgency arose in Kashmir in 1989, local peo- Hindus. As World War II came to an end, Britain prepared
ple were banned from owning guns, with anyone caught to grant British India’s independence with the creation of
carrying weapons punished as insurgents. Consequently, Hindu-majority India and Muslim Pakistan. Hari Singh
locals refrained from carrying guns and so did not shoot imprisoned Muhammad Abdullah on the grounds that
as many wild animals, including hanguls. Additionally, he led a pro-Pakistan campaign and refused to relinquish
with vast areas of forest inhabited by militants and troops, Kashmir to either India or Pakistan. Following a large-
Kashmiri poachers stayed away from the forests for fear scale Muslim revolt, Abdullah was released. Abdullah then
560 Kashmiri

managed to keep Kashmir peaceful while the rest of India India’s Hindu-dominated government is vehemently
and Pakistan experienced violent civil unrest. Following opposed to the Kashmiris’ autonomy, for the government
an invasion of Muslim Pashtun tribesmen from Pakistan, considers Kashmiri autonomy the first step to Kashmir’s
as well as a proindependence uprising in the Vale of Kash- secession. Meanwhile, Kashmiris living under Paki-
mir, Hari Singh asked the British for help. The assistance stani rule are regarded as inferior to other people living
was granted on the condition that Hari Singh agree to his in Pakistan. Tension and violent conflict have negatively
kingdom being incorporated into India rather than Paki- impacted the Kashmiris and their culture. Neglect by India
stan, despite the fact that most of the Muslim-majority and Pakistan leaves the Kashmiris with poor educational
population of Kashmir wanted to be part of Pakistan, not attainment levels and decreasing literacy rates, and they
India. Ten days later, Indian troops were dropped into cen- are dominated by political militants and religious fanatics.
tral Kashmir by air, where they fought a short and success-
ful war against forces that included Pakistani troops, tribal
irregular soldiers, and proindependence Kashmiris. Society, Culture, and Tradition
Later, a UN cease-fire divided Kashmir between India Despite long periods spent living under foreign rule, the
and Pakistan as a temporary measure until a referendum Kashmiris have retained their cultural identity, which con-
could be held to decide Kashmir’s ultimate fate. A UN res- tinues to feature a mix of religions, languages, and cultures.
olution provided for a referendum in Kashmir, with the The Kashmiris’ physical appearance also sets them apart
vote choosing whether Kashmir would become part of from the inhabitants of India or Pakistan, because, as the
India or Pakistan or become a separate state. However, the descendants of early Indo-Aryan peoples, the Kashmiris
suggested referendum never occurred, so both India and are often tall and have fair coloring.
Pakistan continue to claim Kashmir. For decades, this situ- Most Kashmiris are rural, and they tend to live in vil-
ation has been a source of deep animosity between the two lages or family compounds with their extended families.
countries. Meanwhile, Abdullah, who continued to demand The Indian constitution bans the sale of land in Jammu
a referendum be held, spent years imprisoned in India. and Kashmir to people hailing from elsewhere in India.
India controls most of the Kashmiri homeland, and Consequently, many people live on houseboats on lakes
Pakistan controls the rest. Years of neglect and injudicious and rivers in central Kashmir. Over time, the houseboats
Indian rule has alienated the Kashmiris, particularly Mus- have become an integral part of Kashmiri culture.
lim Kashmiris, who comprise most of the Kashmiri Mus- The Kashmiris speak the Kashmiri language, which is
lim population. In 1988, a widespread Kashmiri rebellion divided into thirteen dialects. The Kashmiri literary lan-
erupted that was headed by multiple activists, resulting guage is based on the Kashtarawi dialect. The dialects spo-
in the rebels becoming split between those factions that ken in the south of Kashmir are linked to Punjabi. Many
favored a union with Muslim Pakistan, those that wanted Kashmiris consider Urdu, the official language of Pakistan
Kashmiri independence, and those that wished to have and of India’s Muslims, to have a superior social status
greater autonomy within India. Infighting between the than Kashmiri. The majority of Kashmiris speak English
various groups exacerbated the regional violence. as a second language.
Indian troops have long been charged with committing Kashmiris are famous for their fine arts, poetry, hand-
atrocities against Muslims living in the Vale of Kashmir. icrafts (carpet making, pashmina weaving, and wood-
In February 2019, India and Pakistan launched air strikes working), music, and dance. Sufiana kalam (the devotional
against each other’s Kashmiri territory for the first time music of Sufi mystics) was banned in Kashmir during the
since the 1971 war, raising fears of a major military escala- 1920s, when the music was deemed too sensual. Sufiana
tion between two nations equipped with nuclear weapons. was replaced by bacha nagma, music performed by young
Pakistan also claimed to have shot down two Indian jets boys dressed as women. Today, however, Kashmiri music
and captured an Indian military pilot. The flare-up came in is mainly Sufiana. The traditional Kashmiri folk singing,
the wake of a suicide bomb attack in Indian-­administered chakri, is performed by specialist singers who have hoarse
Kashmir. The attack killed forty-two paramilitaries, mak- voices. Chakri is considered a way to tell folktales. A chakri
ing it the deadliest attack in almost thirty years of the performance usually ends with roaf, a Kashmiri dance
Kashmir conflict. Responsibility for the attack was claimed performed by women who make rhythmic movements as
by the Pakistan-based group Jaish-e-Muhammad (JeM). they sing. Kashmiri drama includes a form of satirical folk
 Kashmiri 561

theater called bhand jashna (“festival of clowns”), which is Bombing along the line that divides Indian-controlled
performed in village squares. and Pakistani-controlled Kashmir has disrupted educa-
Most Kashmiris are Muslim, with some practic- tion in both countries greatly. For example, in 2014, heavy
ing a form of Sufiism that came to India from Iran. The shelling by Indian forces caused 120 government schools
­Muslim-majority population lives in the Kashmir val- to shut. Then, in 2016, almost 300 schools in villages in
ley, while Hindus dominate the plains of Jammu. Many Jammu, Samba, and Kathua districts closed during periods
Islamic shrines are located throughout Kashmir. The of heightened tension following heavy shelling in the area
most important of these is the Hazratbal Shrine, set on by Pakistani forces. In 2017, a school in Poonch was heav-
the banks of the Dal Lake, where the hair of the Prophet ily damaged by Pakistani shelling. Aside from shelling,
Mohammed is preserved. Other important shrines include other disruptions to Kashmiri education include problems
the Chrar-i-Shareef Shrine, the Mukhdoom Sahab Shrine, in implementing a syllabus (in 2016, in ­Indian-occupied
and the Dastgeer Sahib Shrine. Jammu is famous for its Jammu and Kashmir, only four months of schooling
many important temples and Hindu pilgrimage sites, occurred during the year, meaning many classes learned
which draw thousands of worshippers from across India. less than half the year’s curriculum), classroom over-
In Ladakh, Tibetan Buddhism predominates. People in crowding, mass copying made worse by lenient marking,
Ladakh celebrate religious festivals linked to the Tibetan and lack of teacher responsibility. Another problem facing
lunar calendar. Kashmiri education is that school buildings are in a poor
Typically, Kashmiris wear long, loose clothes. In win- state of repair and lack sanitation facilities, including lava-
ter, they wear a long gown called a pheran, which protects tories, as well as water and walls.
them from the cold, and they carry a kangri (fire pot) The recent school closures have led to student uprisings
inside their pherans. Kashmiris also their take kangris to and protests because Kashmiri students feel their edu-
bed with them to keep themselves warm. cation is at risk. In 2017, hundreds of students protested
against Indian forces, resulting in the soldiers using tear
gas against the students (Action on Armed Violence 2018).
Health Care and Education The barriers to education have resulted in Kashmiris being
Rural Kashmiris have poor access to health care, for both poorly educated with ever-decreasing literacy levels. Since
public and private healthcare facilities are concentrated in 2008, the Kashmiri language has been a compulsory sub-
the cities of Srinagar and Jammu. Consequently, rural and ject in all primary schools located in the Vale of Kashmir.
poor Kashmiris, especially women, bear the brunt of poor Research conducted at Colombia University in 2013
health care. Kashmir suffers a shortage of personnel, par- found that 79 percent of military camps in the Kashmir
ticularly gynecologists, anesthetists, nurses, and doctors— region were located less than one kilometer from schools.
the doctor-patient ratio in Jammu and Kashmir is among This has resulted in pupils fearing their proximity to mil-
the lowest in India. Although the rate is 1 to 2,000 in India, itary installations leaves them at greater risk of being
in Jammu and Kashmir, there is 1 doctor per 3,866 people. shelled. The violence in the Kashmiri homeland has had a
In Jammu and Kashmir, nearly 97 percent of health care is particularly negative impact on girls’ education, for many
provided by public health institutions. The private health parents fear their daughters will be caught up in a bomb-
sector has failed to develop across Kashmir because of the ing or are at risk of sexual violence from military person-
region’s geographical isolation, troubled security situation, nel based in camps situated close to schools. These factors
and restrictive land laws. Public health services lack infra- have resulted in rising school dropout rates for Kashmiri
structure and human resources, especially in hospitals. girls. In 2013–2014, 296,535 urban Kashmiri girls were
According to a recent audit, there are only 270 specialist enrolled in education. During the period 2015–2016, this
medical officers working in the health facilities, which rep- figure fell to 96,896 girls, a decrease of 67 percent.
resent a 46 percent deficiency of specialists. There are also Both India and Pakistan have moved to encourage
on 10 people working in the state’s blood banks as opposed Kashmiri girls to stay in education. For example, in 2004,
to the optimum number of 132 workers. The poor state of India began an initiative called Kasturba Gandhi Balika
Kashmir’s district hospitals means Kashmiri women, espe- Vidyalaya (KGBV) that is intended to reduce girls’ drop-
cially those who need obstetric care, are sent to the region’s out rates, while in the Pakistan-administered Azad Jammu
only maternity hospital located in Srinagar (Parvaiz 2018). and Kashmir area, the Malala Education Fund has been
562 Kavalan

established to promote girls’ education with support from Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the
UNESCO and the Department of Education. Initiatives Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
aimed at improving girls’ education site the need to cre- Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “India: Kashmiris.”
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, June
ate residential schools for girls in all districts that have 19. https://minorityrights.org/minorities/kashmiris.
low female literacy rates as well as financial incentives Parvaiz, Athar. 2018. “Women Bear Brunt of Poor Healthcare
and scholarships for the girls born to poor families and in Rural Kashmir.” Village Square, June 11. https://www​
the construction of boundary walls for schools so that the .villagesquare.in/2018/06/11/women-bear-brunt-of-poor​
schools are separated from military bases. -healthcare-in-rural-kashmir.

Threats to Survival
Many factors affecting the Kashmiris stem from the fact
that both India and Pakistan challenge the legality of the
KAVALAN
other’s claim to the Kashmiri homeland. Today, Kashmir is
Current Location Taiwan
known for the viciousness of the conflict that rages there.
Current Population 1,700
In the last fifteen years, the conflict between Muslim Kash-
Language Min Nan Chinese; Kavalan
miris and the Indian military has resulted in the deaths of
over forty thousand people. Extrajudicial killings by secu- Interesting Fact The Kavalan are the earliest settlers
rity forces have also occurred. This violence is matched of Taiwan’s Lang Yang Plain.
by the violence perpetrated by Muslim separatist groups.
Recent acts of violence linked to the conflict in Kashmir
Overview
include suicide attacks, political assassinations, bombings, The Kavalan (or Kuvalan) are an indigenous people of
and the burning of a train carrying people from India to Taiwan. Most Kavalan speak Min Nan Chinese, though
Pakistan. These incidents worsened relations between the Shinshe Kavalan and some elderly people belong-
India and Pakistan and damaged the fragile peace in Kash- ing to other Kavalan groups speak the Kavalan language.
mir (Minority Rights Group International 2015). This language belongs to the east Formosan branch of the
The violence perpetrated by insurgency groups has cre- Austronesian language family. Kavalan religious activity
ated a strong sense of distrust between Kashmiri Muslims focuses on ancestor worship. The name Kavalan translates
and other Indians. According to a recent Human Rights as “people of the plains.”
Watch report, there is some evidence that the Pakistani
government sponsors some of the arms used by Kashmiri
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
militants, and the British press has suggested that Paki-
stani militants raise funds for and train new Kashmiri Taiwan’s Kavalan population consists of 1,700 people
militants (Minority Rights Group International 2015). At (Indigenous Peoples Cultural Development Center n.d.).
present, violence in Kashmir is ongoing, with India and Around 87 percent of Kavalan live in Hualien county
Pakistan launching air strikes within each other’s terri- (Hsieh and Huang 2007). However, Kavalan communi-
tory. Only time will tell whether this renewed aggression ties also exist in neighboring Taitung counties and else-
accelerates into a war between two countries with nuclear where in Taiwan. Some Kavalan still live on the Lang Yang
capabilities or is resolved politically. Plain that the Kavalan originally inhabited, but most have
migrated elsewhere. As they live in low-lying areas of Tai-
See also: Balawar; Pashtun; Sikh; Tibetan wan, the Kavalan are classified as Ping Pu, or Plains indig-
Further Reading enous peoples.
Action on Armed Violence. 2018. “The Impact of Explosive Vio-
lence on Students and Education in Kashmir.” ReliefWeb,
May 24. https://reliefweb.int/report/pakistan/impact-explosive​ Geography and Environment
-violence-students-and-education-kashmir.
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth- Hualien County is located in eastern Taiwan. The county is
nic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 2, D–K. West- bordered by the Pacific Ocean to the east and by the Cen-
port, CT: Greenwood Press. tral Mountain Range to the west. Taichung City, Nantou
 Kavalan 563

County, Kaohsiung City, and Yilan County are to the north society is also egalitarian, for there are no Kavalan social
of Hualien County, while Taitung County lies to the south. classes, and leaders are elected. Public affairs are discussed
Despite being a large county, Hualien is sparsely populated at group meetings convened by blowing a conch shell.
because much of the land is mountainous, with the Central The Kavalan grow crops for food, and they also hunt
Mountain Range to the west and Haian Range to the east. and fish. Kavalan children learn to work in the fields from
The county is also home to several rivers, with the most a young age and know how to grow millet, sweet potatoes,
notable being the Hualian and Xiuguluan Rivers. Plains corn, and rice. The plains on which the Kavalan live are rich
stretch along the river valleys and between mountain in animal life, meaning they are good hunting grounds,
ranges. In fact, because of the prevalence of mountains and the plains’ many rivers are rich in fish.
and rivers in Hualien county, most people live on the allu- Traditionally, Kavalan clothes are made from woven
vial fans of the Huatung Valley plains. The Huatung Valley plant fibers, with weaving being considered a major Kav-
extends into the north of mountainous Taitung County, alan art form. While some Kavalan weaving techniques
which stretches along Taiwan’s southeast coast. have been lost through the people’s assimilation with the
Han Chinese, some Kavalan people, especially those liv-
ing in Sincheng Township in Hualien County, continue
History and Politics to practice weaving. Different plants are used to make
The Kavalan originated as the earliest settlers living on different clothes. For instance, fibers of ramie (a member
Taiwan’s Lang Yang Plain in Yilan County in northeast of the nettle family) are used to make clothes, and creep-
Taiwan. The name Yilan is a transliteration of Kavalan. On ing water-primrose and plantain fibers are used to make
the plains, the Kavalan lived in tranquility, even after they bags. Fibers of abaca (a member of the hemp family) are
encountered Spanish colonialists during Taiwan’s Spanish used when the Kavalan need to make something that is
colonial period (1626–1642). At the start of the eighteenth especially robust, such as making sacks to carry betel nuts
century, Kavalan life changed for the worse under the Han or mats.
Qing dynasty (1644–1912). During this period, the Kava- Kavalan houses are made from wood, thatch, and soil. It
lan population and culture began to decline because they is also common for the Kavalan to block cold drafts com-
became assimilated into the society of the Han Wu Sha ing in through the wood by using bull excrement. Tradi-
people who established a village on the Lang Yang Plain. tionally, the Kavalan open all the windows of their house
Having lost their land, those Kavalan who had not assim- during the day before shutting them at night.
ilated left in waves of migration. From 1830 to 1840, the Ancestor worship is central to Kavalan religion, for the
Kavalan underwent mass migration southward and set- Kavalan believe their ancestors are responsible for both
tled in Sincheng, in Hualien County. However, the people the people’s good luck and misfortune. The Kavalan divide
did not reside there for long because of the Takobowan the universe into the human world and the spiritual realm.
Incident. This was an ill-fated rebellion against the Qing Kavalan religious figures include priests and witches called
dynasty involving the Kavalan, Kaleon, and Sakizaya mtiu, both of whom act as conduits between the human
indigenous peoples. The revolt ended after many mem- world and the afterlife. Important Kavalan rituals include
bers of the indigenous communities were killed. Fearing LaLiGi, which occurs annually between March and April
a retaliation by the indigenous peoples, the Qing exiled and sees elderly Kavalan worship the people’s elders by the
the surviving Kavalan, with most Kavalan settling farther seashore. During LaLiGi, young fishermen head out to see
south near the Pacific Ocean. and bring back their catch to the elders standing by the
Over the last three hundred years, the Kavalan popula- shore. The caught fish are then eaten, with any remaining
tion has greatly declined, mainly through assimilation into sent back to Kavalan villages. This ritual continues for two
mainstream Chinese society. to three days. The Kavalan New Year ritual (Palilin) sees
the people hold small-scale ceremonies commemorating
their ancestors. During the commemorations, the Kavalan
Society, Culture, and Tradition make offerings of wine and food to their dead relatives as
Kavalan society is matriarchal, with eldest daughters hav- though the relatives were still living. Then the people pray
ing the right to inherit family property—if a family has to their ancestors, asking for the health and prosperity of
no daughter, an eldest son may inherit instead. Kavalan the living.
564 Kayapó

When a Kavalan person dies, the people hold a cere- Indigenous Peoples Cultural Development Center. n.d. “Kavalan
mony called Patohqan. This ritual is based on the the- Tribe: Geographic Distribution.” Taiwan Indigenous Cultural
ory that the spirits of the dead remain on earth, unable Park. https://www.tacp.gov.tw/tacpeng/home02_3.aspx?ID​
=$3112&IDK=2&EXEC=L.
to move on to the afterlife and join the ancestors, unless Inghai, Pan. 2000. “‘Pingpu’ Consciousness in Today’s Taiwan: On
the ceremony is held. The Kavalan entice their ancestors History and Ethnicity.” China Perspectives 28: 82–88. JSTOR.
to the home of the deceased person using food and then www.jstor.org/stable/43392899.
wait for the spirit of the deceased to meet the spirits of the Lee, Amy Pei-jung. 2011. “Metaphorical Euphemisms of Rela-
ancestors. Once the ancestors are served food, the ances- tionship and Death in Kavalan, Paiwan, and Seediq.” Oceanic
tral spirits are thought to take the spirit of the deceased to Linguistics 50 (2): 351–379. JSTOR. www.jstor.org/stable​
/41337060.
the afterlife, where they can rest eternal.

Health Care and Education

In the 1980s, the Kavalan set out to revive their tradi-
tional culture and language. As part of this initiative, KAYAPÓ
the Kavalan collected elements of the Kavalan lan-
Current Location Brazil
guage from the few remaining elderly Kavalan speakers
and organized the language fragments into a teachable Current Population Unknown
school subject. The language was then made part of the Language Kayapó; Portuguese
Kavalan school curriculum. Kavalan areas are home to Interesting Fact The logo of the Bank of Brazil was
several educational establishments. For example Hual- inspired by a pattern used in Kayapó
ien County has a number of schools, including elemen- beadwork.
tary schools, junior high schools, and high schools, as
well as higher education institutions, including many Overview
universities. The Kayapó (sometimes written Kaiapó or Caiapó) are an
indigenous people of central Brazil. The Kayapó speak the
Kayapó language, and some also speak Portuguese. The
Threats to Survival Kayapó maintain their own cosmological beliefs.
The Kavalan have a strong cultural identity that they The Kayapó do not call themselves by this name
express often to try to make an impression on Taiwan’s because it was given to them by neighboring groups and
government. While the Kavalan language is on the edge of translates as “those who look like monkeys.” The Kayapó
extinction because it has not been transmitted from the refer to themselves as Mebêngôkre, meaning “the men from
elder generation to new generations of Kavalan people, in the water place.”
general, the Kavalan have managed to preserve much of
their culture. In particular, the Shinah Kavalan preserve
the Kavalan language, hold the traditional Kavalan New Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Year ceremony (Palilin) and annual harvest ceremonies, The current Kayapó population is unknown. In 2003,
and perform other Kavalan rites associated with fishing the population was estimated at 7,096 (BBC Two 2008),
and farming. The Kavalan also ensure their cultural sur- though a 2005 figure puts the figure nearer 4,000 (Gumu-
vival by continuing to perform their traditional songs cio 2005). Nineteen Kayapó communities maintain regular
and dances while wearing traditional clothes made from contact with the outside world. Three or four small, iso-
banana leaves. lated Kayapó communities also exist, each of which has a
See also: Bunun population of between 30 and 100 inhabitants. The Kayapó
live in villages scattered along the upper course of the Iriri,
Further Reading
Bacajá, and Fresco Rivers as well as along the tributaries
Hsieh, Fuhui, and Shuanfan Huang. 2007. “Documenting and
Revitalizing Kavalan.” In Documenting and Revitalizing Aus- of the Xingu River. The villages are mainly sedentary and
tronesian Languages, edited by D. Victoria Rau and Margaret comprise at most 80 people per village (Verswijver and
J. Florey, 93–110. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press. Gordon 2018).
 Kayapó 565

The Kayapó belong to the Northwestern branch of the along which the Kayapó live carry huge amounts of fer-
Gê South American Indians. Their population used to be tile alluvium. When the rivers flood the land, much of this
divided into three large groups: the Irã’ãmranh-re (“those alluvium is deposited over the land, making the land very
who wander on the plains”), the Goroti Kumrenhtx (“the fertile. The Kayapó use this fertile land for swidden farm-
men of the true large group”), and the Porekry (“the men ing and growing fruiting plants and trees. The fruits are
of the small bamboo”). The first two groups each com- also eaten by herbivorous animals, which attract carnivo-
prised three thousand people, and the Porekry had around rous animals that the Kayapó hunt.
one thousand members (Verswijver and Gordon 2018). In the past, the Kayapó have protested against projects
The groups lived in an area bordering the lower section that would have negatively impacted their land, including
of the Tocantins River that allowed the Kayapó to use the construction of the Belo Monte hydroelectric dam
resources from both the plains and the forests. At the start (formerly the Kararao dam) on the northern part of the
of the nineteenth century, however, the arrival of European Xingu River. Plans for the dam were first mooted in the
colonizers caused the Kayapó to migrate. In 1902, there 1970s, but they were shelved in 1989 following widespread
were 2,500 Kayapó, but by 1952, the Kayapó population protests. The plans were then revived in the 1990s, and the
had decreased to just 10 people (Gumucio 2005) through dam was redesigned in the 2000s, despite renewed outcry.
epidemics of European diseases. Today, some Kayapó The dam’s construction is as yet unfinished.
migrations occasionally occur. However, these migrations During the 1980s and 1990s, several Kayapó chiefs
are short term and involve only Kayapó men, for Kayapó entered into controversial partnerships with gold mining
women and children remain in their villages to be near and logging companies. Today, the Kayapó have mobilized
medical services. to protect their land rights, as the Brazilian government
aims to launch the “Ferrograo” (“Grain Railway”) soy rail-
way project, which would travel close to Kayapó land. The
Geography and Environment project is a priority for the government that came to power
The Kayapó live in an area located on the central Brazil- in 2018, having received backing from Brazil’s agriculture
ian plateau. The land features many small hills and river sector. The project would allow increased exportation of
valleys. The rivers are fed by numerous pools and creeks. soy to China and elsewhere. However, Kayapó leaders fear
Almost all Kayapó land is covered in rainforest, save for the project would cause mass immigration by farmers to
the eastern section that is characterized by scrubland. the edges of the Kayapo Menkragnoti and Bau reserves as
The climate of the Kayapó homeland is divided into two well as increased use of pesticides that would in turn pollute
seasons: the winter dry season (May–October) and the local rivers. Kayapó leaders also fear the project would cause
summer rainy season (November–April). The dry season an influx of illegal loggers, land grabbers, and miners to the
is characterized by hot and windy days and cool nights. area. The Kayapó’s land is already one of the areas of the
In contrast, the rainy season is marked by torrential rain Amazon most often targeted by loggers, having had 776 hec-
that causes most of the area’s rivers to flood. During the tares of forest cleared between 2017 and 2018 (Cowie 2019).
rainy season, floods damage paths, making it is difficult
for the Kayapó to trek into the forest. Because Kayapó land
floods, the Kayapó tend to settle on the banks of rivers, as History and Politics
this makes communication easier. Living on riverbanks The earliest reliable data on the Kayapó dates from the
also allows the Kayapó to fish easily. The largest rivers end of the nineteenth century, and there are gaps in the

Timbo Fishing
Timbo fishing involves community members submerging woody timbo vines in lakes or small ponds. The Kayapó
pound the juicy vines in the water where they emit a poisonous substance that reduces the concentration of oxygen
in the water and asphyxiates the fish. The lack of oxygen forces the fish to move to the water’s surface, where they can
either be shot with arrows, picked up by hand, or impaled on spears. During dry seasons, timbo fishing can occur in
semi-dried-up riverbeds.
566 Kayapó

Kayapó chief Raoni Metuktir wearing a traditional lip plug. Kayapó rites of passage include decorating themselves with body paint,
headdresses, and lip plugs. (Mustafa Yalcin/Anadolu Agency/Getty Images)

Kayapó history known to outsiders. The Kayapó arrived on kilometers from each another and occupied in a rotation.
their current land during the mid-nineteenth century. By When a village had been occupied for one or two years,
the start of the twentieth century, all the Kayapó lived in by which time hunting would make local game resources
one settlement called Pyka-to-ti, meaning “the beautiful scarce, all the villagers would move to another village,
village.” In the 1920s, outbreaks of disease caused villagers leaving behind their cultivated land. This system of sem-
to die, and the settlement was abandoned. Living in one inomadism meant there was a constant circulation of the
large settlement also caused the Kayapó to overhunt game Kayapó population, game animal numbers could recover,
animals, decreasing the animals’ populations. At the same and swiddens kept villages productive.
time, it was necessary to create farmland increasingly far The Kayapó’s first contact with non-Kayapó saw bands
from their village, thereby leaving Kayapó women who of invaders attack Kayapó villages, killing countless vil-
cared for the fields with longer walks to cultivated areas. lagers and capturing Kayapó women and children, who
When the women expressed their unhappiness with this were then sold as slaves in northern towns. Although
situation, Kayapó family groups began to establish tem- the Kayapó were larger in number than the invaders, the
porary villages closer to their fields. This relocation also invaders were armed with guns, against which the Kayapó
allowed them to hunt in new areas. During the rainy sea- had no defense. Once the Kayapó realized they could not
son, the family groups reunited with larger Kayapó villages repel the invaders, the Kayapó abandoned their land and
to hold traditional ceremonies. fled westward and farther into Brazil’s interior. This migra-
In time, it became apparent that the small Kayapó tion afforded the Kayapó a brief period of calm.
groups were too vulnerable to attacks by outsiders to make Decades after the first invasions, the expansion of the
them sustainable. Therefore, several large Kayapó villages colonial frontier brought colonists reappeared to Kayapó
were established that were spaced between thirty and fifty lands. The Kayapó disagreed on how to deal with the new
 Kayapó 567

arrivals, for some Kayapó wished to establish friendly terms nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) seeking the pro-
with the outsiders to benefit from their manufactured tection of the rainforest and the Kayapó. In 1989, Kayapó
goods, including guns, and others opposed the idea partly leaders participated in a panindigenous assembly on the
on the basis that each time the Kayapó came into contact banks of the Xingu River to raise awareness of the eco-
with outsiders many Kayapó soon died for unknown rea- logical and societal implications of the construction of the
sons (most likely from European diseases). The disagree- Belo Monte Dam.
ment on how to deal with the colonists resulted in internal By the 1990s, the Kayapó were at the vanguard of the
tensions in Kayapó society. international environmental movement. Nonetheless,
This discord resulted in the fragmentation of the three while the Kayapó were seen as defenders of the rainforest
main Kayapó groups into multiple subgroups. Ultimately, internationally, at the local level, they entered into nego-
the Kayapó that decided to live on friendly terms with the tiations with entities that harmed the Amazon’s environ-
outsiders disappeared; by 1930, two of the three Porekry ment, including timber and mining companies. When
subgroups as well as all the members of the Irã’ãmranh-re Kayapó negotiations with these enterprises came to light,
group had become extinct (Verswijver and Gordon 2018). it badly damaged their image. In particular, the Brazil-
The remaining Porekry together with the Goroti Kumr- ian press sought to demolish the idealized image of the
enhtx refused to make friendly contact with the outsiders Kayapó, casting them as capitalist landowners (Verswijver
and instead fled westward to arrive in an area between and Gordon 2018). However, the Kayapó argued that their
the rainforest and the plains. Once they had established actions resulted from an absence of government policies
a settlement there, the Kayapó attacked anyone who aimed at helping Brazil’s indigenous people, meaning the
approached their territory, thereby gaining a reputation for Kayapó had to rely on their own initiative to obtain con-
being aggressive. The Kayapó’s fearsome reputation is the sumer goods, education, and health care. The Kayapó’s
main reason why swaths of central Brazil remained largely treatment by the press caused some Kayapó to believe
unexplored until recently. that that they could not trust the kuben (“white”) and that
In the 1950s and 1960s, the Brazilian government sent any partnership between the Kayapó and outsiders was
teams into Kayapó areas to pacify the Kayapó. The arrival doomed to failure inherently.
of the government officials caused more discord among
the Kayapó, who later decided to divide their society into
small communities. Some of these communities, includ- Society, Culture, and Tradition
ing the Mekrãgnoti (“the men with large red designs on Traditionally, the Kayapó economy focuses on fishing,
their faces”), moved farther inland to settle in a rainforest hunting, and slash-and-burn farming. Kayapó society
area. However, the government officials traveled to even recognizes the division of labor based on sex. Women
this inaccessible area, and so, ultimately, the majority of are responsible for child care, preparing food, and man-
the Kayapó came into contact with mainstream society in aging fields, where they grow such crops as manioc, corn,
the form of government representatives and missionaries. sugarcane, bananas, cotton, and tobacco. Kayapó men are
The officials and missionaries established outposts responsible for clearing farmland. The trees are felled in
near navigable rivers. Attracted by the goods and ser- May, and in October, the Kayapó burn the resultant tim-
vices offered by the outposts, especially health care, many ber and use the mineral-rich timber ash as fertilizer. The
Kayapó relocated their villages nearer the outposts. Over men also hunt using rifles, bows, arrows, or spears; fish;
time, the Kayapó stopped migrating in general because and seek out manufactured goods, including tools. It is
they had become reliant on the outposts for permanent unthinkable for a Kayapó man to return home from a trek
infrastructure such as landing strips, radio installations, empty-handed, so even if he fails to bring home an animal
schools, and health care. to eat, he will return with fruits or medicinal plants. Fish-
During the 1980s and 1990s, the Kayapó became ing is a year-round Kayapó activity. The Kayapó catch the
famous for their activism in pursuit of political and land most fish during the dry season, when water levels fall. To
rights. Two Kayapó leaders in particular became espe- fish, the Kayapó use timbo vines that when beaten release
cially well known during this period, Ropni (or Raoni) a substance that makes fish float to the water’s surface.
and Bepkoroti (Paulinho Payakã). In 1988, Raoni won the Traditional Kayapó villages are formed by a ring of
help of the singer Sting, which resulted in the creation of houses built around a cleared plaza. The men’s house is
568 Kayapó

located in the village center. Kayapó women are associated The language spoken by the Kayapó belongs to the Gê
with the plaza where communal ovens are located. The linguistic family. As a result of past splits in Kayapó society,
village periphery comprises houses inhabited by extended there are dialectical differences between various Kayapó
families. When a Kayapó man marries, he leaves the men’s groups. The Kayapó value oratory and consider themselves
house to live with his wife. However, women do not leave Kaben mei (roughly meaning “those who speak beauti-
their maternal home, so several families can inhabit a fully”), as opposed to all other peoples who do not speak
single Kayapó home. When the number of residents in a their language and so do not speak well.
household becomes too large, the household splits, and
residents build new homes next to their existing home.
Villages are not governed by a single chief. Instead, each Health Care and Education
Kayapó group has one or more chiefs that share power and According to the Kayapó, the human body comprises
ensure that individual disputes do not generate into more many elements, including internal elements (blood, bones,
serious quarrels that could endanger Kayapó society in and flesh), an exterior (skin), a spirit (mekarõ), and vital
general. energy found in the liver (kadjwýnh). The Kayapó con-
There are many diverse Kayapó rituals that vary in impor- sider blood a dangerous substance of which the body must
tance. The rituals divide into three main categories: naming retain an exact amount. A lack of blood leads to sickness,
ceremonies (of which there are twelve); farming, hunting, and excess blood results in lethargy. When Kayapó elders
fishing, and rites performed during eclipses; and rites of think adolescents have become too idle, they attribute the
passage. Kayapó rites of passage include all mereremex indolence to excess blood, and so they employ a specialist
(“people who extend their beauty”), for which the Kayapó to make the youngsters’ thighs bleed using a gourd edged
decorate themselves with body paint, headdresses, and lip with fish teeth.
plugs. The term mereremex refers not just to visual beauty In the past, the Kayapó would settle near missions
but to a spiritual beauty resulting from communal Kayapó where they could access health care and schooling. The
activity. During such rituals, Kayapó shamans converse with Kayapó also have a tradition of using medicinal plants
spirits from whom they learn songs. Body painting is very foraged from the forest. Inoculation programs have helped
important to the Kayapó, for it denotes social status and protect the Kayapó from European diseases. This was evi-
ancestry, and so it is worn most of the time. In contrast, the dent when a measles epidemic struck the Kayapó village
Kayapó’s use of lip plugs is falling out of fashion. of Kokrajmoro twenty years after the villagers’ first contact
Kayapó cosmology revolves around the worship of the with Europeans. Within the space of two weeks, the epi-
sun and the moon. For this reason, circles are highly sym- demic killed 34 percent of uninoculated villagers (Gumu-
bolic to the Kayapó; hence, Kayapó dances and rituals take cio 2005). Today, the Kayapó’s commercial production of
place in a circle, their villages are constructed in a circular ecologically nondestructive goods provides them with a
patterns, and crops are planted in rings. The Kayapó believe reliable source of funds to meet their basic medical and
that they are at the center of the universe, with their vil- educational needs.
lages lying midway between heaven and the underworld.
According to Kayapó myth, agriculture was given to their
ancestors by the daughter of the rain, Nhak-pok-ti. Threats to Survival
The Kayapó believe that the spirits of the dead reside For centuries, the Kayapó have managed to preserve their
in a hill village where they live by night. The Kayapó do culture. Kayapó life is changing, however, for the Kayapó
not like to be alone in the forest at nighttime in case they tend to adopt elements of the cash-based society surround-
encounter the spirits. Similarly, Kayapó women smoke ing their villages. Today, this adoption of outside elements,
continually when tending their fields because the spirits together with their revenue from mining and logging, has
are thought to fear smoke. Without such precautions, the allowed the Kayapó to acquire guns, airplanes, motorboats,
women fear the spirits will follow them home. The Kayapó Internet access, and radiocommunication equipment that
bury their dead outside their village in such a way that a help them protect their land. The money also allows the
corpse’s face points eastward. The grave is filled with the Kayapó to have healthcare and educational services. Only
deceased’s personal possessions, as the Kayapó believe the time will tell how the influence of outside social, environ-
deceased’s spirit will take these objects to the spirit village. mental and technological factors will impact the Kayapó.
 Ket 569

See also: Asháninka; Matis; Uncontacted Peoples; during censuses. Census figures tend to show the number
Yanomami of people registering as Kets is increasing, but it is thought
Further Reading that the actual number of Kets is significantly larger than
BBC Two. 2008. “The Kayapo.” BBC Two: Amazon, June. http://​ figures suggest. This is because some Kets register as Rus-
www.bbc.co.uk/amazon/sites/kayapo/pages/content.shtml. sian because that is their first language.
Brown, Chip. 2014. “Kayapo Courage.” National Geographic Mag- The largest concentration of Kets is found in the town
azine, January. https://www.nationalgeographic.com​/maga​
of Kellog located on the Yelogui River, which is home to
zine/2014/01/kayapo-courage.
Cowie, Sam. 2019. “Brazil Indigenous Group Mobilises against over 200 Kets. The villages of Maduika, inside the Arctic
Planned Soy Railway.” Al Jazeera, February 21. https://www​ Circle, and Sulomai, on the Mountain Tunguska River, have
.al​jazeera.com/news/2019/02/brazil-indigenous-group​-mob​ Ket-majority populations. The Krasnoyarsk Krai region of
ilises-planned-soy-railway-190221220100362.html. Siberia in which the Kets live is sparsely populated, but it
Gumucio, Juan Carlos. 2005. “Kayapó.” In Encyclopedia of the nevertheless has a Russian-majority population, meaning
World’s Minorities, edited by Carl Skutsch, 696–697. New
the Kets live alongside Russians as well as other indige-
York: Routledge.
Verswijver, Gustaaf, and Cesar Gordon. 2018. “Mebêngôkre nous groups, including the Evenks and Selkups. The Kets
(Kayapó).” Povos Indigenas No Brasil, July 13. https://pib​ are anthropologically unique as the only people descended
.socioambiental.org/en/Povo:Mebêngôkre_(Kayapó). from the ancient inhabitants of south central Siberia.
Neighboring Siberian peoples are relative newcomers to
the area.

KET Geography and Environment

The Kets inhabit the lower and middle basins of one of
Current Location Siberia Asia’s longest rivers, the Yenisei River, that lies within the
Current Population 1,494–3,000 Krasnoyarsk Krai region of Siberia in the Russian Federa-
Language Russian; Ket tion. Most Kets live in isolated villages on the Yenisei River
Interesting Fact Some researchers believe the Kets itself as well as along the river’s many tributaries that flow
are linguistically related to the Atha- into the Arctic Ocean. These villages are often so isolated
bascan tribes of North America. that they are accessible only by boat or helicopter, though
oil and mineral exploration in the region means transport
Overview links are improving as outsiders travel to the area.
The Ket, also called the Ostyak, Yenisei Ostyak, or Jugun, Krasnoyarsk Krai is located in the center of Siberia and
are a people indigenous to Siberia, Russia. The Kets have stretches almost 1,864 miles from the Sayan Mountains
Russian as a first language, but some Kets also speak in the south along the Yenisei River to the northern Tay-
the critically endangered Ket language. This language is myr Peninsula. The region is bordered by the republics of
divided into two dialects and belongs to the Ket Assan or Sakha, Tuva, and Khakassia; the Kemerovo, Tomsk, and
Yeniseian language family. The majority of Kets are Ortho- Tyumen Oblasts; and the Kara Sea and the Laptev Sea, both
dox Christians but combine Christianity with traditional of which are part of the Arctic Ocean. Krasnoyarsk Krai is
shamanistic beliefs. also home to thousands of lakes, including the Glubokoye,
Lama, Taymyr, and Yessey, which, like the region’s rivers,
are rich in fish.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration Krasnoyarsk Krai is covered by three climate belts
Accurate population figures for the Ket are hard to deter- (Arctic, Subarctic, and moderate), with the most heavily
mine. In 2001, the population was recorded as 885 people, populated areas of the krai experiencing long winters and
but according to the Russian census of 2002, there were short hot summers. The climatic variance is evinced by
1,494 Kets (Vajda 2013). Other sources estimate the Ket the fact that the north of the krai experiences fewer than
population to measure between 1,500 and 3,000 people 40 days per year with a temperature above 50°F, while in
(Minahan 2014). The disparity in population data prob- the region’s south, temperatures are in this range for up
ably occurs because of the way in which Kets register to 120 days annually. The center of the krai is covered by
570 Ket

snow from the start of November to the end of March, with By the start of the nineteenth century, traditional Ket
areas of the Putorana Mountains being covered in snow hunting and fishing areas had been commandeered by
all year round. Permafrost is also widespread throughout newcomers to the region, and the Russians had started
the region. to hunt the Kets’ domesticated reindeer. As a result, many
Kets starved to death, and remaining Kets came to rely on
Russian food aid. Around the same time, Russian Ortho-
History and Politics dox missionaries arrived in Ket villages, where they built
The Kets are most likely descended from an ancient people schools and missions. Local government officials also
who originated in the Sayan Mountains and Yenisei River arranged the mass baptism of Kets, though most Kets
basins. Researchers suggest that the Kets are descended secretly continued to adhere to their indigenous shaman-
from ancient nomads who traveled widely in central and istic beliefs.
southern Siberia. Ket folklore, however, tells that the peo- The outbreak of World War I meant that many Russian
ple’s ancestors were driven from their homes by moun- officials and soldiers were recalled from Ket areas to Euro-
tain peoples who forced them to cross many mountain pean Russia, thereby easing life for the Kets to a degree.
ranges before they could reach their current homeland in However, the Russian Revolution and Russian Civil War
the center of the Yenisei River. Modern Kets are probably had a significant negative impact on the Kets. The victory
descended from a mixture of the tribal groups originating of the Soviets meant that many communists began to set-
from southern Siberia and the taiga (marshy forest) of the tle in Siberia. While the Soviets brought with them modern
Yenisei River basin. medicines and abolished the Kets’ old debts, the Soviets
The earliest Kets survived through hunting, fishing, and denounced the Ket lifestyle and viewed Ket enterprise and
reindeer herding. Toward the end of the sixteenth century, dynamism as antirevolutionary. The Soviets forced the
Russian traders began to visit the Kets, and in 1607, Cos- Kets to abandon nomadism as well as their shamanistic
sacks created a settlement at Imbat in the center of the Ket beliefs. The Kets were also made to adopt a settled lifestyle
homeland. Here, the Cossacks could collect funds raised by wherein they lived in permanent villages and worked for
the despised yurga or yasak, a fur tax imposed on the area’s the state.
indigenous peoples, which saw the peoples pay a tribute of Ket reindeer herds were confiscated, and their former
between five and twelve furs per person each year. This tax owners were forced to care for the animals on state-run
made many Ket fishermen and reindeer herders abandon collectivized farms. Wealthy Ket herders who resisted the
these roles to fulfill demand for pelts. Kets tried to deter collectivization of their herds were considered enemies of
further incursions by the Russians, but their bows and the state and deported. Fur continued to be the main eco-
arrows were little match for Russian guns. Many Kets died nomic currency of the region, however, with the Kets view-
while trying to fight off the Russians, and the Ket popu- ing the Soviet collectivization as little more than a modern
lation was decimated further when they caught diseases version of the yurga fur tax. In addition, Ket children were
such as smallpox from the Russians. sent to Soviet boarding schools, where they were taught in
The surviving Kets put up steadfast resistance, however, Russian.
leading Russian authorities to deport groups of Kets from By the 1950s, the collectivization of Ket land was
their homeland. Many of the Kets were deported to land complete, with Ket schools, clubs, and baths built to
already home to the Selkups, a move that caused disquiet Soviet standards. Ket culture was suppressed and the
among both peoples. The Russians, however, cared little for people forced to take on Russian culture and tradition. In
the welfare of the indigenous peoples so long as they were addition, all teaching was performed in Russia, with Rus-
able to claim their fur tributes. Another consequence of sian also being the language of officialdom and admin-
the Ket deportations was that they caused the rigorously istration. As a result of these policies, Russian became
organized Ket society to disintegrate, and Ket tribes fell the first language of the Kets. Indeed, by the end of the
apart. With Ket society in turmoil and clans diminished, 1980s, Kets were generally no longer bilingual. In 1986,
Russian gold miners and merchants moved into Ket areas, a written form of Ket was introduced, but it made lit-
where they mistreated and defrauded the Kets (Minahan tle headway in reversing the decline of Ket because the
2014). introduction of the language was overshadowed by the
 Ket 571

upheaval caused by the collapse of the Soviet Union in herding from the neighboring Samoyed peoples, but herd-
the early 1990s. ing was always a secondary pursuit behind fishing, hunt-
Since the downfall of the Soviet system, a modest but ing, and foraging. When they did herd reindeer, the Kets
continuing Ket cultural revival has occurred. In 1995, Ket would allow the reindeer to wander freely during the sum-
cultural activists formed the Association of Ket People mer but would then corral the reindeer to keep them close
with the aim of encouraging Ket self-rule. Recently, this during the winter. Today, hunting, foraging, and fishing
association has joined with other cultural revivalist groups remain the chief Ket occupations, and many Kets survive
indigenous to the former Soviet Union to call for indige- on state aid as their main source of income (Vajda 2013).
nous peoples to have a greater role in Russian life. The Kets no longer herd reindeer.
Kets live in a variety of traditional dwellings. For exam-
ple, southern Kets adopted the Russian practice of living
Society, Culture, and Tradition on flat-bottomed houseboats called ilimka. Other Kets
Ket culture has evolved from the nomadic lifestyles of opted for temporary, portable tepee-like homes called qus
their Siberian forebears. Indeed, it is often suggested that that could be dismantled quickly, allowing the nomadic
the Kets are the only surviving Yeniesan people, for all Kets to travel around their region. In winter months, the
other people belonging to this group have been assimi- Kets would swap the qus for banggus, cabins made from
lated into either Russian society or the cultures of other logs and soil.
Siberian peoples. Traditionally, Ket culture is divided into The Kets are nominally Russian Orthodox Christians,
two groups: that of the northern Imbak (or Inbak) and the but they maintain many of their indigenous shamanistic
southern Yugh. The culture is then further divided into beliefs. In recent years, there has also been an increase
two fraternal kinship groups called the kentandeng and in the number of Kets joining fundamentalist Christian
the bogdedeng. sects. In common with many other indigenous Siberians,
Ket society is heavily patriarchal, and women are the Kets originally held shamanistic beliefs and turned
expected to be subordinate (Minahan 2014). Ket marriage to the local shaman for healing and religious instruction.
is exogamous, with people expected to wed outside their The Kets considered shamans to act as an intermediary
clans. Recently, there has been a surge of interethnic mar- between the spirit realm and the human world and would
riages in Ket areas, especially marriages between Kets and ask the shaman to intercede to stop diseases and to avoid
Russians. ill health and bad luck caused by evil spirits.
The Ket language differs from any other spoken in Sibe-
ria. Indeed, some researchers believe the language is linked
to the Na-Dené languages of North America and, therefore Health Care and Education
to the northern Athabaskan peoples who live mainly in the There are high rates of alcoholism among the Kets, some-
western United States. The Ket language divides into two thing that greatly reduces their life expectancy (Vajda
dialects (Imbat and Sym) and differs from other Siberian 2013). Russia’s public healthcare service is in dire need
languages by differentiating between living and inanimate of modernization. The services have dropped to fifty-fifth
objects. The language is also unusual among Siberian lan- out of fifty-five of the world’s most developed countries,
guages in that it distinguishes among three genders: mas- according to a 2016 Bloomberg index, but another study
culine, feminine, and neuter. ranked Russian health care “on par with that of the devel-
To this end, Ket includes many words related to nature, oping world” (Sharkov 2017). The Russian government has
plants, animals, the weather, hunting, and fishing. Most struggled to address the problem of how to provide health
Kets speak Russian as their main language, leading some care to its people, especially those people, like the Kets,
academics to fear that Ket will become extinct in the near who live in poorer rural areas. In response, the government
future. That said, in villages where Kets are the majority has started video chats between doctors and patients and
population, Ket speakers are held in high esteem. increased funding to encourage doctors to establish prac-
Traditionally, the main occupations of the Kets are fish- tices in isolated parts of Russia. In 2017, around a hundred
ing and hunting, which provided the people with food, as doctors were paid $17,400 to move and practice in the Ket
did foraging. The Kets adopted the practice of reindeer region of Krasnoyarsk (Sharkov 2017).
572 Khasi

In the meantime, the Russian government funds medi- KHASI

cal trains that travel to remote areas of central and eastern
Russia. Each train journey lasts several days, and during the Current Location India; Bangladesh
trip, doctors and nurses on board the train provide people Current Population 1.4 million
with basic medical care, including X-rays, scans, EEGs (brain Language Khasi
wave tests) and ECGs (heart rhythm tests), and blood tests
Interesting Fact The Indian state in which some
while also prescribing medicines and referring patients to Khasis live, Meghalaya, is the wettest
specialists. Some medical trains are also equipped with a in India.
chapel, where patients can pray while awaiting test results
or baptize their children. On average, doctors see up to 150
Overview
patients each day, though the duration of each train stop
depends on the accessibility of health care in the locality. The Khasis are a Mon-Khmer ethnic group living in
Russian Orthodox missionaries established schools in India and Bangladesh. The Khasis call themselves the Ki
Ket areas at the start of the nineteenth century. Then, dur- Hyynniew Trep, Hynniewtrep, or Hynniew Trep, and other
ing the Soviet era, Ket children were sent away to boarding peoples sometimes refer to them as the Jaintia or Khyn-
schools, where they were taught in Russian. During the late riam. The Khasis speak six dialects of the Khasi language,
1980s, schools in Ket areas adopted textbooks written in which belongs to the Northern Mon-Khmer language
Cyrillic. Today, a few village primary schools have started group. Many Khasis also speak English.
to teach in the Ket language. The reintroduction of Ket as Most Khasis are nominally Christian, though some
an educational language is mostly occurring in southern Khasis are Muslim or Hindu. Many Khasis maintain ele-
Ket villages, such as Kellog. ments of the people’s traditional religion.

Threats to Survival
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Despite the small Ket cultural revival, much of Ket cul-
ture and tradition has been lost over time. In addition, The Khasi population consists of around 1.4 million people.
the Ket language faces extinction, though there have been The Khasis live in northeastern India and northern Bang-
some attempts to reintroduce Ket-language education that ladesh, with most Khasis inhabiting the Khasi and Jaintia
may keep the language alive. Only time will tell whether Hills located in the west of India’s Meghalaya state. The
Ket-language teaching and the emergence of Ket cultural remainder of the Khasis live in adjoining areas of Bangla-
revivalist groups will help Ket culture and society survive desh. There are six major Khasi groups as well as multiple
what may be an influx of outsiders arriving to exploit the Khasi clans. The divisions are geographical and reflect the
region’s natural resources. rugged mountainous terrain of the Khasi homeland. The
total population of Meghalaya is around 2.96 million, with
See also: Avar; Buryat; Chechen; Chukchi; Evenk; Lak; 86 percent identified as scheduled tribes belonging to the
Udmurt state’s main tribes: the Khasi and the Garo. Although a dis-
Further Reading tinction has recently been made between Khasis and the
Brown, Keith, and Sarah Ogilvie. 2009. Concise Encyclopedia of Jaintias, the latter are usually considered a subtribe of the
Languages of the World. Kidlington, UK: Elsevier. Khasis (Albert et al. 2015).
Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Cen-
tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Sharkov, Damien. 2017. “In Rural Siberia the Hospital Comes to
You.” Newsweek, May 11. http://www.newsweek.com/2017​ Geography and Environment
/05/19/russia-trains-medical-care-607346.html. Meghalaya state is bordered to the south by the Bangla-
Vajda, Edward J. 2001. Yeniseian Peoples and Languages: A His- deshi divisions of Mymensingh and Sylhet, to the west by
tory of Yeniseian Studies with an Annotated Bibliography and
the Bangladeshi division of Rangpur, and to the north and
a Source Guide. Richmond, UK: Curzon Press.
Vajda, Edward J. 2013. “Ket.” In Native Peoples of the World: An east by India’s state of Assam. Meghalaya is very hilly and
Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues, difficult to access. The state is home to many valleys
edited by Steven L. Danver, 212. Vol. 1. London: Routledge. and highland plateaus. The area is geologically rich, as it
contains rock formations with rich deposits of coal as well
 Khasi 573

as minerals, including limestone, uranium, and silliman- vegetables, spices, and medicinal plants grow in Megha-
ite (used to make glass, metals, ceramics, and cement). laya as well as many varieties of orchid. Meghalaya also
Meghalaya is home to many rivers that are mostly rain fed has a great variety of mammals, birds, reptiles, and insects,
and seasonal. In the southern Khasi Hills region of Megha- including elephants, red pandas, bats, lizards, crocodiles,
laya, the rivers have created deep gorges and high water- tortoises, and snakes.
falls. With average annual rainfall as high as 470 inches in
some areas, Meghalaya is the wettest state in India. Indeed,
the name Meghalaya translates from the ancient Sanskrit History and Politics
language as “abode of the clouds.” The Khasis originated as an Austro-Asiatic people who
The heavy rainfall is caused by Meghalaya’s close prox- migrated to the current Khasi homeland around two thou-
imity to the Bay of Bengal; whenever moisture gathers over sand years ago. To start with, the Khasis lived across a much
the Bay of Bengal, it results in precipitation over parts of wider area, but they retreated to more isolated moun-
the state, including a heavy, long monsoon season. Much of tainous locations to avoid invaders overrunning nearby
Meghalaya is covered in dense subtropical forest that has lowlands. Ensconced in the remote uplands, the Khasis
rich biodiversity. A small portion Meghalaya’s forests are established their unique culture. It is thought that Khasis
classified as sacred groves or copses of ancient forest that living to the west of their territory developed t­wenty-five
have been cared for by surrounding communities for reli- small principalities, though very little is known of the
gious and cultural reasons. Meghalaya’s forests support a principalities’ histories before the colonial period.
vast variety of plants, including epiphytes, succulents, and At various times, the Khasi principalities paid trib-
shrubs as well as tree types that include Shorea robusta (sal utes to Indian empires, but, in general, the Khasi princi-
tree) and Tectona grandis (teak). A huge variety of fruits, palities remained independent and often fought among

A Khasi woman with her child at the Shillong Market in northeast India. The Khasis maintain matrilineal traditions whereby descent is
maternal and children take their mother’s family name. (Samrat35/Dreamstime.com)
574 Khasi

themselves. During the twelfth century, the kings of Assam During the 1950s, fighting erupted between the Khasis
held some control over the Khasi principalities in the Khasi and the Assamese as the Khasis continued to campaign
Hills, but the kings’ authority was undermined by incur- for their own separate homeland. Eventually, in 1969, the
sions by Tibetan, Bengali, and Burman tribes. In 1822, Indian government designated the hill tracts a separate
Burmans conquered the Khasi territory along with most state of India called Meghalaya. Tension in the region con-
of Assam. However, the Burmans soon came into conflict tinues, however, with Khasis calling on authorities to pre-
with British colonial powers, whose land they threatened. vent non-Khasis from lowland areas moving into the area.
Ultimately, the first Anglo-Burman war occurred, and Some Khasis are also campaigning to create two ethnic
in 1826, the Khasis came under British rule. The following states within Meghalaya, one of which would be reserved
year, the British signed a treaty with a Khasi principality for the Khasis.
allowing the British to build a road through Khasi land,
thereby linking British Bengal with Assam. In 1829, how-
ever, Khasi opponents to this treaty rejected the terms of Society, Culture, and Tradition
the treaty and started to attack the British. In response, the Khasi society consists of closely related matrilineal com-
British retaliated with a full-scale military attack against munities allied to the Khmers and other Khmer-Mon
the Khasis. By the mid-1830s, almost all Khasis had sur- peoples inhabiting Southeast Asia. Residing in their high
rendered to the British. mountain homeland, the Khasis have been able to main-
Meanwhile, in 1832, British Methodist missionaries had tain their matrilineal traditions, whereby descent is mater-
begun to operate in Khasi areas and were soon followed nal, children take their mother’s family name, and youngest
by missionaries from other Christian denominations, daughters inherit all family property as upholders of the
including Unitarians, Roman Catholics, and Seventh-Day family line. In addition, once married, men live in their
Adventists. As the Khasis already held monotheistic reli- mother-in-law’s home, only mothers and mothers-in-law
gious beliefs, they readily converted to Christianity. Con- care for children, and men are not allowed to participate in
version also prevented the Khasis from being absorbed family gatherings (Bouissou 2011). Khasi women cannot
into the Indian caste system, which consigns pagan and be forced to marry, and they own all children and property
Hindu tribal peoples to the reviled lower castes. Although resulting from a marriage. Nonetheless, a maternal uncle
the Khasis adopted Christianity, they retained some must endorse any decision made by a Khasi woman, and
aspects of their pre-Christian philosophies and traditions. all Khasi chief government ministers are men. Few Khasi
During the colonial period, the Khasis remained fairly women hold positions of importance, even on village
autonomous in their mountainous homeland and only councils (Bouissou 2011).
experienced occasional incursions by British authorities While most Khasis are nominally Christian, the people
seeking to quell rebellions or settle territorial disputes. retain their belief in their traditional religion, Seng Khasi.
In addition, the presence of the British prevented nearby The basis for this religion is that god, Blei Trai Kynrad, is
Bengalis and Assamese peoples from moving onto the omnipresent and so does not need to be represented by
fertile hillsides cultivated by the Khasis. In the 1930s and performing rituals or by erecting special buildings. The
1940s, young Khasi leaders who had been educated by Khasis consider nature a temple, and so they venerate
British missionary schools took on Khasi leadership posi- forests, groves, trees, and rivers as places inhabited by
tions, which allowed them to protect their people’s culture Blei Trai Kynrad. While the Jaintia Khasis hold beliefs in
and society. Christianity and Seng Khasi, they are also influenced by
In the run-up to Indian independence in 1947, the Kha- Hinduism.
sis campaigned for a Khasi homeland separate from that
of Hindu-majority Assam. Instead of being part of Assam,
the Khasis petitioned for a tribal state to share with the Health Care and Education
Garo people. However, in the political and social disrup- The majority of Khasis use both traditional herbal medi-
tion following India’s independence and partition, the cines and modern treatments for everything from minor
Khasi campaign was overlooked, resulting in part of Khasi ailments to major diseases. A sick Khasi person will usu-
land being given over to Pakistan while India took con- ally try one form of treatment, and if that does not seem to
trol of the Khasi Hill Tracts and made them part of Assam. work, he or she will switch to another form of treatment.
 Khmer 575

Common disorders for which traditional Khasi medi- KHMER

cine is used include diarrheal disorders, joint problems,
jaundice, bone fractures, and gastrointestinal conditions, Current Location Cambodia; Vietnam; Thailand
including a childhood diarrheal disorder called niang- Current Population 16.5 million
sohpet. Khasis have access to primary healthcare facilities,
Language Khmer dialects
though these may be difficult for people to reach, as Khasis
Interesting Fact The genocide suffered by the Khmers
live in remote, hilly areas (Albert et al. 2015).
under the Khmer Rouge remains one
British missionary activity in Khasi areas means the Kha- of the bloodiest in twentieth-century
sis have long experienced Western-style education and are history.
now one of the most literate people in India (Minahan 2012).

Overview
Threats to Survival
The Khmers are an ethnic group that inhabits Cambodia,
As members of an official ethnic minority, Khasis hold Thailand, and Vietnam as well as other countries outside
several privileges. For example, the Khasi Hills Auton- of Southeast Asia. The Khmers speak numerous mutually
omous District Council protects Khasi laws, the people intelligible Khmer dialects that belong to the Mon-Khmer
enjoy the lowest taxation in India, land is set aside for language family. Most Khmers follow a form of Buddhism
their exclusive use, and a quota system operates to ensure that combines Buddhism with elements of Hinduism and
Khasis can access higher education and employment in animistic philosophies.
the civil service. Additionally, Khasi women are in a posi-
tion of authority that is extremely rare in India, a coun-
try where “more than a third of women suffer domestic Population, Diaspora, and Migration
violence” (Bouissou 2011). Since the 1990s, however, there
The total Khmer population measures around 16.5 million
has been a great deal of rancor over the Khasis’ matrilin-
people (Minahan 2012). Cambodia is home to many indig-
eal tradition, for Khasi men have begun to complain that
enous hill tribes, known as Khmer Leou (meaning “upper
they are made to feel redundant. To this end, the Syngk-
Khmer”). There is no agreement over the number or even
hong Rympei Thymai (SRT, roughly “a wedge to shore up
classifications of these tribes, though a 1992 UN estimate
a shaky table”) campaign promotes the reform of family
noted there were six large tribes with populations of over
structures and hopes to see Khasi men assume the posi-
10,000 people, plus twenty smaller tribes with fewer than
tions of most importance in Khasi society. Whether the
3,000 members each and possibly having a total popula-
Khasis’ matrilineal tradition condition continues, only
tion of around 120,000 to 200,000 people. Cambodia’s last
time will tell.
census (in 1998) put the figure at 101,000 people, but this
See also: Khmer; Mon; Mosuo number was based on language affiliation and was most
Further Reading likely a significant underestimate.
Albert, Sandra, Melari Nongrum, Emily L. Webb, John D. H. The largest Cambodian Khmer tribes are the Kuy,
Porter, and Glenn C. Kharkongor. 2015. “Medical Pluralism Mnong, Stieng, Brao, Tampuan, Pear, Jarai, and Rade. The
among Indigenous Peoples in Northeast India—Implications Cambodian Khmers mainly live in isolated mountainous
for Health Policy.” Tropical Medicine and International Health
areas of the northeastern provinces of Ratanakiri and
20 (7) (July): 952–960. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi​
/pdf/10.1111/tmi.12499. Mondulkiri as well as the mountainous areas of Koh Kong
Bouissou, Julien. 2011. “Where Women of India Rule the Roost Province in Cambodia’s southwest (Minority Rights Group
and Men Demand Gender Equality.” The Guardian, January International 2017a).
18. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jan/18/india​ In Vietnam, the Khmer Krom (meaning “Khmer from
-khasi-women-politics-bouissou. Below”) predominantly live in the Mekong River delta area
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
in Vietnam’s southwest. The Khmer Krom are one of the
nic and National Groups around the World. Westport, CT:
Greenwood Press. largest minorities in Vietnam, with a population of over
Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the 1 million people (Minority Rights Group International
Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. 2017b).There are estimated to be approximately 1.2 mil-
lion Khmer living in Thailand. Thai Khmer are divided
576 Khmer

into two groups that live in the eastern provinces of Surin flourished in the Mekong River delta area before going on
and Srisaket located along the country’s border with Cam- to control of large Khmer empire. Subsequently, however,
bodia (Minority Rights Group International 2018). the empire was ruled by weak leaders that were weakened
further by entering into conflict with neighboring peoples.
The Khmer empire was revived in the ninth century under
Geography and Environment Jayavaraman II, who paved the way for the Angkorean
Cambodia is bordered by Thailand in the north and west, Empire. By the eleventh century, Khmers ruled most of
by Laos to the northeast, and by Vietnam to the east and what is now Thailand, all of Laos, the north of the Malay
southeast. The country has a lengthy coastline along the Peninsula, and southern Vietnam. This era, during which
Gulf of Thailand. Ratanakiri Province, in which many the famous Angkor Wat Hindu temple complex was con-
Khmers live, extends from the mountains of the Annamite structed, is considered the highpoint of Khmer civilization.
Range in the north, across a hilly upland between the Tonle During the twelfth century, the Khmers fought frequent
San and Tonle Srepok Rivers, to tropical deciduous forests lengthy wars against the Annamese and Cham people.
in the south. Logging and mining activities have recently Then, in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, a powerful
scarred the area’s landscape. Thai empire continually attacked the Khmers, leading to
Koh Kong Province is the most southwestern province the destruction of Khmer capital of Angkor in 1431. After
of Cambodia and has a long coastline along the Gulf of this, the Khmer civilization went into a spiral of decline
Thailand. The province has a mountainous, densely for- that was still continuing when the first Europeans arrived
ested, and fairly inaccessible interior that includes part of in the area in 1535. Then, in the seventeenth century, the
the Cardamom Mountains, Cambodia’s largest national Khmers suffered a territorial loss when Vietnamese from
park (Botum Sakor National Park), and part of Kirirom the Red River region invaded the area that forms south-
National Park. The area is increasingly popular with tour- ern Vietnam. This invasion caused thousands of Khmers
ists, as it is home to spectacular waterfalls, virgin beaches, to flee to Cambodia’s delta region, which subsequently
and the largest mangrove estuary system in Southeast Asia. became the Khmer heartland.
The Mekong River delta, where most Khmers in Viet- By the start of the nineteenth century, continued incur-
nam live, is extremely rich in plant life and wildlife, includ- sions by Thai and Vietnamese groups reduced the Khmer
ing fish, lizards, and mammals such as the Laotian rock territory to its present locations in Cambodia. Then, in the
rat, which was thought to have become extinct eleven mil- 1840s, Khmers living in the Mekong Delta area were forced
lion years ago. The area is increasingly threatened by tim- to assimilate with Vietnamese society. In 1863, the Khmers
ber and mining industries as well as the construction of appealed to France for protection from the Vietnamese,
numerous large hydropower dams that trap and kill fish. A and the following year, Khmer land in Vietnam was made a
cultural obstacle to protecting the rare species also exists, French protectorate. Then, in the 1880s, southern Vietnam,
for local restaurants serve the animals as food—­according Laos, and Cambodia were incorporated into French Indo-
to local custom, the more exotic the animal eaten, the china. The French ruled the Khmers for almost a century
higher the status bestowed on the person who consumes and so waged great influence over Khmer politics, eco-
it (Fantz 2008). nomics, and culture. However, French control of Indochina
waned significantly in the wake of World War II, resulting
in Cambodia becoming an independent nation, and the
History and Politics Khmers living in countries neighboring Cambodia were
The history of the Khmer corresponds to the history of made to assimilate into dominant cultures.
Khmer homelands in Cambodia. Successive waves of In 1975, thousands of Khmers fled abroad when Cam-
Khmer migrants arrived in Southeast Asia around three bodia came under the control of the notorious Khmer
thousand years ago and were hugely influenced by the con- Rouge communist regime led by Pol Pot. The Khmer
tact with Sri Lankan and Indian religions, languages, cul- Rouge aimed to create a form of agrarian socialism based
tures, science, and architecture. Over the years, numerous on the ideals of Stalinism and Maoism, and the regime’s
Khmer kingdoms sprung up only to disintegrate, leaving policies led to forced relocation, torture, mass execu-
only impressive architecture, especially temples, behind. tions, forced labor, malnutrition, and death from treat-
In the sixth century, however, the Khmer state of Funan able diseases such as malaria. The regime also set about
 Khmer 577

systematically destroying Khmer society and culture, urban areas such as the Cambodian capital city of Phnom
which included massacring many millions of Khmers. Vic- Penh tend to be less superstitious than Khmers living in
tims of the regime were often taken to centers such as the the countryside. Another cultural aspect common to all
Tuol Sleng Centre before being transported to sites known Khmers is their love of music. Traditional Khmer music
colloquially as the Killing Fields that lay outside Phnom includes love songs, lullabies, and epic tales set to music
Penh. Here, people were usually executed by pickaxe, as played on flutes, drums, and xylophones.
this method saved bullets, and subsequently buried in Khmer society is hierarchical, and elders are greatly
mass graves. The slaughter only stopped in 1979 once Viet- respected. Khmers employ honorific titles denoting peo-
nam invaded Cambodia and overthrew the regime. The ple’s seniority as an elder before a person’s name.
violence perpetrated by the Khmer Rouge meant that the Most Khmers live in small villages where men work as
Khmer population was greatly reduced, but Khmer society farmers or fishermen. Village life revolves around the local
and culture in Cambodia slowly revived, despite the people temple, with villagers enacting Buddhist rituals and cere-
receiving only a little assistance from the outside world. monies throughout the year. Khmers consider birth and
death rituals extremely important because these are times
when they believe the spirits are in closest proximity to the
Society, Culture, and Tradition living. Khmer weddings are lavish and last for many days.
Although widely dispersed, Khmer culture is homoge-
nous. The Khmer religion combines elements of Hindu
Brahmanism with aspects of Theravada Buddhism and Health Care and Education
animism, particularly ancestor worship. The Khmers Traditionally, Khmers deal with illness through self-care
also firmly believe in astrology, though Khmers living in and self-medication because they usually have access to

Traditional Khmer music played at the Preah Angchek Preah Ang Chorm Shrine in Siem Reap, Cambodia. The Khmers are known for
their love of music, which is traditionally played on flutes, drums, and xylophones. (Presse750/Dreamstime.com)
578 Khmer

cheap over-the-counter medications, whereas Western of local and international nongovernmental organizations
health care is expensive. The areas in which Khmers live (NGOs) rather than the state authorities because Khmer
also tend to have few hospitals and doctors, so it is easier children who were not fluent in Khmer were dropping out
for people to treat themselves. of school. In addition, since 2003, the Cambodian author-
In rural Cambodia, Khmers turn to herbal remedies, ities have launched some bilingual education projects in
superstitious rituals, and maintaining a qi/hot-cold balance Khmer regions of northeast Cambodia so that Khmer
for medical help. Sick Khmers may seek out a traditional children can understand lessons, and in 2006, the Cam-
healer called a khru Khmer, who travels into the jungle in bodian government announced it would offer bilingual
search of healing herbs, roots, and plants. Khmers believe education to indigenous students, including the Khmer,
spirits take an active role in people’s lives and can be up to grade three in five northeastern provinces. In Viet-
blamed for some sickness. The Khmers also feel that illness nam, Khmer-language education is not provided, though
can result from evil spells and by people neglecting or mak- authorities agree there should be a form of schooling avail-
ing mistakes in religious rituals. If an illness is believed to able that allows children to be bilingual in both Khmer and
have originated from the spirit realm, then a sick Khmer Vietnamese.
person will seek out a traditional healer or spiritual healer
for help. Other Khmer healing techniques include cupping,
pinching, and rubbing a coin on the skin to restore the Threats to Survival
metaphysical hot-cold balance of the patient. These prac- In Cambodia, since 2002, the changing political struc-
tices are performed because in the hot-cold theory, medi- tures and the decentralization of authority have led to the
cal complaints are caused by an imbalance in the hot and Khmer becoming disenfranchised. While these maybe
cold elements of the universe. Khmer living conditions can positive steps for the nation, indigenous peoples, including
be unsanitary, leading to health problems. For example, in the Khmers, are, in effect, excluded from politics because
Vietnam, members of the Khmer Krom tend not to have of rigid language requirements. Legislation requires that
access to clean water or basic health care. Since 2003, large all candidates for elected positions must be able to read
numbers of Khmer Krom living in Vietnam’s Soc Trang and write Khmer. As most indigenous peoples, including
province had gone blind from drinking water contaminated the Khmers, do not satisfy this requirement, most Khmer
by pesticides, herbicides, and fertilizers. The Vietnamese Leou are in effect prevented from participating in the
government is aware of the problem but takes no action political process. Ethnic Cambodians tend to hold power
largely because the victims are Khmer Krom (UNPO). in local government and in turn encourage other ethnic
Typically, the Khmers ascribe psychological and emo- Cambodians to migrate into these areas, and so indige-
tional problems to possession by evil spirits, to bad karma nous Khmers are overwhelmed by the newcomers.
accumulated by people in their past lives, or to a person The Khmer Leou also face the loss of access of their
having inherited bad luck. As the Khmers associate men- traditional and agricultural lands and collectivized land-
tal illness with wrongdoing, its existence is often denied ownership. Despite measures such as the 2001 Land Law
and feared by Khmer people. Khmers with mental health that recognize the land rights of indigenous peoples, the
problems are usually protected by their family, who fear situation still has to be addressed fully. Indeed, as of 2007,
outsiders learning of their relative’s psychological illness; no indigenous Khmers had received title for their tradi-
being linked to such illnesses brings great shame to the tional lands. For this reason, the Khmer Leou are espe-
family. As a result of the Khmers’ attitude to mental and cially vulnerable to arguments over land rights and often
emotional problems, Khmers experiencing these problems find themselves evicted from their land or intimidated to
tend to present themselves for care with physical problems. abandon the land they have occupied for generations so
Another superstitious element of Khmer health care sees that the land can be used for logging, mining, tourism, and
babies and toddlers given amulets or protective strings to development projects, some of which is sanctioned by the
wear around their necks, wrists, or waists (Wetzel 2008). Cambodian government without regard for indigenous
In Cambodia, most state schools teach exclusively in land rights. This situation was noted by the United Nations
Khmer, which is the country’s official language. Only a in May 2007.
few schools teach in both Khmer and local indigenous That said, the Cambodian authorities have begun to
Khmer languages. These schools came at the instigation prosecute individuals participating in illegal logging on
 Kickapoo 579

land inhabited by the Khmer Leou. For example, in 2006, KICKAPOO

loggers, including a former governor, were found guilty
by Cambodian courts. Nonetheless, estimates suggest that Current Location United States; Mexico
illegal logging has reduced Cambodia’s forest coverage to Current Population 1,300
less than 30 percent of its original cover (Minority Rights Language Kickapoo; English; Spanish;
Group International 2017a). whistling
In Vietnam, the Khmer Krom suffer repression, as docu- Interesting Fact Young Kickapoo lovers in Mex-
mented in the 2006 film Eliminated without Bleeding, which ico communicate via a whistling
examines how the people continue to be denied some rights language.
despite the Vietnamese government’s outward concern for
minority groups. Khmer children in Vietnam are not taught
Overview
in their indigenous language, and Khmer dialects are not
a used by officialdom, even in areas where the Khmer The Kickapoo (or Kikapu) are both a Woodland Native
Krom are the majority population. In addition, Vietnamese American tribe and an Indigenous Mexican tribe. The Kick-
authorities continue to appropriate Khmer land for devel- apoo speak many languages. Foremost among these is tradi-
opment projects without compensating the Khmers. tional Kickapoo, which exhibits linguistic characteristics of
It has also been reported that the Khmer Krom, who are the base Algonquian language, though an increasing number
predominantly Theravada Buddhists, experience the con- of Kickapoo Indians also speak Spanish and English. Those
tinuing violation of their freedom of religion in response Kickapoo that speak English are usually younger adults.
to their calls to establish their own Buddhist Association, Many Kickapoo belong to the Native American Church,
the return of property taken from them by authorities which combines traditional Native American beliefs with
since 1975, and the lifting of restrictions limiting their Christianity. Most Christian Kickapoo are Catholic, though
participation in religious activities. there are some Protestant Kickapoo as well. A number of
Kickapoo practice traditional Kickapoo religious rituals.
See also: Cham; Hmong; Mon
Further Reading
Fantz, Ashley. 2008. “Mekong a ‘Treasure Trove’ of 1,000 Newly Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Discovered Species.” CNN, December 16. http://edition.cnn​
.com/2008/TECH/science/12/16/rat.mekong/index.html. The total Kickapoo population comprises 1,300 people
Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the (Joshua Project 2018). There are three federally recognized
Pacific. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Kickapoo tribes living in the United States: the Kickapoo
Minority Rights Group International. 2017a. “Cambodia: Khmer Tribe of Indians of the Kickapoo Reservation in Kansas, the
Leou.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peo- Kickapoo Tribe of Oklahoma, and the Kickapoo Traditional
ples. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/khmer-leou.
Tribe of Texas. Another Kickapoo band, the Tribu Kikapú,
Minority Rights Group International. 2017b. “Vietnam: Khmer.”
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. lives in Múzquiz Municipality in the Mexican state of Coa-
http://minorityrights.org/minorities/khmer. huila. Smaller bands live in Sonora and Durango in Mexico.
Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Thailand: Mon
and Khmer.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous
Peoples. https://minorityrights.org/minorities/mon-and​ Geography and Environment
-khmer/.
Olsen, Dale A., and Daniel E. Sheehy. 2008. The Concise Gar- The Mexican Kickapoo live on a hacienda, El Nacimiento de
land Encyclopedia of World Music. Vol. 2, South America, la Tribu Kikapú (“the Birthplace of the Kickapoo Tribe”),
Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean. Abingdon, UK: located northeast of the municipality of Múzquiz. The land
Routledge. is semiarid with water provided by the Río Sabinas, a trib-
UNPO. 2018. “Khmer-Krom.” The Unrepresented Nations and utary of the Rio Salado that flows into the Rio Grande. The
Peoples Organization, January 30. https://unpo.org/members​
Kickapoo Indian Reservation of Texas is located on the
/7887.
Wetzel, Linda. 2008. “Cambodia Cultural Profile.” EthnoMed, U.S.-Mexico border on the Rio Grande in western Maver-
October. https://ethnomed.org/culture/cambodian​/cam​bo​ ick County, just south of the city of Eagle Pass. The Kick-
dian-cultural-profile. apoo Indian Reservation in Kansas is located in Brown
County in northeastern Kansas.
580 Kickapoo

History and Politics cattle ranchers, or they sell their handicrafts. A number of
Originally from Wisconsin, the Kickapoo first encoun- Kickapoo also work at the Lucky Eagle Casino in Texas,
tered Europeans in the seventeenth century. The contact which the Kickapoo founded. It has allowed the Kickapoo
led to hostile relations between the Kickapoo and the to advance economically.
Anglo-American settlers around the Great Lakes.As a result Kickapoo traditions are not written down but transmit-
of European incursions onto their land, prairie-dwelling ted orally through the male line. The Kickapoo retain their
Kickapoo migrated to Illinois, and other bands moved to tribal religious beliefs and ceremonies, including naming
Indiana and Mississippi. The Kickapoo that had previously ceremonies, New Year rites, chief ’s ceremonies, and feasts
lived on the prairies eventually settled in Kansas. The Ver- for the dead. The Kickapoo traditional religion is animistic
million band that had moved to Indiana continued to resist and includes a belief in manitous (spirit messengers) who
European colonization. In 1625, this continued resistance are assisted by trees, day, night, rocks, the moon, and the
prompted the Spanish to invite the Vermillion band to set- sun. The supreme Kickapoo deity is the Creator-God Kisii-
tle in Texas. Such a move would also remove the threat to hiat, who lives in the sky.
the Vermillion band from Anglo-American colonists and A particularly interesting aspect of Kickapoo culture is
attacks by the Kiowa and Comanche tribes. In 1821, many onowecikepi (“courtship whistling”) that is performed by
Kickapoo migrated to Mexico to escape persecution by Kickapoo males and females around fifteen and sixteen
the American government. Mexican authorities granted years of age. To enable courtship whistling to work as a
the Kickapoo land in the state of Coahuila in exchange method of communication, each young courting couple
for protecting Mexico from incursions by the Kiowa and shares a distinct whistle known only to them. Couples use
Comanche. As a reward for protecting the Mexican bor- this whistling to communicate when they will rendezvous
der during the Mexican-American War (1846–1848), the in the evening. Though whistling is used as a way of com-
Kickapoo were given land in Melchor Muzquiz, also in municating in many languages, only the Mexican Kicka-
Coahuila. Here, the Kickapoo established the town of El poo use whistling as a courtship tool. The Kickapoo people
Nacimiento where they entered into hostile relations with living in Oklahoma do employ a form of whistling as part
American settlers. To stop conflict between the Kickapoo of their courtship patterns, but the Oklahoma whistling is
and the American colonists, in 1873, General Ronald S. not systemized and cannot be used to carry on conversa-
Mackenzie entered Mexico, and once the Kickapoo men tions. Thus, it can be said that the Kickapoo living in Mex-
were off hunting, he rounded up the Kickapoo women ico exclusively employs the system of courtship whistling.
and children and moved them to Oklahoma. Mackenzie Originally, courting couples would communicate their
intended to resettle the Kickapoo under the control of U.S. messages by playing a lover’s flute, with each flute having
authorities, but this aim was not achieved until 1883. its own distinctive sound. A Kickapoo man would then
In 1940, some Kickapoo migrated to the United States use his individual flute to play tunes distinct to him and
to escape hardship and drought in Coahuila. In 1983, the therefore recognizable to his girlfriend. However, since
Kickapoo were officially recognized as a Native American 1915, courtship whistling has been employed instead of
tribe of Texas, Oklahoma, and Kansas. The same year, the the musical instrument, as young people wanted a way of
Kickapoo received dual nationality that allowed the Kicka- communicating that their parents could not understand.
poo to have both Mexican and American birth certificates. The whistling is not a form of musical serenading but
This permits the Kickapoo to own land in both countries rather a method of communication based on the pitch,
and to vote in U.S. and Mexican elections. accent, and rhythm of the traditional Kickapoo language.
Today, some Kickapoo children and elders stay living in An individual performs a courtship whistle by pressing
Mexico, but many other migrate seasonally to Eagle Pass the thumb knuckles of both hands vertically against the
in Texas. Here, the Kickapoo migrants work as wage lab- lips and then blowing through the small hole created. The
orers to earn money to fund Kickapoo farming and cattle young Kickapoo then cups three fingers of his or her right
ranching in Mexico. hand so that the ends rest at the base of the index finger
on the left hand. The fingers on the left hand control the
opening at the back of the hand. Opening and closing the
Society, Culture, and Tradition aperture controls the tone made by the lips. Thus, the posi-
In the past, the Kickapoo were clannish hunter-­gatherers. tioning of the fingers and palms creates the sound of the
Today, however, the Kickapoo are mostly farmers and Kickapoo whistle.
 Komi 581

Courtship whistling can be heard intermittently from Threats to Survival

dusk until midnight every night, except during bad Anthropologists consider the Kickapoo one of the United
weather. Usually one or more young Kickapoo tribesmen States’ least assimilated tribes. Today, the Kickapoo
build a fire at a local meeting place. A young Kickapoo face several threats to survival. Two of the most serious
man will then whistle to his girlfriend, inviting her to join threats endanger their distinct culture. First, deer hunt-
him by the fire. The girl recognizes her boyfriend’s whistle ing is considered sacred by the Kickapoo, for a Kickapoo
because every courtship whistle is unique. Most whistled father cannot bestow a tribal name on a baby unless he
messages are made up of stock phrases, such as “Come on,” can contribute a certain number of deer ribs to a naming
“I’m coming,” “I’m waiting for you,” “No,” and “Wait a min- ceremony. Deer are scarce around the Kickapoo Mexican
ute,” though entire conversations can be conducted by way reserve and rarer still around their U.S. reservation. Both
of courtship whistling. Mexican and Texan laws restrict deer hunting, and few
Though it is often just one couple that meets up, some- Kickapoo earn enough to afford a private hunting lease.
times large groups of around twelve couples congregate to This in turn endangers the continuation of the Kickapoo
drink alcohol, sing traditional songs, talk, and, of course, naming ceremony.
woo. Many older Kickapoo disapprove of courtship whis- Another serious problem is addiction. As is the case
tling, as they feel it enables and encourages youngsters to with many Native Americans, the Kickapoo have high
stay out late at night. Local Native police once banned the rates of alcohol consumption. However, in recent years, it
custom, but parents have never been able to stop the court- is addiction to spray paint inhalation that has proved most
ship whistling from occurring. Since 1940, the tradition worrisome to tribal elders.
has been reinstated and enthusiastically practiced.
See also: Apache; Comanche; Hopi; Lakota; Zuni
Further Reading
Health Care and Education Garduno, Everado. 2015. “Kickapoo.” In Native Peoples of the
Native Americans have a high incidence of communica- World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contempo-
rary Issues, edited by Steven Danver, 439–440. Vol. 1. London:
ble diseases such as tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS as well as
Routledge.
high rates of fatal infectious illnesses. The ratio of health- Joshua Project. 2018.“Kickapoo in Mexico.” https://joshuaproject​
care providers to patients is lower on reserves than in .net/people_groups/12679/MX.
other communities. Suicide and accidents related to drug Latorre, Felipe A., and Dolores L. Latorre. 1976. The Mexican
and alcohol use are the two biggest causes of Native Amer- Kickapoo Indians. New York: Dover Publications.
ican deaths. Violence, alcohol dependency, and depression Texas Monthly. 1997. “The Forgotten People.” Texas Monthly,
February 1. https://www.texasmonthly.com/the-culture/the​
are also common among Native populations.
-forgotten-people.
It has been reported that some Kickapoo have been Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
addicted to sniffing paint for over a decade. The paint’s World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA:
solvent compounds attach to the brain’s fatty tissues, so if ABC-CLIO.
a paint sniffer detoxifies (often a lengthy process), he or
she may experience withdrawal symptoms that range from
mood swings to suicidal depression (Texas Monthly 1997).
Native Americans have substantially lower levels of
education than the general U.S. population. Natives have KOMI
the lowest high school and university graduation rates in
the United States. Programs providing bicultural educa- Current Population 293,406–395,000
tion and Native-run schools have done little to make the Current Location Russian Federation
situation better, as qualified Native American teachers Language Komi; Russian
are in short supply. In recent years, many Kickapoo have Interesting Fact The Komi Republic is home to the
received no formal schooling, and Kickapoo children sel- mysterious Manpupuner rock forma-
dom stay in education past the elementary school (Texas tion, a set of seven huge, abnormally
Monthly 1997). That said, the Kansas Kickapoo can access shaped stone pillars that have no
the Kickapoo Nation school that teaches children from obvious origin and have a powerful
kindergarten through twelfth grade. spiritual effect on visitors.
582 Komi

Overview Geography and Environment

The Komi are an indigenous people living in the northeast The Komi homeland occupies the basins of the Pechora,
of the Russian Federation. The Komi speak a Permic lan- Kama, and Vychegda Rivers and the upper reaches of the
guage that belongs to the Finno-Ugric branch of the Uralic Mezen River that lie partly within the Arctic Circle. As the
family. The Komi comprise several subgroups, including Arctic Circle has a particularly harsh climate, most Komi
the Komi-Zyryan, the Komi-Permyaks (or Permyaks), and live in the south of their homeland. While the far north
the Komi-Yazua. of Komi territory is characterized by tundra conditions,
The Komi speak both Komi and Russian, both of much of the land on which the Komi live is covered in
which are the official languages of the Komi Republic. coniferous forest and meadows. Indeed, the Virgin Komi
The national flag of the Komi is a horizontal tricolor with Forests, which is located in the Northern Ural Mountains
bands of blue, green, and white. of the Komi Republic, is recognized as a natural UNESCO
World Heritage Site. The forest stretches across 3.28 mil-
lion hectares of mountainous tundra and is home to many
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
tree species, including conifer, aspen, and birch. The forest
According to the 2002 national census, there are between also contains peat bogs, lakes, and rivers.
293,406 (Minority Rights Group International 2017) and Other geographical features on Komi land include lakes
490,000 (Ruotsala 2007) Komi people living in the Russian and Mount Narodnaya, which is both the highest point in
Federation. The Komi people live in several areas of the the Komi Republic and the highest summit in the Urals in
Russian Federation, including the Komi Republic, Omsk, Russia, standing at some 6,214 feet. In the Komi Repub-
the Nenets Autonomous Okrug, the Arkhangelsk, and lic, winters are long and cold, and summers are short but
Murmansk. Despite the fact that the Komi are categorized warm. However, the remote geographic location in which
as an indigenous people by the United Nations, they are the Komi live, coupled with the at times inhospitable cold
not recognized as such by the Russian Federation because of their environment, means modern Komi remained cul-
the population of the Komi is higher than the Russian leg- turally isolated from non-Russians until after World War II.
islative threshold for indigenous populations that stands Natural resources in the Komi Republic include reserves
at 50,000 people. That the Russian federation does not of coal, oil, gas, gold, diamonds, and timber. There are also
recognize the Komi as an indigenous people means that plentiful herds of reindeer. It is, however, oil that is the
they do not qualify for funding under Russian schemes Komi Republic’s chief environmental resource. The repub-
intended to help indigenous peoples. The Komi are, how- lic was the site of Russia’s first oil production facility, which
ever, accorded indigenous status by the legislation of the opened in 1745, and the Soviet Union developed Russia’s
Republic of Komi. modern oil industry on Komi land during the 1960s and
The Komi are a minority in every territory that they 1970s. However, the early industrial technology used
inhabit, including the Komi Republic, where they make at this time was crude, and the oil production practices
up only 23.3 percent of the population. In industrial areas used were unsophisticated, such as injecting water into
such as Vorkuta, the Komi make up only 1 percent of the oil wells at high pressures to drive out the oil. Most of the
population. In the Nenets Autonomous Okrug, the popula- oil pipes also did not include any leak-detection technol-
tion is 9.5 percent Komi (Barentsinfo.org n.d.).
ogy. Since the 1970s, oil and gas production on Komi land
One Komi group, the Izhmi (or Iz’vatas), left Komi has gone on to provide more than half of Russia’s annual
land in the nineteenth century to escape a disease that budget. This money has, however, come at great cost to the
was killing many thousands of reindeer. The Izhmi environment.
migrated to an area on the Kola Peninsula near the Ob
River basin in western Siberia, where they intermixed
with the Nenets. The Izhmi gained a reputation as excel- History and Politics
lent reindeer herders and started a successful reindeer Komi land has been inhabited for around twenty-five thou-
husbandry industry that soon spread to other Komi sand years, but a sudden cold snap forced people to leave
groups and included the production of reindeer skin, the area about twenty-two thousand years ago. The Komi
meat, and leather. are descended from the original inhabitants of the middle
 Komi 583

and upper reaches of the Karma River. During the first separately from the Komi for the first time when the Nen-
century BCE, these people split into two groups: the Komi ets Autonomous Okrug was created. This was followed by
and the Udmurts. Then, around 500 CE, the Komi sepa- the declaration of an autonomous Komi region as part of
rated into different clan groups, with some clans heading the Soviet national policy in December 1936. This Komi
north to the Vychegda River basin area. Once in the north, region was known as the Komi Autonomous Socialist
these Komi mixed with local people and began a separate Soviet Republic (Komi ASSR).
society. The Komi clans that remained in the Karma basin Joseph Stalin, the Soviet political leader, tried to erad-
became known as the Komi-Permyaks or Permyaks. Dur- icate Komi language, culture, and nationalism during the
ing the thirteenth century, some Komi came under the 1940s and 1950s by suppressing the Komi people and
control of the Slavic state of Great Novgorod and became banning lessons from being taught in the Komi language.
known as the Perms. In the 1960s, Russian authorities took a great interest in
Komi lands became important to the fur traders from the Komi homeland because valuable mineral resources
Novgorod, as the traders used the rivers along which the were discovered there. The exploitation of these resources
Komi lived to transport their furs from the Ural Moun- led to industrialization on Komi land that in turn forced
tains to Siberia. Excessive hunting diminished fur supplies, the Komi to resettle in industrial cities, where they found
however, and in time, the fur traders discovered shorter work in mines, factories, and mills. At the same time as
routes into Siberia. When this happened, the Komi river Komi were migrating from their homeland in search of
routes became less important to the Novgorodians. work, Russians were migrating into the Komi homeland to
During the 1360s to 1370s, St. Steven of Perm and his exploit the resources found there. Russian migrants were
followers set out to convert the indigenous peoples of Rus- rewarded with bonuses and benefits if they agreed to settle
sia to Christianity, destroying their sacred places, statues, in the more inhospitable north of Komi land.
and temples. Although this effort to Christianize the indig- In the late 1980s, the Soviet reforms that occurred
enous peoples succeeded to a degree, the people never under the presidency of Mikhail Gorbachev resulted in
fully left behind their indigenous beliefs. strikes by coalminers, who demanded more pay and better
In 1452, Russians from the Muscovite duchy began to working conditions. As the Komi considered these min-
move into Novgorodian lands on which the Komi lived. ers to be well paid, the Komi took exception to the strikes
The Russians overran the Novgorodians between 1471 and and used them as a vehicle to air their own grievances.
1478, bringing the Komi under Russian rule. The Russians The Komi demanded an end to what they considered the
subjected the Komi to a harsh colonial regime, prompting suppression of their people and that Komi lands be reuni-
the Komis to migrate again in the middle of the sixteenth fied. In response to these demands, Soviet leaders declared
century. This time, they moved deeper into the upper areas Komi a sovereign state in October 1990. The disintegration
of the Vychegda and Pechora River basins. From the six- of the Soviet Union in 1991 fueled a strong sense of Komi
teenth century to the eighteenth century, Russians came nationalism, and in November 1991, the Komi republican
to dominate the Komi, with Russian culture permeating government unilaterally declared the Komi Republic as a
every aspect of Komi life and Russians settling on Komi national republic within the Russian Federation while also
land. One of the effects of the Russian influence on the arguing for the unification of Komi lands appropriated by
Komi during the eighteenth century was that Komi soci- the Soviets.
ety started to change from being clan based to being class In 1992, the First World Congress of Finno-Ugrian
based. Another change was that, by the end of the eight- peoples took place in the Komi Republic. Delegates at the
eenth century, the various Komi groups that had previ- conference called for self-rule for all indigenous peoples
ously upheld their own traditions, customs, rituals, dress, and national minorities, including the Komi within the
and so on, all began to meld together as their traditional Russian Federation. Then, in 1995, a Second Congress of
culture broke down in the wake of Russian influence on Finno-Ugric Peoples demanded new rights for indigenous
the Komi way of life. peoples and national minorities, including property rights
Prior to the Russian Revolution in 1917, Komi land was in traditional homelands as well as settlement and lan-
divided into a number of gubernias (provinces) within the guage privileges. In 1996, a bilateral agreement was made
Russian Empire. In 1929, the Nenets were administered between Russian authorities and the Komi Republic. The
584 Komi

agreement gave some autonomy to the republic, mostly During the Soviet era, many Komi traditions were lost,
in regard to issues such as economic management of the but in their place a Komi literary culture sprung up that
republic’s oil, mineral, and forest resources. attempts to revive traditional Komi culture. As part of this
Since the mid-1990s, the Komi have been waging a non- cultural revival, there is now a Komi folklore group as well
violent war of symbolism against the Russians. The Komi as a Komi ethnocultural center in the village of Lovozero
have denounced the Russian flag as symbolic of colonial- in the Murmansk Oblast. There are also Komi folklore
ism and regularly removed the flag, replacing it with the groups in Syktyvkar as well as a Komi theater.
Komi national flag.

Health Care and Education

Society, Culture, and Tradition One of the main health issues for Komi are illnesses arising
For centuries, the Komi earned their living from tradi- from environmental pollution. In 1994, Russia’s worst oil
tional activities, including fishing, hunting, reindeer herd- spill occurred in Usinsk, in the Komi Republic, when an
ing, dairy farming, and collecting berries. Today, the Komi estimated one hundred thousand tons of oil gushed from
also earn money from forestry and mining. For food, the an aging pipeline. The spill polluted up to twenty-five miles
Komi fish, rear cattle and reindeer, and collect berries and of two local rivers, killed thousands of fish and animals,
mushrooms. and saw respiratory diseases among villagers in Komi vil-
Most Komi are Russian Orthodox, but they retain ves- lages affected by the spill rise by some 28 percent the fol-
tiges of pre-Christian ancestor worship, mainly in the form lowing year (Vasilyeva 2014). Then, in 2010, 1,300 Komi
of shamanistic rituals. Many Komi are also Old Believers. living in the village of Ust-Usa, on the Pechora River, suf-
These are Russian Orthodox Christians who uphold the fered from a variety of illnesses, in particular conditions
liturgical and ritual practices of the Russian Orthodox of the nervous system, after a number of oil spills (Luhn
Church as they existed before the period 1652 and 1666, 2016).
when Patriarch Nikon of Moscow ordered a number of As the majority of Komi people live in rural areas,
ecclesiastical reforms. The Old Believers were denounced their education level is generally lower than that of other
in a Synod of 1666–1667 and condemned by Russian Russians. In Lovozero, there are schools that provide les-
authorities. As a result of this condemnation many Old sons in the Komi language for Komi children. However,
Believers settled on Komi land to escape persecution by these schools are not common, and there is a shortage of
Russian Orthodox authorities. In time, some Komi came to schoolbooks written in the Komi language, though there
adopt the beliefs of the Old Believers. are an increasing number of textbooks written in Komi.
The Komi are overwhelmingly Russian Orthodox, how- In villages with significant Komi populations, the Komi
ever, following their conversion to Orthodox Christianity language is the primary language used in kindergarten
at the behest of St. Stephen of Perm, who also created an schools, but the pupils can also attend classes taught in
alphabet for a written Komi language and translated parts Russian, which some Komi parents prefer. At the Univer-
of the Bible into Komi for the people to read. Indeed, such sity of Syktyvkar, students are able to study the Komi lan-
is the influence of St. Stephen on the Komi that the saint is guage, and the university also has a Fenno-Ugric faculty.
referred to as the Enlightener of the Komi (Minahan 2002). The hiring of the faculty and the creation of the language

The Old Believers

Old Believers are a Russian Orthodox sect guided by traditions that predate seventeenth-century reforms. The Old
Believers considered the religious reforms carried out by Patriarch Nikon of Moscow (1652–1658) as signs that the
end of the world was approaching. The state retaliated against the Old Believers’ refusal to conform by imprisoning
or killing those who would not adapt. Consequently, many Old Believers practiced their faith secretly or moved to
remote Siberia, where they lived for centuries before fleeing the Russian Revolution. Today, Old Believers live in the
Russian Federation and the Americas.
 Komi 585

course were in response to the increasing political activism down the Pechora River before emptying into the Barents
of the Komi that gained momentum after the declaration Sea. More recently, there have been oil spills in the area in
of the Komi Republic. 2013, 2014, and 2015, mainly brought about by the aging
pipelines. These spills released hundreds of tonnes of oil
onto the land and into rivers.
Threats to Survival Away from Usinsk, extensive pollution from oil spills
The Komi people face a twofold threat to their survival: the threatens traditional Komi activities, such as cattle rearing,
loss of their language and culture and the environmental reindeer herding, and fishing, as the cows, reindeer, and fish
consequences of resource exploitation. In recent years, are poisoned. Meanwhile, deforestation has devastated huge
much attention has been paid to the revival of Komi lan- swaths of the Komi homeland. The forest trees that used to
guage and culture, mainly through education. In addition provide the Komi with berries and mushrooms no longer
in the Komi Republic, there are now newspapers and mag- exist. Drinking water supplies are also polluted because oil
azines written in the Komi language, and articles written spills into lakes and leaks from underground pipes.
in Komi are occasionally published in Russian newspapers. Oil companies may not feel the need to address the
In the Komi Republic, there are also daily local radio and issue of oil spills. With much of the aging oil pipeline infra-
television broadcasts in the Komi language. structure failing, and with fines inexpensive and regulation
Nonetheless, only time will tell whether these factors slack, it is more cost-effective for oil companies to repair
are sufficient to prevent younger generations of Komi from holes in pipelines. If a spill does occur, the oil companies
assimilating with the prevailing Russian culture, especially pour sand on the spills rather than invest in newer quality
in the southern areas of Komi land. Then again, as many infrastructure or to ensure comprehensive environmental
Russians have had to leave Komi lands due to the Russia’s cleanups occur.
increasing economic problems, the Komi are increasing Because of the environmental damage resulting from
their share of the population in those areas. This is espe- Soviet industrialization, particularly the oil industry, and
cially true in the north of Komi land, where the Komi have the people’s concern about what is happening to their land,
an increasing say in what happens in the Komi Republic, ecology is a prime issue for Komi nationalists.
and they may be able to achieve the ultimate so-called
de-Russification of their territory (Minahan 2002). See also: Avar; Chechen; Evenk; Ingush; Izhorian; Kare-
While the Komi have arrested the loss of their language lian; Ket; Lak; Mansi; Mordvin; Nenet; Nivkh; Ossetian;
and culture to a degree, they may find it harder to over- Sami; Selkup; Udmurt; Vep
come the ecological issues resulting from Soviet industri- Further Reading
alization, most especially from the oil industry, which has Bachman, Jessica. 2010. “Special Report: Oil and Ice: Worse Than
exacted a huge price on both the Komi environment and the Gulf Spill?” Reuters, November 8. http://uk.reuters.com​
/article/us-russia-oil-idUSTRE6A71IL20101108.
Komi people. Usinsk, a town with a population of around
Barentsinfo.org. n.d. “Komi.” http://www.barentsinfo.org​/Con​
thirty-nine thousand people, is the hub of the area’s oil tents/Indigenous-people/Komi.
industry. In 1994, a pipeline break in the Usinsk pipeline Luhn, Alec. 2016. “The Town That Reveals How Russia Spills Two
spilled at least 60,000 tonnes (or possibly 120,000 tonnes, Deepwater Horizons of Oil Each Year.” The Guardian, August
depending on estimates) of oil in what was one of the larg- 5. https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/aug/05​
est ever oil spills on land (Luhn 2016). /the-town-that-reveals-how-russia-spills-two-deepwater​
-horizons-of-oil-each-year.
Shortly after the Usinsk spill, heavy rains forced the dam
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
containing the oil to rupture, sending a large oil slick into Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 2, D–K.
nearby rivers and across forested tundra. Because Usinsk Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
is within the Arctic Circle, the cold weather makes it diffi- Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Russian Federation:
cult for spilled oil to evaporate. Any spilled oil that did not Komi.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peo-
immediately flow into the Kolva, Usa, and Pechora Rivers ples. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/komi.
Podorova, Anna, and Inna Makarova. 2015. “Komi People
spread over miles of marshland and tundra, where it froze
through the Eyes of Children: Paintings or Photographs.” In
during the winter. When spring came, the oil from the Children’s Images of Identity: Drawing the Self and the Other,
frozen tundra washed back into local streams and either edited by Jill Brown and Nicola F. Johnson, 57–74. Rotterdam,
seeped into surrounding vegetation or traveled farther the Netherlands: Sense Publishers.
586 Korean

Ruotsala, Helena. 2007. “The Komi of the Kola Peninsula.” In practiced by South Koreans and members of the Korean
International Handbook of Research on Indigenous Entrepre- diaspora.
neurship, edited by Leo-Paul Dana and Robert B. Anderson,
302–306. Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
Vasilyeva, Nataliya. 2014. “Constant Oil Spills Devastate Russia.” Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Seattle Times, December 24. http://www.seattletimes.com​
/nation-world/constant-oil-spills-devastate-russia. The total Korean population is estimated to comprise 85
million people (Minahan 2014). Koreans are concentrated
in South Korea and North Korea as well as adjacent parts
of China. A large Korean diaspora exists, with Korean com-
munities found in countries that include the United States,
Canada, Japan, Russia, Australia, New Zealand, Uzbekistan,
KOREAN Kazakhstan, Thailand, Vietnam, Brazil, the United King-
dom, and Germany. The Korean population is particu-
Current Location Korea Peninsula
larly homogenous, with a small number of Chinese and
Current Population 85 million
Japanese settlers forming minorities in both countries. In
Language Korean
China, the Korean minority is called the Chaoxian.
Interesting Fact Over one million Koreans died in South Korea’s population is aging and has low fertility.
fighting during the Korean War.
The country’s age dependency ratio is expected to increase
sharply as people age, thereby leaving a small number of
Overview young people of productive age to support the older popu-
The Koreans (sometimes called the Hanguk-in, Han-in, lation. By 2025, South Korea is expected to have the second
Hanguk-saram, Choson-in, or Koryo-saram, among most aged population of any nation (Kwon et al. 2015).
other names) are the indigenous inhabitants of East
Asia’s Korean Peninsula that is currently occupied by
South Korea (the Republic of Korea) and North Korea Geography and Environment
(officially the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea). The Korean Peninsula is located in northeast East Asia,
The Koreans speak the Korean language. Most Koreans where it is bordered to the north by eastern Siberia in Rus-
do not follow a religion. Buddhism, Confucianism, Chon- sia and Manchuria in China. The peninsula’s southern tip
dogyo (or Cheondoism), and Christianity are sometimes reaches to within seventy miles of Japan. Following World

Yul Choi
As leader of the Korean Federation for Environmental Movement, Yul Choi popularized environmental issues and
organized a powerful antinuclear movement. In the 1970s, Yul Choi was imprisoned for his activism. While impris-
oned, he read extensively about environmental issues. Upon his release, he established the first South Korean envi-
ronmental nongovernmental organization, the Korean Research Institute of Environmental Problems, in response to
pollution caused by South Korea’s rapid industrialization. In 1988, Choi became the first chairperson of the Korean
Anti-Pollution Movement Association (KAPMA).
As South Korea relies on nuclear power, Choi decided to inform South Koreans about the issues surrounding nuclear
waste disposal. As a result of this activism, Choi was placed under house arrest. Nonetheless, a South Korean antinu-
clear movement arose, with thousands of people protesting the construction of nuclear plants. In 1993, Choi launched
South Korea’s largest environmental organization, the Korean Federation for Environmental Movement (KFEM), ini-
tiated a consumer boycott of polluting industries, and continued to oppose South Korea’s nuclear expansion.
In 1994, Choi was named on the Global 500 Roll of Honour, and he received the Goldman Environmental Prize
in 1995. He used his prize money to establish the Korean Environmental Center, which provides environmental edu-
cation. In 2013, Choi was sentenced to a year’s imprisonment for his opposition to the Four Rivers river diversion
scheme. Today, he is president of the Korea Green Foundation.
 Korean 587

War II, the peninsula was divided almost in half, with com- requirements. South Korean cities suffer from significant
munist North Korea occupying just over half of the penin- air and water pollution.
sula and South Korea occupying the rest of the land. The
Korean Peninsula separates the Yellow Sea from the Sea
of Japan. Over three thousand islands lie off the Korean History and Politics
coast, most of which are located off South Korea’s south The Koreans are descended from an ancient people of
and southwest coasts. The largest of the islands is South south central Siberia who moved in waves from their
Korea’s Cheju Island. homeland to the Korean Peninsula between the Neolithic
The Korean Peninsula is home to many rivers and (about twelve thousand years ago) and Bronze Age (3000
streams. Most Korean rivers are used for irrigation, even BCE to 1200 BCE). The Koreans themselves trace their
though seasonal variations in rainfall cause the rivers to history to the formation of the first Korean kingdom, the
be shallow for most of the year before filling up during the Gojoseon kingdom located in the north of the Korean Pen-
rainy season in summer. This situation causes a great deal insula, by the legendary god-king Dan-gun Wanggeom in
of variation in the Korean Peninsula’s water supply as well 2333 BCE. The early inhabitants of the Gojoseon kingdom
as in the amount of hydroelectricity generated. Coastal were likely migrants from the Altai Mountains.
and inland plains make for fertile farmland and are the By around 1500 BCE, the Korean Peninsula together
locations of many cities. Most of the peninsula is, however, with adjacent areas of Manchuria were occupied by semi-
mountainous. sedentary farmers. Around 400 BCE, the capital of the
The climate is similar in both North and South Korea, Gojoseon kingdom was relocated to Pyongyang. Then,
though the North tends to be colder and drier. Typically, in 300 BCE, the rival Jin kingdom was established in the
the seasons are dry in North Korea save for summer mon- south of the peninsula. In 108 BCE, the Gojoseon kingdom
soons. In South Korea, the spring is long and warm, sum- was invaded by the Han Chinese, resulting in the fragmen-
mers are hot and humid, autumns are cool, and winters tation of the kingdom into multiple small states. Over time,
are cold. North Korea suffers flooding periodically that three large states developed from the small states: Baekje
severely impacts its farming, thereby causing food short- and Silla in the south of the peninsula and Goguryeo sit-
ages. Rice is grown of North Korea’s coastal lowlands, and uated in the peninsula’s north. The three kingdoms domi-
corn, wheat, and soybeans are grown on the republic’s dry nated both the Korean peninsula and areas of Manchuria
plateaus. Sweetcorn is grown on spare North Korean land, for most of the period from 57 CE to 668 CE, when Silla
even in cities. defeated Goguryeo during a war of unification. Following
North Korea contains most of the Korean Peninsula’s Goguryeo’s defeat, the Korean homeland was redivided
mineral resources, which include barite, copper, gold, into Silla in the south and Balhae in the north. The two
graphite, and iron. Hydroelectric power provides most states ruled the peninsula from 698 to 926.
of North Korea’s electricity. In 1996, however, a flood In Silla, Korean arts and literature thrived, and Bud-
damaged much of the republic’s hydropower infrastruc- dhism became a central part of Silla culture, as Buddhist
ture, which has not yet been repaired. The difficulties of monasteries became seats of learning. Silla lasted until
producing hydroelectricity during the dry season means 935, when it was conquered by the Korean kingdom of
thermal power produced by coal-fired plants is increas- Goryeo (also called Koryo or Korea). Goryeo ruled a
ingly important to North Korea. Current environmental united Korean homeland until 1392, during which time
issues in North Korea include very localized industrial the Koreans made huge strides in pottery production and
air pollution, water pollution, and shortages of drinking printing. By the fourteenth century, the Goryeo kingdom
water. had lost much of its authority in the face of pressure from
South Korea’s mineral resources are limited but include China’s Mongol Yuan dynasty. When the Goryeo kingdom
graphite, tungsten, anthracite, gold, and silver. South Korea was overthrown in 1392, the Joseon (or Chosun/Cho-
also has marine resources, including seaweed and fish such son) dynasty became established. The Joseon ruled Korea
as tuna and mackerel. Thermal electric power accounts for through successive kings until the end of the nineteenth
over half of South Korea’s power. Recently, South Korea has century.
built numerous nuclear power stations that the govern- The first full-scale Japanese invasions of Korea occurred
ment hopes will meet some of South Korea’s future energy between 1592 and 1598, though Japanese pirates had
588 Korean

raided Korean coastal settlements before this time. The In 1910, Japan annexed Korea and so began thirty-five
Japanese invasions were launched by Japanese leader Toy- years of Japanese military rule over the Koreans. Japan
otomi Hideyoshi, with the aim of conquering the Korean took control of all aspects of Korean life while attempt-
Peninsula and China. Japan succeeded in occupying ing to destroy Korean culture. Japan also reorganized
large portions of the Korean Peninsula, but the Koreans the Korean economy to benefit Japan. In 1919, anti-­
developed powerful weapons and employed armor-clad Japanese, pro-liberation protests erupted across Korea,
warships called Geobukseon (turtle ships) to defeat the leading to Japanese troops shooting and killing thou-
Japanese navy. Ultimately, Chinese soldiers deployed by sands of demonstrators. Despite the killings, the Koreans
China’s Ming emperor helped the Koreans expel the Japa- continued to hold anti-Japanese revolts, which became
nese invaders from Korea. especially w ­ idespread in 1929, resulting in even stricter
Despite being left devastated by the Japanese invasion, Japanese rule.
Korea became involved in conflict between China’s Man- Following Japan’s invasion of China (1937) and the
chu and Ming dynasties. The Koreans tried to stay neutral subsequent start of World War II, the Japanese intensified
in the conflict, but in 1627, a Jurchen (Manchu) army of their efforts to destroy traditional Korean culture. To this
thirty thousand soldiers invaded Korea, resulting in Korea end, the Japanese banned the use of the Korean language,
becoming a tributary of the Manchu. Following the impo- Koreans were made to adopt Japanese family names, and
sition of nominal Manchu Qing authority, Korean leaders Korean cultural artifacts were destroyed or transported to
became isolationist and sought to avoid forming alliances Japan. In time, Korean resistance groups began to operate
or becoming embroiled in conflict. During this time, a throughout Korea but were especially effective in Korea’s
Korean Confucian reform movement called Silhak won border regions with China. During World War II, Koreans
the backing of the Koreans. Silhak developed out of the were made to work for the Japanese war effort. As part of
increasingly metaphysical Korean religious philosophies this work, tens of thousands of Korean men were drafted
that were in turn a reaction to the people’s disconnection into the Japanese military, and approximately twenty thou-
from their homeland following rapid industrialization and sand Korean girls and women (Minahan 2014) were kid-
political change that occurred between the seventeenth napped to serve as “comfort women”—sex slaves forced
and nineteenth centuries. to service the Japanese military. It is estimated that 90
During the nineteenth century, the Joseon dynasty percent of the comfort women did not survive the war
declined rapidly following a combination of internal (Blakemore 2018).
power struggles, foreign invasions, and revolts. The dynas- Japanese rule over Korea ended with the Japanese
ty’s demise allowed Western influence to grow in Korea as defeat and the end of World War II. Also, in 1945, Soviet
trade and contact with the outside increased. troops moved in to occupy northern parts of Korea while
The Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895) saw China’s Man- American forces entered the country’s southern provinces.
chu Qing dynasty and the Japanese fight for influence over Initially, elections overseen by the United Nations were to
Korea, which the Japanese feared would become a threat be held, but these were shelved as a Cold War mentality
to Japan as it continued to modernize and gain in military took hold in Korea. By 1948, the Korean Peninsula had
prowess. China regarded Korea as a vassal states, but fol- been divided into two states, with communist rulers in the
lowing China’s defeat, regional power lay with Japan. The north and an anticommunist state running the south. The
war, which was fought partially in Korea, devastated many Soviets and Americans withdrew from the peninsula, but
parts of the western Korean Peninsula. After the war, the the weakened state of South Korea prompted communist
1895 Treaty of Shimonoseki ordered the dissolution of the leader Kim Il-sung to contemplate a Northern invasion of
traditional links between the Joseon dynasty and the Qing the South. Initially, the North’s plans were vetoed by Soviet
dynasty. leader Joseph Stalin, but the communist victory in the Chi-
In 1897, the Korean kingdom was supplanted by the nese Civil War (1949) encouraged the Chinese to back the
new Korean Empire. The new government partly suc- North Korean invasion plan.
ceeded in modernizing the empire’s military, economy, The subsequent invasion in 1950 resulted in the start
industry, agriculture, and education. Russian influence of the Korean War. The United States and its allies went to
over Korea grew until the Russo-Japanese War (1904– the aid of South Koreans with the backing of the United
1905), after which Korea became a Japanese protectorate. Nations. Soon, the war became a standoff between the two
 Korean 589

sides, despite initial military advances by North Korea The Korean language, which is the official language of
and China. The fighting ended in 1953, when an armistice both Koreas, is also an official language of China’s Yan-
allowed the reinstatement of the border between North bian Korean Autonomous Prefecture. The Korean lan-
and South Korea. By this time, over a million Koreans had guage forms the Koreanic branch of the Altaic language,
died in the fighting, along with tens of thousands of Allied though some linguists consider the language a language
and Chinese military personnel. isolate, meaning it is unrelated to any other language. The
Relations between the two Koreas have remained tense Korean language is divided into several dialects, with the
since this the war, with the two Korean populations fol- dialect spoken on Jeju island regarded by some linguists as
lowing radically different lifestyles. Since the 1950s, South a second Koreanic language. Usually, the Korean language
Korea has become one of its wealthiest nations in the is written in the Korean Hangul script, though in Russia
world through a combination of postwar reconstruction, and Central Asia it is written using the Cyrillic alphabet or
Allied alliances, and a large number of North Koreans in the Latin script. Since the division of Korea, dialectical
escaping to the South during and after the Korean War. differences have emerged in how standard Korean is pro-
In contrast, North Koreans live under a dictatorship amid nounced, its vocabulary, and its verb inflection.
a crumbling economy that has experienced mass famine In South Korea, English-language words are increas-
from the 1980s into the twenty-first century. Despite the ingly incorporated into the language, especially in the
famines, North Korea continues to fund the military and realms of industry, technology, and entertainment.
its nuclear weapons program rather than assist its civilian Koreans hold a number of life customs related to birth
population. and coming of age. In South Korea, pregnancy is a time
of ritual and protection. Koreans feel it is important that
a pregnant woman is kept happy because Koreans believe
Society, Culture, and Tradition a pregnant woman’s thoughts and experiences affect her
Traditional Korean culture is heavily influenced by that unborn baby. For this reason, pregnant Koreans seek to
of the Han and Manchu Chinese. Historically, this cul- experience as much beauty and positivity as possible, as
ture is shared by the Korean states as well as the many this is believed to ensure a happy baby. This approach to
members of the Korean diaspora. Since the division of the pregnancy is known in Korea as tae-kyo (“fetus educa-
Korean Peninsula in 1945, however, Korean culture has tion”). As Koreans admire endurance and stoicism, women
developed into two distinct forms. The industrialization are expected to withstand childbirth without express-
of South Korea introduced South Koreans to numer- ing physical discomfort. After birth, a baby’s placenta is
ous outside influences. This was particularly true in the incinerated. The ashes from the burnt placenta are then
1960s, when South Korea became one of the world’s most mixed into a healing concoction that is fed to the baby if
advanced industrial nations. South Korean authorities it becomes ill.
subsidize traditional Korean culture to the extent that Korean mothers experience a lying-in period known as
its arts are thriving, including music and films that are San-ho-jori. This normally takes place at the woman’s own
popular outside of Korea. In contrast, North Koreans live home or at her mother’s house. For the twenty-one days of
under a strict communist regime that keeps North Kore- San-ho-jori, the mother eats, sleeps, and nurses her baby
ans isolated from the outside world and has destroyed while being attended to by her relatives. During this time
many historical and cultural sites. While North Korea has of confinement, Korean women are not supposed to touch
allowed its people to suffer privations and starvation, it water nor become cold in any way. While these traditions
has simultaneously built the world’s fourth-largest mili- are gradually dying out, it is still the case that new mothers
tary force (Minahan 2014). are not allowed to be in air-conditioned rooms. Another
Throughout Korean history, shamanism, Mahayana postbirth tradition sees Korean women eat a health-giving
Buddhism, and Confucianism have underpinned Korean green seaweed soup called myuk-guk.
culture. These belief systems still influence atheist North Korean baby names typically consist of two syllables,
Koreans as well as the many Christian South Koreans. with all the sons of a family receiving the same syllable.
Additionally, while many of the Koreans living in North This creates patterns of names that can be traced back
Korea and China do not follow a religion, they maintain many generations, sometimes to the family’s founding
traditional shamanistic beliefs. father.
590 Korean

Black Day
Black Day is a South Korean tradition held annually on April 14. Black Day involves singles wearing black clothing
and eating black bean paste noodles (jjajangmyeon) as they discuss heartbreak. Black Day falls after both Valentine’s
Day and White Day on March 14. On Valentine’s Day, South Korean women present the men they love with choco-
lates, and then on White Day, men return the compliment. South Korea also celebrates around thirteen other holidays
devoted to the subject of love. These include Kiss Day (June 14); Green Day (August 14), when couples dress in green
and walk in forests drinking inexpensive Korean alcohol called soju from a green bottle; and Hug Day (December 14),
when couples spend the day hugging.

Another Korean custom, gwallye, is an annual coming- due to a lack of funding. While North Korean regional
of-age ceremony for males and females held on the third centers and the republic’s capital tend to have better health
Monday in May. The ceremony is performed for adults care than elsewhere, in North Korea, people suffer short-
turning nineteen years old in that year. Gwallye dates ages of medicines and medical supplies, a broken sanita-
back to the Goryeo state. Traditionally, gwallye is divided tion system, and recurring infectious disease. There are also
into three parts, with youngsters being blessed by watch- reports of unsterilized syringes being reused and major
ing adults at each stage. Modern gwallye ceremonies are operations occurring without anesthetic (Branigan 2014).
held en masse. The events held at Seoul City Hall initiate In South Korea, kindergarten is optional, for parents
two hundred adolescents made up of both native Koreans tend to keep their children at home until the age of six,
and foreign students. Gwallye ceremonies held in Busan which is the age at which children must enter six years
hark back to traditional gwallye ceremonies involving of compulsory chodeung-hakgyo elementary school. At
three changes of clothing. Korean universities also hold elementary school, pupils take subjects that include Eng-
their own versions of gwallye ceremonies that see students lish, Korean, math, art, and science. Typically, these sub-
wear a Hanbok, enjoy tea parties, and receive certificates jects are taught by a single teacher. South Korean middle
of excellence. Music concerts featuring a twelve-stringed school lasts for three highly disciplined years. At secondary
zither called a gayageum and traditional plays are also per- school, pupils study core subjects as well as optional lessons,
formed as a way to celebrate the young people’s reaching including ethics, history, and home economics. The last
adulthood. three years of secondary school take place at high school,
The sport of ssireum, Korean wrestling, is a male-­ where pupils may specialize in subjects or study a general
dominated folk combat sport much like sumo wrestling that curriculum. Some of these schools are run by the state, and
occurs in both Koreas as well as in China. In 1962, U
­ NESCO others are private. Around a quarter of middle school grad-
recognized ssireum as an intangible cultural asset. uates continue to vocational schools, where they study sub-
jects such as farming, fishing, and technology. If students
enter university, their entire families become involved in
Health Care and Education helping them to pass their course. At examination times,
The health of South Koreans has improved greatly over family businesses open for shorter hours so that relatives
recent years. In 2011, the life expectancy of males was can help with studying. South Korean education is famous
77.7 years and for females 84.5 years. Cancer is South for its high standards but also for being extremely stressful,
Korea’s main cause of death. South Korea introduced uni- as the students are under a great deal of pressure.
versal health care in 1989, twelve years after introducing North Korea’s education system is based on socialistic
social  health insurance. South Koreans have access to all ideals and features eleven years of free education for chil-
levels of health care at local central, regional, and municipal dren aged five to fifteen years. The system emphasizes the
levels (Kwon et al. 2015). Universal health care was one of Korean language, math, and literature. Students are also
North Korea’s founding commitments to its people. Today, taught the “Juche doctrine” (the state ideology empha-
however, North Korea’s healthcare system has collapsed sizing North Korea’s political, economic, and military
 Koryak 591

self-reliance). Children are also taught the importance of Williams, Victoria. 2015. Weird Sports and Wacky Games around
the ruling Kim family (Waller 2017). the World: From Buzkashi to Zorbing. Santa Barbara, CA:
Greenwood.
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
Threats to Survival World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA:
South Koreans have no immediate threats to their survival, ABC-CLIO.
though in the future, the aging nature of their population
may become an issue. The issue of comfort women continues
to haunt South Korea’s relationship with Japan, however. In
2015, the Japanese government announced it would award
compensation to surviving Korean victims. South Korea has KORYAK
asked Japan for a stronger apology, which Japan has con- Current Location Russia
demned. The aging survivors of the military brothels also
Current Population 12,000
continue to seek an apology from the Japanese government.
Language Koryak-Alyutor dialect; Russian
North Koreans suffer some of the world’s worst human
rights violations. North Koreans exist in a cultlike dic- Interesting Fact The Koryak are related to Native
American people living on the other
tatorship that denies citizens their right to freedom of
side of the Bering Strait.
thought, conscience, and religion as well as the rights to
form opinions or to express themselves. The cult of per-
sonality surrounding the republic’s leader, Kim Jong Un, Overview
and the official Juche doctrine has supplanted the North The Koryak (or Koriak, also called the Chavchu, Nemelan,
Koreans’ right to practice religion and imposed rigid state or Nymylan, among other names) are an indigenous peo-
control over their activities. The North Korean regime’s ple of northeast Russia who are related ethnically and
insistence on the people’s absolute loyalty and intolerance linguistically to Native American peoples living across
of any dissent means that wholesale political and ideolog- the narrow Bering Strait in North America. While many
ical changes will need to take place if the North Koreans’ Koryak speak the Koryak-Alyutor dialect, years of Russian
situation is to improve. and Soviet rule means many Koryak also speak Russian.
See also: Altai; Manchu; Mongol Most Koryak are nominally Orthodox Christians, though
some Koryak living in particularly isolated areas maintain
Further Reading
the Koryak’s traditional shamanistic beliefs.
Blakemore, Erin. 2018. “The Brutal History of Japan’s ‘Comfort
Women.’” History.com, February 20. https://www.history​
.com/news/comfort-women-japan-military-brothels-korea.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Branigan, Tania. 2014. “North Korean Health System Crum-
bling as Shortages and Sanctions Bite.” The Guardian, April The Koryak population is estimated to comprise twelve
23. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/apr/23/north​ thousand people, including the closely related Alyutor
-korean-health-system-crumbling-sanctions. (Minahan 2014). The Koryak are divided into a dozen
Connor, Mary E. 2009. Asia in Focus: The Koreas. Santa Barbara, clans or tribal groups. The Koryak homeland, the Koryak
CA: ABC-CLIO.
Autonomous Okrug (sometimes called the Koryakia) is
Kwon, S., Tj Lee, and Cy Kim. 2015. Republic of Korea Health Sys-
tem Review. Vol. 5, no. 4. Manila: World Health Organization, located in northeast Russia. The Koryak call their home-
Regional Office for the Western Pacific. land Chav’ Chiiv.
Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East and Cen- Anthropologists have discovered extraordinary paral-
tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. lels between the mythology, rituals, and houses used by the
Scholaro. 2018. “Education System in South Korea.” https://​ Koryak and Native peoples in North America, especially
www.scholaro.com/pro/countries/South-Korea/Education​
with the Haida and Tlingit.
-System.
Waller, Mary. 2017. “Education in North Korea: Exploring School
Systems.” The Borgen Project, April 23. https://borgenproject​
Geography and Environment
.org/exploring-the-north-korean-school-systems.
West, Barbara A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and Until 2007, the Koryak Autonomous Okrug was a federal
Oceania. New York: Facts on File. subject of Russia. In July 2007, the okrug merged with
592 Koryak

Kamchatka Oblast to form Kamchatka Krai. Following the illegal), river fishing, and large-scale, sea fishing. Mining
merger, the okrug retained its status as an administrative is another lucrative industry and includes platinum min-
division within Kamchatka Krai. Kamchatka Krai occu- ing in Karaginsky Raion. Gold is produced by small-scale
pies the Kamchatka Peninsula, the adjacent part of the operations in Penzhinsky and Olyutorsky Raions.
mainland, the island of Karaginsky, and the Commander The main environmental issue facing the okrug relate to
Islands. In the east, it is bordered by the Bering Sea, and to its inhabitants’ need for fuel and energy. The people living
the west is the Sea of Okhotsk. in the okrug us low-grade coal and diesel for heating and
The Koryak Autonomous Okrug itself extends across electricity that cause pollution. People also chop down trees
the northern two-thirds of the Kamchatka Peninsula, parts for firewood to heat their homes. Illegal fishing is another
of the Russian mainland, and several islands, the largest issue for the people, who sometimes fish illegally for fish to
of which is Karaginsky Island. The okrug’s northern bor- preserve for winter food or for fish roe that they can sell for
der with the Chukotka Autonomous Okrug and Magadan cash. Caviar pirates are infamous for taking roe from fish
Oblast runs along the tops of mountain ridges. The okrug’s that they then leave to waste on riverbanks. Unsustainable
southern border with Kamchatka Krai is volcanic. The poaching is a serious problem too, with large animals such
okrug’s four raions (administrative units) each have sep- as the brown bear under increasing pressure from poach-
arate drainage systems: rivers in Olyutorsky and much of ing because the bears’ gallbladders are highly prized on the
Karaginsky Raion drain into the Bering Sea, while rivers Chinese market.
in Penzhinsky and Tigilsky Raions drain into the Sea of
Okhotsk. The landscape of the Koryak Autonomous Okrug
includes tall peaks, ridges, valleys, low swampy tundra, and History and Politics
areas of permafrost. Little is known of the Koryak’s earliest history. However,
The Koryak Autonomous Okrug has a subarctic climate many researchers believe the Koryak are an ancient people
moderated by the Sea of Okhotsk and the North Pacific that originated in the Ural Mountains in the east of Con-
Ocean. In January, temperatures are around –25°C, while tinental Europe before migrating east between 40,000 and
in summer, temperatures can reach up to 14°C. Average 20,000 BCE. The ancestors of the Koryak also likely include
annual precipitation in the okrug is between twelve inches peoples from around the Aral Sea who headed north and
and twenty-eight inches. Northern inland areas have a east around 20,000 BCE as well as people from around
more continental, drier climate, while parts of the okrug Lake Baikal, in southern Siberia. The Koryak are probably
around the Sea of Okhotsk tend to be cooler in winter and the descendants of two or three groups that took part in
summer than parts with Pacific shorelines. these migrations. During prehistoric time, small nomadic
The Koryak Autonomous Okrug has varied vegetation, communities from these groups traveled across Siberia
including larch woodlands, coastal meadows, and willow in search of animals to hunt or better fishing areas. To
forests. In subarctic tundra areas, the most common plants journey across Siberia, the early Koryak crossed the land
are Japanese stone pines, larches, and shrub alders. The bridge that linked Asia to North America around thirty
forest and tundra are home to many fur-bearing animals, thousand years ago. Over time, the nomadic groups that
including sable, wolverine, otter, lynx, red fox, and Amer- stayed on the Asian side of the bridge were forced to move
ican mink. Indigenous people living in the okrug depend northward by more powerful peoples. Here, they became
on wild and domesticated reindeer, snow sheep, and scattered across the inhospitable landscape. Some of the
moose. Birds common to the okrug include eagles, owls, early Koryak living in Asia took up herding after moving to
falcons, and ravens. The latter features prominently in the temperate grazing land, while other settled as fishing com-
mythology of the okrug’s indigenous peoples. The okrug’s munities in coastal areas.
coasts are home to marine mammals, including walruses, Around two thousand years ago, the Koryak lived
sea lions, and seals. Nearby areas of the Pacific are rich in along the coast of the Sea of Okhotsk, where they fished
sea life, including Kamchatka crab. Local people also hunt and hunted sea mammals. From this coastline, the Koryak
beluga whales in the Sea of Okhotsk. The okrug’s rivers are spread along the coast to the Kamchatka Peninsula. From
spawning grounds for species of Pacific salmon. Fishing is the eleventh to the sixteenth centuries, bands of Koryak
the okrug’s most important industry, encompassing sub- that moved into the interior began to herd reindeer. The
sistence salmon fishing, caviar production (both legal and bands took their names from the geographic region in
 Koryak 593

which they lived, from clan totems, or from their ances- Over time, the schools established by the deportees
tors. Lacking a unifying name for their ethnicity, they often instilled revolutionary concepts among the Koryak. A
fought among themselves. small, educated regional group led by the Koryak began
In 1640, Russian explorers and Cossack warriors to demand land rights, especially the right to fish in the
arrived in northern Siberia en route to the Kamchatka waterways of the Koryak’s traditional homeland, which
Peninsula and the Pacific Ocean. Here, the Russians had been denied to them by Russia. In 1920, the Sovi-
built forts that were used by Slavic traders, hunters, ets sent forces into Koryak areas. The Soviets banned
and fur trappers. By the mid-seventeenth century, some the traditional nomadism of inland Koryak tribes and
­twenty-five thousand Koryak lived under loose Russian appropriated Koryak herds. In coastal areas, Koryak
control. Subsequently, waves of European diseases to village were collectivized, and the people’s religious
which the Koryak lacked immunity devastated Koryak beliefs were banned, with shamans either killed or sent
tribes. The Russians also imposed a fur tax, called the to regional labor camps, where they disappeared. Under
yasak, on every fit Koryak male. Consequently, many Soviet rule, alcohol abuse among the Koryak became
Koryak males left their villages to live in nearby forests, widespread, and alcohol acted as a sort of currency with
where they hunted valuable furry mammals that they which the people bartered. When Soviet authorities tried
used to pay the tax. As a result of the increase in hunt- to limit the sale of alcohol among indigenous peoples in
ing, the number of fur-bearing animals decreased. As the Russia’s northeast, they were met with fierce resistance
number of fur mammals fell, the Russians lost interest from locals.
in Koryak areas, thereby allowing the Koryak to return Soviet policies prized production at the expense of the
to their previous ways of living. The Russians maintained well-being of the indigenous peoples. Under Soviet rule,
authority over Koryak areas, however. the Koryak’s ancient system of social organization was
By the mid-eighteenth century, the Koryak had become abolished when the Soviets tried to develop the Koryak
dependent on alcohol, weapons, tobacco, and tools from homeland. Many Koryak fishermen and animal herders
Russian traders, with whom they traded reindeer and were made to work in coalmines on the Kamchatka Pen-
walrus products. At the same time, the Koryak tried to insula. Koryak children were snatched from their families
resist Russian encroachment onto their land. The Koryak’s to be raised in Soviet boarding schools, where they were
efforts to resist the Russians weakened them considerably, made to learn Russian and socialist ways while also being
leaving them powerless against the Chukchi, who invaded made to scorn the idea of ancient indigenous traditions
the Koryak from the north. The Chukchi raids, along with and religious practices.
a major smallpox epidemic toward the end of the eight- Over the decades, the number of Slavs settling in Koryak
eenth century, killed around 50 percent of the Koryak areas increased. This was particularly true in the 1950s and
(Minahan 2014). Also, in the eighteenth century, a Rus- 1960s, when oil and gas industries were developed in the
sian trade monopoly banned foreigners from trading in Koryak homeland. Slavic settlers appropriated the most
Koryak coastal areas. Russian traders demanded furs from fertile land, and in so doing, they further restricted Koryak
the Koryak by taking members of the Koryak hostage and villages and collectives. In the late 1980s, the loosening
then selling them as concubines or slaves if their demands of strict Soviet rule percolated into remote Koryak areas.
for fur were not met. Ultimately, only a few thousand Consequently, the Koryak joined other northern indige-
Koryak survived the first hundred years of Russian rule nous groups in calling for redress for the abuses they had
(Minahan 2014). suffered under the Soviets as well as the revival of their
During the nineteenth century, the Koryak population language, culture, and traditional lifestyle. Recently, the
began to gradually recover. Additionally, Russia estab- Koryak have established links to Native Americans living
lished penal camps on Koryak land, where members of the across the Bering Strait and have started to integrate with
Russian and Polish intelligentsia were deported. Subse- Pacific Rim communities. The majority of the Slav settlers
quently, the deportees initiated the first academic studies that settled on Koryak land under the Soviets have left to
of the Koryak language and culture while also establishing live in western Siberia or European Russia, thereby allow-
schools and inventing a written form of Koryak. Around the ing the Koryaks to gain greater control of their homeland.
same time, Russian Orthodox missionaries also founded At the same time, younger Koryak have started a Koryak
schools and converted many Koryak to Christianity. cultural revival.
594 Koryak

Society, Culture, and Tradition distantly related to languages spoken by indigenous groups
Koryak culture divides into two separate subcultures—that in North America. Decades of Soviet rule have resulted in
of the seminomadic reindeer herders and that of settled many Koryak speaking Russian as their first language, and
coastal communities that rely on hunting sea mammals the many Russian-Koryak intermarriages have diminished
and fishing. These traditional Koryak occupations are used the importance of Koryak within families. Recently, how-
to classify Koryak clans throughout the Koryak homeland. ever, there has been a concerted effort among the Koryak
However, according to Koryak tradition, a man must wed to revive their language.
outside of his clan, so the two occupational cultures mix While most Koryak are nominally Orthodox Christian,
often. The Koryak call themselves by two different names: some retain pre-Christian beliefs, including reverence for
the nomadic reindeer-herding tribes call themselves the the mythological figure of the supernatural shaman Quikil
chavchu (“reindeer rearers” or “rich in reindeer”), and the (or Big Raven), the first man and protector of the Koryak.
settled tribes call themselves the nymylan (from nym, mean- Quikil myths are also exist among the Tlingit, Tsimshian,
ing a “dwelling place” or “settlement”). The name Koryak and Haida in North America. Every Koryak family has
originates from a neighboring people who derived the name a member who is skilled at drumming and whom they
from the Koryak kor, meaning “reindeer.” The Russians regard as having the ability to influence the realm of the
applied the name Koryak to all peoples within the Koryak spirits.
community and subsequently popularized the name. Reindeer are hugely important to many Koryak, for they
The Koryak-Alyutor dialect is part of the Chukotko- use reindeer skins to make clothes and to cover their win-
Khamchatian languages that belong to the Luorawetlan ter tents and yarangas (traditional dwellings). Reindeer
language group. Linguistically, the dialect is very closely also provide the Koryak with a means of transport. In the
related to the language spoken by the Chukchi. It is more past, the Koryak never discarded reindeer bones. Instead,

Koryak performers in national dress at a concert by the Koryak National Folklore Dance Group in the Kamchatka region of Russia.
(Alexander Piragis/Dreamstime.com)
 Koryak 595

the bones were broken, the marrow was removed, and the diets and a decrease in physical activity. Increasingly,
leftovers were buried. During the traditional fall celebra- indigenous people in the north of Russia eat store-bought
tion of Koianniajtatgyjnyn, family protectors (gychgyiu) convenience foods; at the same time, they have decreased
are taken outside the yarangas for the ritual greeting of the their intake of traditional foods such as meat and local
reindeer herd. One of the gychgyiu uses a special tool to plants. This is a contributing factor for the increase in
make fire, with the tool regarded by the family as a family diabetes, obesity, and anemia within indigenous commu-
deity. During Koianniajtatgyjnyn, the yaranga is decorated nities. Tuberculosis is another particular problem for the
with willow branches and then the herd is brought into the indigenous peoples of northern Russia because they live in
yaranga, and one of the reindeer is sacrificed. The gychgyiu low temperature areas among poor living conditions. Poor
are then fed the animal’s marrow. The celebrations of the sanitation and hygiene conditions are a major factor in the
coastal Koryak tend to be connected to the harvest of sea spread of not only tuberculosis but also other infectious
mammals. For instance, Memylangyt celebrates the harvest diseases, such as dysentery and hepatitis, as well as para-
of the bearded seal. Coastal people also make sacrifices to sitic worm infestations.
deities considered to hold power over people’s health and During the 1950s, the Soviets performed atmospheric
success at hunting. nuclear testing in Koryak areas. This nuclear testing has
Over the years, the Koryak, have acquired precise created high rates of disease, especially cancer, among
knowledge of animal anatomy. Many Koryak women make the Koryak. Indeed, the cancer rates among the Koryak
thread from reindeer sinew, and the people continue to are three times higher than the Russian national average.
practice traditional methods for tanning hides. Infant mortality among the Koryak is very high, and their
Traditionally, the Koryak depend on their natural life expectancy is less than fifty years (Minahan 2014).
environment for food. In May or June, the people collect Incidences of suicide and violence among the indigenous
wild garlic and fish for various species of salmon. Once peoples of northern Russian are rising at an alarming rate.
the reindeer have born their calves, Koryak herders Suicide rates are up to four times higher than the Russian
move the  herds to summer pastures close to the sea. In average, and the rate in the Koryak okrug is one of the
autumn,  the Koryak pick berries, including crowberries, highest rates in the world at 133.6 cases per 100,000 peo-
blueberries, and salmonberries. A traditional food, kilikil, ple. In comparison, Russia’s national suicide rate average
combines berries with fish. is approximately 38 cases per 100,000 (Stoyanova 2013).
Today, the dialect used by the Koryak is taught in ele-
mentary schools. The language is an elective subject in
Health Care and Education Koryak high schools, and day care centers teach Koryak
All of Russia’s indigenous peoples are entitled to free health conversational skills. A Koryak teacher-training vocational
care, including a compulsory annual health checkup at a school was opened in 1990 at the okrug’s administrative
state medical facility. However, the remoteness of some center in Palana. During the 1980s, Koryak authors began
indigenous peoples means federal and regional healthcare to publish educational materials, with the publishing
programs do not always send medics to their settlements. of four textbooks. Recent efforts to publish more teach-
For instance, the village of Pareni in Kamchatka has not ing materials in Koryak have been frustrated by a lack
had access to health care for two years (Stoyanova 2013). of finances. Nonetheless, teachers and authors continue
Medical staff at facilities serving the Koryak often to work on Koryak educational programs that will help
lack modern, mobile equipment that allows medics to invigorate their language. There was also a resurgence
visit people in remote areas, especially nomadic Koryak of Koryak schools during the 1980s. By 2006, there were
­reindeer-herding camps. Poorly equipped healthcare facil- eighteen schools and fourteen kindergartens that taught in
ities in remote areas are another issue, and so it is very Koryak (Nagayama 2008).
difficult for healthcare facilities to attract and retain staff.
The people of Russia’s far northern regions suffer most
from high rates of tuberculosis and infectious diseases, Threats to Survival
alcoholism, mental health issues, and limited access to Like other parts of Russia, the Koryak homeland suffers
health care. The overall health of Russia’s indigenous pop- from an ongoing energy crisis. Settlements are widely dis-
ulations have been threatened by changes to traditional persed, and diesel electric generators and coal-fired plants
596 Kumyk

provide each settlement with its own heating. However, Stoyanova, Irina L. 2013. “Russia: Indigenous Health Care System
the increasing cost of transport coupled with a continu- in the Remote Areas of the North.” Minority Voices Newsroom.
ous lack of funding have forced severe cutbacks in energy http://www.minorityvoices.org/news.php/es/1512​/russia​
-indigenous-health-care-system-in-the-remote-areas​-of-the​
and heat production. Recently, it has been the case that all -north.
Koryak towns have experienced electricity rationing of
some sort, and heating plants operate at reduced capac-
ity, causing people to use electric heaters and woodstoves.
Many of the smallest and most remote Koryak villages rely
almost completely on woodstoves for heat, and candles
and oil lamps provide light.
KUMYK
The Koryak also endure poor health care. The people Current Location Dagestan (Russian Federation)
suffer from high rates of illness, suicide, and violence. At
Current Population 503,060
the same time, the Koryak have an extremely high infant
Language Kumyk; Russian
death rate as well as low life expectancies. Additionally,
Interesting Fact By 1991, the Kumyks had lost half
in 2014, the parliamentary assembly of Kamchatka Krai
their arable land to Caucasian
moved to reconsider the management of land traditionally
migrants from nearby mountains.
used by the area’s indigenous peoples. A bill proposed to
significantly reduce the area available to indigenous peo-
ples and to prevent them from cultivating the land in the Overview
south of the Kamchatka Krai region. Such a move would The Kumyks (also called the Kumuks, Kumykis, or
deprive the Koryak of their ability to maintain their tradi- Kumuklars, among other names) are an indigenous people
tional occupations, including fishing. of Dagestan. Most Kumyks are bilingual in that they speak
On a more positive note, in the twentieth century, many the Turkic Kumyk language as well as Russian. The vast
young Koryak have come to appreciate the Koryak language majority of Kumyks are Sunni Muslim. The Kumyks call
and culture, and, in turn, they have led a Koryak linguistic themselves the Qumuq (plural: Qumuqlar).
and cultural revival that may reverse years of Koryak Rus-
sification. As part of this cultural revival, courses in Koryak
folk crafts and history are available, and local radio sta- Population, Diaspora, and Migration
tions broadcast programs in the Koryak dialect. According to the 2010 Russian national census, 503,060
Kumyks live in the Russian Federation (Minority Rights
See also: Aleut; Chukchi; Gwich’in; Haida; Inuit; Tlingit;
Group international 2015), where they comprise around a
Yupik
quarter of the population (Svanberg 2011). Most Kumyks
Further Reading
live in northeastern and eastern Dagestan. In Dagestan, the
Dedyk-Ivkavav, Valentina. 1996. “Eastern Siberia: Koryak.” Trans-
lated by Irina Dubinina. Alaska Native Collections: Sharing Kumyks make up 13 percent of the republic’s total popula-
Knowledge. https://alaska.si.edu/culture_ne_siberian.asp​ tion. Other Kumyks live elsewhere in neighboring parts of
?subculture=Koryak&continue=1. the eastern North Caucasus. For instance, roughly 12,700
King, Alexander D. 2011. Living with Koryak Traditions: Play- Kumyks live in North Ossetia, 8,900 live in Chechnya, and
ing with Culture in Siberia. Lincoln: University of Nebraska 5,700 live in Stavropol Krai and other parts of southern
Press.
Russia. The Kumyks have also settled in northern Ana-
Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Cen-
tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. tolia (Svanberg 2011). Dispersed Kumyk communities,
Nagayama, Yukari. 2008. “Factors for Language Decline in the descendants of Kumyk refugees fleeing Russian oppres-
Russian Far East: A Case of the Alutor in Kamchatka.” Acta sion during the nineteenth century, still live in small vil-
Slavica Iaponica 25: 187–202. https://www.researchgate. lages in Turkey, especially in the Turkish capital of Istanbul
net​/publication/37574836_Factors_for_Language_Decline​ and near Tokat. Kumyk migration during the Soviet era
_in_the_Russian_Far_East_A_Case_of_the_Alutor_in​
resulted in small Kumyk communities in Estonia, Ukraine,
_Kamchatka.
Newell, Josh. 2004. “Koryak Autonomous Okrug (Koryakia).” In and Kyrghyzstan.
The Russian Far East: A Reference Guide for Conservation and The Kumyks have mixed Turkic and Caucasian ances-
Development. McKinleyville, CA: Daniel & Daniel. try. The Kumyk population divides into three geographical
 Kumyk 597

groups: the Northern Kumyks who live on the Kumyk arsenic, with the highest concentrations being found in
Plateau, the Central Kumyks of the Caucasian lowlands, the northeast of the basin.
and the Southern Kumyks who reside in the Caucasian
foothills.
History and Politics
Very little is known about the origin of the Kumyks, though
Geography and Environment they are mentioned in documents dating from the sec-
Dagestan is situated in the North Caucasus Mountains ond century CE. It is possible that the Kumyks were part
and is the southernmost part of the Russia Federation. of the westward migration of Turkic and Mongol peoples
Dagestan is bordered by Azerbaijan, Georgia, and, on its from Central Asia to the Caspian Sea area during the fifth
eastern side, by the Caspian Sea. The Kumyk homeland, century. In the eighth and ninth centuries, the Caucasus
which the Kumyks call Kumykstan, occupies the coastal Mountains became the site for frequent conflict because
lowlands and foothills of the northeast Caucasus that the uplands separated the Khazar Empire from the Per-
are located between the Terek and Samur Rivers. The sians. In the tenth century, some Turkic migrants left the
Kumyk homeland forms seven districts of the Dagestan area to settle on the coast of the Caspian Sea, where they
Republic in the Russian Federation: Khasavyurt, Kizily- intermixed with Caucasian peoples living there already.
urt, Babayurt, Buinaksk, Karabudakhkent, Kaiakent, and The Kumyks evolved from this mixing of the Turkic and
Kaitak. Caucasian peoples.
Dagestan is a generally mountainous republic that is From the eleventh to the thirteenth centuries, the Kumyks
home to thousands of rivers. The coastal plain that is home cemented their cultural identity as a distinct people by
to the Kumyks has thriving agriculture as well as increas- taking control of lowland steppe areas. In the fifteenth and
ing levels of industry. The plain on which most Kumyks sixteenth centuries, the Kumyks founded their own state,
live is sometimes called the Kumyk Plain. The plain, which Shamkhalat of Tarki, which ruled over a vast territory
formed from fluvial deposits from rivers, including the inhabited by non-Kumyks. The state was based at the city of
Terek, Aksai, and Shuraozen, is a subplain of the Terek-­ Tarki in the Tarki-Tau Mountains on the Caspian coast and
Sulak Lowland. The Kumyk Plain features many depres- ruled by a prince called the Shamkhal, who headed a rigid
sions, sandy hills, high tumuli (ancient burial grounds feudal hierarchy. In time, the Shamkhal came to rule over
covered in earth and stones), and muddy sands. the eastern Northern Caucasus, including the lowlands
During the 1930s and 1940s, Caucasian settlers to the where Kumyks controlled the pastureland used by Cauca-
Kumyk Plain introduced monoculture to the area based sian mountain shepherds. The Kumyks’ domination also
around cotton production. The monoculture overused meant that their language was adopted as a lingua franca
the area’s soil, leaving it depleted, and it also resulted by most of the Caucasians living under Kumyk rule.
in widespread deforestation, the effects of both are still In the sixteen century, however, Russian expansionism
evident. Another issue facing Dagestan is that the North weakened Kumyk control in steppe areas. To counter the
Dagestan Artesian Basin (northern Dagestan’s only influence of the Christian Russians, the Kumyks allied
source of drinking water) faces environmental degra- themselves with the Persian Safavid dynasty that ruled the
dation. An artesian basin is a geologic feature compris- territory to the south of the Kumyk land. When the Rus-
ing layers of rock that trap groundwater under pressure. sian czar Peter the Great (1672–1725) defeated the Per-
When artesian wells are sunk into an artesian aquifer, sians in 1722 and overran the city of Derbent, located on
water rises to a point where hydrostatic equilibrium is the Caspian coast, the Kumyks lost their independence, for
reached. In northern Dagestan, hundreds of artesian the Shamkhalat of Tarki was disbanded. The Kumyks came
wells have been allowed to exploit the aquifer without under direct Russian rule, and their homeland was divided
regulation. The lack of regulation means that wells have in half, with each half becoming Russian provinces. While
been dug in areas where toxins exist in the soil, result- the Kumyks managed to maintain a degree of autonomy
ing in toxic deposits entering the groundwater. The most under Russian rule, the Russians divided Kumyk society
dangerous of these to affect water in northern Dagestan into numerous clans.
is arsenic. Researchers have found that much of northern In the 1830s, the Shamil (imam of Dagestan) called on
Dagestan’s water contains higher than normal levels of the Kumyks to observe strict sharia law and wage holy war
598 Kumyk

on the Christian Russian interlopers. Northern Kumyk In 1936, the structure of Dagestan was formalized.
clans enlisted in the Shamil movement against the Rus- Around this time, however, uncontrolled migration of Cau-
sians. However, southern Kumyk clans remained neutral, casians from the Dagestan highlands to the lowland Kumyk
and the Kumyk clans living in central areas sided with steppes threatened to overwhelm Kumyk culture and soci-
the Russians. The Shamil movement was easily defeated ety. The Caucasians were then given tracts of Kumyk land
by the Russians, who then brought all Kukym clans under on the Kumyk Plain that resulted in the Kumyks suffering
tight Russian control. In response to this stricter control, acute land shortages during the 1930s and early 1940s. The
throughout the late nineteenth century, Kumyk national- settlers introduced monoculture to the Kumyk Plain based
ists were forced to mainly operate in areas ruled by Otto- around cotton production. The monoculture exhausted the
man Turkey. area’s soil and led to widespread deforestation, the effects
During the nineteenth century, the industrialization of which are still evident today.
of the ports on the Caspian coast caused many Kumyks to During World War II, the Kumyk homeland was occu-
move to port cities in search of work, having previously pied by Nazi forces that had pushed southward in search
lived as settled peasant farmers and shepherds. Once of oil in the North Caucasus. Under Nazi occupation,
settled in the port areas, the Kumyks formed an urban mosques were reopened, but collectivized farms were shut
working class that became involved in a burgeoning rev- down. The Nazis also began to moot the idea of Kumyk
olutionary movement. In the early twentieth century, a self-rule and so won the backing of some Kumyks (Mina-
Kumyk middle class formed that included merchants han 2002). Most Kumyks, however, considered the Nazis
and the intelligentsia. The Kumyk middle class was anni- as another in a long line of invaders and so refused to help
hilated during the Russian Revolution. The collapse of them. Despite the lack of help proffered to the Nazis, the
imperial Russia in 1917 was followed by the Bolshevik Kumyks managed to avoid the mass deportation suffered
takeover of Russia. Most urban working-class Kumyks by many other peoples of the North Caucasus.
supported the Bolsheviks over the czarists, though their After World War II, many Kumyks settled in growing
true allegiance lay with Islamic or Turkic nationalist industrial urban areas in the central district where they
movements. In time, many Kumyk nationalists became could find jobs. In these urban areas, the urban and rural
involved in the struggle of other North Caucasus nations Kumyks lived in close proximity, and so they were able to
to establish a sovereign state in the North Caucasus. keep the Kumyk culture alive. Later, Soviet policies forced
Kumyk participation in independence struggles was many non-Kumyk mountain-dwelling peoples to settle on
cut short by the Russian Civil War that devastated their lowland Kumyk territory to the extent that, by the 1970s,
homeland, dispersing Kumyk communities and razing the Kumyks had to share their land with Caucasians whose
Kumyk settlements. culture and farming practices clashed with their own. This
In 1921, the victorious Red Army created the multi- situation created increasing tension in the area that inten-
ethnic Dagestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic sified toward the end of the 1980s, as the Kumyks resented
in the former czarist territory of Dagestan. Subsequently, further immigration to their homeland. By the time of the
the republic’s borders were extended northward to include Soviet collapse in 1991, the Kumyks had lost half their ara-
lowland Kumyk areas that were then divided into three ble land to mountain migrants. The Kumyks then mobi-
districts within Dagestan. Following this move, the Soviets lized with Kumyk nationalists to demand separation from
killed or silenced Kumyk nationalist leaders. The Soviets Dagestan, a move that was rejected by the Russian govern-
then embarked on a policy of systematically creating a ment in 1992.
homogenous Soviet people. As part of this policy, in the In 1989, Kumyk nationalists founded the Kumyk Peo-
late 1920s, Kumyk land was collectivized, their pastures ple’s Movement, or Tenglik (“Equality”), with the aim of
and farms were appropriated, sharia law was overturned, ensuring the continued cultural and economic develop-
and the Kumyk clans were disarmed. Then, in the 1930s, ment of the Kumyks, the restoration of traditional Kumyk
Kumyk leaders were either murdered or deported on the land, and the autonomy of the Kumyk nation. Subse-
basis that they held pan-Turkic or bourgeois sympathies. quently, Tenglik was succeeded by other organizations
Soviet representatives from Moscow were deployed to with similar aims. In recent years, clashes have occurred
fill the administrative positions previously held by the between the Kumyks and the Dargins. Over the years, the
deposed Kumyk leaders. Kumyks have emerged as Dagestan’s third most influential
 Kumyk 599

ethnic group behind the Avars and Dargins. In 1997, fight- attempts to reintroduce the written language using the
ing broke out between the Kumyks and Avars after the Latin script have proven unsuccessful.
election of an Avar to the role of mayor of Khasavyurt, The Kumyks are an overwhelmingly Sunni Muslim peo-
Dagestan’s ­second-largest town, a position traditionally ple. Around 70 percent of Kumyks follow the Shafi’i school
held by a Kumyk. Since 1998, however, the position of of Islam, and a quarter adhere to the Hanafi school (Svan-
Dagestan prime minister has been held by a Kumyk, with berg 2011). Many Kumyks are also adherents of the mys-
Shamil Zaynalov made prime minister in 2006. tical Sufi dervish order of the Naqshbandi brotherhood.
Kumyk activists have held many nonviolent demon- There are also small numbers of Kumyk Shiite Muslims
strations to attract the attention of the federal and local living in the cities of Derbent and Makhachkala. Following
governments as part of a drive for greater Kumyk auton- the collapse of the Soviet Union, Dagestan has witnessed a
omy. The Kumyks believe greater autonomy will help resurgence of strong Islamic faith in Kumyk areas with the
them preserve their language and culture. In 2012, Kumyk founding of new mosques, madrasah, and other religious
activists established a protest camp in the Dagestan capi- organizations. The Islamic nature of Kumyk culture has
tal of Makhachkala as a way to highlight Kumyk concerns fostered Islamic fundamentalism among some Kumyks,
over anti-Kumyk discrimination and land loss. Another with some Kumyk communities adhering to Wahhabism.
recent issue to face the Kumyks is that they are caught up Despite the strong Islamic nature of Kumyk culture, the
in intertwined ethnic and mafia rivalries to control Dag- Kumyks continue to enact some traditional pagan prac-
estan. Together with the aftereffects of the Chechen con- tices, including dances for the dead.
flict, these rivalries have led to a dramatic deterioration in
Dagestan’s security, making Dagestan one of Europe’s most
dangerous places. Health Care and Education
Health care remained free in Dagestan following the down-
fall of the Soviet Union. The health service is, however,
Society, Culture, and Tradition chronically underfunded. At the same time, Dagestan has
The Kumyks maintain a strong ethnic identity despite experienced significant increases in infant and maternal
living in an area that has undergone rapid urbanization. mortality rates and incidents of contagious diseases and
As part of this maintenance of their ethnic identity, the decreases in fertility. Recently, organizations both within
Kumyks rarely marry outside of their community. the Russian Federation and internationally have striven to
The Kumyk language belongs to the western subgroup improve health care in Dagestan. However, the organiza-
of Kipchak of the northwestern branch of the Turkic tions are hampered by official corruption and the mistrust
languages. The language, which is related to Karachay, of the republic’s indigenous peoples.
Crimean Tatar, and Karaim Turkic, is divided into three Most Kumyk schools do not teach in the Kumyk lan-
dialects: Khasav-Yurt (or Aksay) that exists in northern guage. Rather, the schools teach only in Russian.
areas, Boynak that is spoken in central parts, and Khay-
dak that is spoken in southern Kumyk areas. To a degree,
the Kumyk language serves as a lingua franca for all Threats to Survival
indigenous peoples living in Northern Daghestan, though Increasingly, the Kumyks are unhappy living as part of
Russian is of equal or greater importance in many areas. multiethnic Dagestan. They often protest against their
Consequently, most Kumyks are bilingual, for they speak land losses and become involved in interethnic conflicts
both Kumyk and Russian. The Kumyk language became as Kumyk nationalism grows, and some Kumyks back the
a written language in the late nineteenth century, when it proposed creation of either a separate independent Kumyk
was initially written in Arabic script. In 1927, this writing republic called Kumykstan or Kumukia or the creation of a
system was changed so that the language was written in Kumyk state within a North Caucasus federation. Despite
Latin script before changing again in 1938 to be written traditionally holding high office, many Kumyks feel they
in Cyrillic script. Kumyk-language periodicals have been face discrimination from the Dagestani authorities. In
published since 1917, and during the Russian Revolution, 2017, the Kumyks convened an Emergency People’s Con-
the language was used as a teaching language in Kumyk gress that brought together Kumyk leaders in response
schools. Today, some Kumyk-language media exists, but to the state government’s intention to implement new
600 Kurd

policies that Kumyk community leaders believed would also playing important roles in fighting against central
reduce the number of Kumyks living on their traditional governments in Iraq, Iran, and Syria and helping to form
lands even further. Following the congress, Kumyk activ- resistance against the jihadist group the Islamic State (IS,
ists threatened to hold a referendum on Kumyk secession also known as ISIS or Daesh, among other names).
from Dagestan, but this has yet to happen. The Kurds’ higher profile in international issues comes
as the result of decades of political and military efforts
See also: Agul; Avar; Nogai
by the Kurdish minorities to secure Kurdish self-rule and
Further Reading
gain a homeland of their own. As a result of their minority
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
nic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 2, D–K. West- status in the countries in which they live, the Kurds have
port, CT: Greenwood. experienced varying degrees of ethnic suppression while
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Russian Federation: endeavoring to gain independence.
Kumyks.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peo-
ples, June 19. https://minorityrights.org/minorities/kumyks.
Svanberg, Ingvar. 2011. “Kumyks.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffery E. Cole, 226–227. Santa Bar-
bara, CA: ABC-CLIO. It is extremely difficult to give accurate population figures
for the Kurds, though most estimates put the number at
between twenty million and thirty-six million people
worldwide (Monnette 2011). The majority of Kurds inhabit
the area known as Kurdistan, but political turmoil in the
Middle East and the spread of IS have led to thousands of
KURD Kurds leaving their homes in parts of Kurdistan, resulting
in many Kurds living elsewhere throughout the world.
Current Location Middle East
There are around 2.5 million Kurds living in Syria, a
Current Population 20 million–36 million
third of whom live in the foothills of the Taurus Mountains
Language Kurdish; other languages
north of Aleppo. A similar number of Kurds live along
Interesting Fact The Kurds claim to have been fight- Syria’s border with Turkey. A further 10 percent of Syrian
ing for independence since their
Kurds live northeast of Aleppo, and 10–15 percent of the
ancestors captured Nineveh in 612
Kurds in Syria inhabit the Hayy al-Akrad (Quarter of the
BCE.
Kurds) on the outskirts of the Syrian capital city of Damas-
cus (Minority Rights Group International 2011). Kurds
Overview make up 15–20 percent of Iraq’s population. Iraqi Kurds
The Kurds are an ethnic group of the Middle East. The Kurds live in the mountains, foothills, and plains of Iraq in an
are sometimes described as an ethnolinguistic group, for area stretching from Khaniqin in the south to Zakhu in the
the Kurdish language is Iranian and belongs to the Indo-­ north, and they have an outpost at Jabal Sinjar to the north-
European language family. The Kurds form a community west, where the Kurds are Yazidi. Iraqi Kurds living north of
united through race and culture, but they are a varied group, the Greater Zab River speak Kirmanji Kurdish, as do most
as they do not speak a shared standard dialect. Although Turkish Kurds, while those Iraqi Kurds south of the Greater
the majority of Kurds are Sunni Muslims, they also follow a Zab River speak Sorani and share an affinity with Iranian
variety of religions and creeds. The name Kurd is thought to Kurds. Most Iraqi Kurds are Shafi’i Sunni Muslim, though
derive from Carduchii, the name of an ancient people men- around 150,000 Iraqi Kurds living in Baghdad and in
tioned in the writings of the Greek philosophers Strabo and southeastern Iraq are Shia Muslim (Minority Rights Group
Xenophon. During the Middle Ages, the term Kurd was used International 2014). In Turkey, Kurdish people make up
ambiguously to refer to people following a nomadic lifestyle. around 20 percent of the total population (Williams 2018).
Although the Kurds are the fourth-largest ethnic group
of the Middle East, they have yet to form a permanent
nation-state. In recent decades, Kurds across the Middle Geography and Environment
East and Asia have increasingly influenced regional devel- Kurdistan extends over southeastern Turkey, northeastern
opments. They have fought for autonomy in Turkey while Syria, northern Iraq, northwestern Iran, and states of the
 Kurd 601

former Soviet Caucasus, such as Armenia and Azerbaijan. ancient Assyrian city of Nineveh located on the outskirts
The region covers some 74,000 square miles and is char- of Mosul in northern Iraq. The Kurds mark their capturing
acterized by mountainous and forested terrain. For thou- of Nineveh as the Kurdish New Year (Nev Roz or Nevruz)
sands of years, many varied ethnic groups have natively on March 21, the most significant date of the Kurdish year.
inhabited, or have become established in, Kurdistan, The history of Kurdistan is marked by numerous inva-
including the Kurds, Turks, Persians, Arabs, Armenians, sions and occupations as well as periods of unrest and wars,
Assyrians, Chechens, and Azeris. Since time immemorial, both civil and international. As a major strategic location
these ethnic groups have endeavored to create their own of the Middle East, Kurdistan has long attracted occupying
homelands. For this reason, Kurdistan has long been the forces. For example, during ancient times, Persians invaded
location of both ethnic fighting and peaceful cohabitation. the area from the east, and the Macedonian king Alexan-
Much of Kurdistan experiences hot summers and cold der the Great invaded from the west. During the seventh
winters. The region is generally fertile and, historically, has century, Muslim Arabs invaded from the south, and dur-
allowed the people to grow grain for export. The geography ing the eleventh century, Seljuk Turks (a Sunni Muslim
along the Iran-Turkey border is dominated by mountains dynasty) came from the east. In the thirteenth century, the
and has damp springs, dry summers, and rainy, snowy Mongols led by Genghis Khan invaded from Central Asia,
winters. Toward the south, the climate becomes progres- and the sixteenth century saw the arrival from the north of
sively semiarid and turns to desert. Notable geographic medieval Persians and the Ottoman Empire.
features of Kurdistan include Mount Ararat, plateaus, and During the sixteenth century, Kurdistan was divided
mountains that receive heavy rain and snowfall, forming between the Safavid dynasty of Iran and the Ottoman
the source of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers and many Empire. From this time onward, until the aftermath of
lakes. World War I, most of Kurdistan was generally under the
Kurdistan is home to temperate forests and shrubs. The rule of the Ottoman Empire. During World War I, the Otto-
mountains are characterized by pastures and forested val- man Empire fought against the Allies (Britain, France, Rus-
leys containing fir trees, oaks, willows, and poplars. West- sia, Italy, and the United States). In 1918, after the defeat
ern Kurdistan is home to many olive trees. The region’s of the Ottoman Empire, British forces came to occupy the
north features meadow grasses and wild trees, including vilayet (Ottoman province or administrative district) of
poplars, willows, oaks, hawthorns, cherry plums, apple and Mosul, now a large city in northern Iraq. Thus, areas of
pear trees, and olive trees. The region’s desert zones con- land inhabited extensively by Kurds came under British
tain species of palm trees and date palms. Animals found rule. Furthermore, in 1919, the Mosul area was added to
in Kurdistan include species of bear, boar, wolf, jackal, fox, the new Iraqi state, which also became a British mandate.
porcupine, hedgehog, and turtle as well as birds, including After the Ottoman Empire’s collapse, the Allies split the
vultures, crows, magpies, falcons, robins, and doves. whole of Kurdistan under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres.
On November 12, 2017, a 7.3 magnitude earthquake The Treaty of Sèvres abolished the Ottoman Empire and
struck along the Iran-Iraq border, with Kurdish areas hit provided for a Kurdish state, subject to the agreement of
the hardest. The epicenter of the earthquake was located the League of Nations. However, political turmoil result-
twenty miles southwest of Halabja, a city in Iraq’s Kurd- ing from the end of World War I and the downfall of the
istan region, and around eighteen miles from the city of Ottoman Empire meant that a power vacuum was created
Sarpol-e Zahab, across the border in Iranian Kurdistan. in the areas of southeastern Anatolia and northern Iraq
The earthquake killed more than five hundred people, that the Kurds inhabited. This situation, together with the
injured around seven thousand people, and left another creation of the Treaty of Sèvres, seemed to present the
seventy thousand people homeless in both Iran and Iraq Kurds with an opportunity to forge their own nation-state
(Khezri 2017) that was referred to in general as Kurdistan. It was also
around this time that the Peshmerga, the military forces
of the autonomous region of Iraqi Kurdistan, was formally
History and Politics established as the Kurdish fighting force. Over time, the
The Kurds trace their history back over four thousand years Peshmerga would become a major element of Kurdish
to the Gutu people who preceded the ancient Indo-Aryan culture. Ultimately, the Treaty of Sèvres was never ratified,
Medes. In 612 BCE, the ancestors of the Kurds captured the however, and the British sought to unite territory in Iran,
602 Kurd

Turkey, and Iraq while opposing the forming of a Kurdish to the border territory that favored Iran. Meanwhile, the
state. Thus, the Allies accepted a renegotiated peace agree- Iraqi government began a program of Arabization within
ment known as the Treaty of Lausanne, which was signed Iraq that saw the Iraqi government resettle Arabs in areas
in 1923. The Treaty of Lausanne officially settled the con- that were mainly inhabited by Kurdish people as well as
flict that had existed between the Ottoman Empire and other minorities, including the Yazidis, Assyrians, Shab-
the Allied British Empire, French Republic, Kingdom of aks, Armenians, Turkmen, and Mandeans. The program of
Italy, Empire of Japan, Kingdom of Greece, and the King- enforced relocation was implemented particularly around
dom of Romania since the start of World War I. The treaty the oil-rich city of Kirkuk. In 1977, the actions of the Iraqi
was the result of a second attempt at peace after the failed government led to clashes between the Iraqi army and
Treaty of Sèvres. One consequence of the new treaty was Kurdish revolutionaries that saw several hundred Iraqi
that areas previously considered Kurdish were allocated to Kurdish villages razed to the ground, and approximately
the new British and French mandated states of Iraq and two hundred thousand Kurds were banished to other parts
Syria as well as to Persia (later renamed Iran). Ultimately of the country (Williams 2018). The policy of forced relo-
this division of land resulted in the Kurds being left with- cation was hastened in the 1980s when the Iran-Iraq War
out a self-ruled region, and it also meant that the Kurds (1980–1988) erupted.
retained their minority status in the countries they inhab- By 1983, Iran had begun to woo the Kurds in its fight
ited, unlike ethnic groups in neighboring Turkey and Iran. against Saddam Hussein’s Iraq. At the same time, the Iraqi
Over the years, Iraqi Kurds have striven to achieve self- government became concerned about possible Kurdish
rule. As a result of this quest for autonomy, many Kurds attacks on a lucrative oil pipeline that connected the oil-
have faced extreme oppression and endured much hard- fields of Kirkuk with the Turkish port of Iskenderun. In
ship. Despite this suffering, the Iraqi Kurds have arguably retribution for the Kurdish support of Iran during the
enjoyed better rights than Kurds living in neighboring Iran-Iraq War, and to prevent further Kurdish rebellion,
countries. The route to the establishment of Iraqi Kurdis- Saddam Hussein began a campaign of revenge against the
tan was, however, long and convoluted. Kurds. The most infamous incidence of retribution came
After the 1958 Iraqi coup that saw the overthrowing in 1988 when Iraqi forces launched the Anfal campaign
of the country’s monarchy, subsequent Iraqi governments against the Kurds. The Anfal campaign was a concerted,
vowed to give Kurds autonomy over the land they inhab- methodical attempt to break Kurdish resistance that took
ited while also enshrining a new constitution recognizing the form of a program of ethnic cleansing. Indeed, the
Kurdish rights within the structure of the Iraqi constitu- campaign has been classified as genocide by authorities in
tion. However, relations between the Iraqi Kurds and the Sweden, Norway, and the United Kingdom, for it resulted in
Iraqi authorities became increasingly tense, leading to the deaths of tens of thousands of Kurds, both civilian and
complaints that the Iraqi government was repressing the military, as well as the exiling of hundreds of thousands
Kurds. more Kurds. Many exiled Kurds starved to death within
In 1970, the Iraqi government prepared an agreement one year of their transportation. Other noncombatant
intended to give the Iraqi Kurds a de facto autonomous Kurds were jailed, with many dying in prison as a result of
region located in northeast Iraq and known as the Kurdish neglect. Moreover, large numbers of Kurdish men of mil-
Autonomous Region (now referred to as Iraqi Kurdistan itary age who were imprisoned by Iraqi authorities were
or Southern Kurdistan). The region’s new parliament was, executed (Williams 2018). One particular aspect of the
however, arguably little more than another component of Anfal campaign, the deliberate targeting of civilian Kurds
the Iraqi central government, for the Kurdish authority with chemical weapons, caused especial international con-
was ordained by Iraqi leaders. As such, the population of demnation. The most notorious incidence of Iraq’s use of
the Kurdish Autonomous Region did not have any par- chemical weapons against the Kurds occurred in the town
ticular democratic political freedom. Eventually, the peace of Halabja in 1988 where an estimated five thousand peo-
deal between Iraq and the Iraqi Kurds failed, and fighting ple, mostly women and children, were killed by a mixture
began in 1974, with Iraqi government forces launching of mustard gas and the nerve agents sarin, tabun, and VX
attacks that forced the Kurds to move toward Iraq’s border (and possibly cyanide) that was dropped on the town.
with Iran. Soon Iraq and Iran entered into talks to stop the In addition to the townsfolk who died as an immediate
Iranians backing the Iraqi Kurds in exchange for changes effect of the attack, around twelve thousand people died
 Kurd 603

later from illnesses resulting from exposure to the chemi- Iraqi Kurdistan was to be ruled by the two main Kurd-
cals. Even today, the legacy of the attack continues, for the ish parties: the Kurdish Democratic Party (KDP) and the
chemical contamination resulting from it is believed to Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK). Tensions between
have passed into the town’s soil and water supply as well the two parties soon arose, however, leading to a four-year
as the local population’s gene pool. Consequently, since internal struggle beginning in 1994. The KDP and PUK
the attack an abnormally high number of children have would later participate with the United States and its allies
been born locally displaying genetic defects. The two men in the 2003 invasion of Iraq that led to the downfall of Hus-
directly responsible for the attack—Saddam Hussein and sein, and both parties have subsequently taken part in all
his cousin Ali Hassan al-Majid (who had been nicknamed national Kurdish governments formed since this time. The
“Chemical Ali” on account of his ordering chemical attacks two parties also formed a coalition government known as
against the Kurds)—were hanged after the downfall of the Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG).
Hussein’s regime, in 2006 and 2010, respectively. The granting of a degree of Kurdish autonomy within
In 1991, following the ejection of Iraqi troops from Iraq did not guarantee peace within the region, for there
Kuwait, some members of the Jash (Kurdish fighters who is a history of radical Islamic parties operating within the
had cooperated with the Iraqi government) decided to area. For instance, Ansar al-Islam was an Iraqi ­Kurdistan–
rise up against Iraq. This uprising was unsuccessful, how- based Kurdish militant organization that formed in 2001
ever, and U.S.-led forces refused to support the rebels. As a following the mergers of several Kurdish Islamist groups.
result of the fighting, some 1.5 million Kurds were forced Between 2003 and 2007, Ansar al-Islam targeted both
to flee their homes and sought refuge in the mountains Iraqi government troops and coalition forces. Then, dur-
on the Iraq-Turkey border. That same year, after Iraq was ing the period 2007–2008, Ansar al-Islam cooperated
beaten in the Persian Gulf War, influential Kurds fronted a with al-­Qaeda in Iraq to attack U.S. troops. When the U.S.
rebellion seeking the creation of an independent Kurdish withdrew from Iraq in 2011, Ansar al-Islam stayed active
state. Sadaam Hussein retaliated by bombarding Kirkuk and concentrated on attacking the Iraqi government and
with artillery fire, thereby forcing the Kurdish rebels and security forces in and around Mosul and Kirkuk. However,
their families to flee into the mountains. The ferocity with after the Syrian Civil War began, Ansar al-Islam began to
which Iraqi authorities suppressed the uprising caused a operate in Syria too.
great deal of international concern. For instance the UN The relationship between Ansar al-Islam and Islamic
Security Council Resolution 688 condemned the repres- State (IS) has fluctuated between one of close collabora-
sion of the Iraqi civilian population, most particularly in tion and one of hostility. While Ansar al-Islam supported
areas populated by the Kurds. Meanwhile, the interna- IS’s desire to create an Islamic caliphate in the Middle East,
tional coalition of the United States and its allies, namely it disapproves of the latter’s proclamation of itself as a
Britain and France, created a partial no-fly zone in the state. Disagreements between the two groups caused them
north of Iraq. This operation also included the delivery of to fight one another in both Iraq and Syria. Nonetheless, in
humanitarian aid and military protection to the Kurds by 2014, Ansar al-Islam pledged allegiance to IS, and the two
a limited number of Allied ground forces. The no-fly zone organizations merged.
was controversial, largely because it was not authorized by Meanwhile, in 2013, IS began to attack Kurdish
the United Nations or specifically sanctioned by a Security enclaves that bordered land controlled by the group in
Council resolution. Nevertheless, the no-fly zone managed northern Syria. In 2014, IS invaded the city of Mosul,
to protect Kurds and other groups against the Iraqi mili- the group’s progress in Iraq drawing Iraqi Kurds into the
tary action. It also allowed Kurdish leaders to strengthen fight against the jihadists. After a number of skirmishes
their hold in the north of Iraq in the wake of the with- between the Kurdish groups and IS, in August 2014 IS
drawal of Iraqi forces. launched a surprise attack against Kurdish forces, causing
Fierce battles between Iraqi forces and Kurdish rebels them to withdraw chaotically. The rushed retreat resulted
continued despite the no-fly zone, however. After the fight- in many towns inhabited by religious minorities falling to
ing subsided, the Iraqi government withdrew its military IS, most notably Sinjar, where IS fighters killed or captured
from the region in 1991. The withdrawal allowed for the thousands of Yazidis. Worried by the advance of IS and the
formation of Iraqi Kurdistan as an autonomous Kurdistan possibility of a Yazidi genocide, the United States led an
region with its own flag and national anthem. The new international coalition that both launched air strikes into
604 Kurd

northern Iraq and also sent military consultants to assist Kurds. The region has witnessed many large-scale Kurdish
the Kurds. While the strikes stopped IS from advancing rebellions, as well as waves of insurgency against the Turk-
into Iraqi Kurd land, they did not prevent IS from attempt- ish state. These rebellions include the 1937 Dersim rebellion
ing to capture Kurdish areas of Syria. that resulted in the deaths and displacement of thousands
In Syria, Kurds have been repressed and discriminated of Kurds, something for which Turkish prime minister
against for many years. Since the 1960s, around three hun- Recep Tayyip Erdoğan apologized in November 2011.
dred thousand Syrian Kurds have been denied citizenship, Historically, Turkish authorities have discriminated
and Kurdish land has been commandeered and reallo- heavily against the Kurds. For example, the Turkish
cated to Arabs in an attempt to both lessen the impact of authorities have forcibly resettled many Kurds and banned
the Kurds in traditionally Kurdish regions of the country Kurdish names and ethnic dress. In 1983, the use of the
and to make these areas seem less Kurdish. Syrian author- Kurdish language in public and private life was banned,
ities have also suppressed Kurdish demands for greater meaning that people who spoke, wrote, or sang in Kurd-
autonomy by preventing protests and detaining Kurdish ish risked imprisonment. In 1991, the Turkish authorities
political leaders (Williams 2018). denied Kurdish ethnic identity by designating the Kurds
Prior to the ongoing Syrian Civil War, most Syrian as Mountain Turks. The authorities also prohibited the
Kurds lived in three unconnected areas around Kobane, use of the words Kurds, Kurdistan, and Kurdish. Through
the town of Afrin, and the cities of Qamishli and Aleppo the late 1990s and early 2000s, the Turkish government
as well as the country’s capital of Damascus. For the banned political groups representing Kurdish interests,
first two years of the conflict in Syria, Kurdish enclaves and until 2002, broadcasts were not allowed to be made
remained fairly untouched because the main Kurdish in Kurdish. It is only since 2003 that Kurdish parents have
parties stayed neutral in regard to the conflict. In mid- been allowed to give their children Kurdish names, though
2012, Syrian government forces relinquished control on these names cannot include the letters W, X, or Q because
some parts of Syria, thereby allowing Kurdish groups to although these letters exist in the Kurdish alphabet, they
take control of the areas that the government forces had do not appear in the Turkish alphabet. Despite the sever-
vacated. In 2014, Kurdish political parties created auton- ity with which Turkish authorities have treated the Kurds,
omous administrations based in the enclaves of Afrin, there have long been calls for an independent Kurdish
Kobane, and Jazira. The political parties emphasized that state within Turkey. For instance, in 1978, those seeking
they did not want independence from Syria but rather Kurdish self-governance within Turkey formed the PKK
to create a localized democratic administration within a (Kurdistan Workers’ Party) militant separatist group. Six
federal structure. years later, the PKK started an armed insurgency with this
The Syrian Civil War has affected the way in which aim in mind. Since then, many thousands of Kurds have
Kurds are treated in Turkey and also influenced the been killed or displaced in the struggles between Turkish
chances for the creation of a Turkish Kurdish state. For authorities and the PKK.
instance, in 2014, IS attacks around the Syrian town of Covert peace talks between PKK leaders and Turkish
Kobane, near the Syrian-Turkish border, forced tens of officials commenced in 2009, but these failed in 2011. A
thousands of Kurds to flee across into neighboring Tur- cease-fire was reached in 2013, but fighting between the
key. Turkish authorities refused to intervene by attacking Turkish authorities and the PKK continued, causing the
IS, however, and also would not permit Turkish Kurds to cease-fire to collapse in 2015. Since 2015, hundreds of
travel into Syrian Kurdish land to help defend the town. Kurds have been killed in clashes in southeastern Turkey
This refusal to help the Syrian Kurds led to protests by and by air strikes on PKK bases in northern Iraq.
Turkish Kurds, so eventually the Turkish government par-
tially conceded and allowed Iraqi Kurdish fighters to join
the battle for Kobane. Society, Culture, and Tradition
There exists long-term hostility between the Turkish It is hard to generalize about Kurdish society and culture
authorities and Turkish Kurds because, for many decades, because the people are not confined to a single commu-
the Turkish authorities have treated the Kurds harshly. nity or tradition. Kurdish life does tend to revolve around
Additionally, many Kurds opposed the historic amalgama- the concept of family, territory, and clans. The Kurds pre-
tion into Turkey of eastern Anatolia, a region inhabited by fer their people to marry within clans, and the clan leader,
 Kurd 605

known as the agha (chief), exerts great authority over the

people living under his authority. Leyla Zana
Most Kurds are Sunni Muslim of the Shafi’i school of Leyla Zana (b. 1961) is an activist who works for the
Islamic law. That said, the majority of Kurds living in Iran Kurdish people living in Turkey and neighboring
are Shia Muslims. A small number of Kurds belong to areas. In 1991, she became the first Kurdish woman
Yazidi religious minority, while others belong to the Ahl-i- to be elected to the Turkish parliament. In 1994, Zana
Haqq syncretic religion. This religion originated as a Sunni was arrested and sentenced to fifteen years in prison
sect but is no longer regarded as an Islamic movement. for speaking Kurdish on the floor of the Turkish
There are also Kurdish Christian, Jewish, and Sufi groups. parliament. That same year, she received the Rafto
Throughout Kurdistan, the people tend to be Prize, which is awarded to human rights defenders.
­agriculturalists—either peasant farmers or pastoral nomads. In 1995, Zana was awarded the Sakharov Prize for
Traditional Kurdish crops include grains such as wheat, Freedom of Thought by the European Union.
fruit, vegetables, and nuts. Recently, national authorities While she was incarcerated, Zana published Writ-
have encouraged Kurdish nomads to settle, and this has ings from Prison, in which she documents the hard-
resulted in formerly nomadic Kurds entering into the ships she faced while fighting for Kurdish rights.
sedentary economy, often producing crafts. Increasingly, Following an international campaign that saw the
however, it is difficult for the Kurds to sell these hand- European Court of Human Rights rule against Tur-
crafted items because of political situations or because key, Zana was released from jail in 2004. In 2011,
­foreign-made goods are cheaper. Zana was reelected to the Turkish parliament. The
The Kurds celebrate many festivals that often fea- following year, however, Zana was charged with dis-
ture singing and dancing. These festivities do not tend seminating terrorist propaganda, though her parlia-
to feature gender segregation, though Kurds living along mentary immunity allowed her to avoid a ten-year
the Iran-Iraq border do stringently enforce segregation prison sentence. In 2016, pro-Kurdish members of
between men and women. parliament, including Zana, had their parliamentary
immunity removed by the Turkish parliament in a
move that was widely condemned by the European
Health Care and Education Parliament and the international community in gen-
A 2014 survey on health care available to Kurds living in eral. Consequently, in late 2016, Zana was arrested
the Kurdistan Region of Iraq found that the Kurds had by Turkish police alongside six other pro-Kurdish
excellent access to primary health care, with most peo- politicians and charged with terrorism. In 2018,
ple living within thirty minutes of a primary health care Zana’s parliamentary membership was rescinded by
center. In remote areas, hospitals are increasingly accessi- the Turkish parliament on account that she missed
ble. The number of health facilities was found to be ade- parliamentary sessions in 2016 and 2017.
quate, and health care providers were knowledgeable and Zana can be followed on Twitter at @leylazanainfo.
committed to providing patient care. The distribution of
health centers and medical staff, however, was not good,
and this was especially the case in rural areas. Less than
30 percent of primary health care centers had at least one economic problems mean teachers in the region often
doctor, the services provided were not standardized, and have their pay delayed; teachers and pupils face violence
healthcare facilities were not well organized. In addition, and harassment from non-Kurds; pupils are made to learn
doctors were overworked, and nurses were not adequately textbooks by rote, leading to children becoming bored; and
trained (Moore et al. 2014). teachers rely on corporal punishment to control students
Education in the Kurdistan Region of Iraq is facing a (World Weekly 2016).
crisis. There are six thousand schools in the region that
operate in a shift pattern, meaning multiple schools oper-
ate in one building. This system results in overcrowded Threats to Survival
classrooms, and some children receive only four hours of The Kurds are the most marginalized group in Syria,
teaching per day, at most. Commentators have noted that with several nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)
606 Kurd

estimating that there are around three hundred thousand problems still face the Kurds. For example, Iran and Tur-
stateless Kurds living in Syria (Minority Rights Group key are generally unsympathetic to Kurdish ambitions. In
International 2011). The stateless condition of these Kurds 2017, the people of northern Iraq voted overwhelmingly
is the result of a 1960s Syrian government initiative that in favor of independence for the Kurdistan Region in a
reclassified Syrian Kurds and their descendants as noncit- controversial referendum. According to official figures, 92
izens. As noncitizens, Kurds are unable to obtain official percent of the 3.3 million Kurds and non-Kurds living in
documentation (i.e., birth certificates, identity cards, and the area supported secession (BBC 2017). The vote came
passports). As a result, Kurds are unable to legally travel despite the Iraqi prime minister calling for the last-minute
from their home country, work for the government, or cancellation of the result, but Kurdish leaders suggested
reap the full benefits of health and educational facilities. the “Yes” vote provided a mandate to start negotiations for
The use of the Kurdish language and cultural expression is Kurdish independence. With a background of such uncer-
restricted in Syria. tainty, it seems that only time will tell as to whether peace
Since the overthrow of the Hussein regime in 2003, the can be achieved in the Kurdish region and whether this
predominantly Kurdish north of Iraq has been the most peace will run parallel with the establishment of an inde-
peaceful part of the country. Indeed, violence elsewhere in pendent state of Kurdistan.
Iraq has driven other Iraqis into Kurdish areas. In particu-
See also: Assyrian; Copts; Druze; Lur; Mandean; Maro­
lar, thousands of Christians and Sunni Iraqis have sought
nites; Marsh Arab; Samaritan; Yazidi
refuge in Kurdistan.
The ongoing conflict in Syria has resulted in tens of Further Reading
BBC. 2017. “Iraqi Kurds Decisively Back Independence in Ref-
thousands of refugees fleeing into Iraqi Kurdistan. How-
erendum.” BBC, September 27. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news​
ever, in areas of Iraq that have seen Kurdish minority /world-middle-east-41419633.
populations flee ahead of IS, Kurds have now returned in Khezri, Haidar. 2017. “Kurdistan Earthquake: Politics Creates
greater numbers than lived there previously. Kurds have Roadblocks to Relief.” The Conversation, November 30.
entered these areas and seized properties and farmland https://theconversation.com/kurdistan-earthquake-politics​
previously owned by Iraqi Arabs. Indeed, since 2014, the -creates-roadblocks-to-relief-87928.
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
Kurds have increased the size of their region in Iraq by
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 2, D–K.
about 40 percent (Williams 2018). In this way, the Kurd- Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
ish map is changing across Iraq and also in Syria. Kurds Minority Rights Group International. 2011. “Syria: Kurds.” World
argue that taking this land redresses past wrongs perpe- Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, October.
trated against them by successive Iraqi leaders, most espe- http://minorityrights.org/minorities/kurds-5.
cially Hussein. The Kurds also see the amalgamation of the Minority Rights Group International. 2014. “Iraq: Kurds.” World
Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, October.
land as a step to their gaining an independent state. Some
http://minorityrights.org/minorities/kurds-3.
commentators, however, argue that the Kurds are inflict- Monette, Connell. 2011. “Kurds.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and
ing new injustices while also setting up the bases of future the Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup,
conflict. The increasing influence of the Iraqi Kurds is also 158–161. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
making neighboring states nervous, as these countries fear Moore, Melinda, C. Ross Anthony, Yee-Wei Lim, Spencer S. Jones,
that their own Kurdish-minority populations may rise up Adrian Overton, and Joanne K. Yoong. 2014. “The Future of
Health Care in the Kurdistan Region—Iraq: Toward an
and join the Iraqi Kurds.
Effective, High-Quality System with an Emphasis on Pri-
The emergence of IS is having a profound effect on the mary Care.” RAND Health Quarterly, Summer. https://www​
Kurds. While the advent of IS has cleared the way for Kurds .rand.org/pubs/periodicals/health-quarterly/issues/v4/n2​
to capture land that was not previously Kurdish-owned, /01.html.
the coming of IS has renewed old Kurdish anxieties sur- Williams, Victoria. 2018. “Kurdistan: Conflicts and Issues.” In The
rounding the loss of Kurdish territory. Kurds: An Encyclopedia of Life, Culture and Society, edited by
Sebastian Maisel, 64–81. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Iraqi Kurdistan has for the most part escaped the chaos
World Weekly. 2016. “The Education Crisis Facing Iraqi Kurd-
that ensued after Hussein was deposed. Since Iraqi Kurd- istan.” March 31. https://www.theworldweekly.com/reader​
istan mostly survived intact after this period of turmoil, it /view/magazine/2016-03-31/the-education-crisis-facing​
has been able to build a parliamentary authority accom- -iraqi-kurdistan/7315.
panied by a growing economy. Elsewhere, however, major
 Kyrgyz 607

KYRGYZ which, at over 24,000 feet, is Kyrgyzstan’s highest peak.

Mount Khan-Tengri (22,949 feet) stands on Kyrgyzstan’s
Current Location Central Asia border with Kazakhstan. These mountains are part of the
Current Population 4.5 million Tien Shan mountain system that continues east to China.
Kyrgyzstan also contains many large valleys, rivers, lakes,
Language Kyrgyz; Russian; English
and plateaus. Deserts and plains surround Kyrgyzstan
Interesting Fact The Kyrgyz are divided into forty
in the north, west, and southeast. Although very little of
clans, which are symbolized on
their national flag by forty rays of
Kyrgyzstan is lowland, most of the country’s people live in
sunshine. lowland areas.
Outer Kyrgyzstan is hot and dry, while the mountain-
ous interior is cooler and wetter. Kyrgyzstan’s lower valleys
Overview
and north-facing slopes are covered in coniferous forests
The Kyrgyz (spelled Kirgiz or Kirghiz) are a Turkic people containing white spruce. The forests are home to brown
living in Central Asia, particularly in Kyrgyzstan. The Kyr- bears, lynx, wild pigs, and wolves. Kyrgyzstan’s wooded
gyz speak the Kyrgyz language, a South Kipchak Turkic lan- ravines and mountainous steppe areas are inhabited by
guage belonging to the Kazakh-Nogai branch of the Turkic argali (a Central Asian mountain sheep), mountain goats,
Nogai branch of the Turkic languages. Kyrgyz also speak snow leopards and deer. The country’s desert areas contain
Russian and English. Most Kyrgyz are practicing Sunni gophers, hares, and large-eared hedgehogs.
Muslims. However, the Kyrgyz living the farthest north
often identify as cultural rather than practicing Muslims
or are atheist. In earlier times, the name Kirghiz was used History and Politics
by European and Russian commentators to refer to both The first record of the Kyrgyz appeared in Chinese annals
the Kyrgyz and their northern neighbors, the Kazakhs. A from around 100 BCE. Around 840 CE, the Kyrgyz emerged
distinction between the Kyrgyz and Kazakhs was drawn as historically significant when they revolted against their
during the Soviet era. The meaning of the name Kyrgyz rulers, the Uyghurs, before taking control of land located
is disputed, but the most popular explanation is that the between the Yenisei and Orkhon Rivers of southern Siberia.
word derives from the Turkic word kyrk, meaning “forty.” Kyrgyz land became part of the Silk Road, a trade route link-
ing southern Europe, East and Southeast Asia, and the Mid-
Population, Diaspora, and Migration dle East. During the seventh and eighth centuries the Silk
The Kyrgyz population is estimated at 4.5 million people. Road allowed Arab traders to introduce Islam to the Kyrgyz.
The majority of Kyrgyz live in Kyrgyzstan, but there are During the period 840 to 925 CE, this land, known as Great
large Kyrgyz populations elsewhere. For example, there are Kyrgyz, was Central Asia’s most powerful state.
250,000 Kyrgyz in Uzbekistan, 145,000 living in China, and By 1218, however, the Kyrgyz’s power began to decline,
105,000 in Russia (Minahan 2014). Tajikistan, Kazakhstan, meaning the Kyrgyz had no choice but to surrender to
Afghanistan, Turkey, and Ukraine are also home to many Mongol invaders. Mongol rule was a period of change for
Kyrgyz. Traditionally, the Kyrgyz population is divided the Kyrgyz, who began to convert to the Sunni branch of
into forty clans. The clans are represented on the Kyrgyz Islam under the Mongols. The Mongols devastated Kyr-
flag by forty rays of sunshine. gyz land and repressed the Kyrgyz culture so severely that
the Kyrgyz lost their writing system. Indeed, such was the
destruction of the Kyrgyz way of life under the Mongols
Geography and Environment that Kyrgyz epic poetry details the Kyrgyz’s struggle against
Kyrgyzstan is a landlocked country of Central Asia. To the the Mongols as a jihad. The invasion caused most Kyrgyz
north and northwest, Kyrgyzstan is bounded by Kazakh- to flee southwest to the west of the Tien Shan mountain
stan, and China borders the country on the east and south. range and into Xinjiang, in northwest China. Nevertheless,
Tajikistan and Uzbekistan border Kyrgyzstan to the south despite the Mongols’ devastation of the Kyrgyz state, it con-
and west. Kyrgyzstan is extremely mountainous, with the tinued to function as part of the Silk Road. The fall of the
highest mountains covered in snow and ice all year round. Mongol Empire at the end of the fourteenth century saw
In the country’s far east lies the Victory (Pobedy) Peak, the Kyrgyz living in the Tian Shan ruled by the Mongol
608 Kyrgyz

A Kyrgyz stockman tends a herd of goats in Kyrgyzstan’s Alay Mountains. Kyrgyzstan is an extremely mountainous country—the high-
est mountains are covered in snow and ice all year round. (Daniel Prudek/Dreamstime.com)

successor state. For many centuries, the Kyrgyz continued The Kyrgyz went largely undocumented until the sev-
to live as an isolated tribal people. However, since the Kyr- enteenth century, with reports of them only appearing in
gyz lacked tribal unity, they were frequently invaded by the chronicles of peoples who conquered them. In 1758,
other peoples. the Manchus deployed an army from China to Central Asia
In the sixteenth century, the Kyrgyz were conquered by that conquered the Kalmyks. The Kalmyks’ defeat allowed
the Oirat confederation of tribes and later by the Dzungar, the Kyrgyz to slowly return to their home in the Tian Shan.
Oirat tribes who later established the Dzungar khanate. Here, they lived as nomads under nominal Chines rule and
In 1510, the Kyrgyz threw off Oirat rule and established a revived their grazing lands. Another consequence of the
Kyrgyz khanate in 1514. However, Kyrgyz freedom ended Kalmyks’ loss of power was that imperial Russia’s influence
between 1683 and 1685, when the khanate was overrun began to grow in Central Asia, thereby allowing Russia to
by the Kalmyks (Russian Oirats from the North Cauca- interfere in Kyrgyz life. In 1775, a Kyrgyz tribal chief estab-
sus descended from the Dzungar). The Kalmyk invasion lished diplomatic ties with Russia.
caused virtually all Kyrgyz to flee from their homes at high In the 1830s, a Kyrgyz tribe, backed by the Uzbek
altitude to relocate elsewhere in Xinjiang and Central Asia. Khanate of Khokand, defeated all other Kyrgyz tribes and
 Kyrgyz 609

brought them all under the rule of the khanate. Under nonrebel villages and clans that were not involved in the
Khokand Uzbek rule, the Kyrgyz were ruthlessly taxed, revolt. As a result of the Russian attacks, over 150,000 Kyr-
and other peoples were forcibly resettled on Kyrgyz land. gyz fled to China. Soon, however, the rebellion became
During this period, Islam became entrenched among the overwhelmed as the Bolsheviks fought the forces of impe-
various Kyrgyz tribes. At the same time, the many Kyrgyz rial Russia during the Russian Revolution. In 1919, the
tribes fought among themselves. In response, in 1854, one victorious Bolsheviks established rule over Kyrgyz areas.
tribe appealed to Russia for protection, leading to Russia Then, in 1920, the total defeat of the Russian Empire meant
constructing a fort at the Kyrgyz town of Pishpek. In 1867, the Soviets took control of all Central Asia. The Soviets
the majority of northern Kyrgyz tribes accepted Russian divided Kyrgyz land between regions of the newly created
protection from both Khokand tax collections and inva- Turkestan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic.
sions by other tribes. However, some Kyrgyz tribes feared During the 1920s, the Soviets encouraged Europeans
domination by Russia and decided to move to Afghanistan to settled on Kyrgyz land, with all Kyrgyz resistance to the
or the Pamir Mountains that lie at the intersection of the colonization brutally suppressed by Russian authorities.
Himalaya, Tian Shan, Karakoram, Kunlun, Hindu Kush, In 1924, the Soviets divided Turkestan among various
Suleman, and Hindu Raj mountain ranges. In 1870, the ethnic groups and gave the Kyrgyz their own autonomous
southern Kyrgyz tribes launched a widespread rebellion province. In 1926, the province was elevated to the status
against the Khokand khanate. The revolt enabled Russia of an autonomous republic. Later, the republic became
to advance into Uzbekistan, thus ending Khokand rule. a member republic of the Union of Soviet Republics.
Shortly afterward, however, the Kyrgyz found themselves Theoretically, full membership allowed the republic self-
in conflict with Russia as the southern tribes began a jihad rule, but in reality, Soviet control was all-­encompassing,
against the Christian Russian. The jihad was unsuccessful, with regional government controlled by European
however, meaning that all Kyrgyz tribes were under Rus- communists.
sian control by 1876. The rise to power of Joseph Stalin initiated a process
Russian rule destroyed the political and cultural unity that affected the Kyrgyz greatly. Under Stalin, all private
of the Kyrgyz, something that was exacerbated by Russia’s property, including Kyrgyz herds, was collectivized, and
policy of urging Slavs, Germans, and Cossacks to move to political purges eradicated most Kyrgyz political and
Kyrgyz land. The settlers appropriated the most fertile Kyr- cultural leaders. The Kyrgyz tried to resist brutal Stalin-
gyz land and in so doing severely limited the amount of ist policies by killing their herds of animals before head-
grazing land available to the Kyrgyz for feeding their cattle ing south to China. In response, the Soviets treated the
and horses. When famine hit the Russian Empire in 1891 Kyrgyz who remained in the region even more harshly.
and 1898, a new wave immigration brought more settlers Despite widespread Kyrgyz opposition, by 1933, the
to Kyrgyz areas. The influx of colonists was worsened when Soviets had collectivized around 67 percent of all Kyr-
rail links to European Russia were completed. Ultimately, gyz households (Minahan 2014). At the same time, the
the increase in the number of outsiders on Kyrgyz land Kyrgyz traditional nomadic lifestyle came to an end,
left the Kyrgyz marginalized and living in less productive as the Kyrgyz were made to follow settled lives on col-
steppe and mountain areas. The loss of grazing land led lectives and state-run farms. Soviet irrigation projects
to a sustained decline in Kyrgyz living standards that was increased Kyrgyz farm yields and caused many nomadic
particularly apparent in northern areas. The economic Kyrgyz to take up farming. Other Kyrgyz moved to urban
hardship experienced by the northern Kyrgyz caused the areas, where they worked as menial workers and were
area to become one of the most neglected, least developed dominated by Russians. By the 1970s, this migration had
parts of Russian-controlled Central Asia. brought about the end of the Kyrgyz clan structure and
From 1914 to 1916, the Kyrgyz were affected very little tribal system.
by the events of World War I. However, with Russia in need In the 1980s, Soviet rule softened slightly, but this had
of troops, some 250,000 were forcibly conscripted into little impact on the Kyrgyz until ethnic tension devel-
work battalions. This move ignited a mass rebellion that oped into rioting along the border between Kyrgyzstan
saw rebels attack Russian fortifications. In response, Russia and Uzbekistan. The rioting resulted in the deaths of two
withdrew forces from the war front to send them to attack hundred people and left many more hurt or displaced.
the rebels, though in actuality, the soldiers also attacked Soviet attempts to end the conflict resulted in a failed
610 Kyrgyz

coup in the Russian capital of Moscow in 1999 that led to northern areas often see themselves as cultural Muslims
the eventual collapse of the Soviet Union. The fall of the rather than practicing Muslims.
Soviets freed the Kyrgyz from Soviet control. However,
despite the end of the Soviet regime, Kyrgyz communists
retained power when an independent Kyrgyz republic, Health Care and Education
Kyrgyzstan, was established in 1991. The republic’s leader- Noncommunicable diseases, including cancer, diabetes,
ship soon swapped Soviet rhetoric for avowed nationalism heart diseases, and lung diseases, are among the leading
to strengthen its grip on power. causes of death among the Kyrgyz. Therefore, tackling
At the start of the twentieth century, the large numbers these issues is of great importance to the country’s health
of non-Kyrgyz living within Kyrgyzstan have hampered authorities, as is the need to prevent, diagnose, and con-
attempts to revitalize Kyrgyz culture and language, though trol HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and hepatitis transmission. In
activists looking to revive Kyrgyz culture and religion have 2016, the World Health Organization (WHO) asserted that
won some support. Kyrgyzstan was free from malaria following steps taken by
the authorities to eradicate the disease. Authorities have
also reduced the mortality rate for Kyrgyz children aged
Society, Culture, and Tradition less than five years from sixty-five per one thousand in
Kyrgyz society is based on kinship. The Kyrgyz also have 1990 to twenty-one per one thousand in 2016. The number
a strong tradition of endogamy (marrying only within of newborn Kyrgyz babies dying has halved since 1990 to
their local community), and marriage between cousins is twelve per one thousand births in 2016.
commonplace. Typically, Kyrgyz families are large, with Inequalities in healthcare access caused by wealth ine-
married couples producing between four and six children qualities, location, and health education have also been
on average. This is especially true in rural areas. In cities, reduced. Polio vaccination take-up and seeking medical
Kyrgyz tend to have fewer children. care are greatest among the poorest Kyrgyz. Nonethe-
The Kyrgyz have a tradition of epic poetry dating back less, the Kyrgyz child mortality rate is 1.6 times higher in
some one thousand years. The most famous Kyrgyz poem, rural areas than it is in urban areas (UNICEF n.d.-b). Kyr-
The Epic of Manas, tells the story of the Kyrgyz national gyzstan’s healthcare system is underdeveloped and lack-
hero Manas and his battles against his Oirat enemy, Joloy. ing in infrastructure. The country’s healthcare providers
Some Kyrgyz believe The Epic of Manas is the world’s long- lack some skills and also tend to lack motivation because
est epic poem because it can take over three weeks to read they are poorly paid and lack essential equipment. These
aloud. issues are also leading reasons for health workers leaving
The government of Kyrgyzstan promotes the Kyrgyz Kyrgyzstan to work elsewhere. The high cost of medicine
language, which is spoken widely. However, Russian is the and transport problems also influence Kyrgyz access to
language of business and finance, and English is most Kyr- health care.
gyz’s third language. Traditionally, Kyrgyz spiritual beliefs Kyrgyz have high access to primary and basic second-
revolve around horses, for the Kyrgyz believe the horses ary education. However, net attendance is lower for upper
transport the spirits of the dead to the afterlife. However, secondary education (i.e., grades ten to eleven) at 59 per-
the Kyrgyz tend to be fairly secular in their everyday lives. cent for boys and 56 percent for girls. Around 6 percent of
That said, pre-Islamic beliefs, including faith in shamans school-age Kyrgyz do not attend school, usually because
(most of whom tend to be female), continue to be a prom- the children have disabilities, are the children of migrant
inent feature of Kyrgyz ceremonies, including funerals. workers, or are themselves workers supporting families.
The Kyrgyz’s traditional nomadism means that the female Because Kyrgyzstan’s school registration and enrollment
seclusion practiced by some Muslim societies was not systems are weak, it may be that absenteeism is actuality
part of Kyrgyz life because Kyrgyz women have long been higher. Over 80 percent of Kyrgyzstan’s schools are located
needed to work. Consequently, Kyrgyz women enjoy con- in rural areas. Recently, the increase in the country’s
siderable freedom, do not wear any Islamic covering, and school-age population means urban schools are extremely
are permitted to enjoy social contact with male nonrela- overcrowded, something that hampers pupils’ ability to
tives. Today, an increasing number of formerly atheist Kyr- learn. In general, the quality of education Kyrgyz receive is
gyz are following Islam, though Kyrgyz Muslims living in often of poor quality, meaning that many Kyrgyz students
 Kyrgyz 611

demonstrate knowledge and skills below recognized Kyrgyzstan have hampered attempts to revitalize Kyrgyz
standards. For instance, over 50 percent of Kyrgyz stu- culture, though activists looking to revive religion among
dents have not attained basic levels in reading, math, and the Kyrgyz have won some support. The Kyrgyz govern-
science. Students’ poor literacy often leaves them unem- ment backs the use of the Kyrgyz language, though at the
ployable and leads to their having to migrate to find work. same time, the use of Russian and English is rising and
Unemployed young Kyrgyz are susceptible to involvement may eventually overtake the use of the people’s indigenous
in criminality and becoming involved in violent extrem- tongue.
ism (UNICEF n.d.-a).
See also: Ket; Manchu; Mansi; Uyghur
Further Reading
Threats to Survival Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Cen-
During the Soviet era, alcoholism was a major issue among tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
the Kyrgyz. Recently, this problem has resurfaced. Public Peimani, Hooman. 2009. Conflict and Security in Central Asia
and the Caucasus. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
drunkenness and associated problems are apparent in
UNICEF. n.d.a. “Education.” https://www.unicef.org/kyrgyzstan​
Kyrgyz cities. Part of the reason for rising rates of Kyrgyz /education.
alcoholism is that the Kyrgyz have increasing unemploy- UNICEF. n.d.b. “Health and Child Survival.” https://www.unicef​
ment levels. The large numbers of non-Kyrgyz living in .org/kyrgyzstan/health-and-child-survival.
INDIGENOUS
PEOPLES
 INDIGENOUS
PEOPLES
An Encyclopedia of Culture, History,
and Threats to Survival

VOLUME 3: L–R

Victoria R. Williams
Copyright © 2020 by ABC-CLIO, LLC

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without
prior permission in writing from the publisher.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Williams, Victoria, author.

Title: Indigenous peoples : an encyclopedia of culture, history, and
  threats to survival / Victoria R. Williams.
Description: Santa Barbara, California : ABC-CLIO, an Imprint of ABC-CLIO,
  LLC, [2020] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019026786 (print) | LCCN 2019026787 (ebook) | ISBN
  9781440861192 (v. 1 ; hardcover) | ISBN 9781440861208 (v. 2 ; hardcover)
  | ISBN 9781440861215 (v. 3 ; hardcover) | ISBN 9781440861222 (v. 4 ;
  hardcover) | ISBN 9781440861178 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781440861185 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Indigenous peoples—Encyclopedias.
Classification: LCC GN380 .W5494 2020 (print) | LCC GN380 (ebook) | DDC
 305.8003—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019026786
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019026787

ISBN: 978-1-4408-6117-8 (set)

978-1-4408-6119-2 (vol. 1)
978-1-4408-6120-8 (vol. 2)
978-1-4408-6121-5 (vol. 3)
978-1-4408-6122-2 (vol. 4)
978-1-4408-6118-5 (ebook)

24 23 22 21 20   1 2 3 4 5

This book is also available as an eBook.

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 Contents

List of Entries, vii

Geographical List of Entries, xiii
Preface, xix
Introduction, xxi

A–Z Entries, 1

Appendix: United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 1211

Selected Bibliography, 1219
Index, 1223

v
 List of Entries

Volume 1
Abkhaz Armenian
Aboriginal Australian Aruban
Acehnese Asháninka
Acholi Asiri
Adivasi Assyrian
Aeta Avar
Afar Aymara
Agul Azeri
Ahwazi
Aimaq Baganda
Ainu Baka
Ajar Bakhtiyari
Aka Balawar
Akan Baluch
Akha Bamileke
Akie Bashkir
Alawi Basque
Albanian Bassa
Aleut Batak
Altai BaTwa
Ambonese Bavarian
Amhara Bedouin
Annang Beja
Anuak Berber
Anutan Bhil
Apache Bicol

vii
viii  List of Entries

Bilen Faroese
Bonairean Finn
Bosniak Flemish
Bougainvillian Fon
Breton Frisian
Bribri Friulian
Bubi Fulani
Bugi Fur
Bulgarian
Bunun Gagauz
Burakumin Galician
Buryat Garifuna
Garo
Cabindan Gilaki and
Canarian  Mazandarani
Carpatho-Rusyn Gond
Catalan Gorani
Cham Greek
Chamorro Guarani
Chechen Guaymi
Chewa Gujarati
Chiquitano Guna
Chukchi Gwich’in
Chuvash
Circassian Hadhramis
Comanche Hadza
Copts Haida
Cornish Hani
Corsican Haratine
Crimean Tatar Hausa
Croat Hazara
Hezhe
Daasanach Himba
Dai Hindi
Dayak Hmong
Degar Hopi
Dinka Hui
Diola Hutu and Tutsi
Dogon
Dom Icelander
Doma Igbo
Druze Igorot
Ijaw
Volume 2 i-Kiribati
Ingush
East Timorese Innu
Edo Inuit
Evenk iTaukei
Ewe Izhorian
 List of Entries  ix

Jews Maltese
Juhuro Manchu
Jumma Mande
Mandean
Kachin Mansi
Kalasha Manx
Kalenjin Māori
Kanak Mapuche
Kanaka Maoli Maronites
Kanuri Marsh Arab
Karakalpak Marshallese
Karamojong Martu
Karbi Matis
Karelian Mayan
Karen Mbuti
Kasaian Mende
Kashmiri Mi’kmaq
Kavalan Mingrelian
Kayapó Miskito
Ket Mixtec
Khasi Moldovan
Khmer Mon
Kickapoo Mongol
Komi Mordvin
Korean Moriori
Koryak Mossi
Kumyk Mosuo
Kurd Mozabite
Kyrgyz Muhamasheen
Mursi
Volume 3
Naga
Lak Nahua
Lakota Nanai
Latgalian Nauruan
Latvian Nenet
Lenca Nicobarese
Lezgin Ni-Vanuatu
Lhotshampa Nivkh
Liechtensteiner Nogai
Livonian Nuba
Lozi Nubian
Lur Nyamwezi

Maasai Occitan
Macedonian Ogiek
Madurese Ojibwe
Magyar Onge
Malagasy Orang Asli
x  List of Entries

Oraon Svan
Oromo Swahili
Ossetian Swede
Otomi Székely

Palestinian Tahitian
Pangasinan Talysh
Papuan Tamil
Pashtun Tharu
Pech Tibetan
Pemón Tiv
Piaroa Tlingit
Pipil Toba
Pomak Tohono O’odham
Pumi Tokelauan
Tonga
Qashqai Tongan
Quechua Torres Strait Islanders
Tripuri
Rapa Nui Trique
Rohingya Trobriander
Roma Tsonga
Romansh Tuareg
Rotuman Tubu
Ryūkyūans Turkana
Turkmen
Tuvaluan
Volume 4
Udmurt
Saharawi
Uncontacted Peoples
Sakalava
Urueu-Wau-Wau
Samaritan
U’wa
Sami
Uyghur
Samoans
Uzbek
San
Sardinian
Sateré-Mawé Vep
Sea Gypsy
Selkup Walloon
Seminoles Walpiri
Serer Walser
Shabak Wanniyala-Aetto
Shilluk Waorani
Shipibo-Conibo Warao
Sidama Wayuu
Sikh Welsh
Somali Worimi
Sorb Wurundjeri
 List of Entries  xi

Xhosa Zápara
Xicaque Zapotec
Zaza
Yagnobi Zomi
Yanomami Zoque
Yapese Zulu
Yazidi Zuni
Yoruba
Yupik
 Geographical List of Entries

Africa and Middle East Chewa

Copts
Acholi
Afar
Ahwazi Daasanach
Aka Dinka
Akan Diola
Akie Dogon
Alawi Dom
Amhara Doma
Annang Druze
Anuak
Asiri Edo
Assyrian
Ewe
Baganda
Baka Fon
Bakhtiyari Fulani
Bamileke Fur
Bassa
BaTwa Gilaki and Mazandarani
Bedouin
Beja Hadhramis
Berber Hadza
Bilen
Haratine
Bubi
Hausa
Cabindan Himba
Canarian Hutu and Tutsi

xiii
xiv  Geographical List of Entries

Igbo Tiv
Ijaw Tonga
Tsonga
Jews Tuareg
Tubu
Kalenjin Turkana
Kanuri
Karamojong Xhosa
Kasaian
Kurd Yazidi
Yoruba
Lozi
Lur Zulu

Maasai
Central and South America
Malagasy
Mande Aruban
Mandean Asháninka
Maronites Aymara
Marsh Arab
Mbuti Bonairean
Mende Bribri
Mossi
Mozabite Chiquitano
Muhamasheen
Mursi Garifuna
Guarani
Nuba Guaymi
Nubian Guna
Nyamwezi
Kayapó
Ogiek
Oromo Lenca

Palestinian Mapuche
Matis
Qashqai Mayan
Miskito
Saharawi
Sakalava Pech
Samaritan Pemón
San Piaroa
Serer Pipil
Shabak
Shilluk Quechua
Sidama
Somali Sateré-Mawé
Swahili Shipibo-Conibo
 Geographical List of Entries  xv

Toba Liechtensteiner
Livonian
Urueu-Wau-Wau
U’wa Macedonian
Magyar
Waorani Maltese
Warao Manx
Wayuu Moldovan
Mongol
Xicaque
Occitan
Yanomami
Pomak
Zápara
Roma
Europe Romansh
Albanian
Sami
Sardinian
Basque
Sorb
Bavarian
Swede
Bosniak
Székely
Breton
Bulgarian
Walloon
Walser
Carpatho-Rusyn
Welsh
Catalan
Cornish
Corsican North America
Crimean Tatar
Aleut
Croat
Apache

Faroese Comanche
Finn
Flemish Gwich’in
Frisian
Friulian Haida
Hopi
Gagauz
Galician Innu
Gorani Inuit
Greek
Kanaka Maoli
Icelander Kickapoo

Karelian Lakota

Latgalian Mi’kmaq
Latvian Mixtec
xvi  Geographical List of Entries

Nahua Tongan
Torres Strait Islanders
Ojibwe Trobriander
Otomi Tuvaluan

Seminoles Walpiri
Worimi
Tlingit Wurundjeri
Tohono O’odham
Trique Yapese
Tsimshian
Other
Yupik
Sea Gypsy
Zapotec
Zoque Uncontacted Peoples
Zuni
Russian Federation and Central Asia

Oceania Abkhaz
Agul
Aboriginal Australian Ajar
Anutan Altai
Armenian
Bougainvillian
Avar
Azeri
Chamorro
Bashkir
i-Kiribati
Buryat
iTaukei
Chechen
Kanak Chukchi
Chuvash
Māori
Circassian
Marshallese
Martu Evenk
Moriori
Hazara
Nauruan
Ni-Vanuatu Ingush
Izhorian
Papuan
Juhuro
Rapa Nui
Rotuman Karakalpak
Ket
Samoans Komi
Koryak
Tahitian Kumyk
Tokelauan Kyrgyz
 Geographical List of Entries  xvii

Lak Dai
Lezgin Dayak
Degar
Mansi
Mingrelian East Timorese
Mongol
Mordvin Garo
Gond
Nanai Gujarati
Nenet
Nivkh Hani
Nogai Hezhe
Hindi
Ossetian Hmong
Hui
Selkup
Svan Igorot

Talysh Jumma
Turkmen
Kachin
Udmurt Kalasha
Uzbek Karbi
Karen
Vep Kashmiri
Kavalan
Yagnobi Khasi
Khmer
South and Southeast Asia Korean
Acehnese
Adivasi Lhotshampa
Aeta
Aimaq Madurese
Ainu Manchu
Akha Mon
Ambonese Mosuo

Balawar Naga
Baluch Nicobarese
Batak
Bhil Onge
Bicol Orang Asli
Bugi Oraon
Bunun
Burakumin Pangasinan
Pashtun
Cham Pumi
xviii  Geographical List of Entries

Rohingya Uyghur
Ryūkyūans
Wanniyala-Aetto
Sikh
Zaza
Tamil Zomi
Tharu
Tibetan
Tripuri
 L

LAK Mountains. This homeland covers a number of districts

of Dagestan, a republic of the Russian Federation. Tradi-
Current Location Dagestan (Russian Federation) tionally, most Laks live in Dagestan’s mountainous Koshu
Current Population 180,000–200,000 region. Today, however, the Laks are mainly urban, which
Language Russian; Lak is unusual for a Caucasian people. Around 80 percent of
Interesting Fact Laks live in urban areas, which is Laks live in cities (Reynolds 2011).
unusual for a Caucasian people.

Geography and Environment

Overview Dagestan is a mountainous state situated in the North
The Laks (also called the Laki, Tumals, Vuluguni, or Caucasus Mountains. It is the southernmost part of the
Yakhulvi, among other names) are an indigenous Cau- Russia Federation. Dagestan is bordered by Azerbaijan,
casian people living in the Caucasus Mountains, most Georgia, and, on its eastern side, by the Caspian Sea. The
especially in the Republic of Dagestan. Many Laks speak Lak homeland is located in central Dagestan, where it is
Russian as their first language because Russian is the lin- bordered to the north and west by the Avaria region, to the
gua franca of Dagestan. However, some Laks also speak the east by Dargo, and to the south by Agul and Rutul. Georgia
Lak (or Lakka) language. This is part of the Dargino-Lak and Azerbaijan are on the other side of the Caucasus from
language group, which belongs to the Northeast-Caucasian the Lak homeland.
language family. Laks are Sunni Muslim. In mountain areas, winters are harsh, and summers are
hot and dry throughout Dagestan. Because mountainous
central Dagestan contains little fertile land, farming plays
Population, Diaspora, and Migration only a small part in the Laks’ traditional economy. Instead,
Population estimates for the Laks range from 180,000 transhumance is a mainstay of the Lak economy, with Lak
to 200,000 (Minahan 2016). Most Laks live in the Lak pastoralists using land both in the northern steppes and
homeland of Lakku Bilayat (also called Lakia or Lakistan) north of Dagestan’s capital of Makhachkala for winter
that stretches across the northern slopes of the Caucasus pasture.

613
614 Lak

History and Politics from 1920. They tried to resist Soviet authority, but, in 1930,
Most archaeological, linguistic, and anthropological evi- Lak resistance was repressed, with some Lak leaders exiled
dence suggests the Laks have inhabited their present while others simply vanished. Under the Soviets, in 1944,
homeland since ancient times. Classical documents call some Laks were forcibly resettled from their mountain
the inhabitants of Dagestan the “Leki” or “Legi.” In 728, homes to lowland areas so that they could work the land.
Muslim Arabs overran Dagestan and began to convert the These lowlands had been inhabited by the Chechens, whom
Laks to Islam, a process that continued until the twelfth the Russians had already deported. Despite being resettled,
century. In 734, the Arabs appointed a Lak noble as gover- the Laks managed to retain their links to Laks still living in
nor of the city of Kumukh. This city subsequently became mountain areas. The land to which the Laks were resettled
the capital of the Lak Khanate of Gazikumukh and the site was renamed Novolak by the Soviet authorities. At the same
of Lak worship after a mosque was built there in 777–778. time, the land was transferred from the Chechen-Ingush
Today, Kumukh serves as the hub of the Laks’ cultural and Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic to Dagestan. In
political life as well as the administrative center of the Lak- 1956, the Chechens were permitted to return to the land on
skii raion (municipal district) of Dagestan. which they had previously lived. This move meant that the
In time, the Arabic title ghazi (warrior) was added Chechens and Laks lived side by side uneasily.
to Kumukh to convey esteem for the city. Occasionally, In 1991, the downfall of the Soviet Union led to a
the  name Ghazikumukh was applied to the Laks. In the reawakening of Lak culture that went hand in hand with
fourteenth century, Kumukh’s rulers adopted the title a rise in Lak nationalism. The following year, the Russian
Shamkhal, which suggested they were descended from government announced it would seek to reverse the Sovi-
the high-status Arabs of Syria (al-Sham). Eventually, the ets’ resettlement of the Laks. A variety of reasons, includ-
Shamkhals came to rule much of Dagestan, particularly ing the Chechen War (1994–1996) and a lack of funding,
central and coastal areas. In the thirteenth century, the have slowed the resettlement of the Laks. Consequently,
Mongols invaded Lak land. Then, in the fourteenth century, the Novolak region continues to experience ethnic tension
the forces of the Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur overpow- as increasing numbers of Chechens move to the region. In
ered the Laks. During the eighteenth century, the Laks par- 1999, Chechen militants robbed and murdered inhabitants
ticipated in the fight against the Iranian leader Nader Shah. of Novolak despite stiff Lak resistance (Ware and Kisriev
When imperial Russia invaded Lak land in 1820, the 2015). As a result of these actions, Laks believe the Chech-
Laks became embroiled in the Great Caucasian Wars (an ens have forfeited any land rights in Novolak.
invasion of the Caucasus by the Russian Empire). The
Russians defeated the mountain dwellers and, in 1865,
abolished the Shamkhals’ realm. Subsequently, the Laks Society, Culture, and Tradition
rebelled many times against Russian authority, culmi- The Laks were some of the first of Dagestan’s mountain-
nating in the 1877 great Lak rebellion. During the rebel- dwelling peoples to develop a feudal system. The social
lion, the Laks captured a fortress outside Kumukh while hierarchy featured many social tiers, ranging from khans
also proclaiming a Kumukh khanate. Small Lak armies down to free peasants, serfs, and slaves. Traditionally, Lak
besieged Russian fortresses in Gunib and Levashi, but society also included patriarchal clans (tukhum), and
they were repelled after Russian troops advanced from though endogamous marriage (marrying within a spe-
elsewhere in the Caucasus, Asia, and the Volga region. Rus- cific community) was the norm, exogamous marriage
sian forces retook areas captured by the Laks and executed (outside of a specific social group) was permitted. In the
individuals they considered the instigators of the revolt. At mountainous areas, Lak life is influenced by adat (cus-
the same time, many Laks were deported to far-off parts tomary law) and interclan relations. This includes blood
of the Russian Empire. Other Laks fled to Iran, Europe, and feuds and vendettas. Islamic sharia law governs Lak fam-
the Ottoman Empire. ily matters, including inheritance. Lak religious practice is
The destruction wrought by the Russian Revolution also Islamic, for the Laks are Sunni Muslims of the Shafi’i
and Russian Civil War devastated Lak land. Left in chaos madhhab (school of Islamic law).
by such momentous events, the Bolsheviks took control With very little fertile land found in mountainous cen-
of Dagestan in 1919, and the Laks came under Soviet rule tral Dagestan, farming played an insignificant part in the
 Lakota 615

traditional Lak economy. Instead, transhumance (pas- Reynolds, Michael A. 2011. “Laks.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe:
toralism that sees the seasonal movement of livestock An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 229–230. Santa
from fixed summer pastures to lowland valleys in winter) Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Ware, Robert Bruce, and Enver Kisriev. 2015. Dagestan: Russian
mostly focused on sheep and goats was a traditional bas- Hegemony and Islamic Resistance in the North Caucasus.
tion of the Lak economy, along with such craft industries Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
as leatherwork, shoemaking, ceramics, weaving, jewelry
making, and metalwork, especially copper work.
The Lak language is divided into six main dialects that
are mutually intelligible. The language is written using the
Cyrillic alphabet. LAKOTA
Current Location United States; Canada
Health Care and Education Current Population 215,000
Following the fall of the Soviet Union, health care remained Language English; Lakota
free in Dagestan. The republic’s health service is, however, Interesting Fact The Lakota were part of the victo-
chronically underfunded. Dagestan has experienced sig- rious Native American forces at the
nificant increases in infant and maternal mortality rates Battle of Little Big Horn.
and incidents of contagious diseases as well as decreases
in fertility. Recently, organizations both within the Russian Overview
Federation and internationally have striven to improve
The Lakota are a Native American Plains Indian tribe of
health care in Dagestan. However, the organizations are
the United States and Canada. They are also called the
hampered by official corruption and the mistrust of the
Lakȟóta, Thítȟuŋwaŋ, Teton, Teton Sioux, or the Great
republic’s indigenous peoples.
Sioux Nation. The Lakota speak English as a first language.
Under Soviet rule, the Lak language was taught in
Many also speak the Lakota language—a collection of dia-
schools. The downfall of Soviet rule led to the loss of sub-
lects belonging to the Dakota branch of the Hokan-Siouan
sidies for the creation of textbooks in the Lak language as
language family. Most Lakota are Christian, but some
well as fewer qualified Lak teachers.
maintain Lakota spiritual beliefs.

Threats to Survival Population, Diaspora, and Migration

Lak nationalism has gained momentum in recent years, The total Lakota population is estimated at 215,000 peo-
particularly among the descendants of those Laks reset- ple (Minahan 2013). The Lakota are divided into seven
tled by the Soviets during the 1940s. However, despite a bands or subtribes: the Sičháŋǧu, Oglála, Itázipčho, Húŋk-
Lak cultural revival following the end of the Soviet Union, papȟa, Mnikȟówožu, Sihásapa, and Oóhenuŋpa. In the
the Laks’ traditional clan-based social system is breaking United States, the Lakota occupy small reserves in South
down as the Laks become increasingly urban and their and North Dakota, Montana, Nebraska, Minnesota, and
society modernizes. The Lak language is also in danger Wyoming. In Canada, they live in Manitoba, Alberta, and
of extinction as Russian becomes entrenched as the lin- Saskatchewan.
gua franca of Dagestan and the number of qualified Lak
teachers declines. Some Laks fear that the extinction of the
people’s language may ultimately result in the loss of the Geography and Environment
Laks’ ethnic identity. According to treaties signed with the United States, Lakota
See also: Agul; Avar; Chechen land includes parts of South and North Dakota, Montana,
Nebraska, and Wyoming. This means the Lakota home-
Further Reading
Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: land contains parts of the Great Plains that lie west of the
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa Mississippi River and east of the Rocky Mountains in the
Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. United States and Canada. Much of the Great Plains are
616 Lakota

covered in prairie and grassland interrupted by buttes, resulted in victory for the combined tribal force but proved
escarpments, and valleys. to be the last Lakota victory, for the struggling Lakota were
Recently, Lakota land has suffered exploitation by soon forced to surrender.
loggers and miners. Black Hills rivers suffer pollution Following the surrender, the U.S. government contra-
caused by over forty years of uranium extraction, and vened the terms of the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868 by
some reservations contain radioactive sand as a result seizing the Black Hills and forcing the Lakota to move to
of tailings, the material left over after the separation of reservations in the Badlands, an arid wilderness area home
the valuable fraction of an ore from the uneconomic to grass prairie and rocky outcrops. Poverty, neglect, and
fraction. alcoholism soon devastated the Lakota. In response, they
adopted the Ghost Dance religious cult, which taught that
a savior would enable the Lakota to return to their previ-
History and Politics ous existence and reunite the Lakota with their dead. U.S.
The origins of the Lakota are unknown, but the people authorities considered the Ghost Dance a dangerous influ-
believe they originated on South Dakota’s Black Hills, ence and arrested its leaders.
which they consider sacred. For centuries, the Lakota In 1890, the famous Lakota leader Sitting Bull died while
lived as farmers, but in 1730, the Cheyenne introduced the being taken into custody. A band of Lakota had fled their
horse to the Lakota, who subsequently adopted horse cul- reservations to move to the Badlands, only to be captured
ture and abandoned agriculture to live as tribal nomads at Wounded Knee. A scuffle broke out, causing U.S. soldier
that hunt buffalo. By the 1800s, the Lakota had come to to fire upon the Lakota. Within a few minutes, two hun-
dominate the Great Plains, with their spiritual center dred Lakota had been killed, and the massacre at Wounded
being the Black Hills. However, in 1803, the United States Knee became notorious as the last major event of the Sioux
bought French Louisiana, a territory that included the Wars. Left without any alternative, the remaining Lakota
Great Plains. Subsequently, the United States signed trea- settled on reservations, without rights and overseen by
ties with the Lakota in 1815, 1825, and 1851, but on each corrupt officials (Minahan 2013).
occasion, the U.S. authorities later ignored the terms of the In 1924, the surviving Lakota were granted U.S. citizen-
treaties. ship, though they remained poor and neglected by author-
In 1851, U.S. treaty commissioners and representatives ities until the emergence of the Indian Movement of the
of the Sioux, Crow, Cheyenne, Arapaho, Mandan, Assini- 1970s. In 2007, the Lakota Freedom Delegation journeyed
boine, Hidatsa, and Arikara Nations signed the Fort Lar- to Washington to assert the independence of Lakhotiyapi
amie Treaty of 1851. This treaty recognized the Lakota as (the Republic of Lakotah) in accordance with the terms
a sovereign nation; however, the U.S. frontier continually of the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1851, which had never been
encroached on Lakota land, and outsiders destroyed Lakota rescinded. Today, some continue to call for recognition of
buffalo herds. Both factors together led to the outbreak of the independence of Lakhotiyapi.
conflict between the Lakota and the U.S. military in 1862.
The conflict ended in stalemate and led to the signing of
the Fort Laramie Treaty of 1868, which exempted the Black Society, Culture, and Tradition
Hills from all white settlement for evermore. However, in The Lakota blend their traditional culture with that of
1874, gold was discovered in the Black Hills, resulting in modern North America. This allows the Lakota to func-
prospectors descending on the area. tion as part of the wider society while maintaining their
Horrified at the arrival of outsiders on their sacred own ways.
land, the Lakota attacked settlers and miners. These The majority of Lakota are Christian, and most Chris-
attacks were met by military force, and so began another tian Lakota belong to the Native American Church. Chris-
conflict between the Lakota and U.S. military. The Battle tian Lakota often combine Christianity with traditional
of Little Big Horn (called the Battle of the Greasy Grass Lakota spirituality. The Lakota do not restrict their inter-
by the Lakota) took place along the Little Bighorn River action with the sacred to specific occasions, places, or rites
in the Montana Territory and saw the combined forces because they consider everything sacred (wakan), though
of the Lakota, Northern Cheyenne, and Arapaho take on certain objects, activities, and people are more spiritually
the Seventh Cavalry Regiment of the U.S. Army. The battle blessed than others. The Lakota believe sacred power can
 Lakota 617

Lakota people march on the Pine Ridge Indian Reservation, South Dakota, in remembrance of the massacre at Wounded Knee. The
massacre saw two hundred Lakota die and left the remaining Lakota with no alternative but to settle on reservations. (Derek Santos/
Dreamstime​.com)

be sought and attained through prayer, fasting, self-denial, ceremony, relatives of the deceased symbolically feed the
and generosity, and spiritual revelation is found through spirit.
personal quests and visions. After a year, the family and friends of the deceased
Lakota death customs focus on the need to honor the gather for the spirit releasing ceremony. This involves carv-
recently deceased and long-dead ancestors. One of the ing a wooden post that is then dressed in the manner of
most important Lakota death traditions is the spirit keep- the person whose spirit is being released. “Giveaway items”
ing ceremony, wanagi wicagluha (“to keep one’s own”), that may or may not have belonged to the deceased are
which has as its foundation the belief that the spirit of a placed around the carved image. Prayers are then said, and
deceased person lingers at his or her place of death. The a feast is held. In 1883, the spirit keeping ceremony was
ceremony has its basis in Lakota mythology; they believe made illegal under the Courts of Indian Offenses. Today,
Pte San Win, or White Buffalo Calf Woman, instituted the however, echoes of the spirit keeping ceremony survive in
ceremony. The spirit keeping ceremony involves a person modern Lakota death customs.
designated as the spirit keeper vowing to keep alive the When a Lakota dies, the person’s extended family
spirit of the deceased. To this end, a lock of hair is taken makes arrangements for a wake, funeral, feast, and givea-
from the deceased and kept for twelve months; all the way. The wake usually takes place in a community building
while the hair is handled with great care. In this way, the or in the home of the deceased, lasts one or two nights,
deceased is thought to remain near and so is able to take and involves the saying of condolences and a vigil, dur-
messages to the spirits of ancestors while also assisting the ing which mourners encircle the body. Mourners may also
living. To thank the spirit for its help during the yearlong stand to offer up prayers or songs for the dead. Following
618 Lakota

the wake, a funeral service takes place, which may be a symbolic offering to guests on behalf of the deceased. The
Christian ceremony, a traditional Lakota funeral ritual, or foods served include buffalo, beef, soup, wild turnips (thip-
a mixture of the two traditions. sila), fruit, wild chokeberry pudding (wohapi), and dried
In keeping with Lakota tradition, the body of the meats.
deceased is typically covered in a star quilt. Star quilts After the feast, the giveaway begins. During the givea-
are highly prized by the Lakota. The eight-pointed star way, some guests are assigned to specific categories (e.g.,
that decorates star quilts is a traditional symbol of Anglo- pallbearers), and then individuals are called forth in turn.
American culture that has been modified by the Lakota as When the guests receive their gifts, they shake the hands of
a symbol of their tribe, echoing the morning star featured the family members of the deceased. The items given away
on traditional Lakota ceremonial dress. After the funeral, during this custom include tobacco, which to the Lakota
a feast is held and then the giveaway. During the giveaway, is a symbol of esteem and honor; shirts; shawls; and star
the best items are given to people that helped the deceased quilts. The latter are particularly prized, as they take on the
in life or to individuals that assisted the bereaved. role previously filled by buffalo hides as a sign of reverence
Sometimes the Lakota hold a memorial ceremony one and prestige. The giveaway ends when the family has given
year after a person’s death. The person that proposes the away everything that they intended to give, including
memorial ceremony pledges to ensure that those living in washing baskets and wooden trunks and sometimes fur-
the deceased’s family home will behave in an appropriate niture or other household goods. The items proffered dur-
manner until the memorial occurs. The person that makes ing the giveaway are a way of honoring the dead through
this pledge usually wears black clothes and does not attend the act of sharing. It is the family’s way of saying they care
any other community events over the course of a year. more for the deceased than they do material goods.
The memorial ceremony is then held twelve months later. Over time both the memorial ceremony and the givea-
During the ceremony, food is set aside as an offering, and way have seen modifications. However, the rituals remain
if food is dropped accidently, this is taken as a sign that true to Lakota death and mourning customs while contin-
the spirit of the deceased is hungry. If this is deemed to uing to employ traditional motifs and embodying Lakota
be the case, then a plate of food is left outside the eating values, especially the need to ensure that an appropriate
venue for the spirit to eat. Tobacco may also be left for the relationship exists between the living and the dead.
spirit to enjoy. The pledge to hold a memorial ceremony
is a serious financial undertaking, as the person pledging
to sponsor the event must cater for an entire community Health Care and Education
while also ensuring enough goods are made or bought by The U.S. federal government is obliged by law to provide
the deceased’s family for the giveaway. medical care to American Indians, which it does via the
Preparations for the memorial feast include cooking Indian Health Service (IHS), an agency of the Department
beef, buffalo, and soup. During these preparations, these of Health and Human Services. Additionally, reservations
everyday foodstuffs cease to be mere food but take on a are often home to tribal-run health centers, and twenty
sacred quality, as they become nourishment for souls. On states have IHS-funded Urban Indian Health Programs
the morning of the memorial, a table is set up on which that provide health care to Native Americans living outside
the food is placed, together with flowers and the items reservations. However, the IHS is underfunded. It receives
for the giveaway. The venue is also decorated with star a set amount of money annually, no matter how much
quilts as well as photographs of the deceased. The way in health care it needs to provide (Friedman 2016). IHS facil-
which the actual memorial ceremony is observed varies. ities often lack emergency departments and equipment, so
Some memorial ceremonies are Christian, others feature patients may have to travel for hours if they need to use
traditional Lakota prayers and ceremonies, and some are a these facilities.
mixture of both Christian and Lakota customs. According to a 2013 report from the National Congress
It is common for guests to take home food that they of American Indians, IHS spending per patient was $2,849,
could not eat during the ceremony in a watheca (“food compared to $7,717 for healthcare spending nationally
taken home from a feast”) bucket. The food that is served (Friedman 2016). This is despite the fact that Native Amer-
during the memorial ceremony is not just for eating; it icans typically suffer serious health problems that include
is also a demonstration of the family’s hospitality and a diabetes and liver disease. The presence of radioactive
 Latgalian 619

substances on Lakota land has also left many Lakota with Friedman, Misha. 2016. “For Native Americans, Health Care Is a
health defects (Minahan 2013). Long, Hard Road Away.” NPR, April 13. https://www.npr.org​
Lakota education suffers from a lack of teachers caused /2016/04/13/473264076/for-native-americans-health-care​
-is-a-long-hard-road-away?t=1529502905502.
both by teacher retirements and teachers leaving Lakota Jewell, Benjamin. 2006. “Lakota Struggles for Cultural Survival:
areas to find better-paying jobs elsewhere. Lakota reser- History, Health, and Reservation Life.” Nebraska Anthropol-
vation populations continue to grow despite a constant ogist. https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi​
flow of families moving to urban areas; thus, the demand ?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=​
on reservation schools continues to increase. The Lakota’s 1018&context=nebanthro.
high school dropout rate is high, but an increasing number Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An Ency-
clopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
of Lakota students are now graduating from high school Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
and continuing to college. World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA:
ABC-CLIO.

Threats to Survival
The Lakota face a number of challenges, including the
legacy of conflict, land loss, and the restriction to reser-
vations; assimilation; acculturation though intermarriage; LATGALIAN
language loss; and an increased population that suffers
Current Location Latvia
from issues such as poverty, poor diet, diseases, and alco-
holism, which are treated with inadequate health care. Current Population Unknown
One of the consequences of reservation life is the decline Language Latgalian
of traditional Lakota culture and social structure. The Interesting Fact The Latvian government does not
traditional Lakota extended kin network (tiospaye) that consider Latgalian a separate eth-
provides social and economic support has been endan- nicity and does not record Latgalian
gered by an increasing number of Lakota opting to leave population numbers.
reservations in search of jobs and education. Migration to
urban areas results in Lakota individuals losing their links Overview
to their family and culture, and the Lakota community suf- The Latgalians are an Indo-European, Baltic people indig-
fers from the reduction in the number of contributors to enous to Latgale, one of the four historic and cultural
its society. regions of eastern Latvia. Other names for the Latgalians
Many Lakota return to their reservation to renew their include Lettigals, Lettigallians, and Latgolans. Latgalians
connection to their community or to help when relatives speak the Latgalian language, which is protected under
become ill. The downside of this is that reservations have Latvian law as a variant of Latvian. Unlike most Latvians,
very high unemployment rates, so the chance of returnees the majority of Latgalians are Roman Catholic.
finding employment on reservations is slim. Thus, return-
ees often require state help to survive. Additionally, the
Lakota face many factors that limit their economic growth. Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Very high unemployment, lack of income, a reliance on The Latgalian population is unknown, but estimates sug-
government welfare, and a lack of banks on reservations gest approximately two hundred thousand to five hundred
mean that, despite the people’s best entrepreneurial efforts, thousand Latvians identify as Latgalian (Geisler 2011). The
the majority of the Lakota practice only small-scale enter- reason for the lack of Latgalian population statistics is that
prises because they are unable to obtain loans to start new the Latvian government does not consider Latgalian a sepa-
businesses. rate ethnicity and so does not record Latgalian census data.
See also: Apache; Comanche; Hopi
Further Reading Geography and Environment
Bucko, Raymond A. 2005. “Lakota.” In Encyclopedia of Reli-
gion and Nature, edited by Bron Taylor, 983–985. London: Latgale is located in the far east of Latvia, where it forms
Continuum. the country’s eastern border with Russia and Belarus. The
620 Latgalian

area is sparsely populated, but the landscape features many area. During the Latgale’s Soviet era, which ended in 1991,
lakes, forests, and abandoned Soviet-era factories. Latgalian intellectuals, political activists, and religious
figures who had fled the advancing Soviet army before
the war founded a Latgalian nationalist movement. This
History and Politics movement was particularly strong in postwar Germany,
Baltic researchers believe Latgalians originated from where the émigré community bonded together in defiance
waves of immigration to Latgale that occurred over a long of Germany’s assimilationist policies.
period—during the latter stages of the first and second The pattern of Russian immigration to Latgale contin-
centuries, in the seventh and eighth centuries, and proba- ues today. Only 43 percent of Latgale’s population is Lat-
bly during the tenth and eleventh centuries as well. Baltic vian, with most of the other inhabitants being Russian. This
tribes continued to travel across the Baltic region before demographic change has been accompanied by increasing
reaching modern-day Latvia, where they encountered rates of rural-to-urban migration, intermarriage between
Finno-Ugric tribes already inhabiting the region. In the Latgalians and Russians, and the growing dominance of
twelfth century, German Teutonic knights overran the Russian language and culture in Latgale.
region and renamed it Livonia. The new rulers installed
a feudal land-tenure system while also trying to make the
people convert from their traditional polytheistic beliefs to Society, Culture, and Tradition
Christianity. Latgalian folklore and folk art, local legends, and archeo-
During the 1700s, a succession of wars resulted in logical remains all suggest that modern Latgalian tradi-
Livonia being divided between Poland and Sweden. This tions and customs trace their roots to the ancient beliefs
division led to the areas inhabited by the Latgalians being of the Baltic Latgali tribe. In the seventeenth century,
separated from the rest of what is now Latvia, which was Jesuit priests noted that the Latgalians believed in many
under Swedish rule. When the Protestant Reformation gods and held a special reverence for woods, forests, and
occurred in Sweden, the part of Latvia under Swedish trees, most especially the birch tree, which they consid-
control became Lutheran, and Latgale, which was under ered holy; the oak, which they viewed as the symbol of
Polish rule, remained Catholic. In the eighteenth century, masculinity; and the linden, which they thought embod-
the whole of modern Latvia came under Imperial Russian ied femininity. As part of this veneration for woods, the
control, but the Latgalians continued to be governed by Latgalians buried their dead in sacred groves. Latgalian
Polish and Polish German aristocrats. During this period, deities included Divs, the supreme god; Laima, the god-
the Latgalians lived in poverty with few civil rights and dess of fate; and Mora, the earth goddess and protector
little access to education. Additionally, in 1864, the print- of women.
ing of written material in the Latgalian language was The concept of the feminine is central to Latgalian cul-
prohibited. ture and is embodied by the symbol of the sun, known as
Post–World War I, Latgale enjoyed a period of inde- Saule, whose warmth is associated with maternal love. In
pendence (1918–1940), only for the Soviet Republic to contrast, Mieness, the moon, is viewed as masculine, as
subsume the territory in 1940. However, from 1941 to is thunder. Mothers and motherly love recur throughout
1944, Latgale was occupied by the Nazis, during which Latgalian folk art and song, something that may be related
time Latgale’s German subpopulation was forced to return to the Latgalians’ Roman Catholicism and reverence for
to Germany. The area’s Jewish population was all but wiped the Virgin Mary. Another important aspect of Latgalian
out, with massacres of Jews occurring in the summer and culture is social singing that typically occurs to mark the
autumn of 1941. Judaism was the biggest religion in Lat- changing seasons or collective work (tolka). Today, folk
gale’s historical and cultural capital of Rezekne prior to songs celebrating the seasons are sung mainly at events
World War II. In 1885, Jews made up 70 percent of the held in civic halls. The Latgalians enjoy a national holiday
local population, but today only fifty-two of the town’s to mark the summer solstice (Juoni), an event that sees
population of over thirty thousand people are Jewish Latgalian men wear wreaths of oak leaves as a symbol of
(Higgins 2015). their manliness.
In 1945, the Soviet Union took control of Latgale once The Latgalians’ isolation under feudal rule resulted
more, leading to the mass migration of Russians to the in the people developing a distinctive style of dress.
 Latgalian 621

Traditional Latgalian clothes are made from light-colored to students in rural areas, to raise funding for early educa-
linen decorated with a twill pattern not found in other tion, and to train more teachers (OECD 2018).
parts of Latvia. Customarily, Latgalian women wear linen
shirts decorated with red woven shoulders, similar to
items worn in Estonia and Russia. Typical Latgalian acces- Threats to Survival
sories include special decorative belts and aprons that are There are several threats to the Latgalians. One such threat
never worn together. The aprons are constructed from two is assimilation with Russia. Today, almost half the pop-
pieces of cloth sewn together and so are very long and ulation of Daugavpils, Latgale’s largest city, is Russian.
wide. Latgalian women still wear these items to festivals Fewer Russians live in Rezekne, but according to a 2003
and on national days. referendum, 55 percent of the city’s voters opposed joining
The ban on printing in Latgalian was lifted in 1904 and the European Union (EU) while the Latvian populace in
resulted in the establishment of Latgalian theater, news- general voted 67.5 percent in favor of joining the EU. This
papers, and the like, and Latgalian writers such as Fran- difference of opinion is likely due to Latgalians’ preference
cis Kemps (1876–1952) and Francis Trasuns (1864–1926) for Russia over Europe. In a 2012 referendum, the inhab-
became renowned. Kemps and Trasuns held contrasting itants of Rezekne also bucked the Latvian national trend
ideas, but they were arguably the two most prominent over whether to make Russian an official state language.
champions of the Latgalian cause, with Kemps arguing Latgalians voted in favor of the change, but the rest of the
for Latgalian autonomy and Trasuns in favor of Latgalian country overwhelmingly rejected the move.
unity with other Latvians. During the late 1980s, Latgalian Latgale’s location on Latvia’s border with Russia is pre-
culture experienced a revival, though Russian culture is carious given increased global tensions. This is especially
increasingly dominant in Latgale today. true because Latgale is home to a significant Russian pop-
ulation and Latgalians face socioeconomic problems that
leave the people feeling disaffected. International commen-
Health Care and Education tators argue that the Latgalians’ passion for keeping alive
Recent research shows that access to health care is a their separate identity, language, and culture makes the
major problem for Latgalians as well as for other people region fertile ground for Russian attempts to divide and
living in various parts of rural Latvia. According to 2015 weaken NATO’s easternmost frontier. Russian political ana-
figures, in Latgale, the life expectancy for women at birth lysts allied to the Russian government have even suggested
was 77.9 years, while for men it was 67.5 years. This com- that the Latgalians’ separatist tendencies may pave the way
pares to 80.2 years and 70.9 years, respectively, for women for a revision of Baltic borders (Higgins 2015). Should this
and men born in the Latvian capital of Riga. Particular occur, then a Russian incursion into Latvia may ensue.
healthcare issues include late cancer detection, poor In response to a potential Russian threat, Latvian sol-
antenatal care, the geographical isolation of some areas, diers, border troops, and police have held joint exercises
and a lack of medical staff in rural areas. However, Lat- in Rezekne to demonstrate their might. The possibility of
vian authorities have taken steps to improve health care conflict makes it increasingly difficult to attract foreign
in such areas, with primary healthcare spending in rural investment to Latgale and makes the area less attractive
areas outstripping that in cities. Additionally, an increas- to inhabitants, who are leaving at increasing rates. Unem-
ing number of Latvian students are studying medicine, ployment and poverty are also contributing to the number
and Latvian universities prioritize medical applicants of Latgalians leaving their homeland. On average, a Latga-
who agree to work in rural parts of the country after qual- lian earns about half of the average Latvian monthly wage.
ifying (OECD 2017). Consequently, Latgalians, especially young Latgalians, are
In Latvia, education is free and compulsory, including leaving to find better-paying work elsewhere in Latvia,
two years of preschool education from the age of five years particularly in Riga, or abroad. This exodus has left many
through to elementary education until the age of around buildings in Daugavpils abandoned.
sixteen years. Recently, education provision has improved Latgale’s remoteness combined with a lack of economic
greatly within Latvia, though pupils in urban areas out- investment and the potential for conflict may cause parts
perform their rural counterparts. Educational bodies have of the region to struggle to repopulate, as Latgalians refuse
noted that Latvian authorities need to offer more support to return to their homeland.
622 Latvian

See also: Abkhaz; Livonian Population, Diaspora, and Migration

Further Reading Latvians comprise around 59 percent of the population of
Geisler, Irene Elksnis. 2011. “Latgalians.” In Ethnic Groups of the country of Latvia, which has a population of 2,270,700
Europe: An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E Cole, 230–232.
Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
(Rhodes 2011), or 1,339,713 people. Roughly 40,000 Lat-
Higgins, Andrew. 2015. “Latvian Region Has Distinct Identity, vian refugees migrated to the United States and Canada
and Allure for Russia.” New York Times, May 20. https://www​ after becoming displaced during World War II (Rhodes
.nytimes.com/2015/05/21/world/europe/latvian-region-has​ 2011). Similarly, many Latvians live in Siberia because
-distinct-identity-and-allure-for-russia.html. of the mass deportations of Latvians during the 1940s.
Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development Large numbers of Latvians have also settled in Australia,
(OECD). 2017. OECD Economic Surveys: Latvia 2017. Paris,
France: OECD Publishing.
the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Brazil. The number of
Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development Latvians living abroad is likely around the 215,000 mark
(OECD). 2018. Latvia Should Continue Improving Qual- (Rhodes 2011).
ity of Education and Focus More on Equity. Paris, France:
OECD Publishing. http://www.oecd.org/latvia/latvia-should​
-continue-improving-quality-of-education-and-focus-more​ Geography and Environment
-on-equity.htm. Latvia is located on the shores of the Baltic Sea and the Gulf
Plakans, Andrejs. 2011. “Regional Identity in Latvia: The Case of of Riga. The country is bordered by Estonia to the north,
Latgale.” In Forgotten Pages in Baltic History: Diversity and
Russia to the east, Belarus to the southeast, and Lithuania
Inclusion, edited by Martyn Housden and David J. Smith,
49–70. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Rodopi. to the south. Latvia’s terrain mostly consists of a rolling
plain interspersed with flat lowlands and hills. The eastern
side of Latvia has a higher elevation than the western part;
its dominant feature is the Central Vidzeme Upland, which
achieves a height of 1,020 feet. Other Latvian uplands are
LATVIAN crisscrossed by moraine ridges that hinder the drainage of
Current Location Latvia the land, creating numerous peat bogs. Latvia is home to
Current Population 1,554,713 many rivers that drain into the Baltic Sea. The largest riv-
ers are the Daugava, the Gauja, the Venta, and the Lielupe.
Language Russian; Latvian
There are also many lakes.
Interesting Fact Latvian is one of only 200 world lan-
Latvia’s climate is influenced by prevailing southwest-
guages to have over a million users.
erly Atlantic winds. The climate is humid, and skies over
Latvia are usually cloudy. The country experiences only
Overview thirty to forty days of sunshine annually. Latvian summers
Latvians are the majority population of the European are usually cool and rainy, while winter is cold and lasts
republic of Latvia. The Latvians tend to be bilingual, for from the mid-December to mid-March.
they speak both Russian and Latvian, a Baltic language Much of Latvia is forested, but there are also many areas
of the Indo-European language family. Most Latvians are of meadow, pastureland, and swamp. Some of the forests
Lutheran, though some Latvians are Evangelical, Roman contain conifers (pine and spruce), while deciduous forests
Catholic, or Russian Orthodox. However, Latvians often contain birch, aspen, and alder. Latvia’s wildlife includes
combine Christianity with pagan rituals originating from lynx, badgers, owls, ermines, woodpeckers, and weasels.
their peasant past. Wildlife conservation policies have resulted in an increase
The term Latvian is also used to describe people with in the country’s population of deer, elk, and beavers.
Latvian nationality who are not ethnic Latvians. Latvian The Latvian environment suffers from no major threats
was not commonly used until the late 1850s, when the Lat- to its air, land, or water quality. Most of the country’s envi-
vian nationalist movement began. Before then, a Latvian ronmental issues are local, such as a very slight exceed-
person was called a latvis (plural: latvieši, meaning “the ance of air pollutants in the capital city of Riga. Other
Latvians”). Historically, Latvians are also called the Letts, problems include the low-level overexploitation of forests
a name reflected in the translation of Latvia in other lan- and fish stocks and inaction against invasive species. How-
guages, such as Lettonie in French. ever, Latvia is subject to environmental issues originating
 Latvian 623

elsewhere. For instance, long-range air pollution affects became involved, including such writers as Ansis Līventāls
Latvian air quality. About half of Latvia’s water resources (1803–1878) and Juris Nēķins (1826–1878). Then, in the
originate in neighboring countries, and so they are threat- nineteenth and twentieth centuries, writers such as Rainis
ened by pollution that starts abroad. (1865–1929) and Aspazija (1865–1943) contributed to the
body of literature written in the Latvian language for Lat-
vians to read.
History and Politics The recent history of the Latvians is bound up with that
It is likely that Latvians originated from early Baltic tribes of the Latvian nation. Consequently, the struggles of inde-
that settled in the area that is Latvia today around 9000 pendent Latvia are also the struggles of the Latvian people.
BCE. The early Latvians spoke a Baltic language that was In 1914, fighting spread across Latvia soon after the start
very different to Latvian but closely related to Lithuanian. of World War I, with the western part of the country being
From the thirteenth to the sixteenth centuries, the Lat- occupied by Germany. The fighting caused 2.5 million Lat-
vians lived under German rule. Then, in 1558, the Latvians vians to become refugees (Minahan 1998), and most of
were invaded by Russia. Russian rule was followed by a Latvia’s industry was relocated to Russia.
period of Swedish rule from 1629. Under the Baltic Ger- Following the Russian Revolution in 1917, the part of
man duke Jacob Kettler (1610–1682), the Duchy of Cour- Latvia that was not occupied by Germany effectively ran
land (a semi-independent historical and cultural region of as an independent state. Then, in November 1918, the
western Latvia) reached the peak of its prosperity, trading Republic of Latvia was declared. Latvian independence was
with neighboring countries as well as with Britain, France, accompanied by a wave of ethnocultural initiatives that saw
Portugal, and the Netherlands. Duke Jacob established the Latvian established as the nation’s official language. After
merchant fleet of the Duchy of Courland that had its main the Latvian independence leader Kārlis Ulmanis became
harbors in the western Latvian ports of Windau and Libau. prime minister following a coup in 1934, a policy of “Lat-
The duchy also established two colonies, St. Andrews Island via for Latvians” was introduced to Latvia that recognized
in the mouth of Africa’s Gambia River and island of Tobago the rights of the country’s ethnic minorities but highlighted
in the Caribbean Sea. In 1655, Courland was invaded by that Baltic Germans and non-Latvians were not in authority.
a Swedish army, prompting the outbreak of the Second Ulmanis was the founder of the Latvian Farmers’ Union
Northern War (also called the First [or Little] Northern that had pressed for Latvian independence, and he later
War). From 1698, Poland gained great influence over the joined with other Latvian nationalists to form the Latvian
Duchy of Courland. This dominance lasted until the Great national council that announced the country’s independ-
Northern War (1700–1721), in which czarist Russia and its ence in 1918, making Ulmanis the head of Latvia’s pro-
allies, including Poland, took on the Swedish Empire. visional government. The Soviet Union accepted Latvian
In 1721, Latvia was incorporated into Russia. Between independence grudgingly and adopted a policy of sever-
1817 and 1819, Latvian serfs were emancipated in Livo- ing all contact with noncommunist Latvia, including trade
nia and Courland, prompting Latvian peasants to move to links. Consequently, Latvians had little choice but to return
urban areas from around 1850. At this time, most of what to working in the agrarian economy, having lost access to
is now Latvia was owned by Baltic German landowners, the Soviets’ raw materials that had helped Latvia become
and German was the dominant language of commerce and highly industrialized.
high society. In 1867, however, Russian became the first Ulmanis stayed in power until 1921, during the con-
language of Latvia, though most Latvian peasant estates fusing period immediately following the end of World
were under the control of the Baltic German aristocracy War I that saw Latvia contend with threats from Russia,
and continued to speak German. Germany, and Latvian communist groups. Latvia was
It was around this time that a Latvian ethnic identity able to fend off the threats with the help of the British,
began to emerge through the work of German Lutheran French, and Polish, and Ulmanis organized the election
clergymen, who were the first to write the Latvian language of a Latvian assembly, with the first Saeima (parliament)
as part of their move to create a Latvian-language church assembled in 1920. By the 1930s, Latvians had come to
liturgy. The founding of the first Latvian Song and Dance enjoy a much higher standard of living than that of their
Festival by the Riga National Association in 1868 was also Soviet neighbors, though the proliferation of many polit-
important. Members of the Latvian intelligentsia also ical parties and numerous ethnic groups meant that
624 Latvian

Latvian national society was somewhat unstable during Latvians becoming bilingual, for they were made to speak
this period. To quell this instability, Ulmanis banned all Russian, as this was the designated Soviet language of com-
political parties and placed severe limitations on political munication. Consequently, Latvian was gradually removed
activity of all kinds. from most areas of public life. Additionally, an influx of
Independent Latvia lasted until 1940, when follow- immigrants to Latvia decreased the percentage of Latvian
ing the signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact in 1939 speakers and caused the number of Latvian speakers in
(that divided Eastern Europe between Germany and Latvia to fall. By 1989, only 21 percent of Latvians knew
the Soviet Union), the Soviets invaded Latvia, resulting Latvian, but most Latvians understood Russian. Since the
in the Latvians finding themselves under the rule of an 1990s, the Latvian government has tried to protect the
occupying power once more. The period 1940 to 1941 is Latvian language by running Latvian-language programs.
infamous in Latvia, as it saw the mass deportations of Lat- As a result of the programs, in 2008, about 93 percent of
vians to Siberia, with thirty-five thousand Latvians (par- Latvians, including minority groups within Latvia, had
ticularly Roman Catholic Latvians) deported (Minahan some Latvian language skills. Today, nine out of every ten
1998). Then, in 1941, Nazi Germany invaded, and Latvia inhabitants of Latvia speak Latvian, and it is one of only
remained occupied until 1945. Some Latvians supported two hundred world languages to have over a million users
the Nazis and even participated in the massacre of Jew- (Latvian Institute 2015).
ish Latvians (Minahan 1998). However, the occupation Most Latvians belong to the Lutheran Church. However,
also saw the deaths of many Latvians who resisted Nazi many Latvians also identify as pagan because they enjoy
rule. Others fled westward, only to end up in camps for many of the holidays and traditions drawn from the peo-
displaced persons, where they remained until the end of ple’s peasant past. For instance, Latvians maintain many
the war. Thousands of these Latvian refugees refused to be folkloric beliefs associated with pregnancy.
repatriated to the Soviet Union and ultimately migrated to When a woman living in western Latvia becomes preg-
Western Europe and North America. nant, she will pray to Mara, the highest-ranking female
In 1945, the Soviet Union retook Latvia, resulting in deity in Latvian mythology. Mara, who is the earth goddess
Latvians being part of the Soviet Union. In the 1950s, associated with all things feminine, especially child-
some deported Latvians were allowed to return to their rearing, is honored every August 15, when the festival of
homeland, but only 20 percent of the deportees had sur- Maras occurs. This date coincides with the Christian tra-
vived their treatment (Minahan 1998). They returned to dition of the Assumption, which some folklorists believe
find many non-Latvians living in their country. Despite equates Mara with the Virgin Mary. Latvians believe Mara
the influx of non-Latvians, Latvian culture began to revive. controls the human body and therefore influences wom-
However, fearful that the Latvian cultural revival would en’s labor. Mara is also seen as the protector of women,
result in demands for greater autonomy, the Soviets began especially mothers, and of children; hence, when a Lat-
another wave of Latvian deportations in 1959. vian baby is born, it is said that the child has come into
In response to the deportations, a Latvian cultural and being “through the gates of Mara.” The close association of
financial revival occurred that saw Latvia become one of Mara with children and childbirth means it is traditional
the most prosperous parts of the Soviet Union. The revival for Latvian women to make offerings to Mara during
continued throughout the 1970s and 1980s, even after a pregnancy—some Latvian women even make offerings to
1983 Soviet crackdown on Latvian dissident groups. Fol- Mara before they become pregnant.
lowing Mikhail Gorbachev’s rise to power as the Soviet Another common Latvian belief is that a baby’s destiny
leader in 1987, Latvian nationalist groups proliferated, and is decided at the moment of birth by Laima, the goddess
Latvians demonstrated in huge numbers for independ- of fate, which some academics equate to Mara and whose
ence. Latvian independence was declared in 1990, and the name means “happiness” or “luck.” As the goddess of spin-
reinstatement of full Latvian independence occurred the ning and the weaver of all human life, Laima is closely
following year. linked with birthing. For this reason, Latvian women give
offerings to Laima, particularly hens and woven fabrics.
Traditionally, Latvian babies are born in a sauna-type
Society, Culture, and Tradition room called a pirts or pirtiņa. Three days after a baby is
The Latvian language is at the heart of Latvian iden- born, the mother and baby return to the pirts, where they
tity. However, the Soviet occupation of Latvia resulted in receive a ceremonial bath known as a pirtizas. Then nine
 Latvian 625

days after the baby’s birth, mother and child return to the
pirts once more and then move on to a grove filled with
birch or oak trees. Here the baby undergoes an elaborate
naming ceremony called the krustaba. During the krust-
aba, which lasts for an entire day, the baby, the parents,
those chosen to be the baby’s godparents, and guests
assemble and share in a feast consisting of bread, cheese,
milk, and honey. Latvian parents have much to consider
when selecting their child’s godparents, as Latvians believe
that children take on the best qualities of their godparents.
If a baby is born a boy, he will be given two godfathers
and one godmother, while a baby girl will receive two god-
mothers and one godfather. Once the meal has been eaten,
a priest or a similar figure of religious authority immerses
the infant in water and asks the godparents whether they
will accept the child, care for it if its parents are unable to
do so, and lift the baby toward Mara, or if they will leave
the child in the water of the Mother of Spirits. Next, the
baby’s godmother takes the baby from the water and raises
it up toward a crucifix. The godparents then say aloud that
they undertake to care for the child, and the baby is given
his or her name.
Latvians also consider the summer solstice very impor-
tant. The solstice is a day of lively folk festivals that hark
back to pagan times, and in Latvia, it is closely associated
with courtship. On June 24, this association is symbolized Revelers in Turaida, Latvia, surround a bonfire as part of the Jāņi
by Latvians looking for a legendary fern blossom (known midsummer celebrations. To mark Jāņi, Latvians jump over bon-
in Latvia as Papardes zieds) that is an ancient fertility sym- fires in hopes of receiving wealth, luck, and love. (Ints Vikmanis/
bol thought to bind together romantic couples. According Dreamstime.com)
to Latvian legends, the fern blossom appears only once per
year, on the night of the summer solstice, and the flower’s where they wander the streets wearing medieval-style
magic has the ability to bind together courting couples, national dress.
who spend the night of the solstice searching for the leg- As people wait for the sunrise, women pick flowers that
endary flower in dark forests. they fashion into vainags (floral wreaths) that they wear
In Latvia, the solstice celebration is known as Jāņi on their heads. The wreaths variously symbolize that the
Day (or Ligo); even though the actual solstice is a few women are virgins or are looking for a lover. Meanwhile,
days before Jāņi, the date was changed in the twelfth cen- the men take off their clothes and swim naked in nearby
tury when Christianity became prevalent in the Baltics rivers and lakes. Everyone present sings medieval Latvian
so that the festival could coincide with the feast day of folksongs, and then couples wander into the woods to look
St. John the Baptist. Jāņi is an ancient festival originally for the legendary fern blossom. According to many folk-
celebrated in honor of Jānis, a Latvian pagan deity that lore scholars, the legendary fern flower is a metaphor for
frequently appears in Latvian folksongs. Jāņi celebrations sex, and in many areas of the Baltics, there is an old say-
are quite simple. People travel to the countryside to build ing that someone is “looking for fern blossoms,” which is a
bonfires over which they jump in the hope that they will euphemistic way of saying someone is on the lookout for
receive wealth, luck, or love. People also stay up all night a sexual encounter. Baltic children conceived around June
drinking beer as they wait for the sunrise to arrive and 22 are referred to as “fern flowers.” In Latvia, it is accepted
eat Jāņi cheese, a Latvian sour milk cheese, which is tradi- that a mini baby boom occurs each year roughly nine
tionally eaten on the summer solstice. Latvians that can- months after the couples have looked for fern blossoms on
not journey to the countryside celebrate in city centers, the night of the summer solstice.
626 Latvian

Other Latvian traditions that hark back to pagan times intervention. Additionally, Latvians’ out-of-pocket pay-
include Ziemassvētki, an annual Latvian festival held to ments for health care are among the highest in the OECD,
mark both the winter solstice and birth of Jesus Christ, while the range of Latvia’s state-funded health care is lim-
which is celebrated December 24–26. During Ziemassvētki, ited. Another issue facing Latvians’ access to health care is
Latvians wear masks, make decorations made from eggs the irregular distribution of health care across the coun-
and feathers, and give gifts. try, for access to care in rural areas is especially limited
Latvians are also famous for their folk singing. Dainas due to a shortage of medics. Part of this the shortage of
(four-line folk songs) are known by all Latvians and are healthcare professionals is due to the underresourcing of
sung as part of family gatherings, festivals, and holidays. the health system. Latvia’s public expenditure on health
Every five years, the Latvian National Song and Dance care is very low compared to neighboring countries such
Festival is held during which hundreds of Latvian choirs as Estonia and Lithuania that enjoy a similar level of devel-
gather in the Latvian capital of Riga to sing the most opment. In 2014, Latvia spent only 8.8 percent of its pub-
famous Latvian folk songs. The National Song and Dance lic expenditure on health, while around 12 percent of the
Festival has done much to sustain traditional Latvian cul- Estonian government budget was spent on health in 2013
ture and language, especially when Latvia was occupied by (OECD 2017).
outsiders. In Latvia, education is free and compulsory, including
Latvians are also known for embroidering linen. The two years of preschool from the age of five years through
designs sewn into the linen include traditional Latvian to elementary education until around the age of sixteen.
symbols that identify where the embroider originated, for In recent years, education provision has improved greatly
each Latvian region has its own specific symbol. The intri- within Latvia, though pupils in urban areas outperform
cate embroidery occurs on everything from tablecloths to their rural counterparts. Educational bodies have noted
clothes. that Latvian authorities need to offer more support to stu-
Historically, Latvians have had tense relations with Ger- dents in rural areas, to raise funding for early education,
mans, Russians, and Swedes, for these countries have occu- and to train more teachers.
pied Latvia at various time. However, Latvians enjoy good The Latvian government enables bilingual education
relations with their Baltic neighbors, the Estonians and the for eight of the largest minority languages found in Lat-
Lithuanians (Rhodes 2011). via, including Belarussian, Estonian, Lithuanian, Polish,
and Ukrainian. Latvian is taught as a lesson at bilingual
schools so that Latvian children at least have Latvian as
Health Care and Education a second language. Academic research into the Latvian
Latvian life expectancy has improved over the past dec- language is performed by the Latvian Language Institute,
ade, yet their life expectancy at birth is the shortest among the University of Latvia, and the universities of Liepāja
Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Develop- and Daugavpils. The language is also taught in universities
ment (OECD) countries at 74.3 years. This is more than across the world, including the University of Washington.
6 years lower than the average life expectancy at birth
among other OECD countries. The relatively poor health
of Latvians is mainly due to cardiovascular diseases but Threats to Survival
also cancers, accidents, and injuries, which are the leading There are no current threats to the Latvians, who have
causes of death. Latvians also have an increasing preva- managed to keep alive their language and culture despite a
lence of alcohol overconsumption, which is the opposite of history of occupation by outsiders.
the trend among other OECD countries, where the average
See also: Latgalian; Livonian
alcohol consumption per capita is decreasing, and of obe-
sity, with more than one in five Latvian adults being obese Further Reading
in 2014 (OECD 2017). Latvian Institute. 2015. “Language.” Latvia.eu. http://www.latvia​
.eu/culture/language.
The quality of primary health care varies across Lat-
Minahan, James B. 1998. Miniature Empires: A Historical Dic-
via with research indicating there are issues that affect tionary of the Newly Independent States. London, Routledge.
Latvians’ ability to access acute health care including the Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development
transportation of patients to facilities and efficient medical (OECD). 2017. OECD Health Policy Overview: Health
 Lenca 627

Policy in Latvia. Paris, France: OECD Publishing. http:// communities (Minority Rights Group International 2015)
www.oecd​.org/els/health-systems/Health-Policy-in-Latvia​ established in the central department of La Paz and the
-March​-2017.pdf. western departments of Lempira, Choluteca, Comayagua,
Rhodes, Monsein Lauren. 2011. “Latvians.” In Ethnic Groups of
Europe: An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffery E. Cole, 232–236.
Ocotepeque, Fransco Morazan, and Itibuca, as well as in
Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. smaller communities in the north of the country. In El
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the Salvador, the Lancas live in the eastern departments of
World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA: Usulután, San Miguel, and La Unión Morazan, which are
ABC-CLIO. located to the north and east of the Lempa River. Many
Lenca communities are located in remote, inaccessible
mountainous areas without running water or transport
links. Some Lenca people also live in the major cities of
Honduras and El Salvador.
LENCA
Current Location Honduras; El Salvador
Geography and Environment
Current Population 100,000–300,000
The Lencas live on the Pacific coast of Honduras and the
Language Spanish
area bordering El Salvador. While many Lenca communi-
Interesting Fact The Honduran currency is named
ties continue to own their communal land and are able
after the Lenca national hero, Lempira.
to grow crops for export abroad using traditional farming
methods, the people face the ever-present threat of land
Overview loss and environmental damage from projects such as
The Lencas are an indigenous people of Honduras and El dam construction. Toward the end of the twentieth cen-
Salvador. They no longer speak their indigenous language tury, the Lencas have played significant roles in fighting
but rather Spanish as a first language. The Lencas are pri- for the land and human rights of indigenous peoples,
marily Roman Catholic, though a few Lenca communities which they see as inextricably linked. The Lencas have
uphold pre-Christian rituals. taken a firm stance on a variety of environmental issues,
especially the need to protect indigenous land from devel-
opment schemes that they believe would harm their land
Population, Diaspora, and Migration and ecology.
Population estimates for the Lencas vary. Some estimates One particularly important Lenca activist was inter-
suggest the population measures 100,000 (Minority Rights nationally renowned environmental and political activist
Group International 2015) or 145,000 (Minahan 2013), Berta Cáceres, who established the Civic Council of Indig-
while another estimate suggests there are 300,000 Lencas enous and Popular Organizations of Honduras (COPINH).
in Honduras alone, with another 37,000 Lencas living in El Cáceres vociferously protested against the development of
Salvador (Butcher 2015). In Honduras, there are 612 Lenca the DESA Agua Zarca Hydro Project and dam on western

Berta Cáceres (1973–2016)

Cáceres was a Lenca activist who devoted many years to campaigning against the construction of Honduras’ Agua
Zarca dam on the Gualcarque River in the Rio Blanco area. In 1993, Cácere cofounded the National Council of Popular
and Indigenous Organizations of Honduras (COPINH) to help the Lenca resist illegal logging and other environmen-
tal threats to their communities. Cáceres received the 2015 Goldman Environmental Prize for her campaign. In 2006,
people living near the Rio Blanco sought the help of COPINH because dam construction had begun illegally. The river
was both economically and spiritually important to the people. Cáceres filed official complaints, but her efforts were
unsuccessful. In 2013, Cáceres organized a long-term human blockade to block access to the construction site. Crimi-
nal charges were filed against Cáceres, and she and other activists faced numerous threats of kidnapping and murder.
In 2018, seven men were found guilty of murdering Cáceres in 2016.
628 Lenca

Honduras’ Gualcarque River. Cáceres, who won the 2015 lost control in Central America. The resultant political
Goldman Environmental Prize for her work with the Len- instability led to civil wars among the various peoples of
cas and her environmental activism, was found murdered the region. The conflict forced the Lencas to migrate from
at her home in 2016. Two of the people accused of her their highland settlements in search of agricultural work
murder worked for the company leading the dam’s con- and other low-paid employment.
struction (Ford 2017). After the civil wars, the new states of Honduras and
El Salvador were ruled by elites with European heritage,
while the countries’ populations comprised people with
History and Politics mixed European and indigenous lineage. People without
The Lencas originated in Colombia, and they migrated European heritage, including the Lencas, either suffered
northward to settle in forest during the eleventh cen- discrimination or were ignored altogether and became
tury. Early Lenca life was centered around the highland marginalized. In the 1920s, the Lencas experienced closer
Comayagua valley in southwest Honduras. The Lencas tra- contact with neighboring peoples, and local and national
ditionally settled alongside rivers, where they erected large governments attempted to assimilate them into main-
military fortifications as well as adobe buildings. stream society.
Over time, the Lenca population grew to include In 1969, the Lencas were caught up in conflict between
between five hundred thousand and six hundred thou- Honduras and El Salvador. The war caused thousands of
sand people (Minahan 2013), who were spread across four Lencas to become displaced, especially those born in El
regions: Care, Cerquin, and Lenca in Honduras and Poton Salvador, who were expelled from their country of birth.
in El Salvador. By the time Spanish colonists arrived on Then, during the Cold War, renewed conflict in Central
Lenca land in 1537, the Lencas had established a thriving America repeatedly intruded into Lenca territory.
empire, the culture and religion of which had been heav- In the 1990s, relative peace came to Central America,
ily influenced by the Mayans and were similar to others which allowed the Lenca to enjoy a degree of economic
in Mesoamerica. A Lenca chief called Lempira headed a success as tourists started to visit and their handicrafts
ten-year war of resistance against the Spanish, but he was became popular. Tourism in Lenca areas increased further
eventually killed when he was lured down from his hilltop in the twenty-first century, and while this increased Lenca
fortress by the promise of being able to negotiate with the incomes, the people remain relatively poor and largely
invading Spanish. Today, Lempira is considered a national uneducated.
hero by Honduras, and the Honduran currency is called
the lempira.
In the first few years after the Spanish colonization of Society, Culture, and Tradition
Lenca territory, the Lencas were exposed to European dis- Traditionally, the Lencas lived in chiefdoms that were
eases and forced to work as laborers. As a result, by 1550, ruled by chiefs but also overseen by high priests and chief
the Lenca population had declined to only twenty-five justices, who ensured society functioned correctly. Over
thousand people, most of whom lived in isolated mountain time, the Lencas have lost some of their traditions, and
locations. The surviving Lencas were able to continue their today they have adopted many elements of Central Amer-
traditional ways, sharing communal land on which they ican Hispanic culture. While the majority of Lencas are
grew crops. Lenca farming was based around the cultiva- Roman Catholic, elements of the people’s pre-Christian
tion of beans and corn, with the people sharing the work- religion are often combined with Catholicism. For exam-
load and resulting harvests. ple, the Lencas consider mountains, hills, and the sun
The Lenca communities that had survived the European sacred.
diseases and forced labor shunned contact with outsiders According to Lenca tradition, the holiest day of the year
well into the eighteenth century. From the eighteenth cen- for any Lenca community is the celebration of the saint
tury to the mid-nineteenth century, the Lenca population day for the community’s patron saint. On these saint days,
remained stable at twenty-five thousand because geo- a statue of the saint is carried through the streets of the
graphical isolation, a lack of medical facilities, and the high community, and various rituals then take place. The most
infant mortality rate limited population growth. In 1821, famous Lenca tradition is El Guancasco, a ritual pilgrim-
Spain, having been weakened by years of war in Europe, age (sometimes called a paisanazgos) in which religious
 Lenca 629

groups from neighboring towns carry the image of their

own town’s patron saint to the church in another town. Ana Mirian Romero
The carrying of the saint’s image is a symbolic visit of the Ana Mirian Romero is a prominent Honduran
saint to the church and is reciprocated by the town that has human rights defender. She is a member of Mov-
received the visit. imiento Indígena Lenca de La Paz Honduras
For instance, when the towns of Gracias and Mex- (MILPAH; Lenca Indigenous Movement of La Paz,
icapa hold their guancasco, an image of St. Sebastian Honduras) and the Consejo Indígena San Isidro
(the patron saint of Gracias) is transported to Mexicapa Labrador (San Isidro Labrador Indigenous Council).
on a date between December 12 and 16. Once at Mexi- Since 2010, Romero has sought the recognition of
capa, the image resides in the church for nine days. Then, indigenous land rights. In 2010, MILPAH and the
between January 20 and 25, an image of St. Lucia (patron Consejo Indígena San Isidro Labrador filed an adju-
saint of Mexicapa) is taken to Gracias, where it stays for dication lawsuit for the recognition of their ances-
nine days. The reciprocal visits are intended to demon- tral lands.
strate the togetherness of the Lenca communities and to Romero and her husband, Rosario Vasquez
smooth over any local difficulties. For this reason, local Pineda, also actively opposed the installation of the
political and religious leaders are usually involved in Los Encinos hydroelectric dam (Hidroelétrica Los
planning the visits. Encinos) on the Chinacla River. In 2010, they filed
Lenca men earn money from agriculture, especially a lawsuit for the recognition of the indigenous com-
from coffee, cacao, maize, wheat, tobacco, and sugarcane. munity’s ancestral lands in response to the munici-
Lenca agriculture uses Mayan milpa farming techniques pality granting a concession to a company to build
that have been handed down through generations of the dam. The permission to build the dam was
Lencas. Plots of land are used to cultivate crops for only granted without the free, prior, and informed con-
two out of every ten years, thereby allowing the land to sent of the affected community in blatant violation
maintain its fertility. Lenca women receive an income of the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous
from selling their handicrafts, particularly their weaving, Peoples, which Honduras has endorsed, as well as
pottery, candlemaking, and soapmaking. Lenca pottery in the International Labour Organization Convention
particular has become newly popular with buyers, includ- 169 and other jurisprudence. The indigenous com-
ing tourists. munity also had serious concerns about the negative
The Lenca language all but disappeared during the impact of the dam on its water supply.
nineteenth century, though some Lenca elders remember In 2016, Romero won the Frontline Defenders
a few words of their indigenous language. Today, the Lenca Award for her work in resisting the dam’s construc-
language is officially classed as extinct. tion. But she has also suffered for her activism. She
has described how her home has been attacked and
invaded by armed men, and she was also physically
Health Care and Education assaulted while pregnant.
The Lencas are among the poorest peoples of Central You can read more about Romero at https://
America and have limited access to health care and edu- www​.frontlinedefenders.org/en/case/intimidation​
cation (Minahan 2013). There are few doctors or other -and-death-threats-against-ana-mirian-romero.
healthcare providers operating in Lenca areas, and the
people often mistrust those that are available. Instead,
Lencas prefer to visit traditional shaman healers for oral tradition, but universities and other educational bod-
treatment. ies have instigated programs aimed at promoting Lenca
The Lencas are among the least educated indige- history, heritage, and human rights.
nous peoples of the Americas. However, in recent years,
improvements have been made in this area, and growing
numbers of Lencas are becoming educated. Increasingly, Threats to Survival
these educated young Lencas are becoming Lenca activists In general, the Lencas are poor, uneducated, and have lim-
and leaders. In El Salvador, Lenca history is transmitted by ited access to transport and health care. In recent years,
630 Lezgin

they have begun to earn money through tourism, and the LEZGIN
Honduran Tourism Institute and United Nations are help-
ing the people to conserve their culture. Initiatives such as Current Location Russian Federation; Azerbaijan
the La Ruta Lenica, a tourist highway running from the Current Population 589,535–900,000
Honduran capital of Tegucigalpa to ruins at Capan, attract Language Lezgin
tourists who go on to spend money in the local economy. Interesting Fact The word Lezgin used to be applied
In time, this money may help the Lencas have better access to all Muslim mountain dwellers in
to health care and education. Dagestan, not just the Lezgin ethnic
In Honduras, the Lencas have not retained their lan- minority.
guage, but their traditional society and culture remain
relatively healthy. In El Salvador, the government has
attempted to revive the indigenous Pilpil language Overview
through intercultural education. While such schemes Lezgins are a mountain people living in the Russian Feder-
have not been extended to other indigenous communities, ation and Azerbaijan. Lezgins are called the Lezgi, Akhtas,
on the whole, a few texts in the Lenca language of Potón Kurins, and Kyurin, among other names. The Lezgins speak
Lenca have been published, with the intention of pro- their own indigenous language, Lezgin, which belongs to
moting and protecting the Lenca language and culture in the Nakh-Dagestani (or Alordian Northeast Caucasian)
El Salvador. language group. Most Lezgins are Sunni Muslim, though
Despite the growing national acceptance of indigenous a Shia Muslim Lezgin community exists in Azerbaijan.
rights and culture in both Honduras and El Salvador, the Lezgins often combine indigenous animist beliefs with
Lencas face continued threats to their land rights in both Islam. Throughout the nineteenth century the word Lezgin
countries. Since the mid-1990s, indigenous activists have was also used to describe the Muslim mountain dwellers
established political groups to call on national governments living in Dagestan. It is only since the start of the twenti-
to uphold indigenous rights and landownership. The issue eth century that Lezgin has been used solely to refer to the
of landownership, in particular, remains unresolved, with Lezgin ethnic minority.
constitutional changes tending to favor landownership by
large-scale investors and industrialists. Such changes have
resulted in an ever-decreasing amount of land being avail- Population, Diaspora, and Migration
able to indigenous peoples, including the Lencas, causing According to the 2002 Russian Federation national census,
the Lenca men to have to migrate to cities to find work. there are 411,535 Lezgins living in the Russian Federa-
See also: Garifuna; Mayan; Pech tion. In particular, Lezgins live along the Samur River in
southwestern Dagestan. The Lezgins are the fourth-largest
Further Reading
Butcher, Michael. 2015. “Lenca.” In Native Peoples of the World: ethnic group in Dagestan, accounting for 12.5 percent of
An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary the republic’s population (Minority Rights Group Interna-
Issues, edited by Steven Danver, 136. London: Routledge. tional 2015b).
Ford, Liz. 2017. “‘We Lost a Great Leader’: Berta Cáceres Still According to official Azerbaijani data, 178,000 Lezgins
Inspires as Murder Case Takes Fresh Twist.” The Guard- live in the northern district of Kusari in Azerbaijan, where
ian, November 17. https://www.theguardian.com/global​
they form a local majority, and in adjoining areas such as
-development/2017/nov/17/berta-caceres-murder-case​
-honduras-land-rights. Hachmaz and Kuba. In Azerbaijan, Lezgins are the coun-
Gold, Janet M. 2009. Culture and Customs of Honduras. Westport, try’s second-largest ethnic group, accounting for 2.2 per-
CT: Greenwood Press. cent of the population. However, local researchers assert
Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An the Lezgin population is significantly higher at around
Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. 250,000–260,000 people (Minority Rights Group Inter-
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Honduras: Lenca,
national 2015a). Additionally, Lezgin nationalists suggest
Miskitu, Tawahka, Pech, Maya, Chortis and Xicaque.” World
Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, June 19. the total Lezgin population in the Russian Federation and
http://minorityrights.org/minorities/lenca-miskitu​-tawa​ Azerbaijan is around 1.2 million people, with between
hka-pech-maya-chortis-and-xicaque. 600,000 and 900,000 Lezgins in Azerbaijan alone (Mina-
han 2002). Disparities in Lezgin population figures for
 Lezgin 631

Azerbaijan often occur because some Lezgins living in for twenty-five years. When Imam Shamil was defeated,
Azerbaijan are registered as Azeris with national author- the Russians were able to cement their domination over
ities to escape anti-Lezgin discrimination. Another rea- the Lezgins and Dagestan. Soviet rule radically changed
son for disparities may be that the Lezgins are subject to Lezgin life. Lezgin farms were at first collectivized and
assimilationist policies in Azerbaijan. Smaller Lezgin com- then changed into state farms, thereby overturning tradi-
munities exist in Georgia, Turkey, and Central Asian states. tional Lezgin agricultural practice and, moreover, the way
Traditional Lezgin villages contain a mosque and a well. of farming throughout Dagestan. These changes reduced
The focal point of a Lezgin village is, however, the kim (vil- the amount of land available to farming and the amount
lage square), which is where villagers (especially the men) of pasture available for cattle farming, thereby decreasing
meet to discuss issues and make village decisions. the number of livestock the Lezgins could raise. Because of
the legacy of these changes, the Lezgins have only recently
been able to return to individual farming. In addition to
Geography and Environment changing Lezgin farming practices, the Soviets also for-
Lezgins sometimes refer to their homeland as Lezginistan. malized Lezgin ethnic identity and ensured Lezgin was
The area lies along the Samur River in southeastern Dag- taught in schools.
estan and northeastern Azerbaijan. Most of Lezginistan With the fall of the Soviet Union in 1991, the subsidies
is located in the eastern Caucasus Mountains, and so the for teaching Lezgin vanished. At the same time, Russian
landscape is extremely rugged. A small section of Lezgin- became the lingua franca of Dagestan, and so the future of
istan lies on lowlands near the mouth of the Samur River the Lezgin language was thrown into doubt as fewer and
on the Caspian Sea. fewer people spoke the language. In 1990, a Lezgin nation-
alist movement called Sadval (Unity) arose in Dagestan. It
called for the founding of a Lezgin state incorporating all
History and Politics the Lezgin land in southern Dagestan and northern Azer-
Many thousands of years ago, invading Europeans drove baijan. However, the creation of a land border between
the Lezgins high into the Caucasus Mountains, where, for Dagestan and Azerbaijan physically divided the Lezgins
defensive reasons, the Lezgins formed loose clan federa- and prompted vehement Lezgin protests. In 1998, Sadval
tions. Arab Muslims conquered lowland southern Dag- split into two factions. The radical wing of Sadval was bent
estan around the city of Derbent when they invaded in on founding a Lezgin republic through a redrawing of the
728. The invasion by the Arab Muslims made the Lezgins Russian-Azerbaijani border that would allow for the estab-
part of the Rashidun Caliphate and began the Lezgins’ lishment of a united Lezgin state incorporating Lezgin
conversion to Islam. Some Lezgins living high in moun- areas of Russia and Azerbaijan. The other wing was more
tain strongholds continued to follow local folk religions, moderate group and aimed for an independent Lezgin
however, and so the Lezgins’ total conversion to Islam was state within Dagestan.
not completed until the fifteenth century. Politically, the In the meantime, an Azerbaijani Lezgin organization
Lezgins were divided into the northern clans belonging to called Samur called for cultural autonomy within Azer-
the Derbent khanate and the southern clans of the Kuba baijan. However, since the schism within Sadval, neither
khanate. wing of Sadval nor Samur have become influential or
In the thirteenth century, Mongols invaded Lezgin areas, gathered much momentum. This was especially the case
decimating communities and forcing lowland Lezgins to when Azerbaijani authorities banned Sadval after the
flee to high-altitude settlements. Then, in the fourteenth group was alleged to have been involved in the bombing
century, the Persians conquered some Lezgins areas, of the Baku underground. Then, in 2006, the Azerbaijani
thereby starting a long rivalry with the Turkish khanates media reported that Sadval had established a terrorist unit
of Azerbaijan who held great sway over the Lezgins. charged with the responsibility for operations in Dagestan.
In 1813, all Lezgins came under ostensible Russian In 1992, the Lezgins felt great resentment when 105,000
rule. However, Lezgins in Dagestan fought against Russia Azeri refugees from the Karabakh conflict were resettled
in the Great Caucasian War while assisting Avar Imam on Lezgin land while the Lezgins were conscripted into
Shamil, the political and religious leader of the Muslims fighting. These factors, together with Lezgin anger over
of the Northern Caucasus who defied Russian authorities land rights, unemployment, language loss, and the Lezgin
632 Lezgin

lack of independence, contributed to an increase in ten- falling under its spell. For instance, lucky beads are sewn
sion between the Lezgins and the Azerbaijan government. into children’s clothing to ward off the evil eye, or the
In 1994, a consequence of the war in Chechnya was the people carry lucky red amulets containing sections of the
closure of the Russian-Azerbaijani border, and for the first Koran. Lezgins also use an herb, uzelik (Paganum har-
time in their existence, the Lezgins in the two countries mala), to drive away evil, fumigate sickrooms, and cure
were divided by an international border that limited their sickness.
movement. In recent time, relations between the Azerbai- Lezgin education levels are the lowest in Dagestan
jani government and the Lezgins have remained strained (Minahan 2002). In Lezgin areas, Lezgin is taught as a
in light of claims that Islamic fundamentalism was dispro- foreign language, but Lezgin teaching resources remain
portionately popular in Lezgin communities. scarce. Lezgins can access Lezgin-language textbooks
from Russia, but these are not adapted to suit local Lezgin
communities.
Society, Culture, and Tradition
Lezgin society is divided into patriarchal turkum (clans)
that are led by male elders who are responsible for mak- Threats to Survival
ing all important decisions. Over time, the turkum have In the wake of the downfall of the Soviet Union, Lezgins
become less influential, but Lezgins still tend to wed have faced chronic unemployment. For example, in Dag-
within their clan. estan, Lezgin unemployment is at 60 percent—more than
The most important aspect of Lezgin culture is a fold double the national average (Reynolds 2011). Because of
dance called the Lezginka. The dance is performed either the lack of jobs, Lezgins are beginning to move to urban
by mixed-sex couples or by all male performers and is areas in search of work, but the global economic downturn
intended to imitate the Lezgin national emblem, the eagle. coupled with an influx of cheap imported goods into Dag-
Although Lezgins are Muslim, they maintain many ani- estan are unlikely to ease Lezgin unemployment problems
mist beliefs. For example, the Lezgins believe animal bones anytime soon.
have magical healing powers and include them in rituals In general, however, Lezgins enjoy better rights in Dag-
held during certain times of the year, such as planting time estan as part of the Russian Federation than they do in
and the harvest. Additionally, the names of several pagan Azerbaijan, where they are subjected to assimilation pol-
gods have become synonymous with Allah. Urban Lezgins icies and have been underrepresented in the Azerbaijani
tend to be less religious than their rural counterparts and parliament since the shift away from a proportional rep-
only observe Islamic practices that fit with contemporary resentation model in 2005. In previous parliaments, two
lifestyles. members of parliament had represented Lezgins, but after
the change in the parliamentary system, the Lezgins now
have only one representative.
Health Care and Education Though the Lezgin language is taught in schools, Lezgin
In the years immediately after the fall of the Soviet Union, newspapers exist, and Lezgin television is broadcast from
health care remained free in Dagestan, but it has become Russia and available in Azerbaijan, the people worry that
chronically underfunded. At the same time, there have their language and more especially their rich oral tradition
been significant increases in infant and maternal mor- may be endangered.
tality rates and incidents of contagious diseases and
decreases in fertility. Recently, many organizations both See also: Avar; Azeri; Evenk; Izhorian; Ossetian; Selkup;
within the Russian Federation and internationally have Udmurt
striven to improve health care in the former Soviet states. Further Reading
In Dagestan, these organizations have to fight corruption, Chenciner, Robert. 1997. Daghestan: Tradition and Survival.
ensure the professionalism of staff, and help Dagestani London: Routledge.
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations.
medical staff win the trust of the republic’s indigenous
Vol. 3, L–R. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
peoples. Minority Rights Group International. 2015a. “Azerbaijan: Lezgins
Traditionally, the Lezgins consider illness to be caused World.” Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples.
by the evil eye, and so they go to great lengths to avoid June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/lezgins.
 Lhotshampa 633

Minority Rights Group International. 2015b. “Russian Federa- living conditions experienced by the refugees are not a pri-
tion: Lezgins.” Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peo- ority for Nepalese or Bhutanese authorities; both countries
ples, June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/lezgins-2. are happy to see refugees rehomed in other countries. Over
Reynolds, Michael A. 2011. “Lezgins.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe:
An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 236–239. Santa
one hundred thousand resettled Lhotshampas now live in
Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. the United States, Canada, Australia, and European coun-
tries, including the United Kingdom (Mørch 2016).

Geography and Environment

LHOTSHAMPA Bhutan is a remote landlocked and mountainous kingdom
Current Location Bhutan; Nepal; North America; Aus- located in the eastern Himalayas. The country is bordered
tralia; Europe by Tibet and China to the north and India to the south.
Current Population 768,000 Bhutan generally has a temperate climate. The country
is very small, with an area of approximately 17,954 miles
Language Nepali; Dzongkha; English
square. The land rises from an elevation of about 328 feet
Interesting Fact Some Lhotshampa have been living
above sea level in the south to an altitude of more than
in refugee camps for over twenty
years.
24,770 feet in the north. Most of Bhutan’s inhabitants live
in mountain valleys. The people grow crops such as rice
and potatoes and farm animals that include buffalo, cows,
Overview and goats.
The Lhotshampas (or Lhotsampas) are an ethnic group Fast-flowing rivers that provide water for hydroelec-
consisting of Bhutanese citizens of Nepali origin. The tric power punctuate Bhutan. Timber is an important
name Lhotshampas translates from the Bhutanese Dzong- natural resource, as over half the country is covered in
kha language as “people of the south.” The Lhotshampas forest. However, people are required to have a permit if
include various Bhutanese peoples—the Kirat, Tamang, they wish to chop down any tree. Mechanized vehicles
Magar, Brahman, Chhetri, and Gurung—who are united are not permitted on farmland or in forests. Crops are
by their use of the Nepali language and adherence to the transported down mountainsides by yaks and horses. In
Hindu religion. Most Lhotshampas also speak Dzongkha addition, there is very little traffic, and by 1998, Bhutan
and, which is the language of education in Bhutan. was home to only one paved road. This environmentally
The Lhotshampas’ shared language and religion make friendly lifestyle has resulted in Bhutan being called the
them a target for discrimination and exclusion by the Bhu- most ecologically pure land in Asia and possibly the world
tanese government, despite their having lived in Bhutan (BBC 1998).
for up to five generations. In recent years, the Lhotsham- Thus far, Bhutan is the only country to measure devel-
pas have been forced from Bhutan by the country’s gov- opment on a scale of gross national happiness (GNH)
ernment. As a consequence of this policy of expulsion, the rather than gross domestic product (GDP). The concept
Lhotshampas are sometimes referred to as the Bhutanese of gross national happiness implies that sustainable devel-
Refugees. opment should take a holistic approach toward progress
and give equal importance to noneconomic and economic
development.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
There are no reliable Lhotshampa population figures avail-
able because the people are widely dispersed and many are History and Politics
in exile. One estimate, however, suggests there are 650,000 The first report of people of Nepalese origin migrating to
Nepali-speaking people living mainly in the southern belt Bhutan occurred around 1620, when Shamdrung Ngawong
of Bhutan and 18,000 Lhotshampa refugees currently liv- Namgyal (the Tibetan lama who unified Bhutan) commis-
ing as refugees in Nepal (Mørch 2016). sioned a few Newar craftsmen from Nepal’s Kathmandu
In 2016, there were two operational Bhutanese refugee Valley to create a silver monument for his father, Tempa
camps in Nepal, where once there were seven camps. The Nima.
634 Lhotshampa

The migrants settled in southern Bhutan, the country’s to adopt distinctive northern Bhutanese practices and
major food-producing area, where they flourished for dress. The dress code ordered males to wear the traditional
many years and became known as the Lhotshampa, mean- knee-length belted robe called a gho, while females were
ing “people from the south.” The Lhotshampas were wel- told to adopt an ankle-length dress called a kira. These
comed in the area, as they answered the need for foreign changes were at odds with the Lhotshampa way of life, as
labor and provided the manpower for building infrastruc- they did not wear Druk traditional dress. The Lhotsham-
ture projects, including highways. The migration of the pas also did not practice the Druk religion or speak the
Lhotshampas into Bhutan continued relatively unchecked same language as the Druk. In addition, the use of Nepali
and without official immigration control. As a result of this was banned in schools, Lhotshampa schoolteachers were
uncontrolled immigration, the Lhotshampas eventually removed, and Lhotshampa textbooks were destroyed. As a
came to account for at least a third of the Bhutan’s popula- result of these discriminatory policies, there were frequent
tion (Minority Rights Group International 2017). clashes between the Lhotshampa-dominated Bhutan Peo-
Despite being in Bhutan for five generations (Maxym ple’s Party and the Bhutan government.
2010), the Lhotshampas did not assimilate into Bhuta- Starting in 1988, the Bhutan government undertook
nese society, for they retained the Nepali language, cul- a census to identify illegal immigrants and Bhutanese
ture, and Hindu religion, though they did participate in nationals. This operation gave rise to concerns that people
local politics and attain positions of authority. Contact not recognized as Bhutanese nationals would be expelled
between the Lhotshampas and the Druk Bhutanese living from the country. The census was conducted in an arbi-
in Bhutan’s north was extremely limited, but the Lhot- trary manner, and the Bhutan government suppressed
shampas lived in peace with Bhutan’s other ethnic groups Lhotshampa opposition to the census. After 1988, the Bhu-
until the mid-1980s, when Bhutan’s king and the ruling tan government began to officially discriminate against the
Druk ethnic group feared that the increasing Lhotshampa Lhotshampas, with the Bhutanese people being required to
population might overwhelm their authority and destroy provide written proof of their residency in Bhutan. The cit-
Nepal’s traditional Buddhist culture. Between 1958 and izenship of many Lhotshampas was denied, even when the
1977, the Bhutan government made many attempts to people were able to provide written documentation prov-
regularize Bhutanese citizenship. These efforts culmi- ing their right to residency (Maxym 2010).
nated in the 1985 Citizenship Act, which contained many As a result of the Bhutan government’s discriminatory
policies that were detrimental to the Lhotshampas and policies, by mid-1991, there was an outpouring of refugees
that were applied arbitrarily. The Citizenship Act was from Bhutan to Nepal. By December 1991, a mass exodus of
used to deny Bhutanese citizenship to the Lhotshampas Lhotshampas had accumulated. The exodus grew through-
as well as those who peacefully opposed the govern- out 1992, when families judged by Bhutan authorities to
ment’s policy. be living in Bhutan illegally were made to sign voluntary
As many Lhotshampas were given Bhutanese citizen- leaving certificates. Families in the country illegally were
ship in 1958, that year was taken as the cutoff for Lhot- also allegedly evicted from their land with little or no com-
shampa Bhutanese citizenship. Therefore, any Lhotshampa pensation. Meanwhile, people identified as “anti-nationals”
residents unable to prove they had been granted Bhutanese faced harassment, imprisonment without trial, and torture
residency before 1958 were deemed illegal immigrants. (Minority Rights Group International 2017).
The Citizenship Act was part of the Bhutan government’s By mid-1993, at least eighty-five thousand Lhotsham-
campaign of Bhutanization known as the “One Nation, One pas had either fled Bhutan or been forced into exile
People” policy. This policy sought to reinforce Bhutanese (Minority Rights Group International 2017). Most of the
national identity by introducing policies that imposed the emigrant Lhotshampas entered refugee camps in Nepal,
Druk dress code, religion, and language on all people living where many remain to this day. The refugees living in the
in Bhutan. camps suffered from health issues, including malnutrition
In January 1989, King Jigme Singye introduced a policy and diseases caused by poor sanitation. In June 2003, the
that demanded national integration of Druk Bhutanese Lhotshampa refugee population had passed the one hun-
traditions and culture. This led to speculation that govern- dred thousand mark, and the governments of Bhutan and
ment authorities intended to erase Nepali culture within Nepal announced the findings of a pilot screening process
Bhutan. One aspect of the policy saw all citizens ordered implemented to settle the refugee status of people living in
 Lhotshampa 635

one of the many camps. According to the screening pro- Most refugees living in camps in Nepal or resettled outside
cess, less than 3 percent of the refugees were recognized of Asia no longer abide by the caste system.
as “genuine,” meaning they could be repatriated to Bhu- The Lhotshampas consider respecting others to be
tan with full citizenship rights. Many commentators con- very important. For this reason, they remove their shoes
sidered this ruling hugely unfair, as it rendered refugees upon entering a house, offer tea to guests, and maintain
judged “non-genuine” as stateless persons, who were not eye contact during conversation. In addition, according
granted refugee status within Nepal nor allowed to exer- to Lhotshampa tradition, families typically include many
cise their ethnic identity within Bhutan, to where they members of extended family, with the younger generation
were repatriated. caring for older relatives. The Lhotshampas pay respect to
The living conditions for the refugees became extremely their elders, and it is especially important that daughters-
precarious during the period 2005–2006, when the contin- in-law are seen to pay respect to their mothers-in-law
ued support from the United Nations High Commissioner by doing the older woman’s washing and massaging
for Refugees (UNHCR) became uncertain. There have been her legs.
frequent reports that Lhotshampa women are sexually Traditionally, Lhotshampa marriages took place
exploited in Nepal as well as reports that the Lhotsham- between members of the same caste and were arranged by
pas face violence and abuses from both the Nepali security the couple’s parents. Usually, the parents of a Lhotshampa
services and Nepalese Maoists rebels. Currently, no reso- boy would start to search for a suitable bride for their son
lution has been found to help the 106,000 Lhotshampas when the boy reached the age of seven or eight years. Once
currently languishing in Nepalese refugee camps (Minor- a suitable girl was found, the two sets of parents would pre-
ity Rights Group International 2017). The stress of being pare for the marriage, with arrangements lasting until the
a main subject of discussion between Bhutan and Nepal, children reached around fourteen years of age. Arranged
together with decades of life in refugee camps, has created marriages have recently fallen out of favor among the
discord between those Lhotshampas who wished to live Lhotshampas. Now marriages are usually based on love
in the West and those who feel that resettlement might be matches.
seen as surrender, giving them little grounds upon which Traditional Lhotshampa weddings are lavish celebra-
to request a return to Bhutan. tions for which families spend a month to prepare food,
which includes rice, lentils, sweetened bread, and a pickle
called dhulae achar. Families also forage in local forests for
Society, Culture, and Tradition leaves and use them to decorate ceremonial plates for the
A Lhotshampa person is usually known by his or her first wedding celebration. The wedding takes place at the bride’s
name and a family name, with children given two first home and includes drum playing as well as prayers and
names at birth or within the days following. A priest gives rituals led by a Brahmin priests. The bridegroom gives his
a child his or her first name, and the second name is given bride clothes and a beaded necklace signifying her mar-
to the child by his or her parents. This second name is ried status. Once they are married, the bride travels to the
the name used on the child’s birth certificate. The child’s bridegroom’s home, where she stays for a few days before
parents decide which of the two names the child will be returning home until she reaches the age of fifteen or six-
known by. teen years. Once the girl reaches this age, the bride moves
Traditionally, the Lhotshampa society is divided into into her husband’s home to live with her husband and his
castes, with a person’s family name denoting the caste to family.
which he or she belongs. This caste system creates a social In recent years, Lhotshampa society has changed greatly,
hierarchy that indicates a person’s social status and influ- and the tradition of arranged child marriages is fading as
ences choices of spouse and profession. In the past, it was the Lhotshampas become increasingly Westernized. Other
often the case that the most traditional Lhotshampas would influences on the decrease of child marriage include the
not visit the homes of people of different castes, pray with displacement of Lhotshampas to Western countries where
them, nor share meals with them. However, Lhotshampa child marriage is illegal and improved education for girls
society is becoming increasingly liberal, and among the and young women.
remaining Lhotshampas living in Bhutan, the caste system The Lhotshampa are traditionally sedentary farmers,
is confined largely to the Brahmin (priest) community. though some practice slash-and-burn farming as well. In
636 Lhotshampa

traditional Lhotshampa society, women and men partic- provided through the government-run healthcare system.
ipate equally in farm labor. Women are also the primary That said, rural Lhotshampas often have little access to
caregiver for the children and are expected to do all the Western health care. The practice of using home reme-
housekeeping and cooking. A woman is only allowed to dies to deal with illness is very common among the Lhot-
rest when she experiences her monthly period. This rest shampas. Oftentimes, people will use one or two home
is enforced because menstruating women are considered remedies before seeking external medical help. Typically,
unclean and are forbidden to prepare or serve any food or Lhotshampa home remedies are made from such ingre-
drink. Menstruating women are also believed to damage dients as basil, garlic, turmeric, ginger, cardamom, and
fruit harvests, and so they are prohibited from touching mustard oil.
fruit trees. When a woman is menstruating, her female rel- Traditional Lhotshampa healers are referred to as
atives perform her household chores or the woman’s male dhami-jakhri. These healers are shamanic figures who are
relatives may cook the family meals. said to be able to enter into a trancelike state to diagnose
Staple Lhotshampa foods include rice and lentils. The illnesses and recommend cures. The Lhotshampas often
Lhotshampas do not eat beef or pork, as they consider perceive illness as an imbalance of passions or the result
these foods taboo according to their Hindu faith. Most of evil, so dhami-jakhri set out to rebalance passions and
Lhotshampas are Hindu, but today there are also a small the good/evil axis to bring about a cure. Traditional Lhot-
number of Buddhist and Christian Lhotshampas. Hindu shampa healing methods include incantations and reading
Lhotshampas believe that reincarnation will occur after a leaves and rice, and treatments often include prescribing
period of eighty-four million years, when people who have special diets, sprinkling hot water on a patient, or touching
lived a good life will be reincarnated as humans, while a patient with a symbolic object, such as a yak’s tail. Sick
people “who have acted badly will be boiled in oil” before Hindu Lhotshampas may also seek help from a priest, who
being reincarnated as dogs (Maxym 2010). will perform a cleansing ritual called a puja.
Traditionally, when a Lhotshampa person dies, the In the refugee camps of Nepal, health care is limited
immediate family spends thirteen days in formal mourn- and provided sporadically, depending on the availability of
ing, during which time they shave their heads and sleep international nongovernmental organizations (NGOs)and
on the floor of the family home, which has been smeared aid agencies as well as the provision of medical supplies.
with cow dung and straw to mark the occasion. Mourners Basic Western health care is almost always available, how-
also abstain from salt and meats, limiting their diet to a ever, and is preferred by the majority of the Lhotshampas
single meal of plain rice per day supplemented by fruit, (Maxym 2010).
pickled ginger, lemon, and water. The son of the deceased In general, Lhotshampas avoid seeking medical help
is expected to isolate himself in one room of the family unless they feel very unwell and do not tend to opt for pre-
home and not speak to female relatives, friends, neigh- ventative medical interventions, such as mammograms
bors, or members of the extended family. Meanwhile, the and smear tests. In addition, while Lhotshampa women
deceased’s immediate female relatives separate themselves will often pay great care to the health of their husbands and
from the men. children, they tend to not discuss their own health prob-
These rituals are performed in the belief that they lems. This is especially true of matters surrounding contra-
help purify the soul of the deceased in preparation for his ception, sex, and gynecological conditions, for in traditional
or her journey to the afterlife, where he or she will await Lhotshampa society, sex and sexuality are taboo topics of
reincarnation. The Lhotshampas fear that if mourning conversation. Common health issues among Lhotshampa
is performed incorrectly, they risk the deceased’s soul refugees include malnutrition, poor oral health, neglected
being unable to transition to the afterlife and instead reproductive and gynecologic care, and depression and
being trapped on earth as a ghost that will menace the other mental illness caused by living in exile.
living. Traditionally, after a Lhotshampa woman gives birth,
she rests for eleven days. During this rest period, she stays
with her baby and does not perform any housework or
Health Care and Education food preparation. On the eleventh day, the child is named,
In Bhutan, many Lhotshampas have experienced both and a purification ritual takes place during which a priest
traditional health care and Western medicine that was sprinkles a sacred mixture of cow’s urine, yoghurt, milk,
 Liechtensteiner 637

seed, and grass on the mother and her home. Lhotshampa LIECHTENSTEINER
babies are usually breastfed for the first six months before
being introduced to solid food during a ceremony called Current Location Liechtenstein
pasni. In Nepal and Bhutan, when Lhotshampa babies start Current Population 23,000
to crawl, they are massaged with mustard oil and placed in Language Alemanni dialect; German;
sunlight to give them strength to walk. Swiss-German
Lhotshampa children are taught by explanation and Interesting Fact Liechtensteiners are the only mod-
example and are not physically punished for naughtiness. ern Europeans to have voted to grant
Children are said to become adults at the age of seven their monarch greater say over their
years for girls and eight or nine years for boys. To mark the parliament.
transition to adulthood, girls are given their first sari, and
boys receive a sacred thread from their local priest, who Overview
teaches the boys never to steal or tell lies, to study, and to
Liechtensteiners are the indigenous people of Liech-
respect their elders. Many Lhotshampas living in the West
tenstein, a tiny landlocked principality located between
often enter into secondary and tertiary education. This
Switzerland and Austria. While the official language of
education is also available to many Lhotshampa refugees
Liechtenstein is German, most Liechtensteiners speak a
living in the Nepalese refugee camps. As a result, many
Germanic Alemanni dialect that contains local variations
Lhotshampas have enjoyed professional and personal
in pronunciation and vocabulary. Liechtensteiners also
choices that differ greatly from those life choices available
speak and understand Swiss-German. Most Liechtenstein-
in traditional Lhotshampa society.
ers are Roman Catholic.

Threats to Survival
Bhutan has recently opened up to the outside world, as Population, Diaspora, and Migration
evinced by the visit of the British royal Prince William in The Liechtensteiner population of around twenty-three
2016. With Bhutan elevating its profile in the world, some thousand live in communes called Gemeinden (singu-
commentators feel Bhutan’s King Jigme Khesar Namgyel lar: Gemeinde) that consist of a single settlement. Liech-
Wangchuck should be made to acknowledge the discrimi- tensteiners comprise about two-thirds of Liechtenstein’s
nation and expulsion of the Lhotshampas while also allow- total population (Hass 2011). As there is little ethnic dif-
ing them to live peacefully in Bhutan once more. ference between Liechtensteiners and their neighbors in
Switzerland and Austria, who share the same Aleman-
See also: Oraon; Tibetan
nic roots and speak variations of German, the Liechten-
Further Reading steiner ethnic identity relies on the shared experiences
BBC. 1998. “Country Profile Bhutan: A Land Frozen in Time.”
BBC, February 9. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/country_profile​
of its indigenous people. To protect this ethnic identity,
/54627.stm. Liechtenstein implements fairly strict immigration pol-
Maxym, Maya. 2010. “Nepali-Speaking Bhutanese (Lhotsam- icies. While Liechtensteiners maintain good relations
pas) Cultural Profile.” EthnoMed, March 1. https://ethnomed​ with neighboring nations, there is an underlying tension
.org/culture/nepali-speaking-bhutanese-lhotsampa/nepali​ caused by the many immigrants from Austria, Germany,
-speaking-bhutanese-lhotsampa-cultural-profile. and Switzerland who have entered Liechtenstein. Today,
Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Bhutan:
Nepali-Speakers.” World Directory of Minorities and Indig-
these immigrants makeup almost one-third of Liechten-
enous Peoples. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/nepali​ stein’s population and almost two-thirds of Liechtenstein’s
-speakers. workforce, but they do not share Liechtensteiners’ cultural
Mørch, Maximillian. 2016. “Bhutan’s Dark Secret: The Lhot- identity (Hass 2011).
shampa Expulsion.” The Diplomat, September 21. https://​
thediplomat.com/2016/09/bhutans-dark-secret-the​
-lhotshampa-expulsion.
West, Barbara A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and
Geography and Environment
Oceania. New York: Facts on File. Liechtenstein is located in the European Alps’ Upper Rhine
valley. Liechtenstein is one of two doubly landlocked
638 Liechtensteiner

countries in the world (the other being Uzbekistan), for by the Liechtensteiners. In the seventeenth century, the
Liechtenstein is bordered to the east by Austria and to the Liechtenstein family, who had their base at Liechten-
south and west by Switzerland, both also landlocked coun- stein Castle in Lower Austria, were raised to princely
tries. The country’s western border is defined by the Rhine status within the Holy Roman Empire by the Hapsburgs.
River. Prior to this, the Liechtenstein family had acquired land
Liechtenstein is a tiny nation, measuring just fifteen in Moravia (a historical country of the Czech Repub-
miles north to south. Much of Liechtenstein is located at lic), Styria (a state in southeast of Austria), and Lower
an elevation above 6,000 feet with the principality’s high- Austria through a combination of marriage and family
est peak being Grauspitz, which reaches a height of 8,527 alliances.
feet. The mountains’ lower slopes are covered by alpine From 1806 to 1815, Liechtenstein achieved sovereignty
flowers and evergreen forests. Eastern Liechtenstein is within the Confederation of the Rhine (a union of all the
home to the rugged foothills of the Rhätikon Mountains, states of Germany, save for Austria and Prussia, under the
which are part of the Central European Alps. The forests aegis of Napoleon I). At the Congress of Vienna (1815),
contain woodland trees, such as copper beeches, maple, Liechtenstein became an independent small state within
and sycamore, and are rich in wildlife, including red deer, the German Federation (an organization of numerous Ger-
hares, chamois, pheasants, foxes, badgers, and weasels. man states established to replace the fallen Holy Roman
Liechtenstein’s mountains contain three major valleys Empire). In 1847, Liechtensteiners launched an unsuccess-
that are drained by the Samina River. Western Liechten- ful revolt against their princely rulers. Then, in 1862, a new
stein sits on the Rhine River’s floodplain, which, together Liechtenstein constitution was drawn up that allowed the
with the valley of the Ill River, forms a lowland. In the state to be ruled by princes, but parliament was to be made
1930s, a drainage channel was constructed to allow the up of representatives of the people and would be closely
area’s rich soils to be used for farming. Today, Liechten- involved in the legislative process. This constitution was
stein’s cultivated fields and farms are divided into those amended again in 1921 to make Liechtenstein even more
found in the south (Oberland, “upper land”) and north democratic.
(Unterland, “lower land”). Unusually for a mountainous Liechtenstein remained officially neutral during World
nation, grapes and sweetcorn grow plentifully in Liechten- War I, having disbanded its army in 1868 after the disso-
stein. Other crops include potatoes and cereals. There are lution of the German Federation. The principality suffered
some vineyards in Liechtenstein, but these are divided into financial sanctions during the war, however, because it had
small units. In summer, Liechtenstein’s Alpine slopes are a customs treaty with Austria. The sanctions caused many
used as grazing pasture. textile businesses, which accounted for much of Liechten-
Despite Liechtenstein’s Alpine location, the highest stein’s industrial output, to become bankrupt. At the same
peaks are rarely blanketed in snow because a prevailing time, Liechtensteiners were unable to buy food and faced
southerly wind, called the Föhn, keeps Liechtenstein’s cli- severe food shortages. To escape the sanctions, in 1929,
mate relatively mild. In winter, however, temperatures can Liechtenstein dissolved its customs treaty with Austria
dip to −15°C, and enough snow falls to allow winter sports before entering into a new customs treaty with Switzer-
on the mountain slopes. land in 1923. This treaty continues today. In 1938, Prince
Franz Josef II of Liechtenstein became the first reigning
prince to live in Liechtenstein. The prince also renovated
History and Politics the ruined Vaduz Castle located in Liechtenstein’s capital
Between 50 CE and 400 CE, Germanic Alemanni tribes of Vaduz. Today, the princely family continues to live in
entered the Rhine Valley and surrounding mountain areas Vaduz Castle.
that previously made up the Roman province of Raeita. During World War II, Liechtenstein was again neutral.
Liechtensteiners originate from the same Alemannic During the war, possessions belonging to the Liechtenstein
people that ruled the wider Rhine region from the fifth princely family located in Bohemia, Moravia, and Silesia
century onward. The name Liechtensteiner derives from were removed to Liechtenstein for safekeeping. In 1945,
that of the princely Liechtenstein family that, in 1719, hundreds of anti-Soviet members of the First Russian
purchased and united the separate feudal lands of the National Army of the German Wehrmacht entered Liech-
Holy Roman Empire, Vaduz and Schellenberg, inhabited tenstein to surrender. The soldiers proved expensive to
 Liechtensteiner 639

feed, but despite immense pressure from the Soviet Union, Society, Culture, and Tradition
Liechtenstein did not extradite the surrendered soldiers Historically, Liechtensteiners are an agrarian people who
because others repatriated to the Soviets had disappeared survive by farming and raising animals. As a result, Liech-
in Soviet gulags. tensteiner villages are usually close-knit communities,
At the end of the war, Czechoslovakia and Poland with indigenous Liechtensteiners having descended from
seized properties belonging to the Liechtenstein dynasty families that go back centuries. Post–World War II, how-
in those three regions in the belief that they were German ever, Liechtensteiners have increasingly moved away from
property (Minahan 2010). The confiscated possessions agriculture. Today, Liechtenstein is a fairly modern and
included miles of agricultural lands and forest, including industrialized nation. Few modern Liechtensteiners work
the UNESCO-listed Lednice–Valtice Cultural Landscape on farms. Instead, most work in service industries, bank-
in the Czech Republic, castles, and palaces. From 1945 to ing, or industry located in the main settlements of Vaduz
1949, Liechtenstein suffered great poverty. In response, the and Schaan.
reigning prince, Franz Joseph II, sold many of his personal The majority of Liechtenstein’s customs combine Ale-
possessions to raise money, including a painting by Leon- mannic culture with the people’s Catholic heritage. Liech-
ardo da Vinci. tenstein’s carnival season, Fasnacht, is celebrated from
During the 1970s, however, Liechtenstein’s low cor- Schmutziger Donnerstag (Dirty Thursday) until Fasnachts-
porate tax rates attracted international companies to dienstag (Carnival Tuesday). The two most common tradi-
the principality. This allowed Liechtenstein to transform tions associated with this period involve the girls having
from a poor agrarian state into a nation that was home their faces blackened with the end of a singed cork and the
to a growing economy dominated by industry as well as boys stealing cooking pots from their neighbors. Fasnacht
financial services based in Vaduz. Today, Liechtenstein is is followed by Bonfire Sunday, traditionally the Sunday
heavily industrialized. It has the highest per capital gross after Ash Wednesday. On Bonfire Sunday, Liechtensteiners
domestic product (GDP) in the world and is one of five amass a large pile of wood that is then set alight to sym-
countries that have no government debt. bolically drive away winter. Liechtenstein’s national day,
During the postwar period, Liechtenstein became part Prince’s Day, is celebrated on August 15. The day is consid-
of several international organizations to ensure its long- ered both a holy day and a bank holiday and is associated
term independence. Today, Liechtenstein is a member with the birthday of Prince Franz-Josef II, who was born
of the United Nations, the European Free Trade Associ- on August 16, 1906.
ation, and the Council of Europe. While Liechtenstein is Another Liechtenstein tradition sees cattle brought
not a member of the European Union (EU), it participates down to valleys in autumn, having spent the summer
in both the Schengen Area (an area comprising multiple grazing on pastures as high altitude. Each year, this tradi-
European states that have officially abolished all types of tion is marked by small processions of cows wearing floral
border control at their mutual borders) and the European headdresses and bells being led through Liechtensteiner
Economic Area, that is, an area of Europe providing the villages. Liechtensteiners gather to watch the processions
free movement of persons, goods, services, and capital that hark back to traditional cattle markets at Triesenberg,
within the European Single Market. Vaduz, and Eschen. Today, the processions end with fun
Only one royal family has ever ruled the Liechtenstein- fairs. Another autumn custom, Wimmlete, celebrates the
ers, and the reigning prince is often regarded as the per- wine harvest. Liechtensteiners gather in the country’s vine-
sonal guarantor of Liechtensteiners’ wealth and security, yards to harvest grapes before enjoying a feast accompa-
an image reinforced by Prince Franz Joseph II’s act of rais- nied by wine. The highlight of Wimmlete is the measuring
ing money for the people after World War II. Therefore, the of the grape must’s density according to the Oechsle scale,
prince and princely family in general are an intrinsic part an indication of the grapes’ ripeness and sugar content.
of Liechtensteiners’ ethnic identity. After a bitterly divisive Liechtenstein’s most popular foods include Käsknöpfle
national debate, in 2003, Liechtensteiners voted to grant mit Apfelmus (a pasta dish with melted cheese served with
the prince greater say over parliament—the first such apple sauce), Ribel (cornmeal served with a glass of milk,
occurrence in modern European history. Prince Hans- white coffee, or sour cheese), and Tatsch or Kratzete (a sweet,
Adam II now enjoys greater authority than any other Euro- thick pancake served with fruit compote). Homemade
pean monarch.
640 Livonian

herb or fruit schnapps is popular among Liechtensteiners. Liechtenstein.li. n.d. “Education.” Liechtenstein: The Principality.
Today, winemaking is increasingly important to the Liech- https://www.liechtenstein.li/en/education.
tensteiners. Liechtenstein wine benefits from the climatic Minahan, James B. 2010. The Complete Guide to National Sym-
bols and Emblems. Vol. 1. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
conditions of the Rhine Valley and the warmth of the Föhn
wind that ripens grapes growing on south-facing moun-
tain sides. Liechtenstein has also started to produce beer
and has a number of award-winning microbreweries.
LIVONIAN
Health Care and Education Current Location Latvia; Estonia
Liechtensteiners have access to a modern healthcare sys- Current Population 100,000
tem where the principality’s small population has the Language Latvian; Livonian
benefit of local doctors and specialists. All citizens aged Interesting Fact The Livonian national flag is a hor-
sixteen years or older are required to have health insur- izontal tricolor of green, white, and
ance, though emergency hospital treatment is free and pale blue.
available to people without insurance. The basic health
insurance plan covers specialist treatment in neighboring
Switzerland and Austria. Overview
Liechtenstein’s constitution specifies that the state is The Livonians (also called the Livs or Līvlizt) are an indige-
responsible for schooling its population and overseeing nous Finno-Ugric people living in Latvia and Estonia. His-
the principality’s education system. The first documented torically, the Livonians spoke the Livonian language that
reference to schools in Liechtenstein can be traced back belongs to the southern group of Balto-Finnic languages.
to 1619. However, schooling was not made compulsory Today, however, most Livonians speak Latvian. Almost all
in Liechtenstein until the nineteenth century. In 1971, Livonians are Lutheran, the predominant religion of Baltic
Liechtenstein’s education system was reorganized with the countries.
abolition of the national education body, the Landesschul-
rat. In its place, the responsibility for education passed to
Liechtenstein’s government, which created the Office of Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Education in 1972. Today, children in Liechtenstein spend Population estimates for the Livonians are difficult to give
two years in kindergarten followed by five years at a pri- because Livonians usually register as ethnic Estonians and
mary school. After this, pupils spend four years at second- Latvians for population surveys. In 2002, it was estimated
ary school. Pupils in Liechtenstein are also able to go to there were around one hundred thousand Livonians liv-
work and attend school at the same time (Berufsmatura), ing throughout Europe (Minahan 2002). More recently,
or they can attend Swiss schools cofinanced by Liechten- however, it was reported that only 170 people identified
stein. Liechtenstein is home to three higher education themselves as Livonian (Latvia Institute 2015). Livonians
institutions, the largest of which is the University of Liech- are largely concentrated in Latvia, to the east and west of
tenstein (Liechtenstein.li n.d.). the Gulf of Riga. Smaller Livonian communities exist in
eastern Estonia and on the Estonian island of Saaremaa. A
Livonian diaspora exists in the United States, Canada, and
Threats to Survival Australia.
There are no imminent threats to the Liechtensteiners, Livonians divide into two groups: the Raandali (“peo-
who are busy planning celebrations to mark the three hun- ple of the seashore”), who live to the west of the Gulf of
dredth anniversary of their principality in 2019. Riga, and the Kalamied (“fishermen”), who reside east of
See also: Walser the Gulf of Riga in an area extending across the Lativian-
Estonian border. In 1992, the Latvian government created
Further Reading
Hass, Michael. 2011. “Liechtensteiners.” In Ethnic Groups of a protected cultural and historic territory, Līvõd rānda
Europe: An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 239–240. (Livonian Coast) that included twelve Livonian villages:
Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Lūžņa, Miķeļtornis, Lielirbe, Jaunciems, Sīkrags, Mazirbe,
 Livonian 641

Košrags, Pitrags, Saunags, Vaide, Kolka, and Melnsils. The Indeed, the Germanic knights demonstrated such mili-
Latvian government discourages ethnic Latvians and tary might that they were able to threaten the Novgorodi-
other non-Livonians from settling in this area. ans and Lithuanians. At the same time, however, Livonia’s
feudal system left Livonians living as serfs, resulting in
many Livonian rebellions against their despised German
Geography and Environment overlords. In 1554, the head of the Livonian Order feared a
The Livonian homeland, Liivimaa, is located on the eastern mass revolt and converted the Livonians to Protestantism
shore of the Baltic Sea around the Gulf of Riga. The Gulf to stop the influence of the Protestant Reformation over
of Riga is a bay of the Baltic Sea situated between Latvia the Livonians.
and Estonia. Latvia is located in northeast Europe, on the The Russian ruler Ivan the Terrible realized there
Baltic Sea’s east coast. It borders Estonia to the north, the was a weakness in the Livonian region and decided to
Russian Federation to the east, Belarus to the southeast, invade Livonia in 1558. He saw Livonia as a gateway to
and Lithuania to the south. the Baltic Sea’s warm-water ports. However, Sweden and
The Estonian island of Saaremaa partially separates the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (a composite
the Gulf of Riga from the rest of the Baltic Sea. The Irbe state of Poland and Lithuania) sided with the Livonian
Strait connects the Gulf of Riga to the Baltic Sea. The Gulf Order. This caused the conflict to escalate and resulted in
of Riga also includes the Väinameri Sea in the West Esto- almost twenty-five years of conflict in the Livonian War
nian archipelago. Much of Liivimaa consists of swampy (1558–1583). To prevent a Russia victory, the Livonian
lowlands and forests. Order disbanded (except for in Riga and Kurzeme), and
the knights’ lands in Livonia and southeast Latvia were
placed in the protection of the Polish-Lithuanian Com-
History and Politics monwealth. Following the dissolution of the Livonian
The Livonians claim they have inhabited Liivimaa for Order, Sweden, Russia, and Poland vied for the Livonian
over five thousand years. The ancestors of the Livonians homeland. Ultimately, Kurzeme became a separate Polish
were Finno-Ugric tribes that migrated from central Rus- duchy (Courland) led by the last leader of the Livonian
sia to the area around the northern Baltic Sea during the Order.
pre-Christian era. During the sixth and seventh centuries Between 1621 and 1626, the Swedish kingdom took
CE, invading Slavs forced the Finno-Ugric tribes to relocate control of Livonia from Poland and enshrined Luther-
to coastal regions around the Baltic Sea. The early Livoni- anism as the region’s religion. In the mid-seventeenth
ans settled along coastal trade routes, where they lived as century, Livonia was devastated by a number of wars
fishermen, farmers, and pastoralists. In the twelfth century, involving its Swedish rulers. The enmity between Sweden
German merchants arrived at the mouth of the Daugava and Russia and both countries’ desire to control the Bal-
River, which empties into the Gulf of Riga. The merchants tic region led to the Northern War (1700–1721), which
established trade posts and Roman Catholic missions. also devastated Livonia. According to the terms of the
In 1201, the German bishop Albert (a.k.a. Albert of 1721 Treaty of Nystad, much of Livonia passed to Rus-
Riga or Albert of Livonia, the third Bishop of Riga, who led sia and later became a Russian province. Under Russian
the armed forces that forcibly converted the eastern Bal- rule, the Livonians were reduced to a rural peasant life,
tic region to Catholicism) established the city of Riga on and Latvian and Estonian supplanted their language. In
Livonian land. The following year, a Catholic military order the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, the Livonians
called the Livonian Order (or the Livonian Brothers of the became greatly assimilated into mainstream Latvian and
Sword) was established to serve the bishop by converting Estonian society, though the people’s culture remained
pagan Livonians to Christianity. In 1206, the Livonian relative strong. During the nineteenth century, Latvian
Order defeated many Livonian tribes and took control of became the Livonians’ mother tongue as some Livonian
their lands. Subsequently, the Livonians were made to fight dialects became extinct.
in Livonian Order military campaigns against related peo- During World War I, Russia ordered Livonians liv-
ples in Estonia. ing in Baltic coastal areas to move inland to cities such
Germany continued to rule over Livonia as a state of as Riga and Ventspils. As a result, Livonian coastal vil-
knights during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. lages were used by Russia as bases for coastal defense
642 Livonian

installations. After the war, many Livonians stayed where Society, Culture, and Tradition
they had relocated. Following the Russian Revolution, Livonian culture and society are highly matriarchal. The
Latvia and Estonia became independent, and Livoni- veneration of mothers is intertwined with the Livonians’
ans were split between the two new states. This divide love for the natural environment. According to Livonian
awakened Livonian nationalism and spurred the people mythology, the Mother of the Earth and the Mother of
into reviving their own language and culture. The Lat- the Sea are sisters, and their brothers are the spirits of the
vian authorities supported the Livonian nationalism by forest.
allowing Livonian to be taught in schools and the pub- In 2013, the last person to have Livonian as a mother
lishing of Livonian-language newspapers and books. In tongue, Grizelda Kristiņa, died. Today, Livonian is the rar-
1939, the Estonian and Finnish governments backed the est language in the European Union (EU), and Livonians
creation of the Livonian Community Centre in Mazirbe, consider it is a matter of national honor to maintain and
the Latvian village that functions as the Livonian cultural promote the language. There are state-supported programs
capital. However the progress made by the Livonians in aimed at keeping the language alive, and a small but grow-
safeguarding their culture was undone by the start of ing number of Livonians can now speak the language as a
World War II. second tongue. Although Livonian is related to the other
During World War II, the Soviets occupied Estonia and Finnic languages, neither Estonians nor Finnish people
Latvia, and the Livonian coast became the Soviet Union’s can understand more than a few words of Livonian.
western border, where mines were laid in the sand and Though small in number, many Livonians are active
barbed wire blocked access to the sea. Additionally, many members of cultural societies and musical ensembles. The
Livonians and Latvians were deported to Siberia or else- town of Mazirbe hosts an annual Liv Festival that cele-
where in Central Asia. Livonian fishermen, unable to brates the people’s culture through traditional storytelling,
access the sea, moved to cities in search of work. Other speciality foods, singing, and dancing.
Livonians fled to neutral Sweden. Then, in 1944, the Sovi-
ets deported the Livonian leadership as part of a move to
eradicate Livonian cultural and economic activity. In 1949, Health Care and Education
more Livonians were deported, and regulations were put As of 2010, the average life expectancy at birth for people
in place that prevented Livonians from entering the sea, in Latvia has increased to seventy years (sixty-nine years
even to fish. Subsequently, the Soviets built more military for males and seventy-eight years for females). However,
installations in Livonian coastal areas and emptied Livo- this is the lowest life expectancy among the Baltic States
nian seaside villages. and much lower than the European Union average. At the
Ultimately, every aspect of Livonian culture was same time, the Latvian healthcare system is one of the least
expunged, causing many Livonians to flee to Sweden, the funded in the EU. The Ministry of Health is responsible
United States, and elsewhere. Over the following years, the for Latvia’s national health, but the independent National
Livonians who had remained in their homeland disguised Health Service (NHS) implements health policies and
their Livonian heritage by registering as ethnic Latvians ensures health care is available throughout Latvia. Munic-
or Estonians in Soviet censuses. Conversely, in the 1979 ipalities run many of the country’s smaller hospitals, but
census, several hundred Livonians attempted to register as the state runs larger and specialist hospitals. Almost all
Livonians but were ignored by officials. Latvians are registered with a general practitioner (GP),
Throughout the 1980s the number of Livonians able though in rural areas, a medical assistant or midwife may
to speak the Livonian language continued to dwindle. By be the main healthcare provider. People in rural areas can
the late 1980s, only fifteen people could speak Livonian sometimes find their access to health care is limited by
fluently (Minahan 2002). Spurred on by the desire to save long waiting lists and the unavailability of medical staff. In
their endangered language, a Livonian cultural movement Latvia, communicable diseases such as tuberculosis, can-
arose that was supported by funds from Livonians abroad. cer, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes are major health
Livonian began to be taught in schools once more, and concerns (Mitenbergs et al. 2012).
Livonian choral societies sprang up. Then, in 1991, the Latvia has a very high literacy rate (99.8% in 2009). The
Latvian government approved the creation of the Līvõd percentage of the total population aged fifteen years and
rānda. above who have experienced higher education (including
 Lozi 643

doctoral level education) has increased from 13.9 percent The Lozi’s shared lingua franca is a Sotho-based language
in 2000 to 23.0 percent in 2011, while the proportion of called Silozi. The name Barotse is a colonial-era Sothoized
Latvians having vocational secondary education increased pronunciation of Lozi, the name which, at present, the Lozi
from 20.2 percent to 29.4 percent. Almost 65 percent of prefer. The Lozi are Christian.
Latvians who have experienced higher education are
women (Mitenbergs et al. 2012). The University of Tartu in
Estonia teaches Livonian as an academic subject. Population, Diaspora, and Migration
The Lozi population numbers around eight hundred
thousand people who mainly live along the floodplain of
Threats to Survival the upper Zambezi River in Zambia’s Western Province.
The Livonians seem to have prevented the eradication A significant number of Lozi also live in eastern Angola,
of their language and culture while also functioning as the Caprivi Strip in Namibia, northwest Zimbabwe, and
assimilated members of larger national populations. The northern Botswana (Milbourne 2011). Historically, the
Livonian language has revived through education and the Lozi homeland is called Barotseland. Outside of Barotse-
determination of Livonian nationalists, and the people’s land, there are Lozi communities living in the Copperbelt
culture is safeguarded by a growing number of institu- and Lusaka regions of Zambia and various urban areas
tions, arts bodies, and festivals. (Minahan 2002). The Lozi consist of thirty-six interrelated
See also: Karelian; Latgalian cultural groups united by a shared use of Silozi as well as a
common history.
Further Reading
Latvia Institute. 2015. “Latvian Livs.” Latvia.eu. http://www​
.latvia.eu/latvians/latvian-livs.
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations. Geography and Environment
Vol. 3, L–R. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Zambia is a landlocked country in south-central Africa.
Mitenbergs, Uldis, Maris Taube, Janis Misins, Eriks Mikitis, Atis It is bordered by Angola, Mozambique, Malawi, Tanza-
Martinsons, Aiga Rurane, and Wilm Quentin. 2012. “Lat- nia, Zimbabwe, the Democratic Republic of the Congo,
via Health System Review.” Health Systems in Transition 14
Botswana, and Namibia. Zambia’s Western Province is
(8): 1–191. http://www.euro.who.int/__data/assets/pdf_file​
/0006​/186072/e96822.pdf. dominated by the Barotse Floodplain, a vast expanse of
open, grassy, undulating land interspersed with canals.
The canals are flooded by the Zambezi River during the
annual rainy season, which lasts from October to May.
The floodplain is situated on deep Kalahari sands (locally
LOZI called Barotse sands) that are waterlogged during the rainy
Current Location Zambia; Zimbabwe; Angola; season but are dry for the rest of the year. The gleysols
Botswana; Namibia (wetland soils that are continuously water saturated for
Current Population 800,000 long periods of time) are low in nutrients. The peak of the
Language Silozi; English; Portuguese flooding occurs around three months after the peak of the
Interesting Fact All Lozi royals trace their ancestry to
rainy season in January and February. The flood recedes
a single princess. between May and July, during which time grasses quickly
grow on the exposed floodplain. The flood leaves behind
a fertile soil that lies on top of the Kalahari sands, thereby
Overview enriching the soil. As the flood recedes, the floodwaters
The Lozi (or Barotse, Rotse, Malozi Luyana, or Silozis, create lagoons, swamps, and oxbow lakes. In the late dry
among other names) are a Bantu people and members of season, this soil bakes hard in the heat.
an African kingdom living in Zambia, Zimbabwe, Angola, The floodplain has been mooted as a UNESCO World
Botswana, and Namibia. The Lozi ethnic identity is fluid, Heritage Site because of its long association with the Lozi,
for it comprises members from several linguistically dis- especially the Lozi Kuomboka/Kufuluhela ceremonies that
tinct groups whose degree of participation in Lozi life have taken place on the floodplain for over two hundred
varies between communities and on an individual basis. years, and for being an outstanding example of traditional
644 Lozi

human settlement and human interaction with the envi- become the main export from the lower Zambezi region. In
ronment. The interaction of the Lozi and their environ- the mid-nineteenth century, the Bemba people to the east
ment has resulted into various kinds of land adaptation: of the Lozi began to trade slaves for guns from Arab mer-
the Lozi have formed mounds used for flood-free settle- chants. As a result of this trade, the newly armed Bemba
ments and cultivation. They have also developed tradi- were able to expand their territory, to the detriment of
tional malelo (weirs) that trap fish when the flood recedes. the Lozi, who lost control over the Zambezi lowlands. In
Some of these mounds have been abandoned but are used the 1840s, the Lozi were conquered by the Kalolo, a Sotho
as burial places. Another example of Lozi land adapta- people who had themselves become displaced by migrat-
tion is the maongo, shelters made from reeds, grass, and ing Zulus. However, the Kalolo, who were used to living at
branches that are used by Lozi fishermen. high altitudes, soon succumbed to a lowland malaria that
The canals that dissect the floodplain are used for trans- swept along the Zambezi River. In 1864, the Lozi overcame
portation, navigation, and the draining of floodwater from the stricken Kalolo to rebuild their kingdom. Despite the
the plains. Since the late 1970s, however, the canals have short time that the Lozi lived under Kalolo rule, the peo-
fallen into disrepair and now remain flooded for months, ple’s Sotho language replaced the Lozi’s former dialects.
making it difficult for local people to farm the land. This In 1851, the British explorer and missionary David
issue is compounded by climate change, for the catchment Livingstone visited the Lozi and found them to be highly
area of the Zambezi River is located in central southern sophisticated. Then, in 1871, British trader George West-
Africa. According to some scientific models, this area is buch met with the Lozi king. The king was so impressed
warming at a higher rate than many other areas, and so it with the guns on offer from Westbuch that he permitted
could experience a particularly severe impact from climate Westbuch to found a trading post on Lozi land and made
change. To help address this problem, finance from Cli- Westbuch a close adviser. A later Lozi king, Lewanika (r.
mate Investment Funds  (CIF; development bank financ- 1878–1916), realized the Lozi would need powerful allies
ing) has been earmarked to help make communities living in the face of European colonialism and contacted Great
on the floodplain more resilient to the effects of climate Britain’s Queen Victoria via the British authorities in Cape
change. Town, South Africa. King Lewanika asked for British pro-
tection from European colonists.
In 1889, the British South Africa Company established
History and Politics the Lozi homeland as a British protectorate rather than a
The Lozi are a Bantu people that belonged to a Lunda tribe colony. In 1890, German colonial authorities in southwest
that migrated to the Zambezi lowlands around 1600. The Africa demanded they be granted access to the Zambezi
early Lozi developed a number of individual kingdoms River as well as a land link to German East Africa. As a
that were eventually united under one king. The united result of these demands, the Lozi homeland was bisected,
Lozi kingdom grew by assimilating neighboring peoples and one part was awarded to Germany, who subsequently
and overrunning nearby kingdoms. Over time, the Lozi renamed the region Caprivizipfel, after the German chan-
developed a centralized authority and well-organized cellor Leo von Caprivi (in office 1890–1894), who nego-
administrative and judiciary systems. tiated the cessation of the land from British authorities.
All Lozi royals trace their ancestry to princess Mbuyu German colonial rule proved harsh, however.
(or Mbuywamwambwa), who in the seventeenth or eight- In 1891, the British and Portuguese agreed to define the
eenth century broke from the Lunda kingdom of Mwata western border of Lozi land, but they were unable to agree
Yamvo in Congo. All subsequent kings, called the Litunga, on how far the territory stretched. Ultimately, the king of
gain their authority from coronations held at Mbuyu’s Italy was asked to judge, and he drew a line north–south
grave. According to Lozi folklore, Lozi royalty have lived to decide the matter. In 1903, a swathe of Lozi land was
along the Zambezi River since time immemorial and trace awarded to Portugal to make up part of Portuguese Angola,
their origins to the supreme deity, Nyambe, who had a sex- despite Lozi complaints that the move deprived the Lozi of
ual relationship with one of Mbuyu’s female ancestors. more than half of their homeland.
At the start of the eighteenth century, Portuguese trad- In 1906, the Lozi bowed to British pressure to outlaw
ers arrived on Lozi land searching for gold, copper, and slavery on their land. The end of slavery proved highly
ivory. By the start of the following century, slaves had damaging to labor-intensive Lozi agriculture. The move
 Lozi 645

prompted the Lozi king to order his people to change their The Lozi particularly suffered during this gradual
farming practices to grow fruits and vegetables in cities, decline because the government, obsessed with develop-
including Livingstone (in Zambia), which in 1905 had ing the Copperbelt and towns in the east of the country,
been founded on Lozi land. In 1911, Lozi land was incor- neglected Lozi land and its potential for farming. Addi-
porated into British Northern Rhodesia, a self-ruling pro- tionally, the government’s failure to build roads in the area
tectorate with its capital at Livingstone. meant the Lozi were all but cut off from the rest of Zambia.
Following Germany’s defeat in World War I, in 1920, the In the 1980s, Zambia began to move toward a multiparty
League of Nations awarded German South West Africa to system. At the same time, Lozi nationalism increased, lead-
South Africa. The Lozi were neglected by the administra- ing to the Bemba-dominated Zambian government paint-
tors, who soon instituted an Apartheid system and concen- ing the Lozi as tribal secessionists. The one-party Zambian
trated their energies on areas rich in copper reserves. The state ended in 1991. Around this time, the country’s copper
Lozi were relegated to working as laborers and soon found industry declined, a situation that worsened Zambia’s eth-
that they had to leave their homeland in search of work. nic tensions. In 1992, Lozi nationalists called for the res-
This situation caused resentment among the proud Lozi toration of the Lozi monarchy, the renaming of Lozi land
and prompted the first stirrings of Lozi nationalism. Once as Barotseland, and the return of Barotseland’s political
the richest people inhabiting their land, the Lozi progres- autonomy. The Lozi demands aggravated the political and
sively became poorer as colonial development schemes economic instability of Zambia, and the following year,
aided peoples living in copper-rich areas. Consequently, the government declared a state of emergency. Later that
many Lozi started to move to those areas. year, the Zambian president sanctioned the arrest of Lozi
Lozi nationalism peaked in the 1960s when the Brit- separatists.
ish prepared for the independence of Northern Rhodesia. Then, in 1993, around three thousand Lozi took up
Fearing that they would be overwhelmed by the Bemba, arms after rumors circulated that government agents
Lozi nationalists demanded Lozi independence, citing were hunting the Lozi king. In 1995, Zambian land
their people’s long historical alliance with the British. In reforms angered the Lozi further, for the reforms ended
1961, Lozi representatives traveled to Britain to petition the traditional Lozi land tenure system and gave the gov-
for Lozi independence, but they were unsuccessful. In ernment the power to redistribute Lozi land, a power that
1964, the Lozi king Mwanawina Lewanika III signed the had previously resided with the Lozi chiefs. In 1997, the
Barotseland Agreement, which gave Barotseland special ngambela (the Barotseland prime minister) wrote to the
autonomy while retracting the Lozi’s special relationship UN Security Council, the Commonwealth, and the Organ-
with the British, thereby paving the way for Zambian ization of African Unity outlining the Lozi separatist
independence in 1964. However, Zambia’s socialist gov- demands. The following year Lozi leaders from Zambia
ernment ignored that the Barotseland Agreement gave met with Lozi leaders from Namibia to see whether they
special autonomy to the Lozi and installed a regional polit- could forge an independence agreement. Lozi rebels from
ical leader more powerful than the Lozi king. In response, the Caprivi Liberation Army soon fought a fierce battle
Lozi nationalists unsuccessfully sought mediation with the with Namibian security forces after the rebels attempted
Zambian government. to overrun an airport and television station. The rebels
In 1972, Lozi living in the Caprivi area achieved local were heavily defeated, and their defeat caused more than
autonomy under South Africa’s bantustan system, in which two thousand Lozi to flee the Caprivi region. The area was
land was reserved for black inhabitants of South Africa and then placed under a strict military curfew, despite the
South West Africa (now Namibia) under Apartheid. Under fact that most of the residents did not support the rebels
this system, the Caprivi Lozi achieved considerable self- (Minahan 2002).
rule, including their own legislative assembly. However, Throughout the rest of the 1990s, the Lozi continued
this autonomy ended when Namibia gained independence to suffer economic neglect at the hands of national gov-
in 1990. Meanwhile, from 1972, the Lozi in Zambia existed ernments. Consequently, rebels continued to seek Lozi
under a one-party regime in a country rife with tribal nep- independence, sometimes with the backing of groups in
otism and corruption (Minahan 2002). Under this regime, Angola. During this time, there were widespread reports
Zambia went from being one of sub-Saharan Africa’s rich- of human rights abuses against civilians by government
est countries to one of the poorest. forces as they searched for rebels, including beatings of
646 Lozi

women and children. In response, several thousand Lozi languages. Written Silozi is based on the dialect spoken
fled to Botswana. around Lealui. Most Lozis in Zambia, Namibia, Zimbabwe,
Today, many Lozi like the idea of being part of a demo- and Botswana understand some English, while the Lozi
cratic, self-ruling monarchy. They also agree with nation- in Angola speak either English or Portuguese as a second
alist sentiments that true Lozi political autonomy, equality, language.
and justice are impossible while living as part of Zambia.
More moderate Lozi desire Lozi autonomy within a federal
Zambia, as they believe this would improve the people’s Health Care and Education
economic fortunes. All citizens of Zambia have access to universal health
care. However, by Western standards, this health care is
extremely basic due to poor funding: communications are
Society, Culture, and Tradition poor, emergency services are limited, and medical facili-
Traditionally, Lozi society is divided into a social hierarchy ties and equipment are in short supply. This is especially
comprising aristocrats, commoners, and serfs. The Lozi true of rural areas. This situation is exacerbated by the fact
king (litunga) is revered as the head of the hierarchy. How- that many Zambian doctors leave Zambia or go to work
ever, the Lozi’s increasing urbanization has weakened the in the country’s private healthcare system. The leading
traditional hierarchy. cause of death in Zambia is HIV/AIDS. Other major health
The Lozi’s most famous tradition is Kuomboka, an concerns in Zambia include lower respiratory infections,
annual boat pageant. Kuomboka, meaning “emerging out tuberculosis, and malaria.
of the waters,” occurs when the Barotseland floodplain is Most Zambian children complete primary school.
fully flooded during rainy season. When this occurs, the However, educational services for the youngest Zambian
litunga, along with all the people living on the plain, sail children remain of persistently low quality. Additionally,
in a colorful ceremony accompanied by an orchestra of girls in Zambia are disadvantaged in terms of education,
traditional music and dance from Lealui, the Lozi royal as many leave school during their later primary years or in
capital, to the litunga’s royal compound in the highlands secondary school. Many Zambian children are unable to
of Limulunga. Kuomboka refers only to the journey from continue from primary to secondary school because there
Lealui to Limulunga. The return journey back to Lealui is a lack of secondary schools to accommodate all children
is called Kufuluhela. In contrast to Kuomboka, which leaving primary school. Other barriers to Zambian chil-
attracts many spectators, Kufuluhela is a private affair. dren entering secondary education include the school fees
Another well-known aspect of Lozi culture is their arts that are introduced in grade eight, the cost of educational
and crafts, especially carved wooden bowls featuring supplies, the need for older children to work to contribute
animal motifs and baskets woven from the roots of the to their family’s income, and the long distances that many
mukenge tree. children live from schools.
The overwhelming majority of Lozi are at least nomi- Many Zambian girls are put off secondary school
nally Christians (especially Roman Catholic). Christianity because the schools lack menstrual hygiene facilities. Other
has been part of Lozi life since missionaries such as David barriers to entry for girls in secondary school include the
Livingstone entered Lozi land in the nineteenth century. low value placed on girls’ receiving a secondary education,
Missionaries not only converted the Lozi but also intro- pregnancy at a young age, and child marriage.
duced the first schools to Lozi areas. The Lozi tend to mix
Christianity with traditional beliefs, including a belief not
just in a supreme deity but also in spirits and other super- Threats to Survival
natural entities. As part of this belief in spirits, extravagant Once one of southern Africa’s wealthiest peoples, the Lozi
rituals and offerings are often performed at the tombs of are now one of the poorest. Lozi unity has increased in
Lozi kings. recent years as the Lozi consider the best ways to overcome
The Silozi language is a Bantu language belonging to their economic difficulties. As a result of these considera-
the Niger-Congo language family. The language is consid- tions, some Lozi back outright Lozi independence, while
ered a Sotho-Tswana dialect, though Silozi varies in terms others favor Lozi participation in a federal Zambia. Only
of phonetics and vocabulary from other Sotho-Tswana time will tell whether either option comes to fruition.
 Lur 647

See also: Tonga; Zulu The Lur population is divided into two main groups:
Further Reading sedentary peasants called the Pish-e Kuhi (meaning “above
Barbee, Jeffrey. 2014. “In Flooded Western Zambia, Communities the hills”), and the Posht-e Kuhi (meaning “on top of the
Lead Climate Fightback.” Thomas Reuters Foundation News, hills”), who live as nomads in the northwest of Luristan.
June 4. http://news.trust.org//item/20140604151139-yv3og. Another Lur population group, the Mamassani Lurs, live
Milbourne, Karen E. 2011. “Lozi.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and
around the city of Fars.
the Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup,
167–169. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. There are also two Lur sociolinguistic groups called the
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: Lur-i-Buzurg (Greater Lur) and the Lur-i-Kuchik (Lesser
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 3, L–R. Lur). Originally, the terms Lur-i-Buzurg and Lur-i-Kuchik
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. were applied to geographical divisions of Luristan. In total,
UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 1992–2018. “The Barotse Cul- the Lurs include over sixty tribal divisions.
tural Landscape.” UNESCO World Heritage Centre. https://​
Many Lur groups are composed of people with Lur,
whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5428.
Kurdish, and Arab heritage. As a result of Iranian govern-
ment policies, some previously nomadic Lurs now live in
cities.

LUR Geography and Environment

Current Location Iran; Iraq; Azerbaijan Luristan is both a geographical and historic region of west-
Current Population 2 million–6 million ern Iran. The name Luristan translates to English as “land
of the Lurs.” The region extends from Iran’s border with
Language Luri
Iraq and Kermānshāh (the capital city of Kermānshāh
Interesting Fact The Lur flag is green with a white
province in western Iran, formerly called Bākhtarān). The
stripe along its bottom and a white
crescent moon and six-pointed star
region separates the Khūzestān lowland from the uplands
on the upper hoist. in interior Iran. Luristan includes part of the Zagros
Mountains, which begin in northwestern Iran, run roughly
alongside the country’s border with western Iran, span the
Overview entire length of the western and southwestern Iranian pla-
The Lurs (also called the Lors) inhabit an area called teau, and end at the Strait of Hormuz, which lies between
Luristan (or Lorestan) that stretches across Iran as well as the Persian Gulf and the Gulf of Oman.
parts of Iraq and Azerbaijan. The Lurs speak their own lan- The Zagros Mountains are home to several ecosystems.
guage, Luri (or Lurish), which is an Indo-Iranian language Chief among these are forest and forest steppe areas that
of the Indo-European language phylum. The language have a semiarid climate. The mountains’ annual precipi-
is closely related to Persian. Lur men are often bilingual tation ranges from sixteen to thirty-one inches and falls
because they encounter people from outside of their com- mainly in winter and spring. Winters are very cold, with
munities, but Lur women tend to speak only Luri, as they temperatures dipping as low as −13°F. Springs are mild,
do not meet outsiders often. The name Lur translates from and summers and autumns are dry and warm.
Luri, meaning “wooded hill.” Lurs are Shia Muslim. The valleys of the Zagros Mountains are fertile, and
Luristan is, on the whole, an agricultural region, with irri-
gation used in upland valleys. The chief agricultural crops
Population, Diaspora, and Migration are wheat, barley, maize, beans, rice, fruit, and vegetables.
The Lurs live in their homeland of Luristan, which covers The hills provide good pasture.
southwestern Iran and neighboring parts of Iraq as well
as southwestern Azerbaijan. Lur population estimates vary
from two million (Shoup 2011) to six million (Minahan History and Geography
2016). Most Lurs live in the Zagros Mountains of western During the third century BCE, nomadic Aryan tribes set-
Iran, making up around 1 percent of Iran’s total population tled in the Zagros Mountains. These tribes were known as
(Shoup 2011). the Elam and were later incorporated into various Persian
648 Lur

empires. The region flourished from 2700 to 539 BCE, but were not given a share of the oil revenue. Instead, finances
advancing desertification caused the settled inhabitants of raised from the oil were awarded to Tehran, thereby creat-
the area to become nomads or to move to other locations. ing regional economic inequalities between the Lurs and
Arab invaders arrived in the region in 661 BCE, and while other Iranians. The Lurs were unable to complain about
the invaders introduced the local population to Islam, their treatment because, under the Pahlavi dynasty, the
which they adopted, the early Lurs maintained their own Lurs (like other Iranians) were forbidden from organizing
language and traditions. In 1106, Jangrawi Atabeks (Turkic political parties or expressing themselves through mass
nobles) settled on the land. media (Sekandar 1985).
Gradually, various Lur groups evolved from the region’s In 1953, a coup d’état occurred in Iran that over-
many settlers, including the Bakhtiyari, Mamassani, the threw the democratically elected Iranian prime minister
Ku-Gilu, and the Fayli. Over time, the Jangrawi became the Mohammad Mosaddegh to reinforce the monarchy of
dominant Lur clan and founded the Khurshidi dynasty of Muhammad Reza. Not long after, harsh, repressive policies
Atabeks that reigned from their capital of Khurramabad were implemented in Iran, including numerous economic
during the period 1184 to 1597. In the sixteenth century, development schemes that forced the pastoralist nomadic
the Lurs supported the Safavid ruler Shah Isma’il I and Lurs to resettle. Such policies destroyed an important ele-
adopted Twelver Islam, a branch of Shia Islam. At the same ment of Lur society, and today approximately half of the
time, Lur leaders adopted ‘Alid genealogy that saw them Lur population lives in settled, sedentary villages as well as
claim to be descended from ‘Ali ibn Abi Talib, who was in Iranian cities (Cabezas Lopez 2005).
cousin and son-in-law of the Prophet Mohammed. In 1979, the Islamic Revolution overthrew Muhammad
During the nineteenth century, the Iranian Qajar Reza to take control of Iran. The regime imposed strict
dynasty ruled over most Lur groups, except the Bakhti- religious control and ended the people’s political freedom.
yari. However, by the end of the century, all state control In recent years, the comparative liberalization of Iranian
over the Lurs had disappeared because the Qajar dynasty society has allowed the Lurs to voice discontent at their
proved unable to control the area’s vast number of differ- treatment by authorities. In addition, Lurs living abroad,
ent tribal groups. The Qajar dynasty was overthrown in particularly those living in exile, increasingly call for the
1921, and the military officer Reza Khan was enshrined people’s autonomy or the establishment of a Lur state
as Iran’s monarch and the leader of the Pahlavi dynasty called Luristan.
that ruled Iran until 1979. The Pahlavi proved intent of
subduing the people living in Luristan, including the Lurs.
They subjugated the Lurs by ending the Lur Wali dynasty, Society, Culture, and Tradition
executing or exiling many Lur leaders, and forcing for- Lur society exhibits Kurdish, Arab, Turkic, and Persian
merly nomadic pastoral Lurs to live sedentary lifestyles. influences. Around half of all Lurs are nomadic pastoral-
Lur culture was also affected, for the Lurs were disarmed, ists who travel for up to eight months per year.
the people were forbidden to live in their traditional black Lur communities have a tribal structure consisting of
tents, and they were forced to dress in Western-style tribal political units known as il. Each il consists of many
clothes rather than traditional Lur outfits. Governmental distinct groups called oulad. Each oulad is made up of var-
offices were installed in Lur areas to ensure these policies ious families that share a common ancestor. Every oulad
were enforced. is spread across a number of villages consisting of tent
In 1941, the British and Russians deposed the pro- households, which typically include a married couple,
German Reza Shah, allowing his son, Muhammad Reza, their children, and a flock of sheep or goats. Lur tribes
to come to power. The reign of Mohammed Reza Shah are headed by a khan (hereditary chief), who is initially
saw the further centralization of Iranian state power and selected by a member of an oulad. The khan is financially
the continuing disintegration of traditional Lur life. In supported through taxes raised on animals and grain.
addition, the implementation of land reform programs, Most Lurs are Shia Muslim, who follow the beliefs of
increased urbanization, and the nationalization of for- Twelver Islam. However, some Lurs, especially those with
ests and pastureland changed many aspects of Lur life. At Kurdish heritage, belong to a secretive Islamic sect called
the same time, Iranian oil was extracted from the moun- the Ahl-i al-Haqq (People of the Truth) that mainly oper-
tain slopes of Luristan and other provinces, but the Lurs ates in western Iran. Due to the sect’s secretive nature, very
 Lur 649

little is known about it. The sect is thought to have devel- in immunization programs, 90 percent of Iranians have
oped in the eighteenth century and combines elements of access to safe drinking water, and over 80 percent have
both Ismaili Islam and Shia Islam, with philosophies taken access to sanitary facilities (Asaei n.d.).
from Turkish-language Safavid poems. That Ahl-i al-Haqq Although Iran is a multilingual country, Farsi is the
maintains some elements of pre-Islamic beliefs is evinced language of education; therefore, classes and textbooks in
by the numerous shrines dedicated to holy men that can non-Farsi languages are not available. This is one of the
be found scattered across Luristan. The shrines are reputed reasons why many Lur children are not enrolled in school.
to hold healing powers, so every year, believers make pil- That some Lur peoples are nomadic also limits children’s
grimages to the shrines seeking healing. These pilgrimages access to formal education.
also act to strengthen Lur society.
Lur women are well known for their weaving abilities.
Threats to Survival
Lur weaving features geometric designs such as triangles
and diamonds and heavily stylized tree of life motifs. The Commentators have noted that Iran’s government treats
weaving is usually yellow, white, or blue in color on back- the Lurs less hostilely than other groups. Authorities con-
grounds of red or blue. Traditionally, Lur women enjoy sider the Lurs an authentically indigenous people of Iran
more freedom than other women in Iran. However, this untainted by the West, and so the Lurs are allowed, to a
situation has started to change recently, especially in cities. degree, to wear their traditional dress and maintain their
The Lurs are known for their distinctive dress, though typical lifestyle. At the same time, however, the Iranian
their clothing varies according to a people’s geographi- government’s earlier policies of forcing the Lurs to live
cal location and clan affiliation. Lur men wear items that sedentary lives, often in cities, means the Lurs risk losing
include a shaal (a long white cloth twisted around the their separate status and becoming assimilated into mod-
waist), a chugha (a wool wrap), felt hats, and handmade ern Iranian society.
shoes. Typically, Lur women wears a flowing, collarless See also: Bakhtiyari; Kurd; Qashqai; Talysh
dress called a juma, a silk headdress called a saava, and Further Reading
an embroidered overcoat called a golvani that is decorated Asaei, Seyed Enayatollah. n.d. “Iran’s Excellent Primary Health
with coins. Recently, the golvani has come to be regarded Care System.” UNICEF: Islamic Republic of Iran. https://www​
as an ethnic symbol of the Lurs. .unicef.org/iran/media_4427.html.
Cabezas Lopez, Joan Manuel. 2005. “Lurs.” In Encyclopedia of
the World’s Minorities, edited by Carl Skutsch, 755–756. New
York: Routledge.
Health Care and Education
Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
In Iran, over 85 percent of the rural population has access nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa Bar-
to primary healthcare services. Every rural village has a bara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
“health house” staffed by trained health workers, though Sekandar, Amanolahi. 1985. “The Lurs of Iran.” Cultural Sur-
some of the centers lack sufficient equipment. In addition vival. Cultural Survival Quarterly Magazine, March. https://​
www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival​
to the health centers, there are also rural health centers
-quarterly/lurs-iran.
that deal with more complex health problems. There is Shoup, John A. 2011. “Lur.” In Ethnic Group of Africa and the
roughly one rural health center per seven thousand inhab- Middle East: An Encyclopedia, 176–178. Santa Barbara, CA:
itants. Most children and pregnant women are enrolled ABC-CLIO.
 M

MAASAI census takers and so do not provide them with accurate

population figures. Exact population data is also difficult
Current Location Kenya; Tanzania to quantify because the Maasai live in remote locations
Current Population 1 million and travel freely across the Kenyan-Tanzanian border.
Language Maa; Swahili; English Meanwhile, Tanzania does not conduct censuses based on
Interesting Fact The Maasai spit on babies as a sign ethnicity, so it is difficult to say how many Maasai live in
of affection. Tanzania. Despite these issues surrounding the gathering
of data, it is estimated that the Maasai population meas-
Overview ures between five hundred thousand to one million people
(Massai Association 2019).
The Maasai are an indigenous, seminomadic ethnic group
In Kenya the Maasai are concentrated around the Great
living in an area measuring some sixty-two thousand
Rift Valley, and in Tanzania the Maasai are located on the
square miles in southern Kenya and northern Tanzania.
Serengeti Plain and the Maasai Steppe area. The area in
The Maasai are referred to as a Nilotic people because
which the Maasai traditionally live is sometimes referred
they live in the valley of the River Nile and speak Maa,
to as Maasailand. The Maasai’s cultural capital is the town
a Nilo-Saharan language related to Dinka and Nuer. The
of Magadi, located fifty miles southwest of the Kenyan cap-
Maasai also understand English and Swahili, the official
ital Nairobi.
languages of Tanzania and Kenya. The national flag of the
Maasai features a red background with a central black-
and-white shield over crossed white spears.
Geography and Environment
Hilly, arid, and semiarid grasslands characterize the Great
Population, Diaspora, and Migration Rift Valley, and the Maasai Steppe area features moun-
The Maasai are cattle farmers who historically have tainous grasslands. The Maasai homeland experiences
resisted the efforts of the Tanzanian and Kenyan govern- a lengthy dry season. This fact, coupled with poor soil,
ments to make them adopt a more settled lifestyle. Most means that most people consider Maasai land inhospitable
Maasai live in Kenya, though exact figures are hard to because it is unsuited to agriculture except for the grow-
determine because Kenyan Massai mistrust government ing of dryland crops. Although inhospitable to humans,

650
 Maasai 651

Maasai land has a greater density and diversity of mam- without fertile land because the best land went to the Brit-
mals than anywhere else on Earth. ish and Germans. Next, the British decided to establish an
Drought is a major problem for the Maasai. In the mid- agriculture-based Kenyan economy, so they ignored pre-
2000s, a severe drought forced tens of thousands of Maasai vious land agreements, moved onto Maasai grazing land,
to migrate to Nairobi and other Kenyan cities. However, and prevented the Maasai from performing cattle drives.
so strong was the Maasai’s relationship with their cattle The amount of land overseen by the Maasai was reduced
that they refused to leave the animals behind and instead again in 1913, with the land appropriated by the British
brought the cattle into the cities, where they grazed on the and other European colonialists renamed the White High-
cities’ golf courses and parks. lands. To add to Maasai woes, they were expelled from this
area on the grounds that they were not good farm employ-
ees. Instead, farming jobs were awarded to agricultural
History and Politics indigenous people living nearby.
According to Maasai tradition, the Maasai originated near During World War I, British troops stationed in
Lake Turkana, a lake in the Kenyan Rift Valley, before trave- Kenya captured German East Africa. Although the Maa-
ling to Tanzania during the eighteenth century. The Maasai sai appealed for the restoration of their lands, the British
then continued southward, all the while attacking neigh- did not return land to the Maasai. In the 1930s, the Maa-
boring tribes and stealing their cattle, until they encoun- sai appealed to the British again because the Kikuyu had
tered hostile tribes in the 1830s. Over time the Maasai started to set up farms on Massai land. Again the British
appropriated increasing amounts of grassland and reached failed to help the Maasai. Disillusioned by European soci-
the coast of Mombasa (Kenya) in 1859. By this time, neigh- ety, the Maasai began to reject modernization and opt
boring peoples considered the Maasai invincible, thereby instead for tribalism. At the same time, colonial authori-
ensuring the Maasai’s supremacy over East Africa. ties came to discriminate against the Maasai in favor of
The Maasai first encountered Europeans when Ger- the Kikuyu people, who assumed positions of authority in
man missionaries visited Maasai land in 1848. The Maa- Maasai areas.
sai took to the religion set out by the missionaries, even During the 1950s, quarrels over land and water rights
though Christianity denied a central belief of the Maasai gave rise to the Maasai nationalist movement that was led
religion—that God created cattle especially for them and by the Maasai United Front (MUF). At the heart of the
that they are the custodians of all cattle. nationalist movement was the demand that the Maasai
In the 1880s, the Maasai experienced epidemics of rin- be given independence when the British started to leave
derpest (an infectious viral disease affecting cattle and Africa during the late 1950s. However, the Maasai were
other animals). The disease decimated Maasai cattle herds, uneducated and lacked political know-how, meaning they
forcing the Maasai to steal cattle from neighboring peo- failed to put forward a persuasive argument for auton-
ples. A decade later, another wave of European mission- omy. Indeed, the Maasai continued to be marginalized
aries infected the Maasai with smallpox, resulting in 75 once Kenya and Tanzania achieved independence. Post-
percent of Maasai people dying from the disease (Mina- independence, the Maasai were outnumbered by growing
han 2002). With the Maasai population severely depleted, populations of farming tribes who encroached on Maasai
British colonialists embarked on a diplomatic mission to grazing land. Furthermore, the Kikuyu-dominated Kenyan
the Maasai with the aim of opening trade routes to the government decided that Maasai land should be divided to
region around Lake Victoria. Knowing that these trade grow food, and in Tanzania authorities nationalized Maa-
routes would cross Maasai land, the British treated the sai land. The resultant loss of land led to the Maasai endur-
Maasai respectfully; in return, the Maasai accepted osten- ing discrimination, poverty, and social upheaval.
sible British rule. Meanwhile, Maasai living in the south of In the 1980s, young, educated Maasai took over the
Maasailand came under German rule. Later, negotiations leadership of their people just as the Maasai faced further
would establish a boundary between British land and encroachment by agricultural tribes and Somali pastoral-
German East African territory, and although the nego- ists. When Daniel arap Moi became president of Kenya in
tiations left some land free for the Maasai, this land was 1978, he entered into political alliances with the Maasai,
generally of poor quality and drought-ridden. By 1904, as and a number of Maasai attained positions in the Kenyan
a result of the land division, the Maasai were left effectively government. Simultaneously, Moi employed Maasai units
652 Maasai

to ethnic violence because they sensed that their political

sway, brought about by allying with the ruling government,
was waning. Maasai leaders also accused the government
of preventing the Maasai from developing as a people in
much the same way as had colonialists. This accusation
came as Maasai leaders feared their alliance with recent
Kenyan governments had left them vulnerable to retri-
bution by the Kikuyus, whom they had attacked under
instruction from the government. Indeed, if the Kenyan
government fell from power, the Maasai would be vulner-
able to attack by more numerous peoples, including the
Kikuyus, Luos, and Kisiis.

Society, Culture, and Tradition

Traditional Maasai dress consists of lengths of red fabric
(shuka), which are usually wrapped around the body. The
Maasai also tend to wear beaded jewelry on their necks
and arms; the color of the beads varies depending on the
occasion. Both Maasai men and women wear metal hoops
on their ears, and ear piercing and stretching are consid-
ered integral beauty procedures for the Maasai. Maasai
women shave their heads and often undergo the removal
of their two lower middle teeth. The Maasai either go bare-
foot or wear basic sandals made from cow skin.
According to traditional Maasai beliefs, Enkai (God)
Maasai men in Tanzania perform a traditional jumping dance.
A jumping dance called adamu is part of the Eunoto ceremony divided the world’s resources between his sons, one of
of the Maasai males’ rite of passage to manhood. (Xing Wang/ whom was granted custodianship of cattle. It is from this
Dreamstime.com) son that the Maasai claim to descend so that in effect
they too are custodians of all the world’s cattle. Maasai
to intimidate his political opponents. Eventually, in 1991, life revolves around their cattle, which they treat with an
ethnic violence involving the Maasai broke out in the almost sacred reverence. All the requirements of Maasai
area of the Great Rift Valley. In the following years, land existence are met by their cattle: they eat the cattle’s flesh,
and water disputes erupted, with the Maasai employed to drink its milk and blood, wear the cattle’s hide, and build
quash uprisings. Around this time, many Maasai mobilized houses using dung. The Maasai also sacrifice cattle on spe-
to try to preserve the Loita Hills area, which held great cial occasions.
cultural, spiritual, and economic importance to the Maa- Maasai society is steeped in ritual. Many of these revolve
sai. A business consortium’s wish to develop the area as a around the transition of a boy into a warrior and include
tourist destination caused the Maasai great consternation. ceremonies such as Enkipaata (senior boy ceremony),
The Maasai’s opposition to this plan brought into focus the Emuratta or Emuratare (circumcision), Enkiama (mar-
conflict between traditional Maasai ways and conservation riage), Eunoto (warrior-shaving ceremony), Eokoto e-kule
interests versus the economic benefits of tourism. (milk-drinking ceremony), Enkang oo-nkiri (meat-eating
In 1994, talks aimed at ending ethnic violence between ceremony) and Orngesherr (junior-elder ceremony). Tradi-
the Maasai and the Kikuyu failed. Indeed, in the wake of tionally, boys (and girls) must undergo many of these ini-
the talks, the fighting worsened. However, the fighting tiation ceremonies before they are circumcised or before a
lessened in the run-up to the 1997 national elections that marriage ceremony occurs. Every ceremony is important,
were won by Moi, who promptly sacked his Maasai vice and Maasai children look forward to them because they
president. The next year, Maasai leaders called for an end understand that the ceremonies are essential life events.
 Maasai 653

Boys are initiated into adulthood and the attendant

warrior lifestyle in age sets. This means that there are Kakenya Ntaiya
always groups of initiated males ready to act as warriors. Kakenya Ntaiya (b. 1978) was raised in the Kenyan
The first stage of a boy’s initiation to adulthood is the pre- Maasai village of Enoosaen, where she was engaged
circumcision ceremony, called Enkipaata. This is organ- at age five and underwent female genital cutting
ized by boys’ fathers and sees boys aged fourteen to sixteen (FGC) in her early teens. The FGC was considered
years old travel across their land for around four months a rite of passage by villagers that marked the end of
accompanied by a group of elders. The boys erect around Ntaiya’s childhood and education and her readiness
forty houses in a separate kraal (camp), which is where for marriage.
they undergo the rest of their initiation. Before the initi- Since birth, Ntaiya had been taught that her only
ation ceremonies can continue, a chief boy known as the ambition should be to become a wife and mother.
Olopolosi olkiteng is selected. The role of Olopolosi olkiteng However, she wished to continue her schooling and
is not one that any boy desires because the Olopolosi negotiated with her father to be allowed to return
olkiteng must bear the burden of all the sins of his age set. to school after undergoing FGC. Although this was
On the eve of their initiation ceremony, the boys sleep out- unheard of, Ntaiya’s father agreed. Later, Ntaiya
doors. When dawn approaches, the boys run to the kraal, negotiated with village elders to be allowed to attend
which they enter with a violent attitude. The next stage of college in the United States in return for using her
the Enkipaata rituals sees the boys dress in loose-fitting education to benefit the village. The elders agreed,
clothing before dancing nonstop. Once this has occurred, and the villagers collected money to pay for her
the boys are considered ready for their most important ini- journey. Ntaiya received a scholarship to a college in
tiation ceremony, Emuratare, the circumcision ceremony. Virginia, and after receiving her doctorate from the
Emuratare is the most important part of Maasai chil- University of Pittsburgh in 2011, she returned home.
dren’s initiation into adult society and is experienced by In keeping with her promise to her village, Ntaiya
both boys and girls. In recent years, however, fewer Maasai founded and is president of the Kakenya’s Dream
girls have been circumcised than previously. The circumci- organization, which is focused on educating and
sion of Maasai boys demonstrates that the boys are able to motivating young girls to become agents of change
assume the adult responsibility of caring for the land. Too within their communities. Since its inception in
further denote their newly attained adulthood, the boys 2008, the organization has helped over 8,000 youths
also start to carry heavy spears and herd animals. In prepa- and provided a safe school environment for more
ration for this, several days before a boy is circumcised, he than 350 girls. When parents enroll their daughters
must herd livestock without a break. Then, on the day of with Kakenya’s Dream, they have to promise they
his circumcision, a boy stands out in the cold and cleans will not force their daughters to marry or experience
himself with cold water. The circumcision ceremony takes female genital cutting. You can learn more about the
place just before dawn, and as the boy walks toward the site organization at https://www.kakenyasdream​.org.
of the circumcision, his family and friends shout at him
words of encouragement and threats of failure. During the
circumcision, the boy must not betray the pain that he feels with other Maasai warriors (referred to as morrans) and
even though he does not receive any pain relief. Once the herding cattle. Two morran chiefs lead the initiates during
procedure is over, the boy receives livestock from his fam- their stay in the manyatta.
ily and friends because he is now considered to be an adult At the center of the manyatta is a flagpole bearing the
capable of rearing cattle. It takes boys three to four months Maasai national flag. This flag flies for as long as the war-
to heal after their circumcision, and to mark this healing riors inhabit the camp. While living in the manyatta, an
period, boys wear black clothes. Once their wounds have initiate wears a shuka and carries a spear and shield as
healed, boys are viewed as new warriors. emblems of his warrior status. The initiate also grows his
The next stage of a boy’s initiation is the formation of hair long and daubs his face and hair with red paint and
the manyatta. A manyatta is a warrior camp consisting of oil. The initiates also braid their hair and adorn their bod-
twenty to forty dwellings where initiated boys spend the ies with beaded jewelry made by Maasai women. Though
next ten to fifteen years of their lives eating and socializing life in the manyatta is fairly relaxed, once the initiates leave
654 Maasai

the camp, they face dangerous ordeals in their everyday husbands and children. Another reason for the tradition
life. As warriors, they will be expected to perform danger- is that it teaches warriors to cope with famine. During the
ous tasks, such as defending their cattle from lions. Enkang e-kule ceremony, the entire age set of warriors have
When the initiates’ time at the mayatta is over, they their hair shaved by their mothers as a sign that they have
undergo the Eunoto ceremony, or elder warriors’ initiation. graduated to become senior warriors.
This usually happens ten years after men become warri- The warriors’ next initiation is Enkang oo-nkiri, or meat
ors and marks their transition from warriors to senior ceremony, which takes place in a special camp consisting
warriors. Once a warrior has experienced this transition of ten to twenty houses. Once warriors have experienced
through participation in the ceremony, he is allowed to this ceremony, they are allowed to both dine alone and eat
wed and have children. The Eunoto ceremony occurs in meat prepared by women. To mark the ceremony, a spe-
another camp consisting of forty-nine houses. The last of cially selected bull is slaughtered. Then during a custom
these houses is a large mud hut called the Osinkira that is known as the bull skin ritual, warriors wrestle with each
built especially for the Oloiboni, a Maasai spiritual leader over the bull skin. This wrestling is significant because it
or prophet who oversees ceremonies and rituals. is used as a means to determine whether a warrior’s wife
During the Eunoto ceremony, warriors are banned from has been unfaithful by having sex with a younger warrior.
carrying weapons and have their heads shaved by their Wives are permitted to have affairs with warriors from
mothers. In addition to the head shaving, a ritual takes the same age set but not with younger warriors. If a wife
place during which an animal horn is set on fire, and war- is deemed guilty of this transgression, then she will be
riors have to snatch a piece of the horn from the flames scorned by her husband and by every person from her age
before the horn is reduced to ashes. Warriors do not really set. At the conclusion of the Enkang oo-nkiri ceremony,
want to grab the horn from the fire because it is painful to men and women fight against one another for the roasted
do so—and also because whoever claims the horn is said meat of the bull.
to earn a lifetime of bad luck. However, if no warrior claims The age set’s final initiation ceremony is the Orngesherr,
a piece of the horn before the horn disintegrates, the entire or junior’s elder initiation, which marks the warriors’ tran-
age set of warriors will be considered damned. Therefore, sition to the rank of junior elders. This ceremony, which
warriors take the attitude that it is better for one of their occurs when a warrior is around thirty-five years of age,
number to be cursed than the entire age set. On graduation is performed in a camp consisting of over twenty houses.
from the Eunoto ceremony, the warriors must distribute During the ceremony, each warrior is honored with an
among their elders eight bulls that they have raised espe- elder’s chair. At dawn on the day of the ceremony, a war-
cially for the occasion. In preparation for the graduation rior will sit in his chair and have his head shaved by his
ceremony, three important age set leaders are chosen by wife; if a warrior has multiple wives, then it is the oldest
the warriors. These are the Olaiguanani lenkashe, the Olo- wife’s duty to perform the shaving. The chair presented to
boru enkeene, and the Olotuno. Although it might seem a the warrior becomes his most prized possession, and when
good thing to be elected to these roles, no warrior wishes the warrior dies, it is passed down to his eldest son. After
to receive any of these titles, especially the title of Olotuno, a warrior has experienced the Orngesherr ceremony, he
because that person takes the blame for all the bad deeds is considered an elder and assumes full responsibility for
of his age set. During the graduation ceremony, the war- his family. The warrior is also now permitted to stop living
rior chosen as the Olaiguanani lenkashe is given a specially with his father and establish his own independent estate.
selected cow, and the Oloboru enkeene is presented with a
knotted leather strap that symbolizes his age set.
A couple of months after the Eunoto ceremony, the Health Care and Education
warriors establish a small camp for the Enkang e-kule cer- The Maasai tend to live in areas where health care is
emony, or milk ceremony. Before the Eunoto ceremony, severely underfunded and hard to access. As a result of
warriors are forbidden from eating alone, even if they this lack of access to health care, sick children, women suf-
are sick and do not wish for company. This tradition has fering from childbirth complications, and the elderly often
been established over the years to instill in Massai men a die before they can receive medical help. In recent years,
need for self-reliance rather than depending on women, nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have established
particularly mothers, who tend to make food for their very basic healthcare facilities (and some emergency
 Maasai 655

treatment centers) in many Maasai villages. These facili- received an education, and only a few Maasai youth went
ties provide primary health care and information on topics to university. Recently, however, Kenya has experienced
that include nutrition, hygiene, sanitation, sexual health, educational reform that aims to extend primary education
HIV/AIDS, female circumcision, child marriage, and to all Kenyan children, including Maasai children. Never-
domestic violence. It is important that the Maasai receive theless, in reality, few Maasai attend school because their
this information because they face conditions such as mal- parents cannot afford to have their children spend years
nutrition, respiratory infections, malaria, typhoid fever, away from herding while in education, and parents can-
tuberculosis, and HIV/AIDS. HIV/AIDS and other sexually not afford all the attendant costs of education (school uni-
transmitted infections are prevalent in Kenya. Although forms, books, etc.). Maasai children typically walk many
numerous HIV/AIDS prevention programs exist in Kenya, miles to school through areas inhabited by wildlife. Most
the infection rate is fairly high at 6.2 percent (Pakdamana Maasai children do not have access to books, the Internet,
and Azadgolia 2014). There are several active HIV/AIDS or even electricity, so completing homework is almost
prevention programs in Maasai areas, including those by impossible.
NGOs and government efforts. Knowledge of HIV and
other sexually transmitted infections exists within Maasai
society, but only 15 percent of Maasai use condoms (Pak- Threats to Survival
damana and Azadgolia 2014). This figure is low because Perhaps the biggest threat to the survival of the Maasai is
traditionally the Maasai consider semen as beneficial to the national governments under which they live. National
female health. In addition, the Maasai regard large families governments have been known to take Maasai land for
as an indicator of a person’s wealth and status, so they pre- private ranches, wildlife parks, and game hunting land,
fer to have many children. burning down entire villages to do so. Furthermore, where
Sex education is not generally provided for younger hunting and safaris bring in tourists, Maasai are abandon-
Maasai children. This is despite the fact that Maasai chil- ing their pastoralist lifestyle to work in tourist lodges.
dren first experience sexual activity at ten years of age. Climate change is another major problem for the Maa-
The reason for this early sexual engagement is that Maa- sai. With most Maasai land appropriated by governments,
sai homes are small and consist of two beds: one for the the Maasai retain only the least fertile areas of land. Rainy
parents, and one shared by children. Therefore, Maasai seasons have become short and erratic, so grass does not
children grow up seeing their parents having sex and learn have time to grow before the next period of drought. This
the act from a young age. Also, when Maasai children stay means the cattle is left without pasture, leading Maasai
at neighboring homes, girls sleep next to boys, so children men to walk for weeks in search of grasslands. Without
have the opportunity to experiment sexually. food or water, cows become too weak to produce milk;
Another reason for HIV/AIDS among Maasai commu- therefore, the Maasai have begun to buy and eat porridge
nities is that from a young age, women have many sexual rather than live off their cattle. To afford food, many Maa-
partners. Because Maasai culture is polygamous, women sai are selling their ancestral land.
are not discouraged from having multiple partners. Sim-
See also: Kalenjin; Mongol; Ogiek; Oromo; Swahili;
ilarly, the Maasai’s pastoral lifestyle means Maasai men
Turkana
journey far to graze their cattle, and they seek sexual satis-
faction from females on their travels. Further Reading
Homewood, Katherine, Patti Kristjanson, and Pippa Chenevix
Many Maasai villagers opt for alternative remedies or
Trench, eds. 2009. Staying Maasai?: Livelihoods, Conserva-
self-medication for sex-related infections. Though recently tion and Development in East African Rangelands. New York:
Maasai are increasingly visiting hospitals and local dis- Springer Science + Business Media.
pensaries, many Maasai believe they can treat HIV/AIDS, Massai Association. 2019. “The Massai People.” http://www​
gonorrhea, and syphilis with homemade herbal medicines. .maasai-association.org/maasai.html.
Until the start of the twenty-first century, very few Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations.
Vol. 3, L–R. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Maasai people received formal education. Primary schools
Pakdamana, Sheila, and Beina Azadgolia. 2014. “Maasai Culture
were rare, and secondary schools were virtually nonex- and Its Effect on Sexual Health: A Field Study on the Dis-
istent. NGOs and church groups, rather than the govern- parities of Knowledge within the Community.” Journal of
ment, built the schools in Maasai areas. Maasai girls rarely Global Health (August 10). http://www.ghjournal.org/maasai​
656 Macedonian

-culture-and-its-effect-on-sexual-health-a-field-study-on​ In Albania, Macedonians inhabiting the Prespa region

-the-disparities-of-knowledge-within-the-community. are Eastern Orthodox Christian, whereas those residing in
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Life Customs around the World: From Golo Brdo are principally Muslim.
Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.

Geography and Environment

The Republic of Macedonia, commonly simplified to Mac-
edonia, is a tiny, landlocked European country surrounded
MACEDONIAN by Serbia to the north, the disputed territory of Kosovo to
the northwest, Bulgaria to the east, Greece to the south,
Current Location Macedonian; Greece; Albania;
Serbia; United States; Australia and Albania to the west. The Republic of Macedonia is
part of a larger region also called Macedonia, which com-
Current Population 1.75 million
prises the historical Greek region of Macedonia located in
Language Macedonian
the southern Balkans as well as Blagoevgrad Province in
Interesting Fact The cultural melting pot that was
southwest Bulgaria.
early twentieth-century Macedonia
Macedonia is bounded by mountain ranges and home
inspired the French dish macédoine,
a mixed fruit or vegetable salad.
to a central valley formed by the Vardar River. The repub-
lic’s landscape is mostly rugged. Three large lakes—Lake
Ohrid, Lake Prespa, and Dojran Lake—are located on the
Overview country’s southern borders, where they are bisected by
The Macedonians are an indigenous people of Europe. Macedonia’s borders with Albania and Greece. Macedo-
Most Macedonians live in Macedonia, but others live in nia is seismically active and has experienced destructive
Greece, Serbia, Albania, the United States, Australia, and earthquakes, most recently in 1963 when the nation’s cap-
elsewhere. Macedonians speak the Macedonian language, ital, Skopje, suffered heavy damage by a major earthquake
which is part of the South Slavic language family. The that killed over one thousand people.
majority of Macedonians are Christians and belong to the
Macedonian Orthodox Church. There is also a small num-
ber of Macedonian Muslims. Macedonian identity and History and Politics
ethnicity is highly controversial because various countries The history of the Macedonians is highly contested. Mac-
lay claim to the Macedonians: Bulgarians maintain Mace- edonian nationalists maintain that Macedonians have
donians are really Bulgarian, whereas Greeks claim Mace- existed as an individual nation for thousands of years.
donians are Greek through the Macedonians’ associations Nationalists also claim modern Macedonians are the
with Alexander the Great. Although the name Macedonian descendants of the ancient Macedonians Empire that
is contested, both Macedonians themselves and interna- formed the original Macedonian state, which stretched
tional researchers use it. from Greece in the west to India in the east and southward
as far as Egypt under the leadership of Alexander the Great
(356–323 BCE). However, Greek nationalists claim that
Population, Diaspora, and Migration ancient Macedonians were Greek and that Yugoslav com-
The Macedonian population is estimated to consist of munist leader Josip Broz Tito (1892–1980) manufactured
around 1.75 million people (Danforth 2011). Most Mace- the nation that he (without justification) named Macedo-
donians live in Macedonia (or the Republic of Macedonia). nia. More neutral researchers argue that the Macedonians
There are smaller Macedonian communities in other Euro- can trace their heritage to Slavic tribes that settled in the
pean countries: between ten thousand and thirty thousand south and central Balkans during the sixth century CE.
Macedonians live in Greece, twenty-six thousand live in During the Middle Ages, Macedonia was ruled by a
Serbia (and Kosovo), ten thousand live in Albania, and five succession of empires, including the kingdom of Samuil
thousand live in Bulgaria. There are eighty-four thousand led by Samuel of Bulgaria (997–1014), the first czar of the
Macedonians residing in Australia, fifty thousand in the Bulgarian Empire; the Byzantine Empire; and the Serbian
United States, and thirty-eight thousand in Canada. Empire. From the fourteenth century to the start of the
 Macedonian 657

twentieth century, Macedonia was part of the Ottoman horror, the Macedonian inhabitants of Yugoslavia voted
Empire. During this period, the Macedonia’s population peacefully to establish the independent, sovereign state
consisted of a diverse range of ethnicities, languages, and of Macedonia. Successive Macedonian governments have
religions, including Bulgarians, Turks, Greeks, Serbs, Alba- struggled to prevent corruption and organized crime
nians, Roma, Jews, and Aromanians (a southern Balkan (especially drug dealing, racketeering, smuggling, and
ethnic group). human trafficking) from engulfing in the country. Mac-
Throughout the nineteenth century, the decline of the edonians have also struggled to adapt to living in a free
Ottoman Empire and the subsequent rise of Balkan nation- economy and to keep peace between the country’s Chris-
alism resulted in Serbia, Greece, and Bulgaria gaining inde- tian Macedonians and Albanian Muslims (which make up
pendence. At the turn of the twentieth century, guerilla around one-quarter of Macedonia’s population). Albani-
fighters, religious figures, and educators from each of these ans living in Macedonia vote for Albanian political parties,
newly independent states vied for influence over Macedo- and for this reason all democratically elected Macedonian
nia. At the same time, a distinct Macedonian identity began governments have been coalitions.
to emerge, as did a Macedonian nationalist movement. A In 1999, the Kosovo War forced over 350,000 Kosovo
pivotal point of the Macedonian nationalist movement Albanians fled to Macedonia, greatly reducing the tiny
was the 1903 Ilinden Uprising, an organized revolt against country’s living standards as unemployment rose sharply.
the Ottoman Empire overseen by Macedonian nationalist This situation destabilized Macedonia’s political harmony,
leaders, but it was quickly quelled by the Ottoman army. which was again endangered in 2001, when armed Alba-
After the Balkan Wars (1912–1913), the geographic nian insurgents fought the Macedonian security services.
area of Macedonia was divided between Bulgaria, Greece, The 2001 conflict ended when the Macedonian govern-
and Serbia. The section of Macedonia that became part of ment agreed to increase the autonomy of areas with
Serbia was designated South Serbia, and all Macedonians Albanian-majority populations, among other measures.
living there were considered Christian Slavic speakers. Since this time, the Macedonian economy has improved
The Serbian authorities did little to help the inhabitants slowly, as have living conditions.
of South Serbia regroup after the destruction of the Bal- Meanwhile, Greece continues to try to prevent Mace-
kan War, which had devastated the area’s agriculture and donia from being recognized as a nation under its consti-
infrastructure. The people suffered poor living standards, tutional name because Greece believes this name suggests
high birth rates, a lack of industry, and disrupted trade Macedonia has land claims against Greece. In addition,
routes that impacted the area’s economy. During World Greece tries to stop Macedonia from joining international
War II, Tito came to power and declared the formation of a organizations such as the European Union. In 1994, Greece
federal Yugoslavia. Then, in 1944, a Republic of Macedonia launched a hard-hitting economic embargo against Mace-
was established as one of the six republics of federal Yugo- donia. In an attempt to stop the tension between Macedo-
slavia. As part of the process of creating the Macedonian nia and Greece, the two countries were persuaded to sign
republic, a Macedonian literary language was invented, a 1995 Interim Accord that signaled Greece would end the
and the Macedonian Orthodox Church was established blockade, and Macedonia would renounce any claims to
despite protests from Serbian Orthodox Christians. Under Greek land. Political tension between the two countries
Tito, the Macedonians experienced improved living condi- continued, however. In 2004, the United Nations recog-
tions brought about by industrialization and collectivized nized Macedonia under its constitutional name. Then,
farming. By the end of World War II, over half of the Mace- in 2009, Greece stopped Macedonia from becoming a
donian economy relied on agriculture and animal farming member of NATO. In 2018, Macedonia’s parliament voted
by small farms. Postwar, Macedonian industry (especially to rename the country North Macedonia. This proved to
that involving textile, leather, and food production) was be the next step in the discord between Macedonia and
based on large-scale industrial collectives. Tito also over- Greece going back to 1991, when the new Macedonian
saw improvements to Macedonian transports and electric- republic adopted the name following the breakup of Yugo-
ity networks as well as the creation of shopping malls and slavia. Greece has long argued that the name Macedonia
tourist centers, which benefited the Macedonian economy. implies a territorial claim over the Greek province of the
During the 1990s, the breakup of Yugoslavia saw the same name. In January 2019, Greek protesters in Athens
country experience ethnic cleansing. However, amid the clashed with police at a demonstration over a Greek deal
658 Macedonian

with Macedonia that would see Macedonia adopt the name sector. Macedonians also retain beliefs in traditional folk
the Republic of North Macedonia with Greek approval. In healers (typically senior women) who Macedonians think
2019, the Greek parliament voted in favor of a deal seeking can treat people suffering from maladies caused by the
to end the long-running dispute between Macedonia and “evil eye.”
Greek by renaming the Former Yugoslav Republic of Mac- The Macedonian constitution allows for all children
edonia as the Republic of North Macedonia. to experience free and compulsory primary and second-
Albania recognized its small Macedonian population ary education. The country’s Law on Primary Education
by providing Macedonians with elementary schools. Bul- specifies that all children aged six to fifteen years must
garia refuses to recognize Macedonians living in Bulgaria attend school for a compulsory nine years. The Law on
and suppresses any expression of Macedonian ethnicity. High School Education states that all pupils aged fifteen
Greece also refuses to recognize Macedonians as a minor- to nineteen years must attend high school for at least three
ity population (Danforth 2011). years. In Albania, elementary education in Macedonian is
provided. In 2006, the Greek Bureau for Lesser-Used Lan-
guages (EBLUL), as well as the Greek political party the
Society, Culture, and Tradition European Free Alliance—Rainbow, moved toward intro-
Macedonian has a rich culture embodied in the people’s ducing the Macedonian language to the Greek school sys-
arts, literature, music, and folk societies. Macedonians tem by printing a Macedonian language primer.
preserve their language and traditions through cultural
organizations and festivals such as the Ohrid Summer Fes-
tival and Struga Poetry Evenings. There is also an annual Threats to Survival
wedding festival held at Galicnik on St. Peter’s Day, the tra- In Albania, the government recognizes the Macedoni-
ditional day for Macedonians to marry. During the festival, ans only as the minority inhabiting the Prespa area and
Macedonian women dress in traditional Macedonian folk prevents Macedonians from living in other areas. This is
costumes and perform dances. especially true of the mostly Muslim Macedonians in Golo
Under Ottoman rule, Macedonians became famous for Brdo. Albanian radio and television programs are broad-
their literary output. Celebrated historian and ethnogra- cast in Macedonian by the Korca State radio and television
pher Krste Misirkov, in his 1903 book Za Makedonskite station. The parts of Albania inhabited by Macedonians
Raboti (About Macedonian Affairs), explicitly stated that tend to be extremely poor, with many Macedonians sur-
the continuance of the Macedonian language and culture viving only by working as day laborers in Macedonia.
was intrinsic to the survival of the Macedonian people. The The Greek government does not recognize the Mace-
book was written in a variety of Macedonian dialects and donian language. Instead, Greek authorities class the lan-
argued in favor of a separate Macedonian national identity, guage as an idiom spoken by people living in the country’s
the establishment of autonomous Macedonian national northwest. Macedonian speakers within Greece insist on
institutions within the Ottoman Empire, and the standard- using the term Macedonian to describe the language, but
ization of the Macedonian language. the term Macedonian speakers is strongly opposed by both
Greek nationalists and ethnic Greeks in general. Various
human rights groups have recommended that Greece
Health Care and Education recognize and protect the linguistic rights of the coun-
Modern health care is available in Macedonia. Health try’s Macedonian-speaking people, but thus far the Greek
care in the country has gotten better in recent years, with government ignores these demands. For example, in 2003,
longer life expectancy and lower mortality rates for adults the European Commission for Racism and Intolerance
and children. However, death rates in Macedonia remain recommended Greece should sign the European Charter
high. Macedonia has transitioned from a state-based of Regional or Minority Languages while also ratifying
health system to a mixed system provided by the state and the Framework Convention for the Protection of National
private healthcare facilities. However, public hospitals are Minorities.
characterized by inefficient organization, funding, and Several international Macedonian societies, including
healthcare provision. In addition, many healthcare pro- the United Macedonian Diaspora, the Macedonian Human
fessionals migrate abroad or move to work in the private Rights Committee of Australia, the Macedonian Human
 Madurese 659

Rights Committee of Canada, and the World Macedonian are some Christian Madurese too. The Madurese speak
Congress, aim to secure human rights for Macedonians the Madurese language, which belongs to the Malayo-
living in Greece and elsewhere in the Balkans. These inter- Sumbawan group of the Malayo-Poynesian language
national and transnational groups also hope that Macedo- family. Traditionally, the Madurese language is written in
nia will gain recognition under its constitutional name. Javanese script, though lately Latin letters have been used.
Many Macedonians feel threatened and marginalized Most Madurese are poor and lower class and often suffer
both in Macedonia and abroad Australia. Macedonians from negative, discriminatory, ethnic stereotyping from
realize that as a small country, they are a low priority in their fellow Indonesians.
international relations, and for this reason, some Mace-
donians tend to feel somewhat ignored. There is also fear
among some Macedonians that other national powers may Population, Diaspora, and Migration
reduce their country’s status, culture, and authority. This Population estimates put the Madurese at around eight
feeling of vulnerability is exacerbated by the hostility of million people, making the Madurese the third largest eth-
neighboring countries to their culture and Macedonians’ nic group in Indonesia (Minahan 2012). Due to Indone-
desire for self-determination. On the plus side, Macedo- sian transmigration policies, many Madurese do not live
nian folk culture and language is thriving through numer- on their homeland of the island of Madura (also spelled
ous societies and festivals. Madoer).
See also: Bulgarian; Croat
Further Reading Geography and Environment
Danforth, Loring M. 2011. “Macedonians.” In Ethnic Groups of
Europe: An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 247–253. Madura is an island separated from the northeastern coast
Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. of the Indonesian island of Java by a narrow, shallow chan-
Haarmann, Harald. 2015. “Macedonians.” In Native Peoples of nel of water known as the Strait of Madura. Madura covers
the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contem- an area of just over two thousand square miles and has
porary Issues, edited by Steven Danver, 342–345. London: a rolling landscape rising from seven hundred feet in the
Routledge.
west to in excess of 1,400 feet in the east. Madura is admin-
Minority Rights Group International. 2015a. “Albania: Macedo-
nians.”World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, istered as part of the East Java province of Indonesia. Like
June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/macedonians. East Java, Madura has a wet, tropical climate. In the main,
Minority Rights Group International. 2015b. “Greece: Macedoni- the soil on Madura is dry and infertile, meaning that there
ans.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, is a long history of the Madurese leaving their home island
June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/macedonians​-3. because the land is unable to support the indigenous pop-
ulation. However, there are forests in the northwest of the
island in which teak trees grow, with teak, kapok, copra
(dried coconut kernel), and coconut oil being impor-
tant Madurese products. The main Madurese industries
MADURESE are cattle farming and salt panning. There is a Madurese
Current Location Indonesia fishing fleet of several thousand long, swift praus (sailing
Current Population 8 million craft). The island also sees a limited amount of petroleum
Language Madurese
extraction.
The main city on Madura is Pamekasan, which is located
Interesting Fact The soil of the Madurese homeland
is infertile and cannot support the
in the south central part of the island. Other important
indigenous population. towns of the island include Sumenep in the east; Bang-
kalan, on the western coast; and Sampang, Kamal, and
Kalianget on the southern coast. There are roads running
Overview parallel to the island’s northern and southern coasts as
The Madurese, also known as the Madurace, Madhure, well as across the island’s center, but these roads are gen-
Orang Madura, or Suku Madura, are an Indonesian erally in poor condition except for the road running from
ethnic group. Most Madurese are Muslim, though there Kamal to Pamekasan.
660 Madurese

History and Politics dying or being displaced. The violence between the Dayaks
The Madurese originated on the island of Madura. Accord- and Madurese was ferocious, with some reports stating
ing to Madurese folklore, the Madurese originated in the that Dayak fighters caught Madurese settlers, decapitated
Javanese kingdom of Medang Kamulan when the king them, and ate their hearts (Lloyd Parry 1997).
exiled his unmarried pregnant daughter. The daughter was In 2009, the Suramadu Bridge opened, linking Madura
placed on a raft and transported to the middle of the sea, to parts of eastern Java populated by the Madurese.
where she was to be thrown into the deepest water by one
of the king’s henchmen. At the last minute, the henchman
refused to kill the girl, who was then allowed to drift in the Society, Culture, and Tradition
sea, ultimately washing ashore on the island of Madura, Madurese society is generally very similar to that on Java,
where her son later became king. As a legend, the truth of though in the east of the island, Balinese culture is also
this story is questionable. It is known, however, that toward prevalent. The inhospitable climate and landscape of
the end of the thirteenth century, the Madurese resisted Madura has also influenced Madurese culture.
invasion by an invading army sent to conquer them by For the Madurese people, the concept of family is not
the Chinese emperor Kublai Khan. During the fourteenth limited to close family members; distant relatives are also
century, the Madurese converted to Islam. Then, in the six- considered close family under the traditional Madurese
teenth century, Dutch colonialists began to arrive by boat. family structure known as pon popon gik semak. Most
The arrival of the Dutch spawned a Madurese seafaring Madurese living on Madura are part of close-knit farming
tradition and new trade links, but at the same time the communities. Few Madurese living on Madura exist purely
Dutch capitalized on the political instability caused by the on their faming income, however, because the island’s cli-
people’s conversion to Islam. In 1624, the forces of the Mat- mate is arid, and the soil infertile and does not produce
aram Kingdom based on Java invaded Madura and occu- enough food to feed the indigenous population. Indeed,
pied the island until Madurese insurgents ousted them in some farms produce only two annual harvests of rice and
1672. Then, in 1680, the Dutch united with the Mataram so tobacco. Many Madurese are fishermen, salt farmers, or
that the Mataram could return to Madura and take control sailors serving on interisland cargo ships. Cattle farming
of the island, thereby handing control of the island to the and animal husbandry are also important Madurese pur-
Dutch. Madura remained under Dutch rule throughout suits. The Madurese living on Java do not normally own
the nineteenth century until Indonesian independence land but work as fishermen, sailors, unskilled laborers, or
at the end of World War II. Under Dutch control, many bicycle-taxi drivers.
Madurese migrated to other parts of Indonesia, particu- Most Madurese people are devout Muslims who adhere
larly Java, because Madura had infertile soil and few eco- to the Shafi school of Islam. The Madurese pray five times
nomic opportunities. Indeed, by the end of World War II, per day, fast during Ramadan, contribute an annual zakat
few people claiming Madurese ethnicity lived on Madura. (the compulsory giving of a proportion of one’s wealth to
During the period of the 1960s to the 1980s, the Indo- charity as an act of worship and of purification), and per-
nesian government sponsored many transmigration pro- form the hajj pilgrimage to Mecca. On important Islamic
grams that saw the Madurese forced to move to other areas religious festivities such as Id al Fatir, Madurese living
of Indonesia. These transmigration programs meant that away from Madura return to their homeland to celebrate
by the 1990s, many Madurese settlements had been estab- with their relatives who still live on the island. Despite
lished in previously underpopulated parts of Indonesia, their devotion to Islam, the Madurese believe in magic and
especially the island of Kalimantan. Despite living away will perform spells to control good and evil spirits. The
from Madura, the transmigrated Madurese did not lose Madurese also make offerings known as selamatan to avert
their ethnicity—something that led them into frequent evil and ensure security on important occasions such as
conflict with people indigenous to the areas to which they weddings, births, and deaths, as well as when traveling or
were moved. The most notorious outbreak of ethnic vio- hoping to sign a business deal. In addition, the Madurese
lence involving the Madurese occurred in the late 1990s, maintain customary laws (adat) that are passed down
when the Madurese fought the indigenous Dayak popu- through generations and which the Madurese believe
lation of Kalimantan, which led to thousands of people ensure the people’s success and well-being. The Madurese
 Madurese 661

honor important life events by holding blessed, commu- generally poor, unsanitary living conditions; malnutrition;
nal meals called kenduri that are said to impart good luck. lack of vitamin A (a common cause of blindness in devel-
Typical Madurese dishes include sate (skewered meat oping countries that also causes poor wound healing and
kebabs) and soto (meat soup). congenital birth defects); and nutritional anemia that is
The Madurese are well known for holding bullfights caused by poor diets (Niehof 1988).
and bull running events that traditionally see Madurese Up-to-date data on Madurese education is hard to find.
bull owners employ sorcerers and magicians to give their However, it has been claimed that education beyond mid-
bulls the upper hand in contests. In bull racing, two teams dle school is rare for the Madura people, as is job skills
of bulls tug a sledge ridden by a jockey as quickly as possi- training. The latter is especially important if the Madurese
ble along a track measuring one hundred meters. Another are to find employment in the industries developing on
Madurese tradition, carok, involves eradicating an enemy their homeland (Joshua Project 2017). The wealthiest
using a sickle-shaped knife. The Madurese carry the knives Madurese parents send their sons to pesantren, Islamic
on their person, so there is an ever-present threat of carok boarding schools, where lessons are taught in Indonesian
occurring when a Madurese person’s respect or honor is rather than Madurese. The head of a pesantren, known as
questioned. Indeed, there are various reasons why carok the kyai, is an important figure in Madurese society.
may be enacted, ranging from adultery to rows over money
to a person feeling embarrassed or believing he or she has
Threats to Survival
been disparaged.
Non-Madurese Indonesians often ridicule Madurese Typically, the Madurese live on one-third of the average
culture as being rough and uncivilized, even going so far Indonesian income, and the people’s lack of education
as to warn people not to interact with the Madurese or visit means they struggle to take advantage of Indonesia’s
Madura (Minahan 2012). Though the Madurese often claim increasing industrialization. Desalination technology
that they themselves are a temperamental, short-tempered could be used to turn Madura’s dry, salty soil into usable
people, many outsiders consider the Madurese charming farmland, thereby increasing the people’s income from
and straight talking (Minahan 2012). farming. The people could also benefit from outside help
in learning advanced fishing techniques that will not
exhaust fish stocks. However, for any of this to occur, it
may be necessary for the Madurese to become better
Health Care and Education
educated.
The Madurese place great store in herbal medicines, with Throughout Indonesia the Madurese have a reputation
most village women able to create folk remedies from fresh for coarseness, armed conflict, and strict Islamic beliefs.
and dried plants that are added to chalk and ash. These Transplanted to the more fertile islands of Indonesia, the
herbal remedies are usually used to treat four particu-
Madurese are often unwanted as neighbors by existing
lar issues: skin conditions accompanied by fever, sexual indigenous peoples. Justly or unjustly, the Madurese are
matters, minor ailments in general, and pregnancy and often blamed for arson attacks on churches and for violent
motherhood. unrest. At the heart of much of the Madurese’s poor press
Mortality rates are high on Madura, with birth and is their incompatibility with other Indonesian peoples,
death linked in the people’s imagination. For this reason, especially the Dayaks. Time will tell whether bloody con-
the Madurese are highly aware of the dangers of childbirth flict between the two peoples erupts once more.
and take many steps to alleviate the danger for pregnant
women and infants, including performing rituals, having See also: Acehnese; Ambonese; Dayak
complex rules of behavior, and creating protective herbal Further Reading
medicines. Joshua Project. 2017. “Madura in Indonesia.” Joshua Project.
In recent years, modern medical facilities have been https://joshuaproject.net/people_groups/13199/ID.
Lloyd Parry, Richard. 1997. “Headhunting Returns to the [sic].”
established in rural areas of Madura. At the end of the
Independent, June 8. http://www.independent.co.uk/news​
1980s, there were 85 health centers, 66 general practition- /world/headhunting-returns-to-the-1255044.html.
ers, 205 nurses, and a dozen dentists on Madura. None- Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the
theless, the main health problems for the Madurese are Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
662 Magyar

Niehof, Anke. 1988. “Traditional Medication at Pregnancy and significant Magyar minority follows no religion as a result
Childbirth in Madura, Indonesia.” In The Context of Med- of living under decades of communist rule.
icines in Developing Countries: Studies in Pharmaceutical
Anthropology, edited by Sjaak van der Geest and Susan Reyn-
olds Whyte, 235–252. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer
Academic Publishers.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Nooteboom, Gerben. 2015. Forgotten People: Poverty, Risk and The total Magyar population consists of around 14.5 mil-
Social Security in Indonesia: The Case of the Madurese. Lei- lion (Haarmann 2015). Around 10 million Magyars live
den, the Netherlands: Brill. in Hungary, where they are the predominant population.
Titus, Milan J., and Paul P. M. Burgers, eds. 2008. Rural Liveli- Most Magyars in Hungary live in rural areas. Though
hoods, Resources, and Coping with Crisis in Indonesia: A Com-
parative Study. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Amsterdam
some are occasionally classed as living in towns, in real-
University Press. ity, these towns are clusters of rural settlements (Minahan
Touwen-Bouwsma, Elly. 2004. “Madura: Islamic Isle.” Translated 2000).
by Rosemary Robson-McKillop. In Southeast Asia: A Histor- There is a dispersed Magyar diaspora. For example,
ical Encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, edited by approximately 1.7 million Magyars live in neighboring
Ooi Keat Gin, 815–816. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Romania, with 700,000 Magyars found in Slovakia. Ser-
bia, Croatia, Slovenia, and Ukraine have smaller Magyar
populations. Most Magyars in Serbia live in Vojvodina. In
Austria, Magyars live in the capital of Vienna and in Bur-
genland State’s capitals of Oberwart/Felsoor and Oberpul-
MAGYAR lendorf/Felsopulya. There are thought to be between 1.5
Current Location Hungary; Central Europe; Eastern million and 2 million Magyars in North American (Kürti
Europe 2011). Many members of the Magyar diaspora in North
Current Population 14.5 million America are descended from economic migrants who
Language Hungarian (Magyar) traveled to the continent in the nineteenth century, or
those who fled the 1956 Hungarian revolution.
Interesting Fact The inventor of the Rubik’s Cube,
Ernő Rubik, is a Magyar and was
For decades, Hungary’s population has been declining.
born in Budapest. Since Viktor Orbán came to power in 2010, the popula-
tion has declined further to 9.771 million in January 2018,
down from 10.014 million in 2010 (Reuters 2018).
Overview
Magyars are the majority population of the Central
European country of Hungary. The Magyars speak the Geography and Environment
Finno-Ugric Hungarian (or Magyar) language, in which Hungary is landlocked, sharing borders with Slovakia to
the Magyars are called the Magyarok. The terms Magyar the north, Ukraine to the northeast, Romania to the east,
and Hungarian are often used interchangeably. However, Croatia and Serbia (particularly the Vojvodina region)
some commentators argue that the designation Magyar to the south, Austria to the west, and Slovenia to the
should be applied only to people who ethnically identify southwest.
as such, with Hungarian used to denote all citizens of Much of Hungary’s landscape features expansive low-
Hungary irrespective of their ethnicity. It is thought the lands. The Little Hungarian Plain (also called the Little
name Hungarian derives from the name Onogur, a Turkic Alfold, or Kisalföld) is located in the northwest, bounded
confederation of tribes with whom outsiders confused to the west by the sub-Alps along the border with Austria
the Magyars. and to the north by the Danube River. The Little Hungarian
Hungary’s main religion is Roman Catholicism, but Plain is separated from the Great Hungarian Plain (also
around one-third of Magyars are Protestant (mainly Cal- called the Great Alfold, or Nagy Magyar Alföld) by low
vinists and Lutherans). There are also some Greek Ortho- mountains that stretch across Hungary from southwest to
dox, Jewish, Baptist, Evangelical, Methodist, and Unitarian northeast. The Great Hungarian Plain covers the major-
Magyars. Only a small proportion of Christian Magyars ity of central and southeast Hungary. In northeast Hun-
regularly participate in religious services, however. A gary, along the country’s border with Slovakia, Aggtelek
 Magyar 663

National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, features and Udmurtia). Later, they were joined by the Magyars and
hundreds of caves. lived under Onogur authority. Along with the Onogurs, the
Hungary lies within the drainage basin of the Danube Magyars migrated to the Pannonian Plain in two waves of
River, which floods in early spring and early summer. migration during the seventh and ninth centuries. The lat-
Another river, the Tisza, forms a floodplain as it travels ter migration occurred under the leadership of legendary
through Hungary and features large meanders and oxbow leader Árpád, who spearheaded the Hungarian conquest
lakes. Both rivers can cause devastating floods, so several of the Carpathian Basin. Within a few generations, the
thousands of miles of levees have been built to protect the indigenous inhabitants of the area had assimilated with
land. At the same time, the dry climate of the central and the Magyars and Onogurs. For years after their arrival, the
eastern parts of the Great Hungarian Plain means large- Magyars and Onogurs continued to expand their territory,
scale irrigation systems have been built, especially along resulting in conflict with many neighboring peoples to the
the Tisza River. Hungary contains more than one thousand west. The Magyars’ westward progress was thwarted in 955,
natural springs as well as the world’s largest thermal lake at however, when they were defeated in battle by the German
Hévíz, near Lake Balaton. Lake Balaton is the largest lake emperor Otto the Great (912–973).
in Central Europe and is known by Magyars as the Magyar Toward the end of the tenth century, Roman Catholi-
tenger (Hungarian Sea). cism spread across Hungary before being declared the
Hungary has a moderately dry continental climate. state religion by Árpád’s descendant, King Stephen I.
The  country’s lowlands are drier than higher altitudes. In 1102, Croatia entered into an alliance with Hungary
Central and eastern parts of the Great Hungarian Plain that saw the Magyars dominate the Croats. Hungary man-
are the driest parts of Hungary, whereas the uplands in the aged to retain its independence despite the rise of the Byz-
southwest are the wettest area of Hungary. Around half of antines to their east and the Holy Roman Empire to the
Hungary’s land is farmed. Hungary also contains mead- west. Hungarian king Matthias Corvinus (1458–1490) was
ows, pastures, forests, and woodlands. The upland forests a successful military leader as well as a progressive patron
are home to deer and wild pigs; rodents, hares, partridge, of the arts and education. Consequently, under Matthias,
and pheasant live in lowland areas. Hungary is home to Hungary became an influential power in the Western
many types of freshwater fish including pike and bream. world and enjoyed a golden age. Under Matthias Corvinus,
Hungary’s main environmental problems are water and the Hungarian army defeated Ottoman and Wallachian
air pollution that occur in particularly industrialized troops at the Battle of Breadfield (1479) in Transylvania
regions. and beat the Polish and German imperial armies at Breslau
(now called Wrocław, in Poland). Meanwhile, Matthias’s
mercenary army, the Black Army of Hungary, conquered
History and Politics parts of Austria, Vienna, and Bohemia. After Matthias’s
The origins of the Magyars are disputed, but it is gener- death, Hungary’s international standing declined, and the
ally thought the Magyars trace their ethnicity to migratory country became politically unstable.
Finno-Ugric peoples, including the Mansi and Khanty. In 1514, a major peasant rebellion led by a Székely sol-
While other Ugric peoples headed to Siberia, the Magyars dier, György Dózsa, arose but was annihilated by nobles,
moved west. In the seventh century, the Onogurs became headed by the Hungarian king, John Zápolya. Despite the
the first Turkic people to settle around the Middle Volga defeat of the rebellion, Hungarian law and order broke
River (a region the region between Russia’s Saratov Oblast down, paving the way for the Ottoman Turks to take

Stephen I: Hungary’s Saint-King

Stephen I, also called Saint Stephen of Hungary, was born a pagan but raised a Christian. Stephen’s reign was largely
peaceful, which allowed him the opportunity to found religious institutions and distribute alms to the poor. After
Stephen’s death, healing miracles were said to have occurred at his tomb, and his remains were reputed to smell of
balsam. Today, Stephen is Hungary’s patron saint. Though Stephen’s feast day is August 16, Hungarians celebrate a
national holiday dedicated to Stephen on August 20.
664 Magyar

over the country. In 1521, the most important southern the Magyars agreed to an armistice. Nonetheless, fighting
Hungarian fortress at Nándorfehérvár (today Belgrade, between the Soviets and Germans continued and destroyed
Serbia) was overrun by the Ottomans. Then, in 1526, the much of Hungary. Ultimately, the Soviets overcame the
Ottomans defeated the Hungarian army at the Battle of Germans, allowing for the reestablishment of Hungary’s
Mohács. As a result of this defeat, one-third of Hungary 1937 national borders and, in 1946, the establishment of
located in the south of the country came under Ottoman the Hungarian republic.
rule, a situation that lasted until 1690. Another third of Postwar, the Magyars adopted a left-wing, radical
the country (in the northwest) came under the control of political outlook as Hungary became a satellite state of
the Hapsburg Empire. The remaining third of Hungary the Soviet Union under the influence of Joseph Stalin but
formed the semiautonomous principality of Transylva- led by Mátyás Rákosi. Rákosi’s government implemented
nia. Following the division of the country, a great deal policies of militarization, industrialization, and collectiv-
of immigration to Hungary saw groups including Roma, ization that resulted in a major decline in people’s living
Swabians from southwest Germany, and various Balkan standards. Rákosi also established a secret police, the ÁVH.
peoples arrive. Under Rákosi, around 350,000 Magyar democrats and
From 1683 to 1699, a series of battles allowed the intellectuals were arrested, imprisoned, interned in domes-
Hapsburgs to expel the Ottomans from Hungarian land, tic and foreign gulags, or executed. Some 600,000 Magyars
thereby enabling the Hapsburgs to take over the rest of were also deported to Soviet labor camps, where at least
the country. Officially a separate kingdom to Austria, the 200,000 died (BBC 2009). In 1956, a Magyar revolt began
Hapsburgs utterly dominated Hungary. In 1847, Magyar in Budapest and spread throughout Hungary. The revolt
liberals managed to abolish Latin as Hungary’s national saw fighting in the streets of Hungary before Soviet tanks
language and replaced it with Hungarian. This victory were dispatched to crush the rebellion. Despite the rebel-
ignited Magyar nationalism, and a rebellion ensued (1848– lion’s defeat, communist rule in Hungary was not able to
1849). However, an Austria-Russia coalition defeated the fully recover. Thus when the downfall of the Soviet Union
rebels. The fight for Magyar independence caused thou- occurred, the impact on Hungary was not as great as it was
sands of Magyars to flee abroad, and others joined rebel in countries such as Romania. In 1989, communist rule
groups that harbored anti-Hapsburg feelings. In 1867, a ended in Hungary. Since then, the Magyars have forged
compromise saw a joint Austria-Hungary dual monarchy close links with the West as members of NATO and the
created along with two independent governments. The European Union (EU). However, the issue of ethnic Hun-
Hungarian government was able to set its own taxes and garian minority rights in Romania, Slovakia, Serbia, and
had its own parliament. This arrangement continued until Ukraine mean Hungary’s relations with these countries can
1918. Following Austria-Hungary’s defeat in World War I, be acrimonious.
the Treaty of Trianon (1920) saw the separation of Aus- The current presidency of Viktor Orbán has drawn
tria and Hungary, with areas of the former dual monarchy international criticism from some commentators who
made parts of Romania, Yugoslavia, and Czechoslovakia. consider Orbán’s openly “illiberal” government autocratic
As a result of the breakup, various Magyar communi- and overly nationalistic. For example, in 2015, Orbán
ties became dispersed throughout Central and Eastern ordered a razor-wire fence be erected to prevent Muslim
Europe. refugees from entering Hungary from Syria and elsewhere.
In the interwar period, Magyars became increasingly Other policies have seen Orbán’s government accused of
nationalistic as the people sought reunification. The Mag- anti-Semitism. In autumn 2018, the European parliament
yars’ desire for the restoration of their homeland caused voted to trigger the European Union’s most serious disci-
them to side with Nazi Germany during World War II. In plinary procedure against Hungary on the grounds that
1944, German forces entered Hungary, where they installed the government poses a threat to democracy and the rule
a regime controlled from Berlin but backed by most Mag- of law. The vote was in response to measures introduced
yars. The Nazis also extended their campaign against the by Orbán’s government to limit judicial independence,
Jews to Hungary, resulting in the deaths of Magyar Jews increase government control over the media, continue
sent to Nazi concentration camps (Minahan 2000). Later, mistreatment of the Roma, and impose restrictions that
in 1944, the Soviets invaded Hungary. The following year, could close the Central European University (CEU) located
 Magyar 665

in Budapest. Orbán’s main political opponents, the Jobbik also celebrate three main national holidays: March 15,
party, also have a history of ultranationalism that has led which commemorates the 1848–1849 revolution and war
to the party being accused of neo-Nazism. of independence; Az államalapítás ünnepe on August 20,
which marks the founding of the Hungarian state and is the
feast day of King Stephen I, who was canonized as a saint
Society, Culture, and Tradition by Pope Gregory VII; and the national holiday on October
For hundreds of years, the Magyars’ have lived in close 23, which marks the outbreak of the 1956 revolution.
proximity to other peoples. For this reason, their culture
is shaped by that of other European peoples, including the
Slavs, Roma, Latin Romanian, and Germanic Austrians. Health Care and Education
Similarly, the Hungarian language has been influenced by In Hungary the biggest health problems are heart and
numerous other languages including multiple Slav lan- circulatory disease, as well as cancer. Magyar lifestyle fac-
guages, Turkish, Latin, French, and German. Magyar cul- tors play a part in these problems because the traditional
tural renaissances occurred during the 1930s and 1970s, Magyar diet is quite unhealthy, and smoking and drinking
so the people’s connection to their culture is strong. Tra- alcohol are both popular with Magyars.
ditionally, Magyar culture is agrarian and includes a rich Hungary has a tax-funded universal healthcare system.
folklore and symbolism. Health care is free for children aged less than sixteen years,
Magyar music is influenced by traditional folk music. parents of babies, students, seniors over sixty-two years,
Eminent Magyar composers include Franz Liszt and Béla those on low incomes, the disabled, and employees of the
Bartók. Bartók collected and analyzed folk music, and as Church. Magyars have an increasing life expectancy and
one of the founders of comparative musicology, he is influ- a very low infant mortality rate. However, since the 1990s
ential in ethnomusicology. Dancing is also important to there has been a reduction in the amount of public money
Magyars. Traditional Magyar dances include the karikázó, paid into health care by the state. There is a shortage of
a circle dance performed by women. The dance is unusual doctors in regions with the poorest health care. Critics also
in that it is not performed to a musical accompaniment; suggest that state funds spent on health care are not effi-
rather, the women sing a capella style as they dance. Since ciently used. At the same time, people from neighboring
the mid-twentieth century, however, the reduction in Hun- countries journey to Hungary for dental care and rehabili-
gary’s farming culture means that folk dances such as the tative services at medical spas.
karikázó are now performed mostly by folk groups. Simi- In Hungary, children enter pre-primary education
larly, Magyar folk costumes, furniture styles, and customs when they reach three years of age. School is compulsory
are seen increasingly infrequently. for children from the ages six to sixteen years. Most Mag-
Food is a source of Magyar pride. Traditional Magyar yar children finish secondary school, but enrolment in
dishes include paprika chicken, smoked sausages, töltött tertiary education is low. Magyars who do enter tertiary
káposzta (stuffed cabbage), kocsonya (jellied pig’s trot- education often do not finish their studies. This is particu-
ters), halászlé (spicy fish soup), rétes (strudel), palacsinta larly true of poorer pupils. Hungary’s teaching workforce
(pancakes), gulyás (paprika goulash served as a soup), and is aging, and some parts of Hungary already lack subject
dobos torte (a multilayered sponge cake layered with but- teachers. For this reason, the Organisation for Economic
tercream, topped with caramel, and covered in chopped Co-Operation and Development (OECD) has suggested
nuts on all sides). Nowadays, restaurants increasingly that Hungary needs to attract younger teachers and
offer pizza alongside such traditional fare. Famous Hun- improve teacher training while also increasing funding for
garian wines include the wines from the Tokaj region of education.
Hungary as well as the red Egri Bikaver (commonly called In Austria, Magyars complain that they receive a dis-
Bull’s Blood). Csárda restaurants (traditional inns where proportionately small share of federal funding, which
local food and wine and folk music can be enjoyed) can negatively impacts the level of education they receive. In
be found. Burgenland, Magyars have had the right to Hungarian-
Because most Magyars identify as Roman Catholic, language education since 1937, with Hungarian-
they tend to celebrate Roman Catholic holidays. Magyars language primary schooling provided in some Burgenland
666 Malagasy

schools since 1995. In Vienna, Hungarian-language pri- Haarmann, Harald. 2015. “Hungarians.” In Native Peoples of the
mary schooling is provided by Magyar community groups. World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contempo-
Hungarian-language classes are offered in secondary and rary Issues, edited by Steven Danver, 322–324. Vol. 2. Lon-
don: Routledge.
higher education throughout Austria. Kürti, László. 2011. “Hungarians.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe: An
Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 185–190. Santa Bar-
bara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Threats to Survival Minahan, James B. 2000. One Europe, Many Nations: A Histor-
In recent years, Hungary has transformed politically and ical Dictionary of European National Groups. Westport, CT:
economically to the general benefit the Magyars, though Greenwood Press.
the country’s health care and education lag behind those Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development
(OECD). 2015. Education Policy Outlook: Hungary. Novem-
of many other EU member states. The impact of the Orbán
ber. http://www.oecd.org/education/Hungary-Profile.pdf.
government’s increasing insularity has yet to be fully seen. Reuters. 2018. “Hungary Will Defend Traditional Families, Stop
However, if the EU takes the unprecedented step of impos- Demographic Decline, Orban Says.” Reuters, May 25. https://​
ing serious sanctions under its article 7, then Hungary www.reuters.com/article/us-hungary-orban/hungary-will​
will find its member state voting rights in EU institutions -defend-traditional-families-stop-demographic-decline​
suspended, as well as the potential suspension of its EU -orban-says-idUSKCN1IQ0V8.
Szurovecz, Illés. 2016. “Hungary’s Health Care System in Desper-
financial transfers. Orbán’s government has announced
ate Need of Reform, Says Expert.” Budapest Beacon, Novem-
plans to stop and reverse Hungary’s well-documented ber 29. https://budapestbeacon.com/hungarys-health-care​
demographic decline by 2030. The Magyar population is -system-in-desperate-need-of-reform-says-expert.
also aging, with declining fertility rates. At the same time,
many educated Magyars are leaving Hungary in search of
work and opportunities in the West, yet Orbán’s govern-
ment remains fiercely anti-immigrant, opposing espe-
cially immigration into Europe by Muslim refugees from MALAGASY
Africa and the Middle East. In the short term, this situation
Current Location Madagascar
causes severe labor shortages in Hungary. In the long term,
Current Population Unknown
if the Magyar population continues to decline, then its sur-
Language Malagasy; French; English
vival cannot be ensured. Indeed, it has been reportedly that
by 2060 the population of Hungary will have dropped to Interesting Fact The Merina Malagasy
people have the most class
under eight million.
distinctions of any African
Though the Magyar community in Austria has suc-
peoples.
ceeded in increasing Hungarian-language schooling in
Austria, especially at the secondary level, Magyar are
denied other rights, including bilingual place names and Overview
road signs. Magyars in Austria also complain that the The Malagasy are an ethnic group indigenous to
country lacks Hungarian-language broadcasting. Because Madagascar. The group consists of Malayo-Indonesians
the Magyar community in Burgenland traditionally peoples, peoples with Arab heritage, and peoples
enjoyed more official recognition than that in Vienna, the with mixed African ancestry. The Malagasy speak the
Burgenland community enjoys more cultural initiatives Malagasy language, which derives from the Barito
than its Viennese counterpart. There is also some segrega- languages of southern Borneo and belongs to the Malayo-
tion between the two communities because publications Polynesian group of the Austronesian language family.
and programs created in Burgenland are sometimes una- The language is based around the dialect spoken by the
vailable in Vienna. Merina peoples. The Malagasy also speak French and
See also: Croat; Jews; Mansi; Székely English.
Just over half of the Malagasy follow the people’s indige-
Further Reading
BBC. 2009. “Hungary’s ‘Forgotten’ War Victims.” BBC, Novem- nous religious beliefs, which revolve around ancestor wor-
ber  7. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our​ ship. Just under half of the Malagasy are Christian. There
_own​_correspondent/8347146.stm. are also a growing number of Muslim Malagasy.
 Malagasy 667

Population, Diaspora, and Migration Older Merina and Betsileo villages are often found
The Malagasy are Madagascar’s largest ethnic group, mak- perched atop hills or surrounded by defensive ditches.
ing up most of the country’s population. There is some Modern Malagasy villages are sited on lower ground, and
debate over how many Malagasy tribes exist, though it hamlets and homesteads are scattered across the land. Pla-
is usually stated that there are eighteen Malagasy tribes. teaus in Malagasy areas often feature cattle enclosures with
Disagreement over the number of tribes and their names stone walls as well as carved wooden posts that serve as
stems from the fact that there are few clear distinctions funerary monuments.
between the tribes, and in many cases one tribe shades
indiscernibly into another. The exact Malagasy population
History and Politics
is also unknown because the Madagascan government
often changes the parameters of ethnicity when collecting The earliest Malagasy were Indonesian migrants who
such information. It is estimated that there are over 3 mil- were also the first people to settle on Madagascar, arriv-
lion Merina, 2 million Betsileo, 1.5 million Betsimisaraka, ing during the sixth century BCE. Linguists believe that
and 700,000 Tsimihety and Sakalava (Bureau of African the migrants settled originally on Africa’s east coast, where
Affairs 2011). It is believed that the Merina are the larg- they borrowed a number of words from Bantu peoples
est Malagasy people, accounting for 27 percent of the total before moving to Madagascar. The early Malagasy brought
Malagasy population. The Betsimisaraka make-up 15 per- with them from Indonesia various crops including yams,
cent of the total, the Betsileo make up 13 percent, and 6 bananas, taro, and sugarcane.
percent of the Malagasy are Sakalava or Tsimihety (Shoup In the seventh century, Arab merchants established
2011). Other Malagasy tribes include the Antandroy, the trading posts on Madagascar and began to tell people
Tanala, the Antaimoro, the Bezanozano, and the Bara. about both the island and its people. Then from the tenth to
Smaller Malagasy groups include the Antanosy, the Antai- the thirteenth centuries, Muslim migrants began to settle
fasy, the Sihanaka, the Antakarana, and the Betanimena, in northern Madagascar. In the fifteenth century, the first
who have been largely absorbed into the Merina. European visitor, Portuguese explorer Diego Dias, arrived
The Merina live in scattered groups across Madagas- on the island. By the eighteenth century, Madagascar was
car. The name Merina is reputed to mean “elevated peo- home to three kingdoms: the Merina, who dominated the
ple” in reference to the fact that they traditionally lived island’s center; the Sakalava, who ruled the west; and the
on the island’s plateaus. Similarly, the Betsileo inhabit the Betisimiraka, who ruled the west. At the start of the nine-
plateau around the town of Fianarantsoa in east central teenth century, Merina kings unified these kingdoms.
Madagascar. The Betsimisaraka tend to live in eastern For many years, the Malagasy were able to prevent for-
Madagascar. eign colonization of Madagascar. Then, in 1817, the Merina
monarch and the British governor of Mauritius agreed a
treaty to abolish the slave trade that had been a lynchpin of
Geography and Environment Madagascar’s economy. In return for abolishing the island’s
Madagascar is located in the southwest Indian Ocean, slave trade, Madagascar received British military and
where it is separated from the African coast by the financial assistance. The British influence over the island
Mozambique Channel. Madagascar consists of three par- remained strong for several decades. During this period,
allel zones: the central plateau, the eastern coastal strip, the Merina converted to Presbyterianism, Anglicanism,
and the western plains and low plateaus. The island also and Congregationalism. In 1883, France invaded Mada-
has numerous volcanic lakes, including Lake Itasy, Lake gascar and tried to make the island a French protectorate.
Alaotra, and Lake Tsimanampetsotsa. From 1883 to 1885 and again in 1895, the French battled
Madagascar’s eastern coast and central plateau are against the Merina kingdom for control of the island. Ulti-
composed mainly of crystalline rock forms such as granite mately, in 1896, the French declared Madagascar a colony
and quartz. The island’s many valleys tend to have fertile, of France open to French settlers. Then, in 1897, the French
alluvial soils that can support intensive agriculture. West- ousted the last Malagasy ruler, Queen Ranavalona III.
ern Madagascar consists of sedimentary rock deposits that In 1940, Madagascar backed the Vichy French gov-
produce less fertile soils. Staple Malagasy crops are rice, ernment (the government of France after Germany-
vanilla, sugar, cloves, cotton, sisal, peanuts, and tobacco. occupied France during World War II). After Madagascar
668 Malagasy

rallied to Vichy France, the island was blockaded by the (nobles), Hova (free people), and Andevo (slaves). These
British and South Africa, before the British occupied castes are further divided into multiple subgroups.
the island to stop it being seized by the Japanese. In 1943, The Merina tend to be among Madagascar’s social,
the British returned Madagascar to Free France (the banking, industrial, and political elite because they are
French government-in-exile during World War II). In 1946, the island’s most educated community (Shoup 2011). The
France granted French citizenship to the Malagasy, but Betsileo also hold several positions in Madagascar’s civil
this did not prevent a Malagasy independence movement service as well as professional jobs, though in the main the
from forming, and during 1947 and 1948, eighty thousand Betsileo are farmers known for their aptitude for growing
Malagasy were killed during a pro-independence rebellion rice. The Betisimiraka also farm, concentrating on grow-
(Shoup 2011). In 1958, the French allowed a referendum ing vanilla, coffee, and cloves. Most Malagasy wear Western
on Madagascar’s independence in which the Malagasy clothes, but in coastal areas people wear the east African
declared their wish for an autonomous state within the kanga, a colorful wrap cinched in at the waist.
French community. In 1960, Madagascar became inde- Malagasy culture is rooted in the need to honor ances-
pendent. Since then, Madagascar has experienced turbu- tors because the people believe that the spirit world in
lent times consisting of constitutional reforms, sporadic which their ancestors reside influences the living and con-
military regimes, and disputed elections; one president trols the physical realm. Thus, it follows that the relics of
has been convicted of corruption. these dead ancestors should be treated with respect. For
this reason, the Merina and Betsileo hold a funerary fes-
tival called Famadihana (Turning of the Bones) roughly
Society, Culture, and Tradition every six to seven years. By law, Famadihana may only
Traditionally, Merina society is the most stratified in occur in the annual dry season that stretches from June to
Africa, with the people divided into three castes: Andriana September. The exact history of Famadihana is unknown,

Malagasy people hold pictures of their deceased relatives as they gather for the festival of Famadihana (Turning of the Bones) in the
village of Ambohijafy, Madagascar. During Famadihana, the bones of the ancestors are taken from their tombs and commemorated by
the descendants before they are reinterred. (Rijasolo/AFP/Getty Images)
 Malagasy 669

but it is thought that the custom may be related to similar the ancestors residing within the tomb stay inside the
Southeast Asian traditions. There is no mention of Fama- building and do not cause any trouble for the living.
dihana occurring before the nineteenth century, so it may Family members travel from far and wide to attend
be that the custom was invented fairly recently. Famadihana because the festival offers a chance to com-
Famadihana varies between tombs, but the festival municate with dead ancestors, which the Malagasy believe
generally involves the bones of the dead being taken from are so influential in their lives. Thus despite being a festi-
their tombs amid much joyous shouting as the people rec- val in honor of the dead, Famadihana is a joyous occasion
ognize the bones of their parents, grandparents, aunts, and featuring singing by performers called razana, dancing,
uncles. The night before Famadihana begins, the names of the playing of accordion music, and the drinking of locally
all the ancestors taking part in the event are read aloud. made rum. In addition, women who are trying to become
Then on the first day of Famadihana, the skeletal remains pregnant will take a scrap of cloth from an old shroud and
are removed from the tomb and passed over the heads of place it beneath their mattress in the belief that this will
the line of descendants waiting to reclaim their ancestors. help them conceive.
Once exhumed, the bones are squirted with perfume and Though the actual festival of Famadihana lasts for just
wrapped in new, hand-woven silk shrouds called a lam- two days, the actual duration of the event, including prepa-
bamena, on which the names of the ancestor inside the rations, lasts about a week. The whole family is involved in
shroud is written in felt-tip pen. When the bones have both the preparations for Famadihana and the festivities,
been wrapped, their living relatives (known as zanad- so Famadihana involves a significant amount of expense
razana, meaning “children of the ancestors”) either carry for families.
the bones around the tombs several times or take them Approximately 41 percent of the Malagasy are Chris-
outside. The tomb contains a shelving system, so the order tian, being divided almost equally between Roman Catho-
in which the rewrapped bones are replaced is impor- lics and Protestants. Many Christian Malagasy incorporate
tant, with freshly entombed bones placed on the lowest reverence for the dead with their Christian beliefs, and
shelf and moved up, shelf by shelf, as additional corpses so when Christian Malagasy die, they may be blessed at
are entombed. When a family retrieves their ancestral church before being accorded traditional Malagasy burial
bones from the tomb, they may cradle them in their laps rites. Members of the clergy many also attend Famadihana.
or place  the bones in a line so that they may have their In coastal regions of Madagascar, such as the provinces of
photograph taken with the bones. Relatives also speak to Mahajanga and Antsiranana, there are Muslim Malagasy
the skeletal remains as though the ancestor to whom they minorities (Bureau of African Affairs 2011).
belong is still alive, telling the bones of family news and
recent events.
The ancestors are treated as though they are still living; Health Care and Education
therefore, it is important that their living relatives do not People in Madagascar tend to have very low incomes. This
seem upset in their presence, and above all the family must affects their health, with children suffering in particular:
not express any grief. The bones are also sprinkled with Madagascar has one of the highest rates of stunted growth
rum so that families can show their gratitude for all their in the world, with half of all Madagascan children suffering
ancestors do for them. When the relatives take the bones from stunting caused by poor diets. Indeed, despite receiv-
back to their tomb, it is usual for families to leave offerings, ing international aid, acute child malnutrition remains
called saodrazana. These offerings usually take the form of a critical issue in Madagascar, having increased in some
alcohol, a coin, and a photograph of their ancestor in their areas by more than 50 percent (The World Bank 2013).
prime. Common illnesses afflicting people in Madagascar include
Once all the bones and offerings have been placed in tuberculosis and malaria, and cholera is widespread dur-
the tomb, the tomb is resealed, and Famadihana is con- ing the rainy season. HIV/AIDS has killed one or both par-
sidered almost over. The gathered relatives drift away ents of eleven thousand Madagascan children (Our Africa
until only the astrologer and some attendants perform the 2019). Madagascar has several state-run hospitals provid-
fanidi-pasana, or “lock to the tomb” ritual, which sees mag- ing free, basic health care, though people have to pay for
ical charms buried in and around the entrance to the tomb. bedsheets, dressings, and food. Families in rural areas also
This procedure is performed to ensure that the ghosts of have to pay transport costs to reach healthcare facilities
670 Maltese

that often lack staff and specialist doctors. Depending on Our Africa. 2019. “Madagascar: Poverty & Healthcare.” http://​
their illness, Madagascans may turn to local healers for www.our-africa.org/madagascar/poverty-healthcare.
help rather than visit a doctor. Because Madagascar has Oyeniyi, Bukola Adeyemi. 2015. “Merina.” In Native Peoples of
the World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contem-
such as rich flora, traditional healers often use forest plants porary Issues, edited by Steven Danver, 61. Abingdon, UK:
to make medicines. Church groups, charities, and interna- Routledge.
tional nongovernmental organizations such as UNICEF Shoup, John A. 2011. “Malagasy.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and
help to train healthcare providers and run health centers. the Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup,
Recently education in Madagascar has improved, 180–182. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
but problems remain. Although the number of children UNICEF. 2019. “Madagascar: Education.” https://www.unicef​
.org/madagascar/5559.html.
attending primary school is rising, only 60 percent of first Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
graders go on to complete their primary school education, World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA:
repetition rates are high, and only 25 percent of children ABC-CLIO.
complete junior secondary school. Most Malagasy children The World Bank. 2013, June 5. “Madagascar: Measuring the
study in dilapidated, overcrowded classrooms stocked Impact of the Political Crisis.” https://www.worldbank.org​
with educational resources, but their teachers lack formal /en/news/feature/2013/06/05/madagascar-measuring-the​
-impact-of-the-political-crisis.
training and are often unpaid. In addition, many Malagasy
communities lack schools entirely. Every year, cyclones
and tropical storms damage school buildings, destroying
the limited school resources that do exist. Relief agencies
build temporary classrooms, but funds for rebuilding
schools permanently are limited. Poverty increases the MALTESE
likelihood of Malagasy children not attending school. This Current Location Malta
is especially true when children are needed to work to earn Current Population 635,000
money for their families (UNICEF 2019). Language Maltese; English; Italian
Interesting Fact In 1942, British king George VI
awarded the George Cross medal to
Threats to Survival
the Maltese for their collective valor.
Madagascar’s political uncertainty negatively impacts the
Malagasy economy. More than 92 percent of Madagascar’s
population survives on less than $2 per day, and poverty Overview
has sharply increased (The World Bank 2013). Low wages The Maltese are the inhabitants of the islands comprising
and increasing unemployment rates mean that the people’s the southern European nation of Malta. The Maltese speak
already low living standards have declined further. Annual the Maltese language, which is the only Semitic language
cyclones and storms also threaten the Malagasy, destroy- recognized as an official national language by the Euro-
ing their crops and infrastructure. The central Malagasy pean Union. Maltese is descended from Siculo-Arabic,
custom of Famadihana faces an uncertain future. Early an extinct variety of Arabic that developed on the Italian
Christian missionaries to Madagascar disapproved of island of Sicily before being introduced to Malta. Mal-
Famadihana and tried to stop it from taking place. Today, tese is the co-language of Malta alongside English. Many
the Roman Catholic Church, which has the largest follow- Maltese also speak Italian. Almost all Maltese are Catho-
ing of any religion on Madagascar, no longer disapproves lic, particularly Roman Catholic, though some follow the
of the tradition, but many Madagascan Evangelical Chris- Byzantine (or Eastern) Catholic Church. The term Maltese
tians shun the event. includes the Gozitans (or Għawdxin), who inhabit the
See also: Sakalava island of Gozo.
Further Reading
Bureau of African Affairs. 2011. “Background Note: Madagascar.” Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Under Secretary for Public Diplomacy and Public Affairs:
Bureau of Public Affairs: Electronic Information and Publi- The Maltese population is estimated to measure around
cations. May 3. https://www.webcitation.org/61Be3ZCkK. 400,000 people who live on the three inhabited Maltese
 Maltese 671

Mdina: The Silent City

Mdina, dubbed the “Silent City,” is a medieval fortified town in central Malta that is important for its many historical
buildings and fortifications, some of which are over four thousand years old. According to tradition, in 60 CE, St. Paul
the Apostle lived in Mdina following a shipwreck. St. Paul is also reputed to have lived in the Fuori le Mura grotto (out-
side Mdina’s walls). Mdina is one of Europe’s best examples of an ancient walled city and has been used as a filming
location for many productions, including the television series Game of Thrones.

islands: Malta (Malta), Gozo (Għawdex), and Comino trade and commerce and used the Maltese islands as a stop
(Kemmuna). There are significant Maltese populations on their trade routes. The Phoenicians referred to Malta
outside of Malta, with 110,000 Maltese living in Australia, as Maleth (“shelter”). Around 480 BCE, Malta’s Carthagin-
70,000 living in the United States, 30,000 living in the ian Period began. The Carthaginians (western Mediterra-
United Kingdom, and 25,000 Maltese residing in Canada nean Phoenicians) ruled Malta for almost three hundred
(Mitchell 2011). years. During this time, the Maltese grew crops including
olives and produced textiles. In 218 BCE, the Carthagin-
ians relinquished Malta to the Romans, who overran the
Geography and Environment islands during the Second Punic War (the second major
Malta is an island nation situated in the central Mediter- war between fought between Rome and Carthage). Under
ranean Sea in an area of water south of Sicily, north of Roman rule, the islands prospered, and islanders were
Libya, and east of Tunisia. Malta comprises five islands: allowed to be religiously diverse. The people were intro-
Malta (which is the largest island), Gozo, Comino, and the duced to Christianity during the Roman period, yet many
uninhabited islets of Kemmunett and Filfla. Malta has a Jewish menorah symbols have been discovered carved into
Mediterranean climate and can experience strong winds, stone on the islands. According to popular belief, Christi-
the most prevalent being the cool majjistral, the dry grigal, anity was brought to Malta in 60 CE by St. Paul, who was
and the hot and humid xlokk. shipwrecked on the island of Malta.
Much of the Maltese coastline consists of vertical lime- Following the division of the Roman Empire at the end
stone cliffs pitted with bays, inlets, and coves. Malta lacks of the fourth century CE, Malta came under the authority of
permanent streams or lakes and suffers significant water the Roman Empire of the East, based in Constantinople. This
runoff into the Mediterranean. Therefore, ensuring a con- marked the start of the islands’ Byzantine era, which lasted
stant water supply to the islands can be problematic. For this for around 375 years until North African Berbers took con-
reason, an intensive desalination program has been estab- trol of the islands in 870 CE. Arab rule had a lasting effect
lished on the islands that supplies much of Malta’s daily water. on the Maltese language and on local place names such
Construction works in Malta have changed the distri- as Mdina, Mqabba, and Rabat. The Arabs introduced new
bution and composition of the islands’ soils, so the 1973 crops, including cotton and citrus fruits, to islanders, along
Fertile Soil (Preservation) Act requires that when soil is with farming innovations including irrigation and field ter-
removed from building sites, it should be transported to racing. Arabic foods such as figs, almonds, and spices also
agricultural areas. Excessive forest exploitation for timber, entered Maltese cuisine. Although the Arabs introduced
as well as land clearance for construction and farming, Islam to Malta, they tolerated islanders’ Christian beliefs.
have led to the clearance of much of Malta’s woodlands. Like the Romans, the Arabs considered Malta a stra-
tegic outpost of Sicily and increased the islands’ fortifica-
tions. However, Arab rule over Malta ended after a long
History and Politics battle with the Normans, who arrived from Sicily around
Archeological monuments attest that Malta has been 1090. Various European nobles ruled Malta for the next
inhabited since 5000 BCE. Around 750 BCE, the Phoeni- several centuries. During this period, North African and
cians (citizens of independent city-states located along the Turkish raiders frequently took the Maltese (particularly
Mediterranean coast) settled in Malta. The Phoenicians the Gozitans) as slaves. In 1530, Holy Roman Emperor
were a maritime civilization that based their power on Charles V gave Malta to the Knights of the Order of St.
672 Maltese

John, a medieval Catholic military order. The knights ruled islands. The Allies’ victory in Malta was vital to their even-
Malta for 250 years and had a profound influence on all tual success in North Africa. In 1942, British king George
aspects of island life, including the building of forts, aque- VI awarded the George Cross (the highest civilian medal)
ducts, and cathedrals. The knights also brought health care to the Maltese people for their collective heroism. The
to the islanders, and the knights’ Sacra Infermeria in the George Cross is now a feature of the Maltese flag.
Maltese capital, Valletta, became Europe’s leading hospital. After the war, a burgeoning Maltese independence
In 1798, French Napoleonic troops invaded Malta movement strengthened. In 1964, Malta was granted inde-
as part of Napoleon Bonaparte’s plan to conquer Egypt, pendence, though British forces remained in Malta until
India, and ultimately Britain’s Far Eastern colonies. The 1979. Malta also adopted the British system of administra-
French reformed local aristocracy and the church and in tion, education, and law. Following Malta’s independence,
so doing became unpopular among islanders, who consid- the country developed its industry and tourism, and today
ered Napoleonic authority a threat to their way of life. The both Malta and Gozo are home to flourishing manufactur-
Maltese revolted within three months of the Napoleonic ing, service, and tourism industries. Malta became part of
invasion and forced the French to withdraw to forts in Val- the British Commonwealth in 1974 and a member of the
letta and elsewhere. The French remained in the forts until European Union in 2004.
1800, when they succumbed to British forces that had been In recent years, Malta has become a two-party state fea-
asked to help the Maltese gain their freedom from France. turing the Christian democratic Partit Nazzjonalist (PN,
Having helped the Maltese expel the French, the British Nationalist Party) and the socialist Partit Laburista (PL,
came to rule Malta. The 1802 Treaty of Amiens stated that Labor Party). The PN retains strong links to the Church
Malta would be returned to the Order of St. John, but the and is traditionally anti-British while promoting Maltese
Maltese requested they remain under British rule. In time ethnicity by stressing the people’s Latin (particularly Ital-
the Treaty of Amiens broke down, and the Napoleonic Wars ian) heritage. The LP tends to be pro-British, downplays
resumed, leaving the British committed to defending Malta Maltese cultural links to Italy, and posits the Maltese as a
from the French. Eventually, the 1814 Treaty of Paris gave pan-Mediterranean people.
the British full sovereignty over Malta. Subsequently, Malta
became an important strategic British stronghold, with
Malta’s fortunes inextricably linked to those of Britain. Society, Culture, and Tradition
In World War I, Malta served as a supply station and as Roman Catholicism is the uniting factor in Maltese soci-
a base for recuperating British troops. During the 1920s ety, with 98 percent of all Maltese belonging to the Church
and 1930s, Maltese class divides prompted arguments (Mitchell 2011). The Maltese are one of the world’s oldest
about Maltese ethnicity. The pro-Italian Maltese bourgeoi- Christian peoples, with Malta being home to more than
sie asserted the Maltese should forge closer ties with Italy, 360 churches and chapels (Malta Tourism Authority 2019).
whereas the pro-British Maltese working class wished to Catholicism shapes traditional Maltese views on issues
retain links with the British, on whom they relied for work including bans on LGBT rights, abortion, and divorce.
in dockyards. In response to arguments over which lan- When Malta joined the European Union, it was allowed to
guage the Maltese should speak, the British suspended the maintain the people’s traditional stance on such matters.
Maltese constitution. Soon, World War II broke out and Easter is a very important time in Malta. On Maundy
quieted the bourgeoisie’s calls for closer ties with Italy. Thursday, the seven visits tradition occurs, which sees
During the war, Malta played a pivotal role in warfare in Maltese people visit seven different churches. On Good
the Mediterranean. Malta faced repeated aerial bombard- Friday, a statue of Our Lady of Sorrows (a sorrowful Virgin
ment by the Italians and Germans because it was located Mary) is transported by street processions. In the after-
near Sicily and the Axis shipping lanes, and because the noon, the Maltese commemorate Christ’s suffering with
British used Malta as a base from which to launch attacks solemn processions of up to ten statues, each depicting a
on the Italian navy. Malta also served as a listening post, particular episode in the Passion of the Christ. Participants
intercepting German radio messages. From 1940 to 1942, in the processions dress as biblical characters, and as an
the Maltese endured the second Siege of Malta, during act of faith or penance, Maltese men carry a crucifix and
which the Axis attempted to starve and bomb the Maltese drag chains tied to their bare feet. On Easter Sunday, more
into submission. However, the Allied convoys and British processions occur, this time with participants celebrating
RAF kept supplies coming to the Maltese and defended the Christ’s resurrection by carrying statues of the risen Christ
 Manchu 673

and playing festive music. On this day, the Maltese eat Malta has an excellent education system, with most
figolla, almond-filled pastries shaped like rabbits, lambs, schools following the British curriculum that allows pupils
and hearts. Throughout the Maltese summer, the people to study a range of subjects. The Maltese school system sees
celebrate the festa season. During this time, the Maltese children experience pre-primary education (ages three to
mark the feasts of their patron saints by carrying banners five), primary school (ages five to eleven), and secondary
and paper statues along the streets. The Maltese also deco- education (ages eleven to eighteen). Children must attend
rate their homes with colored garlands and flags. school until the age of sixteen. Pupils can then go on to ter-
A particularly Maltese tradition, quccija (or il-quccija, tiary education. Maltese schools are divided into two cat-
meaning “choosing”), occurs on a Maltese child’s first egories, state and private schools. State schools are free to
birthday, and it is witnessed by the relatives and close attend, but parents have to buy their children’s school uni-
friends of the baby’s parents. Maltese culture is extremely forms. Because Malta is a bilingual country, English and
childcentric, but the origins of quccija are unknown. Quc- Maltese are both language of education. State schools tend
cija is based upon the idea that when a number of objects to teach in Maltese (except for English lessons), whereas
are presented to a child, the object he or she picks up deter- private schools tend to teach in English (save for Maltese
mines his or her future profession. Thus, objects that sym- lessons).
bolize certain professions are placed at a slight distance
from the child. The child then toddles toward the objects
and picks up one object. This chosen object predicts the
Threats to Survival
child’s future job or role in society. There are no imminent threats to the Maltese. However,
In the past, different objects were placed in front of the there are deep-seated disagreements among the Maltese as
child depending on whether the child was a boy or a girl. to what Maltese ethnicity means, if anything, and whether
Today, the objects do not according to the child’s sex but the people should intensify their links to Britain or Italy.
according to the career aspirations the child’s parents have See also: Faroese; Occitan; Walser
for their offspring. Therefore the objects placed in front of Further Reading
the child tend to represent professions such as account- Malta Tourism Authority. 2019. “Religious Sites.” VisitMalta.com.
ancy (represented by a calculator), medicine (represented https://www.visitmalta.com/en/religious-sites.
by a stethoscope), the law (symbolized by a pen), fashion Mitchell, Jon P. 2011. “Maltese.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe: An
design (a tape measure), cookery (kitchenware), farming Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 253–255. Santa Bar-
(represented by a vegetable), and religious orders (symbol- bara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
ized by a copy of the Bible, rosary beads, or a candle). Once World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA:
the child has selected an object, invited guests eat refresh- ABC-CLIO.
ments, including a local sweet delicacy called Xkunvat, a
pastry made with honey.
Traditionally, lace was one of the items presented to
female children during quccija. This reflected the long his-
tory of lace making (bizzilla) in Malta. Today, the ability MANCHU
for a Maltese person to make lace is considered a major
Current Location China
asset because Maltese lace is a highly valued commodity,
Current Population 10.5 million–11.5 million
with examples fetching high price at auction.
The Maltese language has an Arabic structure but is also Language Mandarin Chinese; Chinese dialects;
influenced by English, Italian, and Spanish. The language Kuoyu
includes many Romance loanwords. Interesting Fact The award-winning film The Last
Emperor (1987) is based on the
autobiography of the last Manchu
Health Care and Education emperor, Pu-Yi.

In 2000, the World Health Organization (WHO) ranked

Maltese health care fifth best in the world. The health care Overview
is free to Maltese citizens, who are able to access a number The Manchu are a people indigenous to China. The Man-
of exemplary hospitals, clinics, and pharmacies. chu homeland, Manchuria, is a region named after them.
674 Manchu

The Manchu are also known as the Man, Mandju, and Man- attempts by the Chinese to overrun the region. Then, in the
churians, among other names; the Manchu call themselves twelfth century, the Manchu were able to defeat the Mon-
the Niuchi, meaning “people.” The Manchu speak standard gols and rise to power to rule the area. In 1114, the Jurchen
Mandarin or northeastern Chinese dialects, though some leader Wanyan Aguda united all Jurchen tribes under his
speak the Manchu language, Kuoyu. Manchu belongs rule before his brother, Wanyan Wuqimai, defeated the
to the Macnchu-Tungus branch of Altaic languages, so Chinese kingdoms of Liao and Northern Song. Wuqimai
the Manchu are classified as a Tungus people. Officially went on to found the Jin dynasty (1115–1234). During this
the Manchu are Buddhists, though some Manchu follow era, Mongol groups ruled by the Jin dynasty rose to prom-
Chinese Confucianism, and others maintain indigenous inence in eastern Mongolia. Genghis Khan headed a Mon-
beliefs. Other Manchu identify as agnostic or atheist. The gol rebellion against the Jurchen, which saw the Mongols
Manchu are on average five inches taller than Han Chinese claim victory over the Jurchen in 1234. Under the Mongols,
people. the Jurchen were divided into groups: the Jurchen living in
the south were classified as ethnic Chinese, whereas those
living in central Manchuria were regarded as ethnic Mon-
Population, Diaspora, and Migration golian and made to adopt Mongolian names, customs, and
The Manchu are the fourth-largest ethnic group in China language.
and have the largest population of all Tungus peoples at The Chinese overthrew the Mongols in 1368 and treated
10.5–11.5 million people (Minahan 2014). Most Manchu the Jurchen as vassals. Then, in 1449, the Mongols invaded
live in Liaoning, Jilin, Heilongjiang, and Hebei Provinces; China, again instigating a period of violence and disorder
in Beijing; or in the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. that saw some tribes unite with the Mongols while oth-
There are also Manchu communities in Russia and North ers sided with the Chinese. Chinese attacks on the Jurchen
Korea. (who had sided with the Mongols) left many Jurchen areas
in ruins, Jurchen peoples displaced, and Hurchen leaders
dead. Three hundred years later, and by now identifying
Geography and Environment themselves as the Manchu, the descendants of the Jurchen
Manchuria is bordered by Russia to the northwest, north, became powerful enough to regain control of Manchuria.
and east, by North Korea to the south, and by the Chinese Then, in 1616, the Manchu founded their own state under
sheng (province) of Hebei to the southwest. Manchu- the leadership of Nurhatsi, launched raids on northern
ria consists of the modern sheng of Liaoning, Jilin, and China, and abducted Han workers and forced them to
Heilongjiang. Some definitions of Manchuria also include live in Manchuria. In 1644, the Manchu attacked China
the northeast of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. and installed a Manchu dynasty, the Ch’ing, in Beijing. By
Much of Manchuria lies on the Manchurian Plain. The 1680, the Manchu were powerful across China. The Man-
region is mineral-rich and mostly consists of fertile land to chu adopted many aspects of Chinese culture while still
the west of the Great Kingan Mountains. maintaining their own culture and language. At the same
time, the Manchu did not tend to foist their culture on the
Chinese save for making the people wear their in hair in
History and Politics pigtails as a sign of loyalty to the Ch’ing.
According to Manchu oral history, the people are descended In 1764, the Manchu sent many soldiers to their newly
from the Jurchen, a tribe that has existed since the seventh acquired land of Xingjiang, which was populated mainly
century CE, though the Manchu claim that their ancestors by the Uyghurs. To reach Xingjiang, the Manchu soldiers
have inhabited the northeast of the Manchurian Plain had to cross Mongolia. While on this long journey, the sol-
since the third century. The earliest Manchu were nomads diers married local women from various ethnic groups.
who later settled on rich grazing land. The offspring of these marriages are the ancestors of the
In 698 CE, the Jurchen established the Chen kingdom. ethnic groups known as the Xibe or Western Manchu.
At its zenith, this kingdom covered the whole of the Man- The Manchu population formed an elite ruling class
churia and northern Korea. Mongol Khitan warriors con- over the much more populous Chinese, and though the
quered the kingdom in 926 CE, but the early Manchu soon Manchu supported Chinese art, culture, and learning,
became fierce warriors themselves and repelled periodic they worked hard to prevent Manchu society from being
 Manchu 675

overwhelmed by the Chinese. To this end, the Manchu lan-

guage was kept alive by making Manchu children learn the
language at school, and Manchu people were discouraged
from talking to the Chinese. In addition, Manchu nobles
were not allowed to marry Chinese subject so as to keep
the Manchu bloodline as pure as possible. However, in
the long run these efforts proved ineffective because dur-
ing the nineteenth century, the Ch’ing dynasty began to
crumble, the Manchu’s ethnic identity began to fade, and
Manchu culture was absorbed into Chinese culture. The
Manchu also started to speak Chinese languages and inter-
marry with the Chinese. Also in the nineteenth century,
Manchu territory was threatened by advancing Russians
as well as the French, British, and other Europeans looking
for land to colonize.
Up until 1878, non-Manchu people were not permit-
ted to migrate to Manchuria, but the rule was ultimately
relaxed when acute population pressure in China pushed
Manchu authorities to allow limited Chinese immigration.
However, this limited immigration soon resulted in the
Manchu becoming a minority population in their home-
land. The issue was exacerbated by the growing influence
of Russia that went hand in hand with the building of the
A Manchu girl in traditional clothing, Yunnan Province, China.
Chinese-Eastern Railway. The Russians prompted Man- The Manchu are the fourth largest ethnic group in China. (Digi-
chu leaders to allow unlimited immigration to Manchu- tal Press/Dreamstime.com)
ria from 1896, and by 1900, Han Chinese accounted for 90
percent of the population of Manchuria (Minahan 2002). forces push Chinese forces back to Beijing. The Japanese
Toward the end of the nineteenth century, Manchu made use of the destabilization by persuading Chang to
authority had all but disappeared, thereby giving Russia give Japan control of the South Manchurian Railway. The
free reign to make Manchuria a virtual Russian protec- Japanese then proceeded to assume important positions
torate. In 1895, Japan attacked China and sought to rule within the state, and when Chang died in an unexplained
Manchuria, a move that led to Japan opposing Russia for bomb blast in 1931, the Japanese took over the Manchurian
control of Manchuria between 1904 and 1905. The Jap- government. In response to Japanese actions, the League of
anese proved victorious and turned Manchuria into an Nations called for Manchurian to become an independent
industrial area, with large urban settlements swelled by state under nominal Chinese control, but both Japanese
large-scale immigration from rural areas. In 1911, the and Manchu nationalists spurned this recommenda-
Manchu were overthrown; the last Manchu ruler, the child tion. The following year, nationalists supported by Japan
emperor Pu-Yi, was toppled; and a Chinese republic was declared the independence of Manchukuo, or Manchu
declared. The republican government was weak, resulting State, with Pu-Yi as leader. Though Pu-Yi had sovereignty,
in authorities losing control of regions including Manchu- the Japanese were the true rulers of Manchu State, so when
ria, where warlords held sway. In 1918, the governor of Japan declared war on China in 1937, Japan’s military was
Manchuria, Chang Tso-lin, made Manchuria into a virtual based in Manchu State. Similarly, in 1941, Manchu State’s
independent state backed by a fierce military drawn from Japan-dominated government declared war on the United
White Russian refugees who has fled to Manchuria. After States and its allies. At the Yalta Conference in February
1923, an influx of Han Chinese migrated to Manchuria and 1945, Joseph Stalin demanded Russian power in Manchu-
began to farm on stretches of virgin meadow. ria be reinstated before Russia entered into the war in the
In 1926, Chang declared Manchuria an independent Pacific. This demand was agreed to by both the United
state, leading to a war with the Chinese that saw Manchu States and Britain, and soon Russian troops were moved
676 Manchu

from Europe to Asia. Then, in August 1945, the Soviets spurred on by the people’s falling incomes; by this time, the
declared war on Japan and invaded Manchuria. Manchu were earning one-quarter of what those in Chi-
The war ended soon, and Manchuria was occupied by na’s southwest were earning (Minahan 2002). The downfall
the Soviets, who dismantled Manchuria’s industrial capa- of the Soviet Union further propelled Manchu national-
bilities and arrested Pu-Yi, who was later handed over to ism as the people of the Northeast Provinces proposed
the Chinese. Subsequently, the Soviets supported the Chi- forming an independent economic zone that would have
nese communists in the Chinese Civil War (1945–1949) direct access to the Sea of Japan via Russia and Korea. The
and maintained great influence over Manchuria. Mean- weakening of Chinese communism allowed the Manchu
while, the Manchu leader Kao Kang was made leader of to focus on the people’s financial welfare by strengthen-
the independent Manchu state in 1949 only to be accused ing ties with Japan and Russia. In 1998, Manchu leaders
of encouraging Manchu nationalism; he was ousted and suggested the creation of independent areas for Manchu
mysteriously disappeared in 1955. Subsequently, Chinese living in northeastern China.
rulers divided Manchuria into three provinces, a reclassi-
fication that meant that the region disappeared from Chi-
nese maps. The Chinese also declared that the Manchu had Society, Culture, and Tradition
never existed and banned all references to Manchu and At the heart of Manchu society is the concept of the
Manchuria (Minahan 2002). extended family, and it is not uncommon for up to four
During the 1980s, Manchu nationalism increased as generations of a family to live together in one home.
the Chinese government neglected the Northeast Prov- Traditional Manchu beliefs are steeped in shamanism.
inces with their heavy, aging industry in favor of thrusting Shamans are regarded as healers able to help and defend
coastal areas, where the people earned double the income the people by using magic spells to protect people from
of those in the Northeast Provinces. The lack of Chinese harm and bring good fortune. Belief in shamanism still
interest in the Manchu allowed the people to relax some- exists in Manchu villages but is dying out in urban areas.
what while also becoming more vociferous. In the late In particular, the Xibe retain a shamanistic belief system.
1980s, a wave of Manchu nationalistic nostalgia surfaced Many Manchu villagers also practice ancestor worship.
as people became more confident about declaring their This is particularly true in autumn, when the people sacri-
ethnic identity. However, this emerging Manchu confi- fice pigs and other animals as offerings to their ancestors.
dence was quashed in 1989 by a vicious military campaign The Manchu celebrate ancient festivals associated with
that also dispelled the burgeoning Chinese pro-democracy the planting of crops in spring, the harvest, and the New
movement. Year. At New Year, the Manchu decorate the doors of their
In the 1990s, as a result of interest in the Manchu cause, homes with blue, red, yellow, and white ornaments.
the people were finally counted as an ethnic minority in
the national census. The census recorded the Manchu pop-
ulation as over nine million people, a higher figure than Health Care and Education
expected that likely did not include Manchu people who Traditionally, the Manchu seek medical treatment from
identified themselves as Han so as to escape anti-Manchu shamans, who the people believe commune with deities
prejudice. The 1990s saw much civil unrest in Manchuria and use magic to help the people by controlling the future.

Dr. Fu Manchu and the Yellow Peril

Dr. Fu Manchu is a fictional Chinese antihero created by British writer Sax Rohmer (1883–1959). In addition to nov-
els and short stories, Fu Manchu also appeared in films, radio plays, and comics and inspired a range of sweets. Fu
Manchu, who debuted in 1912, was intent on the downfall of Western civilization and came to personify the “yellow
peril” mystery genre that expressed Western fears of the growth of Asian power. Nonetheless, Fu Manchu was much
loved by the public. Some contemporary critics consider Fu Manchu a racist creation, while others see Fu Manchu as
an admirable, trustworthy character.
 Mande 677

The Manchu tend to be more educated than other Chi- Sunni Muslims, though some smaller Mande groups, such
nese (Minahan 2002). In recent years there has been a as the Bobo, maintain pre-Islamic beliefs.
move to teach the Manchu language and cultural history
in Chinese universities. Today, the Manchu language is
mostly spoken by Manchu elders and their grandchildren, Population, Diaspora, and Migration
who have a newfound interest in Manchu cultural heritage. The Mande population is estimated to comprise up to 6
million people (Shoup 2011). The heartland of Mande ter-
ritory is located in southern Mali and northeast Guinea.
Threats to Survival Some small groups of Mande live scattered across West
The Manchu are a hated minority in China, so Manchu and sub-Saharan Africa. Recognized Mande groups
politics are rarely discussed in public. During the 1980s, include the Maninka of northeast Guinea and southern
the Manchu were considered fully assimilated into Chi- Mali; the Bamana of Mali; the Mandinka of Senegambia
nese mainstream society, but a Manchu cultural rival is and Guinea-Bissau; the Mandingo of northern Liberia;
ongoing and supported by most Manchu living in China. the Kuranko of Sierra Leone; the Dyula of northern Côte
See also: Dai; Hmong; Hui; Mosuo; Uyghur d’Ivoire; the Soninke of Senegal, northwest Mali, Guinea,
and southern Mauritania; the Malinké, who are concen-
Further Reading
trated on the Niger plains of northeast Guinea; and the
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
nic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 3, L–R. West- Sosso, who live mostly along Guinea’s coast, including
port, CT: Greenwood Press. the capital city, Conakry. Many other Mande peoples are
Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East and Cen- found around the periphery of the area between southern
tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Mauritania, western Burkina Faso, northern Benin, and
Smith, Troy D. 2015. “Manchu.” In Native Peoples of the World: An Senegambia’s Atlantic coast.
Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues,
edited by Steven Danver, 218–219. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
Geography and Environment
West Africa comprises many countries and displays great
ecological diversity. The region’s ecosystems occur in
broad belts across the region and range from deserts and
MANDE
savannas to coastal estuaries and tropical rainforests. In
Current Location West Africa general, West Africa’s ecosystems vary from extremely dry
Current Population 5 million–6 million to extremely wet. Desert shrublands dominate the north
Language Mande languages; national of West Africa. South of this band is the Sahel transitional
languages grassland, which is home to transhumant herders and
Interesting Fact Mande Wassoulou music is consid- their livestock (camels, cattle, sheep, and goats). The herder
ered one of the origins of American communities rely on the area’s grasslands and shrubland
blues. ecosystems. Between the Sahel and the moist tropical
forest belt farther south is a dry forest ecosystem that
extends across parts of the midsection of West Africa. A
Overview band comprising tropical moist forest stretches across the
The Mande (sometimes written Mandé and also called coastal sections of countries from Gambia in the west to
the Mali or Mandingo) is a family of Western Africa eth- Cameroon, Gabon, and Sao Tome and Principe. This eco-
nolinguistic groups related through their use of Mande system is particularly commercially exploited, but it still
languages. Mande peoples live throughout West and contains large sections of rainforest. Along West Africa’s
sub-Saharan Africa. The Mande languages shared by the coasts are swamps, brackish ponds, and estuaries that are
peoples are divided into two primary groups: East Mande cemented by mangroves. There are also transitional zones
and West Mande. Mande belongs to the West Atlantic between each of these ecosystem bands, as well as rivers
branch of the Niger-Congo language family. Mande peo­ and watercourses. Every freshwater river system in West
ple also speak national languages. Most Mande peoples are Africa has an important role in the regional ecosystems.
678 Mande

Water courses, especially in the drier savanna and shrub- thereby jeopardizing the health and livelihoods of all peo-
land areas, are essential for plant and animal diversity ple in West Africans (DAI 2013).
because these sites are affected greatly by both drought
and flooding.
Each of West Africa’s ecosystems is at serious risk from History and Politics
human activities. Direct threats to the region’s biodiver- The origins of the Mande stretch back to the ancient chief-
sity include forest clearance, mining (for gold, diamonds, dom of Manden that comprised much of present-day
and other minerals), infrastructure development, climate north Guinea and south Mali. The Mande probably took
change, the illegal trafficking of wildlife, and the unsus- their name from the title of the chief, the Maghan. From
tainable harvesting of wood and fish. Fresh water in the the Manden chiefdom, various Mande groups proceeded
region is subject to climate change as well as pollution from to establish some of the most powerful West African
improperly planned infrastructure. Changes to watersheds states, founded the Ghana and Mali empires, and led the
are caused by deforestation and development. West Africa’s expansion of the Songhai Empire across West Africa.
marine and coastal biodiversity is susceptible to pollution, Around 1500 BCE, several clans of Soninke descent (the
overfishing, and threats from oil and gas exploration. oldest branch of the Mande peoples) came together as a
Mining for gold, diamonds, and other minerals is nation comprising a confederation of three independent
important to many West African economies, so the min- yet allied states: Mali, Mema, and Wagadu. Wagadu was
ing sector has been permitted to increase production. called Ghana by Arab geographers and is located in the
However, mining by legal and illegal producers often southeast of modern Mauritania. By 1000 BCE, the Son-
results in the severe degradation of vegetation and top- inke had founded large settlements focused on intensive
soil, chemical spills, and the creation of water-filled pits agriculture. By 600 BCE, these settlements had morphed
that become breeding grounds for mosquitos. Mining also into chiefdoms, of which Wagadu was the most important.
contributes to forest conversion in West Africa because Wagadu, which had its capital at Koumbi Saleh in south-
forests are cleared to meet other land use needs, includ- east Mauritania, established control over the area between
ing mining, farming, cattle pastureland, and the develop- Dhahr Tichit in the southwest region of the Sahara Desert
ment of plantations for rubber, cocoa, and oil palm. Forest in Mauritania to the north and the upper Senegal River to
conversion alters local water sources and temperatures, the south.
so it is associated with higher rates of infectious and The Wagadu state grew to gain control over Berbers
vector-borne diseases (i.e., human illnesses transmitted by living in the southern Sahara. Trans-Saharan trade with
insects, flies, ticks, mites, and snails) such as malaria and newly Islamic North Africa was important to the king-
leishmaniasis. Cleared forests present new habitats, such dom because it could trade gold from Bambuk for salt,
as water-filled depressions, where mosquitoes, ticks, and fabric, and pottery from the Islamic world. It is likely that
fleas breed. the kingdom’s rulers converted to Kharaji Islam, which
Climate change is a major threat to both the environ- was the form of Islam adhered to by the kingdom’s main
ment of West Africa and the welfare of West Africans. West trading partners in Sijilmasa, Morocco. In the eleventh
Africa is experiencing increasingly frequent and intense century, the Almoravids (a confederation of Berber tribes)
droughts and floods that cause significant hardship to took control of trans-Saharan trade. The loss of these trade
people. In addition, seasonal rainfall patterns are variable routes caused Wagadu to decline. By the thirteenth cen-
increasingly. Such changes impact on ecosystems, farm- tury, Wagadu had declined further, leading to the creation
ing, food security, human health, and freshwater supplies. of many small Soninke states south of Koumbi Saleh.
Poaching and hunting (both illegal and commercial) for The rise of the Almoravids who followed Maliki Sunni
bushmeat threaten West Africa’s biodiversity. Soil and Islam (i.e., one of the four major madhhabs of Islamic
water pollution in West Africa are caused by the poor han- jurisprudence within Sunni Islam) ended Kharaji domina­
dling of industrial, municipal, medical, and agricultural tion among the Mande. In 1054, the Almoravids took con-
chemicals as well as untreated sewage. This pollution poses trol of Awdaghust, Wagadu’s Berber dependency, and then,
a serious threat to biodiversity and human health. Due in 1053, they captured Sijilmasa, thereby taking control of
to rapid population growth and increased mining, man- both sides of the trans-Saharan trade route. In 1076, the
ufacturing, and agriculture, pollution is likely to worsen, Almoravids plundered Wagadu’s capital. In so doing, they
 Mande 679

greatly weakened Wagadu. The success of the Almoravids Mande-controlled West African states came under British
enabled Maliki Sunni Islam to become the only form of or French rule. For example, in 1881, the Guinean Mus-
Islam across both North and West Africa. For centuries, lim cleric Samori Touré founded the Wassoulou (or Man-
however, many West Africans clung on to their traditional dinka) Empire in northern Guinea and Cote d’Ivoire in an
pre-Islamic religious beliefs. attempt to renew the power of the Kingdom of Mali only
In the thirteenth century, the king of the Sosso people, for it to fall to the French in 1889. Similarly, in 1898, the
Sumaworo Kante, seized Koumbi Saleh and took con- British defeated the Mende in By 1900, the European con-
trol of numerous, nearby lands, and peoples such as the quest of West Africa was complete.
Mandinka, who resided in what is now Mali. In response, Samori Touré’s descendant, Sekou Touré, led a West
Mandinka prince Sundiata Keita developed a contingent African independence movement, and in 1958, he became
of smaller kingdoms to stand against Kante in the Battle the first president of Guinea (which was the first colonial
of Kirina (ca. 1230). Keita’s combined forces defeated the territory to gain independence). Eager to revive the culture
Sosso, and his new Mali empire became the dominant of the Kingdom of Mali, Touré launched a government
regional power. Sundiata was nominally Muslim, and program that brought to Guinea numerous jeli (musician-
his religion secured his position as the leader of Islamic genealogists who perform historical songs). However,
Mande society. The Mande retained a number of pre- Touré became a dictator (Shoup 2011) who imposed a one-
Islamic customs and beliefs until the eighteenth and nine- party system on Guinea and isolated the country from the
teenth centuries, when the jihadist states rose to power. outside world. When Touré died in 1984, the military, led
Later, Sundiata’s general Taramakan Traore took control of by Colonel Lansana Conté, took charge of Guinea. Conté
much of West Africa’s Atlantic coast, thereby initiating the remained in charge until 2009, when he too was ousted by
widespread presence of Mande peoples in this area. a military coup.
Typically, Malian rule took the form of vassalage, From 2000, Guinea became involved in conflict in
whereby an existing elite was allowed to stay in power but Sierra Leone and Liberia. Conté had provided support to
paid taxes to and recognized the authority of the Malian a predominantly Mandé (or Mandingo in Liberia) group
king. For this reason, Sundiata took the title Mansa, mean- fighting the government of Liberian President Charles
ing “King of Kings,” a title Sundiata’s descendants contin- Taylor. In response, Taylor deployed Sierra Leone’s notori-
ued to use. The Malian empire was at its most powerful ous Revolutionary United Front (RUF) to assist his forces
under Mansa. in attacking Guinea. As a result of this attack, tens of thou-
Musa (or Musa I of Mali, r. 1312–1337), who controlled sands of Guineans living in the country’s forest region were
twenty-four kingdoms. Mansa Musa became a legendary displaced. Mali became independent in 1960, with its first
figure famous for performing the hajj pilgrimage to Mecca. president, Modibo Keita, claiming descent from Sundiata
Though Mansa Musa was not the first king of Mali to per- Keita. Keita ruled in a similar fashion to Touré and was
form the hajj, his pilgrimage became fabled. Mansa Musa ousted by a coup when General Mousa Troure took power
also became famous for his prolific spending on gold. in 1968. In 1991, Troure was deposed by a coup before a
Mali remained powerful into the fifteenth century, civilian government came to power in 1992. Since then,
when the Songhay took over the Malian province of Mema. elected governments have ruled Mali.
The Songhay were based further east along the Niger
River, and in 1469, their king Sii (or Soni ‘Ali Beeri) con-
quered the Malian city of Timbuktu. Later, the Kingdom Society, Culture, and Tradition
of Mali disintegrated into numerous small states based The capital of the Wagadu empire was called al-Ghabah,
around cities such as Segu and Nioro. The Mende living meaning “forest.” This name was conferred on the capital
in Sierra Leone were expelled from Mali shortly before its because forests were considered sacred places presided
fall. By 1540, the Mende had established an independent over by priests. Forests were also used to store sacred
state in the Cape Mount area in modern Liberia. During objects. In the same religious tradition, blacksmiths were
the seventeenth century, the Mende spread out here and revered due to their ability to change metal into tools. The
came into conflict with the Temne people of Sierra Leone. conflict between the thirteenth-century blacksmith king of
Eventually, the Mende took control of most of what is now the Sosso people, Sumaworo Kante, and the founder of the
Sierra Leone. In the second half of the nineteenth century, empire of Mali, Sundiata Keita, can be seen as the conflict
680 Mande

between pre-Islamic beliefs and the emerging Islamic to food shortages. Chronic malnutrition affects many West
society of West Africa. Today, most Mande are Muslims African children. Women and children in West Africa
belonging to the Maliki Sunni school of Islam. suffer high incidence of sexual violence as the result of
Mande society exhibits strong class divisions. The regional conflict. Consequences of this violence include
social structure, especially among Muslim groups, is a physical and psychological trauma, unwanted pregnan-
pronounced hierarchy stretching from royalty and noble cies, unsafe abortions, and the spread of sexually trans-
lineages to landowners (horonw), skilled artisans (nyam- mitted infections.
akala) who form the second tier, commoners, and low- In Burkina Faso, Benin, Senegal, Sierra Leon, Niger,
status artisans. In earlier times, jon (slaves) formed the and Mali, there are on average less than ten medics per
bottom tier of society. Traditionally, artisans are regarded one hundred thousand people. West Africa also lacks suf-
as imbued with magic because they are able to change ficient numbers of nurses and hospital administrators. At
substances from one form to another. Hunters are revered present, West Africa is not producing enough healthcare
as having a mystical connection to nature and pre-Islamic workers to meet demand. Many of the healthcare workers
family totems (tana). Hunters form a second type of social who are available are located in urban areas, which leaves
organization that is not based on lineage but on member- rural areas with staff shortages. At the same time, many
ship of secret societies (ntomo) into which members must West African nurses and midwives are underemployed
be initiated. Some Mande peoples such as the Bamana, because there is not enough funding to pay for them. The
who have only recently become Muslim, maintain ntomo, lack of funds has caused many West African medics to
with members wearing masks to celebrations such as cir- work elsewhere, thereby contributing to a “brain drain”
cumcisions. The Komo believe ntomo masks are powerful (Obiechefu).
enough to destroy enchanters and protect communities The Malian government is committed to providing all
from evil. Some Mande peoples conflate ntomo masks children with access to education. Gross enrolment in edu-
with the Islamic figure of Sidi Ballo, whose followers wear cation in Mali stands at 80 percent. However, the educa-
masks. tional achievement rate is as low as 54 percent for boys and
An important aspect of Mande social divisions is the 44.8 percent for girls. In addition, the quality of education
senankuya, a joking relationship between families that is poor because there is a lack of qualified teachers and
allows social inferiors to ridicule those above them. In the textbooks. There are also inequalities between rural and
Malinke epic poem Epic of Sundiata, Sundiata gives his jeli, urban schools because qualified teachers tend to be sent
Bella Fasseke, and his descendants the right to ridicule the to urban schools, whereas unqualified teachers are sent
Keita. The jeli served a dual purpose as both praise singers to rural schools (UNICEF 2019). In Guinea, education is
and oral historians/genealogists. Over time, the jeli devel- compulsory and free between the ages of seven and thir-
oped numerous musical instruments, including the bala or teen. However, many children in Guinea, especially in rural
balafon (xylophone), the kora (a multi-stringed harp), the areas, do not go to school. Very few Guinean children con-
donso ngoni (hunter’s harp), and the nkoni (lute). The Man- tinue on to secondary education. Theoretically, the final
de’s long tradition of court music means countries such as three years of Guinean secondary education are spent at
Mali are now major music producers. Today, new forms upper secondary schools. However, because fees are appli-
of music are based on older traditions such as Wassoulou cable to upper secondary schools, only students with par-
music, which combines female vocalists and a hunter’s ents able to afford fees are able to attend.
harp. Ethnomusicologists consider Wassoulou music one
of the origins of American blues.
Threats to Survival
As West Africans, the Mande peoples face several threats.
Health Care and Education Poverty, corruption, and lack of enforcement by officials
Recently, West Africa has experienced uncontrolled mean natural resources are overly exploited. Expanding
cross-border migration that has accelerated the spread of populations in both urban and coastal areas result in cities
such communicable diseases as cholera and HIV/AIDS. becoming home to small farms that use untreated waste-
Droughts in the Sahel as well as emergency situations in water and high amounts of pesticides to produce crops. If
Guinea Bissau, Liberia, and Sierra Leone have contributed sufficient food is to be produced to meet growing demand,
 Mandean 681

then it may be that pollution levels rise too. Many urban in Iran, in Iraq the language is reserved for reciting liturgy.
areas of West Africa lack adequate water and sanitation In general, Mandeans speak Arabic or Farsi.
facilities, thereby creating health hazards. Ill-considered
house construction leads to flooding and the silting-up of
rivers and other waterways. Coastal areas are polluted and Population, Diaspora, and Migration
are witnessing a loss of biodiversity. Across West Africa Exact population figures for the Mandeans are unknown,
water pollution from untreated sewage and chemicals is mostly because the people are scattered across the globe as
a major issue affecting people’s health. When West Afri- refugees and migrants. It is believed, however, that there
cans become sick, they often lack access to adequate health may be between sixty thousand and seventy thousand
care. Frequent conflict in West Africa also endangers the Mandeans worldwide (Hegarty 2017).
people. On the plus side, in recent years, countries such as Before the 2003 Iraq War, there were more than 50,000
Mali have become more democratic. Mandaeans living in Iraq. By 2011, this number had fallen
dramatically, though the actual number is undetermined;
See also: Diola; Dogon; Mende; Serer
some estimates suggest Iraq’s Mandean population meas-
Further Reading
ures around 3,500 people (Friesen 2017), whereas other
DAI. 2013, April. “West Africa Environmental Threats and Oppor-
tunities Assessment—Final Report.” https://usaidgems.org​ sources suggest it is closer to 5,000 (Minority Rights Group
/Documents/FAA&Regs/FAA118119/WestAfrica2013.pdf. International 2017).
Obiechefu, Udo. 2013. “West African Healthcare: Problems In their homeland, Mandeans are confined to southern
and Solutions.” Global Health Africa, May 11. https://​ Iraq where they live in the wetlands known as the Iraqi
globalhealthafrica.org/2013/05/11/west-african-healthcare​ Marshes (or Ahwar), as well as at al-Amara, Qal’at-Salih,
-problems-and-solutions.
Nasiriya, Suq al-Shuyukh, and Qurna. There is also a com-
Shoup, John A. 2011. “Mende.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and
the Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup, munity of Mandean silversmiths and their families in the
182–188. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. country’s capital, Baghdad, which is centrally located. In
UNICEF. 2019. “Education and Gender Equality.” https://www​ addition, there are very small Mandean communities in
.unicef.org/mali/3932.html. Khorramshahr and Ahwaz, southwestern Iran.
Civil unrest in Iraq has resulted in thousands of Man-
dean refugees fleeing their homeland. As of 2015, there
were nearly one thousand Mandean refugees living in Can-
ada, mostly around Toronto and Vancouver, and there are
MANDEAN growing Mandean populations living in Sweden, the United
States, Australia, and elsewhere. Australia is currently home
Current Location Iraq; Iran; Canada; Australia; Europe to around ten thousand Mandeans, approximately half of
Current Population 60,000–70,000 whom live in western suburbs of Sydney (Hagarty 2017).
Language Mandaic; Arabic; Farsi
Interesting Fact Mandeans are considered one of the
world’s most vulnerable minorities. Geography and Environment
The Iraqi Marshes lie mostly within southern Iraq and
form one of the world’s largest inland delta systems amid
Overview an extremely hot, dry environment.
Mandeans (or Mandaeans), sometimes called the Sabian- The marshes are divided into three major areas: the
Mandeans (or Sabean-Mandeans) or Mandean Sabeans, Central Marshes lying between the Tigris and Euphrates,
are an ethnoreligious group indigenous to the Middle East- the Hammar Marshes located south of the Euphrates, and
ern historical region of Mesopotamia. The Mandean reli- the Hawizeh Marshes east of the Tigris. The marshes lie on
gion, Mandeanism, revolves around the biblical figure John a flat alluvial plain that allows the Tigris and Euphrates to
the Baptist. However, despite the Mandean veneration of a meander, forming distributaries. The combined marshes
Christian figure, Mandeans are usually considered Gnostic once provided an intertwined environment that was par-
rather than Christian. Mandeans have their own Aramaic ticularly evident during periods of flooding when the riv-
dialect, Mandaic, and although this language is still spoken ers would overflow.
682 Mandean

In the 1990s, Saddam Hussein ordered the marshes were prevented from retaliating by their beliefs that forbid
be drained to stop them being used for cover by rebels. them from armed self-defense. Hundreds of Mandeans
The drainage resulted in the area covered by the marshes were killed, abducted, and tortured during this period,
reducing from some 3,500 square miles in the 1970s to just and other Mandaeans were accused of witchcraft, adultery,
290 square miles. Since the overthrow of Hussein in 2003, and general immorality. Mandean women were targeted
the marshlands have revived somewhat. In 2016, UNESCO because they did not cover their heads with Islamic-style
named the marshes as a World Heritage Site. Nevertheless, headwear, and reports surfaced on Mandean women being
the marshes remain at risk of drought, dam construction raped and then forced to marry Muslim men, thereby
and irrigation schemes. being converted to Islam and no longer being Mandean.
In Baghdad, Mandean precious metalworkers and jewelers
suffered robberies. Many other Mandeans were asked to
History and Politics choose between converting to Islam, leaving their home-
Little is known about Mandean history. Mandeans believe land, or being killed. Faced with such a choice, many Man-
they are descended from Seth, son of the Biblical Adam, deans chose to leave their land.
and that they received secret teachings from Adam in the
Garden of Eden. Researchers believe the Mandeans orig-
inated in Mesopotamia around two thousand years ago. Society, Culture, and Tradition
Mandean religious texts date back to the third century CE, The Mandean faith is a monotheistic form of Gnosticism
but the Mandeans believe their rituals and traditions date descended from ancient Mesopotamian worship, with
back further, possibly to ancient Babylon. After World War rituals similar to those found in Zoroastrian and Nesto-
I, a rise in Arab nationalism occurred that saw some Arab rianism (Christian doctrine emphasizing the distinction
Muslims persecute ethnic minorities in countries where between the human and divine natures of Jesus). Mande-
Arabic Islam was the prevailing culture. As part of this ans follow the teachings of John the Baptist (whom they
persecution, in the 1950s and 1960s, there were attempts call Yehyea Yahana) and revere a range of Christian and
to Arabicize the Mandeans, whose language was repressed Jewish figures while rejecting others, such as Moses, Jesus,
and whose distinctive dress and heritage was deemed not and Abraham. Indeed, Mandeans consider their religion
Arabic. Mandeans were also forced to act contrary to their distinct from Christianity, Judaism, and Islam. Mandean-
beliefs. For example, Mandean boys were made to cut their ism bans followers from acting in a violent manner and
hair and beards if they went to school, which violated Man- from carrying weapons. It is not possible to convert to the
dean rules because the sons of priests are banned from the Mandean faith, and Mandeans are not allowed to marry
priesthood if they cut their hair or beards. As a result of the outside of their religion.
haircutting, the list of applicants to the Mandean priest- Running water, especially river water, is very important
hood became shorter. In addition, Mandeans were often to the Mandeans because they consider running water a
drafted by force into national armies, something that was purifying force able to cleanse mind, body, and soul. For
contrary to the Mandean tenet of not carrying weapons this reason, Mandeans perform immersion in flowing
(Mandean Human Rights Group 2009). water as an act of ritual purity. Indeed, masbuta (baptism)
Under the Ba’athist dictatorship of Saddam Hussein, is a key concept of Mandeanism, and unlike Christians,
the Mandeans in Iraq faced extinction when Hussein Mandeans undergo baptism hundreds of times through-
ordered the draining of the Iraqi Marshes. This act almost out their lives in the belief that it allows a person to con-
entirely destroyed the locus of the Mandean community nect with God. During immersion, priests proclaim prayers
and denied the people access to the water essential to their asking for forgiveness and cleansing. The purifying aspect
religion. Modernization and assimilation also threatened of immersion is highlighted by the ceremonial robes that
the Mandeans during Hussein’s rule. The threat to the people wear during the ritual because the people adopt the
Mandeans worsened when Iraq descended into chaos fol- rasta, white robes, symbolizing purity and light. Mandean
lowing the American-led invasion of Iraq in March 2003. migrants living in countries where running rivers can
Previously, Mandean’s had enjoyed dhimmi (protected be scare in winter, such as Canada and Sweden, are cur-
person) status in Iraq, but despite this, Shia and Sunni rently debating whether running tap water is sufficiently
Islamic militants targeted the Mandean community, who purifying.
 Mandean 683

A Mandean girl is helped by a cleric as she emerges from the Tigris River after a purification ritual, Baghdad, Iraq. Mandeans see running
water, especially river water, as a purifying force. (Karim Sahib/AFP/Getty Images)

Traditionally, Mandeans specialize in carpentry, boat Threats to Survival

building, silversmithing, gold work, and jewelry making. The 2005 Iraqi constitution guarantees religious freedom
to Iraq’s minority religions, including the Mandeans. In
general, in Iraq, Mandeans can follow their religion, though
Health Care and Education some local authorities are reported to have hindered the
In recent years, Mandean refugees have not been able to construction of new Mandean temples (Minority Rights
afford health care in countries where they as refugees, such Group International 2017).
as Syria and Jordan. Mandean refugees often lack access to There are multiple threats to the survival of the Man-
medications for chronic or acute illnesses and face issues of deans, who as a people face extinction. Since 2003, when
late diagnoses of disease. Many Mandeans suffer from psy- conflict erupted in Iraq, most Mandeans have either left
chological problems including depression and posttraumatic their homeland or been killed. Those who remain in Iraq
stress syndrome (Mandean Human Rights Group 2009). face the threat of being forced to marry outside their faith
Traditionally, Mandeans are well educated and tend to and thereby losing their Mandean ethnicity, or being tar-
work as engineers or doctors or in the people’s traditional geted for attack, rape, robbery, and kidnapping. In particu-
occupations of silversmithing, gold workers, and jewelers. lar, Mandean children have been kidnapped and forced
However, it is sometimes the case that Mandean parents to marry non-Mandeans. The frequency with which
cannot afford to send their children to school but rather Mandeans are robbed and kidnapped may stem from the
send children to work to ease family finances (Mandean fact that they are perceived as being wealthier than most
Human Rights Group 2009). Iraqis because of their tradition of working as jewelers.
684 Mansi

Mandeanism demands that the people are pacifists, and Further Reading
with no militia to protect them, the Mandeas are easy tar- Australian Government. 2017, June 26. “DFAT Country Informa-
gets for Iraqi kidnapping rings. Similarly, having only one tion Report Iraq.” http://dfat.gov.au/about-us/publications​
/Documents/country-information-report-iraq.pdf.
political representative in Iraq’s Council of Representatives Friesen, Joe. 2017. “Canadians Working to Rescue Mandaean
means Mandeans have few figures of authority to fight People on Brink of Extinction in Iraq.” Globe and Mail,
their cause. March 25. https://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/national​
As Mandeans become scattered across the world, the /canadians-working-to-rescue-mandaean-people-on-brink​
people’s ancient language, culture, and religion face extinc- -of-extinction-in-iraq/article25807210.
tion. In 2006, UNESCO listed the Mandean’s language in Hegarty, Siobhan. 2017. “Meet the Mandaeans: Australian
Followers of John the Baptist Celebrate New Year.” ABC
the Atlas of the World’s Languages in Danger of Disappear- News, October 24. http://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-07-
ing. Meanwhile, the exodus of Mandean religious leaders 21/meet​-the-mandaeans-sydneys-followers-of-john-the-
from Iraq leaves those Mandean who have stayed in Iraq baptist​/8727720.
with the threat of being unable to continue their religious Mandean Human Rights Group. 2009, November. “Mandaean
rituals. In Baghdad, Mandeans are targeted for attacks and Human Rights Annual Report.” http://www.genocidewatch​
kidnappings and also experience discrimination. .org/images/Syria_09_11_xx_Mandaean_human_rights​
_annual_report.pdf.
Since 2014, Mandeans have been affected by the rise of Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Iraq: Sabian Man-
the Islamic State (IS) in Iraq. Mandeans who have stayed in daeans.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peo-
IS-controlled areas face either forced religious conversion ples, November. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/sabian​
or death because IS does not consider the Mandeans “Peo- -mandaeans.
ple of the Book” and so do not offer Mandeans the option of Russell, Gerard. 2015. Heirs to the Forgotten Kingdoms: Journeys
paying jizya (as they did to Christians). So far, at least fifty into the Disappearing Religions of the Middle East. London:
Simon & Schuster.
Mandean families have been displaced by IS, with most of
these hailing from Ramadi in Iraq’s Anbar governorate.
These multiple threats combined with anti-Mandean dis-
crimination mean that some Mandean people reportedly
fear being Mandean, have lost pride in their community,
and feel alone in the world. MANSI
Another factor facing the survival of the Mandeans is
the people’s strict marriage code, which commentators Current Location Russia
note is contributing to the religion’s declining population Current Population 12,269
numbers. Mandeans must marry within the faith, and Language Russian; Mansi
some followers fear that Mandeanism will die out because Interesting Fact In 2010, only 6.8 percent of
of the marriage rule. Mansi were fluent in their native
It seems that if Mandeanism is to survive, it will do so language.
predominantly in countries outside of the Mandean home-
land. Mandean migrants may find it difficult to maintain
their religious traditions outside of the Middle East, par- Overview
ticularly not marrying outside of their faith. It is increas- The Mansi, sometimes called the Yugra or Jugra, are an
ingly likely that Mandeans outside of the Middle East will Ob-Ugrian indigenous people of western Siberia. The
intermarry, but under current Mandean rules, these Man- Mansi call themselves the Maan’s’I, meaning “human” or
dean migrants who intermarry will cease being Mande- “man.” In the past, the Mansi were known as the Voguls,
ans, as would their children. To overcome this issue, the which is the people’s name in the Khomy and Khant
Mandeans may have to allow religious conversion to Man- languages. The Mansi speak the Mansi language, which
deanism to provide a way for the faith to be maintained. belongs to the Ob-Ugrian language subgroup of the Ugric
As Mandeans become scattered throughout the world, the language family. This language divides into four dialects:
people may have to redefine their faith to survive. Sosva, Pelym, Tavda, and Konda. Almost all Mansi peo-
ple speak Russian too. The Mansi are nominally Russian
See also: Assyrian; Druze; Maronites; Marsh Arab; Orthodox Christians but maintain many pre-Christian
Shabak; Yazidi customs.
 Mansi 685

Population, Diaspora, and Migration originated between three thousand and four thousand
According to the 2010 Russian census, there were 12,269 years ago in western Siberia’s tundra forests and taiga
Mansi people living in Russia. More recently, it seems the (snow forest located between the tundra and temperate
Mansi population has grown, though this is likely because forests characterized by coniferous forests comprising
more people now identify as Mansi (Vallikivi 2014). The mostly pines, spruces, and larches). Another theory sug-
Mansi population divides into four patrilineal clan groups: gests that the ancestors of the Mansi began in the Pechora
the northern, southern, eastern, and western Mansi. These River basin of northeastern European Russia before
groups differ from each other linguistically as well as in migrating across the Urals to the Ob River in the first
their lifestyle practices and material culture. century BCE. Many academics agree that around 500 CE,
The Mansi live in an area of Russia on the West Siberia some early Mansi abandoned their homeland to traverse
Plain between the Ural Mountains and the Ob River, as well the Urals and settle around the Ob River, whereas the rest
as along the Ob’s many tributaries including the Northern headed west where they settled on Central Europe’s Hun-
Sosva, Konda, and Lyapin. The Mansi homeland was called garian Plain. The first reference to the Mansi (then known
Yugra originally, but this is now part of the Khanty-Mansi as the Yugra) in European literature appears in the Tale
autonomous okrug (district) located in the Tyumen Oblast of the Bygone Years, which was published in Novgorod in
of the Russian Federation. 1096. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, many chron-
icles record Novgorodian expeditions to the early Mansi,
from whom the Novgorodians collected tribute in the
form of furs.
Geography and Environment
By the fourteenth century, the Mansi were known as
The Khanty-Mansi okrug covers a huge, flat, swampy area the Vogul. In the sixteenth century, the Cossacks who led
of the West Siberian Plain. The plain includes eight distinct Russia’s expansion into Siberia overran Mansi areas. The
vegetation regions: tundra, forest-tundra, northern taiga, Mansi were overawed by the Cossacks’ array of weaponry
middle taiga, southern taiga, subtaiga forest, forest-steppe, and metal tools and came under Cossack colonial control.
and steppe. In general, the land’s surface comprises either Soon Russian cities founded in the Ob region became
peat bog combined with grass marsh or dense swampy for- major trade hubs. In 1708, the Ob region was classified
est. Large parts of the plains are flooded during the spring, as part of the new province of Siberia in order that the
which together with the area’s marshlands makes the area region’s resources could be better exploited. The region
unsuitable for farming. The main rivers of the West Siberian also became notorious as a place of exile for criminals and
Plain include the Ob, Irtysh, Nadym, Pur, Taz, and Yenisei. political opponents of czarist Russia. However, as the num-
The area is also home to many lakes. Since the 1960s, vast ber of fur-bearing animals declined in Mansi areas due to
petroleum and natural gas deposits have been discovered overhunting, czarist Russian began to lose interest in the
along the Ob River, especially near Surgut and Nizhnevar- region and its indigenous peoples.
tovsk. Decades of mineral and petroleum extraction have Toward the start of the nineteenth century, Russian
degraded the environmental quality of Mansi areas. Bod- Orthodox missionaries began to arrive in Mansi areas.
ies of water are contamination by oil spills and brine from Most Mansi converted to Russian Orthodox but main-
ill-maintained pipelines, forest cover has reduced to make tained their pre-Christian beliefs. Around the same time,
way for industry, air quality has deteriorated, and the con- European traders and Russian colonists entered Mansi
struction of access roads and towns has altered the region’s areas. Soon the Mansi found they had accumulated debts
hydrology. These changes have impacted public health, and spent great amounts of money on Russian alcohol,
with 74 percent of the region’s inhabitants claiming in a thereby leaving them poor and living as virtual slaves to
recent survey that residents’ chronic illnesses are due at the Russians (Minahan 2014).
least in part to environmental pollution (Wernstedt 2002). After the Russian Revolution, the European presence
in Mansi areas increased. However, in 1924 a new Russian
government department, the Committee of the North, was
History and Politics formed to introduce the basic elements of Soviet admin-
There are many theories as to the origins of the Mansi. istration as well as schools and healthcare facilities. The
Archaeologists suggest the ancestors of the Mansi, Soviets also tried to stop the tradition of Mansi women
along with the ancestors of the Khanty and Hungarians, covering their faces.
686 Mansi

Between 1930 and 1931, the new Ostyak-Vogul National Mansi also believe that the presence of Mansi women
Area was formed as part of the Soviet reorganization of can defile religious objects. Though the Mansi are Rus-
western Siberia. The Mansi and Khanty peoples, who in sian Orthodox nominally, they uphold many indigenous
theory were to govern themselves, inhabited the area. animist beliefs and cosmology, as well as their own ritu-
In reality, the creation of the new region was part of an als. During the Soviet era, these beliefs and rituals were
assimilation program to absorb indigenous peoples into banned, but today many Mansi still believe spirits (tonh)
Soviet society. In addition, Mansi children were made to inhabit the environment and that people can commune
attend Russian-language schools, where they were intro- with them if they act appropriately. The Mansi believe
duced to both Russian language and culture. Over the their supreme deity, Torum, lives in the sky and that his
following decades, the Mansi were inducted further into wife, Kaltash, is responsible for childbirth. Torum’s young-
Soviet culture and so lost much of their indigenous lan- est son, Mir-susne-hum, fights malevolent spirits. The
guage, culture, and traditions. Then, in the 1960s, indus- Mansi also revere fire deities called Nai-evka and Nai-san.
try began to exploit the rich reserves of oil and minerals Some Mansi families also perform sacrifices to house-
found on Mansi land. Consequently, tens of thousands of hold gods and clan spirits. Like several other Arctic and
settlers began to migrate to the Mansi homeland, which Siberia peoples, such as the Khanty, the Mansi hold a bear
also suffered environmental degradation from industrial festival during which a bear, thought to have descended
pollution. from the spirit realm, is sacrificed to ensure no harm
After the fall of the Soviet regime in 1991, some Mansi comes to the Mansi. The festival last up to a week and sees
began to campaign for the Mansi to have a greater say in the people eat bear meat in a ritualistic fashion, dance,
decisions affecting their homeland. Also in 1991, Mansi and sing. The ritualistic nature of the festival is linked to
intelligentsia united with the Khanty to form the Ugra the Mansi’s complex beliefs in reincarnation and the link
Salvation sociopolitical association, aimed at preserving between the spirit world, the living, and the dead.
Ob-Ugric culture. Ugra Salvation is part of the Russian
Association of Indigenous Peoples of the North (RAIPON),
the Russian national umbrella organization representing
Health Care and Education
various indigenous peoples living in the Russian North, The Mansi are taught in Russian, and Mansi is taught as a
Siberia, and the Far East. foreign language. The Mansi suffer from a range of health
problems resulting from chemical pollution and oil spills.
Most large Mansi settlements contain a primary school
Society, Culture, and Tradition and an ambulance.
Mansi culture reflects the harsh environment in which
the people live, with many Mansi customs and traditions
Threats to Survival
linked to the forest and frozen swamps of the Ob River.
Hunting, fishing, and foraging are the traditional Mansi Both Mansi culture and language are critically endangered.
subsistence activities. The Mansi hunt squirrels for their The pervasive Russianization of Mansi society and the high
fur as well as elk, bear, and birds. In the Middle Ages, the number of Mansi marrying Russians means that despite
Mansi started to herd reindeer like the Nenets. Today, Mansi being taught as a foreign language, the language is
many Manis still herd reindeer, especially those living near in danger of extinction, with only 6.8 percent of Mansi flu-
the Urals, as there are many good summer pastures. Some ent in their language in 2010; two of the four Mansi dialects
Mansi also raise sheep, cows, and horses. are considered defunct. Though a small number of Mansi
Typical Mansi settlements include permanent winter continue to live in forests and follow traditional Mansi life-
camps (paul) comprising multiple wooden houses that are styles, the majority of Mansi have abandoned Mansi ways,
home to extended families and temporary summer settle- meaning traditional Mansi knowledge has ceased being
ments consisting of birch-wood tents (chums) located near transmitted to younger generations of Mansi.
fishing areas. See also: Chukchi; Evenk; Ket; Komi; Nenet; Nivkh
Traditional Mansi life severely restricts women’s lives Further Reading
(Minahan 2014). Women are considered a temptation to Glavatskaia, Elena. 2016. “The Mansi Sacred Landscape in Long-
Mansi men and so wear thick veils over their faces. The Term Historical Perspective.” In Landscape and Culture in
 Manx 687

Northern Eurasia, edited by Peter Jordan, 235–255. London: 60 percent of the Isle of Man is inhabited, with population
Routledge. hubs being located at urban areas including Douglas-
Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Cen- Onchan, which is home to around half of the island’s peo-
tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Vallikivi, Laur. 2014. “Mansi.” In Antarctica and the Arctic Circle: A
ple. Significant Manx communities also exist in England,
Geographic Encyclopedia of the Earth’s Polar Regions, edited by Scotland, the United States, New Zealand, and Australia.
Andrew J. Hund, 471–473. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Wernstedt, Kris. 2002. “Environmental Management in the
Russian Federation: A Next Generation Enigma.” Journal of Geography and Environment
Environmental Protection in the Russian Federation: Lessons The Isle of Man is a small island measuring thirty-three
and Opportunities 45 (4): 493–516.
miles by twelve miles at its widest point, and it lies equidis-
Zen’ko, Alexey. 2005. “Mansi.” In Encyclopedia of the Arctic, edited
by Mark Nuttall, 1240–1241. 3 vols. New York: Routledge. tant between England, Wales, Scotland, and Ireland. High
cliffs and numerous bays ring the island. Off the island’s
southwest coast lies a rocky islet called the Calf of Man.
Plains and farmland dissected by rivers and streams char-
acterize the north of the island, as well as sandy beaches.
Livestock is raised on the fertile plains and the river valleys.
MANX
Current Location Isle of Man
History and Politics
Current Population 41,000
Archeological evidence such as stone monuments and
Language English; Manx Gaelic
ancient forts suggest the Isle of Man has been inhab-
Interesting Fact Famous Manx include the pop group
ited since Neolithic times (around 10,200 BCE). Around
The Bee Gees and champion cyclist
500 BCE, Celts driven from the British mainland by the
Mark Cavendish. American politician
Dan Quayle and pop star Katy Perry Anglo-Saxons, and from the sixth to the ninth centuries,
have Manx ancestry. the island was ruled by a succession of Welsh kings. The
island remained a Celtic kingdom even when the Angles,
Saxons, and Jutes conquered the rest of the British Isles.
Overview The island’s indigenous population was boosted during the
The Manx are the indigenous people of the Isle of Celtic era when Germanic refugees migrated to the island
Man,  an  island located between the United Kingdom from Britain.
and Ireland. All Manx speak English, but some also speak
Manx (also called Manx Gaelic or Gaelg). The language is
related closely to the Gaelic dialects of Ulster and Gallo-
way and includes elements of Norse. Officially, the Manx The Cats with No Tail
belong to the Church of England, but many Manx are Non- The Manx cat breed originates from the Isle of Man.
conformist. The Manx flag shows a red background bear- The breed is famous for lacking a tail, a mutation that
ing three armored white legs known as the triskelion or likely originated among the island’s native short-
Trinacria. haired cats that subsequently spread to the other
cats on the island. Though the original island cats
were shorthaired, a longhaired gene was introduced
Population, Diaspora, and Migration to the island by the Vikings when their longhaired
The Isle of Man has a population of eighty-two thousand cats left their ships and intermixed with the local
(Lewis 2011). Of this total, 47 percent are indigenous Manx shorthairs. All Manx cats have at least one full tail
(BBC 2013). Manx are citizens of Great Britain because gene, so two cats carrying the tailless Manx gene can
the Isle of Man is a British crown dependency. However, produce a full-tailed kitten. Besides taillessness, the
the Isle of Man is not part of the United Kingdom, being Manx is known for its robust, rounded appearance.
equipped with its own parliament and currency as well as They also tend to be playful and intelligent.
the power to set its own taxation levels and laws. Around
688 Manx

In 798, the Vikings invaded the island for the first time independent government replaced the United Kingdom’s
only to overthrow the Celtic monarchy in 800. Union Flag with the Manx flag.
Later, Norse migrants from Scandinavia settled on the In 1973, the United Kingdom joined the European
island, where they intermixed with the Celts and added Economic Union, but the Isle of Man joined a separate
new words to the Celtic language used on the island. Even- agreement that allowed the island to operate offshore
tually, the Isle of Man became a dependency of Norway, banking and other financial services, including taxation
resulting in the island’s system of government being mod- schemes that were sympathetic compared with those in
eled on the Norwegian system. The system in the Isle of neighboring countries. With less-restrictive financial laws
Man remains much the same today. and favorable taxation, the island soon became a finan-
In 1266, Norway sold the island to Scotland, but in cial services industry haven, thereby providing income to
1290, the Manx, unhappy with Scottish rule, placed their islanders in addition to tourism, which continued to be
island under English protection. In 1341, the island came the island’s main industry. From the 1980s, house prices
under English control, and subsequently the island’s in the Isle of Man rose so much that many Manx could
feudal lords (known as the kings of Mann) were English. not afford to buy property on the island. This situation led
By the fifteenth century the island’s distinct Celtic-Norse to renewed nationalism and saw arson attacks on second
culture had evolved. In 1451, the English king Henry IV homes owned by non-Manx. In response to the upsurge
gave control of the island to the Stanley family, who went in nationalism, the island’s government passed anti-
on to govern the island for over 300 years. Then, in 1736, the immigration laws that reduced the number of foreigners
island passed to the Duke of Athol, during whose governor- allowed to live in the Isle of Man. Laws were also instituted
ship the island’s economy came to revolve around smug- to introduce Manx language classes in the island’s schools.
gling goods between Ireland, Scotland, England, and Wales. In the Isle of Man, there are no political parties, with all
In 1756, in an attempt to stop smuggling into England, members of the parliament, the Tynwald, standing as inde-
Britain purchased the island. Though this purchased saved pendents. In 1996, Manx nationalists formed the Alterna-
the British around £100,000 per year that would have been tive Policy Group, which broke the tradition on impartiality
lost in revenue had the smuggling continued, the loss of the by presenting an independence manifesto and arguing that
smuggling industry cost the islanders their main source of the British government’s veto on the island’s law, though
income. In 1828, the Isle of Man was acquired by the British rarely enacted, should be scrapped. In 2000, a new res-
parliament and became a self-governing dependency and idency law gave the island’s government the right to stop
possession. This meant that though the Manx were subjects people from moving to the island. However, this is a con-
of the British monarch, the laws of the British parliament tingency measure because outsiders already need to have
did not govern them unless a parliamentary act named the work permits to move to the Isle of Man. The new law does
Isle of Man specifically. During the eighteenth and nine- mean that the island’s authorities can control the number of
teenth centuries, English became the dominant language wealthy immigrants to the island, where income tax is only
on the Isle of Man as the island became a major tourist 20 percent and there is no capital gains tax. The island’s gov-
resort for English tourists. Unhappy at the influx of tourists, ernment also gives Manx first-time home buyers subsidies
the Manx sporadically demanded independence, but seri- so that they can compete in the housing market.
ous political negotiations never took place. Recently, the Manx have started to look to European
During World War I, many Manx volunteered for the Union countries rather than the United Kingdom for its
Allies, but after the war Manx nationalism began to arise, future, with Manx nationalists aiming for the island to
influenced by events in Ireland. World War II saw some become part of a federal Europe that would allow the
Manx fought for the Allies, but most were neutral, as were Manx to control an autonomous homeland.
the majority of Irish. After the war, the Island of Man again
became an English tourist resort. Young Manx feared that
tourism might destroy the island’s indigenous culture and Society, Culture, and Tradition
started to campaign to save the Manx culture. To this end, The Manx have a distinct Norse-Celtic culture because
an increasing number of Manx started to learn the Manx they are descended from the Isle of Man’s first Celtic
language, and the people reestablished cultural links with inhabitants, who in turn were descended from the Welsh,
other Celtic peoples. In addition, in 1968, the Isle of Man’s Scots, and various Scandinavian peoples. The Isle of Man
 Māori 689

was sufficiently isolated that the Manx language and cul- services ranging from doctors and district nurses to hospi-
ture were able to develop in relative seclusion. Many of the tals. In a reciprocal arrangement, Isle of Man residents also
events that have shaped culture in nearby countries, such receive free health care when visiting the United Kingdom.
as the Roman and Norman invasions of Britain, did not The Isle of Man’s government provides primary education
affect the Isle of Man. in Manx with a Manx-language school, Bunscoill Ghaelgagh,
The Manx hold some unique traditions that reveal where all subjects are taught in Manx to bilingual pupils.
their Celtic heritage. For example, Hop-tu-Naa, which Manx-language nurseries also exist. Older students can earn
takes place on October 31, sees the Manx carve turnips (or degrees in Manx from the Isle of Man College, the Centre for
swedes) in the manner of jack-o’-lanterns before they are Manx Studies, and the University of Edinburgh.
given to children, who hold the lanterns and visit houses in
the hope of being rewarded with apples, sweets, and coins,
all the while singing songs such as “Ginnie the Witch.” It Threats to Survival
is also traditional on Hop-tu-Naa for Manx girls to take Perhaps the greatest threat to the Manx is the influx of for-
part in various forms of love divination. including eating eigners to the Isle of Man who either wish to take advan-
a salted fish or soddag valloo, a type of cake consisting of tage of the island’s favorable financial laws and taxes or
flour, salt, eggs (including the shells), and soot. It is believed work in the financial sector. However, the island’s govern-
that eating these items allows girls to dream of their future ment has measures in place to try to help the Manx buy
husbands. There is no true connection between Hallow- homes on the island.
een and Hop-tu-Naa despite appearances to the contrary. The Manx language looks to have a healthy future, with
Instead, Hop-tu-Naa is considered the Celtic New Year, or cultural associations such as Caarjyn ny Gaelgey (Friends
Oie Houney in Manx, a date that marks the end of sum- of the Manx Language) organizing Manx classes and social
mertime and the start of winter. According to tradition, events for adults and schools teaching the language to chil-
this is a time when people rejoice in the safe gathering of dren. Manx-language books, apps, road signs, radio shows,
the harvest and feel relieved that their preparations for novels, and children’s books are available too.
winter are completed. The name Hop-tu-Naa is thought by See also: Faroese; Welsh
some folklorists to be a corruption of the Manx Shogh ta’n
Further Reading
Oie, which translates as “this is the night.” BBC. 2013. “Manx: Bringing a Language Back from the Dead.”
The Manx’s Celtic heritage is also evident in traditional BBC, January 31. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine​
Manx surnames such as Quayle and Kewley, in which the -21242667.
Q and K sounds are remnants of the Celtic name prefix Lewis, Susan. 2011. “Manx.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe: An Ency-
“mac” (meaning “son of ”). clopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 256. Santa Barbara, CA:
The last Manx speaker of Manx, Ned Maddrell, died ABC-CLIO.
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations. Vol.
in 1974. However, many people in the Isle of Man learn 3, L–R. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Manx as a second language. The 1991 census recorded that Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “United Kingdom:
643 adult islanders were fluent in Manx, 479 were able to Manx.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peo-
read the language, and 343 people could write it. The 2001 ples, June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/manx.
census saw these figures rise, with 1,689 islanders able
to speak, read, or write Manx. The first new generation
of native Manx speakers, who are bilingual in Manx and
English, have now been born and are the children of adults
-
who learned Manx as a second language (Minority Rights MAORI
Group International 2015).
Current Location New Zealand
Current Population 1.3 million
Health Care and Education Language Te Reo Māori; English
Residents of the Isle of Man, including the Manx, can Interesting Fact When the Māori arrived in New
access free, comprehensive health care. The Isle of Man Zealand, they hunted the moa bird
National Health Service (NHS) provides a full range of to extinction.
690 Māori

Overview New Zealand consists of two main islands, the North

The Māori are the indigenous Polynesian people of New Island and the South Island, plus many smaller offshore
Zealand. Early European visitors to New Zealand tended islands. The North Island features mountain ranges and
to refer to the indigenous inhabitants as New Zealanders gently rolling farmland, but the dominant geographical
or as Natives, but Māori used the term Māori to describe feature of the North Island is the Volcanic Plateau, which
themselves. Today, Māori often use the term tangata includes an active volcanic and thermal area. The main
whenua (meaning “people of the land”) to identify them- feature of the South Island is the Southern Alps, to the east
selves in a way that expresses the people’s relationship of which can be found farmland and the enormous, flat
with a particular place. A Māori tribe may be the tangata Canterbury Plains.
whenua of a particular area, but not of another. The term New Zealand is a site of frequent geological action
tangata whenua may also be used to refer to the Māori as a because the country sits atop the continually shifting
people in relation to New Zealand in its entirety. The Māori Pacific and Australian tectonic plates. The North Island
refer to New Zealand as Aotearoa, which translates as Land and some area of the South Island sit on the Austral-
of the Long White Cloud. ian Plate, whereas the rest of the South Island sits on the
The Maori Purposes Act of 1947 requires the use of Pacific Plate. The geological activity mean New Zealand
the term Māori rather than Native in all official channels. has many geothermal areas that provide electricity as well
The New Zealand government’s Department of Native as hot springs. New Zealand’s most famous geothermal
Affairs has also been renamed as Te Puni Kōkiri, or the area is Rotorua, which features mud pools, geysers, and hot
Ministry for Māori Development. The Māori language, springs. Rotorua was first settled by the Māori, who cooked
Te Reo Māori, is spoken by about one-fifth of all Māori, and bathed in the hot springs.
and many non-Māori New Zealanders frequently include New Zealand has over 9,321 miles of coastline. The
Māori words and expressions, such as the greeting kia ora North Island is famed for its long sandy beaches, some of
(meaning “have life, be well”), while conversing in English. which are dark in color because the sand contains iron.
The South Island also has sandy beaches, but the major-
ity of the coastline is wild and rugged. As well as beaches,
Population, Diaspora, and Migration New Zealand is well known for its mountains, which were
For official New Zealand censuses, the Māori population is created by the colliding of the Australian and Pacific Plates.
counted in two ways: through ethnicity and through Māori Over millennia, alluvial deposits carried by rivers from the
descent, with ethnicity referring to cultural affiliation and mountains helped to form the South Island’s Canterbury
descent concerned with ancestry. The Māori ethnic pop- Plains as well as many smaller plains on the North Island.
ulation consists of people who claim Māori as their sole The alluvial plains are very fertile and are used as farmland.
ethnic group or as one of several ethnic groups to which The Southern Alps are home to many glaciers, the larg-
they say they belong. Māori descent refers to people who est of which is the Tasman glacier. New Zealand’s most
are descended from a person belonging to the Māori race famous glaciers are the Franz Josef and Fox on the South
of New Zealand. According to the 2013 New Zealand cen- Island’s West Coast. These glaciers are accessible to moun-
sus, 598,605 people identified with the Māori ethnic group, taineers, hikers, and heli-hikers and so are major tourist
and 668,724 people were of Māori descent (Stats NZ 2013). destinations. Some of New Zealand’s mountains have been
Therefore the total population of people claiming to be subducted over the years. For example, the Marlborough
Māori in New Zealand is around 1.3 million. Sounds and Fiordland were once high mountain ranges
that have been submerged by the sea, creating spectacular
fiords.
Geography and Environment
New Zealand is located in the southwest Pacific Ocean and
was once part of Gondwanaland supercontinent. Gond- History and Politics
wanaland began to divide approximately 160 million years According to Māori folklore, the first explorer to reach
ago, with New Zealand separating from it about 85 million New Zealand was a man called Kupe, who used the stars
years ago. The oldest rocks in New Zealand are over 500 and ocean currents to navigate his waka hourua (voyag-
million years old. ing canoe) across the Pacific Ocean from his Polynesian
 Māori 691

homeland of Hawaiki to Hokianga Harbour in New Zea- From the 1790s onward, whalers and seal hunters
land around 1300 CE. It is possible that Hawaiki can be forged commercial interactions with Māori. Early contact
identified as the Cook Islands, Hawaii, and Tahiti because between the Māori and Europeans proved challenging,
there are clear similarities between Māori language and however, and several instances were recorded of Europeans
culture and the language and culture found at these Poly- being cannibalized by the Māori. In the opening decades
nesian locations. Historians believe waves of Polynesian of the nineteenth century, Māori contact with Europeans
migration followed the initial Polynesian migration, with was increasing but still rare. By the early 1830s, there were
travelers landing at various places in New Zealand. Today, around two hundred permanent European residents in New
Māori iwi (tribes) can trace their origins and genealogy Zealand. Incidents such as the Boyd Massacre (when Māori
back to the arrival of certain waka hourua. residents of Whangaroa Harbour killed and ate around
The earliest Māori settled in small tribal groups along seventy Europeans in retaliation for the mistreatment of a
the coast, where they hunted creatures including seals young Māori chief by the crew of the Boyd in 1809) led to a
and moas (the world’s largest bird). Early Māori were also widely held view that New Zealand was a chaotic country.
expert fishermen and wove fishing nets from flax while also Some contemporary accounts by European observers high-
carving bone fishhooks. The Māori grew vegetables intro- light what they considered Māori savagery, but reports by
duced from Polynesia such as the sweet potato. The earliest missionaries describe the Māori as vulnerable and argued
Māori lived in close contact with nature and considered the British government needed to establish a framework
the gods of the natural world extremely important. Indeed, for building relations between Europeans and Māori.
they considered themselves to share a blessed relationship Many Māori did welcome the new experiences offered
with nature, so they used natural resources extremely care- by interacting with Europeans. When the first missionar-
fully. To this end, the Māori controlled their use of natural ies arrived in the country in 1814, they brought with them
resources under the guidance of priests so as not to upset concepts previously unknown to the Māori and taught the
tapu (sacredness) and mana (spiritual powers). Māori to become literate in their own language by trans-
In the early days of Māori settlement, tribal warfare fre- lating parts of the Bible into Māori. As a result of inter-
quently occurred. Māori warriors were strong and profi- action between the Māori and missionaries, many Māori
cient with weapons, such as the taiaha (a type of spear) and converted to Christianity.
the mere (a sort of club). Today, these weapons are used on The coming of the Europeans also enabled the Māori
ceremonial Māori occasions. To protect themselves from to visit Australia and Britain, thereby allowing the Māori
attacks, Māori tribes would build fortified villages at stra- to increase their trading opportunities and become
tegic locations. used to systems of law and government. Most Europeans
In 1642, Dutch explorer Abel Tasman became the first who arrived in New Zealand during the nineteenth cen-
European to sight New Zealand. Tasman was part of an tury came to exploit the country’s natural resources, which
expedition set on discovering a continent located in the were whales, seals, timber, and flax. When British and
Southern hemisphere that was believed to be rich in min- American sperm whalers arrived around 1820, the local
erals. Tasman annexed the newly discovered country for Ngāpuhi tribe seized the opportunity to acquire muskets,
The Netherlands, though he himself never actually set foot which they could use in intertribal warfare. Muskets soon
on New Zealand. To start with, the new land was dubbed became highly prized trade items, and an arms race devel-
Staten Landt, but subsequently Dutch cartographers oped between the various Māori tribes. The introduction
changed this name to New Zealand. Another explorer of guns to New Zealand led to tens of thousands of the
to sight New Zealand was British seaman Captain James Māori being killed in what have become known as the
Cook, who had been sent to Tahiti to observe the transit Musket Wars (1807 and 1845), and this in turn resulted in
of Venus while also searching for the great southern con- the boundaries of tribal areas being changed.
tinent sought by Tasman. Cook’s cabin boy, Young Nick, Between 1840 and 1860, Māori tribes began to cultivate
sighted a part of New Zealand (now known as Young Nick’s crops for sale and took their produce to markets in major
Head) in 1769. As a result of this sighting, Cook and his cities such as Wellington and Auckland; some even traded
crew circumnavigated and mapped New Zealand. Cook at markets in Australia.
later led two more expeditions to New Zealand before As an increasing number of immigrants settled in New
being killed in Hawaii in 1779. Zealand, several Māori chiefs sought protection from the
692 Māori

British ruler, King William IV, and asked for acknowledg- Māori society and culture was at its lowest ebb at the
ment of their special trade and missionary contacts with start of the twentieth century. Diseases introduced by
Britain. The Māori chiefs were afraid that people com- settlers had helped reduce the Māori population to less
ing from countries such as France would overrun their than fifty thousand people, with this smaller population
land, and they wanted to put an end to the lawlessness of meaning that the Māori influence on national affairs was
migrants in New Zealand. As the number of British settlers reduced still further. At the same time, this period also
in New Zealand increased, and in response to the appeals saw the formation of the Young Māori Party, which aimed
from the Māori chiefs, the Treaty of Waitangi was signed in to gain the Māori political influence though a reinvigor-
1849. The treaty established British sovereignty over New ation of Māori culture. Simultaneously, important Māori
Zealand. The Treaty established a British governor of New figures came to prominence, including, Āpirana Ngata
Zealand; recognized Māori ownership of their lands, for- (1874–1950), the foremost Māori politician who is known
ests, and other properties; and gave the Māori the rights for promoting and protecting Māori culture, and Princess
of British subjects. The treaty was written in English but Te Puea Hērangi (1883–1952), who worked to improve
then translated into Māori. The translation was not exact, Māori living conditions and revive Māori culture. Princess
however, and there were significant differences between Te Puea Hērangi was one of the leaders of the Kīngitanga
the English and Māori versions. In actuality, the treaty had (Māori King Movement), one of New Zealand’s enduring
three articles: that the ruler of Great Britain also rules New political institutions. The movement was established in
Zealand, that Māori chiefs could keep their land and their 1858 with the intention of uniting all Māori under one
positions of authority while agreeing to sell their land only Māori sovereign.
to the British monarch, and that the Māori would have the When Europeans first arrived in New Zealand, there
same rights as British subjects. Over time the second and was more than one Māori sovereign, with Māori tribes
third articles have proven controversial, however, because acting independently under the direction of their own
successive governments believed the treaty permitted chiefs. In the 1850s, when faced with increasing numbers
complete sovereignty over the Māori, their territory, and of British settlers resulting in political marginalization and
the land’s resources. In contrast, the Maori believed that encroachment onto their lands, the Māori were divided
the treaty only gave the British permission to use their into those tribes that were willing to sell their land and
land. those that were not. Some Māori who had traveled to Eng-
Numerous disputes over land ownership followed the land and witnessed the success of industrialization in Brit-
signing of the treaty and gave rise to a series of violent con- ain felt that the British Empire was mighty because their
flicts during the nineteenth century that are referred to as power was combined under a single sovereign. In addition,
the New Zealand Land Wars. During the 1840s, the con- these Māori believed that a united Māori tribal movement,
flict was concentrated around Northland and the southern joining all Māori together under the guidance of one sov-
part of the North Island. In the 1860s, fighting was focused ereign equal to the English monarch, could bring an end to
on the central area of North Island. Both the British and intertribal Māori conflict and allow the Māori to control
the Māori suffered many losses, though the British were their land.
the eventual winners because they confiscated Māori In 1858, the Waikato chief Pōtatau Te Wherowhero
land confiscation (or participated in land sales of dubious was declared king. When Pōtatau died in 1860, his son,
legality) until the twentieth century. This pattern carried Tāwhiao, assumed the role. In 1863, government troops
on until ultimately the majority of New Zealand land was invaded the Waikato, and conflict ensued. Eventually, the
owned by British settlers or the British Crown. Waikato were defeated, and most of their land was taken.
In addition to losing their land as a result of signing Though the Māori sovereigns have no legal or judicial
the treaty, many of the rights guaranteed to Māori by the power within the New Zealand government, they can still
treaty were ignored. To try to rectify this, in 1975, the prove influential. For example, Princess Te Puea Hērangi
Waitangi Tribunal was established. The tribunal has ruled persuaded her people to embrace the land incorporation
on many tribal land claims and in many cases has awarded scheme of Āpirana Ngata that saw unused Māori land
tribes compensation. To this day, the Treaty of Waitangi is with multiple owners combined under one farm manager,
still considered extremely controversial, though it is also who developed and managed the farm. Princess Te Puea
regarded as New Zealand’s founding document. Hērangi supervised the land scheme and strived for many
 Māori 693

years to see a revival of the Māori economy and culture. cord), it is buried in a meaningful place. The Māori con-
Princess Te Puea Hērangi also played a major role in the sider all customs associated with childbirth to be tapu, or
Waikato accepting New Zealand Prime Minister Peter sacrosanct, and the placenta is allied to the gods. Thus, the
Fraser’s offer of a £5000 annual payment in perpetuity for Māori believe it is very important that the placenta be bur-
their lost land. ied in a place of respect that cannot be trodden upon. By
After World War II, many Māori moved to the urban burying the placenta, the spirit, or wairua, of the placenta
areas in search of employment. Some Māori sought to can be reunited with the land.
bring traditional Māori institutions such as the marae (the Traditionally, the subject of menstruation is taboo
courtyard of a Māori meeting house used on ceremonial because the Māori consider menstrual blood to be con-
occasions) to the cities, but settlement in cities brought taminated by kahukahu, a type of disease demon respon-
major changes to the Māori world. Older Māori tribal sible for stillbirths and child ghosts that inhabit menstrual
structures were lost, and urban Māori became educated clots known as paheke. Because menstruating women
in Western ways rather than traditional Māori culture and were believed to harbor malevolent kahukahu, a number
language. During the late 1960s, awareness of the negative of limitations are traditionally placed on Māori women
impact of colonization on Māori grew, including an urban experiencing their periods. For instance, according to
Māori protest movement that included groups such as Ngā Māori tradition, a boy’s growth will be stunted if he is
Tamatoa (the Young Warriors). In the 1970s, these groups stepped over by a menstruating woman. Similarly, if a
led Māori protests about the loss of Māori tribal land and man possessing psychic powers sits on a seat previously
culture. In 1975, thousands of Māori from all over, led by sat on by a menstruating woman, he will lose his powers.
Dame Whina Cooper, walked the length of New Zealand’s For these reasons, Māori tradition dictates that menstru-
North Island in protest against Māori land loss. Then, in ating women should be isolated. Māori women tradition-
1977 and 1978, the Ngāti Whātua tribe occupied Bastion ally use a kind of diaper or apron, called a marototo, as
Point in Auckland, having been evicted from the area 1870. sanitary protection, within which ghosts of babies are said
The resurgence of the Māori since the 1970s has to reside until the marototo is placed among reeds at the
included significant achievements, including the Waitangi end of the woman’s bleeding. In some areas of New Zea-
Tribunal, the emergence of Māori political representation, land, it is customary for bloody marototos to be buried so
the advent of a Māori-language education system, and the that the kahukahu can be rendered powerless and unable
emergence of major industry initiatives in fishing, aqua- to attack the living. The marototo is offered to the gods,
culture, and agriculture. In addition, there is now a wide and incantations called karakia intoned, thereby rendering
range of Māori-owned television and radio stations and the kahukahu harmless. According to Māori teachings, if a
tourist destinations. marototo remains above ground, an animal may eat it or
it might be flown over by a moth, resulting in the disease
demons entering the animal and attacking people. Simi-
Society, Culture, and Tradition larly, if a marototo is thrown into a river, a fish that would
Many Māori customs and traditions are related to birth, subsequently become possessed may eat it.
the attainment of adulthood, and death. The Māori con- The Tangihanga is a Māori mourning ceremony. The cer-
sider the placenta to be extremely important and place emony is usually referred to as a tangi, a word that means
great significance on the burial of the placenta because both “to weep” and “to perform a dirge.” Māori tradition
this is said to strengthen the ties between a Māori baby pays great respect to the dead, who are acknowledged at
and the land. Indeed, the Māori word whenua denotes both all Māori gatherings irrespective of the occasion through
the placenta and the land. This is because the Māori believe calls known as karanga, speeches called whaikōrero, and
that all life is born from the womb of Papatūānuku, the song. The Māori consider remembering the dead to be an
powerful mother figure from whom all things are born, important way to preserve their whakapapa, repositories
under the sea. Thus, the New Zealand land that shows of meaningful stories, and a way to remind people of the
above sea level are placentas from Papatūānuku’s womb, importance of life and the people close to them. Another
and where these land-placentas float, they form islands. In reason that the Māori consider the ceremony to be very
preparation for the burial, the placenta is placed in a spe- important is that tangihanga harks back to a time before
cial container, and together with the baby’s pito (umbilical Pākehā. Tangihanga generally takes three days to complete
694 Māori

depending on the social status of the deceased and how These ritual arguments over where the corpse is to lie in
long it takes for their relatives to reach the location of the mourning and where it should be buried are considered a
ceremony, which can be on a marae or at a private home. way to recognize the mana of the dead. Though this form
The Māori consider tangihanga to be an essential way to of ceremonial arguing is a recognized tradition, it has been
process grief, and they encourage mourners to openly known to prove problematic when the deceased comes
show their heartache. from a cross-cultural community.
For a tangihanga ceremony to take place, a tūpāpaku, On the last day of the tangihanga, it is usual for a
or corpse, is typically prepared by an undertaker and then church service to be led by either a member of the clergy
exhibited in an open coffin. Spoken goodbyes called poro- or a tohunga, an expert practitioner of religion or another
poroaki are then said to the corpse as if it was still alive. subject. The corpse is then taken to a traditional burial
This is because the wairua, or spirit, of the dead individ- ground, or urupā, where it is interred. Most urupā fea-
ual stays within the corpse for some time after death. The ture a water container at the entrance; this allows mourn-
coffin, called a wharemate (also called a whare taua or ers to wash their hands as they leave the urupā, thereby
whare pōtae), is then welcomed onto the marae alongside removing tapu, a sacred yet forbidden force. After this, the
the deceased’s bereaved family, or whānau pani. In recent ritual of takahi whare occurs, where the deceased’s home
years, the role of the whānau pani has changed. In earlier is cleansed of tapu by a minister or tohunga who walks
times, families would ritually cut themselves (haehae) through the house chanting karakia, prayers and invoca-
using shells or stones or even commit suicide (whaka- tions used to call forth spiritual support and protection.
momori) to show their grief. The wife of the deceased Until recently, it was traditional for the Māori to
in particular was expected to perform whakamomori to exhume bones, which they later reburied—a process called
express her sorrow. Today, the bereaved do not need to cut tohunga. This ritual has been replaced by a ceremony called
themselves or commit suicide, though they may fast by hura kōhatu, or the unveiling the gravestone, which takes
waiting until sunset to eat; the lowering of the marae’s flag place about a year after the tangihanga is performed. Also
signals the end of the fast. Also, a member of the family at some point after the tangihanga is performed, another
should always stay with the corpse for the duration of the memorial ceremony known as carry the dead takes place,
tangihanga. during which a photograph of the deceased is taken to
The ceremonial rules, or kawa, of each marae decree people who were not able to be at the tangihanga.
where a coffin should rest before burial. Nowadays, this Like many areas of Māori life, the traditional tangi-
is usually in a separate house to the side of the wharenui hanga has changed in the face of modernization and inter-
(a communal house that is the focus of a marae), under a action with Pākehā culture. Many Māori have moved away
window on a terrace, or inside the house against the back from their traditional marae to cities—something that has
wall beneath the pou tuarongo (the back wall post). Alter- created issues of where to hold tangihanga. This in turn
natively, the coffin may be placed against the third post, or has led to some suburban homes being used as the venue
poupou, on the visitors’ side of the house, called the tara for the tangihanga ceremony. Moreover, as younger gener-
whānui. ations become removed from their cultural heritage, they
During the tangihanga, the bereaved family welcomes perform new forms of mourning, so the continuance of
visitors onto the marae, and speeches and songs are per- tangihanga as a Māori tradition is in doubt to a degree.
formed. Those attending the tangihanga wear wreaths of That said, there is evidence of an increase in the number
greenery called pare kawakawa. For many people, these of tangihanga as some Māori strive to keep their traditions
wreaths are the iconic element of tangihanga, but pare (including funeral customs) to cement Māori traditions as
kawakawa are made from kawakawa, a medicinal plant part of modern-day New Zealand society.
that is generally used by the Māori on special occasions, Another important Māori tradition is facial tattoos,
including children’s tohi ceremony, a religious blessing called moko. These reflect the traditional Māori belief that
performed in a stream. Also, during the tangihanga the the head is the most sacred part of the body. The Māori
family may ask for the body in a ceremony called tono also display tattoos on their thighs and buttocks. Māori
mate. The tono mate ceremony sees the bereaved family tattoos do not tend to include geometric shapes, animals,
demand to have the corpse lie in state at their marae or or names but rather feature curved and spiraling designs.
for a memorial service called a kawe mate to take place. One example of this type of tattoo is the raperape, a double
 Māori 695

A Māori man in New Zealand displays his moko (facial tattoo) while performing a haka (warrior dance). Moko reflect the Māori belief
that the head is the most sacred part of the body. (Minyun Zhou/Dreamstime.com)

spiral tattooed on the buttocks of Māori warriors. The was treated as a family heirloom. Once a Māori man had
Māori perform ritual tattooing because the marks reveal received his extensive moko tattoos, he would rest with
to which clan an individual belongs, their social rank, and medicinal karaka tree leaves across his face to help his
their personal achievements. In addition, moko tattoos scars heal. Also, because freshly carved skin was liable to
have long been considered a mark of adulthood. Once a infection, any man who had unhealed moko was forbidden
young adult male Māori has his first moko tattoo, he then to have sex or eat solid food. Men suffered the pain and
go on to receive additional tattoos at other life stages. inconvenience of the moko because they recognized that
Though painful, Māori men do not mind receiving extra the tattoos signified their bravery and resolve.
tattoos because they believe they make them more attrac- Māori tattooing methods have changed little over the
tive to women. Tattoos are not the exclusive preserve of years except that toward the end of the nineteenth century,
Māori men, however. Māori women also display tattoos, Māori tattoo artists switched to using needles rather than
including moko facial tattoos on their lips and chin and chisels, a move that made the tattooing procedure quicker
occasionally tattoos on their necks and backs. Female and resulted in faster healing and smoother markings.
Māori tattoos are not as heavily ornate as male moko. Despite the modernization of moko methods, the tattoos
The Māori developed their tattooing tradition in the fell out of popularity during the early twentieth century.
1500s, when they would use an uhi chisel fashioned from This resulted in a period during which moko went into
bird bones in conjunction with a small mallet to carve decline, but during the 1990s there was a major revival
facial skin. Using these tools, they produced grooves that of traditional Māori tattooing. Part of the reason for the
were then filled with black ink by a tattoo artist known as renewal of interest in moko was that New Zealand muse-
a tahunga-ta-moko. The pigment used by the tahunga-ta- ums began providing information on how moko could
moko was made from soot, tree ash, and dead caterpillars reveal family ancestry and tribal lineage. Once the cultural
and was stored in an ornate receptacle called an oko, which significance of moko became common knowledge, there
696 Māori

was an upsurge in the number of young Māori receiving is performed in day-to-day life, though when meeting
tattoos not just on their faces but also on their torsos, non-Māori strangers in contemporary society, Māori will
shoulder, and arms. There was also a significant increase in usually perform hugs and handshakes.
the number of women training to become moko tattooists,
a role traditionally reserved for men.
Traditional Māori religious beliefs originate from Poly- Health Care and Education
nesian culture. Historically, Polynesian concepts such as The Māori have poorer access to health care than non-
what makes something sacred (tapu) or non-sacred (noa), Māori, and there is some evidence that when Māori
as well as the spirit (wairua), govern Māori life. These do receive health care, it is of poorer quality than that
beliefs remained strong until the arrival of Europeans, received by non-Māori people. Research by the New Zea-
when many Māori converted to Christianity and turned land government has revealed systematic inequalities in
their backs on traditional Māori mythology. Today, the the disease prevention and health care experienced by
foremost religion among the Māori is Presbyterianism. the Māori (Hikuroa and Holliday 2013). The Māori have a
Some other Māori are Mormons, Catholics, or Anglican, higher incidence of diseases such as cancer, heart disease,
and some belong to Methodist groups. There are also diabetes, tuberculosis, and pneumonia than non-Māori,
Maori specific Christian denominations, such as Ratana. Māori babies are born with lower birth rates, and Māori
The Ratana church was founded in the early twentieth children aged less than five years are four times more likely
century by Tahupotiki Wiremu Ratana, a Methodist Māori to die of sudden infant death syndrome than non-Māori
farmer who became known as a visionary and faith healer. children (Hikuroa and Holliday 2013). The Māori therefore
During the twentieth century, the church was influential experience a disproportionate likelihood of experiencing
in cementing a religious awakening among the Māori disability and death in every disease category.
while also achieving political sway. The Ratana church Most Māori students are educated within the main-
was established at a time when the Māori had many com- stream New Zealand education system, but there is a
plaints against the New Zealand government, having lost growing demand for education in the Maori language.
most of their territory, seeing their population decimated This demand has been stimulated by the revival of Te
by disease, experiencing the negative economic effects Reo Māori. Programs developed to preserve Te Reo Māori
of World War I, and, most important of all, having the have provided the Māori with the opportunity to design
government fail to fulfill the principles of the Treaty of educational programs that meet the needs of both adults
Waitangi. and children. The Māori education scheme began with the
In 1925, Ratana ceased to be affiliated with other Chris- establishment of Māori-language early childhood centers
tian denominations. As a self-proclaimed church, Ratana (köhanga reo) and continued with the creation of Māori
developed a fusion Māori Christianity featuring unortho- medium schools (kura kaupapa Māori). Increasing num-
dox rituals and a hierarchy of religious officials. Ratana bers of Māori children also study in bilingual (English and
also declared himself God’s mangai (“mouthpiece”), some- Te Reo Māori) lessons in mainstream schools, and some
thing that dismayed many New Zealand’s Anglican bishops mainstream schools also teach Te Reo Māori immersion
who went on to denounce the new religion. Ratana went classes. Despite these efforts, though Māori educational
on to merge religious teaching with political activism, with achievement has increased in recent years, it is not keeping
the church sponsoring political candidates in 1922 and pace with that of non-Māori groups within New Zealand.
Ratana himself elected to office in 1931. In the 1960s, the Māori are more likely to attend early years education
church reestablished its relationship with other Christian than they once did, most likely because of the invention
churches and highlighted the original biblical principles of of köhanga reo. Nowadays, Māori are also more likely to
Ratana. Today, the church has many tens of thousands of remain in school beyond the compulsory leaving age and
followers, both Māori and non-Māori. to gain qualifications. Today, there are also substantially
Though many Māori have adopted Western greet- more Māori students enrolled in tertiary education and
ing customs, a popular traditional Māori greeting ges- going on to acquire university qualifications.
ture is the hongi, which sees one person press his or her In the past, the Māori have experienced higher rates of
nose to the forehead of the person being greeted. Hongi unemployment than non-Māori and have tended to work
 Mapuche 697

in lower skilled manual jobs. Since the 1980s, New Zea- Smale, Aaron. 2009. “Ratana: Church, State and Whanau.” New
land has experienced economic changes that have greatly Zealand Geographic (95) (January–February). https://www​
affected Māori employment, with many jobs lost in sectors .nzgeo.com/stories/ratana.
StateUniversity.com. 2017. “New Zealand—The Educational
in which the Māori worked. In particular, Māori employ- System—Overview.” http://education.stateuniversity​.com​
ment fell noticeably between 1986 and 1991. A subsequent /pages/1080/New-Zealand-EDUCATIONAL-SYSTEM​
recovery has seen employment for Māori women increase, -OVERVIEW.html.
but Māori men remain less likely to be in work than in Stats NZ. 2013. “2013 Census QuickStats about Māori.” Stats,
1986. In general, unemployment rates for Māori fell December 3. http://www.stats.govt.nz/Census/2013-census​
between 1991 and 1996. Job losses in areas in which Māori /profile-and-summary-reports/quickstats-about-maori​
-english.aspx.
traditionally worked have been offset to a degree by new Williams, Victoria. 2017. Life Customs around the World: From
job opportunities in other industries. For instance, fewer Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Māori are employed in manufacturing industries than pre-
viously, but more Māori work in service industries such as
retail, leisure, and financial services.

Threats to Survival MAPUCHE

At present, the Māori represent a significant element Current Location Chile; Argentina
within New Zealand’s society and culture, but that is not Current Population 1.8 million
to say that the Māori do not face numerous threats to their Language Mapudungun
survival. For example, the Māori have a high prevalence Interesting Fact The mortality rate for the rural area
of diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and cancers, of Chile with the highest concen-
and although increasing numbers of Māori are becoming tration of Mapuches is 5.8 percent
educated, literacy rates among the Māori continue to be higher than for urban Chile.
a cause for concern. In addition, Māori housing is poor
in some areas of New Zealand, and the Māori experience
higher unemployment rates than the Pākehā. Overview
The state of the Te Reo Māori and the purpose of The Mapuches (also called the Maputongos, Arucanians,
Māori culture within modern New Zealand life is a mat- Arucanos, or Mapuchs) are a South American people
ter of debate, with some people questioning the validity living around the Andes Mountains in Chile and Argen-
of claims to a distinct Māori identity because the Māori tina, being especially concentrated in the Chilean region
are increasingly diverse as a people yet also progressively of Araucanía. The Mapuches speak many related dialects
integrated into Pākehā society. that are collectively called Mapudungun. Most Mapuches
speak Spanish as a second language. Ostensibly Roman
See also: Aleut; Chamorro; iTaukei; Marshallese; Moriori;
Catholic, the Mapuches blend Christian traditions with
Nauruan; Samoans; Tongan; Torres Strait Islanders; Tuvaluan
native beliefs and rituals. The name Mapuche derives from
Further Reading the words for “earth” and “people” in Mapudungun.
Hikuroa, Evelyn, and Vicki Holliday. 2013. “Towards Partner-
ship: Indigenous Health in Australia and New Zealand.” In
Child, Youth and Family Health: Strengthening Communities,
edited by Margaret Barnes and Jennifer Rowe, 42–70. 2nd ed.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Chatswood, Australia: Elsevier Australia. The Mapuche population is estimated are around 1.8
Humphrey, Ashley. 2017. “Maori.” In Etiquette and Taboos around million people (Minahan 2013). According to Minority
the World: A Geographic Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Rights Group International, 1.3 million Mapuches live in
Customs, edited by Ken Taylor and Victoria Williams, 178–
Chile. This makes the Mapuches Chile’s largest indige-
181. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood.
Royal, Te Ahukaramu Charles. 2005. “Māori.” Te Ara: The Ency- nous group, comprising approximately 84 percent of the
clopedia of New Zealand, February 8. https://teara.govt.nz​ total indigenous population. In some provinces of Chile,
/en/maori. a high proportion of rural people are Mapuches. However,
698 Mapuche

most Mapuches in Chile live in cities, mainly Concep- hectares of land recently turned over to the Mapuches
ción, Temuco, and Santiago. According to Minority Rights (Youkee 2018).
Group International, a little over 100,000 Mapuches live in
Argentina. Mapuches in Argentina tend to live throughout
the country, including in the provinces of Buenos Aires, La History and Politics
Pampa, Chabut, and Santa Cruz. However, the majority of The origin of the Mapuches is disputed by academics. It
Mapuches in Argentina inhabit the provinces of Neuquén is generally believed that for several thousands of years,
and Río Negro. Since the end of the nineteenth century, the Mapuches controlled a large swathe of land in south-
Mapuche unity has been hampered by the Argentina-Chile west South America. The early Mapuches lived in distinct
border. Argentina is the Mapuches’ puel mapu (the east- regional groups, each of which had its own dialect and tra-
ern land), whereas Chile is their ngulu mapu (the west- ditions. From the twelfth century CE, the Mapuches came
ern land). Freedom of movement access this border is an under continuous pressure from the growing Inca Empire
important issue of debate for modern Mapuches. located to the north of Mapuche land. To stave off invasion
by the Incas, the various Mapuche groups united. Conse-
quently, over time the Mapuches evolved a strong warrior
Geography and Environment tradition, stemming the southern expansion of the Inca
Chile is located on South America’s western coast. To the Empire and defeating multiple Incan invasions between
north it is bordered by Peru, to the east lies Argentina and 1448 and 1482. Ultimately, the Incan troops were unable
Bolivia, to the west is the Pacific Ocean, and to the south is to defeat the Mapuche warriors and so withdrew, leaving
the South Pole. Araucanía is located in southern Chile. The the Mapuches the most powerful people in the south of
region lies between the Biobío and Toltén Rivers. Arau- South America prior to the arrival of the Europeans, con-
canía is divided into the provinces of Malleco and Cautín. trolling territory that reached from the Pacific Ocean to
The region includes a coastal mountain range, the fertile the Atlantic, a huge area crisscrossed by the high Andes.
Central Valley, and the Andean cordillera. The Imperial and Despite their control, however, Mapuche society did not
the Toltén Rivers cross southern Araucanía from east to have any central political or cultural authority above the
west. There are cordilleran mountain ridges and volcanoes village level. In 1540, the Spanish forces of Pedro de Val-
at Tolguaca, Lonquimay, and Llaima, and there are forests, divia headed south from what is now Peru and crossed
lakes, and hot springs located at Tolguaca, Río Blanco, and the BíoBío River, which formed the northern boundary of
Manzanares. The region has extensive forests, with virgin Mapuche land. Here, the Spanish met only light resistance,
forests comprising coigüe, raulí, tepa, bay, and cypress trees so in 1552 they continued southward into the heart of the
extending in all directions. The araucaria (monkey puzzle Mapuche homeland. The Spanish founded several perma-
tree) also grows in the forests. The widespread nature of nent settlements and so believed they had completed the
the forests mean that the timber industry is important to occupation of Chile and also subjugated the Mapuches,
the Araucanía economy. Farming (especially wheat farm- whom the Spanish called the Arucanos. However, in 1553,
ing) is important, as is cattle raising and tourism. the Mapuches, headed by warrior chief Lautaro, launched
Over the last few years, the Mapuches have targeted a fierce attack on the Spanish. This proved to be the start
the forest industry by burning forests and vehicles used of a lengthy series of conflicts dubbed the Arucanian Wars
by the industry to protest against what some Mapouches (1536–1810). The Mapuches proved victorious and rushed
consider the extractive industries’ oppression of the Map- northward, intent on forcing the Spanish to retreat to Peru.
uche people. In 2017, there were forty-three attacks by Lautaro’s death, together with a major smallpox outbreak,
Mapuches on the logging industry in response to the pine weakened the Mapuches, thereby saving the Spanish. The
and eucalyptus plantations that have replaced Araucanía’s Mapuches withdrew to the south of the BíoBío River but
original forests over the last fifty years. Mapuches wish continued to repel Spanish invasions onto Mapuche land.
to recover land on which they could plant crops and rear By the end of the sixteenth century, the Mapuches had
animals. However, the government of President Sebastián defeated the Spanish. Realizing that they were unable to
Piñera has a major growth plan for Araucanía that will defeat the Mapuches, the Spanish negotiated a treaty with
focus on increasing agriculture, energy production, and the Mapuches that guaranteed the people’s independence
tourism, as well as training people to grow on the 150,000 and forbade further Spanish settlements being founded
 Mapuche 699

Kurrimangk Chihuaihuen and his wife Juana Calfunao Paillalef, members of the Mapuche community of Araucanía, Chile, are involved
in the fight for Mapuche self-determination. The Mapuches suffer discrimination, and their communities are plagued by poverty, dis-
ease, alcoholism, and illiteracy. (Christopher Pillitz/In Pictures via Getty Images)

south of the BíoBío River. Despite the treaty, the Mapuches immigrants. In 1873, the Chileans sent the military to con-
had to band together against Spanish invasions in 1725, quer the entire Mapuche region of Arucania. The Mapu-
1740, and 1766. The Mapuches also had to head off multi- ches defeated the Chileans and forced them to withdraw.
ple raids by Spanish slavers. The Chileans returned in 1880 with their entire national
In 1810, Chile and Argentina gained independence army, a move that led to the Mapuches’ surrender in 1881.
from Spain. Despite these political changes, the Mapuches The surrender marked the end of over three hundred years
maintained the independence of their homeland. Subse- of Mapuche resistance.
quently, the new independent governments tried to con- In 1884, most Mapuches in Chile were forced to settle
quer Mapuche territory, which the governments claimed on small reservations. Over the course of the following
as their own and divided it by new international borders. decades, Chile’s Mapuches lost almost all their land to set-
In Argentina, the Campaign of the Desert almost exter- tlers. At the same time, the reservations set up to house
minated the Mapuches living to the east of the Andes. In the Mapuches in Chile and Argentina proved inadequate.
Chile, the Mapuches fought off repeated incursions into From 1927 to 1961, the continued loss of the Mapuches’
their land by the Chilean military. Determined to colo- productive land, together with a tripling of the Mapuche
nize Mapuche territory, the Chilean government sold land population, resulted in the Mapuches experiencing severe
grants giving access to Mapuche land to European immi- food shortages, diseases, poverty, and hunger. As a conse-
grants. In retaliation, in the 1850s, the Mapuches attacked quence of these factors, many Mapuches moved to the cities
German settlements established on their land. Then, in to find work. During the 1970s, the Mapuches backed the
1866, the Chilean government passed a law declaring pub- leftist Salvador Allende, who was Chilean president from
lic Mapuche territory and sold the land to more European 1970 to 1973. Allende’s procommunist ideals appealed to
700 Mapuche

the Mapuches, who held dear ancient traditions of com- Until recently Mapudungun was an entirely oral language,
munality. The Allende government passed new laws that with Spanish used for writing. Many academics and organ-
allowed the Mapuches to recover their territory. Allende izations are trying to create a Mapudungun alphabet that
also passed an Indigenous Law (17.729) that recognized will standardize the dialects, thereby improving the like-
the Mapuches’ culture and history. The gains made by the lihood of preserving the Mapuches’ oral tradition. Mapu-
Mapuches were reversed under the dictatorship of General dungun is in danger of disappearing because less than 20
Augusto Pinochet (1974–1990), who called for the division percent of Mapuche are fluent in their native language. In
of the reserves along with the liquidation of Chile’s indige- particular, young Mapuches are less likely to speak the lan-
nous communities. After 1979, the number of indigenous guage compared with older generations (Minority Rights
communities in Chile fell by 25 percent (Minority Rights Group International 2015).
Group International 2015). Under Pinochet, many Map- Most Mapuches converted to Roman Catholicism dur-
uche leaders were killed, with their bodies thrown into ing the nineteenth century. Nonetheless, the Mapuches
mass graves. Other Mapuches were exiled or imprisoned. maintain traditional religious beliefs. Traditionally, Map-
In the 1980s, young Mapuche activists started to rally the uches believe the universe was created by a celestial family
rest of the Mapuches following the abolition of indigenous that was led by Ngenechen, the embodiment of creation,
reservations, the banning of Mapuche religious practices, and Wakufu, the destructor. The Mapuches also venerate
a ban on the Mapuches speaking Mapudungun in public, spirits and ancestors. Individuals known as machi (sha-
and punishments for using Mapudungun in education. By mans) serve as the spiritual leader of each Mapuche village
the 1990s, as part of the galvanizing of Mapuche activism, as well as medical and spiritual healers. Machi are usually
Mapuche clans that were traditionally distinct from one female.
another became a fairly united tribal group. Demands for Most Mapuches live in extreme poverty, following a
greater Mapuche autonomy plus the unification of the Map- perilous, survival-based economy in which people’s earn-
uches’ traditional land in Chile and Argentina won wide- ings are spent as soon as they are earned. Mapuche men
spread support among the Mapuches. Mapuche activists tend to work as farmers on rural estates. Often, Mapuche
continue to call for the Spanish, Chilean, and Argentinian families also rely on financial support from relatives liv-
governments to honor past treaties that recognize Mapu- ing in major cities such as Santiago to supplement their
che sovereignty over land south of Chile’s BíoBío River and income. Outside of their extended family, Mapuches con-
Argentina’s Colorado River. More recently, since the start sider the machi the most important arbiter of morality
of the 2010s, a Mapuche cultural revival has stimulated because the machi is able to act as a bridge between the
Mapuche nationalism, with militant nationalists calling for natural and the supernatural world. Mapuches believe life
the creation of an independent Mapuche state, Wallmapu is cyclical and that there are four realms of the human
(“Mapuche land,” also called País Mapuche). soul. The first realm is earth, Nakmapu, which is fol-
lowed by Puimapu, where the soul waits to be joined by
the rest of the deceased’s family before traveling to the
Society, Culture, and Tradition third realm. In the fourth realm, the soul is reunited with
Mapuche society comprises fourteen distinct clans, each itself. Because Mapuches believe every human has two
of which has its own dialect and traditions. These clans hearts, two minds, and two souls, once the soul is united,
include the Moluches, who are traditionally a warrior clan; it selects a new family to join. Once the selection is made,
the traditionally mountain-dwelling Pipuche; the Huilli- the soul is reincarnated as a new person to live again in
che and the Pehuenche, “people of the south” and “people Nakmapu.
of the north,” respectively; and the Liquenche, the “people
of the coast.”
The Mapuche language, Mapudungun (meaning “lan- Health Care and Education
guage of the land,” from mapu “land” and dungun “speak, Current accurate information on Mapuche health is hard
speech”), consists of many closely related dialects that con- to find. Most Mapuches live in the rural areas of Chile
stitute a distinct Andean branch of the Andean-Equatorial and so do not necessarily attend health centers. Typically,
language family. The origins of Mapudungun are disputed. Mapuches only use national healthcare systems when
 Mapuche 701

they are acutely ill or even dying. The mortality rate for poverty, disease, alcoholism, and illiteracy. Indeed, Arau-
rural southern Chile where the Mapuches tend to live is canía, which is home to the greatest concentration of
5.8 percent higher than for urban areas of Chile; this dif- Mapuches, is the Chilean region with the worst national
ference is even greater for the Mapuches. The main causes poverty and unemployment rates.
of death in Chile are cardiovascular diseases, cancers, In Chile, Mapuche organizations, with the support of
accidents and poisonings, undefined illness, and lung dis- international human rights groups, continue to call for
eases. However, among the Mapuches, the main cause of constitutional recognition for indigenous peoples. Pro-
death in the male population is heart attack, with alcohol-​ tests against the Chilean government’s counterterrorism
related cirrhosis and prostate cancer also common kill- laws, which caused many Mapuche leaders to be impris-
ers. For Mapuche women, the main cause of death is oned, have received significant media attention in Chile
pneumonia, followed by cancer of the gallbladder, stom- and elsewhere. Hunger strikes by Mapuche prisoners
ach, esophagus, cervix, and breast. No specific data are have placed extra pressure on the government to change
available regarding HIV and the Mapuche population. the laws. Mapuche organizations have proven fairly suc-
HIV/AIDS is a growing issue among urban Mapuches. cessful in accessing bilingual and multicultural education
Poverty, lack of education, and high incidence of alcohol- because it is now a key part of the state education policy.
ism among urban Mapuches suggest these Mapuches are However, some Mapuches complained that the improve-
possibly involved in behaviors that leave them at risk of ments are insufficient with a lack of resources, meaning
contracting HIV. Mapuche women also have a high inci- that schemes are not realized and bilingual education
dence of cervical cancer associated with the human pap- consists of little more than learning a few words of Mapu-
illoma virus (HPV), which is also a risk factor for HIV dungun. Araucanía remains Chile’s most deprived region,
(Cianelli et al. 2008). with the Mapuches among the poorest, least educated, and
Education rates in Araucanía are among the lowest most malnourished. Despite government assurances to
in Chile. Teachers working in the region’s indigenous- resolve violent confrontations over collective land, water
majority rural schools face numerous challenges includ- rights and human rights abuses against the Mapuches con-
ing limited resources, substandard classroom conditions, tinue to be perpetrated against the Mapuches. The Chilean
and national policies that hamper teachers’ ability to teach police have attacked rural communities where land rights
a culturally relevant curriculum. Working relationships are disputed, leading to the deaths of many Mapuches. The
within many Araucanía schools employ racial hierarchies Mapuches also suffer indiscriminate detainment and beat-
that shape the dynamics between regular teachers and ings while in custody. Indeed, there is a lengthy history of
part-time indigenous educators who are part of the state’s young Mapuche men dying in custody as a result of police
intercultural school program. Traditional indigenous edu- brutality. One of the Mapuches’ main aims is to gain Map-
cators teach Mapudungun classes at schools participat- uche self-rule. A party called Wallmapuwen (“people of the
ing in the Ministry of Education’s intercultural program. Mapuche land”) seeks to revive Wallmapu in the people’s
These teachers are selected from indigenous communi- ancestral land in southern Chile and Argentina. In this
ties closest to schools. However, the indigenous teachers Mapuche state, Mapudugun would be used as the official
are not guaranteed equal status with regular teachers or language, and the people would have their own regional
equivalent salaries. Further, the indigenous teachers are legislative elected by voters. Progress toward this goal
employed for only a few hours that are inserted into the remains slow, however. In 2015, the Chilean government
school week, thereby marginalizing the indigenous teach- ousted the governor of Araucanía for calling for reforms
ers’ involvement in school life (Webb and Radcliffe 2016). that would acknowledge Mapuche rights.
In Argentina, the state has updated its laws regarding
indigenous rights in line with international developments.
Threats to Survival However, indigenous peoples as well as international
Although the situation has improved slightly in recent human rights organizations suggest the legislation rarely
years, the Mapuches continue to suffer discrimination as translates into practice, especially when indigenous rights
a result of state repression. Many Mapuches have moved clash with the government’s economic agenda and private
to urban areas, where their communities are plagued by interests.
702 Maronites

In Argentina, few Mapuche communities own the deeds MARONITES

to their collective lands, and land described as reservations
are often considered state owned. Consequently, mining, Current Location Lebanon; Israel; Palestine; Syria;
oil, and gas industries have been allowed to exploit the Cyprus
lands despite local protests. The most controversial and Current Population Around 4 million
well-publicized saga involving the Mapuches of Argentina Language Maronite dialect of Arabic; Levan-
occurred in the 2000s, when Italian fashion brand Benetton tine Arabic; French
bought a vast amount of land in the Chabut region from the Interesting Fact Famous people with Maronite
Argentine state where the Benetton graze wool-producing heritage include fashion designer
sheep. The Mapuches claim part of the land bought by Ben- Ellie Saab, actor Tony Shalhoub, and
etton is their ancestral territory. The resultant conflict has billionaire businessman Carlos Slim.
erupted into simmering yet violent protest.
In Argentina, there has been important progress made Overview
in the area of bilingual and multicultural education.
The Maronites are an ethnoreligious community belong-
Mapuche groups take an active role in forming teach-
ing to the Syriac Maronite Church. The Maronites speak
ing curricula, and recently local Mapuches have been
their own dialect of Arabic, as well Levantine Arabic
able to participate in running ecotourism tours, organ-
(also known as Lebanese-Syrian Arabic) and French. The
izing traditional-style Mapuche accommodations and
Maronites are often considered a monastic group, and
meals, and selling Mapuche crafts in locations that attract
although in English the term monk usually refers to males,
foreign travelers such as Bariloche and San Martin.
the Maronites comprise both men and women.
Recent strides have been made in uniting Argentine
and Chilean Mapuche organizations so that they can work
together and achieve more. For instance, Mapuche organ- Population, Diaspora, and Migration
izations have highlighted the plight of Mapuche political The heaviest concentration of Maronites live around
prisoners in Chile. One of the main goals of the Mapuche Mount Lebanon in Lebanon. Mount Lebanon is a moun-
organizations is to achieve Mapuche self-government. A tain range running through most of the country, parallel
central part of this aim is to recreate Wallmapu in south- with the Mediterranean Sea. Maronites are found particu-
ern Chile and Argentina. The Mapuches’ rights to land and larly at the northern end of the mountain range, in the
water, as well as to multicultural education, are also top north of the country. Maronites also live in Israel, Pales-
priorities. tine, Syria, and Cyprus, as well as in the Lebanese diaspora
See also: Aymara; Quechua; Rapa Nui in South America (particularly in Argentina and Brazil),
Further Reading the United States, Mexico, Canada, Australia, European
Cianelli, Rosina, Lilian Ferrer, Kathleen F. Norr, Sarah Miner, nations (especially France), and Africa (mainly in Egypt).
Lisette Irarrazabal, Margarita Bernales, Nilda Peragallo, Accurate population figures for the Maronites are unavail-
Judith Levy, James L. Norr, and Beverly McElmurry. 2008. able, but it is estimated that there are just over one million
“HIV Issues and Mapuches in Chile.” Journal of the Associa- Maronites living in the Middle East (Minahan 2002) and a
tion of Nurses in AIDS Care 19 (3): 235–241.
further three million to five million Maronites living else-
Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An
Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. where in the Maronite diaspora.
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Chile: Mapuche.”
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, June
19. https://minorityrights.org/minorities/mapuche-2.
Geography and Environment
Webb, Andrew, and Sarah Radcliffe. 2016. “Unfulfilled Promises Many of the ideals of Maronite life, both in Lebanon and
of Equity: Racism and Interculturalism in Chilean Educa- elsewhere, were formed by monastic traditions and the
tion.” Race Ethnicity and Education 19 (6): 1335–1350. doi:10​ group’s history of retreating to the Lebanese mountains
.1080/13613324.2015.1095173.
when under attack. For this reason, in Lebanon, Maronite
Youkee, Mat. 2018. “Indigenous Chileans Defend Their Land
against Loggers with Radical Tactics.” The Guardian, June churches and holy sites are often located above towns, on
14. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jun/14​/chile​ hillsides, and in mountainous locations. This is exempli-
-mapuche-indigenous-arson-radical-environmental​-protest. fied by the Maronites’ spiritual home, the Qadisha Valley.
The sides of the Qadisha Valley are made from steep cliffs
 Maronites 703

The Cedars of God

The Cedars of God site is one of the last traces of the Lebanon cedar forests that once flourished across Mount
Lebanon. The forest’s timber was used by many civilizations: Phoenicians and Egyptians used the cedar wood for
shipbuilding, and the Ottomans used it in railway construction. Egyptians also used cedar resin in the mummifica-
tion process. Concern for the cedars goes back to 1876, when England’s Queen Victoria paid for part of the forest to
be surrounded by a high stone wall that protected it from goats. Today, some cedars survive in mountainous parts,
including the slopes of Mount Makmel, near the Qadisha Valley. Mention of the Cedars of God appears in both the
Bible and the poem the Epic of Gilgamesh (written around 2100 BCE).

that are home to many long cave systems that are difficult persistent deforestation, the remaining trees are around
of access. three thousand years old.
The Qadisha Valley is an example of humankind and
nature enjoying a symbiotic relationship. The Maronites
found the austere valley to be perfectly suited to the devel- History and Politics
opment of the hermit lifestyle because the valleys natural The Maronites originate mainly from Mount Lebanon
caves proved virtually inaccessible and comfortless and and the surrounding regions of the Levant (the historical
were therefore an excellent location to live a life or contem- geographical term referring to a large area in the Eastern
plation and self-abasement. In this way, a specific spiritual Mediterranean extending roughly from Greece to the
relationship was established between the spiritual needs of coast of Libya). There is some disagreement as to why
the Maronites and the rugged land. the Maronites are so called. Some historians suggest that
The Qadisha Valley is located at the foot of Leba- the name derives from John Maron, the first Maronite
non’s highest peak, Mount al-Makmel, which was added Patriarch of Antioch, who ruled from 685 to 707 CE. It
to UNESCO’s list of World Heritage Sites in 1998 due to was under Maron’s leadership that the invading Byzantine
its importance as the site of some of the world’s earliest armies of Justinian II were defeated in 684, thereby mak-
Christian monastic settlements. Early Christian groups, ing the Maronites a fully independent people. However,
including the Maronites, Armenians, and Melchites, the most commonly accepted theory is that the group
sought refuge in Qadisha Valley after fleeing persecution adopted the name Maronite in reference to the third-
elsewhere. The Maronites soon became the valley’s dom- century Syriac Christian hermit-saint Maron, who was
inant Christian group. From the late seventh century CE, born in what is today modern-day Syria and who lived
the Maronites feared attacks from the Jacobites (Syrian in the Taurus Mountains located in present-day Turkey.
Orthodox) and Muslims. Maronite developments in the According to Maronite tradition, after the death of Saint
area intensified during the tenth century following the Maron, his followers migrated to the area of Mount Leb-
destruction of the Monastery of Saint Maron. After anon, having lived previously around the area of Anti-
the destruction of the monastery, Maronite monks built och (an ancient Greek city within present-day Turkey).
a new center at Qannubin, in the center of the Qadisha It was at Mount Lebanon that the nucleus of the Syr-
Valley, and soon Maronite monasteries spread throughout iac Maronite Church was established. Ever since, the
the surrounding area. In 1268 and 1283, Mameluk sultans Maronites have regarded the mountains of Lebanon as
launched campaigns against the Maronite settlements in both a spiritual homeland and a protective fortress from
the Qadisha Valley. Despite these attacks, in the fifteenth persecution.
century the Deir Qannubin monastery became the seat of During the seventh century, the Maronites who had
the Maronite Patriarch and remained such for another five moved to coastal areas returned to live in isolation in the
hundred years. mountainous regions of Lebanon and Syria. They did this
The Qadisha Valley lies close to the Cedars of God for- to escape religious persecution by the Byzantines, from
est, which is one of the last remaining parts of the extensive whom Syrian Christians had split to create the Maronite
forests of the Lebanon cedar trees that thrived in the area sect. Later in the seventh century, the Muslim conquest
during ancient times. Although the forest has experienced of the Levant occurred, but the Muslim Arabs paid little
704 Maronites

attention to the Maronites, meaning the Maronites could of the European fascism prevalent at this time. In the
maintain their independence and Christian religion in the past, the Phalange has courted controversy by aiming to
area of Mount Lebanon. Here, the Maronites lived a sim- detach Lebanon from the Arab world on the basis that Leb-
ple existence devoted to prayer, fasting, and growing their anon has Phoenician (ancient Semitic, Eastern Mediterra-
own vegetarian food. In 1099, the Maronites’ isolation nean) heritage. At the end of the civil war, which left Syria
ended with the arrival of the First Crusade. The Maronites as the country’s occupying force, many Christian leaders
allied themselves with the Crusaders and enlisted in their went into exile in France. From here, some Maronite lead-
armies. Then, in 1181, the Maronites’ informal alliance ers led campaigns against Syrian authority before later
with the Catholic authorities in Antioch resulted in an offi- returning to Lebanon. Today, Lebanon’s government is run
cial union because the Maronite patriarch vowed obedi- by a coalition of Christians and Muslims, and by conven-
ence to the pope. tion the Lebanese president must be a Maronite.
Following a military battle in 1516 that saw the Otto- Since the establishment of an independent Lebanon in
man Empire take control of Mount Lebanon, the Druze 1943, the Maronites have constituted one of Lebanon’s two
(neighboring, and ostensibly Muslim, Lebanese mountain major religious groups along with Islam. It is often thought
dwellers) became the area’s true rulers under the aus- that the Maronites have always been Orthodox Christians
pices of the Egyptian Mamaluks. Despite being ruled by affiliated to Rome who adhere to the orthodox belief that
others, the Maronites maintained their religion and cus- Christ has two natures (one human and one divine) that
toms. Indeed, despite discrimination by the authorities, the are indivisible yet separate. There is, however, some evi-
Maronites flourished in term of trade and farming. Soon dence that at some point the Maronites followed the teach-
international trade, religious affiliations, and visits from ings of Serhius, patriarch of Constantinople, who decreed
explorers meant that the Maronites developed increasingly that Christ was purely divine and had no human will.
strong bonds with Europe. By the seventeenth century, the Today, the Syriac Maronite Church, under the Patri-
group had forged strong cultural links to Europe, especially arch of Antioch, is in full communion with the Holy See in
with France, with the Maronites dressing in the manner of Rome. The Maronites recognize the pope, so the Maronites
Europeans and absorbing French culture. Indeed, French are regarded as an Eastern Catholic particular church (by
became the preferred tongue of the Maronite elite. which is meant a religious group headed by a bishop or
In the nineteenth century, the Ottomans incited someone recognized as comparable to a bishop) that has
the Druze against the Maronites, resulting in the great branches in almost all countries in which Maronite Chris-
Maronite massacre (1860), during which thousands tian communities dwell. This is true of Maronite com-
of Maronites were killed. Following the massacre, the munities living in both the Middle East and the Maronite
Maronites attained formal autonomy within the Otto- diaspora. The number of Maronite worshippers worldwide
man Empire. In 1920, after the dissolution of the Ottoman is difficult to quantify because many Maronites living out-
Empire, the League of Nations Mandate for Syria and Leb- side Lebanon attend other Catholic churches.
anon resulted in Lebanon coming under the control of
France. Consequently, the Maronites became self-ruling
under French protection. Society, Culture, and Tradition
For the most part, the politics of the Maronites are Over the years, Maronites living in Cyprus have sought
bound up with the politics of Lebanon because the to preserve the Maronites’ distinctive Aramaic language,
Maronites tend to be pro-West and in favor of an inde- Syriac (Christian Aramaic). Today, however, the language
pendent Lebanon free from Syrian influence. Lebanon’s survives mainly in the group’s liturgy because the church
recent political history has been associated with pres- uses Syriac rather than Latin in its worship. Another way
tigious families that played important roles in Lebanon’s in which the Maronites differ from some other Christian
civil war (1975–1990) and employed their own militias to churches is that Maronite monks and nuns are housed in
battle for leadership of the country’s Christian commu- the same building. Furthermore, nonmonastic Maronite
nity. One such family, the Gemayel, is intimately involved priests are allowed to marry.
in the main Maronite political party, known as the Phal- Maronites celebrate the usual Christian holidays of
ange (also known as the Kataeb or Lebanese Phalanges Christmas, Easter, the Feast of the Ascension (May 15),
Party), the founding of which, in 1936, bore the influence and the Feast of the Assumption (August 15). The group
 Maronites 705

also celebrates the occasion of the Festival of the Cross region for the Ottoman army and officials while barring
on September 14. To mark this occasion, Maronites light food from being given to the Maronites living on Mount
candles in their homes and churches and light fires on the Lebanon. This policy effectively condemned the Maronites
peaks of Mount Lebanon. Another Maronite holy day is to starvation. It is believed around two hundred thousand
St. Maron’s Day (February 9 according to the Maronites, Maronites died from starvation and disease during this
but February 14 in the eastern Orthodox Church). Pre- time. Under Muslim rule, the Maronites (like other Chris-
viously, the Maronites celebrated the feast of St. Maron tian groups) were banned from riding horses in towns,
on January 5 because this was the date on which the had to wear distinctive clothing, were made to pay extra
church of Kfar Hai in Mount Lebanon was consecrated taxes, and found their evidence inadmissible in courts.
in the saint’s honor. In the seventeenth century, however, Christians and Jews were also forbidden from erecting or
the feast day was transferred to February 9. The feast of repairing places of worship, carrying religious symbols,
Saint Maron is celebrated at the national level because and performing some religious activities such as ringing
the saint is also the patron saint of Lebanon. Addition- church bells.
ally, Pope Benedict XIV (1675–1758) granted a plenary The pan-Arabism of Lebanon has resulted in the
indulgence (full remission of all temporal punishment Maronites feeling increasingly isolated and excluded.
due to sin) to everyone who visited a Maronite Church Part of the group’s historic suffering at the hands of Arabs
on February 9. In addition to the usual biblical saints includes the Damour Massacre. In the 1970s, a growing
and Saint Maron, the Maronites also celebrate other population of Muslims within Lebanon, together with
saints including St. John Maron, St. Rafka (Rafqua), and ever-louder calls for greater Muslim political and finan-
St. Charbel, all of whom are respected for their extreme cial influence within the previously Maronite-dominated
monastic self-discipline. country, were swelled by large numbers of radicalized
Palestinian refugees. Tensions between Palestinian mili-
tias and the Maronites (regarded as the Lebanese estab-
Health Care and Education lishment by Palestinians) eventually led to the outbreak
Members of the Maronite diaspora have helped to rebuild of civil war in 1975. The Damour Massacre occurred dur-
healthcare facilities in part of the Middle East affected by ing this war on January 20, 1976, at Damour, a Maronite
civil war. This was particularly true in Lebanon, where town home to Phalange militia. The town was attacked
members of the Maronite diaspora built hospitals and pro- by Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) units who
vided equipment and vehicles. executed Maronite fighters, gang-raped and then killed
The Holy Spirit University was established in 1950 by Maronite girls and women, and murdered around 250
the Lebanese Maronite Order and is located about twelve other civilians. A further 15,000 Maronites fled the town
miles north of Beirut. The first of the university’s depart- before the PLO arrived. Once the townsfolk had fled or
ments to open were theology, philosophy, humanities, law, been killed, the PLO razed Maronite homes and dese-
and literature. In 1962, the Lebanese government officially crated the town’s graveyard, leaving exhumed corpses on
recognized the university. Although follows Maronite the road.
educational traditions, the university is open to Western- By the time the civil war ended in 1990, the Maronite
ers and takes an interfaith approach to helping Lebanon influence on Lebanese politics and society had been shat-
maintain an open, diverse society. tered. The signing of a treaty between Lebanon and Syria
in 1991, which saw the countries cooperate militarily and
politically, was a major blow to the Maronites, who felt the
Threats to Survival pact diminished Lebanese sovereignty. Well aware of the
Notwithstanding their political influence, the Maronites persecution faced by Christian minorities in some other
have suffered a history of persecution. For instance, the Muslim countries, the Maronites continued to aim for
group was persecuted under both the Byzantine and Otto- Lebanon to be distinct from the Muslim world as a whole,
man Empires. A particularly well-documented instance of so the Lebanon-Syria treaty represented a serious hurdle
Maronite persecution took the form of the Great Famine toward the national autonomy that the Maronites believed
of Mount Lebanon (1915 and 1918) that resulted from would safeguard Lebanese Christians. By the end of the
the Ottoman policy of procuring all food produced in the 1990s, Maronite influence had waned further through a
706  Marsh Arab

combination of war, emigration, and the growth of Leba- MARSH ARAB

non’s Shia Muslim population.
Today, the rise of the Islamic State (IS) jihadi militants Current Location Iraq
and other Islamic fundamentalist groups is making some Current Population 250,000
Maronites question their position in the Middle East and Language Arabic
ask themselves whether they should stay living within Ara- Interesting Fact The Marsh Arab homeland is
bic-speaking countries or join a more politically stable coun- regarded by many researchers as
try such as Israel. Currently, there is much discussion within the location for the biblical Garden
the Maronite community as to what would be best for the of Eden.
group’s future. Some Maronites wish to maintain their Arab
identity, whereas other Maronites see their future within Israel
because they believe Israel can provide them with greater Overview
safety and stability. The Maronites supported the regime of The Marsh Arabs are the indigenous seminomadic inhab-
Bashar al-Assad in Syria, but they have since been attacked itants of marshes located in southern Iraq. Marsh Arabs
by both the Syrian government and Islamist extremists such are also called the Madan (or Mad’an) or shroog (“those
as IS. In the very near future, the Maronites will have to make from the east”), though the Marsh Arabs consider these
decisions that will shape their future for generations to come. names pejorative. The Marsh Arabs speak Arabic and are
followers of Shia Islam.
See also: Copts; Druze; Mandean; Samaritan
Further Reading
BBC. 2007. “Who Are the Maronites?” BBC News, August 6. Population, Diaspora, and Migration
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/6932786​
.stm. The exact Marsh Arab population is unknown. Estimates
Fisk, Robert. 1993. “Lebanon’s Dispossessed Come Home: Robert suggest that there are around 250,000 Marsh Arabs living
Fisk in Damour on the Scars of an Orgy of Ethnic Cleansing.” in Iraq (Schwartzstein 2017). The Marsh Arab population
Independent, May 15. http://www.independent.co.uk/news​ comprises seven tribal groups, with each claiming Arab
/world/lebanons-dispossessed-come-home-robert-fisk-in​ ancestry. Marsh Arab communities also exist in Kuwait
-damour-on-the-scars-of-an-orgy-of-ethnic-cleansing​
and western Iran.
-2323136.html.
Frazee, Charles A. 2000. “Maronites.” In Encyclopedia of Monas- In 2003, around forty thousand Marsh Arabs were
ticism, edited by William M. Johnston and Christopher known to be living in camps in Iran, with the remainder of
Kleinhenz, 824–825. London: Routledge. the Marsh Arabs internally displaced in Iraq (Sharp 2003).
Grafton, David D. 2003. The Christians of Lebanon: Political Over the last decade, many Marsh Arabs have returned
Rights in Islamic Law. London: Tauris Academic Studies. home from exile in Iran since the Marsh Arab homeland
Harris, William. 2012. Lebanon: A History, 600–2011. Oxford,
was partially reflooded. The Iraqi government dredged
UK: Oxford University Press.
Kaufman, Asher. 2014. Reviving Phoenicia: The Search for tons of wetland mud that was then shaped into forty-three
Identity in Lebanon. London: I. B. Tauris & Co. islands on which the Marsh Arabs could build homes.
Khalaf, Salim George. 2017. “The Maronites and Lebanon: A Marsh Arabs tend to live in secluded villages comprising
Brief History.” Maronites. http://phoenicia.org/maronites​ elaborate reed houses often accessible only by boat.
.html.
McFarland, Michael C. n.d. “Maronite Church.” Catholics & Cul-
tures. https://www.catholicsandcultures.org/eastern​-catholic​
-churches/maronite-church.
Geography and Environment
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: The Marsh Arabs live in the Iraqi Marshes (Ahwar, also
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 3, L–R. called the Mesopotamian Marshes), alluvial salt marshes
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. mainly located in southern Iraq where the Tigris and
Official Holidays. 2017. “Feast of St. Maron: National Holiday in
Euphrates Rivers split. Iraq, Iran, Turkey, and Kuwait all
Lebanon.” http://www.officeholidays.com/countries​/lebanon​
/stmaron.php. share the Tigris-Euphrates Basin with the confluence of
Stokes, Jamie, ed. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Tigris-Euphrates forming part of the Iraq-Kuwait bor-
the Middle East. New York: Facts on File. der. The area’s climate is subtropical, hot, and arid. Land
around the Tigris and the Euphrates is very fertile with
 Marsh Arab  707

aquatic vegetation including reeds, rushes, and papyrus. In 1953, the Iraqi government employed British engi-
The marshes are home to hundreds of thousands of birds neers to rebuild canal embankments that would funnel
and many species of fish. The marshes also serve as a rest the waters of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, thereby
point for migratory birds such as pelicans and herons fly- reclaiming the water found in the marshes inhabited by
ing from Central Asia to Africa. Other animals in the area the Marsh Arabs. The rebuilding of the canal embank-
include water buffalo, lizards, snakes, frogs, antelopes, and ments was intended to drain away overly salty or polluted
gazelles. water, thereby creating additional farmland. However, the
During the 1990s, the dictatorial regime of Saddam engineering work forced the Marsh Arabs from their land
Hussein drained the marshes to stop them being used for and severely impacted the wetlands’ biodiversity. This in
cover by rebels. The drainage resulted in the area covered turn reduced the amount of food available to the Marsh
by the marshes being greatly reduced. Since the over- Arabs, especially, rice, millet, barley, wheat, sheep, fish,
throw of Hussein in 2003, the marshlands have revived and cattle, while also removing the reeds from which the
somewhat. In 2016, UNESCO named the marshes a World Marsh Arabs made their traditional houses and boats. In
Heritage Site. Nevertheless, the marshes remain at risk of the 1970s, local irrigation projects were extended that fur-
drought, dam construction, and irrigation schemes. ther disrupted the flow of water to the marshes.
The environmental conservation of the wetlands is The rebuilding of the canal embankments progressed
hindered by the development of agricultural schemes slowly and was further delayed by the start of the Iran-Iraq
and large upstream dams in Turkey and Syria that reduce War (1980–1988), which turned the Marsh Arab home-
the flow of water to the marshes. Solutions will need to land into a war zone. The war put great pressure on the
be found that will ensure the availability of river water to Marsh Arabs, and their population fell dramatically. Dur-
the marshes as drinking water and for agriculture. Because ing the war, some Marsh Arabs fought against Iran using
some of the world’s largest oil fields are located very close causeways built in the marshes to allow units to maneuver.
or even under the marshes, measures will need to be put Much of the marshes remained remote from the fighting,
in place to prevent the oil industry from polluting the area. however, so after the war, Iraqi army deserters sought ref-
uge there. By the mid-1980s, low-level rebellion against the
ruling Ba’athist Party’s drainage and resettlement projects
History and Politics developed throughout the Marsh Arab homeland.
The Marsh Arabs have inhabited their homeland for at The Marsh Arabs suffered greatly under the rule of
least five thousand years, with some researchers believing Saddam Hussein (1979–2003). Hussein’s control over the
the Marsh Arabs first migrated to their homeland when south of Iraq was weaker than elsewhere, especially in
the sea that covered the land receded to the Persian Gulf and around the marshes in which the Marsh Arabs lived.
around six thousand years ago. The Marsh Arabs are con- The regime’s authority over this area was shaky because
sidered the people with the strongest links to the ancient many dissidents sought refuge in the marshes and because
Sumerian people, who created the earliest known civili- the region bordered Iran. In the aftermath of a 1991 Shia
zation in the historical region of southern Mesopotamia revolt, Hussein deployed forty thousand troops into Marsh
(now southern Iraq). Though there are no Marsh Arab Arab areas, where they destroyed the reed beds. It was at
written records dating from before the ninth century, the this time that the United States, Britain, and France estab-
chronicles of the Abbasid Caliphs (750–1258) describes lished a United Nations–backed no-fly zone over southern
the Marsh Arabs as a people populated by thieves, fugi- Iraq (Marr 2012).
tives, and rebels against the Abbasid Caliphate that had Hussein also oversaw the Marsh Arabs’ starvation, the
Baghdad as its capital. destruction of their villages, the poisoning of the water
The Marsh Arabs have interacted very little with out- on which they depended, the damming of the rivers that
siders because the marshes provided them with protection fed their homeland, the bombing and burning of numer-
against persecution by Sunni Muslim Ottoman Turks and ous Marsh Arab villages, and the displacement of tens of
Persians. Over time, the Marsh Arabs developed a unique thousands of Marsh Arabs. In addition, large tracts of the
culture that saw the people live in reed houses largely marshes were drained by blocking the tributaries of the
accessible by boat, farming rice and sugarcane, raising Tigris that fed the Amara marshes and by damming
water buffalo, and fishing. the Euphrates south of Nasiriyah. This plan was primarily
708  Marsh Arab

aimed at eliminating Marsh Arab food sources and pre- this allows the women to carry children in the folds of fab-
venting any remaining rebels from seeking refuge in the ric while they work. The women also wrap lengths of fabric
marshes. The marshes’ destruction forced most Marsh from the dress’s sleeves around their heads. Marsh Arab
Arabs to leave their homeland, and it was also reported women do not wear a veil but rather place lengths of their
that some Marsh Arabs were captured by government dress fabric across the nose and mouth when they feel it
forces and transported to camps, where they were exe- necessary to do so.
cuted. Iraqi authorities produced a series of propaganda Traditionally, Marsh Arab women work in the marshes
articles directed against the Marsh Arabs. alongside men almost as equals. Today, however, some
In 1992, Hussein ordered the construction of a massive Marsh Arab women are prevented from working. This
canal, the Saddam River, to drain the marshes. By 1994, change is reflected in the women’s dress because in recent
almost all the marshes had been destroyed, and many years an increasing number of Marsh Arab women who
Marsh Arabs had been killed. Others had moved to other have lived among more conservative, urban Muslims have
parts of Iraq as part of Hussein’s attempts to Arabize cer- started to wear niqabs, face veils that leave the eyes visible
tain parts of the country or were living in exile in Iranian and are partnered with a head scarf.
refugee camps or inhabiting slum areas of Iraqi cities such Marsh Arab men tend to wear little clothing and some-
as Basra. In the meantime, the marshes’ western and cen- times work naked. The traditional Marsh Arab men’s head-
tral reaches had become completely desiccated, and east- wear is the turbanlike kuffiyah. Elite Marsh Arab men may
ern areas had shrunk dramatically. By 1995, the United sport an aqal (or agal), a black cord, over their kuffiyah to
Nations estimated that between 200,000 and 250,000 keep it in place on their heads. Marsh Arab men wear san-
Marsh Arabs had been displaced from their homeland dals that protect their feet from thorns and splinters while
(Marr 2012). working in the marshes.
After the 2003 invasion of Iraq by British and U.S. The restoration of Marsh Arab culture following the
troops, a planned restoration of the marshes began. In the Hussein era had been hampered by the frequent conflict
wake of the toppling of Hussein, Marsh Arabs destroyed suffered by the Iraqi people as well as the fact that the
the dams that had drained their land, and the four-year- Marsh Arab population has fallen sharply since the 1990s,
long drought in the marsh region ended. These factors with many of the people displaced.
combined to start the reversal of the marshes’ drainage.
By 2007, the marshes had recovered to 50 percent of their
original land area (Edwards 2013). Since then, the marshes Health Care and Education
have recovered significantly, allowing some Marsh Arabs In the past, the marshes inhabited by the Marsh Arab
to return to their homeland. lacked adequate healthcare facilities and schools. Today,
In 2010, the Iraqi High Tribunal (a court established in however, the new islands inhabited by the Marsh Arabs are
2003 by the Iraqi Governing Council to try high-profile equipped with dedicated infrastructure, including medi-
officials for war crimes and crimes against humanity) cal facilities and a classroom.
ruled that the destruction of the marshes constituted an
act of genocide against the Marsh Arabs.
Threats to Survival
The most immediate challenge facing the Marsh Arabs
Society, Culture, and Tradition is resumption of their former way of life on their tradi-
Water is at the center of Marsh Arab life. The people are tional land. Saddam Hussein destroyed the land on which
engaged in a number of professions from buffalo breeding their homes and farms were located, and the restoration
to fishing, all of which are connected to water. Over time the of the marshes should allow the people to resume and
Marsh Arabs have flourished as aquatic nomads and settled sustain their farming, fishing, and trading. However, ever
rice farmers, benefiting from the marshes’ fertile soils and since the Marsh Arabs were displaced and exiled, their
plentiful supply of water. Many Marsh Arab homes, which unique culture has been eroded by more socially conserv-
are built from reeds, are accessible only by boat. ative norms within Iraq. This is evinced by the fact that
Traditionally, Marsh Arab women wear a voluminous Marsh Arab women now enjoy less equality and freedom
black cotton dress. The dress is deliberately roomy because than before. Political instability in the Middle East and
 Marshallese 709

local tension between the Marsh Arabs and other Iraqis language. This is a Polynesian language that divides into
have intensified the poverty experienced by dispossessed two main dialects, Rälik (or Western Marshallese) and
Marsh Arabs. Ratak (Eastern Marshallese), which correspond to the
Ultimately, the future of the Marsh Arabs may be out of two sets of islands that make up the Marshall Islands (the
the control of either the people themselves or Iraqi authori- Rälik and Ratak Islands). Many Marshallese also speak
ties because Turkey has built a number of large dams along English, which is the official language of the islands. The
the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers and their tributaries. The Marshallese are extremely devout Christians, belonging
dams have reduced the flow of water reaching the marshes to a number of Protestant sects. There is also a Roman
and may lead to their eventual, permanent destruction. Catholic Marshallese minority, and in recent years many
Even if the marshes survive, it is unlikely that Marsh Arab Marshallese have joined the Church of Latter-Day Saints.
territory will ever be restored to the size it enjoyed prior
to 1991.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
See also: Kurd; Lur; Mandean; Sea Gypsy; Shabak; Yazidi
The Marshallese population is estimated to number
Further Reading around sixty-five thousand people (Minahan 2012).
Edwards, Richard M. 2013. “Marsh Arabs.” In The Iraq War
Encyclopedia, edited by Thomas R. Mockaitis, 257–259.
Around 70 percent of the Marshallese live in the urban
Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. centers of Majuro (the capital) and Kwajalein (leased by
Marr, Phoebe. 2012. The Modern History of Iraq. 3rd ed. Boulder, the Pentagon). Some parts of the Marshall Islands are
CO: Westview Press. extremely overpopulated. For instance, over ten thousand
Pierpaoli, Paul G., Jr. 2015. “Marsh Arabs.” In Modern Genocide: people live in an area one-tenth of a square mile in size on
The Definitive Resource and Document Collection, edited Ebeye. One-third of the area’s residents are unemployed,
by Paul R. Bartrop and Steven Leonard Jacobs, 1604. Santa
Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. and most are under twenty years old. Living conditions
Schwartzstein, Peter. 2017. “Iraq’s Marsh Arabs Test the Waters as are unsanitary, with sewage in the streets and government
Wetlands Ruined by Saddam Are Reborn.” The Guardian, Jan- buildings standing on stilts that are crumbling as a result
uary 18. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development​ of exposure to wind and salty sea air (Zak 2015).
/2017/jan/18/iraq-marsh-arabs-test-the-waters-wetlands​ Under the terms of a political agreement, citizens of the
-ruined-by-saddam-reborn-southern-marshes. Marshall Islands are allowed to move to the United States
Sharp, Heather. 2003. “Iraq’s ‘Devastated’ Marsh Arabs.” BBC,
March 3. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east​ without visas, thereby offsetting the islanders’ high birth
/2807821.stm. rate. In recent years, many thousands of Marshallese have
settled in Hawaii, California, and Oregon. In addition, so
many Marshallese have settled in Springdale, Arkansas,
that traffic signs there are written in the Marshallese lan-
guage (Lewis 2016).
MARSHALLESE
Current Location Marshall Islands Geography and Environment
Current Population 65,000 The Marshall Islands, officially called the Republic of the
Language Marshallese; English Marshall Islands, are a country of the central Pacific Ocean
Interesting Fact The Marshallese have a history of located just west of the International Date Line. It consists
ill health that is often attributed to of some of the easternmost islands of Micronesia. The Mar-
nuclear testing on their islands car- shalls are composed of 29 atolls consisting of 1,200 coral
ried out by the United States. islands in 2 parallel chains, the Ratak (Sunrise) Islands to
the east and the Ratak (Sunset) Islands to the west. The
island chains lie about 125 miles apart and extend about
Overview 800 miles northwest to southeast. The islands are formed
The Marshallese, also known as the Marshall Islanders or from coral caps set on the rims of submerged volcanoes
as the Rälik-Ratar, are the indigenous inhabitants of the that rise from the ocean floor. The largest atoll in the island
Marshall Islands. The Marshallese speak the Marshallese group is Kwajalein, which has a land area of only 6 square
710 Marshallese

miles but surrounds a lagoon measuring 655 square miles. who continued to live their traditional Polynesian lifestyle,
The Marshall Islands’ nearest neighbors are Wake Island to growing breadfruit and fishing. American missionaries
the north, Kiribati and Nauru to the south, and the Feder- arrived on the southern Rälik islands in 1857, thereby
ated States of Micronesia to the west. The Marshall Islands’ introducing the Marshallese to Christianity while also
climate is tropical, with the wettest months being October creating a transcription system allowing Marshallese to be
and November. Rainfall is variable across the islands, and translated into English for the first time.
several of the northern atolls are uninhabited because they In 1874, the Spanish again claimed the Marshall Islands
receive insufficient rainfall for people to live on them. The as their own, but Germany refuted the claim because they
islands of the Ratak Islands are more heavily wooded than laid claim to the area too. Following the intervention of
those of the Ratak Islands. The main vegetation through- the Pope, Germany paid Spain restitution in exchange for
out the Marshall Islands consists of breadfruit trees, coco- Spain’s acknowledging Germany as the islands’ rightful
nut trees, and pandanus palms. The islands’ soils tend to owners. Germany declared the islands a German protec-
be sandy and infertile. torate and established trading posts on the islands that
Only twenty-four of the islands and atolls are inhabited, allowed them to trade copra. Despite German coloniza-
and none of the atolls or islands rise more than twenty tion, island chiefs continued to hold sway over the island-
feet above high tide mark. The lives of the Marshallese are ers. After World War I began, Japan claimed the Marshall
closely connected to the ocean, but current rising sea lev- Islands under the newly formed League of Nations. Japan
els attributed to global warming are threatening the peo- moved Japanese migrants to the islands and installed
ple’s existence. At the northern tip of the Rälik Islands lies island commoners to positions of authority in direct oppo-
Bikini Atoll, the site of multiple nuclear tests by the United sition to the island chiefs. The Japanese also unsuccessfully
States. attempted to change island society from being matrilin-
eal to patrilineal. In the 1930s, Japan claimed one-third of
land all island land up to the high tide mark and also made
History and Politics Japanese the island’s official language of administration
Most researchers agree that the original Marshallese were and teaching. Islanders were made to study the Japanese
Micronesian and Kiribati migrants who arrived on the language and culture. In 1933, Japan left the League of
islands during the second millennium BCE and settled Nations but maintained its claim on the islands, and in the
on the low-lying atolls of the two island chains. Another run-up to World War II, it began to build military bases on
theory suggests the earliest Marshallese were migrants the islands.
from southern China who arrived in the region between During World War II, the U.S. military occupied the
5,000 BCE and 500 BCE. The settlers developed related yet Marshall Islands from 1944 to 1945. After the war, Amer-
different cultures and dialects. Little else is known about ica was permitted to administer the islands as a U.N. Trust
the early days of the Marshallese, though it is known that Territory of the Pacific Islands. From 1946 to 1958, United
the Marshallese acquired a reputation for being excellent States authorities conducted sixty-seven nuclear tests
navigators able to navigate canoes to remote islands using on the islands. For example, in 1954, the United States
traditional stick charts (charts representing major ocean conducted the Castle Bravo test that detonated with one
swell patterns and the ways in which the islands disrupted thousand times the force of the bomb dropped on Hiro-
those patterns). shima (Zak 2015). This test hurled pulverized coral into
The first Europeans to make contact with the Mar- air. The airborne coral drifted eastward and fell on the
shallese were the Spanish, who arrived on the Marshall people of Rongelap and Utirik atolls, where children ate
Islands in 1526. The Spanish traded water and food with the ash. Several days after the ash fell to earth, resident
the Marshallese, though some of the islanders remained American servicemen plus hundreds of Marshallese
hostile to the outsiders. In time the Spanish claimed the people were evacuated from Rongelap and Utirik. The
islands as part of the Spanish East Indies, but they did not next month, the Marshallese filed a complaint with the
colonize the islands. United Nations over the United States’ destruction of
In 1788, British expeditions ventured to the islands and their land. In response, the United States argued that they
named the islands in honor of British explorer John Mar- were committed to safeguarding the islanders’ futures.
shall. The visiting British had little effect on the islanders, In the years following the ending of the testing in 1958,
 Marshallese 711

Bikini Atoll
Bikini Atoll consists of twenty-three islands: the islands of Bokonijien, Aerokojlol, and Nam were vaporized during
U.S. nuclear tests. The islands are made of coral limestone and sand, and their average elevation is only about seven
feet above the low tide level. The atoll’s English name derives from the German colonial name, Bikini, that was given
to the atoll when it was part of German New Guinea. The German name derives from the Marshallese name for the
island, Pikinni, with pik meaning “surface” and ni meaning “coconut.”
Between 1946 and 1958, the United States detonated nuclear devices at seven test sites located on the reef, inside
the atoll, in the air, and underwater. Prior to nuclear testing, the islanders agreed to be resettled on Rongerik Atoll
because they believed they would be able to return home afterward. However, Rongerik Atoll could not produce
enough food for the islanders, so many islanders starved. The islanders were eventually relocated to Kwajalein Atoll
for six months before opting to live on the Kili Island. In 1970, some islanders returned to Bikini Island, but tests later
revealed the island held dangerous levels of strontium-90.

Bikini and Rongelap atolls were resettled by Marshallese parliamentarians of the Marshall Islands were themselves
and then re-evacuated because of lingering radiation iroij, and although in recent years there has been a move
contamination. by some officials to limit the power of the iroij, Marshallese
In 1979, the Marshallese arranged a democratically public opinion continues to favor the iroij. Other impor-
elected government, which the United States recognized tant figures in the highly hierarchical Marshallese society
as the Republic of the Marshall Islands. Then, in 1986, include minor chiefs (burak) and magistrates (leataketak).
the United States granted the islands a Compact of Free Marshallese commoners are called kayur.
Association—that is, an international agreement estab- Another important aspect of Marshallese life is the
lishing and governing the relationships of free association belief in the traditional system of land tenure. Land is at
between the United States and the three Pacific island the heart of Marshallese social organization because every
nations (the Federated States of Micronesia, Palau, and Marshallese has land rights as a member of a jowi (clan).
the Marshall Islands) as well as the Commonwealth of the Clans are loyal to the island chiefs, who govern land tenure
Northern Mariana Islands. In 1990, this association ended and the use of resources, but clan leaders administer the
by the United Nations, meaning the Marshall Islands clans. Depending on a Marshallese person’s social class,
became an independent nation. Nevertheless, the islands one will either be landowners or use land to grow sub-
continued to have strong political and economic connec- sistence crops or rear animals. Government officials and
tions to the United States. Despite the islands’ status as a foreigners are not permitted to own land in the Marshall
republic with elected authorities, island chiefs controlled Islands because all land belongs to the clan system, which
the government. After a while, allegations of government is matrilineal, with land passed down through generations
corruption surfaced. In response to these allegations, the following the female line of inheritance. Marshallese fam-
government was removed and replaced by a government ily life involves extended families, and family reunions
headed by a commoner. are frequent events. One such family event is the kamen,
which is held to mark a child’s first birthday and involves
much feasting, singing, and dancing.
Society, Culture, and Tradition
Marshallese culture is Polynesian and based around the
following of traditional customs (manit). Such is the peo- Health Care and Education
ple’s adherence to these customs that life on the Marshall From 1946 to 1958, the United States conducted sixty-​
Islands is generally harmonious and tranquil. The main seven nuclear tests in the Marshall Islands. These tests
principle of manit is respect for the chief (iroij). The chiefs have had lasting effects on older islanders because Mar-
serve alongside elected officials and play an important shallese elders have endured radiation burns that burnt
role in local and even national matters because they hold through their flesh and reached to the bone, horrendous
such power over the Marshallese. The first two elected birth defects, and cancers (Zak 2015).
712 Marshallese

report by the U.S. National Cancer Institute, there are still

Senator Jeton Anjain radiation-related cancers that have not yet developed or
Senator Jeton Anjain (1933–1993) was a Marshallese been diagnosed in the population of Marshallese who
activist, the minister of health, and a senator of the lived on the islands between 1948 and 1970. Almost every
Marshall Islands parliament. In 1954, U.S. hydro- Marshallese person has a relative who has been diagnosed
gen bomb testing at Bikini Atoll left the Marshall with a cancer included on the Energy Department’s list of
Island’s Rongelap Atoll exposed to extremely high ailments traceable to radiation (Zak 2015). In addition,
levels of radioactive contamination. However, U.S. many Marshallese are nervous of marrying people from
authorities assured the islanders that the radiation atolls with a history of nuclear testing for fear of passing
danger had passed, and so, in 1957, they returned genetic mutations on to any resultant children.
to their island. Soon after, serious medical problems In 2001, an independent nuclear-claims tribunal
developed among the islanders, including cancers awarded the Marshall Islands $2.3 billion in health and
and birth defects. A study later released by the U.S. property damages, but there was no system in place to
Department of Energy indicated that Rongelap’s make the United States pay this restitution. The U.S. gov-
level of contamination surpassed those of Bikini ernment did not consider itself liable beyond this original
Atoll, which had already been evacuated. settlement and highlighted that it had paid additional tens
This revelation prompted Anjain, who had a of millions of dollars in grants every year to environmen-
medical background and was the Marshall Islands’ tal, food, and healthcare programs on the Marshall Islands
health minister, to seek justice for the islanders. (Zak 2015).
Having resigned his ministerial position to fight Cancer is not the only health issue affecting the Mar-
for the islanders as a senator, Anjain sought in vain shallese. Alcohol abuse is a major problem among young
for help with an evacuation from the governments Marshallese, and suicide rates run high. The number one
of the Marshall Islands and United States. Anjain cause of death among the Marshallese is diabetes; cancer is
ultimately arranged the evacuation of Rongelap on second. According to the U.N. Human Rights Council, the
the Greenpeace ship Rainbow Warrior. The islanders main reason for the prevalence of diabetes among the Mar-
were then relocated to the island of Mejato. Despite shallese is that the people rely on U.S. food aid that arrives
suffering from cancer that likely stemmed from his in the form of processed foods such as chicken and white
exposure to radioactive contamination, Anjain con- rice, which have contributed to an obesity epidemic and,
tinued to work for justice for the islanders. subsequently, diabetes (Zak 2015). Some islands also have
In 1991, Anjain and the Rongelap people received sanitation problems, with sewage pooling in the streets.
the Right Livelihood Award for their struggle against This situation leads to outbreaks of cholera and dengue
U.S. nuclear policy and their right to live on an fever, and hospitals have periodic insect infestations.
uncontaminated Rongelap. In 1992, Anjain received Marshallese education is overseen by the island’s Min-
the Goldman Environmental Prize for his efforts to istry of Education and is structured in much the same way
help the people of Rongelap. Anjain died in 1993. as education in the United States, with children attend-
ing school from kindergarten through to grade twelve. In
recent years, the government has introduced measures to
The Marshall Islands are without a permanent oncol- make lessons reflect Marshallese culture and values.
ogist and have no ability to administer such cancer treat-
ments as chemotherapy. There has also been no true
consensus between the U.S. Energy Department and Threats to Survival
the Marshallese about how the nuclear tests affected the Poor living conditions, ill health, and unhealthy lifestyles
Marshallese. A 1994 study commissioned by the Marshal are major threats to the Marshallese. Another highly signif-
Islands government suggested that there were no health icant issue is rising sea levels attributed to global warming.
risks to the current generation of Marshallese. The Mar- For the Marshallese, the destructive power of the rising sea
shallese rejected this study upon completion. Nonethe- levels is an unavoidable part of everyday life. Over the past
less, cases of cancer and birth defects remind the current thirty years, sea levels in the South Pacific have increased
Marshallese of their people’s history. According to a 2004 by around a foot. Researchers are trying to determine to
 Martu 713

what extent these sea level rises are the result of changes to change. If the Marshall Islands are permanently flooded
the trade winds brought about by climate change. Recently by rising sea levels, the country will probably lose its sov-
the Marshallese have experienced monthly tidal flooding, ereignty, making the Marshallese stateless under interna-
which in the near future will render their homes unfit for tional law.
human habitation and cause schools and other facilities
See also: Anutan; i-Kiribati; iTaukei; Nauruan; Samoans;
to close because sewage washes into buildings, leading to
Tongan; Tuvaluan
people contracting dysentery and other diseases. Flood-
Further Reading
ing also means that saltwater contaminates underground
Davenport, Coral. 2015. “The Marshall Islands Are Disappear-
freshwater. The Pentagon (which holds a lease on Kwaja- ing.” New York Times, December 2. https://www.nytimes.com​
lein until 2066) has ordered several studies to decipher /interactive/2015/12/02/world/The-Marshall-Islands-Are​
the impact flooding will have on its military base on the -Disappearing.html.
island. In 2008, tidal flooding infiltrated the base, leading Lane, Patrick, and Sally Ann de Brum. n.d. The Republic of the
the military to construct sea walls fashioned from a type of Marshall Islands Education for All Mid-Decade Assessment
Prepared by the Ministry of Education. http://www.unescobkk​
reinforced granite called riprap, as well as to install desal-
.org/fileadmin/user_upload/efa/EFA_MDA/National_EFA​
ination machinery. Marshallese leaders have suggested _MDA_Reports/RMI_Education_for_All_MDA_Report​
raising the islands’ urban areas by six feet and installing _compressed.pdf.
drainage systems in an attempt to buy time against ris- Lewis, Renee. 2016. “Marshall Islanders Set to Become Climate
ing tides. Refugees before International Law Can Catch Up.” Huff-
On Majuro, low-tech methods are being used to combat Post, July 7. https://www.huffingtonpost.com/entry/marshall​
-islands-climate-refugees_us_577e7996e4b01edea78cc4bc.
the sea. In the island’s Jenrok neighborhood, the sea has
Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the
eroded a coastal cemetery. This caused rows of coffins and Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
gravestones to be washed out to sea, so the Marshallese West, Barbara A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and
now encase the dead in concrete tombs that lie well above Oceania. New York: Facts on File.
the ground—but these graves are now also being reached Zak, Dan. 2015. “A Ground Zero Forgotten.” Washington Post,
by waves. Rising sea levels are also affecting Marshallese November 27. http://www.washingtonpost.com​/sf/national​
/2015/11/27/a-ground-zero-forgotten/?utm​ _ term=​
incomes because the roots of breadfruit trees are rotting
.b82755ea6eb6.
due to being embedded in soil drenched in saltwater and
their leaves being continually in contact with sea spray.
These conditions adversely affect the trees’ ability to grow
fruit, meaning the Marshallese who earn a living selling
breadfruit find their trees produce fewer fruit, so they have
less fruit to sell. In response to this situation, the Marshall
MARTU
Islands’ Ministry of Agriculture has tested salt-resistant Current Location Australia
hybrid crops including taro and cassava. Current Population 800–1,000
In 2016, it was reported that the Marshallese were most Language Martu; neighboring languages;
likely destined to become climate refugees because their English
entire nation was threatened with being engulfed by rising Interesting Fact The critically acclaimed Australian
sea levels by the end of the twenty-first century. The sea film Rabbit-Proof Fence tells the true
levels are rising faster than international law can adapt, story of three Martu girls as they
so it seems also that there may be no international recog- journey back to their homeland.
nition of climate refugees, leaving peoples (including the
Marshallese) without legal protection. Despite the risks
of becoming displaced persons without any legal rights, Overview
many Marshallese living on Kili Island are seriously con- The Martu (sometimes written as Mardu) are a confedera-
sidering this option. The International Organization for tion of Australian Aboriginal tribes. The Martu speak their
Migration (IOM) and the United Nations High Commis- own language, and most also speak at least one other Abo-
sion for Refugees (UNHCR) have called for international riginal language such as Kartujarra, Manyjilyjarra, Warn-
human rights laws to cover people displaced by climate man, and Nyangajarra. Most young Martu speak English
714 Martu

as a second language. The name Martu means “people species of nocturnal bandicoot) in existence. Due to the
with black skin.” The Martu believe in the Aboriginal cos- remote and arid nature of this Martu land, no pastoral
mological concept of the Dreaming. leases or development activities were ever given for the
land, so the area is free of roads. The limited development
meant that invasive species of animals and plants have
Population, Diaspora, and Migration been slow to enter Martu land, and indigenous species are
Between eight hundred and one thousand people identify not threatened by road building and the like. Indeed, the
as Martu. The majority of Martu live in isolated communi- native fauna and flora of Martu land is mostly intact and
ties and outstations such as Jigalong, Parnngurr, Punmu, includes nineteen animal species and sixteen plant species
and Kunawarji. Other Martu live in towns, particularly that are considered of international significance.
Newman in the Pilbara and Port Hedland on Australia’s Signs of human life can be seen in the Martu environ-
northwest coast. There is a continuous flow of Martu peo- ment, but these are mainly limited to ground stone artifacts
ple between the remote communities and towns, mean- found near water sources and claypans (shallow hollows in
ing that many Martu frequently spend time in rural areas the ground with an impermeable clay base) that fill with
(Scelza 2019). In addition, in common with many other water after it rains. In addition, the State Barrier Fence of
Aboriginal groups, there are Martu populations scattered Western Australia, known generally as the rabbit-proof
across Western Australia because people marry or find fence, runs through Martu country. This fence is a pest-
employment that requires them to move. Jigalong was exclusion fence constructed between 1901 and 1907 to
a mission before being given over to the Martu in 1969. keep rabbits and other animals damaging to crops out of
Other Martu communities were established in the mid- farmland in Western Australia. When it was completed
1980s when Martu people decided to return to live in their in 1907, the 1,139-mile No. 1 Fence crossing the West-
homeland. ern Australia state from north to south was the longest
unbroken fence in the world. In the 1950s, myxomatosis
was introduced to control the rabbit population, thereby
Geography and Environment rendering the fence less important, though it still helps
The Martu are the traditional owners of a large part of cen- to manage the activity of migrating emus and traveling
tral Western Australia that stretches from the Great Sandy feral goats.
Desert in the north to Wiluna in the south. Since 2013, the
Martu people have managed the Birriliburu Indigenous
Protected Area, an area measuring 6.6 million hectares, History and Politics
in partnership with Bush Heritage Australia. This area People have lived in the Martu homeland for over thirty-​
consists of three biogeographic regions: the Little Sandy six thousand years. Traditionally, the Martu are hunter-​
Desert, the Gibson Desert, and the Gascoyne. The program gatherers living in small, kin-based bands. Although
sees the Martu act as park rangers, supervising and enact- nomadic to a degree, the Martu retain strong links to
ing conservation measures based on Martu traditions. particular desert locations. Because the Martu do not
One of the Martu’s main tasks is to prevent wildfire. To do believe that they own their homeland, they consider these
this, the Martu use their knowledge of their surroundings geographical links as a form of inheritance passed down
to trace signs of past fires, determining where fires might through the generations.
occur and taking preventive measures against future fires. It was not until the 1930s that the Martu encountered
The Martu also manage weeds, track wildlife populations, non-Aboriginals on a regular basis. Before this time, the
and work to improve desert water sources. only non-Aboriginals who entered the desert were ran-
Martu land is a part of the most intact arid ecosystem on dom explorers, travelers, and missionaries, who kept their
Earth. Whereas most of Australia’s arid land has suffered contact with Aboriginal groups to a minimum. During the
either complete loss of or a serious declines in its plant life, period of the 1940s to the 1960s, the last groups of Martu
Martu land provides one of the last wild sanctuaries for desert dwellers moved out of the desert. Some of these
some of Australia’s most endangered desert plant species. Martu were moved out of the desert by Australian author-
Most important, Martu land contains the largest unfenced ities, whereas other Martu moved voluntarily to avoid
population of greater bilby (Macrotis lagotis, an Australian drought and to forge closer ties with both their families
 Martu 715

and general society. These Martu wanted closer contact to the Garimarra. Martu children live with their parents into
make everyday living easier and to make it easier to hold late adulthood. Sons are allowed to remain in the family
Martu ceremonial and religious events. household until they marry, which usually happens when
Until the mid-1960s, the Martu were nomadic hunter-​ Martu men are in their mid to late twenties, although
gatherers who traveled across their vast homeland in some unmarried Martu men opt to live in bachelor houses
search of good hunting grounds. In 1964, a small Martu with other Martu males. Martu daughters can continue to
clan was made to move from their traditional land to a live in the family home through their young childbear-
mission at Jigalong to make way for the Blue Streak ballis- ing years. When children do leave the family home, they
tic missile tests. At the mission, the people were subjected usually stay living close to their parents to ensure there is
to strict behavioral guidelines and working conditions continued contact with and help from older relatives, espe-
as well as attempted religious conversion. In addition, cially grandmothers.
the children were separated from the adults and made to The core of Aboriginal religious philosophy is the
live in dormitories and attend formal education classes. Dreaming. Although this term is often used to refer to a
The children were also only allowed to speak in English. period of creation when the people’s ancestors roamed
In contrast, Martu adults were made to live in camps on the land and created major landforms, the Dreaming con-
the periphery of the mission. By the mid-1970s, almost all tinues to be part of everyday Martu life. When the Martu
Martu nomads had moved to settlements such as Jigalong, sing and dance, it is to retell stories of the Dreamtime. For
and although they still made occasional trips to the edge many young Martu, this is the main time that they interact
of the desert, most of the desert’s interior was completely with indigenous beliefs because the Dreaming is far from
abandoned. the sphere of normal activity for many young Martu, who
During the 1980s, Martu outstation communities began may have lost contact with old ways. In contrast, Martu
to emerge within the western desert. At the same time, elders who have lived large portions of their lives in the
many Martu began to return to their homelands as part of desert or bush are more in touch with the concept of the
a migratory pattern known as the homelands movement. Dreaming and their people’s ancient traditions.
Those who returned to their homelands settled on desert Since forming settled communities first at Jigalong
fringes, including at the uranium lease at Parnngurr Rock- and then at outstations, the Martu no longer follow a full-
hole, an area to which several Martu groups felt they had a time foraging existence. Although hunting and gathering
claim. The move to Parnngurr and other desert outstations are prominent daily activities for many Martu adults, all
allowed the Martu to revitalize many of the traditional for- Martu now participate in the market economy to a degree,
aging ways that had been lost while living in missions and be it buying food, paying rent, or acquiring material goods.
nondesert areas. In addition, the Martu are paid for work, mainly with local
In 2002, the Martu were awarded native title rights to mining companies, or they receive payments from welfare
over 13.6 million hectares of the Western Desert. This area schemes including government-funded community initi-
is now known as the Martu native title determination and atives. Some Martu also sell their paintings and basketry
is recognition of the people’s right to the custodianship of at an art market in the Western Desert; several Martu art-
their ancestral land. ists have also sold their paintings on the international art
markets.
Sometimes arguments occur between Martu living in
Society, Culture, and Tradition urban areas and those living in remote areas. These rows
The Martu were some of the last Aboriginal people to move often focus on deals done with mining companies or other
in from desert areas and adopt Western ways. Despite com- outsiders. Town-dwelling Martu are more likely to agree
ing in from the desert, the Martu maintain their cultural to deals that will benefit the Martu economically, whereas
links to their homeland through oral tradition, knowing Martu living in closer contact with the land are less likely
about their indigenous cosmology jukurrpa (the Dream- to acquiesce because they consider the land to be a link
ing), folk tales, traditions, and ceremonies. to the power of the Earth and therefore to the Dreamtime
The Martu employ a kinship system that includes itself.
only two sets of marriageable groups: the Burungu may Like most hunter-gatherer societies, the Martu have a
marry the Milanka, and the Jangala are allowed to wed fairly egalitarian social structure. Women are self-sufficient
716 Martu

and often travel without their husbands. Martu women most Martu children periodically attend. In general, teach-
also participate in nonreligious decision making. In every- ers at the school are not Aboriginal but the school coun-
day Martu life, the concept of sharing is important. The cil consists of Martu adults who work in tandem with the
title of miltilya (good hunter) refers to someone who not teachers to develop the school’s educational policies. Stu-
only regularly brings meat home but also shares gen- dents are taught basic math and reading, mostly in English.
erously what he or she has killed. Researchers have dis- There are some Martu language lessons, but these lessons
covered that 20–50 percent of the total Martu diet is still are limited by the fact that the teachers are not themselves
composed of bush foods (Eastwood 2010). Martu men Martu speakers. Pupils also go on trips to the bush accom-
undertake most high-risk hunting, such as killing animals panied by elder Martu so that the children can learn their
including the kirti-kirti, kangaroo, camel, or kipara (Aus- people’s traditional ways such as foraging, as well as wild
tralian bustard). Hunting these animals has a failure rate swimming.
of around 80 percent usually because the animals are big, Storytelling is another important teaching tool, and
fast-moving, or feisty. Martu women tend to hunt smaller, almost every night, Martu elders and children will gather
easier-to-kill animals such as lizards and the parnajarlpa around fires to share stories. These stories vary from local
(sand goanna). Martu women also gather fruits and tubers gossip and community news to tales about the Dreamtime
from the bush. Finding small but frequent sources of food and Martu history that are told to children by elders. The
means that Martu women have a better chance of bring- children are not tested to see if they have learnt what the
ing home food and thus feeding their families. Both Martu elders have told them, but by the time they are teenagers,
men and women collect grubs and honey from the wild most Martu have taken in enough of these tales to iden-
depending on the season. tify local Martu landmarks and understand Martu lore.
Fire is extremely important to the Martu both as a Increasingly, the Martu drive instead of walk, so stories are
hunting tool and as part of the regrowth cycle of their land. often told while driving.
The Martu recognize several stages of vegetative regrowth
associated with fire. For example, a burned stretch of land
is referred to as nyurnma. Then come the two most pro- Threats to Survival
ductive stages of fire, waru-waru and nyukura, which last The Martu homeland has been inhabited for over thirty-six
for a couple of years and free space that allows plants such thousand years. The area is free from farming, industry,
as wattle and woollybutt grass to grow. tourists, and non-Aboriginals, so outside forces should not
intrude on the lives of the Martu. Although most Martu
children speak Martu as a first language and have Eng-
Health Care and Education lish as a second or third language, in 2015, concerns were
In virtually all health data, Australian Aboriginals fare raised by Martu elders in Jigalong about the number of
worse than the general Australian population. The most Martu children being taken away from their families and
common health problems for Aboriginal children are skin put into state care by authorities. In Western Australia, the
infections (mostly boils and scabies), earache, gastrointes- number of Aboriginal children taken into care increased
tinal infections, and respiratory conditions. There are more by 9 percent in a year, making Aboriginal children fifteen
cases of diet-related conditions such as type 2 diabetes and times more likely to be in care than their non-Aboriginal
obesity as the people shift from eating a subsistence diet of counterparts. In 2015, there were 15,000 Aboriginal chil-
foraged foods to one including more fat and sugar. Every dren in care compared with 2,400 Aboriginal children in
Martu community has its own clinic staffed by a nurse and care in 1997 (Moodie 2015).
an Aboriginal health worker. Martu outstations receive a The elders suggested that children taken into care face
visit from a doctor every other week, whereas dentists and losing touch with the Martu language and culture as a
other specialists visit occasionally. The closest hospitals to result of living away from their communities. Critics sug-
the Martu homeland are found in Newman and Port Hed- gested that because Aboriginals are overrepresented in
land. It is at these facilities that most Martu women give Australia’s criminal justice system, the relatives of children
birth, and the people are airlifted for emergency care. taken into care are unable to look after the children because
Martu living at outstations have limited access to for- carers need to have a clean criminal record. Martu elders
mal education. The Martu have an independent commu- pass on the people’s ancient rituals, knowledge, and lore
nity school for pupils aged three to eighteen years, which to younger generations of Martu, but many young Martu
 Matis 717

feel conflicted because they are partly assimilated into the employ two terms: matis kimo, which refers to the people
non-Aboriginal world yet are also part of Martu society. to whom Matis are closest, and matis utsi, which translates
as “other people” (i.e., the general population).
See also: Aboriginal Australian; Torres Strait Islanders;
The Matis speak their own language, which belongs
Worimi
to the Pano linguistic family. Matis males aged between
Further Reading seventeen and thirty-five years old speak some Portuguese
Bird, Rebecca Bliege, Brian F. Codding, and Douglas S. Bird. because this allows them to trade goods when they ven-
2016. “Economic, Social and Ecological Contexts of Hunting,
Sharing and Fire in the Western Desert of Australia.” In Why ture into urban areas. Some Matis women can also speak
Forage? Hunters and Gatherers in the Twenty-First Century, a little Portuguese. Both Matis men and women are able
edited by Brian F. Codding and Karen L. Kramer, 213–230. to understand the language spoken by the Marubo people
Santa Fe: University of New Mexico Press. because it belongs to the Pano family. Typically, the Matis
Eastwood, Ken. 2010, December 15. “Living the Traditional can also understand the languages of the Kulina, the Mat-
Aboriginal Life.” http://www.australiangeographic.com​ ses, and the Korubo peoples.
.au/topics/history-culture/2010/12/living-the-traditional​
-aboriginal-life.
Kanyirninpa Jukurrpa. n.d. “About Martu: Who Are the Martu.”
Kanyirninpa Jukurrpa Martu Cultural Knowledge Program. Population, Diaspora, and Migration
http://www.kj.org.au/about-martu. There are thought to be 457 Matis alive today (Povos Indi-
Moodie, Claire. 2015. “‘Nothing Changed’: Martu Elders Fight genas No Brasil 2008). The Matis live on land forming a
against Removal of Aboriginal Children.” ABC News, strip that reaches from the center of the Itui River, through
December 20. http://www.abc.net.au/news/2015-12-20​/martu​
-elders-fight-against-removal-of-aboriginal-children​/7043798. the Upper Coari, and on to the center of the Branco River
Scelza, Brooke A. 2019. “Martu Fieldsite in Western Australia.” inside the Vale do Javari Indigenous Park. The park, which
Arts & Humanities Research Council: Culture and the Mind. covers 8,544,480 hectares, making it the second largest
http://www.philosophy.dept.shef.ac.uk/culture&mind​ indigenous area in Brazil, is situated in the upper Ama-
/people/scelzab. zon (Solimões) region in the southwest of the state of
Amzaonas, close to Brazil’s border with Peru. The Matis
once inhabited five different villages, but because many of
their members died of diseases during the 1970s, there are
now only two Matis villages, both of which lie along the
MATIS banks of the River Itui: Aurelio and Beija Flor.
The first outsiders to approach the Matis were officials
Current Population 457 from FUNAI, the Brazilian agency in charge of protecting
Current Location Brazil the interests of indigenous peoples. To start with, Matis
Language Matis; Portuguese men would spy on FUNAI representatives stationed on
Interesting Fact Matis men undergo whipping and the River Ituí, but the men soon conquered their fears and
poisoning to become hunters. visited the FUNAI agents to be given axes, dogs, and poul-
try. In 1977–1978, FUNAI employees started to visit Matis
villages.
Overview During the 1970s, FUNAI had a policy of attracting
The Matis are a seminomadic indigenous people of Brazil. and then integrated with uncontacted groups. The Matis
The name Matis is a name given to them by outsiders. The attracted the attention of FUNAI because the Matis were in
Matis accept the name to a degree, though the Matis also contact with fishermen, hunters, loggers, and rubber gath-
refer to themselves as mushabo, meaning “tattooed peo- erers who had started to trespass on Matis land.
ple,” or wanibo, meaning “peach palm people.” This second
name probably arises from the fact that the Matis tattoo
themselves using a peach palm (the word musha translates Geography and Environment
as “thorn” or “spike”). As well as being the name given to The Javari Valley lies to the west of the Brazilian state of
the tribe, the word matis also translates as “person” and Amazonas, on the border with Peru. The Javari River is
can refer to an individual Matis’ person’s family. To differ- a tributary of the Solimões branch of the upper Amazon
entiate between people in general and kinfolk, the Matis and serves as the border between Peru and Brazil. The
718 Matis

made their way back to their village, and the smell of their
Western clothes was too much for the other villagers, who
immediately burned the clothing.
There is no reference to the Matis’ existence before 1970,
and as late as 1972, FUNAI staff were still confusing the
Matis with the Marubo. It was only after 1972 that FUNAI
officials and Brazil’s nonindigenous people began to recog-
nize the Matis as a separate people with their own culture.
The Matis first met outsiders at some point in 1975–1976.
In 1977, the Matis started to become ill with a cold
virus caught from FUNAI representatives. The FUNAI say
that no Matis died from this virus, but it is well reported
that soon after first contact with sickly outsiders such as
FUNAI agents, loggers, and rubber tappers, the Matis
began to die from epidemics of cold viruses, coughing,
and dysentery. To compound matters, the FUNAI lacked
medical supplies to help the Matis and did not have fuel
to transport the seriously ill to clinics. From 1976 to 1980,
11 Matis died, and then, in the space of a year (June 1981
to June 1982), 48 Matis died from two influenza outbreaks
that were accompanied by pneumonia-like symptoms. In
1983, the Matis population fell from 135 to 87 people, with
children and the elderly most severely affected. Indeed, a
population survey carried out by FUNAI in 1985 found
that only seven people over age forty and only three people
over age fifty survived the epidemics.
A Matis man in Marapani, Brazil. The Matis are famed for their At first, the Matis did not understand that it was West-
facial adornments and receive their first piercings at the age of
four or five. (Paulo Amorim/Getty Images)
ern diseases that decimated their villages after contact
was made with outsiders. Rather, they thought that they
had brought disaster upon themselves via their own belief
Vale do Javari Indigenous Park lies to the south and east system. Traditionally, the Matis understand the world
of the Javari River, and to the northwest of the park and through taste, which they divide into two types, bata xo
close to the mouth of the Javari are the towns of Atalaia do (sweet) and chimu (sour things that have great power). If
Norte, Benjamin Constant, and Tabatinga. The Matis prac- the balance between bata xo and chimu is upset, then the
tice shifting slash-and-burn agriculture because they grow Matis fear that a state of imbalance, called xo, is created,
crops on areas of cleared, burned forest. Once these cleared leading to disaster. As a result of their mistaken belief that
areas start to produce diminishing harvests, they turn to a their traditions had caused their illnesses, the Matis aban-
new area of freshly burned land. The main crops grown by doned some of their traditional ceremonies and practices,
the Matis are manioc, banana, peach palm, and maize. including rituals that involve bitter substances such as a
kampo frog poison, ingesting tatxi (a bitter drink made
from plant roots), and astringent poces leaves. Over time,
History and Politics the Matis have come to understand that it was not their
Little is known of Matis history precontact, though the beliefs that caused illness within their tribe, and they have
Matis sometimes talk of their ancestors meeting with rub- rekindled their traditional rituals, no longer fearing that
ber tappers during the nineteenth century. Another Matis they will cause death.
tale that may have historical basis tells that two Matis In 1982, FUNAI transferred the remaining Matis to
women were kidnapped and held in captivity by Europe- the Boeiro Creek, where the population divided into two
ans for several years. Eventually, the women broke free and malocas (ancestral longhouses). Here, the Matis became
 Matis 719

sedentary and experienced a period of extreme hunger who have witnessed the event. Hunting proficiency is con-
due to the absence of cleared agricultural land. The food sidered a major asset for a Matis male and will gain him
shortage made the Matis resort to stealing crops from the respect of his elders and the admiration of the village
other people living along the creek and from the Marubo. women; a Matis hunter compliments a woman by bring-
Another problem with the Matis’ new habitat was that ing her freshly killed meat. To start the trials, the Matis
the new location had a shortage of curare, the poison the male has bitter poison poured into his eyes. The result is
Matis used on their blowgun darts. The Matis’ new central- both extreme pain and temporary blindness, but the Matis
ized, sedentary lifestyle reduced the group’s mobility and believe this discomfort enhances the male’s other senses,
generated infighting among the people. making him a better hunter. Next, the male is whipped on
In 1987, the Matis moved to an area near the Novo river, his torso with long rattan sticks. The sticks curl around
and in 1993, they settled on the left bank of the Ituí. By the body as they hit the flesh, leaving long red welts on
1998, feeling surrounded by the Marubo who lived nearby, the skin. Though unpleasant, this part of the trial is not
the Matis built a new village downriver on the Aurélio as painful as the trials’ third stage, which employs kampo
Creek. Many Matis still live here in three large longhouses frog poison to excruciating effect. Kampo is extracted from
located at the mouth of the creek. Matis villages lack a the monkey frog (Phyllomedusa bicolor) by stretching the
defined shape but tend to cluster around a longhouse— frog over a fire and scraping toxic excretions from its skin.
that is, an imposing triangular structure set on top of a hill. Kampo can be lethal, but in this case, the Matis employ
The longhouse is usually about twenty feet high, is cov- the kampo in their hunting trials as a both purgative and
ered in woven thatch, and serves as both the geographic curative. Matis tribal shamans have long used kampo to
center of the village and the cultural heart of village life. treat pain, illness, and other disorders because compounds
The longhouse tends to be decorated with the mandibles in the frogs’ slime hold anesthetic and tranquilizing prop-
of animals that the tribe hunts in the rainforest, and it erties. The Matis believe that exposing a male to kampo
is in and around the longhouse that many Matis rituals makes him a more fit and stronger hunter, so for the final
occur. The longhouse is also where poison is applied to the part of his trials, several areas of the male’s skin (typically
eleven-feet-long blowpipes with which the Matis hunt. The on the arm) are burned, the resulting blisters are burst,
longhouse also houses the blowpipes. Blowpipes are very and a layer of skin is removed to form an open wound.
important to the Matis, and the tribesmen are expert at The kampo is combined with an older tribesman’s saliva
using the weapons to hunt animals that live in the rainfor- because this not only means that the elder’s wisdom is
est canopy, such as adult spider monkeys. symbolically transmitted to the initiate but also activates
In 2005, Matis family groups started to organize them- the poison. The resultant mixture is placed upon the ini-
selves according to their traditional patterns, with one tiate’s wound, often using a wooden needle, which allows
family group leaving Aurélio Village to establish a new set- the poison to enter the initiate’s bloodstream directly. The
tlement, Beija Flor, around twenty-eight miles away. The poison usually works immediately by creating dizziness, a
Matis also started to revive their traditional rituals, includ- racing pulse, the need to vomit violently, and an explosive
ing the tattoo rite. emptying of the bowels. If a male proves resistant to frog
poison, he is considered to be strong and receives a second
dose of poison on another part of his body. Once the male
Society, Culture, and Tradition has vomited and evacuated his bowels, the poison is wiped
Hunting is an essential part of Matis life, with Matis hunt- from his skin, and the immediate effects of the poison
ers killing animals including peccaries, tapirs, sloths, mon- stop. Delayed consequences of the frog poison application
keys, macaws, and turtles, and fish such as piranhas, tiger include listlessness followed by a sense of euphoria and
fish, and electric eels. invincibility that last from between twenty-four hours and
For a Matis male to be regarded as a true adult member several days. Despite these unpleasant effects, would-be
of his tribe, he must pass the Matis hunting trials initiation Matis hunters are willing to undergo the frog poison trial
process. All Matis men must undergo this rite of passage because they believe the rite will make them better hunters
several times throughout their lives to ensure their hunt- equipped with sharper senses and greater stamina. Some
ing skills remain viable. The trials consist of several stages hunters also believe that kampo will dispel panema, a mag-
and have been likened to torture by non-Matis people ical power that can infect a person, animal, or thing and is
720 Matis

where their bodies are painted black or yellow and they are
Bruce Parry dressed in ornate red clay masks and green ferns. They are
Bruce Parry is an award-winning English docu- also given whips with which to hit their children to stop
mentary maker, indigenous rights campaigner, and them from being naughty or lazy; the Matis never chastise
explorer. He is best known for his BBC documentary their children, so this is the only occasion on which corpo-
series—Tribe, Amazon, and Arctic—that show Parry ral punishment is dispensed. The disguised tribe members
living with indigenous peoples and highlighting the also whip Matis pregnant women, wanting to strengthen
issues they face. Parry’s documentaries are noted for their fetus.
employing an ethnographic style and participant The Matis are famed for their facial adornments, with
observation. For example, in 2007, Parry spent time children receiving their first piercing when they are four
with the Matis for Tribe, during which Parry both or five years old. At this age, the child has a very fine stick
observed and participated in the tribe’s many rituals, inserted into the earlobe. Over the years, the thickness of
including the four-stage Matis hunting trials, dur- the wooden stick is increased gradually until the point
ing which he experienced the unpleasant effects of when a finger can pass through the hole. When the hole
kampo, which he reported as being less disagreeable reaches this size, the stick is replaced by a disc called a
than the feeling of poces leaves applied to the skin. tawa. Then when a child is aged around eight years, his
Across the three series of Tribe, Parry also lived with or her nose is pierced by a pair of fine black needles fash-
the Akie and Anuta, among many other peoples. ioned from palm fiber. These needles are intended to look
like animal whiskers. Over time the number of needles
in the nose increases until the child’s nostrils are almost
resident in a hunter until he is cured. A hunter discovers completely full of needles; as many as twelve needles may
he is affected by panema only after a series of unfortunate be inserted into each nostril. Next, a pendant is inserted
occurrences while hunting. into the opening of the child’s nasal septum. The size of the
Another Matis custom involving hunters is the txawa pendant increases over time.
tanek, or peccary dance. The Matis are often (mistakenly) Typically, when a Matis woman reaches puberty, she
thought by outsiders to decorate themselves in such a way will have her lower lip pierced. Women receive their
as to resemble jaguars. Indeed, to the irritation of Matis wooden kwiot (lip decoration) when they lose their virgin-
members, many outsiders refer to the tribe as the Jaguar ity, and they treasure the kwiot as an important memento
People. Many Matis rituals do see tribe members take on of achieving womanhood. Matis men receive a lip decora-
the look of animals, including the txawa tanek. This cus- tion in both their upper and lower lips, though these are
tom takes place the day before a hunt and sees participants smaller than the lip decorations received by women. Two
paint themselves red using urucum (annatto juice) and or three years after they receive their first kwiot, the Matis
then dance in a line before entering a longhouse. Those receive their first tattoos (musha) during a ritual known
taking part in the ritual dance imitate the guttural sounds as the Musha Ceremony. The tattoos take the form of two
of an Amazonian forest pig called the txawa, or collared parallel lines running over the temples and cheeks. During
peccary, and the dance leader bangs together two txawa a second tattoo ceremony, young men or women are tat-
skulls. The ritual is performed to attract peccaries to the tooed with a series of six to eight parallel lines on their left
hunters during the next day’s hunt. Another ritual in which and right cheeks.
Matis men imitate an animal is mapwa tanek, or the capy- When they are between sixteen and twenty years of age,
bara ritual, during which the men cover their bodies with Matis men pierce their faces in the area separating the jaw
clay and hop around imitating the capybara, the world’s and the cheeks. This allows the men to insert long, thick
largest rodent. Capybaras are notoriously destructive, sticks called mananukit, made from black palm, into their
so the ritual often becomes overly boisterous, and Matis faces.
women become the subject of unwanted rowdy attention.
The Matis mariwin ritual sees hunters emerge from the
rainforest as the physical personification of their spiritual Heath Care and Education
ancestors. The ritual is in decline, but those who perform The Matis have little access to emergency health care
the ritual take it very seriously. During the ritual, a clay because they live in an isolated area, and the field clinics to
horn is used to summon two tribe members to a longhouse, which they do have access are poorly supplied. This means
 Matis 721

that it is near impossible for Matis people to be treated in Another issue affecting the Matis is infighting with
an emergency. their neighbors, within the Vale do Javari Indigenous
The Matis are isolated because there are no airstrips Park. In 2015, FUNAI reported that Matis villagers had
in the Vale do Javari Indigenous Park, it can take several attacked the neighboring Korubo people, leaving at least
days to travel by boat from communities inside the park eight Koruba dead. The killings were an apparent revenge
to the municipality of Atalaia, and helicopters are not attack following the killing of two Matis by Korubo villag-
always available to evacuate the sick or injured. The federal ers a few days earlier and the death of a Koruba baby; the
agency the Special Secretariat for Indigenous Health has Matis acted in a way to which the Koruba took exception.
received criticism from Brazil’s indigenous peoples for fail- The killings sparked a debate about how authorities should
ing to provide them with adequate care. In recent years, the manage Brazil’s indigenous people—whether authorities
healthcare crisis inside the Vale do Javari Indigenous Park should intervene in tribal matters or whether a hands-off
is especially acute, with infant mortality rates running up approach was better for the psychological well-being and
to five times higher than the Brazilian national average. self-determination of such isolated people.
The Matis do have some access to Western style medical An additional threat to the Matis is the prevalence of
aid via health workers and nongovernment organizations. illnesses such as hepatitis B within the Matis population
In September 2014, health workers moved a camp belong- and the Matis’ lack of access to health care. Because the
ing to the Korubo people away from the Matis village to Matis are remote and rely on Western medicine to combat
protect the two tribes from illnesses to which they have no these diseases, this issue is a grave concern. The remote-
natural resistance. For isolated, indigenous peoples, even ness of the Matis also affects their hunting because the
common illnesses such as influenza can prove lethal. Acute more sedentary nature of modern Matis society means
respiratory illnesses often occur when indigenous outsid- that good hunting grounds are located increasingly far
ers first make contact with isolated, indigenous Brazilian away and are accessible only by motorboat. To run the
peoples. These illnesses are also the most common cause motorboat, the Matis need money, which in turn means
of death after contact. For this reason, healthcare provid- they have to sell their handicrafts or take low-paid work in
ers need to ensure that health teams are disease-free before urban areas. However, living in towns also requires money,
they make contact with a tribe. The health workers then so the Matis are caught in a never-ending financial cycle.
have to treat any illnesses already prevalent among the peo- Living in towns is also not good for the Matis psychologi-
ple and vaccinate them. The most important vaccinations cally because they do not like the food that they can afford
given to the Matis are influenza, measles, and hepatitis B. in the city and believe that living in towns, where food is
The Matis’ traditional wisdom is passed on via tribal easy to acquire, makes people lazy.
elders and shamans. In addition, Matis children are Other general issues affecting the Matis and other
increasingly being taught in urban areas, where they learn indigenous people living in the Vale do Javari Indigenous
Portuguese and become integrated into Brazilian culture. Park include the fact that the forest along the border
between Brazil and Peru, where the park is located, is
a hot spot for illegal logging and that drug traffickers
Threats to Survival use the rivers to ship cocaine from Peru to Brazil. The
Matis society has changed greatly over the past thirty illegal fishing of ornamental fish used in aquariums has
years. Matis children are increasingly assimilated into also been reported. FUNAI posts a guard at one point of
mainstream Brazilian society because they are now edu- entry to the park, but illegal loggers and fishermen enter
cated in towns, where they learn Portuguese, listen to along other rivers, according to anthropologists working
Brazilian music, and acquire material possessions. Older nearby.
Matis complain that young men prefer playing football to In many ways, the future of the Matis depends on the
hunting. Today, young Matis men care less than they used next generation of Matis adults. For the Matis to survive,
to about the views of their elders because authority is shift- the young Matis will have to define themselves as Matis
ing to the young who speak Portuguese and can therefore rather than as young Brazilians, but given the vibrant
negotiate with outsiders. Older Matis also complain that nature of modern Brazilian society, it may be difficult for
young Matis men look like both women and non-Matis the young Matis to make their culture stand apart.
because the young men increasingly refuse to sport the
traditional Matis facial ornaments. See also: Yanomami
722 Mayan

Further Reading Population, Diaspora, and Migration

BBC. 2014. “Matis.” Tribe, October 29. http://www.bbc.co.uk​
/tribe/tribes/matis. The Mayan population is estimated to comprise between
Fraser, Barbara. 2015, December 3. “Isolated Tribespeople seven million and ten million people (Minahan 2013).
Receiving Care after Violent Contact in Brazil.” http://​ Most Mayans live in Mexico, especially the south of the
www.sciencemag.org/news/2015/12/isolated-tribespeople​ country, and northern Central America. However, many
-receiving-care-after-violent-contact-brazil. Mayans live in the United States, particularly in California.
Galvan, Javier A., ed. 2014. They Do What? A Cultural Encyclo-
The vast majority of Mayans live in rural areas, with land
pedia of Extraordinary and Exotic Customs from around the
World. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. an essential element of Mayan culture and tradition.
Povos Indigenas No Brasil. 2008, April. “Matis: Introduction.” There are twenty-eight Maya groups (Minority Rights
https://pib.socioambiental.org/en/povo/matis. Group International 2017), including the Mopan, Q’eqchi,
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the and Maya Ch’orti. The Maya Ch’orti are descended from
World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA: the Mayans who inhabited the ancient Mayan capital of
ABC-CLIO.
Copán in Honduras but who now live in southeast Guate-
mala, northwest Honduras, parts of Belize, and northern
El Salvador. The Mayans of Guatemala is dispersed. This
is especially the case in the country’s western highlands.
The largest Mayan populations in Guatemala are found
MAYAN in rural parts located north and west of Guatemala City,
Current Location Mexico; Central America particularly Alta Verapaz, Sololá, Totonicapán, and Quiché.
Current Population 7 million–10 million Many Mayans also live on farms in the area of Boca Costa
Language Spanish; Mayan languages in southern Guatemala.
Interesting Fact Advocates of the “Mayan Apoca-
lypse” believed the world would end
on December 21, 2012, because this
Geography and Environment
is the last date of the Mayan Long The Mayan homeland, sometimes called Mayaland,
Count calendar. stretches almost uninterrupted from the Chiapas High-
lands of southern Mexico to Honduras’ Ulúa River. This
homeland comprises southern Mexico, the majority of
Overview Guatemala, Belize, northern Honduras, and northeast El
The Mayans (also called the Mayas, Quiches, Tzeltals, Salvador. The geography varies greatly throughout the
or Tsotzils) are a Native American ethnic group living region but includes arid land, lowland rainforests, swamps,
mostly in Mexico and Central America, especially Hon- and coastal areas. The area’s geographical hazards include
duras, Guatemala, Belize, and El Salvador. Most Mayans earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, floods, mudslides, hurri-
speak Spanish as their first language, though some of canes, and droughts.
the most traditional Mayan communities speak one of The Mayan homeland’s lowland tropical rainforest
a number of Mayan languages as their mother tongue, extends from northwest Honduras through Guatemala’s
including Q’eqchi’, Cakchiquel, Mam (Maya), Tzutujil, Petén region into Belize and the Chiapas Highlands. This
Achi, and Pokoman. Most Mayans are nominally Roman area includes the cities such as Copán, Yaxchilán, Tikal,
Catholic, but there is an increasingly large number of and Palenque. The northern Yucatán peninsula in south-
Protestant Mayans. Christian Mayans often combine tra- east Mexico, which separates the Caribbean Sea from the
ditional Mayan folk beliefs with Christianity. The term Gulf of Mexico, is characterized by its scrubby vegetation,
Mayan (or Maya) is an umbrella term for the peoples of poor soil, and lack of surface water. It includes the ancient
Mexico and Central America who share common cultural Mayan sites of Labná, Chichen Itzá, and Uxmal. Because the
and linguistic elements. Despite these common elements, lowlands lie atop porous limestone bedrock, they are home
the various Mayan groups maintain their own histories to few rivers. Traditionally, the lack of surface water in the
and traditions. lowlands means that access to water has been via cenotes
 Mayan 723

Mayan girls in Tikal, Guatemala, stand in front of a market stall selling woven rugs. The term Mayan (or Maya) is applied to various
peoples of Mexico and Central America who share common cultural and linguistic characteristics. (Corel)

(natural sinkholes) contained in the limestone. Many riv- History and Politics
ers originate in the mountains of the Mayan homeland, Little is known of the Mayans’ origins or early history. Most
and they flow toward the Pacific Ocean and the Gulf of scholars agree that there have been three main Mayan
Mexico. Many Maya cities of the Classic period were built epochs throughout he people’s long history: the Preclassi-
close to rivers because the rivers provided drinking water cal Era (ca. 1500 BCE to 300 CE), the Classical Era (300 CE
and access to trade routes. Although the Mayan home- to 900 CE), and the Postclassical Era (900 CE to 1697 CE).
land contains some volcanic and glacial mountains, areas The Preclassical Mayan epoch saw the Mayans develop an
covered by dense rainforest have poor, thin soils. The best advanced, settled, agricultural civilization in the highlands
soils in the Mayan homeland are located in southern high- of what is now Guatemala and El Salvador. During this
land valleys, where volcanic eruptions have enriched the epoch, the Mayans also developed sophisticated arts and
earth. These fertile soils made the valleys popular places sciences and invented both an extremely accurate calen-
to live among the Mayans, despite the threat of volcanic dar and a writing system based on hieroglyphs. During the
eruptions. Today, this area is home to the largest Mayan early Classical Era, Mayan culture spread across a much
population. larger area as large Mayan cities developed that were home
The main environmental issues facing the Maya are to impressive stone temples and pyramids. During the
industrial-scale logging and petroleum production. These Postclassical Era, Mayan civilization shifted north to city-
factors threaten Mayan communities that depend on nat- states located on the Yucatan Peninsula.
ural resources for their livelihoods, as well as the natural Mayan culture peaked between 600 CE and 900 CE
environment that is at the heart of Mayan culture. regarding the development of Mayan ceramics, carving,
724 Mayan

painting, and weaving. Although the Mayans used the military ended the Yucatan secession. This military action
wheel as a component in children’s toys, they never adapted roused the oppressed Mayans against their overlords,
the wheel for any practical purpose such as agricultural leading to the outbreak of a Mayan rebellion in 1847 that
use. Consequently, all labor was performed by manual rapidly escalated into a civil war. The war was called the
laborers, managed by a Mayan military and religious elite. War of the Castes because it saw the inadequately armed
In the ninth century, the Mayans declined for unknown Mayans take on their landlords and the Mestizo (people of
reasons. By this time, the Mayans numbered some four- mixed European and Native heritage). In 1848, the conflict
teen million people, most of whom lived to the south of the ended with the Mayans’ defeat, though part of the Yucatan
Yucatan Peninsula (Minahan 2013). During the Postclas- Peninsula remained under Mayan control until 1902. In
sical Era, a mass Mayan migration headed north to settle 1910, another unsuccessful Mayan rebellion occurred that
the peninsula, making the peninsula the focus of Mayan saw rebels flee and ultimately live in remote parts of the
society. Another large migration migrated to the Chiapas peninsula.
Highlands. Following the migrations, new Mayan city- Multiple rebellions and civil war left Mexico without
states arose that enjoyed long-term stability and wealth. a central government from 1914 to 1919. This lack of
Over time, however, this stability evaporated, and in 1440 political cohesion allowed a separatist revolt backed by
Mayan civil war erupted, causing entire populations to flee the Mayans to sweep through the Yucatan Peninsula. In
their homes to escape the bloodshed, abandoning their 1916, a short-lived socialist republic was declared. In 1923,
crops in the process. another Mayan revolt started, and a new Yucatan govern-
When the Spanish began to visit the Mayan coast, they ment made Mayan an official language for the first time
found the Mayan civilization in terminal decline. However, since the Spanish conquest. The return of centralized Mex-
the Mayans managed to resist Spanish domination longer ican government ended the socialist state, however. Plan-
than the Aztecs or the Incas. From 1531 to 1535, the Span- tations remained economically important in Mexico and
ish launched a military campaign against the Mayans. In in Central America until the 1960s, meaning most Mayans
1546, the last Mayan strongholds capitulated to the Span- were excluded from participation in their local economies.
ish, leaving Itzá as the last free Mayan people. When the Itzá Starting in the late 1960s, military governments, particu-
were driven from their capital at Tayasal (in Guatemala) larly in Guatemala and El Salvador, targeted the Mayan
in 1697, it marked the end of the Mayan city-states. Over population, resulting in the deaths of tens of thousands of
time, Spanish authorities, together with Roman Catholic Mayans and leaving many more displaced.
priests, destroyed the Mayan culture and indigenous reli- During the 1980s, Mayans suffered massacres that they
gion, with Roman Catholic missionaries burning Mayan consider their people’s third holocaust, with the other two
books and archives. Only very few documents were able being the Spanish conquest together and its aftermath,
to survive such systematic destruction. Under the Span- and the land dispossession during the nineteenth century.
ish, the Mayans were subjugated, with many enslaved or In the 1960s, increasing numbers of Mayans in Guatemala
forced to toil on Spanish plantations. During the sixteenth demanded land rights and fair wages in both the Mayan
century, abuse, European diseases, and widespread social highlands and large coastal farms. These calls were met
disruption claimed the lives of many Mayans; by 1700, the with repression by authorities, which was exemplified by
Mayan population had declined from as many as 14 mil- the burning down of the Spanish embassy in January 1980
lion to fewer than 250,000 people (Minahan 2013). while a group of Mayan leaders sought refuge inside the
The end of Spanish rule in Mexico and Central Amer- building. This act galvanized Mayan insurgents in Guate-
ica did little to improve life for the Mayans, though slav- mala under the umbrella group of the Guatemala National
ery was gradually abolished in areas in which the Mayans Revolutionary Unit (URNG). In response, Guatemalan
lived. In 1821, independent Mexico claimed much of authorities launched counterinsurgency campaigns and
Central America. The region was one of the wealthiest militarized Mayan areas, leading to the death of around
parts of Spanish America and, following the abolition of 200,000 Mayans while also creating over 200,000 refugees
slavery, was dominated by plantations run on labor from and a million internally displaced people within the coun-
Mayan debt slaves. By 1839, Central American countries try. Later, the actions of the Guatemalan authorities were
had broken away from Mexico, including the Yucatan, classed as genocidal by a United Nations–sponsored truth
where many Mayans lived. In 1843, however, the Mexican commission (Minority Rights Group International 2018).
 Mayan 725

During the 1990s, democracy was restored in both

Guatemala and El Salvador. Nonetheless, violence against Worry Dolls
the Mayans continued unabated. Around the same time, Worry dolls (muriecas quitapensas) are tiny hand-
Mayan activists, fed up with the widespread depravation made dolls from Guatemala that wear traditional
and abuse suffered by their people, began to call for the Mayan costumes. They are made by wrapping fab-
return of Mayan land, looted Mayan artifacts, and Mayan ric and yarn around a human-shaped frame. Worry
cultural rights. In the 2000s, Mayans led demonstrations dolls are given to children to alleviate their worries,
calling for their equality and demanded compensation for thereby helping them sleep. According to Mayan
outrages Mayans had suffered in the past. folklore, when children are kept awake by worry, they
should tell the worry dolls about their troubles so that
the dolls absorb their anxieties. They then place the
Society, Culture, and Tradition dolls under their pillows, where the dolls will worry
Much of what is known of Mayan culture comes from Span- on their behalf, allowing them to sleep untroubled.
ish colonists. Consequently, historians sometimes doubt
the accuracy of Spanish perspectives concerning a culture
they tried to destroy. Some Mayans survived Spanish rule, of the deceased with food, drink, and general merriment.
and over time, elements of their culture melded with the The celebrations also make people reflect on the fact that
Spanish colonists. In some parts of Mesoamerica (a region the dead are part of their community. A particularly star-
stretching southeast from south central Mexico to the Isth- tling Día de los Muertos custom occurs in the Mayan town
mus of Tehuantepec, the Yucatán Peninsula, Guatemala, of Pomuch in the southern Mexican state of Campeche.
Belize, El Salvador, and the Pacific coast of Honduras, Nic- Here, relatives take the bones of their ancestors from their
aragua, and Costa Rica), Mayans and Mayan descendants coffins and clean them as a celebratory act. The Mayans
still practice rituals that reflect, at least in part, Mayan cul- also hold widespread beliefs in the power of curandero
tural heritage. (faith healers), folk saints, and evil spirits.
Traditionally, Mayan culture comprises any peoples The traditional Mayan religion was polytheistic, with
who are culturally and linguistically related. The Mayans worshippers believing spirits influenced humanity in
of the Yucatan Peninsula were the first to declare them- many ways. Mayan deities tended to be associated with
selves and their language as Mayan. Eventually, this term nature, with animal gods symbolizing astronomical bodies
was applied to related people of southern Mexico and such as the sun and moon. Traditionally, Mayans believe
Central America. The main cultural difference in Mayan the various gods and spirits reside in realms beyond the
culture exists between Mayan highlanders and lowlanders. physical universe. Mayan society was divided into occu-
Land is an essential part of modern Mayan culture, with pational classes, with each class having a patron deity
most Mayans living in rural areas. that was honored during rituals. There were also gods of
Today, many Mayans have assimilated into Hispanic hunting, fishing, agriculture, and fabric production. The
culture, speak Spanish as their first or second language, Mayans’ view of the afterlife changed over time but at one
and follow Catholicism. For many Mayans, Roman Cathol- time saw the life divided into three realms: the physical
icism is a refuge from everyday hardships, though in actu- world, paradise, and a realm of punishment. Like most
ality may Mayans practice folk Catholicism that exhibits other Mesoamericans, the Mayans thought the human
elements of the pre-Christian Mayan religion blended soul was divided into various constituent parts including
with Christian traditions. For example, Día de los Muertos blood, breath, and essence.
(Day of the Dead) is an annual Latin American holiday in The Mayans developed a complex system of calendars
honor of the dead that falls on November 1–2. The celebra- with which they organized their social, ritual, and spiritual
tion occurs throughout Latin America and among Latin lives. The Mayan calendar system reflects that the Mayans
American communities in the United States, but the hol- have long held a sophisticated knowledge of astronomy
iday is synonymous with Mexico, particularly central and and astrological symbolism. The calendar system consists
southern areas, where the holiday originated. Secure in the of three interlocking calendar cycles. One cycle, the Haab’,
knowledge that the dead would be affronted by a somber is the Mayan version of the solar year (365-day cycle). The
atmosphere, Día de los Muertos commemorates the lives second, called the Tzolk’in, takes the form of a 260-day
726 Mayan

cycle. The Maya used the Haab’ and Tzolk’in together to A key concept of Mayan medicine was the belief in
record events spanning up to 52 years. To record longer the need to balance hot and cold within a sick person.
historical time periods, the Mayans used a calendar called For example, disorders such as constipation, cramps, or
the Long Count that had a cycle lasting 5,125 years. This paralysis were classed as cold and so were treated with
calendar began on August 11, 3114 BCE, and ended on hot spicy foods. In contrast, health issues considered hot,
December 21, 2012 CE. In 2012, some people believed such as fever, diarrhea, or vomiting, were treated with cold
that the world would end on December 21 that year on plants or foods regarded as cold, such as cheese. Mayan
the basis of the Mayan calendar in a series of apocalyptic doctors also advocated sweat baths, similar to saunas,
events (the so-called Mayan Apocalypse). to treat gynecological issues and infertility, and during
Vestiges of past Mayan civilizations are evident in childbirth. Today, some Mayans still use sweat baths.
many places of Central America, as well as in people’s For example, Mayan women in Guatemala bathe in the
clothes, food, and above all the impact of Mayan on local steam of a tuj (a therapeutic sweathouse) that contains
Spanish. For instance, in the Yucatan the local pronun- heat and traditional plants used to restore the body’s nat-
ciation of Spanish is indebted to Mayan with a length- ural balance. Many Guatemalans believe that entering
ening of stressed vowels. Mayan has far more speakers a tuj provides the best cleansing and curative bath for
in Yucatan than in neighboring Mexican states. This is new mothers. Because giving birth and raising children
because Mayan is overwhelmingly the dominant indig- are considered acts necessitating ritual cleansing as well
enous language in Yucatan state, where over 97 percent as heat, new Mayan mothers in Guatemala enter a tuj to
of all indigenous language speakers speak Mayan. Unlike be cleansed and healed. In Guatemala, bathing in a tuj is
the use of indigenous languages elsewhere in Mexico, the considered a far superior means for women to recover
use of Mayan in Yucatan extends to all levels of society, from childbirth than Western medical intervention. Thus,
and speakers of Mayan do not suffer social shame as Western medical treatments are rejected in favor of the
do speakers of indigenous languages in other states. In tuj (Williams 2017).
fact, in Yucatan, knowledge of Mayan has a certain social According to recent data, there are around 1.6 physi-
cache, with priests, businesspeople, and officials all speak- cians per 1,000 population in El Salvador, whereas in Gua-
ing Mayan. Similarly, in rural areas of Yucatan, speaking temala and Honduras the figure is 0.93 and 0.37 physicians
Mayan is seen as a sign of authority and influence. In other per 1,000 people, respectively. Access to basic health care
parts of the state, however, use of Mayan is restricted to in Central America largely depends on people’s socioeco-
family gatherings. nomic status and whether they live in an urban or rural
area, though authorities in El Salvador, Guatemala, and
Honduras have tried to improve people’s health care and
Health Care and Education access to medical services, especially in rural areas. Despite
Traditionally, the Mayans see good health as the result of such improvements, people in rural areas still have trouble
living according to the laws of nature, and illness is viewed accessing basic health care. For instance, in Guatemala,
as the result of transgressing against nature. The Mayans basic health care meets the need of approximately 54 per-
also thought sickness as caused by the soul being cap- cent of the rural population. Similarly, in Honduras, most
tured by supernatural entities who have been angered by healthcare services are found in cities and so are not easily
the sick person’s misconduct. Mayan medical texts advo- accessible to indigenous people living in rural areas. As a
cate treatments based on herbal remedies that should be result of being unable to easily access health care, people
swallowed, inhaled, applied to the skin, or given as ene- in rural areas often also seek medical help from traditional
mas. Mayan shamans and ah-men (medicine men) are healers such as curanderos (folk healers), who treat a vari-
thought to have had considerable surgical skill, being able ety of conditions.
to suture wounds using human hair, setting bones, and In some parts of Central America that do not have
drilling into patients’ skull using crude tools. Shamans significant indigenous populations, Mayan medicine is
and ah-men also practice dental surgery, making false considered unscientific at best or condemned as a form
teeth and filing teeth into decorative shapes augmented of witchcraft. However, in 2016, Guatemala’s health minis-
by ornaments made from substances such as jade and ter announced plans to include Mayan medical diagnoses
turquoise. within the country’s public health service, meaning health
 Mayan 727

professionals will work with Mayan healers to decide upon has reduced the number of monolingual Mayan-speakers,
treatment for health issues. as has Mayans’ increasing exposure to Spanish-language
Violence continues to be a problem throughout Mexico media. In response to the erosion of the Mayan language,
and Central America. This is especially true of sexual vio- steps have been taken to preserve Mayan, including the
lence and gender-based violence: El Salvador, Guatemala, establishment of the Merida’s Centro de Estudios del
and Honduras each have extremely high rates of femicide. Mundo Maya (Center for the Study of the Mayan World)
Female deaths in these countries are often the result of in Yucatan. The Consejo Nacional Indigena Maya Ch’ortí
domestic violence or related to sex crimes. de Honduras (CONIMCHH, National Council of Indig-
Throughout Central America, most children and ado- enous Maya Ch’ortí of Honduras) works to revive the
lescents go to school because Central American coun- Ch’ortí language by providing language classes in Mayan
tries have emerged from civil wars and economic crises villages.
to expand education to all children in theory. However, In Guatemala, despite moves to promote indigenous
there are also many children who are not in education, and culture (including the right to the free expression of
many teenagers leave school early. It is common in Central Mayan religion and language), a lack of resources and the
America for teenagers to be enrolled in primary school political will to enforce existing laws continues to hamper
because they are behind in their education. the protection of Mayan culture. Mayans in Guatemala
In Guatemala, legislation exists to protect indigenous hold a number of complaints, including the redistribu-
dress in public and private schools, but individual schools tion of Mayan land, problems with accessing their land,
have the right to enforce a specific non-Mayan dress code. poor working and living conditions, and low wages. A
In some indigenous areas, there is also ongoing opposi- very small number of exporting agriculturalists control
tion from teachers to obligatory bilingual education. This most of Guatemala’s best farmland, meaning Mayans are
means that children living in municipalities that have large forced to work as wage laborers. Mayan wage laborers have
indigenous populations are taught in Spanish. Commen- little option but to participate in seasonal migration both
tators believe that the increasing number of indigenous within the country and abroad to find work.
professionals (such as teachers and nurses) and university Other issues affecting the Mayans in Guatemala include
students will see an increase in calls for better indigenous a lack of official help in finding the location of indigenous
education while also improving the rights of indigenous people who disappeared during armed conflict, a lack of
peoples. prosecution for war crimes and human rights abuses com-
In Mexico, the use of Spanish in Mayan education, mitted during the Guatemalan civil war (1960–1996), and
including well-intentioned anti-illiteracy campaigns, has a discriminatory police force. Another major, continuing
reduced the number of Mayans who speak only Mayan. problem affecting Mayan communities in Guatemala is
the growing activity of the mining industry. According
to Human Rights Group International, protesters in the
Threats to Survival Q’eqchi’ Mayan village of Chichipate, which sits atop a large
Throughout Central America, Mayans are considered nickel deposit, claim a mining company has forced indig-
inferior to people of European or mixed mestizo descent. enous residents to begin mine construction. Mayan com-
Consequently, Mayans suffer widespread discrimination, munities and environmentalists are concerned the mining
neglect by authorities, and ostracism. Mayans living in will pollute local water sources from nearby Lake Izabal,
Mexico, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Belize are and local fishers fear nickel processing will contaminate
the poorest inhabitants of these countries. Widespread their fishing grounds. In 2017, violence during an anti-
gang violence and poverty in Central America have been mine protest resulted in death and injury. Mayan farmers
cited as the reason for children being sent by their families in Guatemala and elsewhere have also been involved in
to the United States. conflict over land rights.
In some areas of Central America, the Mayan language Guatemala’s long civil war, continuing tension linked
is in decline, partly as a result of the emigration of Mayan to industrial development and mining, and rural poverty
speakers and partly because of the modernization of rural have led to rural-to-urban migration among the country’s
areas, where Mayan traditions are changing and Spanish Mayan people. The influx of migrants to metropolitan
is increasingly spoken. In addition, education in Spanish areas lacking proper planning procedures means many
728 Mbuti

Mayan migrants end up living in slums or shanty towns Overview

that lack basic public services, including water and health The Mbuti are a pygmy people indigenous to the Dem-
care. In the cities, Mayans suffer high levels of prejudice ocratic Republic of Congo (formerly called Zaire) and
on account of their ethnicity and language. Because many Uganda. The Mbuti are known as the BaMbuti by their
of these Mayans do not speak Spanish, they have difficulty Bantu-speaking neighbors. The Mbuti no longer speak
finding jobs and limited opportunity to access social secu- their own language but rather have adopted Bantu lan-
rity. The Mayan migrants tend to work in low-paid employ- guages called Bira and Mangbetu, as well as Efe (as spoken
ment, so Mayan families in Guatemala’s urban areas send by the BaLese people). The Mbuti’s short stature means
all family members, including children, to work, which they are classified as true pygmies rather than pygmoid
impacts children’s education. (i.e., resembling a pygmy).
Mayan nationalists continue to call for the peaceful cre-
ation of a Mayan state free from the violence and discrim-
ination that have plagued the Mayans throughout their Population, Diaspora, and Migration
history. There are between thirty-five thousand (Minority Rights
See also: Garifuna; Lenca; Miskito; Pech; Pipil; Xicaque; Group International 2018) and forty thousand Mbuti
Zoque pygmies, but this higher figure includes subgroups of the
Mbuti, including the Efe (Shoup 2011). The Mbuti live in
Further Reading
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). 2017, Jan- the Ituri rainforest located on the border between the Dem-
uary 25. “Healthcare Access and Conditions in Guatemala, ocratic Republic of Congo and Uganda. The Mbuti live in
Honduras, and El Salvador.” https://www.cdc​.gov/immigrant​ semisedentary camps located close to kpara (patron) vil-
refugeehealth/profiles/central-american​ / healthcare-diet​ lages as well as nomadic hunting forest camps and smaller
/index.html. forest camps inhabited by honey foragers. Camps that are
Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An
associated with kpara villages are usually located around
Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Belize: Maya.” 0.3 to 1.2 miles from a village along routes leading into
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, the forest interior that are used by hunters. During forest
December. https://minorityrights.org/minorities/maya. hunts, the Mbuti move camp every month or so depending
Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Guatemala: Maya.” on the success of the hunt. Most camps are home to kin-
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, ship groups, though some larger camps are home to more
January. https://minorityrights.org/minorities/maya-2.
than one kinship group.
Sharer, Robert J. 2009. Daily Life in Mayan Civilization. 2nd ed.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. The Mbuti do not believe in the individual’s right to pri-
Standish, Peter. 2009. The States of Mexico: A Reference Guide to vately owned land. Instead, the Mbuti recognize individual
History and Culture. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. ownership of beehives and termite mounds.
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA:
ABC-CLIO. Geography and Environment
The Ituri Forest is a dense tropical rainforest located on
the northeastern edge of the Congo River basin in Cen-
tral Africa. The exact geographic limits of the Ituri are ill
defined. The forest is bordered by savanna to the north and
MBUTI by the highlands of the Western Rift Valley to the east. The
south and west of the forest is bordered by lowland rain-
Current Location Democratic Republic of Congo; forest that sees rivers drain into the Congo River. In total,
Uganda
the Ituri Forest covers around 24,300 square miles of land.
Current Population 40,000 The forest is named after the Ituri River that flows east to
Language Bira; Mangbetu; Efe west across the forest into the Aruwimi River and onward
Interesting Fact Mbuti men grow no taller than 4.75 into the Congo River.
feet, and Mbuti women grow no The forest’s climate is hot and humid, with rain falling
taller than 4.49 feet. every two out of three days in the rainy season (April to
 Mbuti 729

November) and once every three days in the dry season century. Then, in 1887, famous British journalist and
(December to March). The forest receives its heaviest explorer Henry Morton Stanley encountered the Mbuti
rains in October and November. During this time, local while on the Emin Pasha Relief Expedition to relieve the
rivers flood large swathes of the forest, making walking besieged the governor of Equatoria in south Sudan. The
and driving through the forest very difficult. During the Mbuti reportedly mistook the expedition party for Arab
rainy season, the Mbuti stay near villages, where they find raiders and shot at them with poison arrows. Later in the
employment working on village farms, and occasionally nineteenth century, the Mbuti entered the global econ-
they venture into the forest to hunter-gather. omy when they were employed as elephant hunters for
Various animals including okapis, elephants, buffalo, the ivory trade. During the period of Belgian colonial-
bees, hyenas, and baboons inhabit the forest and its envi- ism in the Congo region, the Mbuti were made to collect
rons. The forest is also home to over one hundred differ- wild rubber from the forest, work in mines, and labor on
ent plants including hardwood trees, nettles, creepers, and road-construction schemes. During the Simba Rebellion
epiphytes that cling to the trees, obtaining moisture and (1964–1965) that swept through what is now the Demo-
nutrients from the air. Parts of the forest are home to oil cratic Republic of the Congo, the Mbuti were recruited as
palm plants that have escaped from nearby plantations. forest guides by both government forces and rebel groups.
That the Mbuti helped the rebels is commemorated in the
Mbuti clan name of the Bamasimba (Simba people) who
History and Politics live in the south of the Ituri Forest.
The Mbuti originated in the rainforests of Central Africa Since the 1960s, the Mbuti have faced increasing
around twenty thousand years ago. Anthropologists exploitation of their forest habitat by outsiders looking for
believe the Mbuti are short because although the people gold and animals to hunt. Central Africa has also witnessed
developed a hunting technique employing nets and traps, many civil wars that have had a profound impact on the
their protein intake was insufficient, resulting in stunted Mbuti. In 2003, the United Nations Permanent Forum on
growth. Indigenous Peoples heard that soldiers involved in the var-
Over time, the Mbuti were able to maintain their forest ious wars were hunting the Mbuti, raping pygmy women,
territory despite the emergence of other forest peoples, the and cannibalizing pygmy men. The rape and cannibaliza-
Bantu and the Ubangian (Adamawa), who later migrated tion of the pygmies highlighted the racist attitudes non-
southward around three thousand years ago. The Bantu pygmies hold against pygmy peoples, who are considered
and Ubangian gradually developed a fear of the forest, subhuman by other Central Africans (Shoup 2011). The
believing it was inhabited by evil, so the Mbuti and other eating of the pygmies also reflected long-held local beliefs
pygmies were able to keep the forest to themselves to a that eating a person thought to have certain powers trans-
greater degree. The Mbuti traded with their neighbors, ferred those powers to the consumer. Because the canni-
whom they provided with honey, meat, animals skins, bal soldiers considered the pygmies to control the forest
and medicinal plants from the forest. In return, the Mbuti spirits, the soldiers ate the pygmies to ingest the pygmies’
received metal tools and weapons, pottery, and farmed domination of the forest.
fruit and vegetables. Over time, however, Bantu villages
surrounding the rainforests grew, meaning the Bantu
started to dominate parts of the rainforest despite their Society, Culture, and Tradition
fear of the evil they felt resided there. As the Bantu settle- Traditionally, the Mbuti follow a subsistence lifestyle
ments grew, they overwhelmed the Mburi, who eventually where the people hunt animals using nets, spears, and
adopted Bantu languages and in the process caused their poison arrows. Honey obtained from the forest is also
own indigenous language to become extinct. The Mbuti extremely important to the Mbuti because in honey
also adopted nonpygmy traditions such as circumcision. ­season, the people get 80 percent of their calories from
The relationship between the Mbuti and the Bantu peoples honey (Ishikawa 1999). In addition, the Mbuti eat vegeta-
is known as Bakpara, meaning “masters of the pygmies.” bles such as plantains and cassava from nearby villages.
The first European to encounter the Mbuti was Ger- The Mbuti consider the forest such an important entity
man explorer Georg Schweinfurth when traveling through that they envisage it as a giant womb where both unborn
the northern stretch of the Ituri Forest in the nineteenth Mbuti and Mbuti ancestors reside. However, the Mbuti
730 Mbuti

also view the forest as a place of danger inhabited by killer be linked by kare and will be mutually obligated to each
animals and evil forces. Mbuti cosmology revolves around other, the boys will not be considered equals because the
Molimo, the essence of forest power, and Apakumandura, village boys are considered superior to their Mbuti peers.
the Father of the Forest. When the Mbuti face a crisis, Mbuti fathers put their sons through nkumbi for purely
Mbuti men hold a Molimo Feast from which women and economic reasons because the ritual allows the Mbuti boys
children are excluded. The feast involves much singing, to be able to call on their blood brothers for favors through
dancing, and music played on a wooden trumpet. Simi- invoking kare. Such close ties are financially beneficial
larly, when the Mbuti go for a prolonged period without because they allow the Mbuti boys to access resources and
killing prey, they perform songs and dances called surya employment opportunities in the village that they would
that are intended to appease Apakumandura. Singing and not ordinarily have.
dancing also take place during the people’s rites of passage In addition to circumcision, both Mbuti and village
such as weddings, funerals, and circumcisions. boys may undergo ritual scarification, during which elders
Circumcision is a Bantu ritual adopted by the Mbuti. use razor blades to make around twenty cuts in each boy’s
Mbuti boys undergo a joint rite of passage with nearby chest before rubbing mud into the wounds. Some Mbuti
Bantu boys, nkumbi, which involves circumcision. The boys also have their teeth sharpened into points.
reasons for the ritual are twofold: not only does the ritual Mbuti girls also experience a joint rite of passage, elima,
prepare boys for the duties of manhood, but it also ensures with their Bantu or Ubangi peers. Elima is held to mark
a sense of continuity between past, present, and future, as a girl’s first menstruation, an occasion considered joyous
well as between the dead and the living. This is because by the Mbuti because it demonstrates a girl’s sexual matu-
the villagers believe only the initiated can join their ances- rity, fertility, and marriageability. During the ritual, all
tors, whom they consider to be a far-off tribe. Women and local girls who have experienced their first period move
uninitiated boys are not permitted to view the ritual. to a special elima hut, where they learn songs and are
Nkumbi occurs every three years and involves boys taught about sex and motherhood. Another part of the
between about nine and twelve years of age. For nkumbi, elima ritual sees girls whip boys as a form of invitation to
Mbuti boys move from their forest homes to a nearby vil- visit the hut in which the girls are staying. The boys are
lage. Here, the boys live in close proximity to the village expected to fight their way past the girls’ mothers to gain
boys with whom they attend a sort of forest circumcision access to the hut. Once they have gained access, the boys
school, where they spend several months singing, danc- flirt and sleep alongside the girls to form friendships that
ing, and learning to hunt and fish. During their time in may end in marriage. It has been suggested that this ritual
the forest, elders whip the boys to make them resilient, is a form of birth control because it has been asserted that
and the boys are kept quiet by having their mouths filled no pregnancy has resulted from the elima ritual (Turnball
with leaves when they are not singing. The boys take part 2015).
in ritual bathing, have their heads shaved, are forbidden
from using their hands when they eat, and are not allowed
to touch bananas or stand in the rain. Health Care and Education
Ahead of their circumcision, the boys are painted with The Mbuti have limited access to Western health care.
white clay that symbolizes the death of their childhood. The Areas in which the Mbuti live often do not have medical
boys are then whipped with leaves, made to sit for hours facilities, and even where such facilities exist, most Mbuti
with a rigid back, and sing songs repeatedly. Once these cannot afford to pay for consultations or medicines and do
activities are over, the village boys lead the Mbuti boys into not have the necessary documents such as identity cards
the forest, where they are circumcised together. Any Mbuti needed to travel or obtain medical treatment. The Mbuti,
boy who tries to avoid circumcision is considered cursed. like other pygmies, also fear being subjected to humiliat-
The Mbuti boys are circumcised first because this is seen ing or discriminatory treatment. Vaccination programs
as the Mbuti boys preparing the knife for the village boys are slowly reaching the Mbuti, but there are reports of the
and is indicative of the ways in which the Mbuti boys are Mbuti being discriminated against by medical staff (Sur-
treated as inferior to their village counterparts. Boys who vival International 2018).
are circumcised together share a lifelong bond called kare Where the Mbuti have continuing access to their tradi-
(blood brotherhood). In the future, although the boys will tional forest resources, they enjoy a good level of nutrition.
 Mende 731

In addition, studies have shown that forest-dwelling Mbuti See also: Aka; BaTwa
have lower levels of such illnesses as malaria, rheumatism, Further Reading
respiratory infections, and hepatitis C compared with Ichikawa, Mitsuo. 1999. “The Mbuti of Northern Congo.” In The
neighboring settled Bantu peoples. However, the preva- Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers, edited by
lence of rape in times of conflict in Democratic Republic Richard B. Lee, and Richard Daly, 210–214. Cambridge, UK:
Cambridge University Press.
of Congo is such that the Mbuti have soaring rates of HIV
Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Democratic
infection (Survival International 2018). Republic of the Congo: BaTwa and Bambuti.” World Direc-
In general, the Mbuti do not follow a settled lifestyle, tory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, June. http://​
resulting in Mbuti children lacking formal education minorityrights.org/minorities/batwa-and-bambuti.
except for sporadic missionary school attendance. The Shoup, John A. 2011. “Mbuti Pygmies.” In Ethnic Groups of
children do receive forms of education during the nkumbi Africa and the Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John
A. Shoup, 193–196. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
and elima initiation rituals. Mbuti boys also tend to learn
Survival International. 2018. “The Pygmies.” https://www​
basic forest skills such as tree climbing and hunting. .survivalinternational.org/tribes/pygmies/health-and​
-violence.
Turnbull, Colin. 2015. The Forest People. London: Bodley Head.
Threats to Survival Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
International logging firms, particularly those from Malay- World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA:
ABC-CLIO.
sia and Europe, are plundering the Ituri Forest’s hardwood.
This deforestation is destroying the Mbuti’s natural habi-
tat, and the noise of the logging operations is so loud that
forest animals are scared away, thereby reducing the num-
ber of prey the Mbuti can hunt for food and trade. Logging
also creates social change and health issues. Although the MENDE
Mbuti find employment working for logging companies,
Current Location Sierra Leone; Liberia
the work is poorly paid, and wages are paid in cash that
Current Population 1.4 million
is spent quickly. In addition, the loggers expose the Mbuti
to diseases, including HIV/AIDS. Gold mining activity in Language Mende
Mbuti areas has also swelled the number of people living Interesting Fact A court case involving a revolt by
on Mbuti land as miners flock to work in the mines. This Mende slaves is the basis for the Ste-
phen Spielberg film Amistad (1997).
population growth has accelerated deforestation while
also leading to increased traffic flow that ruins the area’s
few roads. Increasing numbers of Mbuti have also started Overview
to work in the mines or as forest guides for gold prospec- The Mende (also called the Boumpe, Hulo, or Kosa) are a
tors, meaning the now-employed Mbuti abandon their Mande-speaking people living in Sierra Leone and Libe-
traditional forest life. Similarly, the growth of plantation ria. The Mende language belongs to the Mande branch of
farms near Mbuti areas means more Mbuti are working the Niger-Congo language family. Although the Mende are
for wages as plantation workers. Christian or Muslim, they retain a firm belief in the peo-
Continuing conflict also affects the Mbuti. For exam- ple’s traditional religion and customs.
ple, in the Democratic Republic of Congo, the Mbuti face
continuing attacks by Rwandan rebels, meaning the Mbuti
suffer repeated looting, torture, and killings, and Mbuti Population, Diaspora, and Migration
women suffer a particularly high incidence of rape and The total Mende population is estimated at around 1.4
extreme sexual violence. Conflict results in Mbuti com- million people. Most Mende live in central and southeast
munities becoming displaced or ending up sharing their Sierra Leone. There is also a minority Mende community
land with fighters who have refused to join demobiliza- living in northwest Liberia along the country’s border with
tion programs. The Mbuti also suffer from chronic pov- Sierra Leone. In Sierra Leone, the Mende are the country’s
erty, discrimination, and a lack of health care and formal largest ethnic group, comprising one-third of the popula-
education. tion (Shoup 2011).
732 Mende

Geography and Environment fifteenth century, the Mende began to migrate southward,
Sierra Leone is surrounded by Guinea to the north and conquering other peoples as they traveled. Some research-
east, by Liberia to the south, and by the Atlantic Ocean ers believe the Mende were expelled from the kingdom
in the west. The country can be divided into four distinct because they refused to convert to Islam, which had been
physical regions: coastal swamp, the Sierra Leone Penin- adopted by the kingdom’s elite. At the start of the sixteenth
sula, interior plains, and the interior plateau and moun- century, the Mende were joined by the Mani, a people who
tain region. The coastal swamp region is low, flat, and spoke Manding, another Mande language. By 1540, the
composed mostly of sands and clays that stretch about Mende had reached the area around Cape Mount in what
two hundred miles along the Atlantic Ocean. The area, is now Liberia. Here, they were ruled by the Mani queen,
which is home to many creeks, estuaries, and mangrove Mansarico. Queen Mansarico dispatched armies into what
swamps, frequently floods. The Sierra Leone Peninsula is today Sierra Leone, where the armies subjugated the
consists of forested mountains running parallel to the sea. inhabitants and founded a multitude of subkingdoms that
Inland from the coast is the interior plains region. In the paid tributes to the queen. This pattern of invasion resulted
north this comprises seasonal swamps, and in the south in the Mende becoming the most populous ethnicity in
the plains comprise rolling wooded hills. The interior pla- Sierra Leone. During the eighteenth century, the Mende
teau and mountain region forms the eastern half of Sierra started to move west of the Sewa River. By the beginning
Leone. The region is composed of granite topped with a of the nineteenth century, they had won control of south-
crust containing iron. The west of the region is edged by ern Sierra Leone.
a narrow outcrop of mineral-bearing rocks called the The Mende’s modern history is influenced by their con-
Kambui Schists. Towering over the plateau are moun- tact with the British along Sierra Leone’s Atlantic coast. In
tain ranges, including the Loma Mountains and the Tingi 1807, Britain banned slaving within their empire. Then, in
Mountains. The region also contains many narrow valley 1808, Freetown (now the Sierra Leone capital) came under
swamps associated with river systems. direct British control, having been founded in 1792 by Lt.
Sierra Leone’s climate is tropical with alternating wet John Clarkson (a leading British abolitionist) together with
and dry seasons. The dry season (November to April) fea- African American former slaves and free people called the
tures the hot, dry, Saharan harmattan wind. The rainy sea- Nova Scotian Settlers. Illegal slaving did not stop, however,
son is cooler than the dry season, but the relative humidity and the slaves involved in the 1839 La Amistad slave revolt
is much greater, especially during the rainiest months (the subject of a 1997 film, Amistad) were mostly Mende
(July to September). During wet weather, floodwater, often from Sierra Leone.
contaminated with agricultural chemicals, fills wells with In 1896, Sierra Leone became a British protectorate
human and agricultural waste, which leads to the con- and attempted to tax people living in the country’s inte-
tamination of drinking water. In the dry season, people rior for living in huts. Under British rule, Christianity
often suffer droughts because of inefficient water storage spread inland from the Sierra Leone coast, where the
measures. British had established communities for freed slaves. The
Sierra Leone contains rich deposits of diamonds, iron, Mende rebelled against the British several times dur-
gold, bauxite, and other minerals. However, mining has ing the period 1896–1898, but the British and the Krio
resulted in land degradation, deforestation, soil erosion, (descendants of freed slaves who resided in Freetown)
and water pollution. Sierra Leone’s culture of slash-and- maintained rule over the territory. In the twentieth cen-
burn farming, growing urbanization, and the construc- tury, many Mende converted to Islam, which had been
tion of infrastructure projects have also contributed to introduced to the Mende by Muslim merchants, because
deforestation. they saw this action as a form of resistance against Brit-
ish rule.
In 1935, the South African company De Beers was
History and Politics granted a mining concession to develop Sierra Leone’s
The Mende originated in the Kingdom of Mali, where mineral wealth, particularly diamonds. When Sierra
they lived around the upper reaches of the Senegal and Leone gained independence in 1961, the Krio held most
Niger Rivers in an area that now makes up the country of of Sierra Leone’s political power and wealth, whereas other
Guinea. When the Kingdom of Mali declined during the ethnic groups (including the Mende) were sidelined. This
 Mende 733

was despite the fact that Sierra Leone’s first president, Mil- industry, with visitors attracted to Sierra Leone’s beaches
ton Margai, was a Mende. and rainforest.
In 1991, a rebel army called the Revolutionary United
Front (RUF) became embroiled in the Sierra Leone Civil
War (1991–2002) and received backing from some Mende Society, Culture, and Tradition
living in southern and eastern Sierra Leone who consid- Most Mende are rural people who live in small towns and
ered the war a rebellion against the All People’s Congress villages while practicing shifting cultivation. Groups of
(APC) political party, which is traditionally dominated by towns and villages form units, with several units compris-
Sierra Leone’s Temne people. By the end of 1994, the RUF ing a chiefdom. Each unit is led by a subchief, who is the
had enslaved rural workers in the country’s Kono province eldest descendant in a chief ’s male line. The staple Mende
diamond mining region, forcing them to produce dia- crop is rice, but the Mende also grow yams and cassava, as
monds with which the RUF could finance its cause. The well as such cash crops as coffee, cocoa, ginger, peanuts,
financial role of diamonds in the Sierra Leone Civil War and palm oil. The leaders of kin groups allocate land to
features in the film Blood Diamond (2006). Meanwhile, individual households. Traditionally, Mende men clear the
the Mende serving in the Civil Defense Force paramilitary fields of trees, and women weed the land.
organization established the Karamjor group of traditional The Mende language is spoken across southern and
hunters. The Karamjor, which consisted of Mende from eastern Sierra Leone. Mende is closely related to languages
the south and east of Sierra Leone (mainly from the Bo spoken by Liberian peoples such as the Loma and Kpelle.
district), assisted the Sierra Leone government against the Most Mende are Christian or Muslim. However, the people
RUF. Many Mende civilians suffered greatly during the civil maintain elements of the traditional Mende religion that
war, like other Sierra Leoneans, they suffered amputations focuses on a creator deity called Negwo, whom the Mende
by machete (usually of the hands), rapes, and enslavement. believe can be contacted via the spirits of the Mende’s
The war also left many Mende displaced and unemployed. ancestors. The Mende also believe in many lesser beings
A particular feature of the war was that the RUF forcibly called hale, who can be reached via reached by masked
recruited child soldiers, whom they fed hard drugs. Many societies. The most important of these societies are the
of the soldiers had to be reintegrated into society after the all-male Poro and all-female Sande, who perform during
war. In 2002, the civil war ended after the British inter- circumcisions and other important ceremonies as well
vened militarily. At one point, the civil war had displaced as during the planting seasons to ensure bountiful crops.
over two million. Mende living in Liberia also suffered Other masked or secret societies include the humui, which
through the Liberian civil war that began in 1989, causing is charged with the regulation of sexual behavior; the nja-
thousands of Mende to flee abroad. yie, which deals with serious illness; and the kpa, which
Since the end of the civil war, Sierra Leone has experi- deals with minor illness.
enced peace, relative stability, and the return of democ- Young Mende girls are proud of their developing
racy; in 2007, an opposition party won power. Foreign breasts and tend to display them prominently. The girls
investment has also returned because the country remains often leave their breasts uncovered during their adoles-
rich in diamonds, minerals, and precious metals. Tour- cence so that their physical appearance can be evaluated
ism has been slower to recover, though it is a growing and the breasts can be touched (Kenny and Gackstetter

Female Genital Cutting

Clitoridectomy is one of many forms of female genital cutting (FGC or female circumcision), the collective term for
rituals involving the partial or complete removal of a female’s external genitalia. Critics of FGC refer to the practice as
female genital mutilation (FGM). FGC predates the circumcision of males associated with Judaism, Islam, and Chris-
tianity; the first reference to FGC appears in an ancient Egyptian text from around 2400 BCE. The United Nations
recognizes four types of FGC. Type 1 is the excision of the clitoral hood. This is almost always accompanied by a
clitoridectomy, the removal of all or part of the clitoris.
734 Mende

Nichols 2017). As a girl matures, the community observes fees to and from the health facility only to discover it
her breasts because the development of her breasts is con- lacks facilities and staff. For this reason, it is often the case
sidered important to the health of the community. Once a that people remain in their villages and seek help from
girl’s breasts wuli (“stand up”), she is considered sexually traditional healers, who would are paid with gifts of rice.
mature and thus ready for marriage. When a girl enters To gain people’s trust in the health system following the
her wuli period, she receives training from a Sande, the recent Ebola outbreak, moves are being made to train
female members of which take the girl through multiple local medical staff; spread information on malaria pre-
rites of passage over the course of several years. Mende vention, good hygiene, and family planning; and provide
rites of passage often include female genital cutting. The medicines to remote communities (Médecins Sans Fron-
most common form of this ritual in Sierra Leone is a cli- tières 2018).
toridectomy (Bjälkander et al. 2013)—that is, the removal In Sierra Leone, primary education is free, but there are
or partial removal of the clitoris. tuition fees for attending secondary school. Consequently,
recent data reveals that as few as 9 percent of girls in rural
Sierra Leone have attended secondary school (Harvey
Health Care and Education 2010). This is partly because the fees are unaffordable for
In general, Sierra Leoneans suffer a very poor standard of many families. Other barriers to education include the fact
living, with many people existing in poverty. Consequently, that children need to earn money to support their families,
according to the World Health Organization, Sierra Leone girls often become pregnant or marry, and school build-
has one of the world’s lowest life expectancies: in 2016, ings are often in poor condition.
it was fifty-two years for males and fifty-four years for
females. The poor living conditions are a major cause of Threats to Survival
health issues for Sierra Leoneans. Most of the country’s
At present, the Mende have no immediate threats to their
drinking water comes from polluted sources such as
survival. However, they live in a country with very low life
ponds, unprotected wells, and freestanding water. These
expectancies, poor health and education services, and poor
water sources are often home to parasites and infections
sanitation. Following the atrocities of the Sierra Leone civil
that are a major cause of death among Sierra Leoneans.
war, the country has entered a period of relative calm that
Pollutants and poor sanitation also contribute to many of
is reflected in the country’s growing tourist industry. In the
the country’s health problems. Poor sanitation contributes
decade after the war, Sierra Leone’s economy stagnated,
toward a high risk of hepatitis A and typhoid, and still
and many Sierra Leoneans (including the Mende) still live
water breeds malaria-bearing mosquitoes.
below the poverty line today. Illiteracy is very high among
Pregnancy and childbirth prove significant health risks
Sierra Leoneans in general, and many people, especially
for Sierra Leonean women because the country has one of
the young, are unemployed.
the world’s highest maternal mortality rates. Malaria is the
main cause of death among children aged under five years, See also: Bassa
and many children in this age group suffer from acute Further Reading
malnutrition. Sierra Leone often experiences outbreaks Bangura, Abdul Karim. 2015. “Mende.” In Native Peoples of the
of disease, such as Ebola, as well as natural disasters (e.g., World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contempo-
drought, famine) from which the country’s health sys- rary Issues, edited by Steven Danver, 60–61. Vol. 1. London:
Routledge.
tem struggles to recover. During a recent Ebola outbreak
Bjälkander, Owolabi, Donald S. Grant, Vanja Berggren, Heli
(2014–2015), the country’s already limited health staff Bathija, and Lars Almroth1. 2013. “Female Genital Mutilation
decreased by another 7 percent; over two hundred health in Sierra Leone: Forms, Reliability of Reported Status, and
workers died from the disease in Kenema district alone Accuracy of Related Demographic and Health Survey Ques-
(Médecins Sans Frontières 2018). tions.” Obstetrics and Gynecology International 2013: Article
In rural Sierra Leona, peripheral health units (PHUs) ID 680926. https://www.hindawi.com/journals/ogi/2013​
/680926.
barely function because buildings are decrepit, are with-
The Diagram Group. 2013. Encyclopedia of African Peoples.
out water or electricity, and usually lack staff, medicine, Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
and equipment. Additionally, PHUs may be some distance Harvey, Chris. 2010. “Sierra Leone: Learning Curve.” The Tele-
from settlements, meaning patients have to pay transport graph, March 4. https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news​/world​
 Mi’kmaq 735

ne​ w ​ s ​ / africaandindianocean/sierraleone/7366824​ / Sierra​ The Mi’kmaq homeland, Mi’gma’gi, is home to 30 Mi’kmaq

-Leone-learning-curve.html. nations, 29 of which are located in Canada. In addition,
Kenny, Erin, and Elizabeth Gackstetter Nichols. 2017. Beauty the Aroostook Micmac Band of Presque Isle, Maine, has
around the World: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA:
ABC-CLIO.
over 1,200 members. All but two communities (the Qalipu
Médecins Sans Frontières [Doctors without Borders]. 2018. Mi’kmaq First Nation and La Nation Micmac de Gespeg
“Winning People’s Trust in Healthcare.” ReliefWeb, July 27. in Fontenelle, Québec) own reserve lands. However, many
https://reliefweb.int/report/sierra-leone/winning-people​ Mi’kmaqs live off-reserve, either in Mi’gma’gi or elsewhere.
-s-trust-healthcare. Some Mi’kmaqs may not be included in official population
Peters, Krijn. 2011. War and the Crisis of Youth in Sierra Leone. counts because they are not recognized as status Indians
Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
Shoup, John A. 2011. “Mende.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and
under the Indian Act (McGee and Filice 2017).
the Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup, The Mi’kmaqs’ traditional territory Mi’gma’gi (or
196–198. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Mi’kma’ki) consists of seven districts: Unama’gi (Una-
ma’kik), Esge’gewa’gi (Eskikewa’kik), Sugapune’gati
(Sipekni’katik), Epegwitg aq Pigtug (Epekwitk aq Piktuk),
Gespugwi’tg (Kespukwitk), Signigtewa’gi (Siknikt), and
Gespe’gewa’gi (Kespek). Increasingly, young Mi’kmaqs
MI’KMAQ migrate from traditional Mi’kmaq areas to large urban
areas in search of employment. Urban Mi’kmaqs continue
Current Location Canada
to have close links with traditional Mi’kmaq culture and
Current Population 58,763
tribal life.
Language Mi’kmaq; English; French
Interesting Fact Following first contact with Euro-
peans, the Mi’kmaq population Geography and Environment
decreased from as high as 30,000 to Canada’s Atlantic Region is located on Canada’s east coast.
around 3,000.
In general, the area is characterized by low mountains
and plains. New Brunswick’s Gulf of St. Lawrence coast
Overview forms a sloping plain marked by long, shallow bays and
The Mi’kmaq (also spelled Micmacs, Migmags, Miigmaqs, salt marshes. Western New Brunswick is characterized by
or similar, and sometimes called the Inus, among other rolling to rugged uplands with deeply indented coastal
names) are an indigenous ethnic group living in Canada. areas dominated by cliffs and gravel beaches. The Bay of
The Mi’kmaqs speak their own language, which is an Fundy in Nova Scotia also has steep cliffs. Inland is a steep
Eastern Algonquin dialect belonging to the Algonquian escarpment 120–150 meters high. Prince Edward Island
language family, as well as English. A Mi’kmaq minority forms a low, undulating plain marked by sand dunes and
living in Quebec also speaks French. The vast majority of beaches. The island of Newfoundland has diverse topog-
Mi’kmaqs are strict Roman Catholics, though there are raphy including rolling hills, ridges ragged coasts, cliffs,
also some Protestant Mi’kmaqs. and numerous islands. Atlantic Canada has many forests
comprising aspen, maple, ash, spruce, pine, and hemlock.
The forests are used to produce wood pulp, paper, and tim-
Population, Diaspora, and Migration ber. Because the land was once covered by lakes, the soil is
The 58,763 Mi’kmaqs (McGee and Filice 2017) live in the fertile and good for farming. Canada’s Atlantic farms pro-
Canadian Atlantic provinces (Nova Scotia, Prince Edward duce potatoes, milk, apples, and maple sugar. The Atlan-
Island, New Brunswick, and Newfoundland), the Gaspé tic Region contains resources of coal and oil and is home
Peninsula of Quebec, and the north of the U.S. state of to good fishing grounds (mostly lobster and finfish). The
Maine. There are also Mi’kmaq communities living in region’s climate is cool and wet, with hurricanes common
Montreal, Boston, and New York. in summer and fall.
Of the total Mi’kmaq population, 23,997 belonged to Mi’kmaq communities living on New Brunswick’s east-
the Qalipu First Nation of Newfoundland. Excluding the ern coast have voiced concerns about the impacts of cli-
Qalipu, in 2015, 56 percent of Mi’kmaqs lived on reserves. mate change on their access to natural resources, especially
736 Mi’kmaq

regarding how climate change will affect their traditional to Roman Catholicism. Subsequently, many Mi’kmaqs
foods and medicines that grow in local salt marshes, which converted to Roman Catholicism. In 1633, Mi’kmaq chiefs
may become flooded if sea levels rise. The destruction of visited Rome, where they met with Pope Urban VIII.
locally growing sweetgrass and other medicinal plants When the Europeans first made contact with the
located in the salt marshes is of particular concern because Mi’kmaqs, the Mi’kmaq population was estimated to be
the sweetgrass is used in Mi’kmaq ceremonies, drunk as between twenty thousand and thirty thousand people.
teas, and used to weave baskets and ornaments. Scientific By 1620, this figure had fallen to less than four thousand
research suggests shows that even in a best-case scenario, because European diseases destroyed Mi’kmaq commu-
the flood line on the Atlantic coast will reach to local nities, wiping out entire villages as they swept through
forests, thereby flooding all local salt marshes. Climate clans. By 1760, the Mi’kmaq community had declined
change may also affect the Mi’kmaqs’ ability to find foods further to just three thousand people (Minahan 2013).
such as seal, salmon, caribou, rabbit, partridge, ducks, and In the eighteenth century, although their population had
berries because a change in the climate will affect the hab- reduced greatly, the Mi’kmaqs proved invaluable in the
itats of the wild foods that the Mi’kmaqs eat. These wild French-British wars. Enmity toward the British was rife
foods add important sources of nutrients and are cheaper after France gave the Maritime Provinces to the British in
than purchased foods. The spiritual and cultural health 1713. In 1761, Mi’kmaq submitted to the British. In 1778,
of many communities depends upon food-procurement rebel American colonies tried to incite a Mi’kmaq rebel-
activities. In response to concerns over rising flood lines, lion against the British, but the Mi’kmaqs stayed neutral
the Mi’kmaq will also have to acquire new land away from in the conflict that would ultimately lead to Mi’kmaq ter-
coasts where they can build new settlements. ritory being divided between the British and Americans.
In the nineteenth century, the Mi’kmaq communities
began to recover from the European diseases that had so
History and Politics devastated their numbers. Largely ignored by local and
The history of the Mi’kmaqs before Europeans arrived in federal authorities, the majority of Mi’kmaqs lived as
North America is unknown. Some scholars believe the farmers and fishers. Toward the end of the century, the
Mi’kmaqs may have been late arrivals to Atlantic Canada Canadian government founded several reservations for the
during prehistoric times because their language differs Mi’kmaqs to live on. Most of the reservations were located
from other Algonquian languages. Mi’kmaq oral history in Nova Scotia and New Brunswick, but Mi’kmaqs living
suggest the Mi’kmaqs have inhabited Mi’gma’gi for over elsewhere were not forced to live on the reservations.
ten thousand years. Early Mi’kmaqs lived as geographically, During the 1920s and 1930s, many Mi’kmaqs were
seminomadic, scattered communities that were united to involved in the illegal transfer of alcohol from Canada to
form a confederacy under a saqamaw (chief). The saqa- prohibition-era America. The Mi’kmaqs’ access to alco-
maq served for life with succession through the male line hol worsened the problem with alcoholism that had been
of a limited number of families. Initially, the Mi’kmaqs prevalent since the first settlers arrived. In the 1980s, the
ranged nomadically over today’s Maritime Provinces and Mi’kmaqs came under the Red Power social movement
Gaspé Peninsula before extending their range to include that sought self-determination for Native Americans and
Newfoundland and New England. indigenous groups in Canada. Under the influence of
Europeans began to visit Mi’kmaq coastal commu- Red Power, the Mi’kmaqs demanded the right to hunt,
nities during the early sixteenth century. The Mi’kmaq fish, and congregate on traditional Mi’kmaq land as rec-
were the first people in the Maritime Provinces to have ognized under treaties that had signed with the British in
contact with Europeans and greeted them as visitors. The 1760 and 1761. In the 1990s, these demands escalated into
French negotiated an agreement with the Mi’kmaqs, who a concerted campaign to win Mi’kmaq land rights. Subse-
by this time had become hostile to the British and in so quently, in 1997, the Canadian Supreme Court ruled that
doing delayed the creation of British settlements in Nova indigenous peoples could exercise aboriginal title to their
Scotia and New Brunswick. In 1604, the first European traditional territory. In light of this ruling, the Mi’kmaqs
settlement on Mi’kmaq land was established by French took advantage of their right to fish, hunt, and congregate
navigator Samuel de Champlain. Soon after, French mis- and in so doing often caused resentment among Canadian
sionaries arrived in the areas and introduced the Mi’kmaq fishing communities, which resulted in tension in coastal
 Mi’kmaq 737

A Mi’kmaq birch teepee on the Gaspé Peninsula in Quebec, Canada. Traditionally, Mi’kmaqs rely on the natural environment for
resources to make shelter, clothing, and tools. (Meunierd/Dreamstime.com)

areas. At the start of the 2000s, representatives from the have a long tradition of contact with Europeans, and con-
Mi’kmaq and Canadian sides met to dampen the tension. At sequently the Mi’kmaqs have absorbed some European
the same time, the Mi’kmaqs began to negotiate for greater ways too. In particular, the Mi’kmaqs living in eastern Can-
access to land and resources that were theirs historically. ada are highly influenced by French culture. The Mi’kmaqs’
long history of contact with the French means that today
the Mi’kmaqs are, on the whole, strict Roman Catholics.
Society, Culture, and Tradition Although in recent years some Mi’kmaqs have converted
The traditional seminomadic lifestyle of the Mi’kmaqs saw to Protestantism, the vast majority of Mi’kmaqs remain
the Mi’kmaqs follow a seasonal pattern of habitation and staunch Catholics.
resource harvesting. In spring and summer, they Mi’kmaqs In the early 1990s, the Mi’kmaqs started to celebrate
lived on the coast before spending fall and winter inland. Treaty Day (October 1) by incorporating into Catho-
The Mi’kmaqs relied on the natural environment for their lic mass Mi’kmaq traditions such as drumming and the
resources, using everything from shellfish to land mam- burning of sacred herbs. Despite the people’s Catholicism,
mals for food, clothing, shelter, and tools. The Mi’kmaqs traditional Mi’kmaq spirituality continues to be practiced
also used the trees of their traditional land for timber with today to promote their traditional customs. The Mi’kmaq
which to build canoes. Because the Mi’kmaqs relied entirely traditional religion focuses on figures including Glooscap,
on their surroundings for their survival, they developed who is said to have formed the Annapolis Valley while
great respect for the environment. Today, Mi’kmaq culture asleep and used Prince Edward Island as his pillow. Tradi-
is a Native American culture that has absorbed many of tionally, the Mi’kmaqs see the Great Spirit as the creator of
the traditions and ways of modern North American life. As the world and all the people, a concept that has not dimin-
the most easterly of the Algonquian peoples, the Mi’kmaqs ished in the face of their conversion to Christianity.
738 Mi’kmaq

Music is another important part of Mi’kmaq culture which provides nine Mi’kmaq bands with self-governance
because the Mi’kmaqs perform traditional songs and over education on their reserves. However, in 2016, the
chants during ceremonies, feasts, mawiomi (gatherings), Canadian Broadcasting Corporation (CBC) reported that
and powwows. First Nations pupils receive 30 percent less funding than
Traditionally, Mi’kmaq culture is democratic and sees nonindigenous children (Mccue and Filice 2018). Such
the people make collective decisions. Honor and the wel- funding gaps prevent schools from providing Aboriginal
fare for all members of the community are the traditional students with adequate education and support, especially
touchstones of Mi’kmaq society. The children of mixed those children who have to leave their reserves to attend
marriages usually identify as being Mi’kmaq though they school far from their homes.
are not registered as belonging to the tribe.
Though the Mi’kmaqs speak English or French, recently
there has been a concerted effort to revive the Mi’kmaqs’ Threats to Survival
use of their own language. The Mi’kmaq language is part In recent years, Mi’kmaq activism has continued as the
of the Wabanaki cluster of Eastern Algonquian languages. Mi’kmaq demand the right to safeguard their liveli-
There are up to seventeen dialects of Mi’kmaq, includ- hoods and traditional lands. In 1999, the Supreme Court
ing the Québec dialect Restigouche. Traditionally written of Canada affirmed the rights of all Mi’kmaqs to make
using pictographs, today the Mi’kmaq language is written a moderate livelihood through hunting and fishing as
in the standard Latin alphabet. set out by the Peace and Friendship Treaties signed in
1760 and 1761, which guaranteed Mi’kmaq rights. The
court’s decision sparked the Burnt Church Crisis, a con-
Health Care and Education flict between the Mi’kmaq people of the Burnt Church
Health Canada (the department of the Canadian govern- First Nation and non-Aboriginal fisheries in New Brun-
ment responsible for national public health) is committed swick and Nova Scotia. The Burnt Church Crisis marked
to providing Aboriginal communities with high-quality the peak of tension between the Mi’kmaqs and nonin-
health care, including eight hundred nurses and home- digenous fishermen who believed that the unregulated
care workers. Health Canada also develops electronic harvesting of lobsters would lead to a decline in lobster
health services that use computer software and telecom- numbers. The federal government ended the crisis to
munications to share health information. Health Canada a degree by buying licenses and equipment from some
is combatting diabetes and tuberculosis within Aborigi- nonindigenous fishermen and entering into agreements
nal communities. However, in recent years the Canadian with some Mi’kmaq communities to regulate commercial
Human Rights Tribunal ruled that the federally run First fishing. However, other Mi’kmaq communities refused to
Nations healthcare system is discriminatory. The tribunal reach agreements, and continue to demand that federal
also demanded that the Canadian government provide government recognize treaty rights. Another instance of
improved healthcare services to indigenous children. In Mi’kmaqs confronting authorities to protect their rights
2017, Health Canada spent only one-quarter of its $127 occurred in 2013, when members of the Elsipogtog First
million budget to implement Jordan’s Principle, the fed- Nation in New Brunswick demonstrated against natural
eral policy that states no indigenous child should suffer gas fracking being conducted on Crown land close to their
denials, delays, or disruptions in accessing health care due community. The demonstrations focused on the environ-
to jurisdictional disputes (Tasker 2017). Some Mi’kmaq mental consequences of fracking and how these could
leaders fear Mi’kmaq children may not be able to access affect Mi’kmaq land.
the health care they need, including psychological assess- Language programs, including high school immersion
ments and medical equipment. programs, have helped revive the Mi’kmaq language. In
The Canadian government funds elementary and sec- 1970, there were roughly six thousand Mi’kmaq speak-
ondary education for First Nations students. The efforts of ers, whereas in 2011, there were almost nine thousand
indigenous leaders to acquire education for First Nation speakers of Mi’kmaq. These figures may be misleading,
children have been strengthened by federal and provincial however, because they do not show how many people are
legislation governing First Nations communities. This leg- fluent speakers, which is the way linguists measure a lan-
islation includes the Mi’kmaq Education Act (1997–98), guage’s health. In 1999, a report indicated fewer than three
 Mingrelian 739

thousand fluent speakers (McGee and Filice 2018), which belong to the Georgian Orthodox Church. There are also
would suggest the Mi’kmaq language is potentially endan- small numbers of Muslim, Russian Orthodox, and Roman
gered as the Mi’kmaqs become increasingly urban and Catholic Mingrelians.
assimilated into North American lifestyles.
See also: Gwich’in; Haida; Inuit; Tlingit Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Further Reading There are no reliable population figures for the Mingreli-
Canada. 2015, November 12. “Introduction: Atlantic Canada.”
ans, but their population is estimated to be between four
https://www.nrcan.gc.ca/environment/resources​/​p​u​blications​
/impacts-adaptation/reports/assessments​/2008/ch4/10339. hundred thousand and six hundred thousand people
Mccue, Harvey A., and Michelle Filice. 2018. “Education of (Minahan 2016). Most Mingrelians live in the Republic
Indigenous Peoples in Canada.” The Canadian Encyclopedia, of Georgia’s western coastal province of Mingrelia (called
July 18. https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article​ Samegrelo in Georgian and known historically as Odishi).
/aboriginal-people-education. Mingrelians are also found in the province of Gali, the most
McGee, Harold Franklin, Jr., and Michelle Filice. 2017.“Mi’kmaq.”
southerly district of the disputed territory of Abkhazia,
The Canadian Encyclopedia, January 6. https://www​
.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/micmac-mikmaq. formerly called the Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia,
Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An which existed within Soviet Georgia. Many Mingrelians
Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. live elsewhere in Georgia.
Tasker, John Paul. 2017. “Health Canada Having Trouble Finding
First Nations Kids to Help Because of ‘Broken’ System.” CBC,
February 9. https://www.cbc.ca/news/politics/health-canada​ Geography and Environment
-jordans-principle-broken-1.3972924.
The Mingrelian homeland, Mingrelia, stretches across a
marshy lowland on the shores of the Black Sea. This area
forms part of the Samegrelo-Zemo Svaneti Region of
northwest Georgia and the Gali region of the breakaway
republic of Abkhazia. Abkhazia lies to the north of Min-
MINGRELIAN grelia. Also in the north of Mingrelia is the mountainous
Current Location Georgia region of Svaneti. Upper Svaneti is listed in the UNESCO
Current Population 400,000–600,000 World Heritage List as an exceptional example of moun-
tain scenery containing unique villages comprising mul-
Language Mingrelian; Georgian
tiple tower-houses that were used both as homes and as
Interesting Fact The first president of the independ-
defense posts.
ent Republic of Georgia, Zviad Gam-
Much of Mingrelia consists of lowland river valleys and
sakhurdia, was a Mingrelian.
rolling hills. The rest of the region consists of foothill and
mountains. The former swamplands along the Mingrelian
Overview coast and the Rioni River valley have rich soil that are good
The Mingrelians (also spelled Mengrelian and called the for growing crops such as citrus fruits and tobacco. Min-
Mingrel, Margalon, Margalur, Margalepi, or Megreblebi, grelia’s lowlands have a subtropical climate that experience
among other names) are a people living in Georgia as well short winters. Mountainous areas of Mingrelia are cooler,
as the breakaway republic of Abkhazia. The Mingrelians with temperatures dipping as low as –6°C in January. The
call themselves the margali, and in Georgian they are annual rainfall in Mingrelia is between fifty-nine and
called megreli. Usually the Mingrelians are considered a ninety-one inches.
Georgian subgroup, though the Mingrelians have their
own distinct language and culture. Mingrelians speak the
Mingrelian language, but most Mingrelians also fluently History and Politics
speak Georgian. A few very small Mingrelian rural com- The origins of the Mingrelians reach back to the thirteenth
munities speak only Mingrelian. Both languages belong century BCE, when the Kingdom of Colchis was formed
to the Kartvelian language family, which is indigenous to from a tribal union that included the ancestors of the Min-
the Caucasus region of Eastern Europe. Most Mingrelians grelians in the area that today is western Georgia. Georgia’s
740 Mingrelian

location between Europe and Asia meant that outsiders with the West to end Soviet control of Georgia. Beria, who
overran frequently, leaving the land ruined and the people was by this time the head of the Soviet secret police, over-
subjugated by foreign rulers. As a confederation of tribes, saw the mass detention and murder of Mingrelians and
Colchis flourished on the shores of the Black Sea from its other Georgian minorities, which resulted in the deaths of
founding until 164 BCE. thousands of people.
From 1008 to 1442 CE, Mingrelia was part of the cen- Socialist economic policy resulted in the agricul-
tralized European Bagratid kingdom. The kingdom dis- tural development of lowland Mingrelia. For this reason,
solved after an invasion by Mongol warriors, but Mingrelia from the end of World War II until the death of Stalin
survived as an independent principality. The Georgian in 1953, thousands of highland peoples from Georgian
Dadiani dynasty ruled Mingrelia from the eleventh cen- uplands were relocated to lowland Mingrelia. The indus-
tury to the late seventeenth century. As a result of this long trialization of Mingrelia continued under Soviet leaders
period of rule, the name Dadiani became synonymous Nikita Khrushchev (r. 1954–1964) and Leonid Brezhnev
with the title of the principality’s ruler. In 1691, rule over (1964–1982) with the establishment of industries such as
Mingrelia passed to the related Chikovani family, who food-processing spreading throughout the region.
adopted the name Dadiani. When the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991, Georgia
In 1803, the Mingrelian principality signed a patron- became independent once more under a Mingrelian
age treaty with the Russian Empire. In 1857, the Russians president, Zviad Gamsakhurdia. A subsequent coup top-
abolishing the principality, and Mingrelia was incorpo- pled Gamsakhurdia and plunged Mingrelia into civil war,
rated into the Russian Empire, all the while promising the which ended with the defeat of the Mingrelian supporters
Mingrelians some form of autonomy. However, the Rus- of Gamsakhurdia, known as Zviadists. In 1993, a Zviadist
sians did not afford Mingrelia autonomy. Once the last rebellion occurred in Mingrelia that coincided with Geor-
Mingrelian prince has renounced his title in 1868, Mingre- gia’s military defeat in Abkhazia. The Zviadists were bru-
lia was amalgamated into the Russian Kutaisi guberniya tally suppressed by the Mkhedrioni paramilitary group,
(province) that corresponded roughly with most of west- one of the forces behind Gamsakhurdia’s removal from
ern Georgia and much of Turkey’s Artvin Province. Min- power. Around the same time, 180,00–200,000 Georgians,
grelia remained a Russian province until the Russian most of whom were Mingrelians, were exiled from Abk-
Revolution, an uprising that ignited Mingrelian national- hazia. This move strengthened Mingrelian nationalism
ist tendencies. From 1919 to 1921, Mingrelia was occupied and led to calls for either the creation of a Caucasian fed-
by Georgians and included in the new Georgian state. In eration or Mingrelian independence within a Caucasian
1920, the Soviets overran Georgia; therefore, from 1922 confederacy. By 2015, many Mingrelians from Abkhazia
to 1936, Mingrelia was part of the Transcaucasian Feder- were still living as refugees, leading to continued support
ated Soviet Socialist Republic (a constituent republic of the for the idea of Mingrelian independence.
Soviet Union that encompassed Armenia, Azerbaijan, and
Georgia). Under Soviet rule, Mingrelian language and cul-
ture were repressed, and at the same time, the Mingrelians Society, Culture, and Tradition
were forced to assimilate into Georgian culture. From 1936 The Mingrelian language is the main distinguishing char-
to 1991, Mingrelia existed as part of the Georgian Socialist acteristic of Mingrelian ethnicity. The language, which is
Republic. Under the Soviets, the Mingrelians experienced closely related to but not mutually intelligible with Georgian,
compulsory collectivization and industrialization at the is a vernacular language belonging to the Kartvelian lan-
hands of Communist official Lavrentiy Beria, himself a guage family. Mingrelian ethnicity is also denoted by char-
Mingrelian from Abkhazia. Mingrelian revolts against acteristic family name endings such as -ia, -ava, and -aia.
collectivization and industrialization occurred from 1930 There are many theories as to how and when the Kart-
to 1932, but these were met by arrests and armed force velian language family split to create the family of lan-
from Soviet authorities, with Beria personally overseeing guages that includes Georgian, Mingrelian, Svan, and Laz
purges on Mingrelian insurgents throughout Georgia. In that are prevalent to the south of Caucasus. The most com-
addition, starting in 1930, the Soviets stopped classifying monly agreed theory is that in the eighth century BCE, the
the Mingrelians as a distinct ethnicity or linguistic group. Zan branch of Kartvelian languages comprising the Min-
In 1951, Joseph Stalin accused the Mingrelians of uniting grelian and Laz languages branched off. Later, Mingrelian
 Mingrelian 741

and Laz differentiated and became established as distinct Health Care and Education
languages. In the past, Mingrelian and Laz were consid- Over the past twenty years, Georgia’s healthcare system
ered dialects of a Zan language, however today this theory has experienced many reforms that have improved the
is not normally upheld. Throughout the Mingrelians’ mod- health of the national population. Because of the reforms,
ern history, Georgian remained the Mingrelians’ language around 90 percent of Georgians have access to high-
of religion and polite conversation. Today, almost all Min- quality health  care, Georgia’s primary healthcare system
grelians use Georgian as their literary language. There are, has improved, and the people face lower out-of-pocket
however, very small rural Mingrelian communities that expenses when receiving health care. In 2017, the Georgian
speak only Mingrelian. Some Mingrelians living in Abk- government developed a far-reaching, long-term Maternal
hazia use Russian as their literary language and have only and Newborn Health Strategy (2017–2030) as well as a
a vague understanding of Georgian. short-term Action Plan (2017–2019) aimed at improving
Over the years, there have been periodic attempts by the country’s high maternal mortality rate and newborn
outsiders to invent a written Mingrelian. However, such health. Currently, Georgia’s infant mortality rate is higher
efforts are controversial in Georgia because they are seen than in some other Russian republics, but it is nevertheless
as attempts to interfere with the Mingrelian ethnic identity. decreasing. Georgia has also developed a long-term strategy
During the late nineteenth century, the Russian Empire to tackle hepatitis C, including measures to raise awareness
tried to create a Mingrelian-language liturgy, but this pro- of the illness as well as prevention, screening, and diagnos-
ject was unsuccessful. Then, in the 1930s, the Soviets pub- tics of hepatitis C. Over the past ten years, incidences of
lished several Mingrelian-language newspapers written tuberculosis in Georgia have decreased but remain higher
in Georgian script to spread communist dogma to rural than in some other former Soviet states. Incidences of HIV
Mingrelians. Georgian governments, both Soviet and post- and AIDS have increased since 2000 (WHO 2017). Some
Soviet, have stressed that Mingrelian speakers are part of a Mingrelians, especially those living in remote areas and
united Georgian nation. As part of this policy of highlight- in Gali, receive their primary and secondary schooling in
ing that the Mingrelians are a Georgian people, Georgian Georgian. Others that live in towns in Gali are taught in
authorities often claim that because Mingrelian lacks a lit- Russian, with Georgian taught only as a school subject.
erary heritage or writing system, it is a dialect of Georgian. Mingrelian activists feel that Mingrelian must be used as
Although it is accepted that Mingrelian is part of the Kart- the language of instruction in kindergartens and schools
velian language family, linguists point out that Mingrelian rather than as a subject for their language to survive.
and Georgian split many years and so are separate entities.
Despite being an essential element of Mingrelian eth-
nicity, it seems use of the language is declining. There is Threats to Survival
no reliable data available to prove this theory, only reports Despite the fact that hundreds of thousands of people
from teachers and parents in both Zugdidi and Senaki, the speak Mingrelian, it remains an unwritten language lack-
largest Mingrelian-speaking cities, which suggest Min- ing official protection or promotion through education or
grelian children no longer speak the language at school. culture. This lack of official status has resulted in some
Indeed, reports suggest only 20 percent of Mingrelian first Mingrelians being ashamed not only of talking in Mingre-
graders are fluent in Mingrelian (Von Twickel 2017). The lian but also of sounding Mingrelian. This embarrassment
decline of Mingrelian is hampered by the fact that author- at being Mingrelian suggests Mingrelian nationalism and
ities consider the language’s promotion intrinsically linked separatism are extremely weak. However, the Georgian
to Mingrelian separatism. This view stems from the fact government prevents Mingrelians from receiving any
that the majority of the Georgians exiled from Georgia at real help from state institutions on the basis that they
the start of the 1990s were Mingrelian speakers. Around are not an ethnic minority and are therefore not covered
sixty thousand of these exiles continue to live in the Gali by the provisions of the European Charter for Regional
region of Abkhazia (Von Twickel 2017). Here, authorities or Minority Languages, which aims to protect minority
publish a newspaper, Gal, written in a form of Mingre- groups from discrimination while also requiring states
lian, Abkhaz, and Russian. In 2017, plans were announced to promote minority languages (Von Twickel 2017). The
to stream a new Gal television channel broadcast in Council of Europe adopted the charter in 1998, the year
Mingrelian. before Georgia signed up to the Council of Europe, which
742 Miskito

is seen by some commentators as Europe’s human rights indigenous ethnic group living in Nicaragua and Hondu-
watchdog. The Georgian government has yet to ratify the ras. The Miskito speak the Miskito language, which belongs
charter. Therefore, despite a low-level revival of interest in to the Misumalpan language group; this in turn is part of
speaking Mingrelian in Mingrelia during the 1990s–2000s, the Macro-Chibchan language family. Miskitos also speak
which coincided with the publication of Mingrelian lex- Spanish as well as English, the latter being the lingua franca
icographical works and compendiums of folktales, Min- of the Miskito homeland. The Miskitos are Christian, with
grelian remains endangered. The revival did not lead to most being Protestant and especially belonging to the
significant calls for the institutionalization of Mingrelian. Moravian Church. There is also a large number of Baptist
Thus, Mingrelian ethnicity, which revolves around the Miskitos. A Roman Catholic Miskito minority also exists.
use of Mingrelian, is also endangered. Some Mingrelian
nationalists favor the idea of establishing a Mingrelian
state called Samegrelo (or Mingrelia/Mengrelia) to safe- Population, Diaspora, and Migration
guard the Mingrelian identity. The Miskito live in the Mosquito Coast region on the Car-
ibbean coast of Honduras and Nicaragua. In Honduras, the
See also: Abkhaz; Azeri
Miskito inhabit a swathe of the country’s southeast located
Further Reading
on the Caribbean coast, stretching from Río Plátano to
Broers, Laurence. 2011. “Mingrelians.” In Ethnic Groups of
Europe: An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 259–261. Gracias a Dios. The total Miskito population is estimated at
Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. 325,000 (Minahan 2013), a figure that includes the Rama
Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth- people of Nicaragua and the Mayangna (Sumo) living in
nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa Honduras and Nicaragua to whom the Miskitos are closely
Barbara, CA: Greenwood. related. Most Miskitos live in Nicaragua, and according to
Olson, James S., ed. 1994. An Ethnohistorical Dictionary of the
the 2013 Honduran national census, 80,007 Miskitos live
Russian and Soviet Empires. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Von Twickel, Nikolaus. 2017. “Do You Speak Mingrelian?” Open- in Honduras. This makes the Miskitos Honduras’ second
Democracy, June 26. https://www.opendemocracy.net/od​ largest indigenous community, accounting for 11 percent
-russia/nikolaus-von-twickel/do-you-speak-mingrelian. of the country’s indigenous population (Minority Rights
World Health Organization (WHO). 2017. “Georgia: Profile of Group International 2018).
Health and Well-Being.” http://www.euro.who.int/__data​ Unlike other indigenous peoples in Honduras who
/assets/pdf_file/0020/351731/20170818-Georgia-Profile-of​
have migrated to urban areas, Miskitos have stayed mostly
-Health_EN.pdf.
in their traditional homeland, where they farm and fish.
Miskito men often migrate to find seasonal employment,
such as diving for lobsters and conches.

MISKITO
Geography and Environment
Current Location Nicaragua; Honduras The Mosquito Coast lies on the eastern coast of Central
Current Population 325,000 America. The coast comprises a lowland band around 40
Language Miskito; Spanish; English miles wide that skirts the Caribbean Sea for roughly 225
Interesting Fact Miskitos occasionally suffer from miles from the mouth of the San Juan River in southeast
a mysterious condition called grisi Nicaragua to northern Honduras’ Blue Lagoon. Lowland
siknis; the sufferers (usually young rivers and swamps characterize the region.
women) experience symptoms that In 2007, as many as 160,000 people faced an ecological
include unconsciousness, anxiety, and humanitarian crisis when Hurricane Felix hit Nicara-
anger, and fear interspersed with gua’s stretch of Mosquito Coast. The Category 5 hurricane
periods of frenzied activity.
threw crops and livestock into swamps and shattered vil-
lages, leaving inhabitants at risk of hunger, exposure, and
Overview diseases contracted from contaminated water, rats, and
The Miskitos (also called the Moskitos, Mostiques, or mosquitoes. The hurricane also destroyed six thousand
Marquitos, among other names) are a Central American square miles of protected forest.
 Miskito 743

History and Politics a protectorate the Mosquito Coast and the Miskito king-
The Miskitos are descended from migrants that traveled to dom. Conflict between the British and Spanish occurred
the Caribbean lowlands from present-day Colombia. Here, often in the region while the Miskitos frequently raided
the migrants divided into multiple self-governing groups Spanish bases for loot and slaves that they sold on to
that farmed and fished. the British.
The Mikitos put up fierce resistance to incursions by The nineteenth century was a time of change for the
Spanish colonists along the Caribbean coast. The Miski- Miskitos. At the start of the century, Central American
tos and related groups were the only indigenous people countries gained independence from Spain. This did lit-
of this region to prevent Spanish colonialism. However, tle to improve relations between the Miskitos and the
during the 1600s, the Miskitos increasingly came into Spanish-speaking mestizo people living on the other side
contact with outsiders. First, Dutch pirates created bases of nearby mountains. In 1844, the British formalized the
on Miskito land from which they could prey on passing Miskito kingdom as a British protectorate. However, the
Spanish ships. Then, in 1630, English Puritans founded Nicaraguan and Honduran governments, backed by
a colony on Providence Island, which lies around 120 the United States, claimed the region as their own. Then,
miles east of Nicaragua. Although Providence Island was in 1849, German Moravian missionaries settled in the
intended as an ideal Puritan colony, it also functioned as area, followed soon after by Baptists and other Christian
a base for maritime privateers operating against the Span- groups. The Miskitos converted to Christianity and took up
ish. In 1641, the Spanish destroyed Providence Island, but English-language mission education, both of which added
this did not result in the British leaving the area because to the Miskitos’ cultural distinctiveness. Under pressure
many British merchants and pirates remained nearby. from the United States, Britain ceded the north of their
In the mid-seventeenth century, the Miskitos rescued protectorate to Honduras in 1859. The following year, the
slaves from a nearby shipwreck and adopted the survi- British ceded the south of the protectorate to southern
vors. In time, the Miskitos intermixed with the survivors, Nicaragua. Both the Honduran and Nicaraguan govern-
resulting in the Miskitos having an Afro–Native Ameri- ments promised to not impose Spanish on the Miskitos
can appearance (Minahan 2013). By 1687, the Miskitos and to respect the people’s religious and political choices.
were allied to the English, who supported the creation In 1894, Nicaraguan authorities reneged on this agree-
of a Miskito kingdom and coronation of the first Miskito ment by occupying Miskito land, thereby ending Miskito
monarch. Subsequently, in 1740, the British claimed as autonomy within Nicaragua.

Dr. Myrna Kay Cunningham Kain

Dr. Myrna Kay Cunningham Kain is a member of the indigenous Miskito community of Waspam, a municipality
in the North Caribbean Coast Autonomous Region of Nicaragua. Cunningham Kain studied to become a primary
school teacher but went on to study medicine, becoming the first Miskito doctor in Nicaragua. She worked as a gen-
eral practitioner and then as a surgeon. After the Sandinista Revolution (1979–1990), Cunningham Kain worked in
the Nicaraguan Ministry of Public Health. She subsequently became the first woman governor of the autonomous
region.
For over twenty years, Cunningham Kain has striven to advance the rights of indigenous women and to improve
knowledge of the impact of climate change on indigenous peoples. She serves as the Food and Agriculture Organi-
zation (FAO) special ambassador for the International Year of Family Farming, is an adviser to the president of the
UN World Conference of Indigenous People, and serves on boards of the Global Fund for Women, the Permanent UN
Forum on Indigenous Issues, the Association for Women’s Rights in Development (AWID), and the Hunger Project.
She is also the chairperson of the Center for Autonomy and Development of Indigenous People (CADPI) and vice
president of the board of the Latin American and Caribbean Indigenous People Development Fund. In the past,
Cunningham Kain has been a member of the Nicaraguan parliament and founded the first indigenous university in
Nicaragua, URACCAN.
744 Miskito

In 1910, the Miskitos reacted fiercely to the arrival of Around 80 percent of Miskitos are Protestant (Mina-
U.S. forces on their land. A peasant army, led by Nica- han 2002), with most Protestant Miskitos belonging to the
raguan revolutionary Augusto Cesar Sandino, forced the Moravian Church (officially called Unitas Fratrum, mean-
Americans from Miskito land between 1928 and 1930. In ing “Unity of Brethren”), which originated during the fif-
1934, however, the United States helped install Anasta- teenth century in present-day Czech Republic. Moravian
sio Somoza García as the Nicaraguan president. Subse- clergy are important figures within Miskito society. Around
quently, the dictatorial president sent troops into Miskito 10 percent of Miskitos are Baptists (Minahan 2002).
land to defeat any Miskito resistance. In general, the Roman Catholic Miskitos do not identify or associate
English-speaking Miskitos were ignored by the Somoza with Spanish-speaking Roman Catholics living elsewhere
García regime and so continued to follow their tradi- in Nicaragua and Honduras. Instead, Roman Catholic
tional lifestyle. The Miskitos also participated very little Miskitos have been converted by priests from the United
in the Nicaraguan revolution that overthrew the Somoza States. Recently, fundamentalist Protestant denominations
García regime in 1979. The rebels, called the Sandinistas, have started to convert Miskitos too. Despite the Miskitos’
aimed to incorporate the Miskitos into mainstream Nic- Christianity, they maintain some pre-Christian, shaman-
araguan society, thereby taking control of their resource- istic beliefs. According to these beliefs, Miskito shamans
rich land. However, the Miskitos, together with the Sumo control evil spirits (lasas) while also serving as healers,
and Rama, united to fight against the Sandinistas, result- diviners, and exorcists. Miskitos consult shamans when
ing in a fierce regional conflict throughout the 1980s. The searching for lost or stolen objects, to increase courage, to
Sandinistas destroyed a number of Miskito villages, caus- provide love potions, and to help find food. Traditionally,
ing many Miskitos to flee to Honduras from Nicaragua. the Miskitos consider dreams omens signifying everything
The United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees from changeable weather to forthcoming deaths.
(UNHCR) also resettled fleeing Miskitos into existing
Miskito communities within Honduras. The fighting
ended only after the signing of a peace treaty that gave Health Care and Education
the Miskitos limited self-rule. Despite the negotiated Nicaragua has a high-quality socialized healthcare system
truce, violence and sporadic conflict flared up well into that provides free routine visits to healthcare providers.
the 2000s, particularly after Sandinistas won power in a However, people living in rural areas can have difficulty
2006 election. accessing health care because the Nicaraguan authorities
In 2012, the Honduran government launched a pro- do not provide financial incentives for medical profession-
gram aimed at transferring land rights in the Gracias a als to work in rural areas. The Nicaragua maternal mortal-
Dios department to the Miskitos. As of 2015, the Miskitos ity rate is above average for Latin American and Caribbean
had received rights to over 3,800 square miles of land. countries. This is particularly true in rural areas, where
births occur at home without the presence of medical
professionals.
Society, Culture, and Tradition Miskito communities have suffered multiple episodes
Miskito culture combines Native American, European, and outbreaks of grisi siknis, a mysterious contagious syndrome.
African elements. The culture is egalitarian with status During spells of grisi siknis, sufferers enter into long bouts
based on age and kinship. Miskito villages are politically of unconsciousness, anxiety, nausea, dizziness, anger, and
autonomous, with village headmen acting as links to state fear that are interrupted by periods of frenzied behavior.
authorities. The cause of grisi siknis is unknown, but Miskito tradition
The Miskito language is widely spoken by the Miskitos. suggests evil spirits are responsible for the illness. Because
It is related to the Chibcha languages of South America Western medicine does not know what causes grisi siknis,
and exists in four main dialects: Cabo, Baymuna, Mam, Miskitos tend to turn to spiritual healers for help with grisi
and Wanki. Wanki, which is spoken around Nicaragua’s siknis rather than use the Nicaraguan health service.
Puerto Cabezas municipality, is also the Miskito literary The first bilingual Miskito-Spanish teaching began
language. Miskitos speak Spanish because it is the lan- in Miskito areas in 1984. Today, the Miskito language is
guage of administration and education throughout Nica- widely used in Miskito primary schools, and Spanish is
ragua and Honduras. used in Miskito secondary schools. The Miskitos are the
 Mixtec 745

least educated people living in the Mosquito Coast region lack humanitarian aid including adequate food supplies.
(Minahan 2013). Consequently, some Miskitos have been unable to stand
such poor living conditions and so returned home to an
uncertain future in their homeland.
Threats to Survival Hurricanes can also be a major threat to the Miskitos.
Land loss is a major threat to the Miskitos. In Honduras, In the short term, hurricanes result in death, disease, and
the government encourages landless people to migrate the pollution of water supplies. In the long term, hurri-
into the Gracias a Dios department despite the launch of a canes destroy swathes of the Miskito homeland. Hurri-
program aimed at transferring land rights to the Miskitos. canes also ruin the fields on which the Miskitos depend
The arrival of landless Hondurans in Miskito areas has led for their subsistent lifestyle, and the destruction of forests
to violence between the migrants and Miskitos that prac- impacts on the Miskito economy because forests provide
tice shifting agriculture on communal indigenous lands. some Miskitos with livelihood. Because Miskito unem-
According to Cejudhcan, a nongovernmental organization ployment rates run at around 80 percent (Minahan 2013)
(NGO) that has defended the rights of Nicaragua’s indig- and many Miskitos live in perpetual poverty, any blow to
enous people since 2015, a number of Miskito men have the people’s subsistence and ability to earn money endan-
been murdered, women have been raped, and families gers Miskito survival.
have been held captive on the way to farm, fish, or hunt.
See also: Garifuna; Mayan; Pech; Roma; Xicaque
The violence is fueled by the promise of cheap land, pre-
Further Reading
cious timber, and gold, which has lured hundreds of mes-
Finnegan, Kelsey. n.d. Miskito. http://dice.missouri.edu/docs​
tizo families to Miskito territory. When migrants started /south-america-other/Miskito.pdf.
to outnumber locals, the Miskitos demanded the mestizos Galanova, Mira. 2017. “Lush Heartlands of Nicaragua’s Miskito
leave. This has led to violence and caused casualties on People Spark Deadly Land Disputes.” The Guardian, March
both sides. Some mestizos claim the Miskitos have sold 1. https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2017​
their land only to renege on deals because they want the /mar/01/lush-heartlands-of-nicaragua-miskito-people​
-spark-deadly-land-disputes.
mestizos to repeatedly pay. This too causes friction.
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations.
Publicly, the Nicaraguan government appears to have Vol. 3, L–R. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
sided with the Miskitos by arresting individuals involved Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An
in the sales of indigenous lands (Galanova 2017). However, Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
the Miskitos have been criticized for failing to recognize Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Honduras: Miskito.”
the development potential of their homeland because World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, May
14. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/miskito.
they are focused on their own subsistence farming. In
contrast, cattle-farming mestizos make a substantial con-
tribution to Nicaragua’s economy because beef is one of
Nicaragua’s main exports (Galanova 2017). Miskitos won-
der whether this is part of the reason Nicaraguan govern-
ment has allowed violence in their homeland to continue MIXTEC
unabated and has ignored calls from the Inter-American
Current Location Mexico; United States
Commission for Human Rights to protect the Miskitos,
Current Population 520,000
except for building a new military base on the Coco River.
Language Mixtec
Both Miskitos and mestizos claim that there have been no
investigations into crimes against the Miskitos and that Interesting Fact The Mixtec language is the most
widely spoken of all Mixtecan
the police typically refuse to register Miskito complaints
languages.
(Galanova 2017).
Another threat to the Miskitos is hunger. According
to Cejudhcan, since violence erupted in Miskito areas of Overview
Nicaragua, almost 3,000 Miskitos have fled their homes The Mixtecs (also called the Mixtecas, Ñuu Savi, or
to escape violence. Many fleeing Miskitos have ended up Nuudzahui) are a people indigenous to Mexico. The
living in unofficial Honduran refugee camps, where they Mixtecs speak dialects of the Mixtec language, which is
746 Mixtec

the largest of the Mixtecan language branch of the Some parts of La Mixteca have suffered severe environ-
Oto-Manguean language family. Many Mixtecs living mental damage as the result of many generations of land
in the United States also speak English. Many Mixtecs misuse. Indeed, some critics argue La Mixteca’s land degra-
are Roman Catholic or belong to evangelical Christian dation and overexploiting natural resources stretches back
groups. Christian Mixtecs combine Christianity with to the days of the Aztecs, who demanded tribute from the
their traditional animist beliefs. The Mixtecs called Mixtecs (Nuñez and Marten 2010). Under Spanish rule,
themselves the Ñuu Savi, meaning “People of the Rain.” many of La Mixteca’s trees were felled to build missions.
Sometimes outsiders refer to the Mixtecs as the “cloud During this period, goats were introduced to La Mixteca, a
people” because their high-altitude settlements can be move that further damaged the region’s already degraded
enveloped in clouds. landscape. La Mixteca became a route for driving goats to
market, and the excessive grazing of the goats prevented
local forests from recovering. Trees were also cut down to
Population, Diaspora, and Migration construct railroads, to allow for agriculture expansion, or
The estimated 520,000 Mixtecs live mainly in the Mexican to produce firewood and charcoal (then, as now, the main
states of Oaxaca, Guerrero, and Puebla, which collectively sources of fuel in rural communities). La Mixteca’s land
form a region called La Mixteca. Recently many Mix- degradation worsened during the second half of the twen-
tecs have left their homeland to find employment, health tieth century when the Mexican government introduced
care, and education elsewhere. This migration has led to an agrarian policy along with Green Revolution technol-
the creation of a sizable Mixtec diaspora that exists else- ogy (the adoption of such newly developed technologies as
where in Mexico City, Tijuana, and other Mexican urban high-yielding varieties of cereals, chemical fertilizers, and
areas as well as in the United States. Despite leaving their machinery). The government offered credit to farmers if
birthplace, Mixtec migrants maintain strong ties to their they grew monoculture cash crops, a policy that destroyed
homeland. the region’s ancient, sustainable milpa growing system that
produced maize, beans, and squash. The practice of mono-
culture exhausted La Mixteca’s soil, leading to soil erosion.
Geography and Environment The use of chemical fertilizers boosted crop yields, but
La Mixteca is a region in the state of Oaxaca, Mexico, part of because the soil erosion continued, farmers felt compelled
the broader La Mixteca area that covers parts of the states to use ever-larger amounts of fertilizers. As a result of the
of Puebla, Guerrero, and Oaxaca. The region includes the extreme fertilizer use, soils became further depleted, and
districts of Juxtlahuaca, Silacayoapam, Huajuapan, Coix- high fertilizer costs forced farmers to abandon their fields.
tlahuaca, Teposcolula, Tlaxiaco, and Nochixtlán. La Mix- Once they abandoned these fields, the farmers cleared new
teca is located between the junction of the Sierra Madre land to serve as fields. Consequently, La Mixteca’s deforest-
del Sur and Sierra Madre de Oaxaca mountain ranges. The ation and soil erosion rates accelerated. Today, the region
region is mainly mountainous but also contains narrow suffers one of the world’s highest rates of soil erosion. In
valleys, hills, and coastal plains. addition, La Mixteca is one of Mexico’s poorest regions,
La Mixteca divides into three regions corresponding unable to produce enough food to feed its population.
to the region’s three climatic zones: La Mexteca Alta com- Moves have been taken to improve La Mixteca’s environ-
prises high mountains covered in pine forests as well as ment. For instance, in 2008, environmentalist Jesús León
fertile valleys; La Mixteca Baja consists of arid high-alt­ Santos, together with the Center for Integral Small Farmer
itude rolling hills; and La Mixteca de la Costa is a tropical Development in the Mixteca (CEDICAM), received the
zone consisting of a sandy coastal plain. The plain rises to Goldman Environmental Prize (awarded to grassroots envi-
meet the foothills of the Sierra Madre Mountains. ronmental activists) for their work to improve La Mixteca’s
La Mixteca’s rainfall can be unpredictable. In general, environment by carrying out reforestation work, soil con-
however, the region’s rainy season lasts from mid-May servation programs, and sustainable agriculture practices.
until the start of October. August is dry. La Mixteca de la Although La Mixteca imports much of its food, the com-
Costa tends to have temperatures ranging from mild to munities in which CEDICAM operates have improved their
hot. La Mixteca Alta and La Mixteca Baja experience freez- crop yields to move beyond the subsistence level to produce
ing temperatures in winter, and summer temperatures can surplus that they sell on the open market. This change is
reach 108°F. attributed to factors including the farmers reviving the
 Mixtec 747

milpa farming system, using organic fertilizers, reducing while trying to keep control of both their territories and
their dependence on chemical pesticides, and using green- the trade routes that existed between central Mexico and
houses to grow vegetables, meaning farmers can sell excess Central America. The Aztec invasions of La Mixteca ended
produce at markets. More recently, CEDICAM has pro- when the Spanish defeated the Aztec empire. Although
moted the use of “green manures,” grain and legume crops this defeat ended the Aztec threat to the Mixtecs, the Span-
(e.g., wheat, barley, peas, beans) that are then worked into ish soon became a new threat for the Mixtecs to face. The
the soil as natural fertilizers. Farmers have also started to Spanish believed La Mixteca was rich in gold and so began
use plant extracts, biological agents, and soap solution to to concentrate on controlling the region. In 1521, Spanish
repel pests rather than pesticides (Nuñez and Marten 2010). expeditions explored La Mixteca while searching for gold
and trade routes that would allow Spain to link the Pacific
Ocean with the Atlantic Ocean. Most Mixtecs did not fight
History and Politics the Spanish. Instead, the Mixtecs negotiated a peace that
The origins of the Mixtecs are unclear, though they are allowed the Mixtec elite to remain in position under Span-
probably descended from the Otomanguean peoples ish rule. The Spanish placed great store on the red dye pro-
who settled La Mixteca possibly as early as 4400 BCE. By duced by the Miztecs and awarded Mixtec dye producers
around 1500 BCE, the Otomangueans had divided into and traders a special status because the dye proved to be
roughly nine separate cultural and linguistic groups. the New Spain’s second most important source of income
By 500 BCE, Oaxaca’s central valleys were mainly after silver. As the world’s only producers of quality perma-
inhabited by the Zapotecs, who were related to the Mix- nent cochineal, some Mixtecs gained positions of global
tecs. At the same time, the Mixtecs generally lived in Oax- influence. This situation lasted until the nineteenth cen-
aca’s western valleys and the foothills. The two peoples tury, when new dyes were created.
frequently fought over land, slaves, and loot. It is likely that For most Mixtecs, life under the Spanish proved disas­
between 750 CE and 1521 CE, Oaxaca may have been home trous because the Mixtecs soon started to catch Euro-
to roughly 2.5 million Zapotecs and Mixtecs. In time, the pean diseases from the Spanish as well as suffering abuse
Zapotecs came to rule central Oaxaca, where they created and being enslaved by their new rulers. The Spanish also
a civilization that flourished between 500 BCE until 750 appropriated the Mixtecs’ most fertile land. These factors
CE. In the fourteenth century CE, the Mixtecs expanded combined to decimate the Mixtec population, and around
their territory to include many Zapotec cities, including 90 percent of the Mixtecs died during this period (How-
the Zapotec capital of Monte Albán. ell 2015). This population decline, together with La Mix-
The Mixtecs lived in numerous autonomous states, teca’s lack of gold, meant that comparatively few Spanish
but this population division did not impede their ability colonists settled in the region. At the same time, the Mix-
to evolve into one of Mesoamerica’s most significant civ- tecs escaped the worst of Spanish attempts to assimilate
ilizations. At the height of the Mixtec civilization, Mixtec indigenous peoples into Hispanic culture (Minahan 2002).
artisans created artworks and tools fashioned from stone, Nonetheless, under Spanish rule, most Mixtecs converted
wood, and metal that were revered throughout Mesoa- to Roman Catholicism, though they continued to maintain
merica. The Mixtec conquest of all Zapotec land was never many of their traditional animist beliefs.
completed, however, because in the fourteenth and fif- By 1810, Mexican revolts against Spanish rule had
teenth centuries, the Aztecs of central Mexico invaded La divided Oaxaca into various warring factions. Large Oax-
Mixteca. The highlands on which the Mixtecs lived held aca towns, particularly the state’s capital, were bastions of
important stores of metal ore, and the upland soils com- the Mestizo population who remained loyal to the Span-
bined with plentiful rain meant Mixtec land was fertile. ish. Mixtecs tended to side with rebel groups who prom-
Consequently, the Mixtecs were made to pay tribute to ised the Mixtecs equality and opportunity. Eventually, the
the Aztecs in the form of metals and plant-based goods rebels won much of Oaxaca, though the regional capital
including chocolate, cloth, and red cochineal dye (pro- remained loyal to Spain. During most of the nineteenth
duced from a type of beetle that lived on highland cacti). century, Oaxaca was divided between liberal and conserv-
The Aztecs used this dye as a form of currency and consid- ative groups. On the whole, the Mixtecs, along with other
ered it a status symbol. indigenous peoples, avoided becoming involved in politics
Faced with Aztec invasions, the Mixtecs and Zapo- even though they were often the victims of crimes perpe-
tecs formed a military alliance to fight off the invaders trated by armed groups of all political persuasions.
748 Mixtec

At the start of the twentieth century, modern farm- usually land disputes that have continued over the course
ing methods were introduced to La Mixteca. These of centuries.
mostly benefited national and international agricultural Traditionally, Mixtec parents choose their children’s
businesses rather than the Mixtecs and other laborers marriage partners, with marriages tending to occur before
employed to work long hours on the farms in return for a couple reaches puberty. Mixtec society is patrilineal,
very low wages. Many Mixtecs participated in the Mexi- though it is traditional for Mixtec sons to inherit equally.
can Revolution (also called the Mexican Civil War, roughly The concept of compadrazgo (ritual kinship) is important
1910 to 1920) that eventually saw the installation of a new in all Mixtec communities. There are various types of com-
government. The improvements wrought by the revolution padrazgo, though the Mixtecs regard compadrazgo result-
were lost, however, when major earthquakes hit Mexico ing from baptisms or marriages as the most significant.
in 1928 and 1931, followed by the Great Depression that Mixtecs are Christian (mostly Roman Catholic but
forced many poor Mixtecs to migrate to Mexico City and increasingly evangelical Protestant) but simultaneously
other cities. In the 1940s and 1950s, roads were built that maintain traditional Mixtec beliefs. These beliefs hold that
allowed the Mixtecs to sell their produce, including coffee all things, inanimate and living, have a spirit. In Mixtec,
and tobacco. Before and after World War II, some Mixtecs sacred things are denoted by I at the end of a word. The
were employed in the oil industry. Mixtecs embrace the concept of mutual or reciprocal help.
During the 1980s, Mexico’s oil industry declined. The Mixtecs call this philosophy da’an, a Mixtec word
Around the same time, tourism took off in La Mixteca, meaning to offer. Another concept held by the Mixtecs is
providing a boost to the local economy, and the drug trade tequio, or service to the community, which traditionally is
began to fill the economic gap left by the declining oil required of all male Mixtecs. The Mixtecs take tequio very
industry. The growth of the drug trade impacted on the extremely seriously, with even those Mixtecs who have
Mixtecs because some of their land was taken over by drug left their homeland expected to return home to meet their
gangs and used for drug production. The decline of cochi- tequio obligations.
neal production, the Mexican oil industry, and the growth The most important Mixtec celebrations mark life cus-
of the drug trade contributed to Mixtec immigration from toms (e.g., baptisms, funerals, or weddings) or are rites
Oaxaca’s highlands to elsewhere in Mexico and the United associated with the Catholic liturgical calendar such as Día
States. By the end of the 1980s, many Mixtecs had migrated de los Muertos (Day of the Dead) and All Saints and All
to the United States to find jobs and opportunities, with Souls Days (November 1–2). The most important Mixtec
the greatest concentration of the Mixtec diaspora located community event is the celebration of a town’s patron
on the Mexican-U.S. border. saint. Plans for these events can start a year in advance
In 2006, many Mixtecs joined a movement that pro- with the selection of a mayordomo (host). It is a profound
tested against the discrimination of Oaxaca’s indigenous honor for a Mixtec to be chosen as mayordomo because
peoples. In 2010, a new state government was elected that the position holds great political and social significance.
vowed to meet the needs of Oaxaca’s indigenous commu- Most Mixtecs speak their own language, which is
nities. At present, however, Oaxaca remains one of Mexico’s the most widely spoken of all Mixtecan languages. Many
poorest states. The money sent home by Mixtec migrants Mixtecs also speak Spanish because this is Mexico’s lan-
living elsewhere in Mexico and in the United States sus- guage of education and administration. English is spoken
tains the Mixtec communities that remain in the Mixtec by the increasing number of Mixtecs living in the United
homeland. States.

Society, Culture, and Tradition Health Care and Education

Traditionally, Mixtec culture is a peasant culture that Oaxaca is one the poorest regions of Mexico and lags
mixes indigenous ways with Spanish and modern Mexi- behind the rest of Mexico in terms of infrastructure,
can influences. In modern Mixtec villages, the basic unit including the provision of healthcare and sanitation and
of social unity is the household. Households are linked educational facilities. In recent years, it has been reported
through exchanges of goods and labor, economic interests, that Mixtec living conditions are generally poor. Many
marriage, and kinship. Violent conflict between Mixtec vil- Mixtec homes in Oaxaca lack safe drinking water and
lages flares frequently (Minahan 2002). These conflicts are sanitation. Most Mixtec families send family members
 Moldovan 749

to seek work elsewhere. These Mixtec migrants often end much of the Mixtec homeland devastated. It is estimated
up living in shanty towns where up to one dozen people that Mixtec communities in Mexico can grow only 20 per-
share one windowless shanty. Cooking in shanty dwellings cent of the food they need to sustain their society (Bacon
often occurs on an open fire in the center of the room, and 2015). This situation is improving with the introduction
the inhaled smoke is often debilitating to residents’ health. of more environmentally friendly farming practices, but
Mixtec migrants to the United States often speak only their many thousands of Mixtecs see migration to other parts
native nonwritten languages, so they experience difficulty of Mexico and the United States as their only option for a
accessing health care in the United States. better life.
The Mixtec infant and child mortality rate are extremely
See also: Tohono O’odham; Trique
high, with most deaths caused by respiratory ailments or
Further Reading
such preventable enteric disease as dysentery (Canada:
Bacon, David. 2015. “Mixtecs in Ventura County.” Mixteco.org.
Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada 2011). Increas- http://mixteco.org/mixtecs.
ingly, the Mixtecs live on highly processed canned and Canada: Immigration and Refugee Board of Canada. 2001.
packaged foods that contribute to rising rates of obesity “Mexico: Situation and Treatment of Mixtec Indigenous
and type 2 diabetes. People; Whether They Are Subjected to Racism; Whether
In Oaxaca, people’s educational attainment is far below Such Racism Is Geographically Localized (1998–December
2001).” Refworld MEX38105.E, December 7. https://www.
the Mexico’s national average. For every 100 people aged
refworld​.org/docid/3df4be6f14.html.
15 years or older, 13.8 have had no education, whereas 9.9 Howell, Christopher. 2015. “Mixtec.” In Native Peoples of the
have experienced tertiary education. Oaxaca is also one of World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contempo-
the Mexican states with the highest illiteracy rates, with rary Issues, edited by Steven Danver, 145–147. Vol. 1. Lon-
16.9 percent of the total state population unable to read don: Routledge.
and write. Roughly 14 out of 100 people living in Oaxaca Maxwell, Annette E., Sandra Young, Catherine M. Crespi, Roena
Rabelo Vega, Reggie T Cayetano, and Roshan Bastani. 2015.
cannot speak Spanish (Muñoz 2012). Mexico has passed
“Social Determinants of Health in the Mixtec and Zapotec
laws and signed international treaties to ensure bilingual Community in Ventura County, California.” International
education in Mexico, though Spanish continues to be the Journal for Equity in Health 14, no. 1 (February 3): 16. doi:10​
language of education. .1186/s12939-015-0148-0.
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 3, L–R.
Threats to Survival Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Muñoz, Sofia. 2012, April 20. “Climate Change Adaptation Strat-
Mixtec language and culture, including the people’s tradi- egies for the State of Oaxaca, Mexico.” https://pdfs​.semantic​
tional religion, are often at odds with Western ideas. As scholar.org/caa2/650b4f3966985daf6aa24f961f0d344370a5​
such, the Mixtec’s unique language and culture are in dan- .pdf.
ger of becoming extinct as the Mixtecs leave their home- Nuñez, David, and Gerry Marten. 2010. “Mexico: Mixteca
land to live among people who do not share their language Region (Oaxaca)—Fighting Desertification with Commu-
or culture. Mixtec migrant workers are concentrated in nity Reforestation and Sustainable Agriculture.” TheEco
Tipping Points Project, December. http://www.ecotipping​
the most labor-intensive agricultural areas, including fruit points​.org​/our-stories​/indepth/mexico-oaxaca-community​
farming and growing cut flowers. Mixtec migrants often -reforestation​-mixteca​-region.html.
find that they are culturally and linguistically isolated.
Many of the migrants are illiterate and unable to speak
either Spanish or English. Consequently, these migrants
face exploitation and discrimination, especially in the
workforce and in regard to housing. MOLDOVAN
Most Mixtecs live in extreme poverty and lack basic
Current Location Moldova
housing, food, clothing, health care, and education. At the
Current Population 2.6 million
heart of the Mixtec struggle to survive is the fact that many
Mixtecs cannot communicate with people other than Language Moldovan (Romanian dialect)
those in their own community. The Mixtecs’ linguistic iso- Interesting Fact According to legend, Moldova is
lation hinders their ability to access health care, education, named after the favorite dog of a
better jobs, and civil rights in general. Soil erosion has left fourteenth-century Romanian prince.
750 Moldovan

Overview the terrain. Northern Moldova is home to the Bălți steppe

The Moldovans are a people living in the Eastern European as well as upland areas. The northern uplands include the
Republic of Moldova. They are sometimes considered a Medobory-Toltry limestone ridges that border the Prut
Romanian people. Moldovans also live in areas of Ukraine River. In the republic’s south, the Bugeac Plain is inter-
and Romania that are adjacent to Moldova as well as Rus- rupted by many ravines and gullies.
sia. Moldovans speak Moldovan, which is usually regarded Moldova’s network of rivers and streams drain south to
by linguists as a dialect of Romanian. Most Moldovans fol- the Black Sea. Many of the waterways are small and shal-
low Orthodox Christianity. The subject of Moldovan eth- low and dry up in summer. As well as the Dniester and
nicity is controversial. Although some Moldovans claim Prut, other important Moldovan rivers include the Ialpug
Moldovans are linguistically, ethnically, and culturally and Cogâlnic. Much of Moldova’s water supply comes
closely related to Romanians, other Moldovans, including from underground water, including thousands of natural
the Moldovan government, assert that Moldovans are a springs. Moldova’s soils are highly fertile, with chernozem
separate ethnicity with a distinct culture and language. In (black soils rich in humus and phosphoric acids) cover-
Romania, Moldovans are sometimes called Bessarabians ing most of the republic. Chernozem allows Moldovans to
to distinguish them from Romanians who live in Eastern grow cereals, tobacco, and sugar beet. However, the exces-
Romania’s Moldovan region. Bessarabia was a historical sive use of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides
region of Eastern Europe located between the Dniester during the Soviet era has resulted in significant soil and
River on the east and the Prut River on the west that today groundwater contamination. Moldova has rich deposits
lies mostly in Moldova but also partly in Ukraine. of sedimentary rocks and minerals including sand, gravel,
gypsum, lignite, and limestone.
Moldova’s climate is warm (as hot as 100°F) with mild
Population, Diaspora, and Migration winters (though lows of −30°F have been recorded). Most
Approximately 2.6 million people who identify as Moldo- of Moldova’s precipitation occurs in the summer. This rain
van live in Moldova. This means Moldovans make up 76 is heavy and, coupled with the country’s irregular land, can
percent of Moldova’s total population (Anderson Worden cause erosion, landslides, and river silting. In winter, light
2011). Small Moldovan communities live in parts of snowfall occurs.
Ukraine and Romania bordering Moldova as well as in Common tree species in Moldova include hornbeam,
Russia. oak, wild pear, and wild cherry. Historically, Moldova had
extensive forests. However, population growth has resulted
in the clearance of forested areas. Consequently, extensive
Geography and Environment deforestation has resulted in soil erosion, wind damage,
Moldova is a landlocked country located in the northeast a fall in the water table level, flooding, desertification,
of Europe’s Balkan region to the east of the Carpathian and loss of habitat. To stem these problems, in the 1990s,
Mountains. Moldova is bordered by Romania to the west Moldova’s authorities embarked on large-scale reforesta-
and Ukraine to the north, east, and south. Moldova includes tion projects. These plans met with initial resistance from
the Gagauz Autonomous Region (Gagauz Yeri) in the south peasant farmers worried that their farmland and pastures
of the republic as well as the disputed Transnistrian region would be converted into forests. However, by the start of
in the east. Most of Moldova lies between the meandering the twentieth century, the reforestation had resulted in
Prut and Dniester Rivers. The Moldovan landscape fea- increased crop yields and better grazing lands. Meadows
tures innumerable river valleys, ravines, gullies, and ridges and reedbeds grow on the floodplains of the Dniester and
that are grooved by scarring caused by landslides. In the Prut Rivers, and salt marshes flourish in the valleys of the
center of the country are uplands called the Codri Hills. Cogâlnic, Ialpug, and Botna Rivers.
The republic’s highest point, Mount Bălănești, lies in the Moldova is home to mammals that include wild boar,
west. The Dniester uplands that form the right bank of the wolves, and badgers as well as deer, hare, and foxes, which
Dniester River border the central uplands to the east and are commercially important. Marshes surrounding Mol-
northeast. These uplands are interlaced by deep, flat val- dova’s rivers provide sanctuary for wild geese, ducks, and
leys; ravines; and landslide-scoured depressions separated herons, and sea eagles live in the country’s floodplain for-
by sharp ridges. Steep forested slopes account for much of ests. Moldova’s forests also contain larks, jays, thrushes,
 Moldovan 751

and owls. Moldova’s many artificial reservoirs are used to to distinguish it from western Moldova. In a move that
raise such fish as carp, perch, and pike. reshaped the area’s demographics, the Russians settled
tens of thousands of Russians and Ukrainians in Bessara-
bia while also urging Bulgarians, Germans, Poles, and
History and Politics Eastern European Jews to move to the region.
Moldovans are descended from the ancient Dacian peo- During the 1917 Russian Revolution, the Bessarabian
ple, who were inhabitants of the cultural region of Dacia, authorities agreed to establish the independent Moldo-
located near the Carpathian Mountains to the west of van Democratic Republic. The following year, however, the
the Black Sea in an area corresponding to present-day Bessarabian parliament voted to unify with the Romanian
Romania and Moldova, as well as parts of Ukraine, Serbia, kingdom, thereby ending the republic’s independence.
Bulgaria, Slovakia, Hungary, and Poland. In the first cen- In 1940, the nonaggression pact known as the Molotov-
tury CE, the Dacians were colonized by the Romans, who Ribbentrop Pact or Nazi-Soviet Pact, signed by the Soviets
brought the Latin language to the people. Latin went on and Germany, resulted in the Soviets occupying Bessarabia.
to provide the basis for the development of the Romanian In 1941, Romania tried to regain Bessarabia by uniting with
language, of which Moldovan is a dialect. Germany to attack the Soviets. Once German and Romanian
According to Moldovan folklore, Moldova was founded troops entered Bessarabia, they began to deport Jews from
in the fourteenth century when Molda, the favorite dog the area. By September 1941, most Jews living in Bessarabia
of Romanian prince Dragoş, was gored by an ox during and Bukovina (some 185,000 people) had been moved to
a hunting trip. According to legend, Dragoş named the concentration camps in Transnistria, where they endured
region in which Molda died as Moldova. Later, the ox was horrific conditions. When the Soviets regained Bessarabia
included in the Moldovan emblem and flag. In 1359, Mol- in 1944, they discovered that very few of the Jews had sur-
dova became an independent principality under the first vived. In June 1941, German and Romanian forces attacked
independent voivode (ruler) of Moldova Bogdan I (also the Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic (which comprised
called Bogdan the Founder). At this time, Moldova was also parts of Bessarabia and the Moldavian Autonomous Soviet
called Moldavia and encompassed an area twice as large as Socialist Republic within the Ukrainian SSR) as well as the
the area taken up by today’s Moldovan Republic. Medieval Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. The Nazis awarded
Moldova had borders extending from the Dniester Rover Romania with Bessarabia, northern Bukovina, and land
in the east westward to the Carpathian Mountains. that included the Nistru and Pivdennyy Buh Rivers, north
One of the most famous leaders of medieval Moldova to Bar in Ukraine. Romania named this area Transnistria.
was Stephen III, or Stephen the Great (or Ştefan cel Mare), In 1944, the Soviets reoccupied Bessarabia and Trans-
who was voivode of Moldova from 1457 to 1504. Stephen nistria. In 1947, Bessarabia, northern Bukovina, and
III defeated the Ottomans in 1475, and today he is the Transnistria rejoined the Soviet Union, formerly allowing
patron of Moldova; his image adorns churches, monu- previous Soviet administrative divisions to be restored
ments, and the Moldovan currency (the leu). In 1583, along with Russian place names. Under Joseph Stalin, the
Moldova became a vassal state of the Ottoman Empire, to Soviets Russified the people living in the Moldavian Soviet
whom the Moldovans had to pay a percentage of their rev- Socialist Republic and in so doing destroyed all remaining
enue. Under Ottoman rule, Moldova was forbidden to have links to Romania. The Soviet secret police attacked Mol-
foreign relations that were to the detriment of the Ottoman dovan nationalist groups, the people were forced to use
Empire. However, at the same time, Moldova was permit- the Cyrillic alphabet to write their language, and ethnic
ted a degree of independence, including authority over its Russians and Ukrainians were urged to settle in the Mol-
foreign trade. In 1774, Russia defeated the Ottomans in davian SSR, particularly in Transnistria. The Soviets also
the Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774). Consequently, Rus- commandeered huge amounts of farm produce from the
sia became the protector of part of Moldova. The following Moldovans despite the fact that harvests had been poor.
year, the Habsburgs annexed some of Moldova, with the This move caused a famine among the Moldovans follow-
area later named Bukovina. Under the Treaty of Bucharest ing a devastating drought that lasted from 1945 to 1947.
that followed the Russo-Turkish War (1806–1812), Russia In addition, political and academic positions were given
annexed more of Moldova (land between the Dniester and to members of non-Romanian ethnic groups, meaning the
Prut Rivers). The Russians renamed this area Bessarabia Moldovans were unable to take up these roles. Life under
752 Moldovan

farming communities. Agricultural symbolism and

farming is evident in Moldovan folklore and in the cel-
ebration of holidays such as hram days. Every Moldovan
settlement has its own hram day honoring the patron
saint of the area. Traditionally, hram days see family and
friends gather to enjoy feasts and folk dances including
the hora. Moldovan folk costumes blend elements of
traditional Romanian dress such as richly embroidered
cotton blouses worn by women, with Moldovan modifi-
cations such as boots (in Romania, folk costumes include
moccasins instead).
Moldovan folk musicians play a variety of instruments
including pan flutes and accordions. The age-old folk bal-
lad “Mioriţa” (or “The Ballad of the Little Sheep”) is still
performed today. The ballad tells of a shepherd who lets
himself be killed by rival shepherds even though he is
warned of the danger by one of his lambs who has gained
the power of speech. Some commentators view “Mioriţa”
as a metaphor for Christianity and the power of turning
the other cheek. Others see the ballad as a comment on the
experience of Romanian peoples including the Moldovans,
who have suffered invasions and occupations without los-
ing their identity. Today, verses of “Mioriţa” are printed on
Moldovan banknotes.
A Moldovan festival participant in Chisinau, Moldova. Moldovan
Moldovans are famous for producing brightly colored
folk costumes combine elements of traditional Romanian dress
with Moldovan modifications. (Slaystorm/Dreamstime.com) flat-weave carpets that incorporate floral motifs on a
black background. Moldovan earthenware pottery is also
the Soviets caused great resentment among the Moldovans popular.
toward Soviet authorities. This resentment soon mani- Moldovans are also known for their wine, which is a
fested in the form of rebellions. During Leonid Brezhnev’s source of national pride. Indeed, the state-owned vineyard,
leadership of the Communist Party of Moldavia (CPM, Cricova, is regarded as a national treasure. Rural Moldovan
1950–1952), he repressed an ethnic Romanian uprising families will also make their own wine, which they then
by killing or deporting thousands of people. Although offer to guests from an earthenware jug. Urban Moldovans
Brezhnev and other CPM leaders were mostly successful usually serve guests wine made at a relative’s home in the
in suppressing Moldavan nationalism, Moldavan hostility countryside.
toward the Soviets burned for another thirty years until Almost all Moldovans are Orthodox Christians and
Mikhail Gorbachev came to power in 1985. Gorbachev’s adhere to the Eastern or Russian Orthodox calendar. Since
policies of glasnost (“openness”) and perestroika (“restruc- Moldova’s independence, religion has become more prev-
turing”) allowed Moldovans a degree of freedom in which alent in Moldovan, life with prayers and icons increasingly
they could express nationalist sentiments. evident, including in schools. In addition, most Moldo-
The independent parliamentary Republic of Moldova van houses contain a religious icon. Moldovans celebrate
came into being in 1991 following the downfall of the Christmas by singing carols (colinde) and holding religious
Soviet Union. Since independence, Moldova has struggled services. Recently, Santa Claus (Moş Craciun) and Christ-
economically and is one of Europe’s poorest nations. mas trees have become popular with Moldovans. At Easter,
Moldovans make special, ring-shaped bread (pasca) that
symbolizes eternal life, and they dye eggs red to symbol-
Society, Culture, and Tradition ize Christ’s blood of Christ. The eggs are blessed by local
Traditionally, Moldova is an agricultural nation. Typ- priests before being eaten on Easter Sunday. The week after
ically, Moldovans live in rural areas where they live in Orthodox Sunday or Monday, Moldovans celebrate Paştele
 Moldovan 753

Blajinilor or Paştele Morţilor (Easter of the Dead). This is a In 2012, Moldova’s education expenditures ranked
commemoration of the dead that sees Moldovans visit the tenth  globally, with the republic spending 8.4 percent of
graves of their ancestors in cemeteries, where they drink its gross domestic product (GDP) on education. Moldova’s
wine, eat traditional foods, and receive a blessing from a literacy rate runs at 99 percent, and on average, Moldo-
local priest. van children spend twelve years in education; primary to
Another religious holiday celebrated by Moldovans tertiary education is twelve years (Shipman 2015). Moldo-
is Hramul Chisinaulu (or Chisinau City Day), a Russian van children are educated at free preschools between the
Orthodox festival commemorating the Intercession of ages of three and seven years. Article 17 of Moldova’s Law
the Virgin Mary. The festival is celebrated on October 14 on Education requires that children aged five years spend
annually in the main street of Chisinau (the Moldovan one year in preprimary education. Moldovan children enter
capital). To mark the occasion, people wear national dress, primary school at six or seven years old. Moldova’s primary
traditional food and wine is served, and folk music and education system stresses the importance of the cognitive
dance (especially the hora) are performed. Secular holi- and psychomotor development of children. Secondary
days celebrated by Moldovans include New Year’s Day education in Moldova is divided into two stages: lower sec-
(January 1), Women’s Day (March 8), Victory Day (May ondary and upper secondary. Lower secondary education
9), Independence Day (August 27), Language Day (August is compulsory and lasts for five years (grades five through
31), and National Wine Day (in October). nine). Students must pass a graduation exam to move on to
the upper secondary grades of ten to twelve. Upper second-
ary school lasts for three years and ends in either the ates-
Health Care and Education tat de maturitate (awarded after two years of study) or the
Moldova has a universal healthcare system. However, baccalaureate diploma (awarded to pupils that have passed
by Western standards this health care is generally poor a national examination taken at the end of grade twelve).
quality, and it can be hard to access in rural areas. Since Moldovan students may then enter technical or vocational
2000, Moldova’s health care has improved, and the peo- secondary education. Industrial trade schools are available
ple’s life expectancy has risen to seventy-two years (WHO to students who have graduated from eleventh grade but do
2016). not wish to study further. The length of vocation courses
The main causes of death in Moldova are diseases of the varies and leads to a certificate. Training programs are also
circulatory system, cancers, injuries, and deliberate and offered by professional education schools. Higher educa-
accidental poisoning. Infectious diseases (particularly tion is provided in the form of full-time, extramural, and
tuberculosis) are prevalent too. Indeed, the incidence of evening courses. Moldova’s poor economy means many of
tuberculosis rose by 83 percent between 2000 and 2013. the republic’s schools lack central heating and proper sani-
At the same time, mortality rates from cardiovascular tation and are in a state of disrepair.
diseases are nearly twice as high than in other former
Soviet nations, and deaths from cancer are increasing. In
2009, high rates of syphilis and gonorrhea were recorded Threats to Survival
in Moldova, but they have declined recently. In contrast, Poverty and poor living conditions has resulted in mas-
since 2000, Moldova’s HIV/AIDS rate has increased sive emigration from Moldova. It is estimated that around
greatly. Since 2013, diabetes rates among Moldovans has one million Moldovans live both legally and illegally out-
also risen (by 150 percent). In contrast, incidences of side Moldova. Consequently, payments from Moldovans
viral hepatitis A and B have decreased since 2000. Mol- living abroad account for over one-third of Moldova’s
dova’s vaccination rates for measles and polio have var- GDP (Anderson Worden 2011). Aside from poverty, prob-
ied over time, but immunization coverage has remained lems facing Moldovans include a prevalence of human
above 90 percent since 2000. In 2013, 91 percent of babies trafficking, government corruption, and environmental
were vaccinated against rubella and viral hepatitis B. The pollution.
vaccination rate for tuberculosis is high at 96 percent See also: Gagauz; Jews; Székely
but is lower for measles and mumps (91 percent) and for
Further Reading
diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus (90 percent). Moldo- Anderson Worden, Elizabeth. 2011. “Moldovans.” In Ethnic
va’s infant and maternal mortality rates are falling fast Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffery E.
(WHO 2016). Cole, 262–265. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
754 Mon

Global Security. 2000–2018. “Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic.” from the Irrawaddy Delta to the Chao Praya River. Most
GlobalSecurity.org. https://www.globalsecurity.org​/military​ of the region is flat and lowland, lying along the Gulf of
/world/europe/md-history-soviet.htm. Thailand and the Andaman Sea. The area is divided by the
Shipman, Eastin. 2015. “Education in Moldova.” Borgen
Magazine, February 3. https://www.borgenmagazine.com​
Bilauktaung, a subrange of the Tenasserim Hills located in
/education-moldova. Burma on the border with Thailand that acts as an interna-
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the tional border. Mon State has a tropical climate but enjoys
World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA: temperate weather because it is located in a low latitude
ABC-CLIO. zone near the sea. Rain is heaviest in Mon State during July
World Health Organization (WHO). 2016. “Republic of Moldova: and August.
Profile of Health and Well-Being.” http://www.euro.who​.int​
/__data/assets/pdf_file/0005/323258/Profile-health-well​
-being-Rep-Moldova.pdf?ua=1.
History and Politics
The Mons originated in China’s upper Mekong River, from
where they migrated with the Khmer southward, follow-
ing the river’s course. When the Khmer followed the river
MON into what is now Cambodia, the Mons journeyed on south
to southern Thailand’s Chao Praya River basin. Over the
Current Location Thailand; Myanmar subsequent centuries, the Mons moved on from there,
Current Population 2 million–8 million traveling westward to Myanmar’s Irrawaddy River Delta.
Language Mon; Thai; Burmese; English Over time, numerous sophisticated Mon kingdoms
Interesting Fact The total Mon population has never evolved in both Thailand and Myanmar that were well-
been counted. known for having educated populations. In the first and
fourth centuries CE, the Mons established a wealthy,
Overview sophisticated society with a strong literary culture. This
The Mons are an ethnic group living in the Myanmar and society was known as the Golden Land and was noted as
Thailand. Other names for the Mons include the Hamsava- the most advanced society in all Southeast Asia. Around
tis, Talengs, Peguans, Takanoons, and Ramans. The Mons 1000 CE, the Mons were invaded by the Khmers from the
speak the Mon language, which belongs to the Monic east and also experienced inward migration from the Tai.
branch of the Mon-Khmer language family. Mons living in Subsequently, in 1044, an eastern Tibetan warrior people
Myanmar also speak Burmese and English, whereas Mons called the Bamars, who would subsequently become the
in Thailand also speak Thai. Most Mons are Theravada predominant population of Burma, conquered the Mons
Buddhists. and adopted most aspects of Mon culture and society as
their own. However, in 1287, the Bamars were conquered
by the Mongols, which allowed the Mons to reclaim their
Population, Diaspora, and Migration kingdom.
The total Mon population has never been counted, but it is A second advanced Mon kingdom, the Hamsavati or
estimated that there are between 2 million and 4 million Sheldrake Country, flourished during the fourteenth and
Mon people. Most Mons put their number at around 5.5 fifteenth centuries. However, the Burmans invaded Mon
million people, though Mon nationalists put the figure at land once more and conquered the kingdom in 1551. In
over 8 million (Minahan 2012). In Myanmar, most Mons live 1740, the Mons entered into a twelve-year rebellion against
in Mon State, Bago Region, the Irrawaddy Delta, and along the harsh Bamar regime; the Mons were led by their great-
Myanmar’s southern border with Thailand. In Thailand, the est hero, Binnya Dala. In 1752, Dala entered into an alliance
Mons are concentrated around the Thai capital, Bangkok, with French forces that were operating nearby, but despite
and along the country’s northern border with Myanmar. the help of outsiders, the Bamars retook the Mons’ land in
1757 in an assault that saw many Mon villages and towns
razed to the ground. Over the next few hundred years, the
Geography and Environment Bamars perpetrated numerous massacres of the Mons liv-
The Mons live in an area covering southern Myanmar ing in southern Myanmar, with survivors either sold into
and central and western Thailand encompassing the zone slavery or fleeing east to Thailand. In both Myanmar and
 Mon 755

Thailand, the Mons started to assimilate into the socie- were ever a separate ethnic group, insisting they were
ties into which they had moved either because they were merely a division of Bamar society.
forced to integrate or because they married people from In 1974, the Burmese military regime instituted an
different cultures. ostensibly independent Mon state that became home to
In 1884, the Mons revolted against the Bamars, but around one-third of Myanmar’s Mon people. However, this
this rebellion was ruthlessly quashed, with Mon settle- move was designed both to placate and divide the Mons
ments destroyed and people forced to escape to Thailand. (Minahan 2002). In 1988–1990 and in 2007, the Mons
Despite this, the Mons kept holding small-scale rebellions supported the democracy movement within Myanmar,
against the Bamars with the intention of disrupting Bamar leading to the indiscriminate harassment of the Mons,
society. Between 1826 and 1852, Mon areas of Myanmar including Mon civilians. In 2011–2012, Myanmar author-
came under British rule following the Anglo-Burmese ities adopted modest political changes that allowed the
War. The Mons much preferred living under British rule Mons to participate in local elections and call for an inde-
than under the Bamars, whom they despised, and the pendent Mon territory.
Mons became one of the peoples most loyal to the British
(Minahan 2012). Young urban Mons embraced Western
education because they saw it as a way to improve their Society, Culture, and Tradition
standing with the British, and many young Mons entered In Myanmar, Mon culture has survived despite centuries of
the British military or colonial administration. By the repression and assimilationist policies. The Mon language,
start of the twentieth century, despite their hatred for the which has its own script consisting of 35 letters, is related
Bamars, most Mons had assimilated into Bamar society to Khmer and is similar to other local languages. Literature
and no longer spoke Mon. As a result of this assimilation, written in Mon is revered throughout Asia in the way that
the Bamars began to claim there had never been a distinct Ancient Greek and Roman literature are esteemed in the
Mon people. This claim enraged the Mons and roused Mon West.
nationalism to a level that saw the formation of many The Mons are Theravada Buddhists, having been
Mon cultural associations. Consequently, in the 1920s, introduced to the faith through trading with Indian mar-
violence broke out between the Mons and the Bamars as itime merchants from the first to the fourth centuries.
the Mons pressed for the recognition of their ethnicity The religion permeates many aspects of Mon life, but at
and culture. the same time, the Mons maintain elements of animist,
Throughout the 1920s and 1930s, a new generation of pre-Buddhist philosophies. For example, the Mons wor-
Mons educated under the British came to the forefront, ship kalok (clan spirits and ghosts), which they invoke by
replacing traditional Mon leaders. The younger leaders performing spirit dances and other shamanistic rituals.
were more forceful and nationalistic, and by the time The dances are a feature of Mon village celebrations. The
World War II erupted, Mon nationalism was prevalent oldest of the spirit dances is dedicated to the Hintha, or
throughout Mon areas of Myanmar and Thailand. During Sheldrake, the mythological bird adopted by the Mons as
the war, the Mons remained steadfastly loyal to the British, their national symbol.
and after the war ended, upon realizing that Myanmar was
heading for independence, the Mons petitioned the Brit-
ish for the creation of their own Mon state. The British left Health Care and Education
Myanmar in great haste, however, and ignored the Mons’ Recent data on Myanmar health care and education is
request for independence. The Mons therefore tried to hard to find. In 2007, there were 826 state-funded hos-
negotiate for independence with the Bamars, who denied pitals throughout the country providing 43,128 hospital
all Mon requests. beds. Myanmar had 20,501 doctors, but 65 percent of
As Myanmar dissolved into civil war and ethnic vio- these worked in the private sector.
lence, the Mons allied themselves with the Karens, with Primary, middle, and voluntary education is free in
whom they maintained good relations, and rebelled Myanmar, but there are charges for attending secondary
against the Bamars once more. The Bamar military quelled schools and universities. The country’s adult literacy rate is
the rebellion, but the Mons continued to carry out insur- around 89.9 percent (Turner 2011). There are also several
rection against their Bamar rulers throughout the 1950s organization aimed at empowering Mon women through
and 1960s. All the while, the Bamars denied that the Mons education and community-development projects.
756 Mongol

Threats to Survival (or Lamaism). There are also some Muslim and Christian
In Thailand, the Mons have assimilated into general Thai Mongols. Some Mongols maintain the people’s traditional
society to the extent that today, few young Mons speak the shamanistic beliefs.
Mon language, and the people are indistinguishable from
Thailand’s ethnic majority. Although this means that Mon
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
culture is disappearing among Mons in Thailand, it also
means that they are not targeted for discrimination by The Mongol population is estimated at around thirty
authorities or other Thais. Mon refugees from Myanmar million people. Most Mongols live in Mongolia, China,
do not have Thai citizenship—something that leaves them and Russia. A Mongol diaspora exists in Europe, South
vulnerable to exploitation and excludes them from partic- Korea, Japan, and Central Asia. The highest concentration
ipating in aspects of Thai society. of Mongols is evident in Mongolia, in the Xinjiang and
Mon culture and language is undergoing a revival in Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region (IMAR) of China,
some parts of Myanmar, but more especially among Mons and in the Buryat and Kalmyk republics of the Russian
living in other parts of Southeast Asia and in the West. Federation.
The largest Mongol group in Mongolia is the Khalkha,
See also: Karen; Khmer who comprise around 86 percent of Mongolia’s population.
Further Reading Other large Mongol groups include Mongol communities
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations: living in Inner Mongolia, Xinjiang, Qinghai, Gansu, and
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 3, L–R. various northeast provinces. These Mongol groups include
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
the Khorchin, with a population of approximately 2.5 mil-
Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the
Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. lion people; around 1.8 million Kharachin; about 750,000
Minority Rights Groups International. 2015. “Thailand: Mon and Chakhar; roughly 300,000 Ordos (or Tumet); and around
Khmer.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peo- 200,000 Bairin. There are also numerous smaller Mongol
ples, June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/mon-and​ groups (Minahan 2014). In China, around 6 million people,
-khmer. including the Oirat and Buryat, are classified as Mongols.
South, Ashley. 2003. Mon Nationalism and Civil War in Burma:
Since the 1990s, Mongolia has experienced much inter-
The Golden Sheldrake. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
Turner, Barry. 2011. The Statesman’s Yearbook 2012: The Politics, nal migration as people move from rural areas to urban
Cultures and Economies of the World. Basingstoke, UK: Pal- settlements. Over the past ten years, the percentage of peo-
grave Macmillan. ple living in the Mongolian national capital Ulaanbaatar
has increased from 32 percent to 41 percent. At the same
time, the number of Mongols living the Mongolian coun-
tryside has fallen from around 50 percent to around 33
percent (WHO 2013).
MONGOL
Current Location Mongolia; China; Russia Geography and Environment
Current Population 30 million
Mongolia is roughly equivalent to the historical terri-
Language Mongol khel dialects
tory of Outer Mongolia, a name that is still sometimes
Interesting Fact Mongolia is the world’s most sparsely used to refer to Mongolia. Outer Mongolia was a territory
populated country. ruled by the Chinese Qing dynasty. Modern Mongolia
is a landlocked country bordered by Russia to the north
Overview and by China to the south. Mongolia is divided into 21
The Mongols (also called the Mongolians or Mongolic aimags (provinces), which are in turn divided into 329
peoples) are a Central North Asian ethnolinguistic people soums (districts). The country has a remarkably varied
living mainly in Mongolia, China, and Russia. The Mongols landscape comprising upland steppes, semideserts and
speak numerous dialects of Mongol kheli, the Mongolian deserts, forests, high mountains (including the Mongolian
language, which is spoken throughout Mongolia and Inner Altai Mountains, the Khangai Mountains, and the Khentii
Mongolia. Most Mongols adhere to Tibetan Buddhism Mountains), lakes, and depressions. Mongolia’s landscape
 Mongol 757

combines huge areas of steppes to the east, mountains to

the west and north, and the Gobi Desert to the south. Much Tsetsegee Munkhbayar
of Mongolia lies 4,921 feet above sea level, and the coun- Tsetsegee Munkhbayar was born into a family of
try is surrounded by high mountain chains. In addition seminomadic Mongol herdsmen. He cofounded (in
to hundreds of lakes and rivers, Mongolian water sources 2001) and heads the Onggi River Movement (ORM),
include saltwater and freshwater springs and subterranean a Mongolian grassroots organization that aims to
wells. Many of Mongolia’s lakes are salty and impermanent. protect Mongolia’s Onggi River from the effects of
Mongolia has an extreme continental climate that sees unregulated mining. Munkhbayar’s work has led
temperatures drop to as low as –40°C in winter before to the creation of the Mongolian Nature Protection
climbing to as high as 35°C in summer. Annual average Coalition, which unites several Mongolian river
precipitation varies between 300 and 400 millimeters in movements and has publicized the degradation of
the mountains of the northwest, 150 and 200 millimeters Mongolian rivers.
in areas of steppe, and less than 100 millimeters in the As a poor herder, Munkhbayar first started to
Gobi Desert. attend villages meetings in the 1990s, representing
Mongolia’s environmental issues include air pollution herders on issues that included land use and water
caused by emissions from thermal power stations and access. In 1996, he was chosen to chair a local citi-
vehicles as well as smoke from stoves that burn wood and zens’ council. As chair, he confronted provincial and
low-quality coal. From December to February, the sulfur senior politicians on community issues. Over time,
dioxide levels of Mongolia exceed national safety stand- Munkhbayar became increasingly concerned about
ards. There are high levels of water pollution in Ulaanbaatar the declining Onggi River and, with local support,
and Erdenet. In addition, Mongolia’s water treatment oper- helped to stop damaging mining operations.
ations are aging and inefficient and so are unable to effi- Munkhbayar focuses on increasing people’s
ciently treat waste. Another problem is that intensive gold awareness about the need to safeguard natural
mining in the Gobi had caused rivers to dry up. In total, resources. To this end, he holds workshops to edu-
over the course of the last ten years, around four hundred cate herdsmen about their human rights and on
of the country’s rivers and streams have disappeared. The environmental issues. Under Munkhbayar, ORM
drying up of the rivers leaves herds without water. Water has established local committees in the Onggi River
shortages have also been caused by overconsumption and basin area, recruited thousands of members, and
illegal timbering that affects hydrological cycles. Deserti- led information campaigns and a protest march.
fication has increased due to overgrazing and the growth Munkhbayar eventually convinced the Mongolian
of the mining industry. It is thought around 70 percent of government to enforce mining regulations to protect
Mongolia is affected by desertification. Deforestation is the Onggi River and begin its restoration.
another issue, with 1.6 million hectares of forest destroyed In 2006, the Mongolian parliament passed a law
since the 1970s due to unsustainable logging (University that regulates mining and protects waterways. In
of Manitoba n.d.). addition, most of the mining operations working in
the Onggi River basin have stopped their destruc-
tive practices. Consequently, the Onggi River began
History and Politics to flow higher and farther. In 2007, Munkhbayar
Originally, the Mongols lived on the east bank of the received the Goldman Environmental Prize. In 2014,
Erguna River, located in what is now central Inner Mon- he was sentenced to twenty-one years in prison for
golia. The name Mongol derives from the name of a tribal his involvement in a 2013 demonstration. Commen-
people called the Mengwushiwei, who were documented tators have suggested that his arrest is retribution for
in a tenth-century Chinese chronicle Jiu Tang Shu (The his history of activism.
Ancient History of the Tang Dynasty). During the time of
the Yuan dynasty (1271–1368), the name Mengwushiwei
was changed to Mongol. Over time, the name caught on In the seventh century, Mongol nomads started to
among the numerous nomadic peoples living in China’s migrate to grasslands located in the west. By the start
border areas. of the twelfth century, the Mongols had extended their
758 Mongol

territory to include the upper parts of the Onon, Rerulen, the Mongols continued to control swathes of Asia, the
and Tola Rivers to the east of the low Kente Mountains. Middle East, and Europe. At the end of the fourteenth cen-
The tribal leader Temujin unified the numerous tribal tury, the Oirat tribal confederacy challenged the Mongol’s
groups living on the plains that today comprise Mongo- supremacy over Mongolia and Central Asia. Subsequently,
lia and Inner Mongolia. Later known as Genghis Khan the Mongol groups living in Outer and Inner Mongolia
(meaning “the great leader”), Temujin led the Mongols to came under the control of Dayan Khan (1464–1517/1543),
invade neighboring khanates as well as areas in the Cau- who in the fifteenth century reunited the central Mongols.
casus, Middle East, and China. Neighboring Turkic peo- Under Dayan Khan’s rule, the Khalkha developed into the
ples were also annexed and assimilated into the emergent main tribe of both Outer and Inner Mongolia.
Mongol empire and so became part of the Mongol hordes. In 1635, the Manchu defeated a southern Mongol con-
The Mongols wreaked destruction where they invaded, federacy from Inner Mongolia before moving farther south
often involving massacres of people and animals and the to overrun China in 1644. The Khalkha and other Mon-
demolition of cities. By the time of Khan’s death in 1227, gols living in Outer Mongolia were able to maintain their
the Mongol Empire had come to occupy parts of Cen- independence until 1688, when they sought the support
tral Asia, China, and Siberia. Khan’s empire was divided of the Manchu Qing dynasty against the Oirat Dzungar
between his sons and grandsons, each of whom received tribe. By 1691, all Mongols living in central areas had been
a khanate. brought under Manchu rule. In Inner Mongolia, Mongol
Khan’s heirs continued the Mongol expansion across territory was incorporated into Manchu China. In Outer
stretches of Eurasia, thereby creating vast vassal Mongol Mongolia, however, the Mongols lived under only nominal
states in the Caucasus, Eastern Europe, and Russia, as well Manchu rule because Mongol khans were allowed to retain
as in China, Korea, Central Asia, and the Middle East. The much of their sovereignty. During the eighteenth century,
growing empire launched military campaigns through- the Manchu extended their territory westward to include
out an area stretching from Europe’s Adriatic Sea to Java additional Mongol and Turkic peoples.
in Southeast Asia and from Japan to the Middle East. By From 1775 to 1757, the Oirat Dzungar Empire in north-
1240, the Mongol Golden Horde had come to dominate ern Xinjiang was destroyed. The destruction of Oirat con-
Russia. Then, by 1279, the Mongol had brought China trol ended the main threat to Manchu control over Mongol
under their rule. Because these conquests were accom- areas. The Manchu forbade the Han Chinese from settling
panied by the mass murder of local peoples, the Mongols in Mongol areas. This lack of immigration to Mongol areas
acquired a fearsome reputation. At the same time, Genghis meant the Mongols were able to preserve their dialects
Khan advanced the Mongols in terms of culture and poli- and culture. The Qing dynasty continued to rule Outer
tics. Under Khan, the Mongols adopted the Uyghur writing Mongolia via a series of alliances and marriages, as well as
system, religious tolerance was practiced throughout the through military and financial means. However, the nobil-
Mongol Empire, and the various nomadic Mongol tribes ity and clergy neglected the well-being of the people. By the
came together under a shared bond. end of the nineteenth century, Mongols in Mongolia lived
In the mid-thirteenth century, the Mongol Empire in poverty. Mongol living conditions worsened in 1878,
began to disintegrate under the rule of Kublai Khan. By the when the Chinese authorities allowed the Han Chinese to
time of Khan’s death in 1294, the empire had split into four settle on Mongol land to ease overcrowding. Then, in the
distinct khanates, each ruled by a descendant of Genghis 1880s and 1890s, further colonization of Mongol land by
Khan: the khanate of the Golden Hoards controlled Rus- Han Chinese prompted periodic violence and widespread
sia, Siberia, and other areas of the empire’s northwest; the Mongol resentment. In 1904, Mongols in Inner Mongolia
Chatagai khanate ruled Central Asia; the Ilkanate con- rioted, with civil unrest spreading to other Mongol areas.
trolled the southwest territories of the empire across an The Mongols also started to raid immigration offices and
area stretching from Turkey to Pakistan; and the Mongol attack Han Chinese settlers. Anti-Chinese protests contin-
Yuan dynasty ruled China. In 1304, the three western khan- ued until the outbreak of the Chinese Revolution (1911),
ates agreed to come under the loose control of the Yuan which ended Qing’s rule over imperial China. Following
emperors. When the Han Chinese Ming dynasty overthrew the Qing’s collapse, a descendent of Genghis Khan, Bogd
the Yuan in 1368, the conquering of the Yuan marked the Khan, declared Outer Mongolia autonomous. However,
end of the Mongol Empire, though states descended from Inner Mongolia, which was inhabited by a large number of
 Mongol 759

Han Chinese, remained part of the newly created Republic region to assimilate into Chinese society. At the same time,
of China. In 1915, the Russians and Chinese, both of whom continual immigration to the region by Han Chinese left
were opposed to Mongol autonomy, signed the Treaty of the Mongols as a minority population in their own home-
Kyakhta, a triparty treaty between Russia, Mongolia, and land. By 1951, the Southern Mongols were outnumbered
China that divided historical Mongolia the three parties. two to one by Han Chinese, whereas in 1957, the Southern
Soon after, a rebellion arose in Inner Mongolia, but this Mongols numbered one in eight inhabitants of the region.
was crushed so violently that some parts of Inner Mongo- By 1980, the Southern Mongol comprised only one in
lia were left almost uninhabited. every seventeen of the region’s population.
In 1919, the Chinese occupied Mongolia following the Mongolia’s close alliance with the Soviet Union, which
Russian Revolution. However, during the Russian Civil War, was mostly intended to see off the threat of Chinese expan-
White forces defeated the Chinese in Mongolia. To elimi- sionism, resulted in Mongolian society aping Soviet society.
nate the White forces, communist Russian leaders backed The relaxation of Soviet constraints during the late 1980s
the creation of a communist Mongolian state. With sup- and the subsequent collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991
port from the new Soviet Union, communist troops liber- greatly influenced Mongolian politics. Mongolia made a
ated Outer Mongolia, which was declared an independent peaceful transition to democracy, multiparty politics, and
Mongol state in 1921. After the death of Outer Mongolia the market economy. In Inner Mongolia, the Southern
de facto leader Bogd Khan in 1924, a Mongolian People’s Mongol minority benefited from economic reforms and
Republic was declared. In 1928, Khorloogiin Choibalsan the end of unforgiving communist policies. At the start
became the head of Mongolia’s communist government. of the twentieth century, Inner Mongolia has experienced
Under Choibalsan’s rule, monks and other individuals rapid development due to the exploitation of the region’s
Choibalsan deemed a threat to the state were massacred, natural resources.
Mongol herds were collectivized, and hundreds of Mongol
Buddhist monasteries were destroyed.
At the start of the 1930s, the Japanese invaded neigh- Society, Culture, and Tradition
boring Manchuria, a move that alarmed the Mongolian Modern Mongol culture has evolved from numerous his-
and Chinese governments. The Japanese soon set about torical cultures that have interacted over the centuries.
encouraging nationalism among Mongols living in Inner Modern Mongol societies tend to have similar cultures and
Mongolia and backed anticommunist Mongol groups are mainly distinguished by dialectical differences.
based in Mongolia. In 1938, the Japanese occupied Inner The Mongol language, Mongol khel, is spoken in numer-
Mongolia as part of Japan’s war with China (1937–1945) ous dialects. In Mongolia, the Khalkha dialect is the stand-
and installed a puppet government. This government col- ard dialect. It is written in Cyrillic, but a modified form
lapsed when the Japanese were defeated in World War II. of Latin script is increasingly used to write the language
In mid-1945, Mongol troops headed south from Mon- because this is more suited to social media. The dialects
golia to occupy Inner Mongolia. The Mongols living in used by Mongols in Inner Mongolia are written in the
Inner Mongolia considered the Mongolian army as their traditional Mongol script called Soyombo. The Chinese
liberators and subsequently voted for unification with government has manufactured a literary standard for
Mongolia. In the middle of the Chinese Civil War (1927– the Mongol dialects spoken in China; this is based on the
1950), Chinese communist leaders appealed to Joseph Chakhar dialect (commonly called Southern Mongolian).
Stalin for assistance. In response, Stalin prevented the Historically, the Mongols follow a belief system, Ten-
unification of Mongolia with Inner Mongolia. Stalin also gris, which is animist, shamanistic, and polytheistic and
put the Mongol army under sufficient pressure to make involves ancestor worship. The Mongols consider shamans
it withdraw from Chinese land. Ultimately, the Chinese as being able to interpret dreams and act as negotiators
communists proved victorious, and in 1947, they moved between the human world and the spirit realm. Some
into Inner Mongolia. Mongols still hold shamanistic beliefs such as making sac-
Under communist rule, a nominal self-ruling Inner rifices to ancestors and worshipping the sun and moon.
Mongolia region was established. Although the Mongols However, most Mongols follow Tibetan Buddhism (Lama-
were ostensibly allowed cultural autonomy, the Chinese ism), which was adopted by the Mongols in the sixteenth
government forced Mongols living in the south of the century. Under communist rule, many Mongol Buddhist
760 Mongol

Wrestlers compete during the annual Nadaam festival in the Mongolian countryside. Mongolian wrestling, bökh, is an integral part of
Mongol culture. (Pniesen/Dreamstime.com)

practices were curtailed. This was particularly true in protect toddlers from the devil and confuse the devil as
China since 1949. Today, however, most Mongols are Bud- to the youngsters’ gender. Similarly, Mongols do not pre-
dhist. Mongols regard Mongolia as the Land of the Eternal pare for the arrival of a baby because they fear doing so
Blue Sky and offer prayers to the Eternal Blue Sky even if alerts the devil to the baby’s imminent arrival. It is taboo
they are Buddhist. To Mongols, both Mongolia and the to call a Mongol baby beautiful. Instead, a baby should be
sky are symbolized by a khadag, a blue scarf that they fly described as ugly to protect it from the devil, who desires
ceremonially. The scarves are tied to ovoos, pre-Buddhist beautiful babies.
cairns found on mountain plateaus across Mongolia. Typ- Mongolian wrestling, bökh, is an all-male form of folk
ically, an ovoo is made from rock or wood and is used in wrestling found in Mongolia, China, and Russia. Bökh is
religious ceremonies, especially in shamanistic worship an integral part of Mongol life and culture, though the
of the sky and earth. It is traditional for travelers to tie a way it is practiced varies between Mongolia and Inner
khadag to an ovoo before leaving Mongolia. Mongolia. Bökh is one of the three traditional manly skills
Mongols consider water a pure spirit and so do not of the Mongols—wrestling, archery, and horsemanship—
wash dirty clothes or women’s clothing in running water. that are held in great esteem by the Mongols and are
Many Mongols also revere fire because they think it can closely linked to the people’s traditional pastoral
expel evil. For this reason, it is taboo to dry shoes above nomadism.
a fire in a Mongol home. Mongols hold many other Bökh wrestlers wear a distinctive outfit that varies
taboos that stem from the people’s belief in the devil. For between Mongolian and Inner Mongolian styles. Mon-
instance, Mongols, who fear the devil brings illness to golian wrestlers wear a traditional cap, silk briefs, and a
children, do not cut a baby boy’s hair until he is two years tight-fitting heavy cloth cropped top. The top exposes a
of age (three years for girls). This practice is enacted to wrestler’s chest but is held on by a length of rope that ties
 Mongol 761

around a wrestler’s stomach. Inner Mongolian wrestlers of children in Mongolia aged under five years are anemic
wear long, loose pants; a metal-studded leather top that (WHO 2013).
exposes the chest; and highly decorated boots. Inner Mon- In Mongolia, primary school starts at age six years
golian wrestlers do not wear a cap, though ranked wres- and lasts for five grades. Secondary school is divided into
tlers do sport a necklace called a jangg. two cycles: lower secondary school comprises grades six
The finale of the Mongolian sporting year is the three- through nine, and upper secondary comprises grades
day annual festival of Nadaam (“celebration” or “games”), ten and eleven. In theory, primary and secondary school
which is held the second week of July in Ulaanbaatar to are free. Primary and lower secondary school are com-
mark the country’s independence. At Nadaam, wrestling, pulsory. Mongolia is home to many tertiary education
archery, and horsemanship are celebrated. Another impor- facilities, including the National University of Mongo-
tant Mongol event is the Feast of Genghis Khan, which lia in Ulaanbaatar, founded in 1942. One of the greatest
is held annually in Mongolia on the first day of the first achievements of the socialist era in Mongolia was that the
winter month of the year. The date is symbolic because the Mongols received a high level of education. Consequently,
actual birthday of Genghis Khan is unknown. the literacy rate of the Mongols is high as 96 percent, and
the literacy rate for Mongols aged fifteen years or above
is 98.3 percent (WHO 2013). Key problems affecting the
Health Care and Education Mongolian education system include poor quality teach-
According to the World Health Organization, in 2010 ing by inadequately trained teachers and poor teaching
Mongol life expectancy at birth was estimated to be 68.1 environments in schools. In Inner Mongolia, Mongol
years. This figure indicates that Mongol longevity has families are being resettled on the outskirts of urban
increased by around 5 years over the past 20 years. On areas, and Mongols no longer have access to Mongol-
average, Mongolian men lose 7.7 years and women lose language schools because only Chinese-language educa-
8.1 healthy years due to disability (WHO 2013). As a result tion is provided. Consequently, Mongol pupils have no
of high immunization coverage and national health pro- choice but to learn in Mandarin (Minority Rights Group
grams, infectious disease is no longer among the leading International 2017).
five causes of death among Mongols in Mongolia. Instead,
lifestyle- and behavior-dependent diseases, including dis-
eases of the circulatory system, cancers, and injuries, are Threats to Survival
the Mongols’ leading causes of death. Overall death rates In China, Mongols are a minority in their own region.
from respiratory, digestive, and genitourinary diseases are Although many Mongols share a strong connection to
higher in rural areas, whereas in urban areas, injuries and their people’s traditional pastoral nomadism, nomads in
cardiovascular diseases are the main causes of death. In China are losing touch with the ways of their ancestors
Mongolia, incidences of HIV/AIDS, sexually transmitted because their traditional lifestyle is threatened by environ-
diseases, tuberculosis, viral hepatitis, and zoonotic diseases mental degradation, urbanization, and being pressured
are increasing. Liver cancer is one of the most common to live in urban areas by the government. Inner Mongolia
causes of death in Mongolia. Hepatitis B and C viruses are is rich in land and natural resources, something that has
the main causes of chronic liver disease in Mongolia. The fueled waves of environmental exploitation. In turn, this
Mongols’ high intake of alcohol accelerates the progress has sparked episodes of Mongol resistance that have been
of these viruses, resulting in chronic hepatitis and liver dealt with violently by Chinese authorities.
cancer at a much younger age than elsewhere. Research Mongols in Inner Mongolia are almost totally over-
has found that 48 percent of men in Mongolia smoke, and whelmed by Han Chinese migrants, with government
42.9 percent are exposed to secondhand smoke at home. policies directly or indirectly discriminating against
Research has also found that 39.8 percent of people in Mongols. China’s Mongols struggle to preserve a sense
Mongolia are overweight. of national identity given the overwhelming number of
Mongolian life expectancy for children has also Han Chinese living in their homeland. Mongolian efforts
improved recently, and the prevalence of iodine and iron to raise awareness of their treatment are hampered by a
deficiency among Mongolian children has fallen. How- lack of an organized political diaspora. China’s rapid eco-
ever, as a result of these deficiencies, around 22 percent nomic boom means there are increasing demands for
762 Mordvin

Inner Mongolia’s energy resources (especially coal and traditionally reside in their own republic Mordvinia (also
natural gas) as well as its livestock, animal products, and written as Mordoviya or Mordovia), which lies within the
rare metals. Recently, a major concern has been the Chi- Russian Federation. The Mordvins are also known as the
nese policy of “recovering grassland ecosystem,” which Mordovans, Mordva, Mordvinians, or Mordovians. Most
has caused hundreds of thousands of Mongol herders and Mordvins are bilingual, speaking Russian as well as the
their families to be forcibly removed from their tradi- Mordvin language, which is classified as a Finnic language
tional lands (Minority Rights Watch International 2017). of the Finno-Ugrian group of the Uralic language family.
Resettled Mongols are moved to the outskirts of urban The Mordvin language consists of two related yet different
areas, where they no longer receive Mongol-language edu- languages: Moksha, which is spoken by southern Mord-
cation. Because Mongols in China are naturally less fluent vins, and Erzya, which is spoken by northern Mordvins.
in Mandarin, they tend to suffer marginalization in edu- Two-thirds of Mordvins speak Erzya, and the rest speak
cation and employment. Moksha. To a degree, Moksha and Erzya are mutually intel-
ligible. The Mordvin national flag is a horizontal tricolor
See also: Buryat; Evenk; Kyrgyz; Manchu
featuring stripes of red, white, and blue. The white band
Further Reading
is double the width of the other two strips and contains a
Campbell, David H. 2017. “Mongolia.” In Ken Taylor and Vic-
toria Williams, Etiquette and Taboos around the World: A central sun emblem. The Erzya people have their own flag,
Geographic Encyclopedia of Social and Cultural Customs, which takes the form of a horizontal tricolor with white,
190–194. Santa Barbara, CA: Greenwood. red, and black bands. Traditionally, the Mordvins are Rus-
Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Cen- sian Orthodox Christians, though some Mordvins retain
tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. vestiges of the Mordvins’ traditional polytheistic religion.
Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “China: Mongols.”
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples,
November. https://minorityrights.org/minorities/mongols.
University of Manitoba. n.d. “Ecological Issues Facing Mongo-
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
lia.” http://home.cc.umanitoba.ca/~umthrife/2390/mongolia​ The last Soviet-era census recorded the Mordvin popula-
.html. tion as being 1,154,000, but the last Russian census, con-
Williams, Victoria. 2015. Weird Sports and Wacky Games around ducted in 2002, stated that there were 845,000 Mordvins,
the World: From Buzkashi to Zorbing. Santa Barbara, CA:
a population decrease of 21 percent (Saarinen 2011). Mor-
Greenwood.
World Health Organization (WHO). 2013. “Mongolian Health dvin nationalists claim that the people’s population is over
System Review.” Asia Pacific Observatory on Health Sys- two million people (Minahan 2002).
tems and Policies: Health Systems in Transition 3 (2). Today, only around 27 percent of Mordvins live in
http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/207531​ their republic. The rest of the Mordvin population lives
/9789290616092_eng.pdf;jsessionid=82C9811436DA2318A in settlements scattered across a very wide area north
AAE553473DD4ABB?sequence=1.
and south of the republic in the Middle Volga area, as
well as areas east of the republic heading toward the Ural
Mountains. Mordvinia has a Russian-majority popula-
tion. At the same time, many Mordvins live outside of
their republic, with significant Mordvin communities
MORDVIN living in the Samara, Orenburg, Ulyanovsk, and Penza
oblasts, as well as in the republics of Tatarstan, Chu-
Current Location Russian Federation
vashia, and Bashkortostan. There are another 120,000
Current Population 845,000
Mordvins living in Central Asia and Russian Siberia
Language Mordvin; Russian (Minahan 2002).
Interesting Fact The Mordvin equivalent of hello is
Shumbrat.
Geography and Environment
Overview The Mordvin republic lies between the Oka and Sura, two
Mordvin is the collective name given to two different tributaries of the Volga River, and stretches from Nizhni
Finno-Ugric peoples, the Erzykas and the Mokshas, who Novgorod and Ryazan in the west to the Ural Mountains
 Mordvin 763

in the east. The Mordvins’ homeland comprises wooded the Ural Mountains to Siberia, where they were out of the
upland and lowland areas. The capital of Mordvinia is reach of vengeful Russians and would not be forcibly con-
Saransk (called Saran Os by the Mordvins). verted to Christianity. Other Mordvins headed to areas
east of the Volga and Sura Rivers because Russian rule was
weak in these parts.
History and Politics In time, the Mordvins living on fertile land to the west
The ancestors of the Mordvins inhabited the area between of the Volga were reduced to serfdom under Russian rule,
the Volga, Sura, and Oka Rivers (which is now the Mord- being made to labor on large, Russian-owned estates.
vin homeland) around two thousand years ago. A distinct These living conditions prompted the Mordvins to period-
Mordvin language began to emerge around 300 CE, but by ically rebel against the Russians. The uprisings were always
the end of the millennium, this language had divided into unsuccessful, however, and with each rebellion Russian
Moksha and Erzya. By the seventh century, the Mordvins reprisal became harsher. Under the Russians, the Mord-
had divided into the Moksha and Erzya, and although the vin economy remained agricultural well into the twenti-
two peoples had their own distinct tribal identities, they eth century. In addition, under Russian rule the Mordvins
united when threatened by outsiders. Between the seventh were assimilated quickly into Russian society, though
and twelfth centuries, both peoples developed agricul- toward the end of the nineteenth century, a sense of Mor-
ture, and their previously patriarchal, clan-based societies dvin nationalism began to stir among educated Mordvins.
became more village orientated in terms of politics and This new nationalism gathered momentum when the
social structure. Moscow-Kazan Railroad was constructed across Mordvin
During the eighth century, the Turkic Volga Bulgars land. The railway open in the 1890s and improved com-
made contact with the Mordvins. The Volga Bulgars ruled munications in the area, meaning nationalists could more
an area in the Middle Volga and made the Mordvins pay easily correspond with each other. All the while, Mordvins
tribute to them. By the end of the century, the early Mord- continued to migrate away from Russian rule, with many
vin state had become a dependency of the Bulgar Chavash fleeing to Kazakhstan and Siberia. Indeed, by the 1920s, 11
state. percent of all Mordvins lived in Siberia (Saarinen 2011).
In 1236, Mongols and Tatars of the Golden Horde (later Other Mordvins fled the Russians and found refuge in
known as the Khanate of Kazan) invaded Mordvin terri- scattered enclaves. After an unsuccessful Mordvin revolt
tory. Then, in 1392, the Muscovite state conquered western in 1905, many Mordvins fled into the forests, from where
Mordvin lands. Many Mordvins united with Russians to they continued to bother Russian authorities until 1907.
try to resist subjugation by Mongols and Tatars. In time, During World War I, Mordvin nationalism grew rap-
however, the eastern Mordvin tribes became subjects of idly, particularly among discontented Mordvin soldiers
the Khanate of Kazan, which itself was conquered by Rus- fighting for the Russians. When the czarist Russian gov-
sia in 1552. Under Russian rules, the Mordvins were forci- ernment was overthrown in February 1917, a coalition of
bly converted to Orthodox Christianity, having previously Russian and Mordvin nationalists assumed power in the
followed a polytheistic religion based on ancestor worship. region. Most Mordvins wished to be included in a fed­
At the end of the sixteenth century, the Mordvins began to eration of states in the Volga-Ural area or to unite with
migrate east and south from their initial territories. other Christians in the region (such as the Maris and
During the sixteenth and seventeen centuries, the Chuvash). However, the Bolshevik coup of October 1917
Russians built many fortifications on Mordvin land in ended any such discussions because before they could
an attempt to ward off nomadic tribes. Around the same unite with anyone, Bolshevik forces took control of the
time, significant numbers of Russians began to move into Mordvins. After a few weeks of resistance, the Mordvins
Mordvin areas to the extent that the Mordvins became a yielded to the Bolsheviks and became firmly under Soviet
minority population in their own homeland. At the start rule. In an attempt to win favor with the Mordvins, the
of the seventeenth century, the Mordvins teamed up with Soviets assumed control of Russian estates built on Mor-
the Maris and Chavash peoples to take part in various dvin lands and gave them to individual Mordvin farmers.
unsuccessful acts of insurrection against the Russians. The The Russian Civil War interrupted the Mordvin taking
rebellions were unsuccessful, so the Mordvins continued up these estates, however, and from 1914 to 1921, Mor-
to move away from their traditional lands, fleeing across dvins lives were constantly interrupted by war, disease,
764 Mordvin

and famine that claimed more than one-third of all Mor- Mordvin nationalists gathered strength to challenge the
dvins (Minahan 2002). The Soviet victory in the civil new government and pressed for the creation of an inde-
war promised to lead to the creation of an independent pendent Mordvin state. In 1994, the Republic of Mordvinia
Mordvin state, but the forced collectivization of Mordvin was enshrined, but the population was only 32 percent
land, including the previously Russian-owned estates the Mordvin (Saarinen 2011).
Mordvins had been promised, caused much anger among In recent years, the number of people claiming Mordvin
the Mordvins. nationality and speaking a Mordvin language has declined,
Despite suffering repression under Russian rule, the but this decline has leveled out. Mordvin language schools
Mordvins became educated and gained a reputation for have been established, and Mordvin culture and folklore
being a cultured people. During the 1920s, the Soviets events take place. Increasingly, young Mordvins take pride
drew up Cyrillic alphabets for both the Erzya and Mok- in speaking a Mordvin language.
sha languages. Around this time, Mordvin farmers again
complained about the collectivization of land, but these
farmers were deported or killed, as were intellectuals and Society, Culture, and Tradition
members of the rising Mordvin political elite. Traditionally, Mordvins are primarily farmers who also
In 1934, the Soviets created haphazard borders of Mor- rear animals. Many Mordvins also acquire extra food
dvin land that left the majority of Mordvins living in Rus- through hunting, fishing, and beekeeping.
sia. These Mordvins who had suddenly been made Russian Most Mordvins follow Russian Orthodox Christianity,
were not allowed to exhibit their ethnicity and became a faith that was suppressed under Soviet rule. Although
assimilated into Russian society. During World War II, repressed by the Soviets, Russian Orthodoxy became
the Russians relocated their industry to Mordvin lands something of an underground movement among the Mor-
away from fighting areas, a move that resulted in further dvins, so when Mordvin culture revived in the 1990s, the
Mordvin assimilation as the Mordvins mixed with even religion was celebrated as integral to Mordvin life. The
more Russians. This demographic change was evinced Mordvins also retain many of their pre-Christian beliefs,
by research that found that the percentage of Mordvins the most important of which is the belief in a creator-god
who considered Mordvin their first language decreased and other deities. According to Mordvin indigenous
throughout the 1970s and 1980s. At the same time, Soviet religion, the gods dwell in the Upper World, where they
society became slightly more liberal in the 1980s, allow- oversee the lives of the Mordvins. The female spirits of
ing Mordvins to express nationalist sentiments, and by the earth, field, and water provide the essential of Mord-
1991 when the Soviet Union collapsed, Mordvin nation- vin existence. The Mordvins believe that the dead reside
alists felt sufficiently confident to call for the borders of in the Lower World. Despite adhering to Christianity, the
their homeland to be redrawn to include the provinces of Mordvins venerate their ancestors and perform animal
Nishni Novgorod, Penza, and Simbirsk. In 1993, the reign- sacrifices to the nature spirits on special occasions. For
ing nationalist president was undemocratically ousted example, traditional Mordvin Christmas Eve and New Year
by neocommunists. After the removal of the president, celebrations see wealthy Mordvins hold Taunsyai rituals.

Stepan Erzia
Stepan Erzia (1876–1959) adopted Erzia as his pseudonym after his native ethnic group. Erzia decorated churches
across the Volga area and attended the Kazan Art School before studying at the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture
and Architecture. From 1906 to 1914, he lived in Italy and France before returning to Russia, where he created art-
works that included portraits of Lenin, Marx, and Engels. In 1926, the Soviet government sent Erzia abroad to spread
knowledge of Soviet art, so Erzia relocated to Paris and then Buenos Aires. In 1950, Erzia returned to the Soviet Union,
where he was awarded the Order of the Red Banner of Labour. In 1958, the Mordovian Erzia Museum of Visual Arts
opened in the Mordovian capital, Saransk. It is home to the world’s most complete collection of Erzia’s art.
 Moriori 765

The name Taunsyai derives from the Mordvin words for Further Reading
pig—taun in Erzya and tuon in Moksha—and involves a Abercromby, John. 1889. “The Beliefs and Religious Ceremonies
specially selected pig being kept separate from other pigs of the Mordvins.” The Folk-Lore Journal 7 (2): 65–135. http://​
www.jstor.org/stable/1252655.
before being slaughtered. The pig’s trotters are considered Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
delicacies, and the people also make pig-shaped pies and Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 3, L–R.
pancakes made with pig fat. Westport, CT: Greenwood Publishing.
Mordvins have a long history of telling epic tales Minority Right Group International. 2015. “Russian Federa-
through lyric songs that adhere to a strict syllabic struc- tion: Mordovans.” World Directory of Minorities and Indig-
ture and are often sung by groups. Mordvins also have a enous Peoples, June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities​
/mordovans.
strong fairytale tradition and customarily perform lam- Saarinen, Sirkka. 2011. “Mordvins.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe:
entations at weddings and funerals. In general, the Mord- An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 269–271. Santa
vin language began to develop in terms of literature only Barbara: ABC-CLIO.
after the 1920s, under Soviet rule. Indeed, the most famous
Mordvin epic poem is Mastorava (the name of the earth
goddess or Mother Earth in Mordvin folklore) by Alek-
sandr Sharonov, which was published in 1994 and is based
on Mordvin mythology and folklore. Mastorava is also an MORIORI
alternative name for Mordvin neopaganism, a modern
Current Location Chatham Islands (New Zealand)
revival of the Mordvins’ indigenous religion that has run
Current Population Around 723
alongside increasing Mordvin nationalism.
Language English; Moriori
The most celebrated Mordvin artist is probably Stepan
Erzia (or Erzya, 1876–1953), who created huge sculptures Interesting Fact The Moriori were almost extermi-
nated by Māori invaders during the
depicting folkloric and biblical characters.
nineteenth century because of their
code of nonviolence.
Health Care and Education
According to Mordvin President Nikolay Merkushkin, Overview
in 2004, the Mordvin languages were introduced as sup-
The Moriori are the indigenous people of the Chatham
plementary subjects in Mordvin secondary schools. At
Islands in the Pacific Ocean. The islands are administered
the same time, the study of Mordvin history was made a
by New Zealand. The Moriori speak English and the native
compulsory subject (Minority Rights Group International
Moriori language, a Polynesian language related to New
2015). Information on Mordvin health care is unavailable.
Zealand Māori.

Threats to Survival
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
The main threat to the Mordvins is assimilation. Many
According to the New Zealand census of 2013, there were
Mordvins were assimilated into Russian society prior to
twenty-three living in the Chatham Islands (on Chatham
the breakup of the Soviet Union and so missed the wave of
Island and Pitt Island) and around seven hundred living in
nationalism that swept through Russian Federation after
New Zealand.
1989. In addition, Mordvins live in scattered communities
where they are the minority, meaning that they can easily
be overwhelmed by more populous societies. Under the Geography and Environment
presidency of Vladimir Putin, the Russian centralization
The Chatham Islands are a fairly bleak, hilly archipelago
of power means the rights of minority groups such as the
in the Pacific Ocean lying some four hundred miles east
Mordvins have been neglected.
of mainland New Zealand. The Chatham Islands consist
See also: Crimean Tatar; Evenk; Mansi; Uzbek of around ten islands set within a twenty-five-mile radius.
766 Moriori

The largest of these islands are Chatham Island (referred to Early Moriori society was egalitarian, especially when
as Rēkohu, meaning “misty sun” by the Moriori) and Pitt compared to other Polynesian societies. Moriori chiefs
Island (called Rangiauria by the Moriori). These are the (ieriki) were selected depending on their suitability for the
only inhabited islands in the Chatham Islands archipelago. role (such as their proficiency at fishing or bird hunting)
rather than on their ancestry.
Once they arrived on the islands, the Moriori soon
History and Politics adapted to their new surroundings. The Moriori found
The Moriori were once thought to be a Melanesian people, that because the Chatham Islands lie farther south than
but they are now considered to share the same Polynesian New Zealand, the land is less fertile and the growing
heritage as the Māori. It is believed there were around two season is shorter, so the Moriori had to abandon their
thousand Moriori at the time of the Moriori’s first contact traditional lifestyle of settled agriculture and take up
with Europeans in 1791. At this time, the Moriori popula- hunter-gathering. This change in lifestyle also meant that
tion belonged to nine tribes—Hamata, Wheteina, Eitara, the Moriori had to develop new modes of transport such
Etiao, Harua, Makao, Matanga, Poutama, and Rauru—that as the wash-through raft, which was constructed with a
lived in kinship groups numbering between thirty and one base made of kelp and sides made from reeds. The materi-
hundred people. Indeed, to prevent overpopulation, some als from which the raft was made allowed it to hold water
male babies were castrated soon after birth. In addition, within the structure of the craft, meaning that it could
inbreeding and marriage between first, second, and third remain stable in high sea swells or strong winds. This sta-
cousins were considered taboo. The Moriori population bility was important because the rafts, unlike a conven-
reduced dramatically throughout the nineteenth cen- tional canoe, could navigate in the Chatham Islands’ wet
tury. At the same time, the islanders’ culture was virtually and windy maritime climate without capsizing. The largest
destroyed. Indeed, many people assumed that the Mori- wash-through raft, known as the waka pahi, was over thir-
ori became extinct, with the death of the last known full- ty-nine feet in length; it enabled Moriori men to sail out to
blooded Moriori, Tame Horomona Rehe (also known by offshore islands, where they could hunt albatross chicks.
the anglicized name Tommy Solomon), in March 1933. The The Moriori first encountered Europeans when the Brit-
Moriori are not extinct, however, because there are many ish ship HMS Chatham landed on Chatham Island in 1791.
Moriori descendants alive today, and both the Moriori lan- After this, the Moriori experienced various forms of expo-
guage and culture have recently experienced a revival. sure to outsiders, including Europeans (mainly British,
Recent research suggests that the Moriori left New French, Portuguese, and Irish) who came to hunt seals and
Zealand for the Chatham Islands at some point after the whales and Australian sealing businesses that decimated
Maori colonization of New Zealand in 1000 CE; most the seal population and sold them to China, England, and
recent estimates put the date of their arrival at around Russia. Because seals were part of the Moriori diet, sealing
1500. According to Moriori folklore, however, the Moriori strained the Moriori food supply. In addition to damaging
history on the islands dates back further than this. Mori- Moriori food resources, many sealers and whalers settled
ori folklore tells that the people’s ancestors came from on the Chatham Islands, living fairly peacefully alongside
the Wheteina and Rauru tribes that lived on Hawaiki, the the Moriori. However, despite this relative harmony, the
mythic homeland of all Polynesian peoples who then went hunters brought with them illnesses and diseases to which
on to migrate across Polynesia. The Moriori believe that the Moriori had no immunity. Thus, many Moriori died
they are descended from Rongomaiwhenua, the land god, from sickness brought to the islands by the new settlers.
and that they belong to the Hamata tribe. Some Moriori The peace of the Chatham Islands was shattered in
also believe that they are descended from the crew of the 1835 when successive waves of Māori from Taranaki on
first canoe to leave Hawaiki, who are said to have created New Zealand’s North Island invaded in search of new
the first settlements on the Chatham Islands. land. The Māori invaders set about killing, enslaving, and
The Moriori lived in isolation and developed a peaceful reportedly cannibalizing the Moriori with such brutality
culture based on the pacifist principle of Nunuku’s Law. that this period of Moriori history is often referred to as
This law was named after a chief, Nunuku-whenua, who the Moriori Genocide. Although the Moriori far outnum-
had witnessed violence between the Hamata and other bered the Māori, the islanders adhered to the principles of
tribes and so forbade murder, violence, and cannibalism. Nunuku’s Law and so did not retaliate. As a result of this
 Moriori 767

nonretaliatory approach to the Māori invaders, the Mori- Chatham Island. The marae, Kopinga marae, was opened
ori population had decreased to 101 people by 1862. officially in January 2005 with a celebration attended by
Meanwhile, in 1842, the Chatham Islands were declared then New Zealand prime minister Helen Clark, Māori roy-
part of New Zealand, and German missionaries introduced alty, politicians, and local dignitaries. When viewed from
new farming methods and literacy to the Moriori in 1843. above, the marae was designed to resemble the wings of a
Faced with the decimation of their population, together symbolic albatross. The marae’s name, kopinga, refers to
with the loss of their traditional culture and lands, start- the groves of kopi (karaka trees) at which the Moriori tra-
ing in the 1850s, Moriori chiefs petitioned New Zealand’s ditionally held their meetings.
authorities for both recognition of their status as the indig- By the start of 1992, Moriori political parties had split
enous people of the Chatham Islands and for restoration into two camps. However, after many years of trials and
of their lands. In 1863, the Moriori were released from tribulations as well as many legal and political triumphs,
enslavement at the hands of the Māori by a declaration the two political factions united in 2001 to establish the
from the Chatham Islands’ resident magistrate. However, Hokotehi Moriori Trust. This trust seeks to redress past
in 1870, the Native Lands Court investigated competing injustices and to revive the Moriori language, customs, and
claims to Chatham Islands land from both the Moriori and traditions. The trust also hopes to build a sustainable econ-
the Māori. At this time, most Māori in the Chatham Islands omy on the Chatham Islands while propagating a message
had returned to Taranaki, but the court ruled in favor of of peace and tolerance to others. This message of harmony,
the Māori tribes that had invaded the Chatham Islands, the acceptance, and sustainability runs hand in hand with the
Ngati Mutunga and Ngati Tama tribes, who were awarded modern Moriori interest in environmental conservation,
just over 97 percent of Chatham Island lands. The Moriori fishing, and ecotourism that celebrate the natural history
were awarded the remaining 3 percent of the land (King of the Chatham Islands.
1993). This ruling represented a major blow to the Moriori
community.
Despite the loss of their lands, during the twentieth cen- Society, Culture, and Tradition
tury, Moriori individuals became people of prominence Since the 1990s, both Moriori culture and language have
on Chatham Island and included among their number experienced a revival. In 1991, growing Moriori cultural
successful businessmen, farmers, and politicians. In the consciousness and self-confidence was signaled when
1980s, a New Zealand television documentary kick-started albatross feathers, once worn by Moriori men as a proud
a revival of Moriori culture and raised the consciousness symbol of peace, were again worn by the Moriori. This
of many islanders with Moriori heritage. As a result of the time, however, the feathers were sported not as a peace
documentary, in 1986, a statue was erected to Tame Horo- sign but as a political statement to highlight Moriori her-
mona Rehe. itage during the celebrations held to mark the bicentenary
In 1994, the Moriori appealed to the Waitangi Tribunal, of HMS Chatham’s arrival. Another significant event in the
a judicial body seeking to investigate grievances against Moriori cultural revival occurred in 2002, when the Crown
European colonial powers. The Moriori claimed recog- bought Taia, land on the east coast of Chatham Island with
nition of their status as the rangata hunu (“people of the cultural significance for the Moriori. Taia is a reserve
land”) of the Chatham Islands as well as compensation for jointly managed by the Moriori and the Crown. Here, the
their cultural and material losses. After intense legal bat- Moriori work with the New Zealand government to pro-
tles, the Moriori won the right to claim a share of their tect remaining Moriori rākau hokoairo (tree carvings).
resources in the rich fishing grounds around Chatham The origins of the tree carvings are not known, though
Island and Pitt Island. In essence, this ruling represented theories as to why the carvings were created abound. One
the reestablishment of the Moriori economy. theory is the carvings were made as memorials to the dead
An official report released in 2001 further vindicated or as tributes to the gods. The tree carvings provide one of
the Moriori’s appeals to the Waitangi Tribunal. In the the few remaining pieces of evidence of the Moriori kara-
run-up to the judgments in the Moriori’s favor, the Mori- puna (ancestors), so their preservation is of high priority
ori had already experienced a boost to their community to all Moriori.
morale because in 1997, the first marae (community There has been a gradual revival of the Moriori language
meeting place) in 160 years began to be constructed on that was once thought to be extinct. Moriori vocabulary
768 Mossi

was published as an appendix in Michael King’s 1989 book Further Reading

Moriori: A People Rediscovered, and in 2000, the language Campelo, Adriana, and Robert Aitken. 2011. “Travelling to
was reconstructed for Barry Barclay’s documentary film the Past: Narratives of Place and National Identity on the
Chatham Islands.” In Tourism and National Identities: An
The Feathers of Peace. International Perspective, edited by Elspeth Frew and Leanne
The following year, the Moriori language was revived White, 190–201. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
further when a database of Moriori words was compiled. Davis, Denise, and Māui Solomon. 2017. “Moriori.” Te Ara: The
At around the same time, a new Moriori greeting began Encyclopedia of New Zealand, March 3. https://teara.govt.nz​
to be employed in Moriori written communications: me /en/moriori.
rongo, meaning “with peace.” Hiroa, Te Rangi. 1949. The Coming of the Māori. Wellington,
New Zealand: Māori Purposes Fund Board.
King, Michael. 1993. “Moriori, a Pride Reborn.” New Zealand
Geographic (20) (October–December). https://www.nzgeo​
Health Care and Education .com/stories/moriori-a-pride-reborn.
Prior to 1904, there was no resident medical practitioner Stats NZ. 2013. “2013 Census Iwi Individual Profiles: Mori-
ori.” http://m.stats.govt.nz/Census/2013-census/profile-and​
on the Chatham Islands, so medicines were provided by the -summary-reports/iwi-profiles-individual.aspx?request​
government and dispensed through schools. After 1904, it _value=24628&tabname=Populationandgeography.
was decided that the islands needed a doctor, and although Totten, Samuel, and Paul R. Bartrop. 2008. Dictionary of Geno-
some doctors started to arrive to serve the islands, few cide. Vol. 2, M–Z. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
wanted to go to the Chatham Islands—and those who did Wurm, Stephen A., Peter Mühlhäusler, and Darrell T. Tryon, eds.
venture there did not want to stay long. For these reasons, 1996. Atlas of Languages of Intercultural Communication in
the Pacific, Asia, and the Americas. Berlin, Germany: Mouton
there were lengthy periods when the islands were without de Gruyter.
a doctor. Today, there are publicly funded healthcare facil-
ities on the Chatham Islands that are administered by New
Zealand’s Canterbury District Health Board.
European missionaries provided the first educational
programs on the Chatham Islands. Government education
programs during the nineteenth and early twentieth cen- MOSSI
turies were hampered by the reluctance of some islanders Current Location Burkina Faso; Côte d’Ivoire
to submit their children to state-run education. Another Current Population 7.5 million–8.3 million
problem was that schools were widely scattered and hard
Language Mossi
to access because the roads on the Chatham Islands were
Interesting Fact The Mossi flag is a horizontal bicolor
difficult to pass. Today, there are three primary schools on
of red and white.
the Chatham Islands, though they each employ between
one and three teachers. There have never been any sec-
ondary schools on the Chatham Islands. Most secondary Overview
school–aged children leave the Chatham Islands to study
The Mossis (also sometimes called the Moore or Mosi) are
at boarding schools on mainland New Zealand or receive
an indigenous people of West Africa. The Mossis speak
their secondary education through correspondence
the Mossi (or Moore) language, which belongs to the
courses.
Moré-Dagbani branch of the Niger-Congo language group.
Most Mossis are Muslims, but there are also some Chris-
tian Mossis. In addition, there are a number of animist
Threats to Survival Mossi who hold traditional religious beliefs and practice
Although the Moriori face the threat of becoming fully ancestor worship.
integrated into New Zealand society, the continuing revival
of Moriori culture suggests they will avoid assimilation.
See also: Aleut; Chamorro; iTaukei; Māori; Marshallese; Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Nauruan; Samoans; Tongan; Torres Strait Islanders; The estimated Mossi population measures between
Tuvaluan 7.5 million and 8.3 million people. Most Mossis live in
 Mossi 769

Burkina Faso, but others live in Côte d’Ivoire (Minahan organization, which gradually adapted under the influence
2016). In Burkina Faso, the Mossis make up around 40 of French colonial government. In this way, the Mossis were
percent of the population, and in Côte d’Ivoire, the Mos- able to maintain their ancient society into modern times.
sis are the second-largest ethnic minority (Olaniyi 2015). During the period of French rule, some Mossis served in
Small Mossi communities also exist in Benin, Togo, and the French army, and others headed south to Côte d’Ivoire
Ghana. The Mossi population divides into a number of and the Gold Coast, where they worked in ports and on
related tribes that recognize the Mogho Naaba (Mossi plantations. Soon the Mossi population of Côte d’Ivoire
emperor). began to soar.
The Mossis live primarily in and around the capital of The Mossis led other tribal groups during the Volta-Bani
Burkina Faso, Ouagadougou, and other large cities. War (1915–1916), an anticolonial rebellion that took place
across French West Africa. It required the largest military
force in French West African history to defeat the uprising
Geography and Environment (Minahan 2016). In 1919, Mossiland was incorporated into
Burkina Faso is a landlocked country of West Africa bor- the French colony of Haute Volta, which the Mossis soon
dered by Mali to the north, Niger to the east, Benin to the came to dominate. This situation continued until 1960,
southeast, Togo and Ghana to the south, and Côte d’Ivoire when the colony gained independence, later to be renamed
to the southwest. Burkina Faso’s contains reserves of gold, Burkina Faso (meaning “Land of Incorruptible People”).
manganese, marble, phosphates, and salt, among other Over the years, Burkina Faso has experienced decades of
natural resources. Côte d’Ivoire is bordered by Guinea and political and social instability, including ethnic tension
Liberia to the west, Burkina Faso and Mali to the north, and military coup. In 2014, the Mossi revolted and forced
and Ghana to the east. To the south of Côte d’Ivoire lies the the country’s military government to resign. This event
Gulf of Guinea, the most northeasterly part of the Atlantic caused Mossi nationalism to surge and led Mossi militants
Ocean. to call for the reinstatement of Kombemtinga as the Mossi
The Mossi homeland, Mossiland, stretches across the homeland.
Mossi Plateau, an area characterized by rolling plains and
the Nakambe River (White Volta) Basin. Mossiland forms
part of a number of administrative regions of Burkina Faso Society, Culture, and Tradition
and Côte d’Ivoire. Mossi society is organized as a feudal kingdom and func-
tions as a multitiered hierarchy featuring royalty, nobles,
and commoners. In the past, the hierarchy also included
History and Politics slaves. A chief who is subordinate to a divisional chief
According to Mossi tradition, the people are descended governs every Mossi village. The ultimate Mossi ruler, the
from the first Mossi person, Ouedraogo. It is known, mogho naaba, is based in the capital of Burkina Faso, Oua-
however, that the Mossis migrated from East Africa to gadougou. Today, the Mossi are sedentary farmers, grow-
the Nakamber River Basin at some point in the eleventh ing subsistence crops such as millet and sorghum as well
or twelfth centuries CE. Here, the Mossis established as cash crops including indigo. Some Mossi artisans, such
numerous kingdom-states in a region the Mossis called as leatherworkers and metal smiths, belong to low-status
Kombemtinga (Land of Princes). Despite the location’s arid social castes.
environment, the Mossis followed a subsistence lifestyle The Mossi traditional religion venerates ancestors,
that saw the people grow crops such as sorghum, millet, whom they consider able to influence the lives of the liv-
maize, and peanuts. ing. Many Mossi homes contain a shrine dedicated to a
By the 1500s, the states had merged to create the Mossi family’s ancestors whom they worship during an annual
Empire. The empire was equipped with a mounted cavalry harvest festival. Traditionally, the Mossi also believe in a
that conquered much of Central Africa. During the 1890s, creator god, Wende, and in fertility gods whom they wor-
however, French colonial forces entered Mossi territory ship with animal sacrifices. Islam is the prevailing religion
and defeated the Mossis. In 1896, Mossi land became a of both ruling Mossis and Mossi commoners. Christian
French protectorate, and cotton farming was introduced. Mossis are usually Catholics who are members of an urban
The French allowed the Mossi to retain their political social elite.
770 Mosuo

Health Care and Education MOSUO

In 2013, 8.2 percent of people in Burkina Faso were found
Current Location China
to be suffering acute malnutrition, and 21 percent were
Current Population 40,000
deemed underweight. In 2014, 61 percent of children
under age five were found to have malaria. Other health Language Mosuohua
issues in Burkina Faso include HIV and cerebrospinal Interesting Fact Mosuo society is said to
meningitis. The country’s health system aims to reduce be China’s last remaining
matriarchy.
the burden of communicable and noncommunicable dis-
eases, especially vaccine-preventable diseases, HIV/AIDS,
malaria, tuberculosis, and tropical diseases. The country’s Overview
authorities aim to prevent chronic noncommunicable
The Mosuo people (sometimes called the Moso or Na) are
diseases, specifically cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular
a Chinese ethnic minority living in southwestern China.
diseases. To reach these aims, the government will have
The Chinese government classifies the Mosuo as part of
to make health care more easily available and affordable.
the Naxi minority group, but Mosuo activists claim the lan-
Burkina Faso has some of the world’s lowest literacy
guage and culture of the two groups are quite different. The
rates and has few children in full-time school. Recently,
Mosuo do not have a written language, but they speak their
significant progress has been achieved because the enrol-
native dialect, mosuohua. Some Mosuo have Mandarin as a
ment rate has increased by 15 percent to 60.1 percent of
second language, and Mosuo people working in the tourist
school-age children attend school. Overall, though, the
trade tend to be able to communicate in English.
state of the country’s education remains a cause for con-
cern because there are geographical disparities in both
educational enrollment and school infrastructure. It is also
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
the case that far more boys go to school than girls, though
dropout rates for both sexes is very high (UNICEF 2016). According to 2010 media coverage of Mosuo society, there
are forty thousand Mosuo people (Shaitly 2010). Most
Mosuo villages are located along the banks of Lake Lugu,
Threats to Survival which is situated in a valley straddling the border of Yun-
There are no imminent threats to the Mossis, who are Bur- nan and Sichuan Provinces in southwestern China, close
kina Faso’s largest ethnic population. They have been able to China’s border with Tibet. In addition to the Mosuo,
to preserve much of their culture and way of life despite other Chinese ethnic minorities, including the Norzu, Yi,
Western influences. Communicable and noncommunica- and Pumi, also inhabit the banks of the lake.
ble health conditions and lack of education remain issues The Chinese often referred to the valley in which the
for Burkina Faso as a whole. Mosuo live as the Kingdom of Women on account of the
Mosuo’s unique, matrilineal society. The main Mosuo vil-
See also: Dogon; Fulani; Tuareg lage is Luoshui, and the de facto Mosuo capital is Yongn-
Further Reading ing, which is home to largest Mosuo monastery. Luoshui
Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth- has a population of fewer than one thousand residents but
nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa
is visited by between three thousand and twenty thousand
Barbara, CA: Greenwood.
Olaniyi, Rasheed. 2015. “Mossi.” In Native Peoples of the World: tourists a month (Woychuk-Mlinac 2015).
An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary Issues,
edited by Steven Danver, 62–64. Vol. 1. London: Routledge.
UNICEF. 2016. “Burkina Faso: Education.” https://www.unicef​ Geography and Environment
.org/bfa/english/education.html. The Mosuo heartland lies in the Yongning region around
World Health Organization (WHO). 2016, May. “Country Coop-
Lake Lugu, located high in the Himalayas. Lake Lugu is a
eration Strategy at a Glance: Burkina Faso.” http://apps.who​
.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/136973/ccsbrief_bfa_en​ natural alpine lake that sits amid the steep, forested Heng-
.pdf;jsessionid=15DC4EB9CE3EA19A21693B4BA6F0D150​ duan Mountain System at an elevation of 8,809 feet. This
?sequence=1. elevation makes the lake the highest lake in the Yunnan
Province. Lake Lugu contains several islands, peninsulas,
 Mosuo 771

and bays and is surrounded by beaches. The lake is snow- Before this ceremony, Mosuo children of both sexes dress
bound for three months per year. The flora and fauna of identically, but after they come of age, girls receive a skirt
the area include pine and spruce trees, foxes, vultures, during a skirt ceremony, and boys are given trousers in a
leopards, and deer. trouser ceremony. Once a Mosuo female has undergone a
coming-of-age ceremony, she is given her own bedroom,
called a flower chamber. Then when the girl reaches
History and Politics puberty, she is allowed to invite male partners into her
Because there is no written Mosuo language, no Mosuo room for walking marriages, or zou hun. This night visit-
historical documents or written accounts of Mosuo oral ing is also sometimes called tisese, meaning “goes back and
history exist. For this reason, the origins of the Mosuo and forth.” The marriages are referred to as walking marriages
their matriarchal society remain unknown. One theory as because the men involved walk to the houses of their female
to the origins of the Mosuo is that they migrated out of the partners at night, where they stay before returning the next
then Tubo (Tibetan) Empire when the people of the Tubo morning to their own homes. During the day, the women’s
Empire converted from the Bön religion to Buddhism as male partners, known as axias, fish, rear animals, and care
decreed by Tibetan King Trisong Detsen (755–797 CE). for their families before going to visit the girls at night.
The king made Buddhism the Tubo Empire’s official reli- The Mosuo tend to live in extended families consisting
gion and also banned all other religions, causing the flight of several generations. Indeed, it is not unusual for house-
of ethnic groups (including the Mosuo) who refused to holds to comprise of great-grandparents, grandparents,
renounce their traditional beliefs (ChinaTravel 2018). parents, children, grandchildren, aunts, uncles, nieces,
In 1949, China classified its minority nationalities (sha- and nephews living together. In the main, all the people
oshu minzu) into fifty-five groups, excluding the large Han within a household live within communal quarters that do
group. The Mosuo were denied an individual classifica- not include private bedrooms or living quarters, except for
tion and were instead classified as a subtribe of the Naxi. girls’ flower chambers.
China’s communist authorities also influenced Mosuo life A popular misconception is that Mosuo women are sex-
during the country’s Cultural Revolution (1966–1976). ually promiscuous and change sexual partners whenever
During this period, authorities forced the Mosuo people they desire. In fact, although Mosuo women are permitted
to abandon their custom of walking marriages and instead to change partner as often as they feel like (and it would be
adopt the practice of monogamous, formal marriage. In unusual for a woman to keep with the same sexual partner
the postcommunist era, however, China relaxed its social for her entire life), Mosuo women tend to enter into long-
regulations to a degree, meaning the Mosuo could revert term relationships with men from their tribe—behavior
to their traditional lifestyle. referred to by anthropologists as serial monogamy. Mosuo
relationships are based on romance and sexual desire, and
even though these pairings are long-term, a Mosuo man
Society, Culture, and Tradition never lives with the Mosuo woman with whom he is in a
The Mosuo are famous for their matrilineal culture in relationship; neither does the woman stay with the man.
which women do not marry and fathers are not expected Instead, the man remains with his extended family for
to support their children. Indeed, the Mosuo do not have which he is responsible, and the woman stays with her
any equivalents to the English words husband or father. family. The couple never shares property, and if children
Mosuo women take the majority of important social and result from the relationship, the man is not responsible for
family decisions, are in charge of household finances, own them. Indeed, it is not uncommon for Mosuo children to
land and property, and have full rights to their children. be ignorant of their father’s identity. If a man does want to
The Mosuo have been able to keep their traditions alive be included in his children’s lives, then he must visit the
because until recently, their remote Himalayan location mother’s family and give them gifts while stating his desire
near Tibet has been kept fairly isolated, with few transport to be involved in the lives of his offspring. If the mother’s
links to the rest of China. Consequently, the Mosuo have, family decides to include the man, he will be given an offi-
in the main, been able to maintain their way of life. cial title within the family, but he will not be considered
When Mosuo children are around twelve or fourteen part of the family. The children will be raised solely by the
years of age, they experience a coming-of-age ceremony. mother’s family and will assume her family name.
772 Mosuo

Despite their lack of involvement in the lives of their naming ceremonies, coming of age rites, funerals, and the
own children, Mosuo men look after all the children born spring festival. Another important function of the daba is
to the females within his own extended family—for exam- to act as a repository of Mosuo oral tradition. Because the
ple, the children born to his sisters, nieces, and aunts. Sim- Mosuo do not have a written language, the daba memorizes
ilarly, sisters will collectively raise each other’s children. the oral history of his people and passes it on to future gen-
For this reason, Mosuo children consider their extended erations of Mosuo. There are, however, very few dabas these
family to be their aunts and uncles because all members of days because in the past, the Chinese government made it
the extended family help and nurture the children. Though illegal to be a daba. Because it was once illegal to be a daba,
this family structure may differ from the image of the fam- today there are few dabas alive, and those who exist most
ily popular in the West, it is a very stable family model. are elderly men. With the younger generation of Mosuo
Divorce never occurs within Mosuo communities because not learning about their culture at schools, and with dabas
there are no marriages, and thus issues of child custody decreasing in number, there is a fear that Mosuo heritage
never arise, property does not have to be divided, and if may die out altogether. This is one of the reasons that Mosuo
a mother dies, her children are cared for by her extended activists are eager to establish a written form of language
family. Another benefit to the Mosuo family structure among the Mosuo so that their heritage is not lost when the
is that families do not prefer one gender over the other dabas die. As well as dabas, the Mosuo also believe in a type
because neither male nor female children ever leave home, of sorcerer called a bizha (meaning “commanded by ghosts
though each generation of women within a family must and spirits”). The bizha conduct exorcisms and sacrifices to
produce at least one daughter to create the correct gen- ancestral spirits, but they do not perform important cere-
der mix of children. If a family does become imbalanced monies and have a low social status.
in terms of gender, the family may adopt children of the Traditionally, Mosuo society is self-sufficient and
appropriate gender from another family, or two families revolves around farming, growing crops such as potatoes
may swap children to correct a gender imbalance. and cereals and caring for animals (yaks, pigs, goats, sheep,
The Mosuo follow two religions: the Mosuo’s native reli- poultry). Meat is an important part of the Mosuo diet, but
gion, Daba, which involves animism and ancestor worship, because the Mosuo lack refrigerators, they preserve meat
and Tibetan Buddhism. Although the latter became preva- by salting and smoking. The Mosuo meat preservation
lent among the Mosuo only recently, it plays a much greater techniques allow them to preserve pork for ten years or
part in Mosuo daily life than does Daba. Tibetan Buddhism until needed. The Mosuo also drink a type of strong wine
is without doubt the predominant religion among the called sulima.
Mosuo, with villages decorated with prayer flags, women Mosuo villages often lack electricity, but this situation
carrying Buddhist prayer wheels, and Buddhist monks is rapidly changing. The Mosuo are increasingly earning
walking the streets. Mosuo homes also usually contain a incomes from the tourist trade; therefore, they can afford
statue of a Buddhist god above the cooking fire. not just electricity but also modern facilities such as satel-
The Mosuo also claim to have their own living lite television and karaoke machines.
Buddha—a man claiming to be the reincarnation of a
Tibetan religious leader. This man lives in Lijiang, only
returning to the Buddhist temple at Yongning for signifi- Health Care and Education
cant religious occasions. Many Mosuo families send their China’s rural medical services have improved greatly fol-
sons to this man to be trained as Buddhist monks. lowing a nationwide campaign that started in 2009. In the
Daba derives from the Mosuo word Da, meaning “chop- past in rural areas of China, when people fell ill they used
ping wood,” and Ba translates as “marks left after chopping.” to refuse medical treatment until they were extremely ill,
Therefore the term Daba can be taken to mean using a knife for fear of incurring high medical bills. Transport to hospi-
to remove the problems of the world, which is the overrid- tal from rural areas was also too expensive for many poor
ing tenet of the Daba religion. Another interpretation of rural people to afford. In addition, many Chinese ethnic
the word is that is refers to sacred symbols that the Mosou minorities simply could not access health care because
carve into their wooden houses. A Daba priest (called a they lived in scattered settlements in remote areas high
daba) wears a special garment made from five pieces of in inaccessible mountain regions. Medical reform has
fabric and oversees important Mosuo customs such as focused on providing grassroots public hospitals in rural
 Mosuo 773

areas so that people in rural areas can access basic medical communication problems when trying to talk to younger
treatment. Improved transport links such as the building Mosuo or other Chinese people.
of new roads makes it easier to reach medical facilities.
Many Chinese ethnic minorities are experiencing a
rapid increase in the rate of infectious diseases such as Threats to Survival
HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and hepatitis. In Yunnan Province Since the 1990s, outsiders have recognized the commercial
alone, the number of HIV-positive people is likely around potential of Mosuo culture, and Mosuo life has changed
200,000, though reliable data is not available (Médecins accordingly. At the heart of this new financial interest in
Sans Frontières 2000). The prevalence of HIV/AIDS is the Mosuo is the misconception that sees Mosuo women
such that nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) such as as sexually unrestrained. The Chinese government has
Médecins Sans Frontières (MSF) launched an HIV/AIDS begun to promote the Mosuo to Chinese tourists and has
awareness campaigns to educate rural people about the even installed a tollbooth charging entry to Mosuo land
risks of sexually transmitted diseases in areas such as Yun- via a new main road. To this end, some Mosuo villages
nan Province. have transformed from agricultural villages to tourist
In Sichuan province, MSF has set up an AIDS preven- attractions where the villagers dress in traditional Mosuo
tion program. Many rural people from this area move to clothing and dance for tourists. The Mosuo have become
from the countryside to work in the cities, but when they something to be looked at, and they have used their ethnic
return to their native homelands, they are often infected identity to make a profit. Advertisements aimed at tour-
with HIV and pass the disease on to others. The Mosuo ists provide an idealized image of Mosuo life, so to keep
are especially at risk of HIV/AIDS infection. The very the tourists happy (and income from tourists coming), the
active sex lives of the Mosuo community, together with the Mosuo have complied with the tourist industry’s concept
recent boom in tourism and the rate at which people leave of Mosuo life. The marketing of the Mosuo to outsiders
their village only to return at a later date, has resulted in has resulted in the corruption of Mosuo society because
the Mosuo becoming at risk of HIV and AIDS transmitted sex tourists are lured to Mosuo areas under the misunder-
via sexual activity. standing that it is an area where sex is readily available.
NGOs are also increasingly helping China’s ethnic In addition, prostitutes imported from elsewhere in China
minorities by improving the safety of water supplies and and from Thailand, but dressed in traditional Mosuo
sanitation conditions while providing information about clothing, have been installed in newly constructed hotels,
basic health and hygiene. casinos, and bars in the main Mosuo village of Luoshui.
From an early age, Mosuo children are assimilated out The high number of prostitutes in Mosuo areas means that
of their Mosuo heritage because they are sent away to there is now a red-light district centered on Lake Lugu.
boarding schools from seventh grade. Mosuo children are Another effect of the tourist industry upon Mosuo
not allowed to use Mosuohua during lessons, though they life is that the income from tourism has given the Mosuo
do sometimes speak Mosuohua to each other. Once Mosuo wealth that allows them to buy material goods not previ-
children are enrolled in boarding school, they spend most ously owned by Mosuo people. Tourist income also allows
of their time away from Mosuo areas, returning only for Mosuo families to move out of Mosuo areas. The popu-
holidays. This pattern continues until they graduate to lations of Mosuo settlements do not decrease, however,
high school. Some Mosuo children continue to college, but because the number of non-Mosuo residents in Mosuo
these are also far from Mosuo villages. Children who do village has increased as outsiders move to the villages to
not go to college move away from Mosuo villages to find manage hotels, restaurants, and shops. The increase in
work in cities. For this reason, some researchers report outsiders means the Mosuo risk being assimilating into
a shortage of children in Mosuo villages and report not the culture of the people moving to their villages while
meeting anyone less than twenty-five years old (Woy- turning their backs on traditional Mosuo ways.
chuk-Mlinac 2015). Another problem resulting from Another factor that encourages the loss of a distinct
Mosuo education is that although the younger generations Mosuo culture is education. Mosuo children leave Mosuo
are taught Mandarin at school, older Mosuo are not fluent society early and so do not get the chance to learn about
in Mandarin (though they may speak Mandarin as a sec- their people’s traditions. Mosuo children are encouraged
ond language). This can lead to older Mosuo experiencing to not speak their native language, and they do not learn
774 Mozabite

about Mosuo heritage at school. Once they have completed people of Algeria. Mozabites speak the Tumz.abt language,
their education, Mosuo youngsters move out of their vil- which is one of the Zenati languages belonging to the
lages (unless they wish to work in tourism) and go to work Berber branch of the Afro-Asiatic language family. Many
elsewhere. In particular, young Mosuo women are leav- Mozabites have Maghrebi Arabic as a second language.
ing their homeland in search of jobs they cannot find in Mozabites are considered non-Arab Muslims because
their villages. This affects the wider Mosuo society, leaves most Mozabites adhere to the Ibadi school of Islam. There
Mosuo men without wives, and may result in fewer Mosuo are, however, a small number of Jewish Mozabites.
children being born in the future. These factors, combined
with the fear that the traditional daba priests will eventu-
ally die out, means Mosuo culture is in danger of changing Population, Diaspora, and Migration
beyond all recognition. The Mozabite population measures between 150,000 and
300,000 people. Most Mozabites live in loosely formed
See also: Manchu; Pumi; Uyghur
urban settlements in the M’zab Valley of central Alge-
Further Reading ria. Here, the people reside in seven towns, including
ChinaTravel. 2018. “The Mosuo of the Forgotten Kingdom.” Chi-
five ksour (or qsar, fortified oasis towns): Ghardaia,
naTravel: China Guide. https://www.chinatravel.com/facts​
/the-mosuo-of-the-forgotten-kingdom.htm. Beni-Isguen, Melika, El-Ateuf, and Bounoura. The larg-
Lugu Lake Mosuo Cultural Development Association. 2006. est of these oasis towns is Ghardaia, which is the capital
“Daily Life.” http://www.mosuoproject.org/daily.htm. of Algeria’s Ghardaia Province. Mozabites also live in the
Médecins Sans Frontières [Doctors without Borders]. 2000, larger towns of Berriane and Guerrara that lie south of the
March 31.“China: Healthcare and MSF Activities.” http://www​ ksour. Some Mozabites live in Algeria’s western Ouargla
.msf.org/en/article/china-healthcare-and-msf-activities.
province.
Shaitly, Shahesta. 2010. “Is China’s Mosuo Tribe the World’s
Last Matriarchy?” The Guardian, December 19. http://www​
.theguardian.com/lifeandstyle/2010/dec/19/china-mosuo​
-tribe-matriarchy. Geography and Environment
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Life Customs around the World: From The M’zab region is located in the heart of the Sahara
Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. Desert around 373 miles south of the Algerian capi-
Woychuk-Mlinac, Lucy. 2015. “Changes in Luoshui: How the
tal, Algiers. The region is a limestone plateau broken by
Outside World Affects Luoshui Village and the Mosuo Cul-
ture.” Independent Study Project (ISP) Collection. Paper numerous valleys and ravines. Though the area is one of
2208. http://digitalcollections.sit.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi​? the hottest places on earth, the valley stretching along the
article=3226&context=isp_collection. Mzab River is famous for the lushness of its oases that are
Zhaolin, Song. 2011. “Daba Beliefs and Written Script.” In Popu- home to date palm groves and plots growing fruit, cereals,
lar Religion and Shamanism, edited by Xisha Ma and Huiying and legumes. The groves stretch for five miles upstream
Meng, 423–484. Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill.
and receive water from six dams built across the river. The
oases running along the river are surrounded by a land-
scape known as chebka (meaning “network”), arid country
traversed by dry riverbeds. The strategic location of the
MOZABITE M’zab Valley, on the northerly edge of the Sahara Desert,
means it is an important transport hub for trans-Saharan
Current Location Algeria trade.
Current Population 150,000–300,000 Ghardaïa Province has a hot desert climate that expe-
Language Tumz.abt riences extremely hot summers and mild winters. The
Interesting Fact Traditionally, Mozabite women are province also sees marked temperature variations between
not permitted to leave the Mzab day and night. Prevailing summer winds in the region
region. are strong and extremely hot and dry. Sandstorms often
occur from March to May, and in 2008, heavy rain severely
flooded Ghardaïa.
Overview The M’zab Valley is noteworthy for its five ksour, which
The Mozabites (also called the Mouzabi, M’zab, Imzabiyen, together make up an urban zone called the Pentapolis.
or Aghlan, among other names) are a Berber (Amazigh) Lifestyles and construction techniques used in the M’zab
 Mozabite 775

Valley have changed little since the eleventh century. the Mozabites in some ways. For instance, the Mozabites
Houses in the Penapolis take the form of brightly colored devised Ghardaïa’s ancient water distribution system, but
cubes set along the banks of the river. In 1982, the M’zab French engineers developed the system further, thereby
Valley was awarded UNESCO World Heritage Site status making the oases more fertile, and the town of Beni-
as a perfect example of human habitat adapting to the Isguen became a depot for the import and sale of European
natural environment. In recent years, a small industrial goods. In time, however, the Mozabites became unhappy
area and natural gas piped from Hassi RʾMel have mod- with French rule. In 1954, many Mozabites joined in the
ernized life in the M’zab Valley a little, but in essence the Algerian uprising against French colonialism that led to
Mozabites inhabit the valley in much the same way as their Algeria becoming independent in 1962. However, after
ancestors. In the 1990s, urban growth impinged on Moza- independence Algeria adopted a form of Arab nationalism
bite land and resulted in some degradation of the natural that excluded the Berbers and repressed Berber cultures
environment. and languages. In addition, in the 1960s the Algerian gov-
ernment assisted some Arab peoples to resettle in areas
where the Mozabites were the majority population. The
History and Politics Mozabites resented this resettlement, which created hous-
In the 600s CE, Arabs conquered the indigenous Berbers of ing problems in Mozabite areas. Mozabite resentment and
North Africa. Then, in 767, a refugee Persian Ibadi leader housing problems continue today.
founded the Rustamid Kingdom, and most Berbers con- Since the 1970s, the suppression of Berber ways has
verted to Ibadi Islam, a Muslim sect that is neither Sunni created much animosity between the Mozabites and
nor Shia. In 911, invaders belonging to mainstream Mus- Arabs that has erupted into violence. In 2013, violence
lim schools of faith overran the Ibadi Berbers. The Mus- stemming from religious differences and issues such as
lim invaders viewed the Ibadi Berbers as heretics and unemployment, housing, and land rights erupted between
exiled them to Ouargla, in the Sahara Desert of southern the Mozabites and Chaamba Arabs (a large Arab tribe of
Algeria. The exiled Ibadi Berbers escaped from Ouargla, Algeria’s northern Sahara Desert that follow the Maliki
however, and headed to M’zab because they felt the area madhab, one of the four orthodox schools of Islam). Dur-
was sufficiently isolated away from caravan routes and ing the violence, Mozabite shrines and cemeteries were
inhospitably hot, and they would be able to live in peace desecrated, Mozabite shops were looted, and the Ghar-
to follow their religious beliefs. In 1012, the Ibadi Berbers daia city center was torched. Violence in the towns of El
established an independent state in the M’zab Valley, and Guerrara and Berriane (both in Ghardaia Province) killed
the people became known as the Mozabites. In the six- several dozen people. The violence also saw the destruc-
teenth century, the Mozabites accepted nominal Ottoman tion of the tomb of the sixteenth-century Mozabite leader
rule and lived virtually undisturbed. During the Ottoman Amir Moussa, a UNESCO-designated World Heritage
era, the Mozabites became active in the Algerian economy Site. Ironically, the Amir is best remembered for trying to
by monopolizing the running of slaughterhouses, public integrate Arab nomads into the Mozabite community in
baths, and mills. 1586. When Mozabite-Chaamba violence flared again in
For centuries, the Mozabite’s austere lifestyle and appli- 2015, twenty-five people died, and seventy were injured
cation of what they consider a pure form of Islam meant (Ilahiane 2017). The sporadic ethnic violence experi-
they received few visitors except for other Ibadi Muslims enced by the Mozabites has left some Mozabites calling
and local nomads. The Mozabites refer to this period of for the creation of an independent Mozabite state called
their history as marhalet el kitman, or the secret phase Tagherdayt.
(Cataldi et al. 1996). In 1853, French colonists reached the
Mozabites. The Mozabites reached a deal with the French
that their community would remain independent of French Society, Culture, and Tradition
rule in return for an annual contribution of 1,800 francs. Most Mozabites read and write some Arabic, but they
In 1882, the M’zab Valley was annexed to French Algeria, speak their own language, of which there is no written
but despite this political and administrative change, the form. The majority of Mozabites are Ibadi Muslims, a form
Mozabites continued to live free from outside interfer- of Islam that evolved from the seventh century Islamic
ence, able to preserve their unique religious and cultural sect known as the Kharijites of Khawarij. The Ibadis reject
identity as well as their language. French rule benefited some Kharijites beliefs and so see Ibadis as separate from
776 Mozabite

the Kharijites. Ibadi Islam also has a number of doctrinal pastures, and the Algerian government’s discouragement
differences from orthodox Sunni Islam and Shia Islam. of nomadism. In the M’zab region, the Mozabites and the
Mozabites pray differently than other Muslims and design Chaamba Arabs have never become unified, and when-
mosques differently. To the Mozabites, wasting water and ever ethnic violence flares, both sides blame the other. In
land is sinful. The Mozabites practice a strict form of Islam addition to ethnic differences between the Mozabites and
that has a strong moral code, and the people’s standards Chaamba Arabs, many residents of the M’zab region claim
of religious purity are high. For this reason, non-Ibād.īs the violence is actually fueled by rivalries between drug
may not enter a Mozabite mosque, and Mozabites cannot smuggling networks active in the area (UNHCR 2014).
marry outside their faith. In addition, Mozabite women Associated with this violence is what Mozabite activists
wear a heavy veil and never leave their community. Moza- claim is the racist aggression of armed, police-supported
bite women are considered the basis of the Mozabite com- militias that attack Mozabites at will. Mozabite activists also
munity because they raise young Mozabites. In contrast, claim they are arrested and tortured by authorities solely
Mozabite men travel throughout Algeria, with many run- because they are Mozabite (UNHCR 2014). However, per-
ning small businesses, often grocery stores located outside haps the greatest threat to traditional Mozabite ways comes
of the Mozabite homeland, though they frequently return from within the Mozabite community. Young Mozabites
to Mozabite oasis towns. The Mozabites have a reputation tend to be less conservative than older members of the
for being astute businesspeople. Many run import busi- community if they have been educated outside of tradition-
nesses or trade around the Sahara Desert, supplying fresh ally Mozabite towns. When the youngsters return to their
produce to their own communities and elsewhere. When homeland, they bring with them more liberal attitudes.
Mozabite men mix with non-Ibadis, they are expected to Similarly, when non-Mozabites arrive in the M’zab Valley,
practice el-amena (faithfulness to their families and Moz- they break through the insularity of the Mozabite commu-
abite ways). nity. Outside cultural influences including the Internet,
Mozabites also produce and sell handicrafts such as social media, telephones, and radio were once banned from
pottery, jewelry, and brass items. In spring, the Mozabites Mozabite towns, but demand for these essential elements of
hold a carpet festival that allows Mozabite carpet sellers modern life from young Mozabites means they are permit-
to display their wares and attract sales. Between May and ted in Mozabite areas. This has left some older Mozabites
December, some Mozabites work in the area’s date palm to question whether the people’s traditional lifestyle will be
groves. irrevocably changed by modernity and globalization.
See also: Berber; Tuareg; Tubu
Health Care and Education Further Reading
Benessaiah, Nejm. 2018. “Anomie and the Post-Colonial State:
A hospital is located in southern Ghardaïa. Local Justice in the M’zab.” In Law and Property in Algeria:
Until recently, Algerian state education was discour- Anthropological Perspectives, edited by Yazid Ben Hounet,
aged among the Mozabites, with Mozabite children taught 119–141. Leiden, the Netherland: Brill.
at Qur’anic Mozabite schools. In general Mozabites are Cataldi, Giancarlo, Rasid Abdelhamid, and Fabio Selva. 1996.
literate, with Mozabite males having higher literacy rates “The Town of Gharda’ia in M’zab, Algeria: Between Tra-
dition and Modernity.” Traditional Dwellings and Settle-
than Mozabite females.
ments Review 7 (2). http://iaste.berkeley.edu/pdfs/07.2f​
-Spr96Cataldi-Abdelhamid-Selva-sml.pdf.
Ilahiane, Hsain. 2017. Historical Dictionary of the Berbers
Threats to Survival (Imazighen). 2nd ed. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield.
There are several threats to the Mozabites. For instance, Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
continual though sporadic fighting between the Mozabites nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa
Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
and the Chaamba Arabs is unlikely to end because it stems
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR).
from a variety of social and cultural factors. 2014. “Berber-Arab Clashed in Algeria’s M’zab Valley.” Ref-
The appropriation of Mozabite land by traditionally world, February 7. http://www.refworld.org/docid/52fa2f3e4​
nomadic Chaamba Arabs has accelerated recently by the .html.
development of the petroleum industry, loss of grazing
 Muhamasheen 777

MUHAMASHEEN Geography and Environment

Yemen is located in the southern half of the Arabian
Current Location Yemen
Peninsula, which lies south of Saudi Arabia and west of
Current Population 500,000–3 million Oman. Yemen is bordered by the Arabian Sea, the Gulf of
Language Arabic
Aden, and the Red Sea. Yemen is divided into four main
geographical regions: the western coastal plains, the
Interesting Fact The name Muhamasheen translates western and eastern highlands, and the Rubʿ al-Khali,
as “the marginalized ones.” An which is the largest continuous sand sea (erg) in the
alternative name for the Muhama-
world, covering most of the southern third of the Arabian
sheen, Akhdam, translates as
Peninsula.
“servants.”
Temperatures in Yemen are hot during the day, but at
night, the temperatures fall considerably. Highland areas
Overview are home to perennial streams, but these streams do not
reach the sea because high evaporation occurs in the
The Muhamasheen (or Al-Muhamasheen) are an out-
Tihamah, the Red Sea coastal plain stretching from the
cast indigenous minority living in Yemen. The name
Gulf of Aqaba to the Bab el Mandeb Strait.
Muhamasheen translates from Arabic as “the marginalized
ones.” The community had adopted this name to escape
the derogatory name Akhdam (meaning “servants”) by History and Politics
which they are usually referred. The Muhamasheen are The origins of the Muhamasheen are disputed. Although
Muslims and speak Arabic. some commentators believe the Muhamasheen are of
Yemeni origin, others believe they have African herit-
age. According to Muhamasheen oral history, Abyssinian
Population, Diaspora, and Migration (Ethiopian) armies invaded Yemen in the sixth century,
Official Yemeni government statistics suggest the and the soldiers united with members of a slave revolt.
Muhamasheen population consists of approximately The rebellious slaves went on to found the slave state of
500,000 people. However, UNICEF estimates that the Najari, with its capital at Zabid, one of the oldest cities
Muhamasheen make up around 10 percent of the Yemen in Yemen. When the Abyssinian armies were defeated in
population, or around 2.6 million people. Muhamasheen battle, the slave state disintegrated, and the state’s inhab-
activists put the number at closer to 3 million (New itants have been forced to live on the outskirts of Yemenis
Arab 2016). The disparity in population figures may urban centers ever since. Other theories suggest that the
arise partly as a result of the slightly itinerant nature of Muhamasheen came to Yemen when they were snatched
Muhamasheen society that sees the people travel between from Africa as part of the extremely lucrative Omani slave
urban areas in search of employment, but it also sug- trade.
gests the discrimination that the Muhamasheen face in During civil unrest in Yemen in the 2011 uprising,
Yemen. many Muhamasheen demonstrated to call for social
The majority of Muhamasheen reside in the capital change. However, during the ensuing National Dialogue
Sana’a, and others live around the cities of Aden, Ta’izz, Conference (NDC, part of Yemeni reconciliation efforts),
Lahij, Abyan, Al Hudaydah, and Mukalla. The densest the Muhamasheen were represented by just 1 represent-
concentrations of Muhamasheen are located in Tahima, ative out of 565 delegates. Nevertheless, one provision
Hojariyyah, and Hadhramawt. The Muhamasheen tend of the NDC resulted in the stipulation that marginalized
to live in segregated slums on the outskirts of these major people such as the Muhamasheen should have access to
urban areas. The people live in cardboard hovels roofed decent housing, basic public services, free health care, and
with tin that often have inadequate toilet facilities. The job opportunities. The subsequent breakdown of peace
hovels are frequently sited next to rubbish dumps and in Yemen and the country’s ensuing slide into civil war
sewers. A minority of Muhamasheen live in villages, where means these provisions have affected little real change for
they work as menial farmhands. the Muhamasheen.
778 Muhamasheen

Society, Culture, and Tradition percent of Yemenis in general. Meanwhile, 52 percent of

In urban areas, the Muhamasheen take employment in Muhamasheen children aged ten to fourteen years are
jobs shunned by other Yemenis, including working as illiterate compared with 17 percent of Yemeni children in
servants, sweeping streets, and cleaning feces from house- general. A similar disparity is seen in the illiteracy rates
hold cesspits. Those Muhamasheen who cannot find work for those aged fifteen to twenty-four years: 67 percent of
resort to begging on the streets of Yemeni cities. In rural Muhamasheen are illiterate compared with 23 percent of
areas, the Muhamasheen work as seasonal, unskilled farm- the general populace (International Dalit Solidarity Net-
hands, performing duties such as harvest threshing. Urban work 2015). It is reported that many Muhamasheen see
Muhamasheen often return to villages for Muslim festivals little point in learning to read or taking up education if
and celebratory occasions such as weddings. Scant ethno- they are to suffer discrimination that will bar them from
logical research has been carried out on the Muhamasheen, finding jobs or earning money in other ways (Caton 2013).
so little is known about their social structure (Caton 2013).
Muhamasheen men and women do not dress in the
manner of other Yemenis. Muhamasheen women do not Threats to Survival
wear an Islamic head covering or veil, and Muhamasheen Many degrading myths are attached to the Muhamasheen,
men wear little more than a loincloth. Unlike other Yemeni including the beliefs that they eat their own dead and that
women, Muhamasheen women interact freely with men, all Muhamasheen women are prostitutes. Yemenis view
whether asking men for money or haggling aggressively the Muhamasheen as outsiders because they are likely
at markets. The women do not incur scorn for this behav- the descendants of foreign invaders bent on oppressing
ior because as Muhamasheen, they are already considered Yemen before the arrival of Islam. For these reasons, the
the lowest rank of Yemeni society. It is frequently the case Muhamasheen experience discrimination and social scorn.
that the Muhamasheen are prevented from marrying non- Most Muhamasheen live in appalling, unsanitary con-
Muhamasheen people (Minority Rights Group Interna- ditions in slum areas. Unemployment is high among the
tional 2018). Muhamasheen, and those who do find work are mostly
confined to working unskilled, low-paid jobs. In addi-
tion, the Muhamasheen lack access to basic services
Health Care and Education including water, sanitation, and education. The people’s
Most Muhamasheen live in poverty amid unsanitary liv- low literacy levels and education rates negatively affect
ing conditions. Research conducted in 2014 discovered the Muhamasheen ability to find employment. There are
that only 9 percent of Muhamasheen communities have frequent reports that the Muhamasheen are the targets of
piped water, compared with 29 percent of the general violence, including gender-based violence specifically tar-
Yemeni population. Only 42 percent of Muhamasheen geting Muhamasheen women.
dwellings have a latrine inside. These living conditions Though there are no Yemeni laws specifically discriminat­
leave the Muhamasheen extremely vulnerable to pre- ing against Muhamasheen,anti-Muhamasheen prejudice per-
ventable diseases such as malaria, polio, and dyspnea. meates all aspects of Yemeni society, including every level of
The Muhamasheen have a very high infant death rate. administration and politics. That the Muhamasheen fall out-
In addition, over half of Muhamasheen children under side of Yemen’s traditional tribal social structure also counts
one year of age do not receive vaccinations (Interna- against the Muhamasheen and results in the Muhamasheen
tional Dalit Solidarity Network 2015). Like other people having little access to justice or mediation. In addition, the
in Yemen, the Muhamasheen qualify for health care, but Muhamasheen find they are not only denied access to many
many Muhamasheen complain that they suffer such anti- civil and political rights but are also often unaware they are
Muhamasheen discrimination at healthcare facilities that missing out on certain rights. In recent times, the Yemen civil
they would rather avoid such facilities and only venture to war has intensified, especially since the start of the Saudi-led
clinics or hospitals in emergency situations (International bombing campaign that began in March 2015. This conflict
Dalit Solidarity Network 2015). worsened the situation of the Muhamasheen because the cit-
In terms of literacy and education, 80 percent of ies most affected by conflict—Aden, Taiz, and Hodeida—are
Muhamasheen adults are illiterate compared with 40 home to major concentrations of Muhamasheen. In Taiz,
 Mursi 779

Muhamasheen neighborhoods have suffered coalition air- MURSI

strikes, and the Muhamasheen were among the first people
in Yemen to become internally displaced. It has also been Current Location Ethiopia
reported that displaced Muhamasheen are denied access to Current Population 7,000
aid distributed via local sheikhs. Since the outbreak of the Language Mursi
conflict, urban Muhamasheen have moved on to open lands Interesting Fact Mursi women often wear lip plates as
and have been left to fend for themselves. Muhamasheen a sign of their marital status.
activists also report young Muhamasheen girls being pres-
sured into marrying early to support their families, and
Muhamasheen boys are forced to fight for various armed
Overview
factions (Minority Rights Group International 2018). The Mursi are an indigenous ethnic group living in south-
It should be noted that some commentators argue part west Ethiopia and refer to themselves as the Mun.
of the problem facing the Muhamasheen is that most of The Mursi speak the Mursi language, a Surmic language
the Muhamasheen have internalized their lowly social sta- that belongs to the Nilo-Saharan language family. The
tus and so do not try to better themselves by finding bet- Mursi frequently intermarry with the Suri people, who live
ter employment or becoming educated. In addition, much west of Ethiopia’s Omo Valley and south of the city of Maji.
of the people’s paltry income goes to buy qat, a plant- The area in which the Mursi live is sometimes referred to
based narcotic. However, recently some Muhamasheen as Mursiland.
have begun to lobby the government to improve the
Muhamasheen lot, and others seek development aid from Population, Diaspora, and Migration
charities. In addition, Taiz has witnessed Muhamasheen
There are around seven thousand Mursi people alive today
demonstrations protesting against their mistreatment.
(Newsome 2015). Mursi inhabit the Lower Omo Valley,
Despite these efforts, it is frequently the case that inter-
located in southwestern Ethiopia. Mursi territory consists
national donors prefer to work through Yemeni interme-
of around 772 square miles and is situated in the South
diaries who often misuse or steal funds intended for the
Omo Zone of the Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peo-
Muhamasheen (Worth 2008).
ples’ Regional State (SNNPRS), located between the Omo,
See also: Assyrian; Burakumin; Haratine; Kurd; Yazidi Mara, and Mago Rivers that flow into Lake Turkana. The
Mursi consider themselves the result of successive waves
Further Reading
of migration that were part of their people’s search for a
Caton, Steven C., ed. 2013. Middle East in Focus: Yemen. Santa
Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. “cool place” (bha lalini) in which to live, grow crops, and
International Dalit Solidarity Network. 2015. “Yemen: Ground- herd cattle. Cattle continue to make a vital contribution
breaking UNICEF Survey Reveals Enormous Welfare Gap to their diet. Though authorities often describe the Mursi
between Al-Akhdam and the General Population.” Relief- as nomads, the Mursi actually lead fairly settled lives that
Web, October 1. https://reliefweb.int/report/yemen/yemen​ depend heavily on agriculture. In dry times, the Mursi live
-groundbreaking-unicef-survey-reveals-enormous-welfare​
mainly along the banks of the Omo, but when the rainy
-gap-between-al-akhdam-and.
Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Yemen: season arrives, the Mursi migrate to grasslands east of the
Muhamasheen.” World Directory of Minorities and Omo River, which lie close to the grazing lands of their
Indigenous, January. http://minorityrights.org/minorities​ cattle.
/muhamasheen.
New Arab. 2016, May 17. “The Untouchables: Yemen’s Mar-
ginalised Forgotten in the War.” https://www.alaraby.co​ Geography and Environment
.uk/english/society/2016/5/17/the-untouchables-yemens​ The Lower Omo Valley stretches over an area of southwest-
-marginalised-forgotten-in-the-war.
ern Ethiopia and measures sixty-four square miles. The
Worth, Robert F. 2008. “Languishing at the Bottom of Yemen’s
Ladder.” New York Times, February 27. http://www.nytimes​ area features a diverse range of ecosystems including grass-
.com/2008/02/27/world/middleeast/27yemen.html?partner​ lands, volcanic outcrops, and riverine forests. The variety
=rssnyt&emc=rss. of ecosystems supports a wide variety of wildlife such as
crocodiles, zebras, giraffes, and flamingos. The Mursi and
780 Mursi

other local tribes, including the Bodi (Me’en), Daasanach, In recent years, the most significant event affecting
and Nyangatom, live along the banks of the Omo River and the Mursi has been the opening of the giant hydroelec-
depend on it for their existence, having developed complex tric dam, Gibe III, in the Omo Valley. The dam has greatly
socioeconomic and ecological practices that have adapted modified the area’s flood regime, having a massive effect
over time to the region’s various ecosystems and semiarid on the livelihoods of the people living in the valley’s lower
climate. The yearly flooding of the Omo River ensures the basin.
region’s biodiversity and guarantees the tribes’ food and
water supply, something that is particularly important dur-
ing dry periods. The annual flooding of the Omo River is Society, Culture, and Tradition
beneficial to the Mursi because they use the nutrient-rich Life for the Mursi is often difficult and perilous. However,
silt left along the riverbanks by the floodwater to feed their as a people, the Mursi are known for their relaxed attitude
crops. The Mursi practice shifting cultivation on the flood for life because they love to talk and enjoy music, body art,
plains, growing sorghum, maize, and beans. and bright colors (Mursi Online 2013). The Mursi have a
rich oral tradition through which they transmit their his-
tory, knowledge, and folklore.
History and Politics Adult Mursi men belong to named age sets and gradu-
According to Mursi oral history, the group established ate through a series of age grades; married Mursi women
their identity in the first half of the nineteenth century, assume the age status of their husbands. Elders who have
when the people moved from the Dirka hills on the west achieved a position of influence through their oratory
bank of the Omo River to the east bank. The migration and knowledge of tribal traditions lead Mursi communi-
probably occurred because the early Mursi were experi- ties. Mursi communities also regard the role of the priest
encing drought in their previous home. The journey was (komoru) as extremely important. Each local division of
not without its hazards because the people had to trans- the Mursi has its own priest, who personifies the health
port all their cattle across the river and then face tribes and good fortune of the local community while acting as
already living on the east bank, including the Bodi peo- an intermediary between the people and God. The priest is
ple, whose land they took as their own, causing the Bodi considered particularly important when a community is
to move to land near the Mara River. Mursi territory was threatened by drought and disease. For the Mursi, religion
incorporated within Ethiopia during the nineteenth cen- and health are interrelated. The Mursi believe that knowl-
tury under the reign of King Menelik II. edge of disease and of the sacred run hand in hand, a belief
In the 1930s, the Musri began to cultivate the banks that is shaped by the people’s experiences of the natural
of the Mara River, which they then made the de facto world. In times of disease and drought, people turn to the
northernmost border of their land. The Mursi entered into priest. The Mursi also have a traditional healing system
several bouts of conflict with the Bodi until 1975, when that revolves around the powers of female healers known
the Mara River was accepted by both sides as a boundary as ngerrêa.
between their peoples. At the end of the 1960s, Ethiopia There are two particularly well-known aspects of Mursi
began to exert control over the lower Omo Valley. First, society: ceremonial dueling (sagine) and the lip plates
the Omo and Mago national parks were established to worn by women. Ceremonial dueling is a type of martial
ensure the smooth state-run administration of the area as art that sees teams of men from neighboring Mursi groups
opposed to the apparently random patterns of indigenous fight each other using seven-feet-long wooden poles (don-
land use. Second, administered parks offered the state the gen; singular: donga) fashioned from a species of Grewia
chance to earn money from this as yet unprofitable area by tree. When a duelist is attacking, the donga is grasped at its
developing the region as a tourist destination. The creation base by both hands. The duelist then tries to land the shaft
of the Omo National Park led to improved transport links of the donga on any part of his opponent’s body, includ-
to Mursi areas, which meant the Mursi could trade cattle, ing the head, with enough force to knock him off his feet.
thereby drawing the Mursi into the market economy. At Each duelist wears a protective, embellished dueling out-
the same time, increasing numbers of tourists to Mursi fit called a tumoga that includes a basketry hand guard,
areas provide the Mursi with money that they use to buy animal-skin shin guards, sisal rings that protect the elbows
fabric, medicine, spices, coffee, and tools. and knees, a leopard-skin chest cover, a hide skirt, and a
 Mursi 781

cattle bell worn at the waist. A duelist’s head is protected

by lengths of cotton fabric.
For a victory to be declared, one of the duelists must
cause his opponent to fall to the ground or retire hurt
(usually with broken fingers). If a victor manages to make
his opponent to fall to the floor, he is then carried round
the field on the shoulders of his age set before being sur-
rounded by unmarried females belonging to his mother’s
clan. The females lay goatskins on the ground for the vic-
tor to sit on and hold fabric above him to symbolize that
the victor’s mother needs to protect her child from the
sun. There is a popular misconception among non-Mursi
that the victor is allowed to choose a wife from among the
unmarried females. In actuality, it is taboo for a Mursi man
to wed a woman belonging to his mother’s clan.
A dueling contest takes place over many days and is
arranged for a time of year when food is plentiful because
participants need to be physically prepared and nourished
to fight.
Mursi women have become something of a tourist
attraction for their wearing of clay (dhebinya) and wood
(kiyo) lip plugs, which they also sell to visitors. The women
do not wear lip plugs purely for ornamentation but rather
as a way of demonstrating that they have achieved adult-
hood, are fertile, and are therefore eligible for marriage.
Mursi girls receive their first lip plug when they reach A Mursi woman displays her lip plate, Omo Valley region of
puberty; a small slit is made in her lip, and a small piece southwestern Ethiopia. Wearing a lip plate symbolizes that a
of wood is inserted into the cut. This process symbolizes woman has achieved adulthood and is eligible for marriage.
that the girl has transitioned to adulthood and become a (Demidoff/Dreamstime.com)
member of the bansanai, the age set to which girls who
have become women belong. The lip plug signals that may lose some of the cattle settled upon with her fiancé as
the girl can now be considered a sexually mature woman part of a premarriage agreement.
who is ready to wed. For this reason, lip plugs are usually There is much variation in the size and design of Mursi
worn by unwed or newly married women rather than by lip plugs. The four main types of clay lip plugs are colored
women who are married with children. Once a Mursi girl red (dhebi a golonya), red-brown (dhebi a luluma), black
has received her initial lip plug, over the course of a year, (dhebi a korra), and a pale natural clay color (dhebi a
she will receive further wooden lip plugs of increasing size, holla). Lip plugs are colored red by placing them among
followed by increasingly large lip plugs made from clay hot coals and covering them with tree bark. Black lip plugs
or wood. The size of the largest lip plug worn by a Mursi are achieved by rubbing them with burnt loamy, a medici-
woman is partly determined by personal choice but also nal plant that is applied to women’s lips when they are cut.
by how much physical strain a woman’s lip can withstand. Wooden lip plugs (known as burgui) are worn exclusively
For fear of ripping her lip, a Mursi woman may ultimately by unwed females and are made only by men. Burgui are
opt to have only a fairly small lip plug, or even to not wear traditionally considered by the Mursi to be the most beau-
a lip plug at all, though a woman without a lip plug will tiful kind of lip plug, though they are increasingly thought
be deemed liable to have cattle prone to disease. In addi- of as old-fashioned by modern Mursi tastes.
tion, a Mursi woman who chooses to not have a lip plug Mursi women normally wear lip plugs when they serve
is thought of as lazy, or karkarre. This may result in her food to men, on important occasions such as weddings
having a lower value as a bride, meaning that her family and harvest celebrations, at dueling competitions, and
782 Mursi

while dancing. Unwed women may also wear lip plugs limited access to Western medical facilities and medicine
when fetching water or seeing friends. It is usual for a because traveling to healthcare facilities involves a long,
Mursi bride to live with her mother for the first year of her arduous journey to urban areas or to mission stations in
marriage because this allows her lip time to heal before she the Mago Valley. Most Mursi experiences of Western med-
shares a bed with her husband. For the first few years of icine involve visits to pharmacists or small clinics, but the
marriage, a Mursi bride will wear her lip plug frequently, treatment they receive at these facilities is often poor qual-
but over time, the regularity diminishes so that she will ity and is intended to make a profit for the pharmacists or
wear it only when serving food to her husband and his clinics. In recent years, there have been several successful
friends or when attending public events. Thus, older mar- vaccination programs in Mursi communities, but child-
ried Mursi women tend to hardly ever wear their lip plugs. hood epidemics still occur, including a 2010 measles epi-
Similarly, if a Mursi woman’s husband dies, then she will demic that killed many Mursi children.
usually discard her lip plug and never wear one again,
unless she is young with children and therefore needs to
find another husband. Threats to Survival
When lip plugs are removed, they may leave little more Today, perhaps the biggest threat to the survival of the
than a slight scar, but if the plug is large, the lip may dangle Mursi is the construction of plantations and the huge
as though deflated, giving the face a deformed appearance. upstream hydroelectric dam, Gibe III, in the lower Omo
Valley. The dam, which opened on December 17, 2016,
has ended the Omo River’s seasonal flood, meaning food
Health Care and Education crops no longer grow on the river’s banks. Gibe III is a key
The Mursi believe health is intimately connected to the element of an industrial development located in the lower
divine and the natural world. Traditionally, the Mursi use Omo Valley that includes smaller dams and sugar and cot-
herbs or calabash to clean wounds. Usually a healing woman ton plantations. The sugar plantations have been under
(ngerrêa) treats sick Mursi using pink or green clay and sit- development in the Omo Valley since 2011. According to
ting across a patient before running her hands over his or Human Rights Watch, around 19,500 hectares of land have
her bare back while making specific healing noises. After been cleared on the Omo River’s east bank for the sugar
making the noises, the healing woman runs her hands over plantation to be built, and on the river’s west bank, 10,500
the patient once more and then brings her hands together hectares have been cleared for irrigation purposes.
and makes a grabbing action as though pulling the illness out The lives of people living in the Omo Valley depend on
of the patient’s body. The woman then places the removed their cattle being able to graze by the Omo River and for
illness in a little pile of earth next to her in a healing action their crops being able to grow on the nutrient-rich alluvial
known as leto before blowing on the mound of earth. soil found on the riverbanks. This soil is fed by the river’s
The healing woman makes diagnoses according to annual flood that leaves water and nutritious sediment
her kulê, which is described as a small insect supposedly on the river’s edge. A lack of floodwater makes it more
crawling inside the woman’s head that must be awakened difficult for the Mursi to grow their food on the banks of
to make the correct medical decisions. As payment for the Omo River. Some Omo Valley communities have also
their services, the healing women are paid in cash, coffee, reported that authorities have restricted their access to the
goat, or cattle. The women then share their payment with Omo River, and as a result, they have suffered food short-
their ancestral spirits by rubbing the payment under their ages. In addition, the plantation construction has required
armpits, spilling the payment on the ground, or rubbing it land clearance, reducing the amount of land that is availa-
on their foreheads or stomachs. ble to agropastoralist groups such as the Mursi.
The healing women often specialize in certain illnesses. Over the past few decades, Mursi life has been affected
Some women treat illnesses believed to result from the by the activities of the Ethiopian state. In March 2016, the
curse of the evil eye, whereas others specialize in illnesses Ethiopian government announced plans for the construc-
considered to have an environmental cause or to be pun- tion of a new $1.6 billion, 2,200-megawatt dam, Gibe IV.
ishments from God. There are also plans afoot to construct a fifth dam across
The Mursi are aware that their traditional healing meth- the Omo River. The development of these dams will likely
ods are not scientifically proven to work, but they have further impact on the lives of the Mursi.
 Mursi 783

See also: Daasanach; Mbuti Mursi Online. 2006–2013. “Introducing the Mursi: Overview.”
University of Oxford. http://www.mursi.org/introducing-the​
Further Reading
-mursi.
Avery, Sean. 2013. What Future for Lake Turkana. Oxford,
Newsome, Matthew. 2015. “The People Pushed Out of Ethiopia’s
UK: University of Oxford, African Studies Centre. http://​
Fertile Farmland.” BBC, January 6. http://www.bbc.co.uk​
assets.survivalinternational.org/documents/1375 ​ / what​
/news/magazine-30623571.
futurelaketurkana-update.pdf.
Survival International. 2017. “The Omo Valley Tribes.” https://​
Human Rights Watch. 2017, February 14. “Ethiopia: Dams,
www.survivalinternational.org/tribes/omovalley.
Plantations a Threat to Kenyans: Lake Turkana Water Levels
Williams, Victoria. 2017. Life Customs around the World: From
Down, Further Drop Expected.” https://www.hrw.org/news​
Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
/2017/02/14/ethiopia-dams-plantations-threat-kenyans.
 N

NAGA Population, Diaspora, and Migration

Population estimates for the Naga vary from around 1 mil-
Current Location India; Myanmar
lion people (Minority Rights Group International 2015)
Current Population 1 million
to 3.5 million (Larmer 2015). Researchers agree there are
Language Various Tibeto-Burman languages around thirty-six Naga tribes divided into sixteen main
and dialects
tribal groups and twenty minor tribes. Around 120,000
Interesting Fact The Naga are famous for headhunt- people live in the Naga Self-Administered Zone in Sagaing
ing—the practice of preserving the
Division in Myanmar, with the rest of the Naga living in
heads of warriors killed in combat.
various parts of India; 60 percent of Naga live in the Indian
state of Nagaland (Larmer 2015), and there are significant
Naga populations in the Indian states of Manipur, Aruna-
Overview
chal Pradesh, and Assam.
The name Naga is given to many related tribal peoples who Each Naga tribal group has its own individual name,
live in the mountain region of the India-Myanmar bor- language, culture, and appearance, but there is a cohesive
der and give their name to the Indian state of Nagaland. sense of Naga national identity that unites the various
The origins of the name are disputed, with some scholars tribes. Traditionally, Naga villages are small and located on
believing the name derives either from the Burmese word hilltops near water sources. Many Naga villages are inac-
naka, meaning “those with pierced ears,” or the Assamese cessible by road.
word nahnga, meaning “fierce warriors.” Before World
War II, the various people preferred to be known by their
individual names, but after the war, the name Naga gained Geography and Environment
acceptance among the tribal groups. The Naga speak a host Nagaland is located in northeastern India between the
of languages and dialects belonging to the Tibeto-Burman Brahmaputra River Valley and the Naga Hills District in
language group. Because some of these dialects are not Myanmar’s Sagaing Division. Nagaland is one of the coun-
mutually intelligible, many Naga converse in English or try’s smaller states and covers an area of 6,401 square
Assamese. Almost all Naga are Christian, particularly Bap- miles. The state is bounded by the Indian states of Arun-
tist. A minority of Naga are Hindu or Buddhist or follow achal Pradesh to the northeast, Manipur to the south,
indigenous beliefs. Assam to the west and northwest, and Myanmar to the

784
 Naga 785

east. The state’s landscape consists of jungle-covered hills

and mountains.
Nagaland is dissected by many rivers: the Doyang and
Dikhu are located in the north, the Barak lies in the south-
west, and the tributaries of Myanmar Chindwin River
travel through the southeast. Nagaland has a monsoonal
climate with heavy rainfall occurring from May to Sep-
tember. The area’s average temperatures decrease with ele-
vation; in summer temperatures range from the low 70s
Fahrenheit to the low 100s, and, in winter, temperatures
rarely dip below 40 degrees.
Nagaland is home to many tropical and subtropical
evergreen forests containing palms, rattan, and bamboo,
as well as timber tree species including mahogany. Many
Naga practice jhum (shifting cultivation), though some
tribes practice terraced agriculture. Areas cleared for jhum
are often covered in a secondary growth of high grass,
reeds, and jungle. The most commonly grown Naga crops
are rice and millet, although some Naga cultivate fields
of opium poppies. The resulting opium is used locally or
traded for items such as clothing or household goods.
Animals found in Nagaland include elephants, tigers,
leopards, monkeys, oxen, pangolins, and mongooses. The
Naga fish and hunt to supplement their subsistence diet.
Traditionally, Naga fishermen use toxic leaves to kill or
incapacitate fish (which float to the surface) before collect- A Naga tribesman wears traditional dress at the annual Hornbill
ing the fish in nets. Today, however, most Naga fishermen Festival in Nagaland, India. Nagas from across Nagaland attend
lob homemade explosives into rivers to make fish come to the cultural extravaganza to celebrate Naga culture and heritage.
the surface before collecting the fish in their teeth. Hunt- (David Evison/Dreamstime.com)
ers use fishing nets near a reservoir in Doyang to trap the
birds when they come to roost. The Wildlife Trust of India allowed the Naga to establish their own cultures that were
(WTI) signed a pact with a local nongovernmental organ- far removed from those of their neighbors living at lower
ization (NGO) and leaders of Pangti, Asshaa, and Sungro altitudes. Over the years, the Naga were often at war among
villages to protect the migratory birds as they pass through themselves. Over time, the Naga garnered a reputation for
Nagaland. In 2013, the Naga vowed to protect a falcon that keeping the heads of warriors that they killed in battle. The
they have hunted for centuries. Three villages in Nagaland frequent infighting meant that the peoples never estab-
signed a resolution to fine anyone who hunted Amur fal- lished their own state system. Instead, the autonomous
cons, tens of thousands of which were killed by the Naga tribes fell under the control of the powerful Indian states
for their meat each year. of Assam and Manipur, though in reality the tribe’s inac-
cessible locations allowed them to as independent peoples.
The first official mention of the Naga came in records
History and Politics of Tai Ahom warriors who conquered the Myanmar low-
The Naga are thought to have migrated to their homeland lands between 1228 and 1229. The Ahom ruled Assam and
from either Mongolia or Tibet during the tenth century. created a close relationship with some Naga tribes, though
The earliest Naga inhabited a much larger area than they their relationship with other Naga was tense. In the main,
do now, with the people being forced to move to succes- the Naga rejected the Ahom claim to tribal hill land, but
sively higher locations when waves of invaders entered Naga tribes living in lower areas paid tribute to the Ahom
their land. Living in isolated mountainous locations in exchange for being allowed to keep revenue-free land
786 Naga

and open access to fishing rivers. The tribes were permitted into Nagaland. Unlike other formerly British territories,
these perks on the understanding that they would not raid Nagaland was not included in the Indian Independence
settlers living on low plains. Apart from their contact with Act (1947). The Naga rejected Indian control until 1950,
the Ahom, the Naga had virtually no contact with outsid- when they joined the state of Assam, and the Naga Hills
ers until well into the nineteenth century. When the Brit- were designated part of the state’s tribal areas. In 1952,
ish colonial authorities took over Assam in 1826, they sent Nehru visited the Naga Hills but declined to meet the NNC
expeditions into the mountains. The first contact between or to listen to their demands. Soon after Nehru’s visit, all
the British and the Naga was violent, with the Naga not wel- Baptist missionaries were banished from Naga areas. The
coming the intrusion of the outsiders. The level of violence Naga then began a campaign of civil disobedience similar
at the first meeting was such that it prompted the British to to the one implemented to achieve India’s independence,
withdraw, and for over two decades, the British ignored the with people withdrawing from school and people refusing
Naga. However, when the British decided to build a road to pay their taxes. This rebellion led to NNC leaders being
from Manipur in India to what was then British Burma, the arrested, the tribal councils controlled by the NNC being
British had to travel through land inhabited by the Naga. abolished, and the military being stationed in Naga areas.
In 1851, the British entered the large Naga settlement of In 1956, the NNC announced the formation of a Federal
Kohima, which they burned to the ground. Indeed, to deal Government of Nagaland (FGN) that had its own constitu-
with the fierce Naga, the British instigated a policy known tion and Home Guard. During the period 1956 to 1958, a
officially as Slaughter and Withdraw (Minahan 2012). In bitter guerrilla war was fought throughout the Naga Hills,
1881, the British finally managed to overcome the Naga, with alleged atrocities committed by both the Indian mil-
and the various Naga chiefs and councils signed treaties itary and the Naga militia. According to Indian govern-
permitting the British to add Naga lands to British colonial ment figures, 1,400 Naga died as opposed to 162 Indians.
lands in Assam and Burma. According to Naga testaments, Indian troops engaged in
British and American missionaries brought Christian- the torture, rape, and murder of the Naga; destroyed Naga
ity to the Naga. The missionaries also established West- villages; and burned their crops (Minority Rights Group
ern schools in Naga villages and devised a written form International 2015).
of a Naga language in an attempt to help the Naga better Over time, divisions began to emerge within the Naga
understand each other. independence movement, including the formation of the
In 1929, Christian Naga called for the unification of Naga People’s Convention that favored the creation of a
many Naga-populated areas of India and Burma as a sin- Naga state as an achievable alternative to total Naga inde-
gle, independent colonial authority and asked the Brit- pendence. The fighting between the Naga and the Indian
ish to allow them to establish an independent Naga state government continued, with the Indian army rehoming
should the British ever leave the Indian subcontinent. The villagers away from their home villages so as to separate
British did not reply to the Naga’s request. Angered at being them from the rebels. Meanwhile, the leader of the NNC,
ignored, several Naga groups rebelled against the British. Z. A. Phizo, fled to England, where he attracted interna-
These rebellions continued until the outbreak of World tional attention to the Naga cause.
War II, during which the Naga helped the British and har- In 1964, a cease-fire was negotiated, but this was unable
assed the Japanese. During the war, a Naga National Coun- to bring about a permanent end to the conflict. In 1972,
cil (NNC) was founded to safeguard Naga interests, and, the Indian authorities officially terminated the cease-fire.
in 1945, the council began to call for negotiations for Naga During the 1970s, divisions arose within the Naga guerrilla
independence. Indian leader Nehru refused the Naga’s call forces, with one group surrendering in 1973. Around the
for autonomy, though he stated that Naga independence same time, a Nagaland state government joined with the
might be considered. Indian government in supporting the government’s efforts
The British suggested that instead of becoming inde- to quell the rebels. With many NNC guerrillas having fled
pendent, the Naga should stay as part of India—a sug- to Burma and the leader in exile, a new Nagaland state
gestion Naga leaders refused. In August 1947, on the government, the United Democratic Front (UDF), tried
eve of Indian independence, Naga leaders declared to negotiate a cease-fire. However, the Indian government
Nagaland an independent republic. The new Indian gov- rejected the cease-fire to inflict a final defeat on the NNC. In
ernment reacted to this declaration by sending troops 1975, the NNC surrendered in significant numbers because
 Naga 787

although they hoped for Naga independence, they believed Society, Culture, and Tradition
that continuing the armed conflict against the might of Traditionally, Naga culture is a warrior culture ruled by
India would result in the Naga’s ultimate defeat. The sur- all-powerful hereditary chiefs. Other Naga officials belong
rendering Naga argued that resistance should be political to an alternating council of elders. Unlike neighboring
rather than physical and demanded maximum autonomy societies, Naga society lacks a caste system, and men and
for the Naga within the Indian nation. To this end, the Naga women are considered equals. Although Naga women
Peace Council contacted Naga guerrilla groups and called play a central role in community affairs, Naga society is
for a cease-fire. The result was the 1975 Shillong Accord, patriarchal, with great esteem placed on the birth of male
which asked the Naga to accept the binding nature of the children.
Indian constitution and surrender their weapons. At the Traditionally, each Naga village was a separate entity
same time, India would halt its military operations in imbued with its own sense of community and with the
the area and lift the curfew it had imposed on the Naga. inhabitants speaking their own language. However, the
Phizo rejected the cease-fire, as did a Chinese-influenced establishing of large towns in every Naga region has
Naga group based in Burma that subsequently became the brought modernization to the villages, dramatically
National Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN). changing Naga lifestyles. For instance, the Naga tradition
By the 1980s, most of Nagaland was at peace, although of headhunting is much reduced. Headhunting (the prac-
the NSCN was still active in both Nagaland and among tice of preserving a several head) was a fundamental part
Naga communities based in the neighboring state of Mani- of Naga society because the people considered the practice
pur. As a result of this continued agitation, there were to have both cultural and religious significance. Most Naga
continuing clashes between the NSCN in Burma and the villages had a skull house where heads were stored and to
Indian army. During the late 1980s, the NSCN split into a which each man of the village was expected to contribute
number of splinter groups. Throughout the 1990s, a num- the head of a person he killed. Naga culture considered the
ber of Naga splinter groups came to influence Naga areas. taking of a head as a sign of courage, and men who did
In 1997, various North American Baptist Church leaders not kill victims and preserve the heads were deemed fee-
tried to unite the disparate groups during the commemora- ble and feminine. The practice of headhunting was banned
tive events held in Atlanta, Georgia, to mark the 125th year by British colonial authorities, and Christian missionaries
of Christianity in Nagaland. Although all the Naga factions condemned the practice. Nonetheless, the Naga contin-
were invited, the NSCN (IM) shunned the Atlanta meet. At ued to headhunt well into the twentieth century, and it is
the same time, the group entered into a cease-fire agree- thought to continue among isolated Naga communities in
ment with the Indian government that is still in operation. Myanmar. Many Naga men still bear the tattoos associated
The peace is fragile but has survived more or less intact with participating in headhunting.
despite attempts to subvert the peace, including the 1999 Although Naga society is modernizing, the people still
attempted murder of the elected Nagaland chief minister rely on agriculture or herding long-horned cattle. Some Naga
S. C. Jamir and the killing of a dozen NSCN activists by the also earn money from loom weaving and wood carving.
Indian army (Minority Rights Group International 2015). The Naga speak several interrelated languages as well
In 2004–2005, several meetings were held between the as numerous dialects. When the Naga write, they do so in
NSCN (IM) and the Indian central government, during Latin, which is a legacy of the influence of Christian mis-
which it was agreed that the government would extend the sionaries operating among the people.
cease-fire to include Naga living in Assam, Manipur, and There is a long tradition of opium smoking among the
Arunachal Pradesh. The NSCN (IM) felt this declaration Naga. Most men smoke opium, but women do not. Naga
did not go far enough and cited it as an obstacle to fur- men heat raw opium by spreading the opium on a cloth to
ther peace talks. Subsequently, interstate ethnic conflict dry and heating it with water to create a paste.
intensified in Naga areas. During recent peace negotia-
tions held in The Netherlands, the focus of talks turned
to Naga autonomy, with both sides exploring exactly what Health Care and Education
this autonomy might mean in reality. Peace talks contin- Healthcare infrastructure in Nagaland and Manipure is
ued to be held as recently as 2006, but to date, the conflict inadequate. In addition, bandhs (strikes) are called fre-
continues. quently, thereby interrupting the supply of health care to
788 Nahua

the Naga. Researchers have discovered that 2 percent of the area’s growing tourist industry prompts new interest
the population of Nagaland and Manipur inject drugs, in Naga heritage, though this too may have its downside
particularly heroine, which is trafficked from neighboring by turning the Naga into tourist attractions, presenting a
Myanmar. This drug use has helped make the two Indian tourist-friendly version of Naga culture.
states with the highest HIV rates, and injecting drugs such
See also: Tharu
as spasmo proxyvon, which is intended to be taken orally,
Further Reading
can result in abscesses, leading to injectors losing limbs
Kermode, Michelle, Peter Deutschmann, M. C. Arunkumar,
(Kermode et al. 2011). That HIV infection rates are rising and Greg Manning. 2011. “Injecting Drug Use and HIV in
rapidly in Nagaland is evinced by figures that show the Northeast India: Negotiating a Public Health Response in a
infection rate among female sex workers in Dimapur (the Complex Environment.” In Health, Culture and Religion in
commercial heart of Nagaland) rose from 4.4 percent in South Asia: Critical Perspectives, edited by Assa Doron and
2004 to 16.4 percent in 2006 (Kermode et al. 2011). Alex Broom, 47–57. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
Larmer, Brook. 2015. “Can India’s Land of Former Headhunters
The history of Western education among the Naga
Make Peace?” National Geographic, August 25. https://news​
stretches back centuries, and as a result education is highly .nationalgeographic.com/2015/08/150826-nagaland-india​
prized among the Naga. Today, children in Nagaland have -myanmar-headhunters-baptists.
access to education at all levels from primary to university, Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the
though the educational infrastructure is far from ideal; Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
as a result, wealthier parents may send their children to Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “India: Nagas.”
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples,
other parts of India to receive schooling. The inhabitants
June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/nagas.
of Nagaland have a literacy rate of 70 percent (Kermode et
al. 2011), with English being the main language of educa-
tion in both private and public Naga schools.

Threats to Survival NAHUA

The Naga’s struggle for independence continues to this day Current Location Mexico
in both India and Myanmar, and it seems likely conflict Current Population 1.5 million–2.6 million
will continue for as long as the Naga are without independ- Language Nahuatl
ence. Despite many problems associated with insurgency Interesting Fact As part of the Spanish forces, the
in the name of trying to attain independence, some com- Nahua were baptized en masse and
mentators argue that Nagaland’s future depends on how given Spanish names.
well local and nation governments can meet the expecta-
tions of the Naga people. For example, young Naga today
are far better educated than older generations, yet employ- Overview
ment opportunities are scare in Nagaland except for jobs The Nahua (sometimes called the Nahuatlacas, Aztecs, or
in the civil service. The Naga have resisted the central Aztecas) are an ethnic group inhabiting an extensive area
government’s attempts to impose Hindi on them and con- in central Mexico. The Nahua speak many Nahuatl dialects
tinue to use English as a lingua franca. This refusal to learn and variants belonging to the Nahuan or Aztecan branch
Hindi demonstrates the Naga’s single-mindedness, but of the Uto-Aztecan language family. The Nahua are Chris-
knowledge of Hindi is necessary to function in northern tian and are mostly Roman Catholic, though recently some
India, and a lack of Hindi limits the Naga’s opportunities Nahua have joined evangelical Protestant sects. Despite
outside of Nagaland. being Christian, the Nahua still practice their traditional
Naga culture is endangered. The Nagaland state gov- religious rituals.
ernment has instigated the annual Hornbill Festival as a
celebration of Naga heritage, but apart from local dance
troupes and the presence of morungs (thatched-roof Population, Diaspora, and Migration
longhouses), visitors to Nagaland report that traditional Estimates suggest there are roughly 1.5 million Nahuatl
Naga culture is in decline (Larmer 2015). It may be that speakers in Mexico, though the actual number of Nahua
 Nahua 789

may be around 2.6 million. It is difficult to give concrete pollution is another significant environmental problem in
population numbers for the Nahua because the Mexican Mexico, with Mexico City being one of the world’s most
government categorizes Mexico’s citizens by language polluted cities. Climate models suggest average annual
rather than by ethnicity (Minahan 2002). The largest temperatures will increase during the mid-twenty-first
Nahua communities exist in the Mexican states of Verac- century. Spring precipitation is likely to decrease, thereby
ruz, Puebla, Hidalgo, San Luis Potisí, and Guerrero. There worsening the aridity in some regions of Mexico. Rising
are also sizable Nahua populations in México State, More- temperatures will probably intensify dryness during the
los, and the Federal District around Mexico City, Tlaxcala, summer. These climate changes will likely increase the
Oaxaca, Michoacán, and Durango. Outside these areas, levels of drought.
Nahua communities exist elsewhere in Mexico as well as
in the United States (chiefly in New York and California)
and in Canada. History and Politics
The Nahua population comprises independent tribes The Nahua originate from the arid areas of northwest Mex-
that share a common cultural and linguistic heritage to ico as well as adjacent parts of the southwest United States.
form a single indigenous ethnic group. The independ- From here, several waves of Nahua migrated southward to
ent Nahua tribes maintain their own tribal identities to a central Mexico. Around 400 CE, Nahua groups such as the
degree, meaning that rivalries can exist within the Nahua Pochutec began to break away from the larger Nahua com-
community. munity to settle in central and southern Mexico, especially
around the Pacific Coast in Oaxaca State. Starting around
600 CE, the Nahua overpowered the resistance of earlier
Geography and Environment occupants of these areas to dominate central Mexico. Dur-
Much of northern and central Mexico comprises the ing the period 800 to 1000, the Nahua (by now called the
Central Mexican Plateau, an arid to semiarid area that is Toltecs) controlled much of Central America. During this
typically around 5,988 feet above sea level. The plateau time, the Nahua dominated the great Valley of Mexico
stretches from the United States border in the north to the and held territory far beyond their heartland, and at the
Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt in the south. The plateau is same time, continuing waves of Nahua migrants headed
bordered by the Sierra Madre Occidental to the west and northward. The Toltecs fell from power following a period
Sierra Madre Oriental to the east. The plateau is divided of instability as the Nahua tribes became scattered. For
into north and south sections by low mountains. A low example, the Pipil-Nicarao migrated as far south as mod-
east–west mountain range in the state of Zacatecas divides ern Nicaragua. In response to the Toltecs’ downfall, var-
the plateau into the Northern Plateau (Mesa del Norte) ious Nahua tribes established mighty city-states (alteptl)
and the Central Plateau (Mesa Central). The Northern across central Mexico that vied with each other for power.
Plateau contains numerous narrow, isolated ridges and During the thirteenth century, waves of Nahua migra-
depressions. The north of the Northern Plateau is home tion arrived in the high-altitude Valley of Mexico. The
to the Chihuahuan Desert. The Central Plateau is higher Nahua migrants settled on an island in the center of the
than the Northern Plateau and contains numerous valleys valley, Lake Texcoco. From here, the Nahua tribes overran
formed by ancient lakes. Much of the Central plateau is surrounding peoples and divided the lake region into var-
drained by the Río Grande de Santiago and its tributar- ious tribal domains. For instance, while the Xochimilcas
ies, including the Río Lerma, which drains into the Pacific ruled the southern end of the lake region, the Tepanec took
Ocean. Most of the Mexican Plateau is covered by deserts control of the region’s west and the Acolhua took the east.
and xeric shrublands, though forests are found on sur- At the same time as the Toltecs were in a state of collapse,
rounding mountain ranges. Some of the forests form sky a group of nomadic Nahuan hunter-gatherers, initially
islands (isolated mountains surrounded by very different called the Mexica and later known as the Aztecs, started to
lowlands) on interior ranges. extend their territory from highland northern areas. The
Mexico faces significant environmental issues that Aztecs are reputed to have been the last Nahuan people to
affect almost all of the country. For instance, deforestation arrive in the Valley of Mexico. The Aztecs were well armed
has contributed to serious soil erosion. Deforestation is and were soon hired as mercenaries by the leaders of the
a major cause of desertification throughout Mexico. Air various lake city-states before establishing their own state
790 Nahua

in 1325 on two islands in the center of Lake Texcoco. The the Spanish subjugate the rest of the Aztec empire, which
islands formed the basis of the Aztec empire that developed was renamed New Spain. As part of New Spain, the Nahua
as the Aztecs united with other city-states located around were regarded as Spain’s allies and so were granted priv-
the lake and entered into wars whose victories allowed the ileges together with a degree of autonomy that was not
Aztecs to expand their empire so that it reached from conferred on other indigenous peoples within the empire.
the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. For the next three From 1519 to roughly 1550, the Spanish set about con-
hundred years, the Mexica were the chief Nahua group. verting indigenous peoples to Roman Catholicism and
From 1440 to 1468, the Aztec emperor Montezuma led a creating an indigenous tribute system. During this time,
Nahua alliance that conquered territory to the south and the Spanish typically made limited contact with the indig-
east of the Aztec realm. Subsequent emperors expanded enous men, but they took local women as wives or concu-
the Aztec empire further, all the while forcing indigenous bines (Minahan 2002). The Nahua served as foot soldiers as
peoples to pay them heavy tribute. In 1502, the Aztecs the Spanish extended their control into the farthest lands
reached the peak of their powers with the succession of of Mesoamerica. Nahua soldiers comprised the majority
emperor Montezuma II, who spread the Nahuatl language of warriors in the military expeditions that conquered
throughout the Valley of Mexico to Central America and Mesoamerican empires, including those of the Mayans,
from the Pacific Ocean to the Gulf Coast. Zapotecs, and Mixtecs. The Spanish enlisted the Nahua
In 1519, a Spanish expedition traveled from Cuba to the to fight against northern tribes in the War of Chichimeca
Mexican Gulf Coast. From here, the Spanish headed inland (1550–1590), a Spanish military campaign against the
in the hope of finding treasure. The Spanish expedition Chichimeca Confederation that was established in the
was opposed by the Tlaxcaltecs, a Nahua tribe that had lowlands of west north central Mexico.
escaped suppression by the Aztecs. Ultimately, the Spanish As part of the Spanish ranks, the Nahua were baptized
defeated the Tlaxcaltecs, who then entered into an alliance en masse, and the Nahua received Spanish names. Any
with the Spanish to help bring about the end of the Aztecs. Nahua who maintained their pre-Christian religion faced
The conquistadors led by Hernán Cortés, along with their severe punishment or even execution. However, Nahua
allies of Indian tribes who wished to be freed of Aztec rule, converts often included elements of their pre-Christian
arrived in the Valley of Mexico in 1520. The anti-Aztec alli- beliefs into Christian rituals, unbeknownst to the Spanish.
ance was welcomed to the Aztec capital of Tenochititlan Under Spanish rule, such European diseases as smallpox
by Montezuma II. Initially, many Aztecs regarded Cortés killed millions of Nahua. In the 1520s, these deaths facil-
as the personification of their returning god, Quetzalcoatl. itated the rapid growth of Christianity in Mexico because
However, they soon realized that Cortés wished to conquer the Nahua believed the smallpox epidemic was proof that
their people. Led by the new Aztec emperor, Cuitlahuac the Christian god was superior to their traditional deities,
(brother of Montezuma II), the Aztec warriors drove the and most Nahua accepted their conversion to Christianity
Spanish from their city. Over the next year, the Spanish as well as Spanish rule.
and their Tlaxcaltec allies lay siege to Tenochititlan, which During the sixteenth century, roughly 240,000 Span-
ultimately fell to the Spanish alliance, though not before iards migrated to New Spain. In the seventeenth century,
the Aztecs had sacrificed some captured Spanish soldiers a further 450,000 Spanish migrants arrived in the col-
on the top of their huge pyramid. The Aztec losses were far ony. Most of the Spanish colonists were single men who,
greater than those suffered by the Spanish, to the degree once they arrived in New Spain, married or lived with
that some historians have likened the Spanish alliance’s indigenous women. The intermixing of Spanish colonists
attack on the Aztecs as akin to genocide (Naimark 2017). and local women produced a huge mestizo (mixed-race)
While besieging Tenochititlan, the Spanish and their population that eventually became the largest section of
Indian allies destroyed surrounding towns, raping and the New Spain population. Under Spanish colonial rule,
killing the inhabitants as well as taking some young Aztecs the identity, customs, arts, and architecture of Mexico
as slaves. The slaves were then put to work rebuilding the began to evolve from a fusion of Spanish culture and the
city as a Spanish settlement, now known as Mexico City. indigenous traditions. Initially, the Nahua tended to speak
Cortés also destroyed any vestige of the Aztec religion to their own language as well as Spanish. In time, though,
prepare survivors for their conversion to Catholicism. Fol- the Nahua adopted the culture of the majority mestizo
lowing the fall of the Aztec capital, Nahua leaders helped population.
 Nahua 791

At the start of the nineteenth century, Mexican leaders

led the fight for the end of Spanish rule over the Mexicans. Quetzalcóatl: The Aztec Creator-
In 1810, Mexico became independent. This did nothing to
God
help the Nahua, however, who remained poor and margin-
Quetzalcóatl, one of the most important gods of
alized. Most Nahua worked as seasonal laborers, menial
Mesoamerica, was worshipped by at least three
workers, or subsistence farmers and held little interest in
Mexican civilizations: the Aztecs, the Teotihuacán,
the politics of the Mexican elite. The first decades follow-
and the Toltecs. Quetzalcóatl’s name has several
ing Mexico’s independence saw the country experience
different meanings, including “precious twin” and
economic instability that affected the Nahua.
“feathered serpent.” The various meanings reflect
In 1857, Mexico became a secular state. From 1857 to
the many forms by which Quetzalcóatl was revered,
1860, a civil war called the War of Reform erupted between
including as a green-feathered serpent. Quetzalcóatl
members of the ruling Liberal Party and members of the
is associated with the wind, rain, farming, and fertil-
Conservative Party, who resisted the radical restructur-
ity. Born to a virgin, from infancy, Quetzalcóatl had
ing of Mexico’s laws. The Liberals wanted to eliminate the
the adult qualities of wisdom and oration. Quetzal-
influence of the Catholic Church as well as undermine the
cóatl is reputed to have taught his followers about
Mexican Army, both of which were protected by privileges
the arts, invented their calendars, and shown them
(fueros) established during colonial times. During the War
how to grow cereals.
of Reform, most Nahua backed the opposition. The end
of the war saw the Liberals victorious. Later, in the 1860s,
Mexico was occupied by France, leading to many Nahua inheritance, and they tend to marry within their com-
joining resistance forces. Over the course of the following munity. The concept of compadrazgo (ritual kinship) is
decades, Mexico underwent rapid modernization, remark- important to the Nahua. There are various types of Nahua
able economic advances, and investment in its arts and compadrazgo, which can be achieved through events such
sciences. However, for the Nahua this was a time of con- as marriage, baptism, and first communion.
tinued economic discrimination and political suppression. Traditionally, the Nahua live in rural areas, where they
In 1910, the Mexican Revolution began, thereby bringing live as subsistence farmers, growing crops such as maize,
about the end of the ruling political elite. The revolution coffee, sugarcane, beans, and tomatoes. The Nahua also
also initiated a widespread civil war. In 1917, a new Mex- raise animals such as turkeys, pigs, and chickens. Some
ican constitution was adopted that contained many eco- Nahua also sell their handicrafts, including woven baskets
nomic and social gains for the war’s rebel groups, including and pottery.
equality for the Nahua and other indigenous communities. The Nahuatl language is spoken by many Nahua,
Despite the gains included in the new constitution, though the various dialects tend to be greatly influenced
the Nahua remain marginalized and are among Mexico’s by Spanish and are not necessarily mutually understanda-
poorest people. Young Nahua are forced to migrate to find ble. In 2003, a new language law was enshrined that recog-
employment and opportunity in Mexico’s cities or in the nized Nahuatl (along with other indigenous languages) as
United States and Canada. Consecutive Mexican govern- national languages in the areas of Mexico where they are
ments have vowed to address Nahua inequality. However, spoken. In these areas, the languages enjoy the same status
throughout the twentieth and twenty-first centuries, most as Spanish. Nahua activists call for Nahuatl to be used as
Nahua have experienced little improvement to their lives the first language in Nahua areas.
despite Mexico’s modernization and economic advance- Most Nahua are at least nominally Roman Catholic,
ment. Today, the former importance of the Nahua and the though recently evangelical Protestant groups have gained
Aztecs is evident only in museum artifacts or in the collec- converts. Many Nahua continue to maintain pre-Christian
tive Nahua memory. beliefs as part of their Christian rituals and ceremonies.

Society, Culture, and Tradition Health Care and Education

Nahua culture combines precolonial indigenous tradi- Health care in rural Nahua areas consists of state-run clin-
tions with Spanish culture. Nahua society favors bilateral ics and hospitals as well as traditional healers. The Nahua
792 Nanai

tend to seek medical help only when herbal or nutritional Further Reading
remedies have failed. Traditional Nahua medical practi- Huber, Brad R. 2004. “The Nahua.” In Encyclopedia of Medi-
tioners include shamans, parteras (birth attendants) mid- cal Anthropology: Health and Illness in the World’s Cultures,
edited by Carol R. Ember and Melvin Ember, 863–872. Vol. 2.
wives, herbalists, sobadores (bonesetters), masseuses, and New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.
exorcists. Many Nahua shamans and midwives claim to Huck, James D., Jr. 2018. Modern Mexico. Santa Barbara, CA:
have supernatural powers. Parteras tend to have received ABC-CLIO.
government training and certification. Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
Sanitation and hygiene vary between Nahua commu- Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 3, L–R.
nities. Most rural Nahua do not have access to indoor Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Naimark, Norman M. 2017. Genocide: A World History. Oxford,
plumbing or toilets. Because animals often live in shelters UK: Oxford University Press.
adjoining Nahua homes, the homes often have infestations Sandoval Arenas, Carlos O. “Displacement and Revitalization of
of lice and fleas. Such living conditions mean rural Nahua the Nahuatl Language in the High Mountains of Veracruz,
are prone to gastrointestinal and respiratory infections. Mexico.” Arts and Humanities in Higher Education 16 (1):
In some areas, Nahua education is bilingual and 66–81.
intercultural. As a result of this form of education, these
communities are becoming assimilated into the prevail-
ing Mexican culture because the Nahua opt to not speak
their own language but instead speak Spanish, which they
learn at school. Hand in hand with this language assim- NANAI
ilation, some Nahua children have started to look at the
world from the point of view of mainstream society and Current Location Russia; China
have become ignorant of Nahuatl culture. In the High Current Population 20,000
Mountains of Veracruz, Nahuatl is not used in classrooms Language Russia; Nanai
despite Veracruz being a Nahuatl-speaking region. Fur- Interesting Fact Nanai living in China are called the
ther, many teachers do not speak the language. Sometimes Hezhe.
Nahuatl is taught as a class in elementary schools, with the
bulk of lessons taught in Spanish. Once the children who
have learned Nahuatl leave elementary schools, they forget Overview
the language because it is not spoken or taught in second- The Nanai (sometimes called the Nani, Golds, Samagir, or
ary schools. Hezhen, among other names) are a Tungusic people liv-
ing on the border between Russia’s Far East and China’s
Heilongjiang Province. The Nanai are bilingual because
Threats to Survival they speak Russian as well as the Nanai language, which
The Nahua are a poor and marginalized people. Each year, belongs to the southern group of Manchu-Tungus lan-
many young Nahua leave their homes to find work else- guages. Some also speak Mandarin Chinese. Most Nanai
where. Although successive Mexican governments have maintain their traditional shamanistic religious beliefs,
pledged to help the Nahua, the Nahua have benefited lit- though a minority of Nanai have embrace Lamaism
tle from modern Mexico’s modernization and economic (Tibetan Buddhism). Nanai or Nani is the name that the
advances. The Nahua’s culture and language is endangered people apply to themselves; it translates from the Nanai
by a lack of bilingual education. Some Nahua do continue language as “people of this place.” The Nanai are very
to speak the people’s language and retain Nahua cultural closely associated with the Hezhe of China.
traditions, however. It is possible that nationalist and
indigenous movements begun during the Mexican Revo-
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
lution will in time help revitalize the Nahua language and
cultural expression, though greater Nahua assimilation The Nanai population is estimated at around twenty thou-
seems more likely. sand people. The Nanai inhabit widely scattered settle-
ments along the Amur, Ussur, and Girin Rivers in Russia’s
See also: Mayan; Mixtec Khabarovsk Province, as well as along the Sungari River
 Nanai 793

of northeast China. There are many separate territorial Siberian Islands lie north of eastern Siberia in the Arctic
Nanai groups that carry their own names, including the Ocean. The islands divide the Laptev Sea to the west from
Kile, Akani, Heden, Solonai, and Bolaken. Until the mid- the East Siberian Sea to the east. The Dmitry Laptev Strait
nineteenth century, the Russians called all Nanai the Gold. separates the New Siberian Islands from mainland Siberia.
This was a local name also used by the Ulchis, the Orochis, Chemical pollution of the Amur River has seriously
and the Negidal people. impacted on the Nanai who live along the river. In 2005,
an accident at a chemical factory released toxic benzene
and nitrobenzene into the Songhua River in China, which
Geography and Environment in turn polluted the Amur River in Russia. The pollution
Amur River is one of the longest rivers in the Far East, rank- was so serious that fishing in the river water was banned
ing behind only the Yangtze and Huang Ho (Yellow River) for a time. Forest fires have also reduced the forest cover
among the longest rivers in China. The headwaters of the around the Amur River. This deforestation has resulted in
Amur River rise in mountains located in Siberia, Mongo- a change in the climate and hydrological patterns of the
lia, and China’s Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. The Amur River area while also reducing greatly the number
main river flows east and southeast to form most of the of forest-dwelling game animals in the vicinity. The loss of
border between China’s Heilongjiang Province and south- game animals hampered the Nanai’s ability to gather food
east Siberia. At the Russian city of Khabarovsk, the river (Korshunova et al. 2013).
heads northeast before emptying into the Pacific Ocean.
The Amur River travels through an area called the
Amur-Heilong ecoregion. This region includes huge areas History and Politics
of grassland, unbroken taiga biome (snow forest), and Little is known of the Nanai’s origins. It is thought that
some of the world’s best-preserved temperate forests. Wild they are partly descended from the Sushi (or Sushen), who
ginseng, long treasured for its medicinal uses, also grows are mentioned in Chinese chronicles written during the
in the region. Some parts of the ecoregion’s temperate for- second and first centuries BCE as living along the Amur,
ests are home to endangered tigers and Amur leopards, as Sungari, and Ussur River regions. In common with other
well as bears and deer. Tungusic peoples, the Nanai were regarded as vassals of
Sungari River lies in Heilongjiang and Jilin Provinces the Chinese Empire. Consequently, the Nanai paid taxes
in northeast China. The Sungari is the largest of the trib- and tributes to the Chinese authorities but did not live
utaries of the Amur River. It joins the Amur River below under their direct rule. In the late seventh century, the
the Chinese town of Tongjiang, some distance north of Nanai came under the control of the Manchu state of Bal-
Khabarovskin in far eastern Russia. The Sungari rises in hae. In 926, the Balhae were overrun by the Khitans, mem-
the Changbai Mountains on the border between Jilin and bers of a Mongol people who ruled Manchuria and parts of
North Korea. The river’s upper course flows north before north China. Most Nanai clans remained closely allied to
flowing out onto the Northeast Plain, north of Jilin. At the Manchu, who were then called the Jurchen.
Fengman, the river is dammed as part of a massive hydro- In 1206, Mongol tribes ruled by the Jurchen rebelled
electric project. The Sungari is frozen from November until under a new leader later known commonly as Genghis
March and reaches its maximum flow during the summer. Khan. In 1234, the Mongols overran the Jurchen to take
The thawing of mountain snow from May, together with control of the region. Under Mongols, all Tungusic peoples
summer rains until August, means that the river floods were divided, including the Jurchen and Nanai. The Tun-
frequent, sometimes with devastating consequences. The gusic living in the south were treated as ethnic Chinese,
Sungari is an important waterway, navigable by steamships whereas those living in the north were considered ethnic
upstream as far as Harbin. Yakutia, also called Sakha or Mongols. Consequently, the Mongol cultural and language
Yakut-Sakha, is an autonomous republic of far northeast was imposed on the Nanai. Mongol and Chinese invasions
Russia, located in northeast Siberia. The republic com- into Nanai areas continued for hundreds of years. The
prises the basins of the Lena, Yana, Indigirka, and Kolyma incursions resulted in the Nanai scattering in fear and set-
Rivers, which flow into the Arctic Ocean. The republic tling in dispersed settlements across a wide area. At the end
also includes the New Siberian Islands archipelago situ- of the sixteenth century, the Jurchen reunified and in so
ated between the Laptev and East Siberian Seas. The New doing brought the Nanai together under one authority. In
794 Nanai

1644, the Jurchen, now called the Manchu, conquered the Recently, as relations between Russia and China have
Chinese, a move that allowed the Manchu to take control improved, the Nanai have been able to reaffirm family and
of the Chinese Empire. In time, many Nanai assimilated, cultural ties with other Tungusic peoples living on both
with the Manchu having forgotten their Nanai heritage. sides of the international border.
Under Manchu rule, the settlement of Han Chinese in the
Amur Basin region and elsewhere in Manchuria was lim-
ited. This allowed the Nanai to maintain their language Society, Culture, and Tradition
and culture. In 1640, however, Russian Cossacks arrived in Traditionally, Nanai culture revolves around river fishing.
the Amur River area. Under the terms of the 1689 Treaty Most Nanai villages are found along riverbanks, and it is tra-
of Nerchinsk, the Outer Manchuria area became part of ditional for Nanai clothes to be made from dried fish skin.
China. The Chinese tried to exert their authority on the This custom means the Nanai are sometimes called the Fish
Nanai by imposing taxes upon them, but this policy only Skin Tatars in the writing of early Russian explorers. The
really worked in places where Chinese farmers lived amid Nanai language is spoken in two dialects. However, through-
Nanai villagers. out the twentieth century, the use of Nanai has declined
At the start of the nineteenth century, Manchu author- because the Nanai have adopted Russian or Mandarin Chi-
ity began to wane. This power shift allowed Russian explor- nese as their first language. Russian and Mandarin are also
ers to return to the Amur River area, where they began to the languages of Nanai education and administration.
trade with the Nanai. Meanwhile, Manchu authority con- Most Nanai maintain shamanistic religious beliefs.
tinued to weaken, resulting in Outer Manchuria’s cessation The Nanai worship a bear figure called Doonta and a tiger
to the expanding Russian Empire. Consequently, the Nanai called Amba. The Nanai also believe everything in the uni-
living in the south of the Russian Far East came under Rus- verse has a spirit (good or evil) that wanders independently
sian control. Under the Russians, the Nanai were made to throughout the world, and they revere the spirits of the
pay taxes in the form of furs and fish. Settlement by Rus- sun, moon, water, trees, and mountains. Central to Nanai
sians forced Nanai villages to leave their traditional set- beliefs is that shamans act as intermediaries between
tlements, and so they also lost access to their traditional humans and the spirit realm. According to Nanai folklore,
fishing grounds. From 1878, Nanai settlements in Chinese their homeland was once a vast, flat plain until serpents
Manchuria, which were by tradition isolated, came under gouged river valleys into the land. In addition, the Nanai
enormous pressure once the Han Chinese were permit- believe their ancestors originated from the Amur River,
ted to settle around the Nanai. The Russo-Japanese War which they believe serves to guide the Nanai to the spirit
(1904–1905) brought Japanese influence to Manchuria. realm after death. For this reason, the Nanai can become
Between 1931 and 1932, the Japanese took control of depressed or feel powerless if the Amur River suffers pol-
Manchuria. This move resulted in the area’s rapid indus- lution. During the twentieth century, some Nanai started
trialization and militarization. After 1924, the Nanai came to adopt Tibetan Buddhism while continuing to maintain
under Soviet Rule because a Native People’s Department their traditional shamanistic beliefs.
was established in the Soviet Far East. Under the Soviets,
the Nanai were made to live in vast villages. Although this
went against the Nanai tradition of living in isolation, this Health Care and Education
forced movement to large settlements fostered a sense of According to official data, poor-quality drinking water is
Nanai national identity that had not previously existed. the main cause of mass outbreaks of gastrointestinal infec-
This national identity was enhanced by the Russians tious diseases, including hepatitis A, across Nanai areas.
inventing a written Nanai language that was taught to Poor sanitation in many of the northern settlements,
Nanai children. The shared written language, which was overcrowded dwellings, and a lack of a centralized water
based on the Naihin Nanai dialect, encouraged a sense of supply, secure sewage systems, and organized waste man-
Nanai community among the young. The Nanai spoken agement lead to the spread of infections. Consequently,
language was taught in nursery classes and in the first two-thirds of Russian northern territories report a high
and second forms of primary school before pupils learned incidence of bacterial dysentery. Studies have also shown
Russian in the third form. During World War II, how- there is a direct correlation between incidences of giardia-
ever, teaching of the Nanai language (written and spoken) sis (an infection of the small intestine) and parasitic cysts
stopped. found in the area’s drinking water. Outbreaks of typhoid
 Nauruan 795

have also been caused by the contamination of drinking and Birgitta Evengard. 2013. “Food and Water Security Issues
water supply system by sewage water. Khabarovsk Kraj in Russia III: Food- and Waterborne Diseases in the Russian
has a significant prevalence of shigellosis flexneri (the most Arctic, Siberia and the Far East, 2000–2011.” International
Journal of Circumpolar Health 72: 21856.
communicable form of bacterial dysentery) as well as a Korshunova, Natalia, Hironobu Katsuyama, Masashi Demura,
high rate of gastroenteropathy caused by the norovirus. Hideji Tanii, Midori Katsuyama, Sri Ratna Rahayu, Nikolay
Clonorchiasis (or Chinese liver fluke disease) is endemic Anatoljevich Bogdanov, Lyudmila Vasilyevna Solokhina, and
in the Amur River basin area. The disease is caused by the Kiyofumi Saijoh. 2013. “Posttraumatic Stress Disorders in
eating of raw, salted, pickled, smoked, marinated, dried, the Nanai after Pollution of the Amur River: Ethnocultural
partially cooked, or poorly processed fish. Of 719 cases of Analysis.” Environmental Health and Preventive Medicine
18(6):485–493.
clonorchiasis registered in Russia from 2009 to 2011, 659 Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Cen-
cases were found in the Far Eastern regions, and 544 cases tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
were in Amur Oblast (Dudarev et al. 2013). The Red Book of the Peoples of the Russian Empire. n.d. “The
In general, rural Nanai are far less educated than rural Nanais.” https://www.eki.ee/books/redbook/nanais.shtml.
ethnic Russians. This is one of the reasons why the number West, Barbara A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and
of Nanai holding specialists or management positions is Oceania. New York: Facts on File.
far lower than it is among Russians. Russian and Mandarin
are also the languages of Nanai education and administra-
tion. Recently, some Russian schools in Nanai areas have
moved to publish Nanai-language textbooks and ensure
their use in schools.
NAURUAN
Current Location Nauru
Current Population Around 9,378
Threats to Survival
Language English; Nauruan
Official encouragement of ethnic minority culture has
Interesting Fact Nauru has the world’s most obese
allowed the Nanai to maintain many of their traditions. population.
However, the Nanai language is severely endangered
despite efforts to extend its use. Today, all Nanai are bilin-
gual. From 1959 to 1979, the number of Nanai who con- Overview
sidered Russian their first language increased from 13.3 Nauruans are the indigenous inhabitants of the Pacific
percent to 43.9 percent. Recent research has shown that island of the Republic of Nauru, most commonly referred
those who speak Nanai fluently are mostly older Nanai who to as Nauru. Nauru is the smallest island nation in the
use Nanai as their first language and middle-aged Nanai world, measuring around eight square miles. The island is
who use the language as their second language (The Red extremely remote because its nearest neighbor, Kirabati,
Book of the Peoples of the Russian Empire n.d.). Younger lies some 186 miles away. Nauruans are thought to have
Nanai have only a passive command of the language, and Micronesian, Polynesian, and Melanesian ancestry.
many do not speak it at all. Another threat to the Nanai Nauruans speak their own language, though only 19
is that many Nanai marry Russians, thereby diluting the percent of Nauruan males and 33 percent of Nauruan
number of people with purely Nanai ancestry. Another females can read and write Nauruan fluently (Republic
danger for the Nanai is that it is frequently the case that of Nauru 2011). Nauruan is distinct from all other Pacific
Nanai people holding executive positions give up their jobs languages, but it contains elements of languages spoken
in favor of working in manual labor. This means it is diffi- on Kiribati, the Solomon Islands, the Marshall Islands, and
cult for the Nanai to create an elite group of Nanai leaders. elsewhere in Micronesia. Around two-thirds of Nauruans
Consequently, without a body of leadership in powerful also speak English, which is the language used on all offi-
positions, the continuation of the Nanai is imperiled. cial documents (Republic of Nauru 2011).
See also: Hezhe
Further Reading Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Dudarev, Alexey A., Vitaliy M. Dorofeyev, Eugenia V. Dushkina,
Pavel R. Alloyarov, Valery S. Chupakhin, Yuliya N. Sladkova, In 2011, there were just over ten thousand people living
Tatjana A. Kolesnikova, Kirill B. Fridman, Lena Maria Nilsson, on Nauru, over 90 percent of whom were indigenous
796 Nauruan

Nauruans (Republic of Nauru 2011). Nauruans comprise Draughts on Nauru can be very severe, leaving even the
twelve tribes, each of which has its own chief. Nauruan hardiest of plants struggling to survive, with plants such
society is matrilineal, so when a baby is born, he or she as breadfruit dying and restricting the growth of coconut
joins the tribe of its mother. The twelve Nauruan tribes palms, as occurred during Nauru’s drought from 1998 to
are the Eamwit, Eamwitmwit, Ranibok, Irutsi, Iruwa, 2001. Dry weather can also lead to Nauru suffering from
Eamwidara, Eaoru, Emangum, Deiboe, Eano, Emea, and forest fires, the extinguishing of which further depletes
Iwi. The people of the different tribes identify each other near-exhausted water resources.
through their clothing. The tribes are symbolized on the The mining of phosphate on Nauru degraded much of
twelve-pointed white star that features on the Nauru flag. the island’s arable land, leaving around three-quarters of
Nauru’s total land area scarred and infertile. Today, there
are many environmental issues affecting sustainable devel-
Geography and Environment opment on Nauru, including issues of climate and sea-level
Nauru is an isolated coral-limestone island underlain by variability, environmental pollution, and poor resource
a volcanic seamount rising from the floor of the Pacific management. In addition, sanitation, coastal erosion,
Ocean. The island is roughly oval shaped and rises to and water quality and availability issues continue to need
around 230 feet elevation at its highest point. Nauru is attention. The sustainable management of minerals and
located in the dry belt of the equatorial oceanic zone, renewable energy are other factors under consideration
and the island’s minuteness and topography render it by authorities. The World Health Organization (WHO), in
extremely vulnerable to climatic events. collaboration with AusAID and other organizations, con-
There are very few surface freshwater reserves on tinues to evaluate Nauru’s water supply system.
Naura except for Buada Lagoon, a few brackish ponds
near the base of escarpments, and an underground lake
in Moqua Cave. The only truly noteworthy permanent History and Politics
freshwater resource is groundwater in the form of fresh- Nauruans have inhabited Nauru for at least three thou-
water that floats on higher density saltwater. This water sand years. The first outsiders to land on Nauru came from
is often salty; the salinity varies by location in relation the British whaling ship HMS Hunter in 1789. After this,
to an area’s elevation, geology, and morphology. There a number of other whalers came to Nauru as advisors to
are several hundred coastal wells on Nauru, but around island chiefs and in hope of selling arms to the islanders.
one-third of these exceed the World Health Organization’s The subsequent influx of guns to Nauru plunged the island
recommended limit of 1,500 mg/L total dissolved solids. into civil war in 1878.
Nauruans cannot necessarily rely upon rain for water During the latter half of the nineteenth century, Nauru
because the island’s annual rainfall is very variable. This was a German colony, and between 1888 and 1914, Ger-
variability can be seen in rainfall data: between 1894 and many incorporated Nauru with the Marshall Islands. After
2001, Nauru’s average rainfall per year was 2,098 millim- Germany’s defeat in World War I, the Treaty of Versailles
eters, with only 278 millimeters of rain falling in 1950. In stripped Germany of its colonies, and the subsequent
contrast, 4,588 millimeters of rain fell in 1930 (Republic of League of Nations conferred a mandate on Great Britain to
Nauru 2003). administer Nauru under trusteeship. Australia, which had
Like other Pacific Island nations, the El Niño–Southern stationed troops on Nauru in 1914, later took control of
Oscillation (ENSO) greatly influences Nauru’s weather. Nauru, with Britain and New Zealand acting as cotrustees.
ENSO is a naturally occurring weather phenomenon Since the mid-twentieth century, Nauru has been an Aus-
resulting in fluctuating ocean temperatures caused by two tralian protectorate.
competing weather phases, El Nino and La Nina. In years Early colonialists introduced diseases to Nauru, result-
in which El Nino is prevalent, Pacific weather becomes ing in the deaths of many Nauruans. For example, in
wetter and stormier, but when the La Nina is predominant, 1902, 219 Nauruans died after catching influenza from
the weather turns drier and often leading to prolonged foreigners. When phosphate mining began on Nauru in
periods of drought that may last as long as four years. 1905, the Nauruan population consisted of approximately
Pacific storms often lead to sea swells and tidal surges that 1,550 people, but the introduction of phosphate work-
ultimately result in flooding of low-lying areas of Nauru. ers not only greatly expanded the island’s population but
 Nauruan 797

also resulted in many epidemics among the Nauruans. In and the school system collapsed because the government
1907, dysentery killed 150 Nauruans, 50 Nauruan children lacked the resources to fund schools.
died from infantile paralysis in 1910, and 100 Nauruans The twenty-first century has seen Nauru feature in inter-
died from influenza again in 1920. In 1925, out of a total national headlines for two particular reasons. First, Nauru
Nauruan population of 1,220, there were 365 Nauruans has become notorious as the world fattest nation. Second,
treated for leprosy, with 189 held in isolation for the dis- Nauru has become notoriously reliant on foreign aid, with
ease. In the mid-1920s, Nauruans began to die from tuber- Australia being the Nauru’s main benefactor. Nauru’s rela-
culosis, and the infant mortality rate was in excess of three tionship with Australia is not straightforward, however,
hundred deaths per one thousand live births. This high because Nauru’s dependence on Australia has led to Nauru
infant death rate was later found to result from vitamin becoming a client state—that is, a country economically,
B1 deficiency caused by islanders’ poor diets and a lack of politically, and militarily subservient to another more pow-
breastfeeding. erful nation. Today, Australia is one of only two countries
During the 1920s, the Nauruan population began to to have an embassy on Nauru, and Australia contributes
grow steadily until it reached 1,800 people. However, the roughly 15 percent of domestic revenue to the island.
outbreak of World War II led to the island’s population Another facet of Nauru’s relationship with Australia
falling again. The Japanese invaded Nauru in 1942 and relates to Australian immigration policy. Starting in 2001,
deported around 1,200 Nauruans, so the Nauruan popu- Australia has twice used Nauru as a remote location for the
lation fell to 1,300, somewhere short of the magic popula- offshore processing of asylum seekers. It is current Aus-
tion figure of 1,500. Nevertheless, the population of Nauru tralian government policy that nobody who arrives in Aus-
recovered, and, by 1982, the island’s population exceeded tralia by boat seeking asylum will be settled in Australia.
five thousand people. Instead, people seeking resettlement are sent to Nauru
One of the reasons for Nauru’s population growth may (or to Papua New Guinea’s Manus Island). This policy has
be that for a time, Nauru was one of the richest nations been condemned internationally by such organizations as
in the world. The wealth was based on the fact that the the United Nations, Amnesty International, and Human
island is mainly made up of phosphate, and in the 1960s Rights Watch. At the end of June 2016, there were 442 asy-
and 1970s, phosphate was a highly prized commodity. lum seekers and refugees living in the Nauru processing
As a result of the demand for phosphate, around 80 per- center, as well as many hundred more living in the com-
cent of Nauru was strip-mined, with Nauruan phosphate munity. The exact conditions in which the asylum seekers
exported around the world as a fertilizer. Nauru became live on Nauru is not well documented because most for-
self-governing in 1966, and in 1968, following a two-year eign journalists are forbidden entry to Nauru; journalists
constitutional convention, the island became the world’s may apply for a media visa, but visas are rarely granted.
smallest independent republic. In the years following Limited information does leak out, however, including the
independence, inhabitants of Nauru enjoyed the world’s infamous video footage of a man who, protesting against
second highest per capita GDP behind Saudi Arabia. How- the conditions of his detention, doused himself in petrol
ever, overmining and the environmental consequences and self-immolated.
of strip-mining left the country in deep financial trouble.
This penury was not helped by the fact that the govern-
ment lost a great deal of money funding an unsuccessful Society, Culture, and Tradition
West End musical based on the life of famous artist Leon- One of the most significant cultural events on Nauru is
ardo da Vinci. Indeed, Nauru’s finances were so dire that Angam Day. In the 1920s, island chiefs realized that if
at one point the country ran out of money, with its cen- Nauruans were to survive as a people, it was essential that
tral bank declared bankrupt, its overseas property repos- the indigenous population not dip below 1,500 people. To
sessed, and its airplanes seized from the airport runway. It this end, the island’s Australian administration, in con-
was not just the country’s finances that suffered, however. junction with island elders, instigated a scheme that saw
The strip-mining left the island barren and rock-strewn, a prize awarded to the Nauruan woman who gave birth to
with a landscape likened to a moonscape, causing the land the baby who took the Nauran population to 1,500 people.
to be unsuitable for farming, industry, and forestry. On a A baby born on October 26, 1932, took the Nauruan popu-
personal level, Nauruans faced 90 percent unemployment, lation to this milestone. The baby was named Eidagaruwo,
798 Nauruan

meaning “reaching the goal,” by island authorities, and economy is still affected by external stimuli. Further-
ever since, October 26 has been celebrated as a national more, the country’s energy needs and water production
holiday known as Angam (Coming Home) Day. To mark are both reliant on imported diesel fuel, and the nation’s
Angam Day, every Nauraun community organizes enter- infrastructure is antiquated. In addition, the public sector
tainments family, and friends come together to celebrate. is hampered by a lack of skilled and educated personnel.
On Nauru, the traditional subsistence economy is mainly Almost all Nauruan children (97 percent) aged seven to
limited to the growing of coconut and pandanus, a type of twelve years go to school. This enrolment figure decreases,
pine whose leaves are used in cooking and to make thatched however: secondary school enrolment figures show that
roofs, baskets, and grass skirts. Other foodstuffs to natu- 72 percent of Nauruan females aged thirteen to eighteen
rally occur on Naura include fish and seabirds such as the years were enrolled in secondary school, compared with
brown noddy and black noddy. Today, almost 15 percent of only 65 percent of males. Despite the fairly high enroll-
Nauruan households have a kitchen garden in which they ment figures, attainment of educational qualifications by
grow crops, and an almost equal percentage earn money Nauruan children is extremely low. In 2011, about 73 per-
catching noddy birds. In addition, just over half of all Nauru- cent of the male population aged fifteen years and over had
an’s earn a living from fishing activities such as net fishing, left education without a qualification, with 69 percent of
collecting seafood, or some other form of aquaculture. females similarly unqualified. Only 21 percent of boys and
25 percent of girls left school with a secondary educational
certificate, and only 5 percent of boys or girls had a ter-
Health Care and Education tiary educational qualification gained through attending
Nauru’s affiliation with Australia allows Nauruans the college, university, or vocational courses. The low level of
opportunity to work with Australian employers via Aus- educational attainment on Nauru may be one of the rea-
tralia’s Seasonal Worker Programme (SWP) under the sons that the country has a high overall unemployment
auspices of the Department of Employment. Under this rate of around 23 percent. Youth unemployment is even
scheme, Nauruans work for Australian employers who are worse, with 70 percent of those aged fifteen to nineteen
experiencing labor shortages, usually in remote, rural loca- years unemployed and 36 percent of those aged twenty to
tions. Nauruans are also able to apply for multiyear visas twenty-four years without work (Republic of Nauru 2011).
under Australia’s Pacific Microstates–Northern Australia Another socioeconomic issue prevalent on Nauru is
Worker Pilot Program. These visas allow Nauruan workers overcrowded housing. The country’s most recent census
to learn new skills in Australia and send money home to recorded that there are 1,647 private households on Nauru
Nauru to support their families. and that these houses have 9,945 household members. This
Nauruan health and education remain poor but improv- means that on average, there are six people per household.
ing. For the period 2007–2011, the average life expectancy Moreover, one-third of all Nauruan people live in house-
at birth for Nauruans was 57.5 years for males and 63.2 holds of ten or more people, and 10 percent of Nauruans
years for females. This is an improvement on the figures live in households that are home to fifteen or more people
for the period 2002–2006, which were 57.5 years for males (Republic of Nauru 2011).
and 58.2 years for females (Republic of Nauru 2011). One
of the reasons for Nauru’s low but improving life expec-
tancy for men is the high incidence of so-called lifestyle Threats to Survival
diseases caused through poor diet, smoking, excessive Nauru is notorious for having the world’s fattest popula-
alcohol consumption, and a lack of regular exercise. tion, with Nauaruns having an average body mass index
Like life expectancies, the infant mortality rate for (BMI) of thirty-four to thirty-five. Obesity has become
Nauru is also improving. The average infant mortality rate prevalent on Nauru as a result of imported Western foods.
is thirty-three deaths in every one thousand births. This Nauruans particularly enjoy fried chicken and soft drinks,
figures breaks down into thirty-nine deaths per one thou- but this love of junk food has resulted in much of the pop-
sand births of male babies and twenty-seven deaths per one ulation suffering from extreme levels of diabetes and heart
thousand female babies born (Republic of Nauru 2011). disease.
Despite the Nauruan government making significant Another potential threat to the survival of the Nauru-
progress in reducing Nauru’s debt burden, the country’s ans stems from the geography of their island home. The
 Nenet 799

island’s lack of freshwater reserves means that Nauruans Overview

heavily rely on the island’s single desalination plant for The Nenets (also called the Nentsy, Khasava, Hasaba,
their water. If this aging water plant breaks down, Nauru’s Yurak, or Samoyeds) are nomadic reindeer herders indig-
water supply will quickly run out. To combat the threat of enous to Arctic Russia. The Nenets speak either the Tundra
the island running out of water, the Australian government or Forest varieties of the Nenet language as well as eleven
organization responsible for delivering nonmilitary for- mutually understandable subdialects. The Nenet language
eign aid, AusAID, provided one million Australian dollars is Samoyedic and belongs to the Uralic language family.
to construct two hundred household water tanks to ensure The name Nenet translates as “real people.”
Nauruan families could store desalinated water and cap- Most Nenets are shamanists, with a very small minority
ture rainwater. AusAID continues to work with the govern- belonging to Christian denominations and sects, particu-
ment of Nauru and the Nauruan population to guarantee larly the Russian Orthodox Church.
that the people have access to clean drinking water.
See also: Anutan; Chamorro; iTaukei; Kanak; Marshallese;
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Papuan; Rapa Nui; Samoans; Tongan; Tuvaluan
The Nenet population is estimated to comprise forty-three
Further Reading
Australian Government. n.d. “Development Assistance in Nauru: thousand people (Minahan 2014) living in the Russian
Overview of Australia’s Aid Program to Nauru.” Department Federation’s Yamalo-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, the
of Foreign Affairs and Trade. http://dfat.gov.au/geo/nauru​ Nenets Autonomous Okrug, and the Taymyrsky Dolgano-
/development-assistance/Pages/development-assistance-in​ Nenetsky District. The Nenets form minority populations
-nauru.aspx. in each of these areas.
Doherty, Ben. 2016. “A Short History of Nauru, Australia’s
The Nenet population is divided into two communities
Dumping Ground for Refugees.” The Guardian, August 9.
https://​www.theguardian.com/world/2016/aug/10/a-short- based on the people’s activities and location: Tundra Nen-
history​-of-nauru-australias-dumping-ground-for-refugees. ets live in the north of the Nenet homeland, where they
Eccleston, Bernard, Michael Dawson, and Deborah McNamara, herd reindeer, hunt, and trap. The Forest Nenets live below
eds. 1998. The Asia-Pacific Profile. London: Routledge. the Arctic tree line in subarctic districts, where they herd
McDaniel, Carl N., and John M. Gowdy. 2000. Paradise for Sale: and fish.
A Parable of Nature. Berkeley: University of California Press.
Republic of Nauru. 2003, April. “First National Report to the
United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification Geography and Environment
(UNCCD): Republic of Nauru.” https://web.archive.org/web​
/20110722013720/http://www.unccd.int/cop/reports/asia​ The Nenet homeland lies in an area of the Arctic Circle
/national/2002/nauru-eng.pdf. stretching from the Kola Peninsula in northwest European
Republic of Nauru. 2011. “National Report on Population and Russia to Siberia’s Taimyr Peninsula. The area’s landscape
Housing: Census 2011.” http://www.spc.int/nmdi/nmdi​ consists of tundra, taiga (snow forests home to coniferous
_documents/2011_NAURU_CENSUS_REPORT.pdf.
trees), and permafrost. Temperatures in the Nenet home-
Republic of Nauru. 2017. “Angam Day.” http://www.naurugov.nr​
/about-nauru/nauruans’-stories/angam-day.aspx. land can dip as low as fifty degrees Celsius below zero. As
global temperatures rise, tundra permafrost thaws, releas-
ing carbon dioxide and methane into the atmosphere. With
the ice melting earlier in the year and not freezing until late
autumn, Nenet herders are forced to adapt their ancient
NENET migration patterns because their reindeer find it hard to
walk over snowless tundra. Rising temperatures also dam-
Current Location Russian Federation age tundra vegetation, which is the only source of food for
Current Population 43,000 Nenet reindeer. Melting permafrost has caused some fresh-
Language Nenet; subdialects water lakes to drain, which reduces the Nenet fish supplies.
Interesting Fact Environmental pollution in the In addition, the Nenets have to adapt their migration routes
Nenet homeland limits the people’s to avoid the infrastructure associated with resource extrac-
life expectancy to between forty and tion. For example, reindeer find it difficult to cross roads,
fifty years. and pollution has spoiled reindeer pastures.
800 Nenet

History and Politics the Nenets. Initially, the Soviets planned to allow the Nen-
The Nenets probably originated from early clans that ets to live on large reserves where they could follow their
split from westward migrations of Finno-Ugrian peoples traditional lifestyle. Soon, however, the Soviets decided to
around three thousand years ago. Around 200 BCE, the integrate the Nenets in the general Soviet system. As part
clans probably mixed with Turkic-Altaic peoples. The of this integration, Nenet wealth and furs were confis-
early Nenets herded reindeer across their Arctic home- cated, along with Nenet reindeer herds. Each herder was
land, moving their herds seasonally from tundra pastures permitted to own only four animals, and because Nenet
to taiga above the tree line. Early Nenet society was highly communities needed at least 250 reindeer to survive,
organized, with each clan having its own territories on many thousands of Nenets died of starvation and disease
which to graze its animals, hunt, and fish. During the elev- soon after their herds were removed.
enth century, European chronicles mentioned the Nenets In the 1920s and 1930s, nominally independent Nenet
for the first time, referring to them as reindeer herders. regions were created in the north of the people’s home-
In the thirteenth century, some Nenet clans came under land. Over the subsequent years of Soviet rule, the Nenets
Slavic authority, whereas Nenets living in the west of the were severely repressed. They were punished for show-
Nenet homeland came under Novgorodian rule. Under ing dissent, their religion was suppressed, and they were
Novgorodian authority, the Nenets were forced to pay their forced to live on settled lives in permanent villages. The
rulers taxes and tribute in the form of furs. Nenets also became a minority population in their tradi-
During the fourteenth century, some Nenets were made tional homeland after the discovery of massive oil and gas
to pay taxes to the Tatar khanate that lived to the south of reserves there prompted an influx of outsiders to settle
the Nenets. Then, in the sixteenth and seventeenth cen- on Nenet land. During the 1970s and 1980s, the Soviets
turies, Russia imposed indirect rule on the Nenets. The ruthlessly exploited the Nenet environment, with around
Russian Cossacks constructed fortifications on Nenet land twenty million hectares of land ruined by drilling and
and collected yasak, a fur tax, but in general the Nenets mining. Soon Nenet land was home to Russia’s most signif-
were able to continue with their traditional clan-based icant oil and gas fields, which resulted in Soviet authorities
lifestyle without Cossack interference. The Russians did brushing aside the Nenets as Russian immigrants arrived
offer Russian citizenship to Nenets who agreed to convert in a rush to exploit the land. By the end of the 1980s, the
to Orthodox Christianity. Other Nenets were forcibly bap- population of the Yamal-Nenets region had increased
tized or entered into Cossack servitude. The Russians soon from 80,000 in 1970 to 486,000 in 1989 (Minahan 2002).
lost interest in the Nenets once the Nenet homeland suf- In the 1980s, a Nenet nationalist movement arose, spurred
fered a decrease in the population of fur-bearing animals, on by resentment at their treatment by the Soviets, includ-
though Russian merchants continued to dominate trade in ing the dumping of radioactive waste along the coast of
the Nenet homeland, having plied the Nenets with weap- the Kara Sea (part of the Arctic Ocean north of Siberia)
ons, tools, and alcohol. Russian merchants also brought and pollution from the Norilsk nickel refinery that ruined
with them European diseases that they passed on to the five million hectares of Nenet grazing land and one million
Nenets, leading to the decimation of the Nenet population. hectares of virgin forest (Minahan 2002).
Unhappy at their lot, the Nenets launched multiple rebel- After the downfall of the Soviet Union in 1991, the Nen-
lions that continued well into the eighteenth century. ets gradually returned to their traditional ways, and a Nenet
In the nineteenth century, Russia increasingly came cultural, linguistic, and religious revival is underway.
to dominate Nenet life. In 1824, Russia began to forcibly
convert large numbers of Nenets to Orthodox Christianity.
Then, in the 1870s, the Russians confiscated large tracts of Society, Culture, and Tradition
land in the west of Nenet territory. As a result of this land Reindeer are central to Nenet life. The Nenet herder
grab, many Nenets resettled in the northwest of European economy is driven by sales of reindeer meat and selling
Russia. During this period, most Nenets continued to be ground antlers to China as a drug to increase male sexual
poor and follow their nomadic lifestyle, which revolved potency. To the Nenets, reindeer also serves as a source of
around small herds. However, some Nenet families food, shelter, clothing, transport, and spirituality. Herding
acquired huge reindeer herds. After the Russian Civil War, also serves as a social pastime and is a common part of
triumphant Soviets started to impose socialist values on Nenet marriage dowries. According to Nenet tradition, the
 Nenet 801

A Nenet girl harnesses reindeer in the Yamal Peninsula, Russia. Reindeer are central to Nenet life, both economically—as a source of
food, shelter, clothing, and transportation—and spiritually. (Aleksandra Zhadova/Dreamstime.com)

reindeer entered into a pact with the Nenets whereby the During the winter migration, the reindeer are slaughtered
reindeer offered themselves to the humans as food and at the administrative center of Yar-Sale, where the Nenet
means of transport, and the Nenets agree to accompany herders receive their annual salaries.
the reindeer on their seasonal migrations so that the ani- The Nenets wear traditional clothing sewn by women.
mals would be protected from predators. The size of Nenet Nenet men wear a hooded coat called a Malitsa that is a
herds varies depending on the seasons. In summer, herds made from reindeer skins, the fur of which is worn on the
are larger to act as a natural defense against mosquitoes. inside (closest to the skin) with the leather on the outside.
Migration patterns also depend on the seasonal availabil- In extremely cold weather, the men wear an additional
ity of lichen pastures on which the reindeer feed. In win- layer of reindeer fur, called a Gus. A Gus is so warm that a
ter, large herds graze in forest-tundra areas south of the Nenet man can wear it to sleep outside when temperatures
Arctic Circle before migrating northward in spring when drop to –50°C. Nenet women wear a double-layered rein-
the thaw begins. Herds then spend the short summer in deer skin coat called a Yagushka. Nenet men and women
the northern tundra area near the Kara Sea before heading both wear double-layered, hip-high reindeer skin boots.
south to the forest tundra in November. The entire journey The traditional Nenet home, a chum, is fashioned from
covers around 6,835 miles and includes a 30-mile crossing reindeer skins laid over long wooden poles. During migra-
of the frozen Ob River. During the migration, reindeer pull tions, chums are moved every other day and erected by
sledges that carry the Nenets and their camps in single-file a water source so that the Nenets can brew their favorite
trains that can reach five miles long. In winter the trains drink, Sri Lankan black tea. Generally speaking, Nenet
cover distances between five and twelve miles per day and men deal with all things connected to the reindeer, and
two to seven miles in summer. The summer migrations are women organize domestic matters, including carrying
slower because the reindeer have to pull sledges over grass. water, cooking, and chopping wood.
802 Nicobarese

Most Nenets are shamanists who believe in ancestral have settled in tundra areas. This contact results in an
spirits, gods, and demons. The Nenets consider shamans increased chance of the Nenets becoming assimilated into
able to mediate between the spirits and humans. Nen- Russian society.
ets also believe witch doctors are able to cure the sick, There is some cause for optimism about the Nenets’
practice magic, commune with the dead, and divine the future. For example, the population of the Yamal-Nenet
future. Nenet herders carry dolls on sacred sledges that region has gradually increased throughout the twenti-
are anointed with reindeer blood. The dolls represent the eth century as young Nenets decide to stay in their tra-
herders’ ancestors, and when a Nenet wishes to appeal to a ditional homeland on the understanding that there they
doll for help, they will feed a doll vodka or reindeer blood. will receive better wages than in cities while enjoying the
Herders have benefited from some aspects of the oil and freedom of a nomadic lifestyle. The Nenets also continue
gas industries because they trade their fresh meat and fish to undergo a cultural and linguistic renaissance that sees
for industrial workers’ rice and pasta stocks, while also the people able to follow their indigenous religious beliefs.
cadging lifts on worker transport.
See also: Buryat; Chukchi; Ket; Komi; Mansi
Further Reading
Health Care and Education BBC Two. 2014. “Nenet.” Tribe, September 24. http://www.bbc.co​
.uk/tribe/tribes/nenets/index.shtml.
The Nenet homeland is severely contaminated by heavy Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
metals and chemicals from industry, to which Soviet Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 3, L–R.
authorities turned a blind eye. This environmental pollu- Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
tion limits the people’s life expectancy to between forty Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East, and Cen-
and fifty years (Minahan 2014). tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Russian Federation:
Nenet children are sent away to boarding schools, where Nenets.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peo-
they receive ten years of Russian education. Many Nenet ples, June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/nenets.
parents resent this and fear it alienates their children from Taylor, Alan. 2012. “The Nenets of Siberia.” The Atlantic, April 11.
their Nenet heritage and society (Minahan 2002). https://www.theatlantic.com/photo/2012/04/the-nenets-of​
-siberia/100277.

Threats to Survival
Industrialization, resource extraction, and climate change
present the main threats to the Nenets. The construction
of gas pipelines has disrupted the Nenet’s annual rein- NICOBARESE
deer migrations, which has reduced the people’s herding Current Location India
activity to the extent that some researchers believe herd- Current Population 30,000
ing accounts for less than 10 percent of the Nenet regional Language Nicobarese
economy (Minority Rights Group International 2015).
Interesting Fact Seven percent of the Nicobarese died
Nenet activists have called for the protection of traditional in the Boxing Day Tsunami.
economies in the Yamal-Nenets Autonomous Okrug, but
Nenet nationalism is not a major movement.
Nenets living in urban areas experience high levels of Overview
unemployment and are also reported to suffer from high The Nicobarese are the indigenous people of the Nicobar
rates of alcoholism and mental health problems, because Islands. The islands form part of India’s Union Territory
urban Nenets find it virtually impossible to adapt to life of Andaman and Nicobar Islands. The Nicobarese speak
away from the tundra. It is also widely reported that their the Nicobarese languages, an isolated group of around
inability to adapt results in the Nenets having an unusually six closely related Austroasiatic languages. Most Nicoba-
high incidence of suicide. rese people speak the Car Nicobarese language. Almost
Since the finding of oil and gas on Nenet land, the Nen- all Nicobarese are Christian, belonging to the Protestant
ets have come into increasing contact with outsiders who Church of North India.
 Nicobarese 803

Population, Diaspora, and Migration

The Nicobarese live on the twelve inhabited islands of the UNESCO World Network of
Nicobar Islands. The current Nicobarese population is Biosphere Reserves
unknown. In the mid-2000s, the population was estimated The World Network of Biosphere Reserves comprises
at around thirty thousand people (Government of India designated protected areas (biosphere reserves) that
2008). The Nicobarese live in a multitude of villages. There demonstrate a balanced relationship between nature
are forty-two Nicobarese villages in the Nancowry Nicobar and humankind. The World Network of Biosphere
island group (Chander et al. 2015). Reserves is part of the Man and the Biosphere
Before the Boxing Day Tsunami of 2004, the Nicobarese Programme established by UNESCO in 1971 as an
population stood at around fifty thousand people. The tsu- intergovernmental scientific program intended to
nami killed 3,500 Nicobarese, which amounted to 7 per- improve relations between people and their envi-
cent of the population (Singh Deol 2014). The Nicobarese ronment. New reserves are designated every year by
live in coastal villages, so when the tsunami struck, it had the International Co-ordinating Council, an organ-
a devastating effect. Indeed, all Nicobarese villages on Car ization with a rotating membership of thirty-four
Nicobar Island were washed away by the giant wave. UNESCO member states. There are currently 686
biosphere reserves located in 122 countries, includ-
ing 20 transboundary sites.
Geography and Environment
The Nicobar Islands form an archipelago of nineteen
islands in the eastern Indian Ocean. The islands form an
arc stretching southward for around 620 miles between however, because in the past the Nicobarese had no written
Myanmar and the Indonesian island of Sumatra. Sri Lanka language to document their history. Some researchers sug-
lies approximately eight hundred miles west of the islands. gest the Nicobarese arrived on the islands after the Shom-
The Nicobar Islands also mark the boundary between the pen. It is known that the Nicobarese population has fallen
Bay of Bengal and the Andaman Sea. considerably over the last two hundred years as a result of
The Nicobar Islands are divided into three zones: the European diseases introduced by colonists, assimilation,
northern zone, consisting of Car Nicobar Island; the cen- and disaster.
tral zone (or Nancowry group); and the southern zone, The location of the Nicobar Islands on a major trade
consisting of the Great and Little Nicobar Islands. The route means the Nicobarese have experienced much con-
Nancowry group consists of nine islands—Chowra, Ter- tact with the outside world, including the Portuguese,
essa, Nancowry, Kamorta, Katchal, Bompooka, Trinket, French, and Danish. European colonization of the Nico-
Isle of Man, and Tillangchong—though only the first five bar Islands began in 1754, when the Danish East India
are inhabited. Company arrived. From 1754 to 1756, the islands were
The Nicobar Islands’ landscape is diverse. Some of the administrated from Tranquebar (located in continental
islands, such as Car Nicobar, have flat coral surfaces and Danish India) as the colony of New Denmark. However,
offshore coral features that prevent boats from anchoring. most of the colonists died from malaria, including mis-
Other islands, such as Great Nicobar, are hillier and home sionaries from the Moravian Church Brethren who settled
to many streams. Great Nicobar receives much more rain in Tranquebar and attempted to settle on Nancowry. Over
than the other islands and is the only Nicobar island to the years, there were successive attempts to colonize the
have significant fresh surface water. UNESCO has classi- islands by various groups, but these were abandoned due
fied Great Nicobar as one of the World Network of Bio- to outbreaks of malaria. Between 1778 and 1783, Dutch-
sphere Reserves. born merchant William Bolts tried to establish an Aus-
trian colony on the islands under the mistaken belief that
Denmark-Norway had lost interest in the islands. Between
History and Politics 1864 and 1868, Italy attempted to buy the islands from
The Nicobar Islands have been inhabited since prehistoric Denmark, but Denmark’s presence on the islands ended
times. Very little is known of the Nicobarese’s history, officially in 1868 when it sold the rights to the islands to
804 Nicobarese

Britain. Thus, in 1869, the Nicobar Islands became part water, transport, and communication. In 1956, the Anda-
of British India. The British used the Nicobar Islands as a man and Nicobar Islands (Protection of Aboriginal Tribes)
penal colony, where they established a prison called Cellu- Regulation (ANPATR) was declared, meaning the Nicobar
lar Jail or Kalapani (from the Sanskrit words Kal, “death,” Islands were recognized as a tribal reserve from which
and Pani, “water”). The prison housed criminals convicted unsolicited outsiders were banned.
of crimes against the East India Company as well as Indian
political prisoners.
For some time, Indian merchants, especially those from Society, Culture, and Tradition
Malabar, Bengal, and the island of Minicoy, visited the Historically, the Nicobarese lived in virtual isolation save
Nicobar Islands and bartered with the Nicobarese for copra for contact with colonists and traders. Traditionally, the
(dried coconut) and betel nuts. The traders established an Nicobarese live in extended families called tuhets that see
exploitative economic credit system whereby small loans all members share all family assets and care for each other.
were extended to the Nicobarese, who then had to repay Typical Nicobarese villages consist of several tuhets, with
by supplying the merchants with copra and nuts. Because the heads of the tuhets serving as village leaders.
the Nicobarese were a premonetary people who depended In the past, the Nicobarese were hunter-gatherers.
entirely on the bartering system, the people were unaware Today, some Nicobarese follow subsistence lifestyles: they
of the true commercial value of their produce. Most of the grow their own fruit and vegetables, fish, and rear pigs.
Nicobarese lived in perpetual debt even after supplying However, the majority of Nicobarese are large-scale hor-
surplus amounts of their produce, whereas the merchants ticulturalists who grow rice, sugar, and coconuts with the
earned a monthly income from trading the merchandise. support of the Indian government. The Nicobarese horti-
The merchants sexually exploited the Nicobarese because culturalists have established village cooperative societies
many traders married local girls, who, along with the that allow the people to manage their shared resources.
children resulting from the marriages, tended to be aban- The adoption of this system along with modern horticul-
doned later by the traders (Saini 2018). ture methods has allowed the Nicobarese to enjoy a level of
At the start of the twentieth century, the young mis- prosperity. In the wake of this new prosperity, the people
sionary Bishop Richardson introduced Christianity to have started to identify as a single community, the Nico-
the islanders. The islanders’ adoption of Christianity went barese, that happens to live scattered across the Nicobar
hand in hand with the Nicobarese’s take-up of formal Islands. The Nicobarese have also organized themselves
education. into tribal councils that provide the people with a political
British rule over the Nicobar Islands ended in 1942, platform.
when the islands were occupied by Japan during World Most Nicobarese have converted to Christianity and
War II. There are few documented details of what occurred are more assimilated than other peoples living on the
on the Nicobar Islands under Japanese occupation because Andaman Islands. However, many Nicobarese continue to
the Japanese destroyed records when they left in 1945. maintain their own culture. In particular, the Nicobarese
However, there are multiple accounts of the Japanese tor- living on the Nancowry Islands (especially those living on
turing, imprisoning, and killing people on the islands, and Chowra and Teressa Islands) maintain their traditional
the inhabitants of Car Nicobar were used as forced labor. way of life, which is closely linked to nature. The tradi-
In 1945, as food became increasingly scarce on the islands, tional lifestyles of people inhabiting Nancowry, Kamorta,
many Nicobarese died from starvation, mistreatment, and Katchal Islands are rapidly changing because they are
being eaten by sharks, or drowning. After Japan’s surrender increasingly exposed to modern amenities.
in 1945, the Japanese Red Cross visited the Nicobar Islands
to treat the sick, but by this time, islanders had developed
such distrust of the Japanese that they refused medi- Health Care and Education
cal help (Saini 2018). The British reoccupied the islands The Nicobarese use traditional medicine extensively
after the Japanese surrender but lost control of the islands despite their increased access to modern medicine. The
when India gained independence. After independence, the Nicobarese have a vast knowledge of local plant life that is
Indian government provided the Nicobarese with amen- passed down orally through generations of families. Folk
ities, including health care, education, electricity, clean healers use over one hundred plant species (trees, shrubs,
 Ni-Vanuatu 805

and herbs) to create 270 remedies with which they treat a Further Reading
range of ailments, including fevers, abdominal pain, and Chander, M. P., C. Kartick, and P. Vijayachari. 2015. “Herbal
headaches. All parts of plants (roots, stems, bark, fruits, Medicine & Healthcare Practices among Nicobarese of Nan-
cowry group of Islands—An Indigenous Tribe of Andaman
nuts, seeds, and flowers) are used to create the remedies, & Nicobar Islands.” Indian Journal of Medical Research 141
which are usually prepared using water and coconut oil. (5): 720–744.
Sometimes coconut milk, honey, rainwater, seawater, pig Government of India. 2008. Andaman and Nicobar Islands Devel-
blood, and pig fat are also included in remedies. Most opment Report. New Delhi, India: Academic Foundation.
remedies are administered to patients orally or topically, Mann, R. S. 2005. Andaman and Nicobar Tribes Restudied: Encoun-
though some are made into ear and eye drops (Chander ters and Concerns. New Delhi, India: Mittal Publications.
Saini, Ajay. 2018. “Japanese Occupation of Nicobar Islands:
et al. 2015). Slavery, Espionage and Executions.” Economic & Political
Education is important to the Nicobarese, who consider Weekly 53 (22) (June 2). https://www.epw.in/journal/2018​
it vital to the people’s economic development, social cohe- /22/perspectives/japanese-occupation-nicobar-islands.html.
sion, and general well-being. Nicobarese children learn Singh Deol, Shamsher Bahadur. 2014. “Tsunami 10 Years Later:
in Hindi, English, Tamil, Telugu, and Bengali. The Box- How the Nicobarese Survived the Killer Waves.” Times
ing Day Tsunami destroyed many schools on the Nicobar of India, December 31. https://timesofindia.indiatimes​
.com/india/Tsunami-10-years-later-How-the-Nicobarese​
Islands, but organizations such as UNICEF worked with -survived-the-killer-waves/articleshow/45698022.cms.
authorities to provide educational facilities.

Threats to Survival
After World War II, the Nicobarese experienced rapid
social change and modernization. This means the Nicoba- NI-VANUATU
rese may struggle to survive. The main threat comes from
Current Location Vanuatu
development because the islands have undergone deforest-
Current Population 241,000
ation and the founding of large-scale settlement by illegal
immigrants. The Indian government’s decision to grant Language English; French; Bislama
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands the status of a free port Interesting Fact Some people of Vanuatu worship
(a special customs area with looser customs regulations British royal Prince Philip as a god,
whereas others belong to a sect
or no customs duties or rules on transshipment) and its
revering an American serviceman.
encouragement of tourism and communications develop-
ment on the islands may adversely affect the Nicobarese.
The islands’ generally flat topography, combined with Overview
the people’s preference for coastal living, means they suf-
The Ni-Vanuatu (sometimes written as ni-Vanuatu), also
fer greatly during natural disasters such as tsunamis. The
called the Vanuatuans, are the indigenous Melanesian peo-
Boxing Day Tsunami of 2004 not only killed many Nico-
ple of Vanuatu. The Ni-Vanuatu speak English, French, and
barese but also destroyed people’s boats (which they relied
an English-based Melanesian pidgin language called Bis-
on for communication) and contaminated wells with sand
lama. Around 115 other local languages are also spoken in
and seawater. The destruction wrought by the tsunami also
Vanuatu, meaning that for its population size, Vanuatu has
led to excessive alcohol consumption among depressed,
the greatest linguistic diversity of any other country on earth.
surviving Nicobarese. The Nicobar Islands’ posttsunami
The majority of Ni-Vanuatu are Christian (mostly Pres-
recovery is a major and ongoing concern. Throughout
byterian, Anglican, or Roman Catholic), though newer
2005 and 2006, the Indian government proved reluctant to
religions are gaining a foothold. A minority of Ni-Vanuatu
admit the level of damage suffered on the islands because
follow the people’s indigenous animist religion.
of strategic military bases located there. For this reason,
the government did not allow international agencies
access to the islands, thereby slowing the islands’ recovery Population, Diaspora, and Migration
and rehabilitation after the tsunami.
The Ni-Vanuatu population is estimated to consist of
See also: Onge 241,000 people. This number is thought to be much lower
806 Ni-Vanuatu

than in precolonial times because the population has yet land and sea as the people hunt and fish local animals.
to recover from the nineteenth century, when many of the Many of the islands also show evidence of deforestation
islands’ men were taken as slaves (Minahan 2012). The because the islands have been logged for high-value tim-
Ni-Vanuatu are divided into many small groups that share ber, subjected to widespread slash-and-burn agriculture,
a similar culture yet have their own traditions and art. The or cleared to allow the construction of coconut plantations
Ni-Vanuatu live among other smaller groups of indigenous and cattle ranches. This deforestation has led to several of
peoples, such as the Wallisians and Futunans (peoples from the islands experiencing increased soil erosion and land-
the Wallis and Futuna Islands, a French collectivity in the slides. The deforestation is also affecting upland water-
South Pacific), the i-Kiribati, and Chinese, European, and sheds, making fresh water even scarcer.
Vietnamese minority communities. Around 80 percent of The islands’ increasing population also creates issues of
the Ni-Vanuatu inhabit rural villages, where agriculture is waste disposal and water and air pollution. In addition, a
the main economic activity (Minahan 2012). lack of industrial jobs and inaccessibility of markets causes
many rural families to follow subsistence lifestyles that
place great pressure on local ecosystems.
Geography and Environment There is ongoing controversy between Vanuatu and
Vanuatu is a country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean France over the ownership of the southern Matthew and
consisting of an archipelago of thirteen main and numer- Hunter Islands. The argument has been exacerbated by the
ous smaller islands located around 500 miles west of possibly of the islands holding large reserves of minerals
Fiji and 1,100 miles east of Australia. The islands stretch and fossil fuels. There is also some potential for extracting
north to south for approximately 800 miles in a Y-shape. minerals, such as manganese, from around Vanuatu, but
The most northerly island group of Vanuatu is the Torres deep-sea mining remains a controversial issue.
Islands. Moving south from the Torres Islands, the main
islands are Vanua Lava and Santa Maria (Gaua) in the
Banks Island group, Espiritu, Santo, Aoba Maéwo, Pente- History and Politics
cost, Malakula, Ambrym, Épi, Éfaté, Erromango, Tanna, A number of the Vanuatu islands have been inhabited
and Anatom. The capital, largest city, and commercial for millennia, with the nation’s earliest settlements being
center of Vanuatu is Port-Vila on Éfaté. at least four thousand years old. The earliest Melanesian
The small, geologically younger islands of Vanuatu people divided into several warring factions, and violence
are of volcanic origin. There are many active volcanoes plagued the islands. The early settlers also established
in Vanuatu, including Lopevi, Mount Yasur, and several their own religion that attributed all natural disasters and
underwater volcanoes. Some islands have fumaroles (an misfortune to sorcery, and they devised many rituals, cer-
opening in Earth’s crust that emits steam and various emonies, and festivals to placate the gods.
gases, including carbon dioxide and hydrogen chloride) In 1606, the Spanish explorer Pedro Fernandez de Quin-
and solfataras (fumaroles releasing sulfurous gases).Vol- tos spotted the archipelago. Soon other European expedi-
canic activity in Vanuatu is common, and there is a con- tions sighted the islands, with French, British, Spanish,
stant danger of the islands experiencing a major volcanic and Portuguese explorers all visiting the islands. Visiting
eruption. Most of the islands are steep with poor soils and Europeans brought with them illnesses including measles,
little reserves of fresh water. For these reasons, very little influenza, and venereal diseases, which killed many of the
of Vanuatu is suitable for farming, though such crops as islands’ inhabitants. The Europeans also took some island-
manioc, yams, and taro are grown by the Ni-Vanuatu. The ers as slaves (Minahan 2012).
islands’ shorelines tend to be rocky with fringing reefs and At the start of the nineteenth century, increasing num-
no continental shelf, meaning they drop suddenly into the bers of explorers, whalers, and merchants visited the
depths of the ocean. Ni-Vanuatu. In 1852, the discovery of sandalwood trees on
Vanuatu is home to a distinct terrestrial ecoregion Erromango Island resulted in many migrant workers mov-
called the Vanuatu rain forests; this is part of the Austral- ing to Vanuatu, where they clashed with locals and Poly-
asia ecozone that includes New Caledonia, the Solomon nesian laborers. During the 1850s and 1860s, European
Islands, Australia, New Guinea, and New Zealand. Vanu- colonists in Australia, South America, Fiji, and elsewhere
atu’s growing population is placing great pressure on the in the South Pacific encouraged the practice of blackbirding
 Ni-Vanuatu 807

on Vanuatu—that is, raiding the archipelago for slaves. At since the country gained independence, Vanuatu continues
the height of the blackbirding, several of the islands had to experience localized religious and political differences,
over half their adult men taken as slaves (Minahan 2012). especially between Francophone and Anglophone areas.
Colonization resulted in Roman Catholic and Protes-
tant missionaries arriving on the islands. European settlers
(mostly British subjects from Australia and New Zealand) Society, Culture, and Tradition
also established cotton plantations and large farms on Vanuatu’s geographic isolation and scattered geography
the islands. In 1882, the establishment of the Caledonian resulted in a number of disparate cultures and traditions
Company brought many French migrants to the islands, (called kastom in Bislama) becoming established in the
and by the start of the twentieth century, the French out- islands that the people have protected for thousands of
numbered the British by two to one (Minahan 2012). In years. Traditional housing on Vanuatu takes the form of
time, the French and British established a joint govern- huts called nakamals. These are resilient enough to with-
ment on Vanuatu, but this was divided into two separate stand the many cyclones that hit the islands, and in 2015,
administrations that employed their own languages and they were one of the reasons that only twenty-four island-
political systems. During this period, the Ni-Vanuatu were ers died during Cyclone Pam, which devastated the country.
mostly ignored by authorities. Typical Ni-Vanuatu foods include pork, fish, and poul-
World War II saw large numbers of American and try as well as the crops that the people grow. The people
Allied military land on several of the islands. Seeing black also enjoy kava, a drink made from the antistress herb
GIs enjoying the same benefits as white servicemen played Piper methysticum, which is something of an obsession
a significant part in the creation of the Ni-Vanuatu inde- among the Ni-Vanuatu as well as the national drink of
pendence movement. The nascent independence move- Vanuatu. Indeed, the kava produced on Vanuatu is said to
ment accompanied a general fracturing of Vanuatu society be the strongest in the South Pacific.
postwar when a number of secessionist groups arose, and Although earlier missionary activity means most
looting, violence, and disorder broke out. At the same Ni-Vanuatu are ostensibly Christian, the people hold
time, Britain and France were unable to decide whether to indigenous spiritual beliefs dear. According to the Ni-Va-
grant Vanuatu independence. Although the British wished nuatu’s indigenous beliefs, the world is inhabited by spirits
to leave Vanuatu, France wished to stay. The Vanuatu inde- and demons that missionaries tried to expel. The Ni-Va-
pendence movement centered on Santo, which declared nuatu also believe that Matthew Island is the House of the
itself the independent state of Vemarana in 1980, only for Gods, where the spirits of the dead reside.
the rebellion to be halted by Papua New Guinean troops. Rather bizarrely, villagers of Yaohnanen on the island of
Social and political problems also plague Ni-Vanuatu Tanna follow the Prince Philip Movement. This religious
life. Friction between the police and the Vanuatu Mobile sect believes that Great Britain’s Prince Philip (the hus-
Force, a security force, has brought intermittent local vio- band of Queen Elizabeth II) is descended from one of their
lence. Corruption is a major political problem, with the spirit ancestors. At the same time, around fifteen thousand
country’s deputy prime minister and thirteen other MPs of Tanna’s inhabitants follow the John Frum Movement, a
found guilty of bribery in 2015 (Minority Rights Group cargo cult (a millenarian movement found in Melanesia
International 2017). As a result of the corruption scandal, that sees believers perform ritualistic acts in the belief
the opposition party took control of the majority of the that this will result in the appearance of material wealth,
political positions, prompting President Baldwin Lonsdale especially Western goods arriving via airplane). The ori-
to dissolve the parliament and call a snap election. The gins of the John Frum Movement are unclear, but it may
election caused the political landscape of Vanuatu to frag- have emerged during the 1930s, when American soldiers
ment further, with numerous political parties occupying moved to the military base on the nearby island of Efate,
the parliament, none of which had a majority. thereby allowing the people of Tanna their first glimpse
Political uncertainty is always simmering in Vanuatu of Western goods. Members of the John Frum Movement
because it is the only country in Oceania to not achieve are reputed to worship an American serviceman who told
independence peacefully. As a result, there is friction islanders he was “John from America.” Annual John Frum
between the various regions of Vanuatu, and although there Day celebrations are held on Tanna on February 15, the
has been no reappearance of the secessionist movement day believers believe their messiah will return. On this day,
808 Ni-Vanuatu

A Ni-Vanuatu man makes kava on Pentecost Island, Vanuatu. Kava, the national drink of Vanuatu, is made from the antistress herb Piper
methysticum. (Manfred Thuerig/Dreamstime.com)

Cargo Cults
Cargo cult is the contentious term for religious movements that believe in the coming of a new age prompted by the
arrival of cargo sent by supernatural forces. Believers feel tribal deities, cultural heroes, or ancestral spirits will return
with the cargo or that the supernatural figures will arrive via foreigners. Believers think the new age will destroy the
old order and bring freedom and justice. This longed-for justice often involves a reversal of the positions of occupying
foreigners and indigenous peoples. Such beliefs mainly occur in Melanesia. Such cults have included the John Frum
Movement, Vailala Madness, and the Mambu Movement, all based in Papua New Guinea.

islanders hold a military-style parade, complete with the of $134 per person. The most recent surveys of the nation’s
Stars and Stripes, and paint the letters “USA” in red paint healthcare provision have found there were 12 doctors, 170
on their chests. Anthropologists argue that although it is nurses and midwives, 1 pharmaceutical professional, and
easy to mock the worshippers’ beliefs, it is their way of 2.4 mental health outpatient facilities per 100,000 people.
coping with the intrusion of the West and its trappings on The country has no mental health residential facilities
their previously undisturbed way of life. or psychiatric hospitals. Vanuatu’s Ministry of Health is
responsible for the country’s four provincial hospitals and
two referral hospitals. There are also thirty health centers
Health Care and Education and ninety-seven dispensaries providing inpatient/outpa-
In 2011, Vanuatu’s public health expenditure was 3.6 per- tient care, preventative medicine, and primary care (Com-
cent of the gross domestic product (GDP), the equivalent monwealth of Nations 2018). Despite these facilities, 20
 Nivkh 809

percent of Vanuatu’s population does not have access to As a low-lying nation, Vanuatu is extremely vulnerable to
health care. In addition, in Vanuatu one in four children natural disasters. For example, in 2015, Vanuatu was dev-
younger than five years is underweight, and one in five astated by Cyclone Pam, one of the worst natural disasters
children has stunted growth (Macfarlane 2015). in the country’s history that left seventy-five thousand
The Vanuatu education system sees children experience islanders in need of emergency aid and the country’s crops
six years of primary school education (years one to six), destroyed. The implications of climate change are espe-
four years of junior secondary education (years seven to cially severe for Vanuatu, with the country already subject
ten) and three years of senior secondary school (years to drought, flooding, coral bleaching, and reduced fish
eleven to thirteen). Children advance though the system stocks linked to climate change. The threat posed by cli-
by passing national examinations in years six, ten, twelve, mate change means Vanuatu has been actively involved in
and thirteen. Despite the provision of education, one in discussions surrounding the Paris Agreement on Climate
four of all Ni-Vanuatu are illiterate, and only 30 percent Change, with the country calling for more funding to be
of Vanuatu’s rural sixteen-year-olds attend school. Post- allocated to tackle the issue.
school unemployment is an issue in Vanuatu because only
See also: Anutan; Chamorro; i-Kiribati; iTaukei; Mar-
five hundred new jobs are available each year: therefore,
shallese; Nauruan; Torres Strait Islanders; Tuvaluan
3,500 of those leaving school each year have no hope of
Further Reading
finding employment. In addition, only 0.59 percent of
Chapman, Paul. 2015. “Why a Tribe in Vanuatu Believes Their
those leaving school go on to university. God Prince Philip Is Set to Visit.” Daily Telegraph, April 25.
Vanuatu’s Ministry of Education has limited funds and https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews​ / australia​
resources to improve the people’s education. For this rea- andthepacific/vanuatu/11563091/Why-a-tribe-in​-Vanuatu​
son, schools and parents tend to buy their own textbooks. -believes-their-god-Prince-Philip-is-set-to-visit​.html.
However, because 82 percent of Vanuatu’s people are Commonwealth of Nations. 2018. “Health Systems in
Vanuatu.” Commonwealth Health Online. http://www​
mostly poor and follow subsistence lifestyles in rural areas,
.commonwealthhealth.org/pacific/vanuatu/health_systems​
the cost of school fees and providing books is a crippling _in_vanuatu.
financial burden upon families (Macfarlane 2015). Macfarlane, Margaret. 2015. “Background Information on
Vanuatu.” Kiwanis International: NZSP Division One (Auck-
land and Vanuatu), February 8. http://www.kiwanis.org.nz​
Threats to Survival /dv01evbk.htm.
Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the
Several threats face the Ni-Vanuatu. The country is ranked
Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
third worst in the Pacific in terms of the Human Poverty Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Vanuatu.” World
Index, and the country’s GDP is declining. Although the Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, November.
Vanuatu economy is increasing at an average of 1 percent, http://minorityrights.org/country/vanuatu.
the population is growing at 3.5 percent per year. As the
population grows, demand for schools, health care, and
jobs is also likely to increase (Macfarlane 2015). Most of
Vanuatu’s exports are agricultural, so Vanuatu’s economy
is vulnerable to price fluctuations and worsened by high NIVKH
transport costs caused by the country’s geographical iso-
lation and the threat of cyclone damage. Therefore, the Current Location Russia
country is heavily reliant on international aid. Current Population 6,000
The land rights of the country’s indigenous peoples have Language Russian; Nivkh
been an issue ever since Vanuatu gained independence, Interesting Fact The ancestors of the Nivkh arrived in
with authorities tending to award land leases without con- Russia and Japan during the Ice Age.
sulting indigenous communities. In 2014, new legislation
was brought in to address this issue, but the reforms have
encountered difficulties, including complaints by indigenous Overview
peoples of irregularities surrounding land registrations. The Nivkh, also called the Nivikh or Nivkhi and known
Physical threats to Vanuatu and the Ni-Vanuatu include historically as the Gilyak, are an indigenous people of Rus-
the constant threat of cyclones, earthquakes, and tsunamis. sia. Most Nivkh speak Russian as their main language,
810 Nivkh

though a small number of Nivkh also speak the Nivkh lan- oil extraction—that has left the people suffering from
guage. This language is divided into two mutually unin- endemic sickness and severely depleted natural resources
telligible dialects, Sakhalin and Amur, as well as multiple (Minahan 2014).
subdialects. The Nivkh language is sometimes considered
a Siberian language of the Paleo-Asiatic language family,
though most linguists maintain Nivkh is a language iso- History and Politics
late. The majority of Nivkh identify as atheist, but many The Nivkh are descended from inhabitants of southern
still follow the people’s shamanistic religion. There is also a Siberia’s Transbaikal region who migrated during the Pleis-
Nivkh Russian Orthodox minority. tocene era (known colloquially as the Ice Age). The early
Nivkh crossed a land bridge that ultimately created the
Tatar Strait and settled on Sakhalin Island and Hokkaido.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration When the Ice Age ended, the world’s oceans rose, thereby
The Nivkh population is estimated at around six thousand dividing the early Nivkh into two communities, one on the
people (Minahan 2014). The Nivkh live in eastern Russia north Asian mainland and the other inhabiting Sakhalin
in the north of Sakhalin Island and the Amur River estu- and Hokkaido islands. In time, northern areas became
ary. The island and estuary lies on Siberia’s Pacific coast. In warmer, resulting in more powerful peoples migrating
the past, however, Nivkh territory was much larger, occu- to Nivkh areas and assimilating the early Nivkh. Like the
pying all of Sakhalin Island as well as parts of Hokkaido Ainu, today’s Nivkh are considered the descendants of the
Island in northern Japan. early indigenous people who remained unassimilated.
Over time, the Nivkh maintained their own language
and ethnic identity, but they also entered into trade and
Geography and Environment marriage with the Jurchen (ancestors of the Manchu peo-
Sakhalin Island lies at the far eastern end of Russia between ple), Nanai, and other nearby Tungusic peoples (peoples
the Tatar Strait and the Sea of Okhotsk, north of the Jap- inhabiting Eastern Siberia and Northeast Asia who speak
anese island of Hokkaido. In winter the narrowest section Tungusic languages). In the twelfth century, Nivkh living
of the Tatar Strait freezes. Together with the Kuril Islands, in Manchuria and southern Siberia were made to pay trib-
Sakhalin Island forms the Sakhalin region. Although most ute to the Jurchen. At roughly the same time, the Nivkh
of Sakhalin Island is mountainous, the north is character- also encountered the Han Chinese, with whom they traded
ized by lowland plain. The north is also home to tundra, furs in exchange for Chinese silks, tobacco, jewelry, metal,
stunted birch, and willow forests. In total, Sakhalin Island and alcohol. Although the Nivkh ostensibly remained
is crisscrossed by sixty thousand rivers and streams. independent, governed only by their tribal chiefs, they
Sakhalin Island’s main economies rely on the natural were often influenced by the early Manchu and then the
environment. Economic activities include fishing (mainly later Chinese Empire. Meanwhile, on Sakhalin and Hok-
crab, herring, cod, salmon), coal mining, timber felling kaido the Nivkh were often aggressive to the Ainu, but
(for paper production), and livestock raising. In the north, they remained independent. In 1664, the Manchu sud-
petroleum and natural gas extraction dominate. Tourism denly increased their territory to the overrun the rest of
focuses on snowboarding, paragliding, fishing, seal watch- China and stretched into land north of Nivkh areas. Soon
ing, and bear hunting and is increasingly important to the Nivkh living in China came to be regarded as part of
islanders. the Manchu Qing dynasty, meaning Nivkh chiefs collected
The Amur River is the longest river in Russia’s Far East, furs from the people as a form of taxation.
with headwaters rising in the border shared by Siberia, During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, Russia
Mongolia, and the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of began to expend its territory into the Far East, resulting in
China. The river flows east and southeast, creating much many conflicts in tribal areas. The Russians first made con-
of the border between China’s Heilongjiang province and tact with the Nivkh at the start of the seventeenth century
southeast Siberia before flowing across Russia to the Tatar when they encountered Nivkh salmon fishing settlements
Strait. while traveling along the Amur River. The Russians soon
Nivkh areas have a legacy of pollution arising from tried to impose a fur tax on the Nivkh, a move that was
industry—especially Soviet-era forestry, mining, and met by violence by the Nivkh.
 Nivkh 811

Following the signing of the Treaty of Nerchinsk in 1689 the Russian workforce as part of the Soviet war effort.
by the Russian and Chinese empires, the Nivkh acted as During the 1950s and 1960s, smaller Nivkh communes
go-betweens between the Manchu and the Russians. The and collectives were shut down, with the Nivkh forced to
Nivkh also maintained links between the Japanese and the move to tightly controlled, government-run multiethnic
Ainu. Toward the end of the seventeenth century, however, settlements. For a time, Nivkh state employees enjoyed
the Japanese took control of the whole of Hokkaido, result- some prosperity, but this began to wane in the 1970s as
ing in conflict between the Japanese and the Nivkh. The the Soviet economy started to decline. Nonetheless, by the
violence decimated the Nivkh population of Hokkaido, 1980s most Nivkh not only communicated in Russian but
and within a century there were no Nivkh remaining on also lived in Russian-style homes and shopped for Russian-
the island. style clothes and food. The assimilation of the Nivkh con-
At the beginning of the nineteenth century, the Cos- tinued throughout the 1980s and only stopped in the 1990s
sacks overran Nivkh areas leaving many Nivkh dead or after the fall of the Soviet regime. In the twenty-first cen-
displaced. The Nivkh demonstrated such resilience to tury, the Nivkh have begun to hunt and fish again, and a
outsiders that the Russians dubbed them kinrsh (devils). low-key Nivkh cultural revival commenced, with people
However, ultimately the Nivkh were conquered by the attempting to revive and protect the Nivkh language.
Russian Empire when Russia gained control of all Nivkh
land following the signing of the Treaty of Aigun (1858)
and the Treaty of Peking in (1860), which ceded the Amur Society, Culture, and Tradition
region to Russia. Following the takeover of their lands by Traditionally, Nivkh culture is tribal and based on clan-
the Russians, the Nivkh fell ill with European diseases ship. However, this aspect of Nivkh life was almost totally
such as influenza, plague, and smallpox, which left many destroyed under Soviet rule in the 1920s when Nivkh com-
Nivkh dead. The Nivkh population fell further due to vio- munities were forced to migrate to large villages. It is only
lence and displacement at the hands of the Russians. very recently that some Nivkh have returned to establish
Under the terms of the Treaty of Shimoda (1855), Rus- small settlements occupied by several families together.
sia and Japan jointly ruled Sakhalin Island. However, after Today, the Nivkh are allowed to belong to clans once more,
the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), the island was parti- so clanship is again becoming central to Nivkh life. Clans
tioned between Russia and Japan along the fiftieth parallel organize the main Nivkh occupations of hunting and fishing.
north. Soon fish stocks off the coast of southern, Japanese- The Nivkh language is sometimes classed as a Siberian
controlled Sakhalin Island became exhausted, leaving language of the Paleo-Asiatic language family along with
many Nivkh facing the choice of whether to starve or languages such as Chukchi, but it has little in common
move to the Russian-controlled north of the island. Those with other Siberian languages. Therefore, the majority of
Nivkh who remained in the south of Sakhalin Island soon linguists feel Nivkh is unrelated to any other language.
became assimilated into Japanese society on the island. The Nivkh language existed only as an oral language until
The communist takeover of Russia following the Russian the 1930s, when Soviet linguists devised a Nivkh script
Revolution and Russian Civil War resulted in great changes based on the Amur dialect. The language was written first
to Nivkh society. During the 1920s, the Nivkh were forced using the Latin alphabet and then using the Cyrillic alpha-
to leave their villages and resettle in Soviet communes. bet starting in 1936. The Amur-based written language
At the same time, however, the state established schools, remained the only written form of Nivkh until 1979, when
hospitals, and cultural centers for Nivkh use while cherry- a written form of the Sakhalin dialect was created.
picking the most able Nivkh students (male and female) The indigenous Nivkh religion is led by shamans and
for education in major cities. In the 1930s, the benefits maintains a belief in a host of deities that the people believe
enjoyed by the Nivkh under Soviet rule began to dimin- controls the rivers, mountains, sea, and sky. In addition,
ish because they were made to abandon their tradition of the Nivkh believe that each natural element has its own yz
migrating to settlements in summer and winter, instead (master) that has to be pleased through food offerings. For
settling in collectives that Soviets argued maximized local this reason, many Nivkh place a bottle of vodka or candy at
resources. According to KGB records, the Soviets also mas- the foot of a tree before entering a forest to collect berries.
sacred all Nivkh men in one county in 1937 (Grant 2002). The most important Nivkh festival is the annual Bear
In the 1940s, Nivkh men and women were entered into Festival, which takes place in February. During this ritual,
812 Nogai

a sacred bear cub, raised by Nivkh women and clan lead- meaning the language is still endangered. Hindering the
ers in honor of their ancestors, is sacrificed and eaten. burgeoning Nivkh economic and cultural revival is the
This tradition is quite likely borrowed from the Ainu, who general decline in the Russian economy and social ser-
maintain a very similar custom. During the Soviet era, the vices, as well as widespread corruption. For these reasons,
Bear Festival was banned, but it is currently undergoing a the Nivkh remain impoverished, with many relying on
modest revival. bartering and other forms of cashless exchanges to sur-
vive financially. In addition, many Nivkh follow a modest
subsistence lifestyle, prompting some Nivkh to look to
Health Care and Education prosperous Asian neighbors for economic sponsorship
The Sakhalin Indigenous Minorities Development Plan (Grant 2002). Growing tourism on Sakhalin Island and
(SIMDP) is a three-way partnership agreement between the the growth of extractive industries (mainly oil and gas)
Sakhalin regional authorities, Sakhalin Energy (an invest- may improve the Nivkh economic outlook further but will
ment consortium developing Sakhalin oil and gas projects), most likely bring their own issues. Islanders also face dan-
and the Regional Council of Authorized Representatives ger from natural disasters. For example, in 1995, a major
of the Sakhalin Indigenous Minorities. SIMDP covers the earthquake struck Sakhalin Island, destroying the town of
entire Sakhalin region, not just areas of oil exploitation, Neftegorsk and killing around two thousand people.
with the region’s indigenous peoples able to make decisions
See also: Ainu; Manchu
on fund distribution. Since 2016, SIMDP has implemented
Further Reading
programs and funding aimed at improving access to health
de Graaf, Tjeerd, and Hidetoshi Shiraishi. 2013. “Documenta-
care, education, and transport for the region’s indigenous tion and Revitalisation of Two Endangered Languages in
peoples. One of the programs also provides support to Eastern Asia: Nivkh and Ainu.” In Sustaining Indigenous
indigenous students, including funds for education and Knowledge: Learning Tools and Community Initiatives for
health care, especially dentistry, eye care, and emergency Preserving Endangered Languages and Local Culture, edited
hospital treatment (Tysiachniouk et al. 2018). by Erich Kasten and Tjeerd de Graaf, 49–64. Fürstenberg,
Germany: Kulturstiftung Sibirien.
In 1980, Russia’s Ministry of Education began a pro-
Grant, Bruce. 2002. “The Nivkh of Sakhalin Island.” In The
gram within primary and secondary schools aimed at Cambridge Encyclopedia of Hunters and Gatherers, edited by
promoting Russia’s indigenous languages. In particular, Richard B. Lee and Richard Daly, 170–173. Cambridge, UK:
teachers with Nivkh ancestry were encouraged to teach Cambridge University Press.
Nivkh children in their native language. In addition, spe- Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East and Cen-
cial boarding schools were established in urban areas tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Tysiachniouk, Maria, Laura A. Henry, Machiel Lamersa, and
including the village of Nekrasovka, where Nivkh children
Jan P.M. Van Tatenhove. 2018. “Oil and Indigenous People
could be taught in Nivkh. However, recent studies have in Sub-Arctic Russia: Rethinking Equity and Governance
revealed that Nivkh children have very little knowledge in Benefit Sharing Agreements.” Energy Research & Social
of the Nivkh language and converse with their parents in Science 37 (March): 140–152.
Russian (de Graaf and Shiraishi 2013).

Threats to Survival
In the post-Soviet era, many Nivkh have taken advantage
of new economic and political freedoms. For example, NOGAI
Nivkh cooperatives have opened that allow the people to
sell their handicrafts and processed fish products. There Current Location Russian Federation (Dagestan,
Chechnya); Ukraine; Romania;
are also marketing courses aimed at Nivkh entrepreneurs,
Tukey; Jordan
and small-scale, family-run radovye khoziaistva (fish
Current Population 150,000–500,000
industries) have arisen and are run by ancestral clans.
A Nivkh cultural and linguistic revival is also underway Language Nogai; Russian
with the help of Nivkh-language newspapers and radio Interesting Fact The Nogai believe they are
shows, though it is estimated that only 5 percent of Nivkh descended from the legendary
speak the Nivkh language (de Graaf and Shiraishi 2013), warrior-emperor Genghis Khan.
 Nogai 813

Overview Having been conquered, the Nogai migrated west with

The Nogai (also spelled Noġay or Noghay, and also called the vanquishers. Today, the Nogai’s association with the
the Nogalar and Mangkyt) are a Turkic people living in the Mongols means that they claim descent from Nogai, the
Northern Caucasus region of Europe. They refer to them- grandson of Genghis Khan, who ruled the Nogai Horde
selves as the Noġay, which means “dog” in Mongolian. The until around 1294 or 1300. It was under the leadership of
Nogai speak the Turkic Nogai language as well as Russian. Amir Nogay during the latter half of the thirteenth century
The Noagi are Muslim. that the Nogai’s ethnonym Noġay may have emerged. The
Nogai converted to Islam during the fourteenth century.
In 1557, some Nogai land came under Russian authority.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration At the start of the seventeenth century, several Nogai
Estimates of the total Nogai population vary from 150,000 tribes lived as nomads on the steppes between the Dan-
to 500,000 (Minahan 2016). Most Nogai live scattered ube River and the Caspian Sea. When Mongolian Kalmyks
across the Russian Federation. According to the 2010 Rus- invaded this area, many Nogai were forced to flee the
sian national census, there were 103,660 Nogai living in the steppes and settled among the foothills of the North Cau-
Russian Federation. Most Nogai live in the Nogai Steppe casus. Subsequently, the Nogai who settled near the Kuban
of northern Dagestan and in the republics of Chechnya, River (which flows through Krasnodar Krai, Karachay-
Ingushetia, and Karachay-Cherkess as well as in Russia’s Cherkess Republic, Stavropol Krai, and the Republic of
Stavropol Krai. Some commentators believe the wide geo- Adygea) made contact with the Adyghs. During the sev-
graphical dispersal of the Nogai undermines claims that enteenth century, some Nogai leaders entered into an alli-
there is a Nogai ethnicity. Around ninety thousand Nagai ance with Russia czarist government. Some Nogai fought
live near the coast of Lake Tuz in the Konya area of Turkey for the Russians against the Kabards (an Adyghe tribe), the
(Svanberg 2011). Some Nogai live on Ukraine’s Crimean Kalmyks, and other peoples of Dagestan. At the start of the
Peninsula, and Nogai villages can be found in Dobrogea nineteenth century, most Nogai settled in North Caucasia.
in southern Romania. There is a Nogai diaspora consist- From 1723 to 1859, various Nogai tribes were made to live
ing primarily of Anatolian Nogai who have migrated in under direct Russian rule. After the Russians overran the
search of employment to northwest Europe, especially to Caucasus from 1859 to 1864, many Nogai migrated to live
Germany, Sweden, and the Netherlands. Small Nogai com- in the Ottoman Empire, fleeing to Turkey, the Crimean
munities can be found in Wadi El Sir in Jordan. Peninsula, or Romania to escape Russian rule.
The Russian Revolution of 1917 freed the Nogai from
Russian rule and saw them unite with other Muslim peo-
Geography and Environment ples as part of a cooperative defense. The ensuing Russian
The Nogai homeland, sometimes called Nogaistan, lies on Civil War devastated the Nogai homeland, however. The
the Nogai Steppe (sometimes called the Terek-Kuma Low- Soviets promised the Nogai autonomy, and so, in 1920,
land), plains and grasslands that are located to the west of most Nogai joined the Reds. The autonomy never came to
the Caspian Sea. Nogaistan comprises parts of the Russian fruition, so the Nogai rebelled but were defeated in 1921.
republics of Dagestan, Chechen, and Karachai-Cherkessia From 1944 to 1957, many Nogai were deported from their
as well as Russia’s Stavropol Krai. homeland to elsewhere in the Soviet Union, especially to
The Nogai Steppe occupies the far north of the North Chechnya, Dagestan, and Stavropol. Others were arrested
Dagestan Lowland on land between the Kuma and Terek and transported against their will to Central Asia. In addi-
Rivers. Much of the region is high, flat pastureland that tion, Nogaistan became divided between three Soviet
rises from the Caspian coastal plain. The region is char- regions.
acterized by sandy semideserts, dry grasslands, and reed Nogai life changed greatly in the 1950s and 1960s
marshes located in the rivers’ deltas. because the Soviets collectivized Nogai farms, prevented
nomadism, and forced the people to work for the state. At
the same time, the Nogai were increasingly assimilated
History and Politics into Russian society. The post–World War II era also saw
The Nogai originated as nomadic tribes of Central Asia. many non-Nogai move onto Nogai land, including the
During the early thirteenth century, the early Nogai were Avars and Dagestanis. The immigration caused towns to
conquered by the expanding Mongol Golden Horde. expand, thereby encroaching on Nogai land, and at the
814 Nogai

same time outsiders introduced intensive agriculture (or White) Nogai who live in the west of the Nogai home-
to Nogai pastures or took up cattle and horse breeding, land, the Archikulak (or Central) Nogai, and the Kara
which competed with that of the Nogai. When even more (or Black) Nogai who live in the east. Nogai tribal and
Nogai pastureland became endangered in the 1970s, a regional identification tends to be more important to the
movement arose seeking a separate Nogai state within the Nogai than the common Nogai identity that has evolved
Soviet Union. Nogai separatist sentiments strengthened since the 1980s, especially among the increasingly large
following the fall of the Soviet Union at the start of the urban Nogai population. In the past, many Nogai were
1990s. For example, an organized Nogai nationalist move- nomadic herders residing in mobile houses called cutan.
ment, Birlik (meaning “Unity”), based in Dagestan, had Today, however, there are no Nogai nomads. Instead, all
formed back in 1957 as a Nogai cultural organization; it Nogai follow settled lives. Most Nogai, especially those in
evolved further to call for the creation of a Nogai state that Russia and Turkey, earn their living from cattle and horse
was separate from Dagestan but still within the Russian breeding or from farming. Horse breeding has long been
Federation. very important to the Nogai, with horse milk being a staple
Fearful that their small nation would be wiped out Nogai drink and horse meat being their staple food. Tradi-
through a combination of language loss, cultural assimi- tionally, the Nogai also use horses for transport.
lation, and geographical division, the Nogai also called for The Nogai language, which is related to Kazak and Kar-
the reunification of the Nogai homeland and the institut- akalpak, belongs to the southern subgroup of the Kipchak
ing of the autonomy that they had been promised before (or Northwestern) branch of Turkic languages. The lan-
1957. The Nogai’s lack of a cohesive, compact settlement guage is divided into three main dialects: Kara Nogai, spo-
hampered their cause. Nonetheless, a 1999 poll indicated ken in Dagestan; Central Nogai, spoken around Stavropol;
that 35 percent of Nogai desire a return to living in the and Ak Nogai, spoken in the area around the Kuban River.
people’s traditional homeland on the Nogai Steppe (Mina- The Nogai language is mainly spoken in villages, and scat-
han 2002). tered Nogai tend to speak various language found in the
During the Second Chechen War (1999–2009), many area in which they live, particularly Russian. Contact with
Nogai became caught up in fighting, with the Nogai report- Russians has greatly impacted Nogai language use and
edly one of the first North Caucasian peoples not related culture. The first written Nogai language used the Arabic
to the Chechens or Ingush to join the Chechen rebels in alphabet. Then, in 1928, the Latin alphabet was intro-
fighting against Russia. At the same time, fighting caused duced to the Nogai. However, in 1938, the Latin alphabet
many other Nogai to settle in neighboring republics, a was replaced by Cyrillic script. In the 1990s, there were
move that led to tension between the Nogai and other unsuccessful attempts to reintroduce written Nogai using
ethnic groups. By 2002, around ten thousand Nogai from the Latin script. Today, there are few Nogai-language pub-
southern Chechnya were living in refugee camps in north- lished works or other media in existence. Consequently,
ern Dagestan (Minahan 2002). Nogai is regarded as an endangered language.
In 2007, the Nogai residing in the Karachaevo- The Nogai are overwhelmingly Sunni Muslim. Most
Cherkessia Republic established their own administra- follow the Hanafi school, one of the four religious Sunni
tive region to counter unemployment and depopulation Islamic schools of jurisprudence (fiqh). However, many
among the Nogai. Then, in 2010, Nogai militants began to Nogai maintain some pre-Islamic customs and beliefs,
call for Nogai independence within a proposed Caucasian including the worship of the Turkic god Tungri and the
federation. Today, the Birlik Nogai nationalist movement belief that inanimate objects have their own spirits. Tradi-
continues to represent Nogai living in Dagestan. However, tionally, the form of Islam practiced by the Nogai is liberal
the fact that the Nogai live across a wide geographical area and influenced by the fact that the Nogai often live among
continues to mean any attempts to unite them have proven people of other religions. Since the start of the 1990s,
unsuccessful. the Nogai have sought to forge deeper bonds with Mus-
lims living outside of the Nogai areas. As a result of this
growing connection with the wider Islamic world, some
Society, Culture, and Tradition young Nogai have become interested in a more radical
The Nogai are a Turkic people related to the Kumyks. Tra- form of Islam and militant Muslim movements, as found
ditionally, the Nogai population is divided between the Ak in Chechnya (Svanberg 2011).
 Nuba 815

Health Care and Education Svanberg, Ingvar. 2011. “Nogai.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe: An
Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffery E. Cole, 273–274. Santa Bar-
Following the fall of the Soviet Union, health care bara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
remained free in Dagestan. The republic’s health ser- University of California, San Francisco. 2012. “Health and Health
vice is chronically underfunded, however. Dagestan has Care in Russia and the Former Soviet Union.” The University
experienced significant increases in infant and mater- of California, San Francisco: Global Health. http://meded​
nal mortality rates, incidents of contagious diseases, and .ucsf.edu/gh/health-and-health-care-russia-and-former​
-soviet-union.
decreases in fertility. Recently, organizations both within
the Russian Federation and internationally have striven
to improve health care in Dagestan. Russia’s autonomous
republics are socially and economically underdeveloped,
have generally substandard health care, and face poor NUBA
hygiene standards both at home and in hospitals; envi-
ronmental degradation also impacts the health of moth- Current Location Sudan
ers and babies (University of California 2012). The efforts Current Population 36,233
of organizations to improve health care in Dagestan and Language Numerous Eastern Sudanic dialects;
other former Soviet states is often hampered by official Arabic
corruption and the mistrust of the republic’s indigenous Interesting Fact In 2012, Hollywood star George
peoples. Clooney testified before the U.S.
The Nogai language is recognized by Dagestan’s con- Senate Foreign Relations Committee
stitution. However, Nogai nationalists complain there is a about attacks by the Sudanese gov-
lack of teaching materials in the Nogai language and that ernment on the people of the Nuba
Nogai children face difficulties trying to access education Mountains.
in the native tongue.
Overview
Threats to Survival Nuba is the umbrella term used to describe a Sudanese
ethnic group consisting of more than fifty independent,
Since 2011, Nogai nationalists have called for the creation
ethnically diverse tribes. The Nuba speak numerous East-
of an independent Nogai state, Republika Nogaya, within
ern Sudanic (or Kordofanian) dialects that belong to the
a Caucasian confederation. So far, the Nogai’s dispersal
Chari-Nile languages, which form part of the Nilo-Saharan
across a wide geographical area has impeded their abil-
language group. Many Nuba are also fluent in Arabic.
ity to make these demands come to fruition. At the same
Many Nuba are Christian or Muslim, and others follow
time, Nogai culture and society is increasingly assimilated
traditional animist religions or are atheist. Although there
with threat of Russia, and the Nogai language is endan-
is great diversity among the Nuba, they have discovered a
gered through a lack of mother tongue education and its
common Nuba identity through the people’s shared moun-
limited use in publishing and broadcasting. In addition, in
tain homeland and mutual history of oppression. The
recent years, Dagestan has proven an extremely dangerous
Nuba use the collective name Nuba to distinguish them-
place, with bombings, shootouts, assassinations, and anti-
selves from the neighboring Baggara and Jellaba peoples.
terrorist operations occurring frequently.
See also: Agul; Avar; Chechen; Lak; Lezgin
Further Reading Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations. The Nuba population measures 36,233 people (Minority
Vol. 3, L–R. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, Rights Group International 2017). The Nuba claim that
Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth- they are the indigenous inhabitants of the Nuba Mountains
nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa
region that is located in the central part of South Kordofan
Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Minority Right Group International. 2018. “Russian Federation: Province, Kordofan State, Sudan. Although the Nuba rep-
Nogai.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peo- resent about 70 percent of all the people living in the Nuba
ples. https://minorityrights.org/minorities/nogai. Mountains, they are a political minority in the area due
816 Nuba

to their social and economic marginalization (Mohamed Nuba retreat even higher up the Nuba Mountains, where
1998). The Nuba consist of twelve culturally related tribal the Nuba practiced terraced farming to grow food. The
groups who are united by a shared history of oppression by division of Nuba land by the Baggara led to many con-
Muslim authorities. flicts between the Baggarra and the Nuba. The relationship
between Nuba and Muslim invaders was worsened by the
fact that the Baggarra acted as slave traders who enslaved
Geography and Environment the Nuba because they were forbidden to enslave fellow
The Nuba live in the mountainous Kordofan State in central Muslims but could enslave the non-Muslim Nuba.
Sudan. The area is bordered by Darfur to the west; Abyei, Meanwhile, in 1750, the Kingdom of Taqali had been
Northern Bahr el Ghazal, Warrap, Unity, and Upper Nile to established in the Nuba Mountains. During the period
the South; and the White Nile and North Kordofan to the 1840 to 1880, the kingdom was weakened by frequent
North. The state’s capital is Kadugli. The Nuba Mountains conflicts over the matter of succession, and in 1884, this
cover an area measuring roughly forty by ninety miles and weakening allowed the kingdom to be conquered by
stretch for around nineteen thousand square miles. The Islamic Mahdist forces. The British defeated the Mahdists
mountains are 1,500–3,000 feet higher in elevation than in 1889, thereby making the Kingdom of Taqali part of
the surrounding plain. Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, which saw control of Sudan effec-
The area’s climate of semiarid landscape is typified tively shared between Egypt and Britain (1899–1956).
by savanna grasslands, thorn bushes, acacia, and bao- The Nuba began to settle in lowland areas during the
bab trees, though in the dry season the area resembles a British colonial administrative period (1890s–1956). The
desert. On average, the hills are eight hundred meters high British encouraged the establishment of Nuba farms on
and covered in fertile soil. Five main rivers flow through lowland plains because this put an end to any Nuba resist-
the state, though only one of these, the Khour Mirri Bara ance that might become prevalent in mountainous loca-
River, flows all year. The Khour Mirri Bara River forms a tions. It also became easier for the British to administer
waterfall that attracts visitors during the dry season. the area if most of their subjects lived in easily accessi-
The Nuba Mountains have few roads, with most villages ble lowland areas. It was during this time that the Nuba
connected by ancient paths that are inaccessible to cars. adopted modern farming techniques and started to grow
Kadugli is accessible all year by roads from the north of cotton as a cash crop.
Sudan. Road access to other areas is often difficult, espe- When Sudan became independent in 1956, Arab
cially during the rainy season that extends from June to nationalists within Sudan marginalized the Nuba. It
October. became a requirement that all schools teach the Koran,
and missionary schools were discriminated against. The
pro-Muslim attitude of the new Sudanese government
History and Politics hardened Nuba attitudes against that government and all
The history of the Nuba is uncertain, though they may be succeeding authorities. At the same time, as the govern-
the indigenous people of the Nuba Mountains and the ear- ment implemented discriminatory policies, it also opened
liest people living in the Kordofan region. It is understood up the Nuba Mountains to national and international
that the Nuba once inhabited a much larger area than they companies wishing to exploit the area’s natural resources.
do now, but they were gradually forced from their lands Eventually, the Sudanese government confiscated much of
by various invaders, including nomadic Muslim Arabs the Nuba territory and gave it to Muslim landlords.
who arrived in Nuba areas during the seventh century. To In 1983, the Sudanese civil war broke out when the pres-
escape the invaders, the Nuba retreated high into the easily ident tried to impose sharia law on the country. The impo-
defendable Nuba Mountains, where the soil was fertile and sition of sharia law on Sudan has reinforced discrimination
water supplies were sufficient. against the Nuba. The government set out on a program
In the 1800s, Baggara Arabs moved into Nuba terri- aimed at Islamizing the Nuba via the imposition of Islamic
tory in search of water and grasslands on which to feed education, the terrorizing of Nuba Christian clergy, forced
the animals. The powerful Baggarra took control of plains resettlement, land confiscation, and torture. In reaction
that had remained under Nuba ownership and divided to these policies, the Nuba became increasingly allied to
the land into zones. This land division made the displaced the Sudan People’s Liberation Army (SPLA), a military
 Nuba 817

organization that began as an armed Sudanese rebel group Nonetheless, many thousands of Nuba were starved out of
before becoming the army of what is now the independ- the mountains and had little choice but to enter camps,
ent country of South Sudan. By 1984 the war had spread to where they were fed in return for the men agreeing to fight
the Nuba Mountains, forcing the Nuba to move to garrison against their fellow Nuba. Also at these camps, children
towns of to rebel-held enclaves. At the same time, the Nuba were enrolled into the Islamic militia, and militia mem-
were targeted by government-sponsored attacks. From bers raped Nuba women so that resulting mixed-race
1989 onward, the Sudanese government attempted to children would dilute the Nuba ethnicity (Minahan 2002).
eradicate Nuba nationalism through a program of enforced Over time, journalists and foreigners were barred from
Islamization and Arabization, and Nuba migrant workers entering Nuba areas by the Sudanese authorities, and little
faced obvious racial discrimination (Minahan 2002). aid was allowed. In 2001, the United Nations was able to
Between 1985 and 1986, the Baggara, together with broker a cease-fire between government forces and rebels,
their militia (the murahaliin), received weapons from the allowing the United Nations to deliver food to the Nuba.
transitional Sudanese government. Then from 1986 to By the time the United States helped to broker the Com-
1989, they were also armed by the governing Umma Party. prehensive Peace Agreement (CPA) in 2005, the fighting in
After this, the Baggara were armed by the government of Sudan had run on for more than two decades and killed
the National Islamic Front (NIF). Once the NIF became the around two million people, many of whom were civil-
part of government, the Popular Defence Act of 1989 gave ians who died of disease and malnutrition (McConnell
legal status to the murahaliin as part of the paramilitary 2013). The Nuba enjoyed relative peace during the years
Popular Defence Forces (PDF). This was a government- between 2005 and 2011 when South Sudan became a sep-
assembled group consisting of religious zealots, ethnic arate, independent country. South Sudan’s independence
militias and conscripts who had been press-ganged into left the Nuba as the only significant African minority in
fighting (Minority Rights Group International 2017). Sudan, an Arab nation. That same year, fighting in Sudan
In 1992, Christian Nuba were targeted by the govern- resumed involving indiscriminate bombing and leading
ment’s declaration of a jihad aimed at non-Muslim inhab- to accusations that authorities based in Khartoum were
itants of the Nuba Mountains. Even a visit to Sudan by committing genocide in the Nuba Mountains (McConnell
Pope John Paul II in 1993 could not stop the persecution of 2013). Amid this turmoil, Nuba nationalists have called for
the Christian Nuba, and that same year a fatwah (religious an independent Nuba state separate from both violently
decree) was declared by Muslim clerics based in the Suda- disordered South Sudan and Islamized Sudan.
nese capital, Khartoum, that it was the religious duty of all
Muslims to kill the non-Muslims living in the Nuba Moun-
tains who refused to convert to Islam. Around this time, Society, Culture, and Tradition
armed militia began to target the Nuba for enslavement, Nuba society is a melting pot of indigenous faith, Chris-
and it is thought that over the years, many thousands of tianity, and Islam. The Nuba who are neither Christian
Nuba have been captured as slaves (Minahan 2002). In nor Muslim retain their native beliefs that are connected
addition, throughout the 1990s, Nuba children from the involved agricultural rituals and rites that pay homage to
Kadugli/Tulisci areas were corralled by the PDF and sub- ancestral spirits. For this reason, rainmakers and indig-
sequently sent to Libya and Gulf states. The Nuba Timu enous religion priests are esteemed members of Nuba
group was virtually annihilated, with all males down to the society. Although the Sudanese authorities have banned
age of six massacred. missionary work, Christianity has a growing number of
In 1999, the Sudanese government lured starving Nuba followers among the Nuba. The influence of Christianity
hiding in the mountains out into the open by allowing non- over the Nuba harks back to the nineteenth century, when
governmental organizations (NGOs) such as the United Western Christian missionaries led a move against slave
Nations to deliver aid to government-controlled towns and trading by Muslims living in Nuba areas. The missionar-
camps. Once the Nuba arrived in government-controlled ies established missionary schools and evangelizing mis-
areas, the government cut off access to the mountains, sions in Nuba areas, and as a result many Nuba turned to
thereby trapping the Nuba in government-controlled Christianity.
areas. In 1999, international condemnation forced the Islam also influences Nuba culture, though the extent of
government to permit UN aid workers to reach the Nuba. this influence varies geographically and is often the result
818 Nuba

Nuba men wrestle in South Kordofan Province, Sudan. Wrestling is a traditional Nuba pastime. (Enrica Sacconi/Dreamstime.com)

of the Sudanese government’s policy of Islamization. It bodies to lessen the effects of the stick blows, and some
is quite usual to find Nuba families consist of Christians, contenders wear hats made of seeds, butter, or mud as
Muslims, and member who follow traditional Nuba beliefs. head protection. Nevertheless, the sport can prove lethal.
One of the best known Nuba traditions is stick fighting, During stick fights, girls sing in praise of the fighters,
though it is rarely practiced today. Stick fighting is akin whom they liken to bulls, leopards, elephants, and lions,
to a mixture of fighting with sticks and wrestling, and while also upbraiding the fighters for displaying cowardice
according to Nuba folklore, it began hundreds of years ago and lechery. Because fighters can die during play, they pray
when the people decided to imitate the actions of monkeys before the fights.
and insects.
In stick fighting, two contestants each carry a stick and
a shield. Contestants can come from different villages or Health Care and Education
from the same village. The sport always plays out at the The Nuba have little access to healthcare facilities, and
end of autumn when harvest time begins. The sport is the hospitals that the Nuba can access are often over-
never played during the growing season in case it distracts crowded with civilian and military patients. Nongovern-
young men from their farm work. Stick fighting is part of mental organizations have reported that 81 percent of the
many harvest rituals because players consider the sport a Nuba villages have no healthcare center or unit, with 196
way of thanking God for providing a bountiful harvest. healthcare facilities in Nuba areas serving the inhabitants
Stick fights are strictly invitation-only events and take of 1,161 villages (International Organization for Migra-
part at special arenas. Contestants tie ribbons around their tion 2009). The majority of Nuba population relies on
 Nubian 819

traditional medicine or uses medicine that they acquire whether to stay in Sudan. Many Nuba report a desperate
without a prescription. Healthcare facilities in Nuba area lack of healthcare and education facilities in Nuba areas,
are often nonfunctioning because they lack trained staff, and Nuba land rights remain a hugely important issue,
finances, and medicine supplies. In addition, 28 percent with Nuba calling for the redistribution of the land seized
of the healthcare facilities are shut because buildings have from them by the Sudanese government and their allies.
been damaged by fighting or are in severe need of main-
See also: Fur; Nubian
tenance. Reports have found that 60 percent of the Nuba
Further Reading
worry about their lack of healthcare facilities.
International Organization for Migration. 2009. State Report
Other issues surrounding the Nuba and health care Southern Kordofan: Village Assessments and Returnee Mon-
include the fact that public transport is either nonexist- itoring Analytical Report, Maps and Statistical Tables. https://​
ent or unaffordable, and facilities may be more than an www.iom.int/jahia/webdav/shared/shared/mainsite/media​
hour’s walk away. Indeed, 36 percent of the Nuba live more /docs/reports/villages_assessment_skordofan.pdf.
than an hour’s walk from healthcare provision, whereas McConnell, Tristan. 2013. “The Next Darfur: In Sudan’s Rebel-
Held Nuba Mountains, War Rages On.” New Republic, June
24 percent have to walk up to an hour to receive medi-
28. https://newrepublic.com/article/113656/sudan-war-
cal treatment at their nearest health facility (International rages​-rebel-held-nuba-mountains.
Organization for Migration 2009). Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
Educational establishments are scarce, though the crea- Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 3, L–R.
tion of Islamic schools known as peace camps have formed Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
part of the Sudanese government’s Islamization policy. Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Sudan: Nuba.”
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples.
On average, 53 percent of Nuba villages provide children
http://minorityrights.org/minorities/nuba.
with direct access to education; there are 866 functioning Mohamed, Salih M. A. 1998. “Land Alienation and Genocide in
schools in 621 Nuba villages. Researchers have found that the Nuba Mountains.” Cultural Survival Quarterly Magazine,
73 percent of Nuba school facilities are for basic primary December. https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications​
education. In contrast, secondary schools are almost non- /cultural-survival-quarterly/land-alienation-and-genocide​
existent, with only twenty secondary schools providing -nuba-mountains-sudan.
Totten, Samuel, ed. 2017. Sudan’s Nuba Mountains People under
education for all of Kordofan State. There are also two
Siege: Accounts by Humanitarians in the Battle Zone. Jeffer-
schools providing adult education. In Southern Kordofan, son, NC: McFarland & Company.
63 percent of Nuba villages have a Koranic school, with
this school being the only education facility available to
children (International Organization for Migration 2009).

Threats to Survival
NUBIAN
Anti-Nuba policies take many forms, and the Nuba have Current Location Egypt; Sudan
faced numerous attempts to destroy their society and cul- Current Population 1.5 million–4 million
ture over the years. Threats to the Nuba way of life range Language Nubian; Arabic
from forced conversions to Islam to local authorities ban- Interesting Fact Nubians were the first people to
ning stick fighting, a sport that relates to Nuba cosmology, write using hieroglyphics.
farming practices, and religious rituals. Prohibiting these
elements of Nuba life is but one of the ways of denying the
Nuba their basic cultural traits that help preserve Nuba Overview
ethnic identity. The Nubians are a northeast African, indigenous, ethnolin-
The future of the Nuba is uncertain. Sudanese authori- guistic group inhabiting a homeland called Nubia. Nubi-
ties claim to be open to consultation with Nuba as to status ans speak two dialects of the Nubian language, Nobiin and
within the country, but it is unclear what form this con- Kenzi-Dongolawi. Nubian is classed as an Eastern Sudanic
sultation might take and what would happen if the Nuba language of the Nilo-Saharan language group. Nubians
express a desire to join South Sudan. The Nuba have not also speak Arabic. Nubians are Sunni Muslim, though their
been given guarantees of autonomy or of a referendum on religious practices can involve traditional folk beliefs.
820 Nubian

Population, Diaspora, and Migration thanks to its reserves of gold, incense, and ivory. The Nubi-
Population estimates for the Nubians vary. One esti- ans traded these commodities, and at the same time prod-
mate suggests there are 605,000 speakers of Nobiin and ucts from Central Africa passed through Nubia en route
1,045,000 speakers of Kenzi-Dongolawi (Mattoon 2011). to elsewhere in Egypt. Eventually, Nubian land came to
However, other estimates suggest there are three to four stretch from Aswan in Egypt to Khartoum in Sudan, with
million Nubians in total (Minority Rights Group Interna- an eastern border on the Red Sea and a western border of
tional 2017). Other estimates suggest there are three mil- the Libyan Desert.
lion Nubians living in Egypt alone (Lindsey 2015). By 1650 BCE, Nubia stretched from the First to the
Fourth Cataract, thereby rivaling ancient Egypt in size.
In 1500, the Egyptian Empire absorbed Nubia, but the
Geography and Environment waning of the empire’s power during the eighth century
Nubia has no clear land borders. The Nubians consider BCE allowed a new Nubian kingdom to thrive in Napata,
their homeland to run for hundreds of miles south from reclaiming land previously owned by the Nubians and
the First Cataract (a section of large rapids on the Nile appropriating Egyptian land. Egypt’s twenty-fifth dynasty,
River) near Aswan, Egypt, to the Fourth Cataract in north also known as the Nubian dynasty (760–656 BCE), reigned
Sudan. Today, much of Nubia in both Egypt and Sudan is over land extending from the Egyptian Delta to the conflu-
submerged under Lake Nasser. This is an enormous man- ence of the Blue Nile and White Nile until the Assyrians
ufactured reservoir on the Nile River, in Upper Egypt and drove the early Nubians back to their homeland.
northern Sudan. The lake was created by the Aswan High Early Nubians developed a writing system using hier-
Dam’s impounding of the Nile’s river waters. oglyphs, making them the first people to write using this
The name Nubia may derive from the Egyptian word communication system (Lindsey 2015). By the second
for gold, in reference to the gold mines located in the century CE, a twenty-three-letter Nubian alphabet had
region. Nubia is also rich in limestone, granite, and clay; been established that blended together New Kingdom
many quarries are located there. Egyptian with Nubian. However, the script disappeared
Nubian villages are built close to the Nile because the during the fourth century and was supplanted in 795 by
people existed by subsistence farming, date production, the Old Nubian script, which was adapted from Greek.
and animal rearing. Up until the 1960s, eskalay water In the fourth century CE, the Nubian homeland was
wheels as introduced by the Romans were a feature of overrun by the Ethiopian Kingdom of Axum, but there
Nubian farms. Modern Nubian farmers use modern irri- is little recorded about this period. In the sixth century,
gation techniques along with chemical fertilizers to grow Monophysite Christians (who believe that Jesus Christ
sugarcane, which is sold as a cash crop at government-run remains divine despite inhabiting a human body) came
markets. Nubians in Sudan also grow cotton. Dates are to the Nubians from Byzantium. The Christians converted
a staple crop for both Egyptian and Sudanese Nubians, three Nubian groups: the Nobadia, Makuria, and Aodia.
though they grow poorly in the sandy soil found on the However, less than a century later, Muslim Arab armies
land on which resettled Nubians live. Resettled Nubians tried to overrun Nubia in the face of stiff resistance. After
often find that the land they inhabit is unsuited to agricul- two swift Muslim Arab invasions, the Arabs signed the
ture, so the menfolk have to travel far to find farm work. baqt (nonaggression and trade pact) with the Nobadia and
the Makuria, which allowed the Nubians to be left in peace
for hundreds of years.
History and Politics In the eighth century, the Christian realms of Noba-
Nubians began to migrate to the realm of the Kush Empire dia and Makuria united under one ruler and flourished
from Darfur and Kordofan in western Sudan around 3,100 through trade with Egypt. However, the Christian iden-
years ago (Lindsey 2015). Archeologists sometimes classify tity of the Nubian groups began to fade as Arab nomads
the first Nubian cultures as the A and C groups of Lower and merchants settled in Nubia and married local women.
Nubia, with the A group existing between 3500 and 2800 High levels of intermarriage resulted in Nubian society
BCE and the C group existing around 2200 and 1500 BCE. shifting from a matrilineal kinship system to the patrilin-
These early Nubians practiced agriculture and animal hus- eal system favored by Muslim Arabs. This societal change
bandry, and over time, Nubia became stable and wealthy resulted in Arabs acquiring Nubian land and property, and
 Nubian 821

the Nubians began to convert to Islam. When Arab tribes first time and promised them the right to return to their
conquered several Nubian tribes in the fourteenth and fif- homeland. Article 236 of the constitution stipulates that
teenth centuries, Arabic became the language of southern progress must be made in granting Nubians the right to
Nubia. Then, in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, return to their lands within ten years of the document’s
Islamic scholars began to settle in northern Nubia, where approval as well as preserving Nubian language and cul-
they converted the people to Islam. Unlike southern Nubi- ture. However, the government reclassified over 2,400
ans, however, the northern Nubians retained their indige- square miles of land as military land while also reserving
nous language. it as the site of a major agricultural project. Currently, this
British colonial rule governed Egypt and Sudan from land is being sold off to domestic and international inves-
1880 to 1900, the year that the last Nubian kingdom dis- tors (Kelly 2017).
solved. In general, the British left the Nubians alone, and In 2017, Nubian campaigners became increasingly
for the first time in their history, the Nubians were free active, blocking roads leading to Lake Nasser and ral-
of the threat of invasions by neighbors and slave raiders. lying online. Nubian activists were also detained for the
However, when the first Aswan dam was constructed in first time—charged with congregating illegally, protest-
1902, the Nubians’ future came into doubt because this first ing without a permit, and attacking security forces—
dam and its rising waters crippled Lower Nubia, destroying having traveled to oppose Presidential Decrees 355 and
the people’s farmland and causing increasing numbers of 498, which specify the seizure of 1,100 acres of land that
Nubian men to leave their homeland in search of work. would cause Nubians to be forcefully evicted from the land
Egypt gained independence in 1935, and Sudan seceded they inhabit.
from Egypt in 1956. These changes resulted in the Nubi-
ans becoming split between two nations. Most Nubians
became Arabized, with Arabic their main language along Society, Culture, and Tradition
with Nubian dialects. Any non-Muslim Nubians also con- Nubian kinship is based around tribe systems. The peo-
verted to Islam. ple favor cross-cousin marriage, in which marriage occurs
From 1960 to 1970, the Aswan Dam project caused between the children of two siblings of the opposite sex.
massive Nubian displacement, with 60 percent of Egyp- However, endogamous marriage (marrying within the
tian Nubia rendered uninhabitable (Mattoon 2011) and specific ethnic group) occurs with whichever marriagea-
up to 120,000 people forced to abandon their land due ble relative is available. Nubians very rarely marry outside
to flooding (Lindsey 2015). At three hundred miles long of their own Nubian group.
and twenty miles across, Lake Nasser submerged much Despite the destruction wrought by the creation of
of Lower Nubia, with the only people left living in Lower Lake Nasser, much of Nubian culture survived. In particu-
Nubia villages being the elderly, women, and children. lar, Nubian music and dance have become internationally
As well as destroying Nubian communities, the creation popular. Traditionally, Nubian music integrates percussion
of Lake Nasser also impacted Nubian cultural history instruments such as the bongo with hand clapping. Today,
as ancient Nubian temples and graves were inundated, it also incorporates salsa and samba rhythms; Nubian
though these were subsequently excavated. musicians have been inspired by Western music stars such
In 2002, the First Nubian Congress was convened to as Bob Marley.
petition the Egyptian government for greater compen-
sation for their land lost to Lake Nasser. Since the 2011
Egyptian Revolution, Egyptian Nubians have organized Health Care and Education
themselves to call for their resettlement on the banks of Nubians use government-provided health care, but at the
Lake Nasser and to obtain land for farming and homes. same time, they have faith in traditional methods of diag-
Successive Egyptian governments have failed to repatriate nosis and treatment. Resettled Nubians tend to use state
the Nubians or to compensate them for their losses. How- health care because they consider it a perk of being made
ever, Nubians have been offered a small territory around to relocate from their homeland. Although this enthusi-
Lake Toshka (manufactured lakes in the Sahara Desert). astic take up of health care has reduced the Nubian death
Under Egypt’s 2014 constitution, the country’s gov- rate, especially among children, it also means there are
ernment recognized Nubians as an ethnic group for the sometimes long hospital waiting lists.
822 Nyamwezi

Nubians value education highly. Nubian children attend Kennedy, John G. Nubian Ceremonial Life: Studies in Islamic
both elementary and secondary schools, and most aspire Syncretism and Cultural Change. Cairo, Egypt: The American
to professional jobs that will use their education. University in Cairo Press. 2005.
Lindsey, Fred. 2015. “Nubians.” In Native Peoples of the World:
An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary
Issues, edited by Steven Danver, 66–67. Abingdon, UK:
Threats to Survival Routledge.
Mattoon, Scott. 2011. “Nubians.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and
For millennia, the words Nubian and slave have been syn-
the Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup,
onymous to many Egyptians (Minority Rights Group Inter- 227–230. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
national 2017). In recent times, this prejudice has lessened, Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Egypt: Nubians.”
but Nubians remain excluded from much of Egyptian life. World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples,
Nubians are bitter over the loss of their land and the fail- October. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/nubians.
ure of successive governments to adequately compensate
them. To improve life for their people, numerous Nubian
youth activist movements have emerged. Political involve-
ment, especially among young Nubians, is vocal, increas-
ingly well organized, and determined to provoke change. NYAMWEZI
Because Nubians have struggled for greater social
acceptance and political representation, the 2015 Egyp- Current Location Tanzania
tian national elections were particularly significant. Due Current Population 1.5 million
to a restructuring of long-standing electoral boundaries, Language Kinyamwezi; Swahili; English
the Nubians were assigned their own parliamentary seat, Interesting Fact The name Nyamwezi translates as
which was won by Yassine Abdel Sabour, who became the “people of the moon.”
first Nubian member of parliament in Egypt. Many Nubi-
ans expressed skepticism, however, as to whether parlia-
mentary representation was the most urgent issue facing Overview
their people. Rather, skeptical Nubians felt the people’s The Nyamwezi, also known as the Wanyamwezi or Ban-
right to return to their flooded land was the most press- yamwesi, are a Bantu people living in Tanzania. The name
ing issue, along with the need to combat unemployment, Nyamwezi, which is of Swahili origin, translates as “peo-
improve infrastructure in Nubian areas, and reinvigorate ple of the moon.” Historically, five tribal groups referred
elements of Nubian culture and language. to themselves as Wanyamwezi when dealing with outsid-
The Egyptian government has repeatedly promised to ers: Kimbu, Konongo, Nyamwezi, Sukuma, and Sumbwa.
help displaced Nubians return to their land and develop These groups merged to a degree, meaning that they have
the area to create employment through tourism. Until broadly similar cultures, yet the groups retain some dif-
this happens, activists claim they will continue to draw ferences and are not a single group. The Nyamwezi are
attention to their land loss and to call for a return to their linguistically and culturally most closely related to the
homeland. That the Egyptian government aims to create Sukuma. The Nyamwezi speak a language called Kinyam-
future dams at Kajbar and Dal means that thousands more wezi, which is a distinct dialect of the Niger-Congo lan-
Nubians may be displaced in the future, possibly resulting guage family. Many Nyamwezi also understand Swahili
in Nubian protesters either being disregarded or further and English. Most Nyamwezi are Sunni Muslim, but many
oppressed by authorities. maintain their indigenous beliefs. Some Nyamwezi also
See also: Amhara; Assyrian; Copts; Fur; Nuba belong to the Protestant Moravian Church.
Further Reading
Hopkins, Nicholas, and Sohair Mehanna, eds. 2010. Nubian
Encounters: The Story of the Nubian Ethnological Survey, Population, Diaspora, and Migration
1961–1964. Cairo, Egypt: American University in Cairo Press.
There are around 1.5 million Nyamwezi living in Tanza-
Kelly, Nicola. 2017. “Egypt’s Nubians Call for Their Right to
Return Home.” Al Jazeera, July 8. http://www.aljazeera.com​ nia, making the Nyamwezi the second largest of Tanza-
/indepth/features/2017/04/egypt-nubians-call-return-home​ nia’s 120 ethnic groups (Cantrell 2015). It is difficult to
-170419072213647.html. give exact population figures for the Nyamwezi because
 Nyamwezi 823

many non-Nyamwezi who live among the Nyamwezi feel scattered and did not have a centralized authority until the
so welcome and at home in Unyamwezi that they regard nineteenth century.
themselves as Nyamwezi despite having no ancestral con- By the start of the eighteenth century, trade routes
nection to the people among whom they live. began to reach Lake Tanganyika. Swahili and Arab traders
soon developed trade hubs in Unyamwezi that were linked
to inland trade routes northward to Buganda and west-
Geography and Environment ward to Angola. Soon the Nyamwezi gained a reputation
The Nyamwezi call their homeland Unyamwezi, meaning as traders who would drive caravans laden with copper,
“the place of the Wanyamwezi.” Unyamwezi is situated on salt, ivory, and slaves. In addition to being known as mer-
the western plateau zone of the Tanzanian provinces of chants, the Nyamwezi were well-known for owning slaves,
Tabora and Shinyanga, which lies south of Lake Victoria who were put to work on clove plantations in Zanzibar.
and east of Lake Tanganyika. This area measures some The Nyamwezi also hired professional Tutsi herdsmen to
thirty-five thousand square miles and has an elevation care for their cattle.
of four thousand feet. Much of Unyamwezi is covered By 1825, the Nyamwezi were in contact with slave and
by dry woodland or grassland interrupted by ridges and ivory traders from India and Arab countries. The Indians
granite outcroppings. Unyamwezi is not generally consid- and Arabs persuaded the Nyamwezi to buy weapons, which
ered prime farmland because water is often scarce, with led to the outbreak of tribal wars involving the Nyamwezi.
the rainy season lasting from November to April and the Arabs also meddled in the Naymwezi’s internal tribal
dry season lasting from May to October. The Nyamwezi matters—for example, by helping certain Nyamwezi kings
are subsistence farmers and pastoralists, with farming to expel other rulers or supporting selected Nyamwezi
taking place during the rainy season. The staple crops of communities in their conflict with other Nyamwezi groups.
the Nyamwezi are cereal crops such as millet, sorghum, In 1830, the Ngoni invaded Nyamwezi land, having fled
rice, and corn; vegetables including spinach, cassava, northward to escape the Zulus. Because the Ngoni were
mushrooms, and onions; and fruits including oranges and better armed than the Nyamwezi and equipped with new
bananas. The Nyamwezi also cultivate cash crops such as fighting methods, the Ngoni soon began to raid Nyam-
tobacco, cotton, and sunflowers. The animals kept by the wezi settlements, plundering their property and causing
Nyamwezi include chickens, goats, cattle, and sheep. social chaos. In response to being invaded, the Nyamwezi
adopted Ngoni fighting styles and also began to central-
ize, taking refuge in large kingships rather than isolated
History and Politics chieftainships.
By 500 BCE, Bantu farmers had begun to populate Tan- Using better weapons and adopting new fighting tech-
zania, having migrated from Central Africa’s Great Lakes niques enabled some Nyamwezi chiefs to expand their ter-
region. Then, around 1000 CE, the migrant groups that ritory. The most important of these chiefs was Mirambo,
had settled in central Tanzania began to divide into var- who frequently raided neighboring peoples, controlled
ious groups. Among these groups were the ancestors of trade routes through Tanzania, and managed to make
the Nyamwezi. The earliest Nyamwezi settlements and Arab traders pay him for safe passage. Mirambo also
political groupings were determined by the landscape of established good relationships with Europeans operating
Tanzania because the area had poor soils, swamps, and a in Tanzania and allowed the London Missionary Society to
lack of water. It was prone to drought and sleeping sickness build a mission on his land. When Mirambo died in 1884,
and so was not particularly hospitable. Therefore, the first his successor, Mpandasho, was unable to maintain Miram-
Nyamwezi settlers established small, independent com- bo’s empire, which soon disintegrated.
munities in scattered locations that allowed the people to In the late 1800s, Germany tried to colonize the area
take advantage of the few locations with productive soils. known as German East Africa (later Tanzania). Many
These scattered settlements were ruled by a ntemi (king). indigenous peoples, including the Nyamwezi, sought to
When one settlement became too large or several amalga- prevent German occupation, and one Nyamwezi ruler,
mated, thereby endangering local food resources, a new Chief Iseke, defeated the first German colonial force sent
ntemi would arise and break away from the larger group to overrun his land and closed German trade routes. In
to establish a new settlement inhabited by his followers. 1893, however, a second German force conquered Iseke’s
In this way, Nyamwezi settlements became increasingly power base at Ipuli. This development prompted Iseke to
824 Nyamwezi

kill himself and his family in order to not be captured. art, which includes slim elongated sculptures and carved
Having extended their protectorate to include Nyamwezi thrones.
areas, the Germans introduced a hut tax and began to Many Nyamwezi converted to Sunni Islam during the
grow cash crops such as groundnuts to make the colony nineteenth century, and even those who did not convert
more profitable. The cash crops proved successful, and the adopted Islamic dress codes. Nyamwezi Muslims are not
Nyamwezi financially benefited from their sale. especially strict in their religion because they often con-
German rule over east Africa ended in 1919, and soon tinue to hold indigenous spiritual beliefs. Nonetheless,
Britain took over control of Nyamwezi areas and the rest of Nyamwezi Muslims celebrate Islamic holidays, including
the previously German colony, which the British renamed Id al-Fitr at the end of Ramadan; Id al-Adha, which is held
Tanganyika. The British contributed to the scattered pat- at the end of hajj; and the Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca.
tern of Nyamwezi settlements because the British moved Nyamwezi Muslims also hold events to celebrate al-Mawlid
some Nyamwezi groups into uninhabited areas free from al-Nabawi, the birthday of Prophet Mohammed. Around
the disease to combat an outbreak of sleeping sickness. eighty thousand Nyamwezi belong to the Moravian Church
In 1936, the New Wanyamwezi Association was estab- (or Unitas Fratrum), one of the world’s oldest Protestant
lished to try to improve the lives of the Nyamwezi and raise denominations that originated in Bohemia during the fif-
their political consciousness. Then, in 1958, the Tanganyika teenth century. That some Nyamwezi follow this religion
African National Union began to gain many members from stems from the fact that during the nineteenth century,
among the Nyamwezi before leading Tanganyika to inde- Moravian Church missions were permitted to operate
pendence in 1961. In 1964, a violent conflict occurred that around in Tanzania’s Lake Malawi region. Other Nyam-
resulted in Zanzibar uniting with Tanganyika to become wezi maintained their native religion, which centers on a
Tanzania. The new Tanzanian government then tried to Creator-God known variously as Likube, Liwelo, or Limi.
make isolated communities, including those inhabited The people do not often worship this god directly, however,
by the Nyamwezi, live in collectivizations under a system because the Nyamwezi prefer to worship their ancestors,
called ujamma. The ujamma policy was part of Tanzanian who they feel directly influence their lives. The ancestors
president Julius Nyerere’s attempt to implement a kind of of Nyamwezi chiefs are especially revered, so everyone
socialism in Africa based on the Swahili form of extended makes offerings such as grain, goats, or sheep to the ances-
family. Nyerere supposed (incorrectly) that ujamma was tors of chiefs as well as their own ancestors. The Nyamwezi
an indigenous African concept that the people would read- believe in the power of the spirits as well as sorcery and
ily accept. In reality, peoples with a long history of private bulongi (witchcraft).
land ownership and living in isolated communities did not
welcome the ujamma policy, and the attempt at collectiv-
ization ultimately failed. Around 90 percent of Tanzanian Health Care and Education
farmland was given over to ujamma, but the farms were The Nyamwezi consider illness a sign that someone has
spectacularly unproductive, producing only 5 percent of been cursed, and they seek help from a mfunu (witchdoc-
the country’s agricultural produce (Shoup 2011). tor or diviner). The mfunu acts as a counselor and healer
to determine the cause of the bewitchment and suggest a
remedy. In recent years, infertility, HIV/AIDS, and other
Society, Culture, and Tradition sexually transmitted diseases have reached epidemic pro-
Many Nyamwezi live outside of Unyamwezi, but for those portions among the Nyamwezi. The Nyamwezi are able
Nyamwezi who inhabit their people’s homeland, agri- to buy medicine from local dispensaries that also pro-
culture and animal husbandry are the main forms of vide limited health care. Nyamwezi settlements are often
employment. Nyamwezi society is open and welcoming located far from hospitals, and although the Nyamwezi
to outsiders, most likely because the people have a long regard these are expensive to use, the people trust that
history of traveling and trading with people from other these facilities deliver superior health care (Hinkkanen
ethnic groups. The political power of traditional Nyam- 2009).
wezi chiefs has ended, but chiefs are still highly respected Up-to-date information on Nyamwezi is difficult
by ordinary Nyamwezi. The Nyamwezi are known for their to find, but the Nyamwezi have traditionally valued
 Nyamwezi 825

self-improvement (i.e., physical fitness, civic education, Further Reading

political awareness, farming) as well as more formal edu- Cantrell, Phillip A. 2015. “Nyamwezi.” In Native Peoples of the
cation. At primary school, Nyamwezi children learn to World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contempo-
rary Issues, edited by Steven Danver, 67–69. Abingdon, UK:
read and write in Swahili. Routledge.
Hinkkanen, Reea. 2009. “Someone to Welcome You Home”:
Infertility, Medicines and the Sukuma-Nyamwezi. Disserta-
Threats to Survival tion, University of Helsinki, June. https://helda.helsinki.fi​
/bitstream/handle/10138/23481/someonet.pdf?sequence=2.
In recent years, the biggest threats to the Nyamwezi have Shoup, John A. 2011. “Nyamwezi.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and
been drought and soil erosion, which have seriously dam- the Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup,
aged the people’s agricultural economy. 230–232. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Stokes, Jamie, ed. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and
See also: Akie; Hadza; Swahili; Zulu the Middle East. New York: Facts on File.
 O

OCCITAN first language, but Occitan is used in everyday conversa-

tion, especially by older southern French people. It should
Current Location France; Italy; Spain; Monaco be noted, however, that older speakers of Occitan often do
Current Population 1 million–12.2 million not realize that they are speaking Occitan; instead, these
Language Occitan; French; Italian; speakers believe that they are speaking a patois, that is,
Spanish; Monagasque some sort of vernacular, rough French. In addition to the
Interesting Fact Some people believe the Holy speaking of Occitan, in southern France, occasional street
Grail can be found in the signs exist declaring town names written in both French
town of Rennes-le-Chateau, and Occitan. In 2006, the Occitan dialect of Aranese was
located in the French depart- recognized as an official language of Catalonia, an autono-
ment of Occitanie. Others mous region of Spain. Nonetheless, the UNESCO Red Book
believe Cathar or Visigoth of Endangered Languages lists dialects of Occitan as seri-
treasure is hidden there.
ously endangered. Occitans consider themselves to have
a double identity as both Occitan and French (or Italian,
Overview Spanish, Monagasque, or Andorran).
The Occitans are an indigenous ethnic group originating Some Occitans wish to see Occitania become an inde-
in the cultural region of Occitania (Pays d’Oc) that extends pendent state that can be home to people united by a com-
from southern France and Monaco through to northeast- mon language, culture, cuisine, and attitude to life. The
ern Spain and northwestern Italy. Some definitions of Occitan nationalist flag features a yellow cross of Toulouse
Occitania also include Andorra. The name Occitan derives with a seven-pointed star on a red background.
from the old geographical name for Occitania, Occitanie.
Occitanie is itself based on the name Aquitaine, an area of
France now known as Languedoc. Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Occitan heritage is inextricably linked to the speaking It is difficult to give exact population figures for the
of a group of dialects that together form a Romance lan- Occitans, as the process of quantifying the number of
guage called Occitan (Langue d’Oc). All Occitan speakers Occitan speakers is complicated by the existence of other
have French (or Italian, Spanish, or Monagasque) as their languages that some researchers consider to be variations

826
 Occitan 827

of Occitan. These languages include Gascon, Limousin, land, marshes, and the Monegros Desert found in Aragon,
Provençal, Languedocian, Dauphinois, and Auvergnat. in northeastern Spain.
According to 2002 figures, Occitan is overwhelmingly
associated with France. There were around 12.2 million
people identifying as Occitan, and almost 11 million of History and Politics
these lived in southern France (with communities also During the second century BCE, the southern coast of
found in Paris and northern France). Only around 5,000 Gaul (France), which previously had been colonized by the
Occitans inhabited Spain’s Aran Valley and were known Greeks, was conquered by the Romans. Then, in the 400s,
as the Aranese Occitans, and around 30,000 Occitans, Germanic Franks overran northern Gaul, but the south of
known as Transalpin Occitans, lived in northwestern Gaul retained its Roman culture. This was the beginning of
Italy (Minahan 2002). More recent figures put the popu- Occitania, which, between the 800s and the 1200s, experi-
lation of the Occitan region at 14 million people, of which enced a great cultural flourishing that went hand in hand
about 6 million have some understanding of Occitan, and with the rise of a religious group, the Cathars. Catharism,
around 3 million have a proficient knowledge of the lan- as the religion of the Cathars is known, was a hybrid faith
guage (Minority Rights Group International 2017). Then that blended elements of Christianity with Middle Eastern
again, in 2010, the Network to Promote Linguistic Diver- philosophies. The hybrid faith grew in popularity across
sity (NPLD), a Europe-wide language policy and plan- Occitania to the point that, by the early 1200s, France’s
ning network working with both national and regional political and religious authorities feared Catharism had
governments, believed there to be between 1 million and become a serious threat to their rule.
3 million speakers of Occitan, with 1 million to 2.8 mil- To drive out Catharism, the French authorities
lion of these speakers living in southern France. North- launched a viscous two-decade-long military campaign
western Catalonia was home to around 4,700 speakers, (1209–1229) against the Cathars known as the Albigen-
northwestern and southern Italy had between 50,000 and sian Crusade. Some historians believe this campaign
100,000 speakers, and 4,500 Occitan speakers were found killed around one million people. Although the campaign
in Monaco. was initiated by Pope Innocent III to eradicate Catharism
Whatever the true number of Occitans may be, the in Languedoc, the crusade was primarily perpetrated by
de facto capital of Occitania is Toulouse, France, which the French Crown and so became a political move. The
is known as Tolosa in Occitan. In southern France, the campaign resulted not only in a significant reduction in
Occitan area incorporates historical regions, including the number of Cathars, but it also caused a restructuring
Auvergne, Gascony, Languedoc, Limousin, and Provence. of the political realm of southern France, as the County of
There are notable urban centers in Occitania, including Toulouse in Languedoc was brought under the control of
the French cities of Lyon, Bordeaux, Nice, Marseilles, and the French Crown, thereby lessening the cultural influence
Paris, as well as in the northeastern Italian city of Turin of the counts of Barcelona.
and in Barcelona, Spain. Meanwhile, at the heart of Occitania’s cultural flow-
ering were poet-musicians known as troubadours, who
have been credited with originating European literature.
Geography and Environment The troubadour tradition began in southern France and
The area of France in which most Occitans reside is moun- then spread to Spain and Italy and then to Germany and
tainous, with the Alps to the east and the Pyrenees to the Portugal. Though troubadours could be male or female,
west. In the center of this mountainous area is the large cen- female troubadours were referred to as trobairitz. The ear-
tral plateau known as the Massif Central. French Occitania liest reference to troubadours (as trobadors) occurs in a
also includes the river valleys of the Garonne and Rhone twelfth-century Occitan text by Cercamon, one of the first
and the beaches of the Mediterranean known as the Côte troubadours.
d’Azur, or French Riviera. The coastal plain also extends Troubadours sang tales of chivalry and courtly love and
into neighboring Monaco. The Italian section of Occitania established concepts that lie at the core of Occitan values:
is also mountainous, for it straddles the Alpine border with convivencia and paratage. There are no modern equivalents
France. Other terrains found within Occitania include arid for these concepts; however, convivencia roughly equates
828 Occitan

The introduction of universal education in France in

Mary Magdalene in Southern 1872 meant that all regional languages in France, includ-
ing Occitan, were severely suppressed. Indeed, by the
France
1930s, standard French had replaced Occitan in areas
Tradition holds that Mary Magdalene was expelled
where Occitan had previously been spoken frequently,
from the Holy Land by being cast adrift in the
meaning the Occitans’ assimilation into the French nation
Mediterranean Sea, only to land on the beach at
was almost complete. In the 1970s, a small but relentless
Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer in southern France.
Occitan nationalist movement began to gain a footing with
Mary subsequently retired to a cave on a hill near
a deliberate return to the use of Occitan as a regional dia-
Marseille, La Sainte-Baume (Holy Cave, baumo in
lect. This Occitan revival gained momentum during the
Provençal), where she lived in penance. The cave
1980s and 1990s, as the political unification of Europe
is now a pilgrimage site. Mary was reputedly bur-
prompted some Occitans to call for the integration of all
ied in the town of Saint-Maximin-la-Sainte-Baume
Occitans and the formation of an Occitan state within a
near Aix-en-Provence. The town’s basilica, Basilique
unified Europe. The Occitan nationalist movement, as
Sainte-Marie-Madeleine, is dedicated to Mary Mag-
exemplified by such political parties as Partit Occitan and
dalene, whose skull is believed to be stored under
Partit de la Nacion Occitania, began to gather strength
the crypt. Every July 22 (Mary’s name day), the skull
after World War II. The best known of these nationalist
is paraded around the town.
parties, Partit Occitan, was established in Toulouse in
1987 to protect the Occitan identity and to campaign on
to heightened conviviality, and paratage is akin to intense Occitan regional issues. Partit Occitan belongs to France’s
chivalry or honor. Troubadours sang in praise of lofty, egal- Fédération Régions et Peuples Solidaires and campaigns in
itarian ideals and helped foster an era of creativity matched European elections as part of the European Free Alliance.
only by the Renaissance. Indeed, the troubadour era has The nationalist movement, to which Partit Occitan
been called the forerunner of the Renaissance (Minahan belongs, remained insignificant in political terms through-
2002). Despite the high ideals of the troubadours’ songs, out the twentieth century save for the odd occasion when
the lyrics could be decidedly vulgar and risqué. The Roman an Occitan nationalist mayor was elected to office in a
Catholic Church despised the troubadours, whom it con- southern French village or town. However, it could be said
sidered to be heretics, even though a number of high-rank- that the Occitan nationalist movement is gaining ground,
ing clergy, including Fouquet de Marseille, the archbishop for in the 2010 French regional elections, the Partit Occitan
of Toulouse, had once been troubadours themselves. In entered regional councils in Aquitaine, Auvergne, Midi-
1208, the church’s hatred of the troubadours led to a mas- Pyrénées, and Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur.
sacre of the troubadours by the French authorities that In 2015, representatives from various Occitan regions
ended the troubadour era. After the massacre, the various converged to create the Occitan National Assembly, and in
Occitan dialects were suppressed by the French authorities 2016, Occitanie was chosen by public vote as the new name
and ultimately banned in 1539. for the administrative region that succeeded the French
An Occitan revival began in the mid-nineteenth cen- regions of Midi-Pyrénées and Languedoc-Roussillon.
tury, when Occitans began to call for cultural and political
independence within an increasingly centralized France.
It was also around this time that another Occitan literary Society, Culture, and Tradition
and cultural revival began, though this revival of interest Music is a fundamental part of Occitan culture. This is
in Occitania was led by intellectuals such as the Nobel likely a reflection on the region’s troubadour past that used
Prize–winning writer and lexicographer Frédéric Mis- song to spread the Occitan language throughout southern
tral and was not a populist movement. The revival saw a France and beyond. A traditional Occitan folk instru-
number of cultural organizations established, including ment is the craba, which is essentially a goatskin with
Occitan teachers’ and writers’ associations, the Societat legs attached that is played in the manner of bagpipes. An
d’Estudis Occitans, the Institut d’Estudis Occitans (IEO), example of a craba can be found in the Occitan Cultural
and the Félibrige association, which aims to promote the Centre at Cordes-sur-Ciel, in southwestern France. More
Occitan language and culture. recently, Occitans have started to experiment with various
 Occitan 829

musical genres, including rap and punk, to modernize the example, Occitan history and language is taught in Occitan
Occitan troubadour tradition. schools and at universities, including Toulouse Univer-
Another universal element of Occitan life is a love of sity. The French public television channel TV3 broadcasts
food. Although Occitan cuisine can generally be consid- around forty minutes per week in Occitan, and there are
ered Mediterranean, there are some specific features that four private local radio stations broadcasting in Occitan.
set it apart from generic French, Spanish, or Italian food. Oc-TV, a nonprofit online television service, broadcasts in
Indeed, because Occitania extends across a diversity of both French and Occitan. It was established in Toulouse
landscapes—from the mountains of the Pyrenees and the in 1999 to promote knowledge of Occitan culture and arts
Alps, to great rivers such as the Rhone, and on to the Med- festivals. Oc-TV presents programs dedicated to Occitan
iterranean and Atlantic coasts—the area has an extremely music, arts, theater, and news and has generated an online
varied cuisine. Some essentially Occitan dishes include community through its blogs and newsletters.
the vegetable stew ratatolha, the garlic sauce alhòli, the A number of local French-language newspapers, such
Provençal stew adauba, and a filled tuna roll called pan as La Marseillaise and La République des Pyrénées, include
banhat. Occitania is also home to a great many cheeses, articles written in Occitan, and there are over one hundred
the most famous of which is the salty blue cheese Roque- magazines and periodicals published in Occitan as well.
fort. Wine is another great passion of the Occitans, with Some of these publications receive financial backing from
the region boasting many fine wines, including Bordeaux, regional public authorities in Languedoc-Roussillon and
Côte du Rhône, and Saint-Émilion. Other alcoholic drinks, Midi-Pyrénées. In addition to magazines and periodicals,
such as the aniseed-flavored pastis, and brandies, includ- many books are also published in Occitan. The Institut
ing Armagnac and Cognac, are also produced in Occitania. d’Estudis Occitans (IEO) publishes textbooks, teaching
materials, novels, poetry, reference books, plays, and chil-
dren’s books in the language, and the Centre Interrégional
Health Care and Education de Desvolopament de l’Occitan (CIRDÒC), located in
Occitans have adequate access to health care, as they are Beziers, and Lo Bornat dau Perigòrd, in Périgueux, have
fully integrated into the Western European countries in libraries and conference centers geared toward preserving
which they live. the Occitan language. In Occitania there are also regular
The European Union (by way of the European Bureau Occitan-language theater productions funded by the local
for Lesser-Used Languages) provides funding for an elec- and regional authorities. Celebrations of Occitan culture
tronic dictionary of Occitan and for Occitan-language also occur, such as the weeklong Estivada Occitan cul-
nursery and primary schools known as calendretas. tural festivals in Rodez, which also suggests that there is a
At present, there are sixty-five calandretas in southern revival of Occitan language and culture.
France. Several middle schools in southern France offer In addition to cultural programs, there is also the Oc
Occitan as a study option. In 2004, it was estimated that per l’Occitan certification scheme established by IEO
57,297 primary school pupils and 17, 617 middle school to encourage businesses and community groups to use
pupils studied Occitan (Friend 2012). Occitan and declare their Occitan heritage publicly by
using their Oc per l’Occitan certificate. There is also an Oc
per l’Occitan directory published by IEO.
Threats to Survival Currently, there are essentially two Occitanias. One is
Those who are against Occitan nationalism argue that the newly created administrative region (Occitanie), and
Occitan and Occitania are modern inventions and as such the other harks back to the time of the troubadours and
have no basis in history that warrants independence. enjoys a relaxed way of life filled with good food, wine,
Despite this argument and the way in which earlier French and hospitality. The challenge for Occitans is to ensure
authorities discouraged the use of Occitan, the language that their traditional culture does not become lost amid
and culture of Occitania are undergoing a major revival. national cultures and that their homeland, language, and
This revival may stem in part from Occitans’ residual anger a way of life survives and flourishes in the twenty-first
that France refuses to recognize Occitan as a national lan- century.
guage. Nonetheless, there are several factors that seem to
suggest the extinction of Occitan can be prevented. For See also: Basque; Catalan
830 Ogiek

Further Reading this name, as they have fully embraced the Maasai way
Amit, Aviv. 2014. Regional Language Policies in France during of living and are totally assimilated into Maasai society.
World War II. Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. Indeed, the Ogiek’s tendency to adapt to the culture of
Friend, Julius W. 2012. Stateless Nations: Western European
Regional Nationalisms and the Old Nations. Basingstoke, UK:
their dominant neighbors means their distinctiveness as a
Palgrave Macmillan. separate people is occasionally overlooked. In addition, the
Lem, Winnie. 1999. Cultivating Dissent: Work, Identity, and geographical spread of the Ogiek, as well as their relative
Praxis in Rural Languedoc. Albany, NY: State University of lack of a distinctive culture, means that researchers are less
New York Press. inclined to study them; therefore, they are less well known
Lerwill, Ben. 2017. “France: The Accidental Rebirth of Occita- as a people than, for example, the neighboring Maasai.
nia.” National Geographic Traveller, January 5. http://​
www.natgeotraveller.co.uk/destinations/europe/france​
/accidental-rebirth-occitania.
Midi-France.Info. n.d. “The Troubadours.” http://www.midi​
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
-france.info/1904_troubadours.htm. There are around thirty-five thousand Ogiek living in Ken-
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations. ya’s Mau Forest complex (Vigliar 2017). The forest covers
Vol. 3, L–R. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. some four thousand hectares over five counties of western
Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “France:
Kenya. As a result of being evicted from their forest home-
Occitan-Speakers.” World Directory of Minorities and Indig-
enous Peoples. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/occitan​ land, many Ogiek are landless, and some live illegally on
-speakers. the fringes of the forest (Onyango et al. 2008).
Network to Promote Linguistic Diversity (NPLD). 2010.
“Occitan.” http://www.npld.eu/about-us/occitan.
Geography and Environment
The Mau Forest, located in the famous Rift Valley, is Ken-
ya’s largest closed-canopy forest. The forest is also Kenya’s
largest water catchment area as well as the source of seven
OGIEK rivers. In some parts of the forest, forest guards watch over
water supplies with the intention of keeping forest dwell-
Current Location Kenya ers away from the water. The forest is the source of many
Current Population 35,000 permanent natural springs, however, so people do have
Language Ogiek; Maasai; Kikuyu access to clean water despite facing harassment from the
Interesting Fact The Ogiek are thought to be the ear- forest guards.
liest inhabitants of Kenya. The Ogiek view themselves as guardians of their forest
environment and so do not overexploit the forest resources.
To this end, the Ogiek do not collect more food than they
Overview need and share any food they do collect. Also, by sharing
The Ogiek (sometimes known as the Okiek or Akiek) are food, the Ogiek do not accumulate surplus food stocks that
indigenous hunter-gatherers living in western Kenya. The need to be stored in the forest.
Ogiek are inextricably linked to the land on which they live,
with the name Ogiek translating as “carer of all plants and
wild animals.” Traditionally, the Ogiek people speak the History and Politics
Ogiek language, a Southern Nilotic language belonging to The Ogiek have lived in the Mau Forest since time imme-
the Kalenjin family. Increasingly, however, the Ogiek speak morial. Indeed, some anthropologists believe the Ogiek
the languages of neighboring peoples, including Maasai are East Africa’s aboriginals and therefore the first people
and Kikuyu, the languages of the Maasai and Kikuyu peo- to live in Kenya (Dowie 2009). It has been theorized that
ple, respectively. The neighboring Maasai people refer to the Ogiek originated in Northern Uganda but migrated
the Ogiek as Dorobo, a derogatory term derived from the to the Mount Elgon area as early as 1 CE, before moving
phrase il torobo, meaning “poor people who cannot afford south in response to pressure from other more powerful
cattle.” Although the term Dorobo is pejorative, some Ogiek, migrating African groups and the need to find suitable for-
such as the Saleita Ogiek subgroup, prefer to be known by ests. The Ogiek finally settled on the Mau Escarpment. The
 Ogiek 831

Ogiek people stand near a field that was once part of a dense native forest on the Mau Escarpment, Kenya. The Ogiek see themselves as
guardians of the forest and are careful not to overexploit forest resources. (Roberto Schmidt/AFP/Getty Images)

traditions of peoples living near the Ogiek seem to corrob- shambas, a traditional form of Kenyan agricultural sys-
orate the theory that the Ogiek were the first people to live tem that sees crops grown together with forest trees. The
in the environs of the Mau Forest, although whether the colonial British authorities deforested indigenous trees,
Ogiek were actually indigenous to the area or were merely causing a reduction in nectar production and the honey
the earliest people to move to the area is not known. production that is central to Ogiek life and also a decrease
Despite the Ogiek’s historical links to the land, they have in the amount of forest in which the Ogiek could practice
often been displaced from the area, starting when Europe- their hunter-gatherer lifestyle. The loss of their traditional
ans colonized Kenya during the nineteenth century. As a food sources led some Ogiek to adopt British agricultural
result of this history of displacement, there is no accurate practices.
official record of the boundaries of Ogiek territory. Since Kenya became independent in 1963, successive
Since the start of the twentieth century, the Ogiek’s way governments have expelled Ogiek from the Mau Forest,
of life has been continually threatened. The Ogiek were claiming that the Ogiek are not good at looking after the
evicted from their lands in 1911 after the Maasai struck a forest and need to be removed so that conservation efforts
deal with colonialists that saw Ogiek land given to settlers. such as replanting can take place. The Ogiek counterclaim,
This deal remains a controversial issue for modern Ogiek, however, arguing that the Kenyan governments wish them
who argue they have inherited problems handed down removed so that the forest can be given over to the lucrative
through generations that have their origin in the Maasai’s timber industry. The Ogiek also feel affronted that Kenyan
signing over of their ancestral lands. government claims of wanting to remove the Ogiek to help
In 1956, the British evicted the Ogiek from Sorget, the forest seem to insinuate that the Ogiek are not good
Kenya, and when some Ogiek returned, they worked on at conserving the forest. Some academics support the
832 Ogiek

Ogiek claim that they do indeed help conserve the forest traditional foods, for the Ogiek hunt forest animals, includ-
by pointing out that the Ogiek feed on animals (such as the ing tree hyrax, warthogs, and bushbucks; collect nuts and
tree hyrax) that have plentiful populations (Dowie 2009). berries from forest plants; and harvest wild honey. Not all
In 2008, the Kenyan government began a concerted Ogiek food comes from the forest however, as occasion-
campaign to evict the Ogiek from the Mau Forest. In ally the Ogiek also grow cabbages, beans, and potatoes for
response, the Ogiek filed a case against the Kenyan govern- food. Some Ogiek also keep livestock.
ment claiming that, in 2009, the Kenya Forest Service (KFS, Honey is a very important part of Ogiek life, for
an agency of the Kenyan government) gave the Ogiek and the Ogiek eat honey, treasure honey for its medicinal
other inhabitants of the Mau Forest an eviction notice on properties, and consider it a near-spiritual substance.
the grounds that they lived in a reserved water catchment Traditionally, the Ogiek (especially Ogiek children) eat
area. The Ogiek refuted the government’s claim of wanting honey raw, and Ogiek men drink a honey beer (rotik).
to help the environment and alleged the government had Customarily, honey is also mixed with water and sprin-
contravened the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ kled in the air as prayers are chanted and blessings said
Rights (an international human rights accord intended to during ceremonies. Honey also acts as a sort of payment,
protect human rights and freedoms on the African con- for it is part of the traditional Ogiek bride-price and paid
tinent). Furthermore, the Ogiek demanded an end to the to circumcisers. Honey is also traded with non-Ogiek
evictions and that the Mau Forest be recognized legally as people.
Ogiek ancestral land. The Ogiek also demanded compen- The Ogiek create beehives from logs cut from fallen
sation for loss of their property and natural resources, and trees. Alternatively, the Ogiek make hives by using an axe
the freedom to practice their culture and religion. When called a kesienjot to hollow out trees. Then they cover the
this case came to court, it was the first time the African logs with tree bark and hang them from trees. To harvest
Court on Human and People’s Rights (Africa’s continental the honey, Ogiek men either scale the trees using bam-
court established in 2006) had heard a case brought by an boo ladders or pull the hives down from the trees using
African indigenous group. ropes. The men then use smoke to sedate the bees inside
In 2013, the court ruled that the Kenyan government their hives and collect the honey in animal skin bags that
should temporarily suspend evictions and ban all land they then take home to the women. Ogiek families may
transactions in the Mau Forest. Then, in May 2017, the also have their own large beehive that they keep in a secret
Ogiek won their case against the Kenyan government. place (usually in a cave or dense thicket). The families use
The African Court on Human and People’s Rights ruled these large hives to store honey for their use during the dry
in favor of the Ogiek, recognizing their right to claim the season. If a family migrates, they leave the large hive where
Mau Forest as their ancestral home and the people’s role it is and return to it at a later date.
in protecting the forest. The court also ruled that the Ken- Recently, the Ogiek have had to adapt to modern life. As
yan government had violated seven articles of the African a result of this modernization, they have lost many of their
Charter on Human and People’s Rights that is intended traditions and customs, especially those related to indig-
to maintain people’s fundamental freedoms and human enous health care. For example, the Ogiek have stopped
rights. The verdict recognized the Ogiek’s indigenous performing their traditional coming-of-age ceremonies,
status and their right to compensation from the Kenyan including female genital cutting (FGC). Male and female
government for the suffering they had endured as a result circumcision was a staple of Ogiek initiation rituals that
of being evicted from the forest—evictions that the court typically involved many ceremonies that taught initiates
judged disproportionate to the government’s conservation the knowledge necessary to reach adulthood. The initia-
aims. The verdict also acknowledged the Ogiek’s attach- tion rituals often lasted between six months to a year. One
ment to the forest and gave the Ogiek the legal right to live of the circumcision ceremonies would see a holy man bless
on forestland. In addition, the verdict allowed the Ogiek the initiates with alcohol made from honey poured from
the freedom to practice their traditions freely. a gourd. The man would then blow the honey drink over
the initiates. Another circumcision ceremony involved the
branch of an olive tree being cut and stuck into the ground
Society, Culture, and Tradition before the initiates’ parents, who were dressed in a spe-
The Mau Forest is synonymous with the Ogiek’s cultural cial rope made of vine to show that their child should be
and religious identity. It is also the source of the Ogiek’s circumcised. Children would also have their ears pierced
 Ogiek 833

during a coming-of-age ritual and have their lower inci- Health Care and Education
sors extracted. The Ogiek pass traditional healing methods and knowl-
Today, these rituals have been significantly modified. edge of healing herbs and plants down through the gen-
Children no longer have their ears ceremonially pierced erations. Traditionally, the Ogiek make medicines and
or their teeth extracted. Also, females no longer experi- treatments from plants, including a stomach cleanser from
ence circumcision, and circumcision for boys now takes puinda (Engleromyces goetzei Henn); a malaria treatment
place over a period of less than one month rather than from simeito (Cucumis ficifolius); dewormers from sitotik
six months to a year. This is to accommodate boys’ edu- (Senna didymobotrya) and korabariet (Rapanea melan-
cational schedule. Also, whereas some rites of passage to ophloeos); and a respiratory tract medicine from the roots
manhood would see boys hunt wild animals, today ani- of chepindorwet (toddalia asiatica).
mals are slaughtered for the boys. Recently, Kenya has experienced educational reform
Traditionally, the Ogiek practice a monotheistic reli- that aims to extend primary education to all Kenyan chil-
gion that is linked closely to their forest environment. The dren. Nevertheless, in reality, it may be the case that few
Ogiek believe in a supreme, all-knowing, ever-present god Ogiek children attend school, as their parents may not be
called Asista or Torooret, names that mean sun and god, able to afford to have their children spend years away from
respectively. The Ogiek that adhere to traditional beliefs the family while in education. Many Ogiek parents also
pray to this god at dawn and when they go hunting or may not be able to afford all the extra costs of education
honey gathering in order to ensure a good hunt or harvest. (such as school uniforms and books).
During the 1950s, when some Ogiek started attending Ogiek children attending government schools do not
missionary schools, they began to convert to Christianity. learn about their own culture, so many Ogiek parents and
For this reason, many Ogiek are now Christian, though older adults educate Ogiek youngsters about Ogiek tradi-
many, especially those Ogiek aged sixty years, still follow tions and history. In common with many forest-dwelling
the indigenous Ogiek beliefs. Some older Ogiek men con- peoples elsewhere, the Ogiek have developed a number of
sider the fig tree to have special sacred significance and forest conservation processes that are passed down from
hold important meetings beneath the tree. The men who one generation to the next. These conservation methods
pray to the fig tree feel it has a special connection to their include making sure that only experienced Ogiek elders
god, so they refrain from eating figs in order to honor the make beehives from trees so that trees are not cut by inex-
tree. When they pray to the tree, the older Ogiek men spit perienced men who may damage them; prohibiting the
into a ball of grass that they then place in the grass beneath cutting of important or scarce trees; and protecting rivers
the tree. by ensuring that no crops are grown close to the river-
Traditional Ogiek weddings see a groom and his family banks. In addition, the Ogiek do not cut down living trees
propose marriage by taking honey to his chosen bride and for use as firewood or to make beehives. Instead, the Ogiek
her family. The bride’s family then draws up a list of items collect branches, bark, and deadwood from fallen trees.
as a bride-price that usually includes alcohol, honey, and The Ogiek do this because they understand that cutting
beehives. Finally, the groom’s family gives to his prospec- down living trees will reduce the amount of nectar avail-
tive parents-in-law clothes fashioned from hyrax skin. At able to bees, which, in turn, would reduce the amount of
the wedding, the bride wears a long necklace made from honey available to them as food and medicine.
animal skin. The necklace symbolizes that the bride has
now become part of her husband’s clan. The bride may also
wear a grass crown that symbolizes the binding marriage Threats to Survival
agreement. During the wedding ceremony, small children, In recent years, as the amount of forest available to the
representing the hope that the couple will have children of Ogiek has decreased, the hunting opportunities open to
their own, usually accompany the bride and groom. Next, the Ogiek have decreased too. This means the Ogiek own
the bride’s parents bless the newlyweds by smearing their increasing amounts of livestock (mainly cattle, goats, and
faces with animal fat to symbolize the couple’s union. Both sheep), and they have become increasingly engaged in
sets of parents then place a piece of grass symbolizing life subsistence farming, chiefly growing maize. As a result of
on the foreheads of the newlyweds. A holy man then throws these changes, the Ogiek have started to lead increasingly
alcohol from a gourd onto the couple. As the couple leaves, sedentary lives, with permanent settlements being estab-
the wedding guests are given honey on which to feast. lished from which the Ogiek set out to gather foods and
834 Ojibwe

medicines before returning home. Despite these changes Community-Based Water Law and Water Resource Manage-
to their lifestyle, on the whole, the Ogiek try to maintain ment Reform in Developing Countries, edited by Barbara C.
their cultural identity. P. Koppen, Mark Giordano, and John Butterworth, 173–195.
Wallingford, UK: CAB International.
The Ogiek claim to have suffered discrimination and Vigliar, Virginia. 2017. “Kenya’s Ogiek Win Land Case against
harassment at the hands of successive governments and Government.” Al Jazeera, May 26. http://www.aljazeera​
other groups that have a vested interest in the Mau Forest’s .com/indepth/features/2017/03/kenya-ogiek-win-land-case​
timber resources. Ogiek activists assert that, over time, the -government-170314135038447.html.
forest has changed from a wild forest to a plantation forest,
where fast-growing trees are planted for commercial use.
This change in the forest’s plant life means many indige-
nous plants have stopped growing in the forest, as the for-
est’s ecosystem has changed. OJIBWE
The forest is also the scene of illegal logging, the estab- Current Location North America
lishment of illegal settlements, and land grabbing, activi- Current Population 225,000
ties that threaten Ogiek settlements and food supplies and Language English; Ojibwemowin (Anishi-
to which some Ogiek claim authorities turn a blind eye naabemowin); French
(Vigliar 2017). To appropriate Ogiek land, forest rangers Interesting Fact Since 2003, Ojibwe women have
have burned Ogiek homes to the ground, a form of forced walked around each of the Great
eviction that has displaced Ogiek families. There have even Lakes in order to raise awareness of
been reports of elderly Ogiek being shot dead while search- the importance of clean water.
ing for belongings amid the remains of burned-out homes.
In the face of forced evictions and continuing harass-
ment, many Ogiek have decided they need to safeguard the Overview
vestiges of their culture by educating younger generations The Ojibwe are a North American ethnic group also known
of Ogiek about their traditions To this end, the Ogiek Peo- as the Ojibwas, Ojibways, Chippeways, and Chippewas,
ples’ Development Program (OPDP), a nongovernmental among other names. The name Ojibwe is most often trans-
organization (NGO) that campaigns for Ogiek commu- lated as “puckered up”—a reference to the traditional
nity rights, organizes an annual Ogiek cultural festival in gathered stitching of Ojibwe moccasins. The Ojibwe call
Nakuru that is intended to keep alive the Ogiek language themselves the Asinhinabes or Asinhinaabes, however,
that is on the decline in younger generations, who tend to meaning “original people” or “true people.” In Canada, the
borrow from the languages of more dominant neighboring Ojibwe that live west of Lake Winnipeg are known as the
peoples. Saulteaux. The Potawatomis and Odwas peoples also call
Despite such efforts, however, many Ogiek and aca- themselves the Asinhinabes and are closely related to the
demics agree that it may be too late to guarantee the sur- Ojibwe through cultural and linguistic links.
vival of the Ogiek. The Ojibwe speak English, and some Ojibwe are fluent
See also: Maasai; Oromo; Swahili; Turkana in their native language, Ojibwemowin (or Anishinaabe-
mowin); a number also speak French.
Further Reading The Ojibwe usually identify as Christian (Catholic or
Dowie, Mark. 2009. Conservation Refugees: The Hundred-Year
Protestant), but Christian Ojibwe often combine Christian
Conflict between Global Conservation and Native Peoples.
Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. beliefs with their indigenous pre-Christian traditions. The
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “In the African Court Ojibwe are closely related to the Odawa and Algonquin
on Human & People’s Rights: Communication No 006/2012. tribes, but they also share many cultural traditions with
African Commission on Human & People’s Rights v. Republic the Cree people, particularly the Cree living to the north
of Kenya. Complainant’s Submission on the Merits.” http:// and west of Ontario and east of Manitoba.
minorityrights.org/wp​ - content/uploads/2015/03/Final-
MRG-merits-submissions​-pdf.pdf.
Onyango, Leah, Brent Swallow, Jessica L. Roy, and Ruth Meinzen-
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Dick. 2008. “Coping with History and Hydrology: How
Kenya’s Settlement and Land Tenure Patterns Shape Con- With a population of around 225,000 people, the Ojibwe
temporary Water Rights and Gender Relations in Water.” In are one of the largest ethnic groups living in North
 Ojibwe 835

America (Minahan 2013). In the main, the Ojibwe inhabit three groups remained close and united to form the Council
scattered communities stretching west from Michigan to of the Three Fires when their leaders sealed a pact around
Montana in the United States and from western Quebec to 746 CE. After the founding of the council, the Ojibwe, Pota-
British Colombia in Canada. Urban Ojibwe communities watomis, and Odwas met annually for the Great Medicine
can be found in the American cities of Minneapolis, Green Society (or Midewiwin), a secret organization of healing
Bay, and Duluth and in several areas of the Canadian cities tribespeople. According to Ojibwe tradition, Midewiwin
in Ontario. A number of Ojibwe also live in smaller towns ceremonies were originated by various supernatural enti-
across North America. ties to comfort the cultural hero Minabozho, who acted as
Within Ojibwe society, there are cultural and linguistic an intermediary between the Great Spirit and humankind
differences between the eastern Woodlands Ojibwe and when his brother died. Minabozho subsequently commu-
the Plains Ojibwe, though both groups maintain that they nicated the ceremony to the spirit-being Otter, who in turn
belong to the Ojibwe nation. transmitted it to the Ojibwe people.
At the start of the seventeenth century, French adven-
turers came to the Ojibwe, and to ensure friendly relations
Geography and Environment with them, they traded fur and French-made goods with
Some ethnographers describe the Ojibwe as a woodland the people they met. By the end of this century, the Ojibwe
people. Federally recognized Ojibwe reservations are had moved on to settle on land north of Lake Huron and
located in Minnesota (Fond du Lac, Grand Portage, Leech east of Lake Superior. From this base, the Ojibwe contin-
Lake, Mille Lacs, Nett Lake [Bois Forte Band], Red Lake, ued to extend their territory westward and northward,
and White Earth); Michigan (Bay Mills Indian Commu- driving the Sioux from what is now Michigan, Minnesota,
nity, Grand Traverse, Keweenaw Bay Indian Commu- and Wisconsin. By the 1770s, the Ojibwe population num-
nity, Saginaw, and Sault Sainte Marie); Wisconsin (Bad bered between twenty-five thousand and thirty thousand
River, Lac Courte Oreilles, Lac du Flambeau, Mole Lake people who had established villages and survived by hunt-
or Sokaogan Chippewa Community, Red Cliff, and St. ing, fishing, and foraging for cereals, especially the plant
Croix); Montana (Rocky Boy’s); and North Dakota (Turtle known as wild rice.
Mountain). Other Ojibwe reservations have also asked for At the end of the eighteenth century, small groups of
federal recognition. In Canada, Ojibwe reserves exist in Ojibwe people migrated to the northern plains, where they
Ontario and Saskatchewan. adopted the culture of the Plains tribes and began to hunt
Ojibwe reservations are often surrounded by abundant buffalo. By living on the northern plains, the Ojibwe kept
natural resources. For example, the Mishkeegogamang themselves isolated, and they had little interaction with
who live in Ontario live in forest that is rich in moose, French or British colonialists. The Ojibwe’s isolation also
black bears, caribous, wolverines, beavers, martens, and meant they were not involved in colonial conflict between
foxes as well as over three hundred species of birds, includ- the French and British. Nevertheless, the British influence
ing eagles, grouses, and owls. Meanwhile, nearby water on land on which the Ojibwe lived was of concern to the
contains trout, pike, and perch. new U.S. government, especially trading posts located in
The Ojibwe make use of their surroundings. For exam- Wisconsin and Minnesota that continued to exist after
ple, during July and August, the Mishkeegogamang pick 1815. A military expedition from 1805 to 1806 had tried
blueberries that grow on their homelands. The Mish- to undermine the British influence on Ojibwe land as well
keegogamang also trap local beavers, minks, otters, as to end conflict that had arisen between the Ojibwe and
lynxes, and muskrats, with the resultant furs sent to auc- the Sioux. However, the expedition proved unsuccessful
tion houses in Ontario that then sell the fur globally. on both fronts. In common with many other tribes, the
Ojibwe were generally pro-British, as they feared the new
U.S. government would take their lands.
History and Politics As it turned out, many white settlers moved near to
The Ojibwe migrated west from the Atlantic coast many Ojibwe land at the start of the 1800s, thereby threaten-
thousands of years ago, with Ojibwe settlements being con- ing the Ojibwe way of life and resources. In response to
tinually inhabited since around 250 BCE. The Ojibwe liv- this population spread, the Ojibwe negotiated a number
ing near the Great Lakes divided into three closely related of treaties with the government that relinquished Ojibwe
peoples: the Ojibwe, the Potawatomis, and the Odwas. The land in Wisconsin, Michigan, and Minnesota in return for
836 Ojibwe

money and the belief that parts of the land would be kept 1980s and 1990s, court cases and land claims brought
aside for Ojibwe reservations. In 1862, however, some of in the United States and Canada tended to confirm gov-
the Ojibwe united with the Sioux to fight off settlers who ernment decisions that the Ojibwe had no claim to lands
were encroaching on their lands. Other Ojibwe, particu- that were tricked from them in the past. To earn money
larly those living in the Mille Lacs region of Minnesota, and boost employment prospects, many Ojibwe groups
remained neutral and even protected white settlers from allowed casinos to be built on reservations. Although it
attacks by other Native peoples. In return for their protec- was illegal for casinos to be constructed on surrounding
tion, these Ojibwe were classified as “nonremovable” by land, reservations were classed as sovereign territory, and
authorities, meaning that when other tribes were forced so they could be used for casinos.
to leave their land, these Ojibwe were permitted to remain At the start of the twentieth century, scattered Ojibwe
on their homelands. groups began to form unified bands that worked together
The Ojibwe that went to live on reservations found it dif- for the improvement of Ojibwe society and rights. In addi-
ficult to find employment there, and they ended up working tion, some Ojibwe are still striving to receive redress for the
as lumberjacks and miners. Then, in 1887, the Dawes Act loss of their traditional hunting and fishing grounds dur-
was enacted, which resulted in the division of reservations ing the nineteenth century. To this end, the Council of the
into individual plots, with any leftover land confiscated from Three Fires of the Ojibwe, Potawatomis, and Odwas has
tribes and sold to white farmers and timber companies. been revived under the name the Nation of the Three Tribes.
The Ojibwe were unaware of their land’s financial value
and either sold their land to lumber firms or were hood-
winked into selling it. On some reservations, 90 percent Society, Culture, and Tradition
of the land was sold to white settlers (Minahan 2013), and The Woodlands Ojibwe maintain a classic Ojibwe lifestyle
by the 1930s, over 50 percent of the Ojibwe were living in as set out in the 1855 poem by Henry Wadsworth Longfel-
poverty away from their traditional lands. As a result of low The Song of Hiawatha. The tales told in this epic work
their destitution, many Ojibwe fell into a life of petty crime are nearly all Ojibwe, though the name Hiawatha probably
and alcohol dependency (Minahan 2013). Also during the comes from Iroquois.
nineteenth century, Ojibwe faced arrest for following their Ojibwe society is based on kinship ties and both imme-
traditional lifestyle. Although treaties existed that allowed diate and extended family. This kinship system reflects the
the Ojibwe to hunt and fish on the land that they had relin- Ojibwe’s belief in the interconnectedness of the universe,
quished, many Ojibwe were detained for hunting and fish- between all things living and dead, and between the past,
ing on their former lands in Wisconsin and Minnesota. This present, and future.
situation continued until 1983, when a landmark ruling was Prior to contact with outsiders, the Ojibwe lived by
passed by the Chicago federal court confirming the Ojibwe’s hunting, fishing, and foraging for food. Most early Ojibwe
right to hunt and fish on their traditional territories. dwelled in wigwams made of birch bark, and others made
In addition to poverty, alcoholism, and arrest, many use of tipi-shaped homes. The Ojibwe wore clothes made
Ojibwe also fell victim to disease. As they had lived in from animal skin (often deer or moose hide). For trans-
relative isolation while inhabiting their tribal lands, the port, the Ojibwe traveled by birch bark canoe in summer
Ojibwe had managed to escape most epidemics of dis- and wore snowshoes in winter to make walking easier.
ease that had devastated tribes in the east during colonial It was the responsibility of Ojibwe men to hunt game, and
times. However, once they lived closer to other people, the women were charged with tanning and processing hides so
Ojibwe began to suffer from diseases brought westward by that they could be used to make moccasins and clothes.
white settlers. Indeed, by 1910, the Ojibwe population of Gathering food was a communal activity, as was the collec-
the United States was 30,000 people, and in Canada, the tion and preparation of maple sugar and wild rice, as these
population had fallen to 20,000. By 1930, the Ojibwe popu- were labor-intensive exercises. Maple sugar was used as a
lation had fallen further, with the U.S. census for that year food seasoning, and wild rice was the staple food for those
putting the population at 21,500 people (Minahan 2013). Ojibwe that could access it easily. Thousands of people would
Well into the twentieth century, the Ojibwe were pre- gather at fishing sites to spear and net the freshwater fish
vented from following their indigenous faith or teaching found in the northern Great Lakes. Socializing and gift giv-
their language to the next generation of Ojibwe. In the ing usually accompanied these gatherings.
 Ojibwe 837

The Ojibwe forage plentiful supplies of forest berries, Ojibwe religion was animistic. The Ojibwe believed
such as blueberries, strawberries, raspberries, and black- many spirits, both good and evil, inhabited the natural
berries. Typical Ojibwe crops include pumpkins, corn, world. Adolescent Ojibwe practiced spiritual quests dur-
squash, and potatoes, which are harvested at the end of ing which they fasted in isolation and experienced visions
summer. Wild rice is another important Ojibwe crop. that revealed their guardian spirits. Traditionally, shamans
Traditionally, in August, the Ojibwe paddle their canoes were called upon to cure the sick by performing Shaking
to rice-growing areas and then knock the rice into the Tent rituals. A shaman was paid by a client to build a tent
canoe, thereby using the canoe as a kind of basket. This where the shaman would sing and dance to summon his
method was self-sowing, for when the rice stalks were hit, spirit helpers. The rituals were thought to cure both illness
some rice seeds fell back into the water, thereby plant- and bewitchment. Missionaries influenced Ojibwe spirit-
ing future seasons of rice. This traditional rice-gathering uality greatly, for many Ojibwe converted to Christianity.
method is passed down through generations of Ojibwe, Some commentators have suggested that the ultimate
although the method is time-consuming and so prac- spiritual being of Ojibwe divinity, Kitchi Manitou (“the
ticed increasingly rarely. According to the Ojibwe, the Great Spirit”), was a figure that blended both traditional
rice should be dried and roasted over a fire before being Ojibwe beliefs and Christianity as taught by missionaries.
made into flour for bread, cooked on its own, or added to The Ojibwe are well known for their Woodlands School
soups. Another Ojibwe seasonal food-gathering tradition of art. This art is characterized by the spiritual work of
is sugar bushing. February is the peak sap production time Norval Morrisseau, who became famous during the 1970s
for maple trees, so the Ojibwe capitalize on this by tapping and 1980s. Contemporary Ojibwe artists have become
the maple trees and allowing the sap to flow into buck- known internationally and often use traditional Ojibwe
ets. Maple syrup is an important traditional ingredient imagery in their artworks that make political statements
in Ojibwe cuisine. Maple sap is boiled down and then the about contemporary indigenous life.
Ojibwe leave it in this simple form, add it to other foods,
let it harden to form candy, or process it so that it becomes
maple sugar. Health Care and Education
The Ojibwe were divided into independent bands that Today, the Ojibwe use both traditional and modern health-
shared a common culture and intermarried. A band had its care treatments. Health issues that are particularly preva-
own chief and hunting areas. In winter, the band dispersed lent among the Ojibwe include diabetes, alcoholism, and
into family-based hunting groups before reorganizing as drug dependency. Traditional Ojibwe herbal medicines
a band in late spring or early summer. Ojibwe society was include sumac fruit, which is drunk as a tea to stop bleed-
divided into patrilineal totem-based clans in which clan ing; blackberry root, which is drunk to stop diarrhea and
members were regarded as close relatives. For this reason, to prevent miscarriage; coked wild onions sweetened with
intermarriage within clans was taboo. A desirable spouse maple sugar, which are used to treat colds; yarrow roots
was another Ojibwe classed as a cross-cousin, that is, the for acne treatments; strawberry roots for curing stomach
child of either the mother’s brother or father’s sister who aches; and plantain leaf poultices used to treat bruises,
was related but belonged to another clan. There were over rheumatism, and snake bites.
twenty clan doodems (totems), including the crane, catfish, Although the life expectancy for Native peoples has
bear, marten, and wolf. risen noticeably in recent years, it remains the lowest of
Ojibwe folklore is wide-ranging and is recounted both any ethnic group in the United States (Minority Rights
as an educational tool and as entertainment. The Ojibwe Group International 2009). The Native American popula-
view a shape shifter of varying gender, Nanabozo, as the tion in the United States has a high incidence of communi-
creator, the organizer of the earth, and as a trickster. The cable diseases such as tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS, and the
Ojibwe see other figures, such as the Thunderbird, Great two biggest causes of Native American deaths are suicide
Serpent, and an underwater panther called Mishipeshu, as and accidents, which are often drug or alcohol related.
ruling various jurisdictions of the natural world. Another The level of educational attainments among Native
important character of Ojibwe lore is Windigo, a man- Americans is considerably lower than among the general
eating monster reputed to roam winter forests and feast U.S. population, for 27.4 percent of Native Americans do
on human flesh that can only be killed by a shaman. not graduate from high school, compared to 19.6 percent
838 Onge

of the U.S. general population. In addition, only 12.1 per- of reservations. Although treaties have given the Ojibwe the
cent of Native pupils go on to attain a higher degree, com- eternal right to hunt and fish on these lands, if the lands are
pared to 24.4 percent of the general population (Minority ruined by lumbering and mining, this right is worthless.
Rights Group International 2009). Mining and lumbering businesses may suggest employ-
The federal policy toward Native schooling has long ment opportunities for local Ojibwe, but these jobs are
emphasized the need for Native Americans to assimilate often temporary. Some commentators have also noted that
into U.S. society. For this reason, Native children were companies that employ Ojibwe to mine traditional lands or
traditionally educated in career skills rather than Native cut down trees in Ojibwe forests are, in a way, hiring the
traditions. Furthermore, starting in 1879 through to the people to destroy their own land and will, in the long-run,
1940s, the U.S. authorities ensured that Ojibwe children leave the people with nothing to show for their endeavors.
were educated in off-reservation federal boarding schools
See also: Gwich’in
located in Kansas and Pennsylvania, mission schools,
Further Reading
and day schools that aimed to educate the children in
Bishop, Charles A. 2015. “Ojibwa.” The Canadian Encyclopedia,
the English language and American culture. This has had July 23. http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article​
long-term effects on the Ojibwe language, which has been /ojibwa.
repressed by authorities in the United States and Canada. Clarren, Rebecca. 2017. “How America Is Failing Native Amer-
Today, Ojibwe children living away from reservations go to ican Students.” The Nation, July 24. https://www.thenation​
both public and private schools. Across the United States, .com/article/left-behind.
Davis, Mary B., ed. 1996. Native America in the Twentieth
however, Native pupils are disciplined more than any other
Century: An Encyclopedia. London: Routledge, 1996.
ethnic group and have a dropout rate twice the national Meuers, Michael. 2012. “The Importance of Ojibwe Language
average (Clarren 2017). Revitalization.” Indian Country Today, June 2. https://​
indiancountrymedianetwork.com/news/the-importance-of​
-ojibwe-language-revitalization.
Threats to Survival Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An
Although the Ojibwe have adapted to modern life, certain Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Minority Rights Group International. 2009. “United States
aspects of their way of culture are threatened. For example, of America: Native Americans—Profile.” World Direc-
the traditional Ojibwe language, Ojibwemowin, is endan- tory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, April. http://​
gered, with only around one thousand speakers in the minorityrights.org/minorities/native-americans.
United States, and almost all of these speakers live in Min- Mishkeegogamang First Nation. 2010.“Natural Resources.” Mish-
nesota, mostly at Red Lake. Estimates also suggest that there keegogamang Ojiway Nation. http://www.mishkeegogamang​
are fewer than one hundred Ojibwemowin speakers left in .ca/resources.html.
Treuer, Anton. 2012. “Ojibwe Lifeways.” Minnesota Conservation
Michigan, Wisconsin, and North Dakota combined (Meuers Volunteer, (September–October): 39–47.
2012). The Ojibwe consider Ojibwemowin to be one of their
culture’s richest assets, so the endangerment of their native
language represents a significant threat to their culture.
To try to ensure the survival of the language, Ojibwe liv-
ing in Minnesota have funded Ojibwemowin immersion
schools to encourage interest in the Ojibwe language and
ONGE
culture, not only among Ojibwe people but also among Current Location Little Andaman Island (India)
non-Indians. The Minnesota Legislature also recognizes Current Population 101
that Ojibwemowin is endangered and has written legis- Language Onge
lation that aims to preserve American Indian culture and Interesting Fact The Onges’ folkloric beliefs allowed
languages. The legislature provides funding to develop them to survive a tsunami.
Ojibwe-language educational programs as well as to cre-
ate Ojibwemowin fluency in children from kindergarten
through to grade twelve and at the postsecondary level. Overview
Another issue facing some Ojibwe is incursions onto The Onges are an indigenous black tribe living on India’s
their reserves by mining and lumbering companies that Andaman Islands. The Onges refer to themselves as the
have licenses to operate on traditional Ojibwe lands outside En-iregale, meaning “perfect person.” The Onges physically
 Onge 839

resemble African pygmy peoples but are genetically closer to plentiful waterfalls. The island has many white sandy
people living in Southeast Asia. The Onges are dark-skinned, beaches and areas of rainforest, though the island has suf-
short, and have little body hair, and they display steatopygia fered a degree of deforestation.
(accumulations of fat on the buttocks and thighs), a genetic The Onges are hunter-gatherers who rely on their envi-
characteristic prevalent among pygmy people. ronment for much of their food. For instance, the Onges
Only a small proportion of the inhabitants of the Anda- collect honey in what remains of their forest surroundings,
man Islands are indigenous. These aboriginal inhabitants hunt for wild boar, and fish, though they must compete
(adivasi) of the island are divided into seven major groups with island settlers for the meat, fish, and shellfish. The
and are known collectively as the Andamanese. The Onges favorite foods of the Onges are jackfruit, yams, pandanus
are traditionally hunter-gatherers and are a designated (the leaves of which they also use for roofing), lobsters,
Scheduled Tribe of India. crayfish, pilchards, and crabs. The Onges never eat birds,
The Onges speak the Onge language. This is one of the crocodiles, lizards, jungle cats, bats, rats, or snakes, as they
two known South Andamanese languages. Onge was once believe these animals harbor ghosts and evil spirits.
spoken throughout Little Andaman, but since the arrival In addition to their natural environment, the Onges are
of British settlers in the Andamans during the nineteenth also very dependent on the Andaman authorities for pro-
century and Indian independence, the number of Onge visions of rice, lentils, and other staple foods. At one stage,
speakers has steadily declined. In recent years, there has, the Indian authorities were concerned that the Onges had
however, been a small increase in the number of Onge become too dependent on the island authorities and tried
speakers. In 2006, there were ninety-four Onge speakers to make the Onges work on coconut plantations for their
(Abbi 2006), thereby classifying Onge as an endangered food. This bonded labor scheme proved unsuccessful,
language. however, and the idea was abandoned.

Population, Diaspora, and Migration History and Politics

Up until the 1940s, the Onges were the only permanent According to Onge folklore, the Onges migrated from
inhabitants of Goubalambabey (Little Andaman Island), South Andaman at the behest of a supernatural power that
which is the most southerly island in the Andaman archi- had turned against them. After traveling a long way, the
pelago. However, the land on which the Onges lived was Onges reached a place called Tambegey, where they stayed
appropriated by settlers from India, Bangladesh, and the briefly before migrating again. Further along on their trav-
Nicobar Islands. As a result of this land takeover, the els, the Onges reached a beautiful land called Tokobuley,
Onges now share their land with over 18,000 nonindige- which is now known as Dugong Creek.
nous settlers (Survival International 2017) and live in an Anthropologists believe the Onges have existed for
area of land measuring some 282 square miles, a fraction thirty-thousand to fifty thousand years, but early vague
of the size of their original territory. Since their contact historical references to the indigenous peoples of the
with British and Indian settlers over one hundred years Andaman Islands first appeared in 670 CE. The first accu-
ago, the Onges’ population has drastically decreased from rate accounts of the Andamanese appeared in the late
672 in 1901 to the current figure of 101 people (Survival eighteenth century, when the British government of India
International 2017). decided to colonize the Andaman Islands. The British col-
onized the Andaman islands to stop Malay blackbirders
and pirates from plundering the islands and to prevent
Geography and Environment attacks on shipwrecked crews who landed on the islands
The Andaman Islands are an archipelago situated in the in the hope of replenishing their water supply.
Bay of Bengal between India and Myanmar. Most of the The first British settlement on the islands, a colony of
Andaman Islands are located in part of India’s Andaman around one hundred settlers at Port Cornwallis (now Port
and Nicobar Islands Union Territory, but a small part of Blair on South Andaman) was established in 1789. This col-
the north of the archipelago, including the Coco Islands, ony relocated to North Andaman in 1792, however, as this
belongs to Myanmar. new area had a better harbor. The decision was ill-fated,
Little Andaman Island is low-lying and almost com- however, as cerebral malaria was endemic to the area. Most
pletely flat. It has no mountains or rivers, though it has of the settlers died, and the colony was abandoned. For the
840 Onge

next sixty years, the indigenous peoples of the Andaman and subnaval base as well as a helipad. All such projects
Islands were left alone. have contributed to the large-scale deforestation of Onge
A jail and penal colony came to be built on South Anda- land. As a result of their diminishing lands, the Onges
man. The jail and colony was needed to house mutineers have been forced to move away from their settlements into
in the wake of the 1857 Indian Mutiny, as well as survivors smaller pockets of land elsewhere on the island. In 1976,
of nearby shipwrecks, and as a way to protect the islands’ the Andaman authorities even tried to organize the Onges’
rich timber resources. The establishment of the colony resettlement in Dugong Creek, all the while providing them
marked the start of the Andamanese’s decline. Over the with amenities and coconut plantations. This resettlement
following years, the indigenous peoples died while trying has contributed to the demise of the Onges, for they have
to repel the new settlers, and the inhabitants of the penal had to get used to living in a much smaller area of forest,
colony brought with them diseases such as syphilis, pneu- something that has greatly disrupted their subsistence life-
monia, influenza, and measles that killed many thousands styles. The Onges’ subsistence traditions have been further
of Andamanese. inhibited by the Indian government’s attempts to use them
Meanwhile, in 1867, indigenous peoples on Little as wage laborers on the coconut plantations.
Andaman killed the captain and seven crewmembers of
the British ship Assam Valley. The British went to Little
Andaman on a revenge mission and took seventy Onges. Society, Culture, and Tradition
On the whole, however, the relative isolation of the Onges The Onges are an animistic people who hold a variety of
protected them from the consequences of colonialism, rituals to mark different life events. For instance, the Onges
though the Onges soon began to succumb to disease. hold a fertility ritual called getenkare during February and
Consequently, in 1901, a census estimated there were 672 March that is believed to guarantee that Onge women will
Onges, and by 1931, this number had declined to 250. become pregnant. The Onges hold strong beliefs surround-
In the 1950s and 1960s, the Indian government passed ing the concept of birth, believing that a spirit called Onko-
a resolution to resettle the refugee Bengalis from East bowkwe sends the souls of unborn babies into the wombs
Pakistan (now Bangladesh) on Little Andaman under the of Onge women. As the Onges believe that Onkobowkwe
Special Area Development Program. This resolution pro- dwells in honeycomb, Onge women eat honey in the hope
vided over three thousand refugee families with around that Onkobowkwe will send a soul into her womb, thereby
4 hectares each of forestland. Authorities cleared 51,400 making her pregnant. Moreover, the Onges believe that an
hectares of forests in total, out of which about 10,000 hec- Onge woman will not become pregnant if Onkobowkwe
tares were given over to refugee resettlement and agricul- fails to ordain the pregnancy. Thus, it follows that child-
ture. Over time, authorities also gave forestland to refugee less Onge women are thought cursed by Onkobowkwe.
Tamils (from Sri Lanka), Moppilas (from Kerala), Nicoba- Because of the links between honey and pregnancy, the
rese (from the Nicobar Islands), and Ranchi (from Bihar). Onges consider honey to be an extremely important food.
By 1969, nearly nine thousand hectares of coastal for- When an Onge woman is in the advanced stages of
est had vanished, with another twenty thousand hectares pregnancy, she experiences a ritual known as gotechele
of Onge land recommended for clearance in the early (or ghotachelia), during which she is offered foods that
1970s. Moreover, in 1973, the Andaman and Nicobar For- include pork and turtle meat. The food is proffered repeat-
est and Plantation Development Corporation (ANFPDC) edly, and each time, the woman chews it before spitting it
established an intensive field station in Little Andaman out. The person who presented the food to the woman is
to accelerate forestry programs. To begin with, island considered to have entered into a special relationship with
administrators urged private companies to fell trees under the baby when it is born.
ANFPDC supervision. Administrators turned a blind eye Onge babies are delivered inside a special hut. Young
to illegal tree felling, however, and in 1975, the ANFPDC unmarried girls witness the childbirth while older Onge
launched a regeneration project in an effort to restock women assist the mother throughout the delivery. As part
deforested areas with red oil palm. of the delivery ritual, leaves are spread over the mother’s
Over the years, various projects on Little Andaman have body and on the ground, for the leaves are thought to
reallocated Onge land to settlers; planting schemes; road, ensure the baby’s safe delivery. Once the baby is born, the
office, and farm construction; and the building of a harbor umbilical cord is cut using a razor blade or a knife made
 Onge 841

from bamboo or iron. The placenta is buried in the ground corpse’s eyes being covered with palm leaves and tied with
nearby. Next, warmed palm leaves are placed on the baby’s bark strips. Palm leaves are then thrown over the corpse
navel, and the baby is gently wiped with soft leaves. Mean- as it is placed in the grave before the grave is filled with
while, the mother is placed on a bed of warm leaves, and soil. A few months after the interment, the lower jaw of
her belly is tied with strips of tree bark to make the uterus the skeleton is retrieved from the grave. The jawbone is
and abdomen return to their prepregnancy state. For a then worn in turn around the neck of the deceased’s rela-
while after the birth, an Onge mother eats a restricted diet tives. The period of Onge mourning ends with a commu-
as directed by community elders. nal dance.
When Onge people reach a certain age, they experience As the Onges consider white teeth a sign of death, they
coming-of-age rituals. For example, when an Onge boy is chew tree bark to turn their teeth red. The Onges also prac-
around fifteen years of age, he undergoes a ritual called tice body art. Onge women decorate the bodies of their
tanagiru. During this ritual, the boy goes into a forest and people with either a mixture made from white clay and
then returns with a dead wild boar. The path that the boy water or with red ochre combined with turtle fat or pig fat.
takes to leave the forest must differ from the one he used Onge women also wear a necklace made from dentalium
to enter. Once he has returned with the boar, the boy is (tooth shells). On special occasions, Onge men and women
entreated to enter a communal hut, where he sits silently will wear belts made from cane and tree bark around their
on the stomach of the boar. The boy then drinks the clotted waists as well as ceremonial headbands.
blood of the boar before taking a ceremonial bath in the Onge beliefs made international headlines in 2004
sea. While the boy bathes, his male relatives dissect the when their traditional tales of giant waves allowed them to
boar and share the meat among themselves. The next day, escape to higher ground before the Boxing Day Tsunami
the boy’s sister or sister-in-law decorates his skin with clay, struck the Indian Ocean, killing two hundred thousand
and he is then dropped in the sea and cleaned by his male people. Onge folklore tells of violently shaking ground fol-
relatives. In the next part of the ritual, the boy crosses a lowed by walls of water, so when the earthquake struck, the
row of logs while barefoot and enters the communal hut Onges retreated to higher ground deep inside the forest.
by a different opening than the one he previously used to This move allowed the Onges to escape the tsunami that
enter with the boar. To end the ritual, thereby attaining destroyed their settlements. Academics have theorized
adulthood, the boy has to kill twenty female pigs. that the Onges’ collective memory of natural disasters acts
Traditionally, Onge females also experience a puberty as an island survival strategy formed through generations
ritual. When an Onge girl has her first period, she informs of island life.
her parents and then bathes in the sea. Once she has
washed, the girl goes to stay in a special hut where she has
a leaf placed around her waist alongside a special apron of Health Care and Education
leaves. Leaves are also attached to the girl’s arms, chest, Anthropologists studying Onge population figures over
and abdomen, and the girl is made to sit on leaves with her the past few decades have emphasized the significance of
legs bent underneath her. The girl is expected to stay like diseases introduced by outsiders to the Onges. Other fac-
this for the duration of her period save for early mornings, tors have also contributed to the declining populations.
when she must go to the sea to wash. Once her period has For example, despite government help and medical care,
finished, the girl resumes her normal life. the health of the Onges has declined since their resettle-
The Onges are a monogamous people who do not prac- ment, and they suffer greatly from malnutrition. Another
tice divorce. Onge marriages must be approved by the significant problem is the Onges’ high infant and child
parents of both the bride and the groom. If a young girl mortality rate, which a 1985 study found ran at 40 percent.
is promised in marriage, she will stay with her own par- This was double the figure for 1978 and also much higher
ents after the marriage until she is considered a suitable than that found in rural areas of India. The 1985 study also
age to live with her husband. When an Onge person dies, found that over 42 percent of Onge women were infertile,
the deceased is buried under his or her bed in a tempo- meaning that the population could not be easily replen-
rary hut. The person’s spouse or a relative performs ritu- ished (Venkatesan 1990). For this reason, when an Onge
als intended to help with the disposal of the dead. These baby is born, it is a cause for much celebration, and the
rituals involve the knees of the corpse being bent and the birth is announced in the Andaman press.
842  Orang Asli

Researchers have also discovered that only one in three Whitaker, Romulus, and Zai Whitaker. 1986. “The Andaman
Onge deaths recorded between 1977 and 1988 was that of Tribes—Victims of Development.” Cultural Survival Quar-
someone aged over thirty-five years. Most of these deaths terly Magazine, June. https://www.culturalsurvival.org​
/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/andaman-tribes​
resulted from diarrhea and dysentery that in many cases -victims-development.
arose from the food given to them by authorities (Venka-
tesan 1990).

Threats to Survival
Living in low-lying areas means that the Onges are at risk
ORANG ASLI
from natural disasters such as the 2004 tsunami and ris- Current Location Malaysia
ing sea levels caused by climate change. The Onges also Current Population 150,000
face a future of depleting food resources. Although their Language Aslian; Austronesian languages
surroundings were once filled with wild boars, vegetation, Interesting Fact The Orang Asli were the first people
fish, turtles, and bountiful amounts of honey, widespread to live on Peninsular Malaysia.
deforestation means that the forests no longer provide for
the Onge as they used to. In addition, Bengali settlers hunt
the wild boar, fish, and seafood that are staples of the tra- Overview
ditional Onge diet in increasing amounts. As a result of Orang Asli is the collective name for a group of indigenous
their depleted food availability, the Onge have witnessed a peoples living in Malaysia. Some Orang Asli speak related
sharp decline in their natural food resources and, in turn, languages called Aslian that belong to the Mon-Khmer
suffer from malnutrition. Settlers, particularly the Bengali language family, and other Orang Asli speak languages
settlers, are increasingly hunting wild boars and other for- belonging to the Austronesian family of languages. Most
est and sea resources. Orang Asli are animists, but there are also Christian and
See also: Nicobarese; Uncontacted Peoples Muslim Orang Asli minorities. The term Orang Asli trans-
lates from Malay as “original peoples” or “first peoples.”
Further Reading
Abbi, Anvita. 2006. Endangered Languages of the Andaman The Orang Asli are classified as Bumiputras (“sons of the
Islands. Munich, Germany: Lincom GmbH. soil”), a status applied to Malaysia’s indigenous people.
Andaman Beacon. n.d. “Onge Tribe of Andaman.” http://www​
.andamanbeacon.com/onge_tribe_andaman.html.
Bhaumik, Subir. 2005. “Tsunami Folklore ‘Saved Islanders.’” BBC, Population, Diaspora, and Migration
January 20. http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia​ The Orang Asli live on Peninsular Malaysia (or Kra Penin-
/4181855.stm.
Sekhsaria, Pankaj. 2001. “Deforestation in Andaman and Nico-
sula), the part of Malaysia covering the Malay Peninsula and
bar: Its Impact on Onge.” Economic and Political Weekly 36, surrounding islands. There are no current population figures
no. 38 (September 22–28): 3643–3648. for the Orang Asli. In 2003, the population was estimated
Sekhsaria, Pankaj. 2004. “Illegal Logging and Deforestation in at 150,000. The Orang Asli are divided into eighteen ethnic
Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India: The Story of Little groups spread between three groupings: the Negrito, Senoi,
Andaman Islands.” In Illegal Logging in the Tropics: Strategies and Proto-Malay (Minority Rights Group International
for Cutting Crime, edited by Ramsay M. Ravenel, Ilmi M. E.
Granoff, and Carrie A. Magee, 319–336. Binghamton, NY:
2018). Most Orang Asli live in rural areas. From 1947 to 2010,
Haworth Press. the highest Orang Asli population was recorded in Pahang
Sharma, A. N. 2003. Tribal Development in Andaman Islands. and Perak in Malaysia. The largest Orang Asli group in Pen-
New Delhi, India: Sarup & Sons. insular Malaysia is the Senoi, who live mainly in central and
Survival International. 2017. “The Onge.” http://www​ northern areas of Peninsular Malaysia (Masron et al. 2013).
.survivalinternational.org/tribes/onge.
Venkatesan, D. 1990. “Ecocide or Genocide? The Onge in the
Andaman Islands.” Cultural Survival Quarterly Magazine, Geography and Environment
December. https://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications​
/cultural-survival-quarterly/ecocide-or-genocide-onge​ The Malay Peninsula is a long strip of land lying off the
-andaman-islands. Malaysian mainland for around seven hundred miles
 Orang Asli  843

through the Isthmus of Krato Cape Piai, the southernmost Before European colonization, Malacca sultanates were
point of the Asian continent. The peninsula is bordered to based on the marine prowess of Orang Laut sailors. How-
the northwest by the Andaman Sea, to the southwest by ever, other Orang Asli peoples were captured and enslaved
the Strait of Malacca, to the south by the Singapore Strait, by Malays. For this reason, the Orang Asli used to be
to the southeast by the South China Sea, and to the north- known on the peninsula as the sakai, meaning “slave.”
east by the Gulf of Thailand. The Orang Asli remained fairly isolated until the
According to Orang Asli tradition, land is not a prod- mid-nineteenth century. As the Orang Asli were of little
uct and so cannot be bought or sold. Instead, the Orang economic or strategic interest to colonial authorities, they
Asli believe God loans the land to the people, and it is the were able to keep control over parts of the peninsula’s inte-
people’s responsibility to care for it. For this reason, the rior. During World War II, Japanese military occupancy of
Orang Asli attach a spiritual and cultural value to the land. Orang Asli land forced some Orang Asli to hide deep in
Many Orang Asli practice shifting cultivation because they the forests.
consider this form of farming an efficient way to allow the During the period 1948–1960, an insurgency known as
environment to restore itself between agricultural cycles. the Malayan Emergency occurred following the creation
The Orang Asli also do not take from forests and rivers of the Federation of Malaya (the forerunner of Malaysia)
more than they need. These beliefs and practices enable in 1948. This period of unrest saw communist and ethnic
the Orang Asli to preserve the biodiversity of their land. Chinese guerrillas hide in mountainous areas inhabited
Typically, the Orang Asli are reluctant to part with their by the Orang Asli, some of whom collaborated with the
land for logging, plantation farming, dam and road con- guerrillas because of their traditional resentment toward
struction, industrialization, urbanization, or mining. Such Malays. In response, the British resettled the Orang Asli
reluctance means the Orang Asli are often labeled “antide- in fortified settlements equipped with healthcare and edu-
velopment” (Masron et al. 2013). cational facilities to isolate the Orang Asli from contact
with the communists. The British established a Depart-
ment of Aborigines, which, after Malaysian independence,
History and Politics was renamed the Department of Orang Asli Affairs (the
The Orang Asli are the earliest people to live on Peninsular JHEOA). In 1954, the Aboriginal Peoples Act provided
Malaysia, having inhabited the land for around five thousand for the creation of the Orang Asli Reserve Land. However,
years. Most Orang Asli probably arrived on the peninsula the act also included the power accorded to the director-
from China and Tibet, having migrated through mainland general of the JHEOA to remove the Orang Asli from
Southeast Asia before reaching the Malay Peninsula and reserved land at its discretion.
the Indonesian archipelago. In the first millennium CE, the Postindependence, the development of Orang Asli
Orang Asli were the main suppliers of forest products (rattan, became the prime objective of the Malaysian government.
resin, and bamboo) to China, India, and the Middle East. From 1961, the government adopted a policy to assimilate
By the start of the sixteenth century, the Malacca area the Orang Asli into general Malaysian society. Among the
had become known in Europe as the crossroads of Asian objectives of the JHEOA was the eradication of Orang Asli
trade. In 1509, the Portuguese arrived at Malacca in search poverty and the improvement of their access to health and
of a sea route to eastern Asia. Then, in 1511, a Portu- education. From the 1960s, the Malaysian government
guese fleet led by Afonso de Albuquerque took control of moved to modernize the Orang Asli by introducing cash-
Malacca. Elsewhere, new sultanates emerged across the crop agriculture, discouraging the people’s traditional
peninsula, usually at the mouths of major rivers, as this hunter-gather and nomadic activities, providing education
allowed sultans to control trade to and from the interior. in the Malay language, and replacing traditional Orang Asli
The Orang Asli together with other indigenous peoples leaders with government-approved heads. Since the 1980s,
populated the new sultanates. Except for Malacca, Western the government’s aim of assimilating the Orang Asli has
influence was negligible in Malaya until the late eighteenth taken on a pronounced religious overtone. Indeed, it has
century, when, in 1786, the British East India Company been widely noted that the government arguably induces
purchased the island of Penang from the sultan of Kedah. the Orang Asli to convert to Islam as part of an effort to
The island soon became a major trading post home to a turn the Orang Asli into Malay Muslims. Moreover, refusal
predominantly Chinese population. to convert to Islam is viewed as opposition the government
844  Orang Asli

Members of the Orang Asli in Taman Negara National Park, Malaysia. According to Orang Asli beliefs, land is loaned to humankind by
God and so cannot be bought or sold. (Remanz/iStockphoto.com)

by both the wider Malaysian government and some Orang Orang Asli lifestyles also vary. Fishing is the main occu-
Asli. In turn, this Islamization policy has created tension pation of coastal Orang Asli, including the Orang Laut,
between Orang Asli who have converted to Islam and Orang Seletar, and Mahmeri. Others, including some
those who refused to convert (Nobuta 2007). Temuan, Jakun, and Semai communities, practice settled
In recent decades, Malaysia has experienced economic agriculture and run their own rubber, palm oil, and cocoa
success. This has increased pressure on Orang Asli land farms. Meanwhile, other Orang Asli, such as the Semai,
rights, for large tracts of traditional Orang Asli lands Temiar, Che Wong, Jahut, Semelai, and Semoq Beri, live
have been lost to plantations, industrial zones, and other near or within forests. These communities grow hill rice,
developments, often without any compensation (Minority hunt, and forage for food. They also trade, durian, rattan,
Rights Group International 2018). and resin for cash. An Orang Asli minority, especially
among the Negrito groups, continues to follow a semino-
madic lifestyle dependent on seasonal forest foods. Other
Society, Culture, and Tradition Orang Asli individuals live in urban areas, where they have
Each Orang Asli group has its own language and culture salaried jobs.
and considers itself independent from other Orang Asli Approximately 70 percent of the Orang Asli practice
groups. Linguistically, some Orang Asli groups (princi- traditional animist religions, 10 percent are Christian, and
pally the Senoi, Temoq, and Negrito) speak Aslian lan- 15–20 percent are Muslim. The number of Muslim Orang
guages that belong to the Mon-Khmer language family, Asli is steadily growing, particularly among the Proto-
which suggests a historical link with indigenous peoples Malay. Muslim Orang Asli are increasingly assimilated
in Myanmar, Thailand, and Indochina. Other Orang Asli into mainstream Malay society (Minority Rights Group
speak Austronesian languages. International 2018).
 Oraon 845

Health Care and Education and so land loss contributes to the cycle of poverty in
The Malaysian government provides health care, mater- which many Orang Asli exist. Deprived of their land, the
nity and infant care, dental care, and education services Orang Asli are forced to abandon their subsistence lives
to the Orang Asli. The Orang Asli infant mortality rate and work for cash as laborers in the timber industry or in
was as high as 51.7 per 1,000 live births during the period town. Land is also central to Orang Asli cultural identity,
1984–1987, and the average life expectancy for Orang Asli so its loss strikes at the very core of the people’s identity.
is fifty-three years, compared to the national average of Orang Asli culture is also endangered by the people
seventy-three years (Masron et al. 2013). Orang Asli being targeted for conversion to Islam by both government
females have lower life expectancy at birth because of their programs and state-funded missionaries. This includes the
communities’ high maternal death rates resulting from infamous occasion in the state of Kelantan when Muslim
death in childbirth and poor maternal health care. men were given ten thousand ringgit (roughly $2,467) for
Traditionally, the Orang Asli suffer from high rates of marrying an Orang Asli woman (Minority Rights Group
illiteracy. Malaysian authorities see education as a key International 2018).
instrument in the effort to improve the Orang Asli qual- The erosion of Orang Asli cultural identity is being has-
ity of life. However, teachers charged with educating the tened by an education system that fails to accommodate
Orang Asli are often not trained and have a low level of Orang Asli traditions and pushes for the Orang Asli’s inte-
education themselves. Also, Malay teachers working in gration into mainstream Malaysian society.
primary schools often have no knowledge of Orang Asli See also: Batak; Sea Gypsy
culture (Masron et al. 2013). Further Reading
Arshad, Arlina. 2018. “Seafaring Orang Laut Strive to Stay Afloat.”
The Strait Times, January 28. https://www.straitstimes.com​
Threats to Survival /asia/se-asia/seafaring-orang-laut-strive-to-stay-afloat.
Today, the Orang Asli face numerous problems. The Masron, Tarmiji, Fujimaki Masami, and Norhasimah Ismail.
majority of the Orang Asli live beneath the poverty line, 2013. “Orang Asli in Peninsular Malaysia: Population, Spa-
with many classified as living in hard-core poverty. This tial Distribution and Socio-Economic Condition.” Journal
of Ritsumeikan Social Sciences and Humanities 6: 75–115.
economic hardship results from the people’s difficulty in
http://​www.ritsumei.ac.jp/acd/re/k-rsc/hss/book/pdf/vol06​
adapting to the changes in their environment, discrimina- _07​.pdf.
tion by Malays and the wider population, and limited legal Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Malaysia: Orang
and political rights epitomized by the Orang Asli’s lack of Asli.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples,
land rights. The major legislation dealing with the Orang January. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/orang-asli.
Asli, the 1954 Aboriginal Peoples Act, has been denounced Nobuta, Toshihiro. 2007. “Islamization Policy toward the Orang
Asli in Malaysia.” Bulletin of the National Museum of Ethnol-
as too weak to protect them, particularly in relation to
ogy 31 (4): 479–495.
issues of land rights and usage; few Orang Asli own land,
and the act only provides rights to land and its resources
on a usufructuary basis (the right to use the land tempo-
rarily and keep any profit made from it). Consequently, the
vast majority of Orang Asli are essentially living as tenants ORAON
on their ancestral lands.
In Malaysia, less than 20 percent of Orang Asli villages Current Location India
are classified as Orang Asli Areas or Reserves. This land is Current Population 4.5 million
also not gazetted (included in an official Malaysian govern- Language Oraon (Kurukh); Hindi; English
ment journal that announces the texts of new laws). Addi- Interesting Fact Early Oraons practiced ritual human
tionally, authorities can “degazette” Orang Asli land at will. sacrifice during annual crop festivals.
Sometimes, when the Orang Asli are degazetted, authori-
ties provide the Orang Asli with compensation, but this is
limited to the loss of resources such as fruit trees rather Overview
than their homes (Minority Rights Group International The Oraons (also called the Kurukh and sometimes referred
2018). Land is the source of most Orang Asli livelihoods, to as the Uraons, Kuda, Dhangad, Dhangar, or Dhanka,
846 Oraon

among other names) are an ethnic group indigenous to Many centuries of intense cultivation have denuded
India. The Oraons speak the Oraon or Kurukh language. the Chota Nagpur plateau of much of its natural vegeta-
This language is part of the northern subgroup of Dravid- tion. However, some forest does still exist because forest
ian languages. Many Oraons, especially Christian Oraons, products, such as tussah silk (produced by silkworm lar-
speak Hindi as their first language, but they also know vae that eat oak leaves and other tree leaves), are valuable
Oraon. Some Oraons speak English, as the language is a commodities that are economically important. The Chota
teaching language in some Oraon schools. The vast majority Nagpur area is the most mineral-rich area of India. For
of Oraons follow a unique form of Hinduism that includes example, the Damodar River valley that runs through the
reverence for deities not worshipped elsewhere in India. plateau’s center contains vast coal deposits, and the Haz-
There is also a small minority of Christian Oraons. The aribagh region is one of the world’s main sources of mica.
Oraons refer to themselves as the Kurukh, though through- Other minerals found in the Chota Nagpur area include
out much of India, the Oraons are known as the Dhangar. copper, iron, limestone, bauxite, asbestos, and apatite
However, the term Oraon is the name most commonly (used in phosphate fertilizer production). A massive steel
applied to the group. Oraon, meaning “to roam,” is the name mill and electricity-generating thermal plant are located at
given to the people by neighboring Munda peoples. Bokaro, in eastern Jharkhand.

Population, Diaspora, and Migration History and Politics

The Oraon population is estimated to comprise around 4.5 According to Oraon oral history, the Oraons were expelled
million people (Minahan 2012). The Oraons inhabited for- from their ancient kingdom of Rohtas, which was likely
ested uplands in east central India. Oraon territory extends located in the Konkan region of Maharashtra in west-
across the Chota Nagpur region of India’s Jharkhand state ern India. Overpopulation and invasions by outsiders
as well as neighboring parts of other Indian states. Smaller forced the Oraons to migrate northward along river val-
Oraon communities exist in Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangla- leys to ultimately settle around Shahabad in Bihar. Con-
desh. The Oraons have a long tradition of being educated tinual invasions caused the Oraons to seek shelter on the
and leaving their homeland to find work. This means there Rohtas Plateau. Here, they formed a powerful kingdom
is an Oraon diaspora outside the traditional Oraon home- that was nonetheless defeated by the Kuru kingdom. The
land. A large number of Oraons have settled in northeast Oraons were then exiled from the Rohtas Plateau by rival
India, where they work on tea estates in West Bengal, groups, resulting in the Oraon refugees being divided into
Assam, and Tripura. Other Oraons live prosperously in two groups: the Male, who followed a chief north to the
metropolitan areas. Most of the Oraon diaspora lives in Ganges River valley before settling in the Rajmahal Hills,
India’s large cities. However, there are Oraon communities and another group, who in the second or third century
living in Europe and North America. headed southward to settle in the Chota Nagpur Plateau
region among the Munda tribe. This Oraon group adopted
many Munda traditions, though they maintained their
Geography and Environment own language and many of their original ways. Over time,
The Chota Nagpur plateau (the collective name for the the Oraons selected a leader whom they called the raja of
Ranchi, Hazaribagh, and Kodarma plateaus) is located in Chotanagpur (Chotanagpur being another name for Chota
east India. The plateau covers much of Jharkhand state as Nagpur). The raja was the leader of all Oraon people, but
well as adjoining parts of Odisha, West Bengal, Bihar, and he did not own their land. Instead, the raja was given a
Chhattisgarh. The Chota Nagpur plateau lies between the voluntary tribute of grain and jungle produce as reward for
basins of the Ganges and Son Rivers to the north and the his services during ceremonies and conflicts.
Mahanadi River to the south. The Chota Nagpur plateau is The Oraon kingdom retained its independence until
made of rocks that are 540 million years old. The largest the mid-sixteenth century, when the reign of Mughal
stretch of the plateau consists of the Ranchi Plateau, which emperor Akbar began. In 1585, Muslim Mughal forces
has an average elevation of about 2,300 feet. The Chota took control of the Oraon territory. However, the Oraons
Nagpur plateau is bisected by numerous streams that have welcomed Muslim rule, having suffered centuries of abuse
eroded the plateau to form isolated hills in some parts. from local Hindu groups. Subsequently, the Mughals
 Oraon 847

reinstated the Oraon raja, who then had to pay tribute to the people rely on items foraged from highland forests
the Mughals. for their domestic and building purposes. Oraon villages
In the eighteenth century, European explorers started to are led by a headman and a hereditary priest. Typically,
arrive on Oraon land, having traveled inland from coastal several neighboring villages will unite to form a confed-
areas. Following the Battle of Plassey of 1757, the British eration overseen by a representative council. Oraon vil-
East India Company took control of the Chota Nagpur pla- lages include a bachelors’ dormitory (dumkhuria) located
teau, and most Oraons came under British rule in 1765. deep in the forest. Unmarried women live in a separate
Various treaties allowed the Oraon rajas to continue their house. The dormitories act as placed where the young can
reign under British authority. In 1817, Oraon land together learn social skills and traditional education. The Oraons
with adjoining territories came under direct British rule. have a rich folk culture that includes music, song, dance,
This move fostered discontent among the Oraons, leading and tales. The music and songs performed by the Oraons
to widespread revolts against British rule in 1811, 1820, and change according to the season. Some musical instru-
1831. To control the region’s various tribal groups, a sepa- ments played by the Oraons are exclusive to them.
rate province, called the South-Western Frontier Agency, Oraon society is divided into multiple clans that take
was established in 1833 and administered by a represent- their names from the natural world: birds, animals, plants,
ative of the British governor-general. In 1854, the system and minerals. Clan names are passed down from father
of governance was changed, again resulting in the Chota to son, and Oraons usually marry within their particular
Nagpur region becoming a province under the control of a clan. The clan names act as clan totems, so members do
British commissioner. In 1857, the Sepoy Rebellion ended not eat or harm anything after which their clan is named.
direct British involvement over the Oraons. After 1857, the Every Oraon clan has its own historical location, though
tribal lands of Chota Nagpur existed without an admin- the increasingly urban nature of Oraon life means that
istration, leading Oraon leaders to become concerned many Oraons live away from their traditional clan base.
over the living conditions of their people, for local Hindu Consequently, the power of clans has diminished some-
landlords exploited the Oraons. In the second half of the what. That said, the Oraon diaspora does try to maintain
nineteenth century, violence flared, as the Oraons became clan ties.
resentful of having to pay British taxes. The Oraons’ traditional religion, Sarna or Sarnaism,
At the start of the twentieth century, the Tana Bhagat involves the worship of the supreme deity (Dharmes), the
religio-social movement led by Oraon saints formed in sun (Biri), the moon (Chando), and mother earth (Dharti
opposition to British taxes. The Tana Bhagats were a civil Aayo). Oraon followers of Sarna also have reverence for
disobedience movement that later supported Gandhi’s ancestors and a belief in numerous minor deities and
Indian independence movement against British rule. spirits. Followers of the Sarna religion perform religious
Over time, the Chota Nagpur region became one of the ceremonies in the shade of sacred groves. Some Oraon
centers of the Indian independence movement. In 1947, traditions are influenced by Hinduism. However, many
many Oraons backed Indian independence, having been Oraons see themselves as distinct from Hindus; hence,
promised equality in a secular India. Following Indian in 2017, more than one thousand Oraons marched to
independence, most Oraon lands were incorporated in demand a separate Sarna religious code be recognized by
the new Indian state of Bihar. However, the Oraons, like authorities so that the Oraons would be classed as separate
other tribal peoples of the Chota Nagpur region, became from Hindus in official censuses (Deo Jha 2017). Recently,
discontented and established political bodies, with the aim many Oraons, particularly educated Oraons, have adopted
of creating distinct tribal regions as well as a separate state Christianity, especially Roman Catholicism and Protes-
within India. In 2000, the state of Jharkhand was created tantism. Early Oraons practiced ritual human sacrifice,
following decades of demonstrations. Jharkhand included called otanga or orka. The sacrifices were performed dur-
most Oraon districts of the Chota Nagpur Plateau region. ing an annual crop festival.
The Oraon language is Dravidian and related to other
languages spoken across southern India. Although Oraon
Society, Culture, and Tradition is the main language spoken by the Oraons, in the urban
Traditionally, the Oraon are an agricultural people. Oraon areas, many Oraons speak Hindi as their first language.
villages are typically sited on land suitable for farming, and This is particularly true among Christian Oraons.
848 Oromo

Health Care and Education OROMO

The Jharkhand state government provides healthcare ser-
Current Location Ethiopia; Sudan; Kenya
vices to all of the state’s inhabitants, including those liv-
Current Population 25.4 million
ing in remote areas. Additionally, Jharkhand Rural Health
Mission Society provides accessible and affordable quality Language Oromo
health care to villagers. The National Rural Health Mission Interesting Fact Ethiopian Oromo marathon runner
(NRHM, an initiative launched by the Indian government Feyisa Lilesa gained worldwide
media attention when he expressed
to augment primary health care in India) concentrates on
solidarity with the Oromo at the
issues such as water safety, sanitation, and nutrition. In
2016 Rio Olympics after winning a
2017, state authorities announced that a health insurance silver medal.
scheme would be launched that would make the state’s
health care cashless, meaning poor residents would not
have to pay money for services. Overview
In Jharkhand, children aged five years and above are The Oromo are a predominantly rural ethnic group indig-
eligible for school enrollment. Primary education, which enous to an area of Ethiopia and Sudan known as Oromia
is free and compulsory, is made available to pupils up to (or Biyya-Oromo) as well as parts of Kenya. In earlier
the age of fourteen years. As of 2013, around 95 percent of times, the Oromo were known as the Galla, but the Oromo
children in Jharkhand between ages six and eleven years regard this name as offensive, even though there is no
were studying in the state’s primary schools. Pupils can agreement as to its meaning. The Oromo speak the Oromo
continue on to secondary school, and university educa- (or Oromiffa) language, which is classified as a Cushitic
tion is also possible. Some schools in Jharkhand teach in language of the Afroasiatic language family. An increasing
English, but schools affiliated to the State Board teach in number of Oromo also speak Tigrigna, Somali, Arabic,
Hindi. Education has long been a priority in Jharkhand Swahili, and English.
and is home to the Indian School of Mines and Birla Insti- The Oromo are linked through language but are diverse
tute of Technology For this reason, the state’s residents in terms of society and religion, with some Oromo being
typically have a high literacy rate (Best India Edu 2013). Christian, some Muslim, and others following their indig-
enous religion. Christian Oromo tend to be Catholic
Threats to Survival or Adventist rather than Orthodox because the Oromo
There are no immediate threats to the Oraons’ survival. associate the Ethiopian Orthodox Church with the dom-
However, some Oraons demand that their religion and inant Amhara people. Despite being the largest ethnic
culture be officially recognized as a way of cementing the group in Ethiopia, the Oromo have suffered many years
people’s distinct ethnic identity, rather than see the Oraons of exclusion and forced assimilation by the Ethiopian gov-
included with Hindus in censuses. ernment, resulting in a decline in the Oromo pastoralist
The growing number of Oraons speaking Hindi and tradition.
English may also endanger the continuance of the Oraon
language in the long term.
See also: Bhil; Gond; Gujarati; Naga; Sikh Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Further Reading The Oromo ethic group consists of several main groups as
Best India Edu. 2013. “Education in Jharkhand.” http://www​ well as around two hundred subgroups linked by their use
.bestindiaedu.com/jharkhand.html. of the Oromo language. Population figures for the Oromo
Deo Jha, Vijay. 2017. “Tribals Demand Sarna Code.” The Tele- vary, with some estimates suggesting there are between 27
graph India, August 19. https://www.telegraphindia.com​ million and 30 million Oromo people. Most Oromo people
/states/jharkhand/tribals-demand-sarna-code/cid/1358804.
live in Ethiopia. According to a 2006 Ethiopian national
Government of Jharkhand, India. 2016, April 13. “Jharkhand—
Health and Services.” http://www.jharkhand.gov.in/health. census, the country’s Oromo population measures 25.4
Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the million people. This makes the Oromo Ethiopia’s largest
Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ethnic group, comprising 25–40 percent of the country’s
total population.
 Oromo 849

Oromo boys ride donkeys in Modjo, Ethiopia. In Oromo society, responsibilities are assigned to people according to how old they are.
(Sjors737/Dreamstime.com)

There are four main Oromo groups: the western Oromo, Oromia has important mineral deposits, with gold
who tend to be Christian; the northern Oromo, who are mines being located at Adola and Laga Dambi in Sidamo
mainly Christian, speak Amharic, and are more assimi- and around the Nejjo, Asosa, and Birbir river valleys in
lated into Amhara culture than other Oromo groups; the the Wallagga region. Other minerals found in Oromia
southern Oromo, who maintain a seminomadic lifestyle include platinum, sulfur, iron ore, salt, and silver. Natural
and do not belong to any larger regional or religious com- gas is found in Baale, and the hot springs scattered across
munity; and the Borana, who some commentators believe Oromia are also economically important, as they attract
are the original Oromo group from which all others sprung thousands of visitors who frequent the springs for their
because they unwaveringly observe the gadaa social sys- medicinal and relaxing properties. The springs also have
tem and inhabit the part of Ethiopia bordering Kenya. The huge potential as a source of thermal energy. Similarly,
Eastern Oromo of Haraghe incorporates the Muslim peo- Oromia is home to many rivers and streams, which feature
ple of Harar and enjoys strong ties to the Arab world. waterfalls that could be harnessed to generate electric-
ity. Indeed, it is believed this electricity could satisfy the
power needs of both Oromia and neighboring countries
Geography and Environment (UNPO 2015).
Oromia extends from south central Ethiopia to north-
ern Sudan, an area also bordered by Somalia, Djibouti,
and Kenya as well as by territory inhabited by the Afar, History and Politics
Amhara, and Tigray peoples. Oromia has a land area of The Oromo people most likely originated several thou-
around 231,661 square miles. sand years ago in the southernmost highlands of Ethiopia.
850 Oromo

During the tenth and twelfth centuries, the Somali peo- Having witnessed Somalia gain independence, the Oromo
ple expanded their territory to include areas previously united with Ethiopian Somalis in 1963 in an unsuccessful
inhabited by the Oromo, thereby forcing the Oromo to revolt against the Selassie regime that called for the peo-
move southward and westward. During the Middle Ages, ple’s independence. Over the following decades, the Oromo
the area inhabited by the Oromo played an important suffered repression and anti-Oromo discrimination. This
role in the power struggle fought between Christians liv- discrimination worsened after the Derg came to power in
ing in highland areas and Muslims living in the lowlands. Ethiopia following the ousting of Selassie. The Derg (1974–
When the Christians defeated the Arab sultanate of Adal 1987) was a socialist military dictatorship that executed and
in the sixteenth century, it paved the way for the Oromo imprisoned tens of thousands of its opponents without trial
to invade the Harar plateau of the Ethiopian highlands. As including members of the Oromo Liberation Front (OLF),
a result of this invasion, the Oromo continued to migrate one of many political parties established to fight the regime.
into the Harar plateau for several hundred years. Once liv- To start, OLF was a student organization that gradu-
ing in the walled city of Harar, many Oromo converted to ally developed into an armed resistance movement and
Islam, and those that did not convert were assimilated into political party dedicated to the promotion of Oromo self-
Muslim culture. The Oromo living in Harar also acquired rule. OLF had limited success against national authori-
horse-riding skills that enabled them to travel farther west. ties, however, as it faced competition for members from
As they did so, the Oromo conquered the other indigenous other militant organizations, including the Oromo People’s
peoples they encountered. In the process of overrunning Liberation Front and the Islamic Front for the Liberation
these other groups, the Oromo both assimilated other of the Oromo. Rivalry between the various factions was
tribes into their own population and became influenced by occasionally violent, and the groups lacked organization.
those they conquered. The westbound Oromo forced the When the Derg collapsed in 1991, the Oromo ethnic state
predominantly Christian Amhara people to flee into the of Oromia was founded. Ultimately, OLF was brought into
uppermost Ethiopian highlands, prompting contemporary the fold of the Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Demo-
Christian writers to label them brutal warriors. cratic Front (EPRDF) coalition that was dominated by
Over time, the Oromo founded many kingdoms in the the more influential Tigray people. Ever since, the Oromo
south and west of their lands. Some of these kingdoms have striven for full autonomy, leading to national author-
had Christian populations, and Islam influenced others. ities placing Oromia under military control.
The Oromo saw off frequent incursions by the forces of
imperial Ethiopia, but during the seventeenth century,
the Oromo united with the Ethiopian empire. This union Society, Culture, and Tradition
saw many Oromo gain important positions in the imperial Unlike many other African peoples, the Oromo do not
Ethiopian government. have a tribal chieftain structure. Instead, Oromo society is
In the nineteenth century, imperial Ethiopia expanded traditionally based on the concept of Gadaa, a democratic
under Emperor Menelik II. This imperial expansion incor- system of government linked to an age-grade system expe-
porated all Oromo land and saw the subjugation of the rienced by all Oromo men. The Gadaa system consists of
Oromo people. During this time, the Oromo also faced eleven levels, starting with small boys, warrior levels, and
the threat of being taken by Somali slavers, who took the elders. Once a male reaches level six, he becomes part of
Oromo as slaves to satisfy demand from the Arab slave the ruling class, and when he reaches forty years of age, he
trade. Menelik II was reputed to own seventy thousand is considered fully responsible for his society. In total, it
Oromo slaves (Shaw 2011). takes twenty-four years for an Oromo male to experience
During the twentieth century, Emperor Haile Selassie, all the age grades.
an Amhara, centralized the Ethiopian government and The Oromo view age as the accumulation of wisdom
set out to modernize the country. As part of this mod- through experience, so the Oromo approach elders def-
ernization and political reform, however, the Amhara erentially. Additionally, responsibilities are assigned to
language and culture were foisted on other Ethiopian peo- people according to how old they are. Young Oromo are
ples, including the Oromo. At the same time, the Amhara considered fit and able, so they are given physical tasks to
were granted rights over Oromo land, causing much civil perform. Older people are considered less physically able
unrest. and are absolved of being responsible for physical work
 Oromo 851

Teff
Teff is a grass seed that is a staple food in Ethiopia and Eritrea. The seeds produce a harvest that is proportionately
hundreds of times greater than wheat or cereals. This quality, combined with teff ’s ability to withstand high temper-
atures, means teff production has prevented famine many times. Teff, which is gluten-free, has a particularly high
calcium content and is also a good source of iron and protein. As teff has a bland flavor, it has many culinary uses.
In Ethiopia and Eritrea, teff is mainly used to make injera, a sourdough flatbread. Injera can be made big enough to
form a pancake-like platter on which food is served. Pieces of injera are also torn off and used as an eating implement.

such as farming. In contrast, because older Oromo are drain abscesses, and treat diseases using medicinal plants.
considered to have acquired much knowledge over their Oromo people are also familiar with using herbal home
lifetimes, elders are tasked with solving problems, judging remedies against minor illnesses. The Oromo understand
disputes, and communicating wisdom. that good hygiene is important and that many diseases are
Traditionally, the Oromo are nomadic pastoralists, contagious, but at the same time, they believe many things
though those Oromo living in the north of Oromia have cause ill health. For instance, the Oromo consider illness
become settled agriculturalists, growing coffee and cereals. and bad luck as being punishments from Waaqa for sins
In the south of Oromia, the Oromo continue their nomadic committed by the sufferer. The Oromo also feel that the
cattle herding and also rear goats, sheep, horses, and pigs. evil eye cast by other people can cause disease, especially
Typical Oromo foods include buddeenaa (or bideenna) a in young children.
type of fermented flat bread made from teff flour. Diseases prevalent in Oromia include hepatitis A and
The Oromo also enjoy dairy products, especially milk B, tuberculosis, malaria, syphilis, and bilharzia, a disease
and butter, the latter being added to porridge, stews, and caused by parasitic flatworms that causes abdominal pain,
soups. Pulses are also popular among the Oromo, with diarrhea, and bloody stools and urine. An increasing num-
spiced barley mixed with butter being considered a deli- ber of Oromo are contracting HIV/AIDS. Some Oromo
cacy. The Oromo drink milk and coffee as well as a home- believe the Ethiopian government deliberately underfunds
made beer called farsoo. disease control, particularly for HIV/AIDS, to either kill
The majority of Oromo are Christian or Muslim, but as many Oromo as possible or to control the lives of sick
some follow the traditional Oromo religion, which revolves Oromo (Omura 2003).
around the supreme god Waaqa (or Wak), whose eye The Oromo circumcise boys and girls either in early
is the sun, according to Oromo beliefs. The Oromo con- infancy or before marriage. Although the Oromo view
sider Waaqa responsible for everything that happens to all female circumcision as optional but desirable, it is man-
humans, though they also believe that minor gods inhabit datory for Oromo males to be circumcised for reasons of
rivers, mountains, and trees. Although many Oromo hygiene and social acceptance. Muslim Oromo males must
adopted Islam or Christianity, they maintain their belief be circumcised to gain religious approval.
in Waaqa, which they incorporate into their Islamic and The traditional Oromo language was banned during the
Christian beliefs. In Oromo society, Muslims and Chris- regime of Haile Selassie in favor of Amharic, which became
tians tend to live together peacefully. The Oromo who only the only language of education and administration. For this
adhere to their native religion usually live in the south of reason, Oromo who have experienced formal education or
Oromia. They also tend to be less overt in their religious who grew up in urban areas understand Amharic as well as
beliefs than Christian and Muslim Oromo, and as a result, their native language. Rural Oromo who had limited access
they can be misunderstood by other Oromo (Omura 2003). to education continued to speak Oromo. Oromo literacy in
English is increasing because a growing number of Oromo
take English as a second language (ESL) classes.
Health Care and Education A young and increasingly well-educated Ethiopian pop-
Traditional Oromo healers know how to set bones, cauterize ulation, including many educated Oromo, is increasingly
wounds, perform minor surgeries such as tonsillectomies, calling for political reform within the country.
852 Ossetian

Threats to Survival Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Ethiopia: Oromo.”

World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, Janu-
Although they are the largest ethnic group in Ethiopia, the ary. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/oromo.
Oromo are among Ethiopia’s most discriminated against Omura, Susan. 2003. “Oromo.” Ethnomed, March 1. https://​
people. International observers believe that during the ethnomed.org/culture/oromo/oromo-cultural-profile.
period November 2015 to August 2016, around five hun- Shaw, Geri. 2011. “Oromo.” In Ethnic Groups of Africa and the
dred Ethiopian Oromo were killed by national security Middle East: An Encyclopedia, edited by John A. Shoup, 233–
235. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
agents in response to their protests against anti-Oromo
Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization (UNPO).
discrimination and the appropriation of Oromo land. Fear 2015. “Oromo.” February 12. http://unpo.org/members/7917.
of further marginalization and land loss has led to pro-
tests that have been met with a brutal response from the
Ethiopian government. Human rights violations against
the Oromo people are occurring against a backdrop of
an extremely repressive regime. Civil rights activists are OSSETIAN
denied access to the worst hit areas and face intimidation,
arrest, and persecution. In addition journalists and blog- Current Location Alania-Ossetia (Georgia;
gers reporting on Ethiopia face harassment, and Ethiopian Russian Federation)
authorities perpetrate arbitrary arrests and extrajudicial Current Population 650,000
killings. The Oromo’s economic activity is hindered by the Language Ossetian
Ethiopian government’s policy of offering assistance to for- Interesting Fact The Ossetian language is a
eign investors over local investors. As a result of this pol- compulsory subject in Osse-
icy, Oromo peasants and semipastoralists can access only tian kindergartens.
small plots of farmland (Kabajuni 2016).
There is continued anger among the Oromo at the
national government’s plan to expand the Ethiopian cap-
Overview
ital city of Addis Ababa into the Oromia region, for such The Ossetians (also called the Alans) are an Iranian ethnic
expansion would leave thousands of Oromo farmers dis- group of the Caucasus Mountains that are indigenous to
placed. In December 2015, the planned expansion pro- the ethnolinguistic region of Alania-Ossetia. In the past,
voked demonstrations by Oromo protestors that resulted the Ossetians were called the Asi, Jasi, or Alans. The Osse-
in ten people dying and several hundred people being tians refer to themselves as the Allon in writing but as the
hurt. Since then, Oromo student protests over the planned Iron or Dygoron when speaking. The Ossetian language
development have swelled. In January 2016, the Ethiopian is an Eastern Iranian language belonging to the Indo-
government declared it would cancel the expansion, but European language family. Most Ossetians are also fluent
the protests have nonetheless intensified, with protests in Russian. The majority of Ossetians are Eastern Ortho-
being ruthlessly suppressed and leading to continued dox Christian, though around 15 percent are Muslim
human rights violations against the protesters. (Bzarov 2011) or profess a Scythian religion called Uats-
In January 2018, more than two thousand prisoners din. The name Ossetian derives from the Georgian Oseti,
jailed for involvement in Oromo protests over land grab- meaning “from the country of Osi (Alania).”
bing were pardoned in an effort to calm continuing civil
unrest.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
See also: Afar; Amhara; Daasanach; Mursi; Sidama The total Ossetian population is estimated to consist of
Further Reading approximately 650,000 people. Around 510,000 Osse-
Kabajuni, Agnes. 2016. “The Agony of Silence: Ethiopia’s Recent tians live in Ossetia, with about 450,000 residing in
Human Rights Violations against Amhara and Oromo peo-
North Ossetia and 60,000 in South Ossetia. There are
ples.” Minority Rights Group International: Blogs and Pod-
casts, September 28. http://minorityrights.org/2016/09/28​ major concentrations of Ossetians in the Ossetian cities
/agony-silence-ethiopias-recent-human-rights-violations​ of Vladikavkaz-Dzaudjikau, Beslan, Tskhinval, Digora,
-amhara-oromo-indigenous-peoples. Kvaisa, Ardon, and Mozdok. An Ossetian diaspora exists
 Ossetian 853

in Turkey, Georgia, and in the Russian Federation (in In the thirteenth century, the Tatar-Mongols invaded
Moscow, Stavropol krai, and Kabardyno-Balkaria). the Alans. This invasion led to the Alans fighting for inde-
pendence in a struggle that lasted until the fourteenth
century, when the last Alan king, Bagatar, died. At the end
Geography and Environment of the fourteenth century, the forces of the Turco-Mongol
Alania-Ossetia is located on both sides of the Greater Cau- conqueror Tamerlan (Timur) devastated Alan land. As a
casus Mountains, the major mountain range of the Cau- result of the invasion, surviving Alans fled to mountains
casus Mountains. The Greater Caucasus Mountains extend valleys of the Central Caucasus. Here, from the fifteenth to
for 750 miles between the Black Sea’s Taman Peninsula to the eighteenth centuries, the Alans reestablished the terri-
the Caspian Sea’s Absheron Peninsula and from the West- tory of Alania in the form of a confederacy of eleven coun-
ern Caucasus on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea to ties, each of which had its own parliament. Each citizen of
close to Baku, the capital of Azerbaijan, on the Caspian Sea. the county was entitled to a parcel of land and was allowed
South Ossetia is recognized by most countries as being a vote, and feudal lords were prevented from disregarding
situated within the borders of Georgia, but it is also under the lower classes.
the control of the government of the Republic of South Between 1749 and 1752, the leaders of the confeder-
Ossetia. South Ossetia occupies the southern slopes of acy agreed that Alania-Ossetia would be incorporated
the Greater Caucasus Mountains. The northern section of with Russia. Subsequently, in the first half of the nine-
Ossetia consists of the Republic of North Ossetia–Alania, teenth century, many Ossetians/Alans returned to the
which is part of the Russian Federation. lowlands that had once been the Alan homeland. Under
Most of South Ossetia lies over 3,300 feet above sea imperial Russian rule, Ossetia was divided into the Tiflis
level and is crisscrossed by rivers. This high elevation and province, the Kutaisi province, and the Terskaya oblast.
constant supply of river water has made the region home However, after the Russian Revolution, Ossetia was uni-
to hydroelectric power production. Only around one-tenth fied by public demand. After the Russian Civil War, the
of South Ossetia’s land is cultivated, with grain, fruit, and Bolsheviks divided Ossetia again. In 1924, the Ossetian
vines grown using irrigation. The region’s plentiful forests Autonomous Oblast was established before becoming,
are exploited for timber. North Ossetia is mountainous in 1936, the North Ossetian Autonomous Republic that
and one of the Russia Federation’s smallest regions. was incorporated in the Russian Soviet Republic. In 1944,
Ossetian Muslims, the Digor, were deported from the
North Caucasus, with some permitted to return in the
History and Politics 1950s. Meanwhile, the area known as the South Ossetian
The Ossetians are descended from the Scythians, a Autonomous Oblast was incorporated into the Georgian
nomadic warrior people of Iranian heritage inhabiting Soviet Republic.
what is now southern Siberia. Initially, the Scythians In 1990, the downfall of the Soviet Union emboldened
inhabited the foothills of the Caucasus Mountains before the South Ossetians, who declared South Ossetia a sover-
migrating to occupy the mountainous Central Caucasus eign nation. Georgian authorities rejected the declaration,
during the eighth century BCE. Between the third and sec- however. They abolished South Ossetia’s autonomous sta-
ond centuries BCE, the Sarmatians invaded the Scythians, tus and the deployed the Georgian National Guard in the
a large confederation of Iranian tribes originating from the region’s capital of Tskhinvali. The imposition of National
central Eurasian Steppes. In the first century CE, a com- Guard over the territory led to widespread human rights
bined Scythian-Sarmatian people called the Alans became abuses (Minority Rights Group International 2015). Fol-
established. From the fourth to the fifth centuries, the lowing the South Ossetian declaration of independence in
Alans founded many kingdoms in Gaul and North Africa. 1991, conflict between Georgia and South Ossetia inten-
During medieval times, the kingdom of Alania located in sified, leading to the displacement of thousands of peo-
the Caucasus became one of the wealthiest and most influ- ple. From 1990 to 1992, one hundred thousand Ossetians
ential states of Eastern Europe. This was partly because a from Georgia sought safety in North Ossetia in the Russian
section of the Silk Road (an ancient east–west trade route Federation, something that fueled conflict between North
network) passed through Alan land. Ossetia and Ingushetia.
854 Ossetian

Georgia’s attempts to reestablish control over Osse- practice terraced agriculture, and in lowlands, Ossetians
tian land were hindered by South Ossetia receiving sup- breed cattle and farm using plows.
port from North Ossetia and other areas of the northern St. Andrew the Apostle (5 BCE to first century CE)
Caucasus as well as covert Russian assistance. A cease-fire introduced the early Ossetians to Christianity, and the
between Georgia and Russia was reached in June 1992, people have been Eastern Orthodox since the tenth cen-
overseen by a peacekeeping force. The peace treaty also tury. Since the thirteenth century, there has also been a
entailed the establishing of a control commission and joint Muslim Ossetian minority. Some Ossetians follow Uats-
Ossetian-Georgian patrols supervised by the Organization din, a pre-Christian pagan folk religion. Uatsdin revolves
for Security and Co-Operation in Europe (OSCE) in the around the worship of a supreme Creator-God, Xwytsau,
Georgian capital of Tbilisi. Also in 1992, soldiers from the as well as various minor deities and ancestral heroes, who
Ingush Republic entered the North Ossetian district of are worshipped as intermediaries of Xwytsau.
Prigorodny that was home to both Ingush and Ossetians. Whatever their religion, Ossetians perform certain rites
In 1993, conflict over North Ossetia continued, resulting overseen by community leaders. A key feature of these
in over 30,000 Ingush refugees fleeing Prigorodny. At the rites is the presence of three cheese pies that symbolize
same time, North Ossetia sent aid to Ossetians in South the unity of the lower, middle, and upper worlds that com-
Ossetia to support their struggle against Georgia (Minor- prise the universe. Since the tenth century, the state has
ity Rights Group International 2015). In 2004, the North instituted the standardization of saint icons and calendar
Ossetians were rocked by the event commonly referred rituals.
to as the Beslan school siege, during which Chechen mil- The figure of the warrior is paramount in all aspects
itants took 1,100 people hostage, including 777 children, of Ossetian culture, especially the archetypal figure of the
over three days. The siege ended suddenly on the third Solitary Knight, a figure symbolizing the valuing of dignity
day with two explosions and intense gunfire, which killed over life.
at least 334 people, 186 of whom were children. After the
massacre, residents of Beslan together with regional oppo-
sition parties mounted continuous protests against the Health Care and Education
North Ossetian president, Aleksandr Dzasokhov. Dzasok- South Ossetian authorities have failed to establish a mod-
hov announced his resignation in May 2005. ern healthcare system despite promising to prioritize
Over time, North Ossetia gained a reputation as the health care (Jardine 2017). In 2017, an agreement was
North Caucasus territory most loyal to Russia. During the signed that encouraged South Ossetians to travel to Russia
period 2005–2006, however, North Ossetia was affected for health care. This was seen by many as a bid by Russia
by regional instability and suffered a number of attacks to limit one of the main realms of influence Georgia has
linked to insurgents, including an attempt to blow up gas over South Ossetia. The agreement, signed by the Russian
pipelines supplying Georgia and explosions outside casi- Ministry of Health and its South Ossetian counterpart,
nos. These attacks, combined with the legacy of the Beslan allows South Ossetians with Russian citizenship to use the
massacre, fueled anti-Ingush feelings in North Ossetia that same healthcare services as Russians. Before the treaty,
were deepened by government propaganda that accused many South Ossetians sought health care in Georgia, giv-
the Ingush of being responsible for the attacks, something ing Georgian authorities a means of exerting power over
most analysts agree was unlikely (Minority Rights Group South Ossetia. Another agreement allows sick South Osse-
International 2015). tians to fly to North Ossetia for treatment.
Recently, the North Ossetian authorities have realized
that the Ossetian language might become extinct within
Society, Culture, and Tradition a few generations, and so they adopted successive pro-
At the end of the nineteenth century, Ossetians began to grams (2008–2012 and 2013–2015) promoting the study
engage in the market economy, especially the construc- of the Digor dialect of Ossetian. The initiatives targeted a
tion, food production, and mineral industries. In the twen- younger generations whose parents, on the whole, did not
tieth century, these industries modernized rapidly. Today, speak the language and so were unable to pass it on to their
Ossetians work in all areas of the economy and tend to be children. Ossetian is a compulsory subject in all North
well educated. In hilly areas, many Ossetians farm cattle or Ossetian schools and kindergartens, and there is a huge
 Otomi 855

range of Digor textbooks. South Ossetia has also adopted a OTOMI

state program to safeguard the Ossetian language that, as
in North Ossetia, focuses on the intensive teaching of the Current Location Mexico
language in kindergartens. Current Population 300,000–400,000
In the North Ossetian capital, schools and kindergar- Language Otomi
tens are regularly monitored for signs of lead and zinc pol- Interesting Fact Otomi farmers use sewage water to
lution that might be caused by large-scale toxic emissions irrigate their crops.
from industrial plants.

Overview
Threats to Survival The Otomi, also sometimes called the Hna-hna, Nuhu,
In 2008, Russia recognized South Ossetian independence, or Nuhmu, among other names, are an indigenous group
but as of October 2008, the only other countries to do so are inhabiting the central Mexican Plateau. The name Otomi
Nicaragua, Venezuela, and Nauru. As an unrecognized state, derives from the name of the people’s mythical first leader,
South Ossetia cannot join in international treaties or con- Otomitl (or Oton). Traditionally, the Otomi speak at least
ventions. There have been calls for the unification of North four closely related languages (all known as Otomi) that
and South Ossetia, but these calls come mainly from South belong to the Oto-Pamean language family. Today, how-
Ossetians, though North Ossetian leaders do occasionally ever, many modern Otomi no longer speak their native lan-
speak in favor of a union with South Ossetia. Problems fac- guage but nonetheless still consider themselves to belong
ing the North Ossetians include chronic unemployment; 8.6 to the Otomi indigenous group. Officially, the Otomi are
percent were unemployed as of July 2015 (Fuller 2016). Roman Catholic, though they maintain pre-Christian
With Ossetian-Ingush political sparring almost settled, spiritual rituals and beliefs, including the veneration of
many Ossetians have returned to their previous homes. ancestors. The Otomi flag is a horizontal tricolor featuring
In 2009, UNESCO classified Ossetian as a vulnerable lan- stripes of pale blue, orange, and pale green in the center of
guage. However, while the use of Ossetian was severely which is a white and pale blue circle containing an orange
curtailed under Soviet rule, it has revived to become an Otomi sun emblem.
official language of North and South Ossetia.
See also: Abkhaz; Chechen; Ingush Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Further Reading According to 2015 figures, there are between three hun-
Bzarov, Ruslan. 2011. “Ossetians.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe: dred thousand and four hundred thousand Otomi people
An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 279–281. Santa
living in Mexico (Minahan 2016). The Otomi are divided
Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Fuller, Liz. 2015. “One Nation, Two Polities, Two Endangered into numerous regional groups, the two largest groups
Ossetian Languages?” Radio Free Europe, Radio Free Liberty: being the Highland Otomi that live in the Sierra Otomi and
Caucasus Report, May 28. https://www.rferl.org/a/caucasus​ the Mezquital Otomi that inhabit the Mezquital Valley.
-report-ossetian-language-endangered-russia/27039247​
.html.
Fuller, Liz. 2016. “Moscow Moves to Alleviate Major Ecological Geography and Environment
Problem in North Ossetia.” Radio Free Europe, Radio Free
Liberty: Caucasus Report, May 2. https://www.rferl.org​/a​ The Otomi homeland, Tepehua, is located on mountain-
/​caucas​us-report-environment-north-ossetia/27711488​.html. ous land on the eastern side of the Mexican Plateau (also
Jardine, Bradley. 2017. “Russia Aims to Lure South Ossetian, known as the altiplano). The homeland encompasses the
Abkhazian Patients away from Georgia.” Eurasianet, Decem- La Huasteca and Mezquital regions of the Mexican states
ber 21. https://eurasianet.org/s/russia-aims-to-lure-south​ of Hidalgo and Querétaro. The Otomi homeland is semi-
-ossetian-abkhazian-patients-away-from-georgia.
arid, with only around twenty to forty inches of precipi-
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Russian Federa-
tion: Ossetians.” World Directory of Minorities and Indige- tation per year (Hunter 2015). Indeed, such is the dryness
nous Peoples, June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities​ of the Otomi homeland that it deterred many colonial-
/ossetians-2. ists from venturing there. Sizable Otomi communities
can be found in the Mexican states of Veracruz, Puebla,
856 Otomi

Michoacan, Tlaxcala, and Guanajuato. Because an average culture, and the Otomi became subjects of the Toltecs.
Otomi family’s land is unable to provide enough food or Successive waves of Nahua invasion occurred, and around
income to exist on, many Otomi migrate to the Mexican 1200, an invasion by the Nahua Chichimecas people
capital of Mexico City and to Florida in the United States, invaded Otomi land and destroyed the Otomi capital of
where they find employment as cleaners, domestic serv- Tula. The fall of Tula prompted the Otomi to move, and
ants, and manual laborers (Hunter 2015). in 1220, they established the city-state of Xaltocan to the
Otomi land is not well regarded by many Mexicans, and north of the Valley of Mexico. In 1395, the forces of another
today a complex canal network diverts sewage water from Nahua people, the Tepanecs, conquered this city-state and
Mexico City to ninety thousand hectares of Otomi land, caused the Otomi to flee northward and eastward to the
where the water is used to irrigate fields (Blackwell 2017). semiarid highlands. Meanwhile, another Nahua people,
In short, most of whatever is flushed down the lavatories of the Aztecs, conquered Central Mexico and forced the
Mexico City resurfaces in the waterways of the Mezquital Otomi to pay tribute to them. On the whole, however, the
Valley. The Otomi consider this untreated sewage waste Aztecs did not bother the Otomi greatly because the Otomi
as rich, fertilizing irrigation water, and in 2017, Otomi lived on land that was inhospitable, dry, and infertile and
farmers protested against the Mexican government’s plan therefore of little use to the Aztecs.
to open a new water treatment plant in Hidalgo state. At the start of the sixteenth century, the Spanish gained
The sewage water was not welcomed when it first began control of the area, having moved inland from Veracruz,
to arrive in semiarid Otomi areas. Over time, however, where their ships had landed. Some Otomi groups united
the waste, known by the Otomi as aguas negras (“black with the Spanish, with the aim of gaining release from
waters”), transformed Otomi lands into some of Mexico’s Aztec rule. However, the Otomi living in mountain valleys
most productive regions. soon fell ill with European diseases, resulting in the popu-
According to some Otomi farmers, Otomi corn fields lations of these Otomi settlements reducing by 90 percent
yield an average of fifteen tons of corn per hectare, and (Hunter 2015). In contrast, the Otomi living in highland
some produce as much as eighteen tons. The farmers areas managed to escape the diseases.
believe this high yield is due to the fertilizing properties During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the
of the sewage water and that once they switch to treated Otomi acted as negotiators between the Spanish and
water, the yields will reduce by almost half According to other indigenous groups, thereby winning the favor of
farmers opposed to irrigating with clean water, Otomi the Spanish. Indeed, during the Spanish colonial era, the
farmers will have to start using fertilizers and agrochemi- colonialists generally left the Otomi alone. This changed
cals to make up for the loss of the sewage. This move will, in the 1700s, however, when silver was discovered on
they suggest, increase their costs and bring their own envi- their land, a discovery that caused increasing numbers
ronmental risks. Some Otomi farmers fear that once the of outsiders, including colonists and nomadic Chichime-
clean water arrives, without help from the Mexican gov- cas, to move to Otomi areas. Eventually, the colonial-
ernment, the area’s agriculture will become unsustainable, ists fought the Chichimecas in a conflict that saw the
causing mass migration to other parts of Mexico or to the annihilation of the Chichimecas. Many Otomi fled the
United States (Blackwell 2017). fighting by migrating to even higher land. Those Otomi
that did not escape ended up working in mines for the
Spanish.
History and Politics By the 1800s, most Otomi were forced to work for
Very little is known about the origins of the Otomi. the Spanish under the labor-tribute system known as
Around 650 CE, the early Otomi inhabited both the Toluca encomienda. This situation changed in 1821 when Mex-
and Tula valleys, thereby becoming the areas’ first perma- ico gained independence from Spain. Mexican authorities
nent inhabitants. In the valleys, the Otomi lived as sed- took Otomi lands and redistributed it among absentee
entary farmers. Early Otomi civilization was sophisticated landlords and as land grants known as ranchos. By the
and soon spread throughout the region, with the Otomi start of the nineteenth century, the Otomi were tied to
living in peace with other indigenous peoples, including the large estates or deeply in debt to absentee landlords.
the Olmecs. Circa 800 CE, early Nahuas (Toltecs) invaded Unhappy at their lot, the Otomi began to organize them-
Otomi land from the north, greatly influencing Otomi selves and demand the return of their lands. In the 1930s,
 Otomi 857

in an effort to placate the Otomi, the Mexican authorities

gave the people some land, but this was generally infer-
tile and dry and therefore unsuitable for farming. In 1975,
irrigation schemes were introduced to the Otomi land,
and so the Otomi could produce cash crops, thereby pro-
viding the Otomi with a modest income from their crops.
Despite their new level of prosperity, the Otomi still sought
the return of their traditional lands. To this end, in the
1980s, several Otomi rights groups united to fight for the
return of their territory. Since 2012, the Otomi have called
for the creation of Tepehua to become an independent
Otomi state.

Society, Culture, and Tradition

Although the Otomi are divided into numerous groupings,
the society and culture of all the groups is very similar.
Otomi society is based on kinship and families as well as
on the concept of compadrazgo, which is the mutually ben-
eficial relationship between godparents, godchildren, and
their parents that is prevalent in Spanish-speaking Latin
America.
The Sierra Otomi in particular rely on subsistence Otomi pole flyers in Ixtapa, Mexico. Pole flying is an ancient
farming and animal husbandry. The Otomi’s subsistence Mesoamerican ritual believed to have originated with the Otomi,
lifestyle is based on farming staple crops such as sweet Nahua, and Huastec peoples and is performed today in a mod-
corn, beans, squash, and prickly pear as well as raising ified form in areas of Mexico and Guatemala. (Matthew Ragen/
Dreamstime.com)
sheep, goats, poultry, and hogs. The Otomi clear farm-
land through the slash-and-burn technique and plant new
crops using a combined hoe and digging tool called a coa. teachings or practice certain Christian rituals, they will
The semiarid land is then watered by irrigation schemes. anger both Christian saints and their dead ancestors,
Some more modernized Otomi also plant cash crops, bringing bad luck to their community. Also, in line with
including wheat and barley, which they cultivate using their pre-Christian beliefs, the Otomi consider folk med-
plows and oxen. The Otomi have also grown maguey (an icine as central to their culture, as they believe that it can
agave, also called the Mexican century plant) for several cure illnesses and help mourners deal with the deaths of
thousand years for its fiber, which they wove into clothes loved ones.
and fishing nets and used as a food, as a natural sweet- Traditional Otomi crafts include spinning, weaving,
ener, and to make alcoholic drinks such as pulque, a mildly pottery, carpentry, basketry, and rope making. Otomi
intoxicating but nutritious beverage. villages and market towns often include displays of these
Otomi settlements vary from concentrated villages handicrafts, as these are increasingly popular with tourists
surrounded by farmlands to scattered settlements where and art collectors. Although the Otomi are historically one
individual families live on their own land and only mix of the poorest Central Mexican peoples, the income gained
together at public buildings. from selling their crafts has helped the Otomi achieve a
Most Otomi are Roman Catholic, and they celebrate the level of modest wealth. Typical Otomi dress varies from
main Christian religious rituals and ceremonies. Nonethe- the very traditional to Western contemporary. In conserv-
less, the Otomi are superstitious and believe in the ability ative areas, women wear a long skirt with an embroidered
of good and bad spirits to shape everyday life. The Otomi cotton blouse and a cloak known as a quechquemitl, and
blend together Christianity and indigenous spiritual men wear a white cotton shirt with pants, serape, sandals,
beliefs, for they think that if they fail to follow Christian and a hat.
858 Otomi

Health Care and Education the opinion among some Otomi parents that if they teach
In 2017, the Mexican government proposed the opening their children Otomi, their children will do perform poorly
of a new water treatment facility in Hidalgo state, which at school. Otomi who speak only Spanish are perceived as
would deny the Otomi sewage water with which they irri- being better educated than those who speak some, or only,
gate their crops. Officials believed that the cleaner irri- Otomi (Terborg et al. 2006).
gation water would mean the Otomi would suffer fewer
diseases. Under the Otomi traditional practice of using
Threats to Survival
sewage water in irrigation, bacteria can contaminate
low-lying crops. This bacteria then enters the digestive Since the Mexican Revolution (roughly 1920–1930) and
tracts of people who eat the crops if they fail to clean the most especially during the second half of the twentieth
crops thoroughly before eating or do not cook the crops. century, the Otomi have experienced great economic
The World Health Organization (WHO) states that the and sociocultural change. Many Otomi have migrated to
risks to consumers of the using sewage water to irrigate urban areas such as Mexico City or to parts of the United
crops include increased infection rates of cholera, typhoid, States in search of work. Once living outside of Otomi set-
diarrhea, and roundworms. tlements, the Otomi migrants risk becoming assimilated
Most Otomi crops are of low risk to humans. For instance, into the society and culture of their new home areas. This
alfalfa is fed to animals, and corn grows several feet above may endanger the Otomi language, as Otomi migrants opt
the irrigation water and is contained in protective husks. to speak Spanish or English to fit into their new society.
However, the Otomi also cultivate crops that grow low to The language may also suffer from parents associating the
the ground, such as cauliflower, broccoli, and cilantro, all of speaking of it with poor education and, therefore, discour-
which are sold at the Central de Abastos wholesale market aging their children from speaking the language.
in Mexico City and via the city’s street stalls and taco stands. On the plus side, however, the newfound appreciation
Farmers who irrigate with sewage water also face health of Otomi crafts provides the people with extra income.
risks, including infection by roundworms and other para- Whether the income from crafts is enough to make up for
sites, and farmers’ children are at increased risk of diar- the loss of Otomi income from their crops once their fields
rheal disease and salmonella. Most Otomi farmers ignore stop receiving fertilizing sewage wastewater is unknown.
the health risks of using sewage water to irrigate their On the other hand, the fact that the fields will receive
crops, claiming that generations of Otomi families have safe water rather than water carrying raw sewage should
used the wastewater without suffering ill effects. Indeed, it reduce the incidence of disease among the Otomi.
is reported that Otomi farmers often wash their hands in See also: Apache; Kickapoo; Mayan; Zoque
brown sewage irrigation water before eating their lunch in Further Reading
the fields (Blackwell 2017). Blackwell, Rebecca. 2017. “In Mexico, Fears a New Plant Will
The Otomi are typically very poorly educated, with Kill Wastewater Farming.” U.S. News, April 24. https://www​
some researchers reporting that only 25 percent of Otomi .usnews.com/news/world/articles/2017-04-24/in-mexico​
people either did not complete high school or had no for- -fears-a-new-plant-will-kill-wastewater-farming.
Hunter, Richard. 2015. “Otomi.” In Native Peoples of the World:
mal education at all. Of this group, most are women (Ter-
An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary
borg et al. 2006). The reasons for the Otomi’s traditional Issues, edited by Steven Danver, 151–152. Vols. 1–3. London:
lack of education include poor educational infrastructure Routledge.
in Otomi areas; poor quality teaching, when teaching is Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An
available; and a shortage of schools. This situation is, how- Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
ever, improving among the younger generation. Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa
Another educational issue affecting the Otomi is the
Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
perception that speaking Otomi correlates to being uned- Terborg, Roland, Laura Garcia Landa, and Pauline Moore. 2006.
ucated. Most people who speak only Otomi are older and “The Language Situation in Mexico.” Current Issues in Lan-
have received little if any formal education. This has created guage Planning 7, no. 4 (November): 415–518.
 P

PALESTINIAN Strip. Around 435,000 Palestinians live in East Jerusalem.

The global Palestinian population is estimated at 12.7 mil-
Current Location Middle East lion, with over 1.5 million Palestinians living in Israel, 6
Current Population 12.7 million million in other Arab nations (mainly as refugees), and
Language Arabic; Hebrew; English; French 700,000 elsewhere (Minority Rights Group International
Interesting Fact Thousands of Palestinians living in 2018).
East Jerusalem are physically separ- According to Minority Rights Group International,
ated from the city center by a barrier before the outbreak of the Syrian Civil War, over 526,000
that they must cross to access the Palestinians lived in Syria, many of whom were refugees
health care and education to which driven from their land following the establishment of
they are entitled. Israel in 1948. Since 2011, over 120,000 Palestinian refu-
gees have fled Syria with another 280,000 internally dis-
placed. According to the United Nations Relief and Works
Overview
Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near East (UNRWA),
Palestinians (called the Falastin in Arabic and sometimes in 2017, 450,000 Palestinian refugees remained in Syria.
called the Palestinian Arabs) are an Arab people living in Approximately three million Palestinians live in Jordan,
the Middle East. Palestinians speak a dialect of Arabic. almost all of whom reside in the northwest of the country
Many Palestinians also speak Hebrew, and educated Pales- around Amman, Zarqa and Irbid. Between 250,000 and
tinians speak English and French too. Almost all Palestini- 300,000 Palestinians live in Lebanon, many of whom are
ans are Muslim, though there is a very small and declining refugees and their descendants who were expelled from
number of Palestinian Christians as well as Palestinian Palestine after the creation of Israel. Palestinians in Leba-
Druze. non live mainly in Beirut or on the outskirts of Sidon, Tyre,
and Tripoli.

Population, Diaspora, and Migration

The Palestinian population of the Middle East’s West Bank Geography and Environment
and Gaza Strip is 4.8 million, with 2.9 million Palestinians Palestine is an area of the eastern Mediterranean region
inhabiting the West Bank and 1.9 million living in the Gaza encompassing parts of modern Israel and the Palestinian

859
860 Palestinian

territories of the Gaza Strip (located along the coast of the the natural environment and, most especially, their use of
Mediterranean Sea) and the West Bank (an area west of the water. According to B’Tselem, an Israeli nongovernmental
Jordan River). Palestinians claim the disputed city of East organization (NGO), restrictions imposed on Palestinians
Jerusalem as their capital (the city is occupied by Israel by Israel mean that the Palestinians consume only seventy-
but widely considered to be part of Palestinian territories). three liters per day on average (and as little as twenty lit-
The Palestinians’ historic homeland of Palestine includes ers per day in some areas of Palestine). This figure is far
modern-day Jordan and Israel as well as the current Pales- below the one hundred liters recommended by the World
tinian territories. Health Organization (WHO) as the minimum quantity
The name Palestine has long been used as a way to for basic consumption. The contrast between Palestinian
denote a traditional region that does not have precise water consumption and water use by Israeli settlers is at its
boundaries. The perception of Palestine’s eastern bound- most extreme in the Jordan Valley. According to a recent
ary is especially fluid, though the boundary is often study, the Israeli government provides settler farms in the
regarded as lying east of the Jordan River, possibly to the Jordan Valley with large quantities of water, and 37 percent
rim of the Arabian Desert. Today, however, Palestine is of Palestinian farmers report they have insufficient water
generally defined as a region bordered to the east by the available to them. Israeli water companies also charge
Jordan River, to the north by the boundary between Israel Palestinians eleven times more for water than they do
and Lebanon, to the west by the Mediterranean Sea, and to inhabitants of neighboring Israeli settlements (Abu Safieh
the south by the Negev. The southernmost part of Palestine 2012). The UN’s Office for the Coordination for Human-
is considered to reach the Gulf of Aqaba. itarian Affairs (OCHA) has revealed that Israeli settlers
Palestine contains coastal lowlands that border the have appropriated dozens of springs as well as the largest
Mediterranean Sea. The most northerly is the Plain of source of irrigation water and many sources of water for
ʿAkko (or Acre) that stretches from the Lebanese border Palestinian livestock, with the water instead being used to
in the north to Israel’s Carmel promontory in the south. fill swimming pools.
Farther south, the lowlands broaden out into the Plain of Israeli pollution also affects Palestinian water sources,
Sharon. Once covered with marshes, the Plain of Sharon for untreated Israeli wastewater runs onto Palestinian
is now a settled area home to fields and orchards. Farther farmland, meaning Palestinian farmers are unable to use it
north is the Plain of Esdraelon (ʿEmeq Yizreʿel), which is to grow crops. Additionally, several polluting factories have
formed along fault lines. The plain separates the hills of also been relocated from Israel to the West Bank because
southern Galilee from the mountains of Samaria. they produce carcinogenic chemical emissions. Similarly,
The hilly countryside around Galilee is thickly wooded Israeli industries have dumped hundreds of thousands of
but sparsely populated. To the south, Lower Galilee con- tons of hazardous waste in the West Bank. There are also
sists of ridges enclosing sheltered vales, such as Nazareth. reports that around 80 percent of the solid waste generated
Samaria, the region housing the ancient kingdom of Israel, by the Israeli settlers is dumped in the West Bank (Abu
contains fairly low and wide mountains, on top of which Jeru- Safieh 2012).
salem is located. The high plateau of Judaea, extending from The environmental situation in Gaza is even worse than
Ramallah in the north to Beersheba in the south, is a rocky in the West Bank. Israeli consumption from wells around
wilderness. The plateau descends sharply into the Jordan Gaza together with overpumping within Gaza has caused
Valley, which contains lakes and natural dams. Descending seawater to enter the coastal aquifer on which residents
to about 1,310 feet below sea level (the lowest land depth on of Gaza rely for water. In 2015, Israel agreed to double
the earth’s surface), the Jordan Valley is exceedingly hot and the sale of potable water to Gaza from five to ten million
dry, so farming is limited to irrigated areas and oases, such cubic meters. However, Gaza needs five times more than
as those found on the shores of the Dead Sea. The Negev is a this to fulfill its basic domestic needs (Rothschild 2016).
desertlike area stretching from Beersheba in the north to the Additionally, Israel has prevented waste management
port city of Elat on the Red Sea. The Negev is bordered by the infrastructure from being established in Gaza, meaning
Sinai Peninsula to the west and the northern part of Africa’s that only 5 percent of water available in Gaza is suitable for
Great Rift Valley to the east. drinking (Abu Safieh 2012).
Despite the political divide between Palestine and Israel, Plans have been drawn up to build a large desalination
the two nations are inextricably bound together in terms of plant in Gaza. The planned Nachal Oz freshwater pipeline,
 Palestinian 861

linking Israel with Gaza, will also carry additional water to These factors contributed to the Palestinians’ lowest
Palestinians. A new sewage treatment plant is also planned ever population of 350,000, which was recorded in 1785
that will treat a third of Gaza’s sewage. At present, however, (Minahan 2002). In 1831, Egypt took control of Palestine
95 percent of Gaza’s groundwater is either too saline or too under ostensible Turkish rule. Egyptian authority allowed
polluted to drink, and ninety million liters of Palestinian European influences to enter Palestine, for Egypt had ties
sewage is either poorly treated or untreated. This lack of to both France and Britain. In 1882, Russian Jews fleeing
sanitation is not only detrimental to the environment but anti-Jewish attacks in Russia joined with the small Jewish
puts residents of Gaza at risk of pandemic disease (Roth- community living in Palestine. The united Jews became
schild 2016). the vanguard of the Zionist movement that aimed to see
the Jewish diaspora return to the ancient Jewish heartland
in Palestine.
History and Politics Toward the end of the 1800s, Arab nationalism arose
Many Palestinians claim ancestry from the Philistines, a in Palestine. The movement began as anti-Turkish pro-
maritime people from the Aegean Sea who arrived in the tests demanding a separate Arab state within the Ottoman
Palestinian homeland during the twelfth century BCE, set- Empire as well as an end to increasing political Zionism.
tling chiefly on the coastal plain stretching from Gaza to A second wave of immigration by European Jews started
Mount Carmel. The Assyrians called the Palestinian land in 1904. These immigrants were more politically inclined
Palastu, which was transmuted into Greek as Palaistine than previous immigrants, for they tended to be socialists
and into Latin as Palaestina. Arabs called the region Filas- bent on the rebirth of the Jewish nation. To this end, the
tin. The Philistines living in Gaza and in coast areas were immigrants founded groups called kibbutzim that, while
in almost continual conflict with Israelites that had been not intended as exclusively Jewish, nonetheless gave rise
led out of slavery in Egypt to occupy lands in Canaan (an to a distinct Jewish society within Palestine.
area encompassing parts of modern Lebanon, Syria, Jor- Just before the start of World War I, in 1914, Zionist
dan, and Israel). leaders appealed to the British for support for their cause.
The Philistines were controlled by the Assyrians, Initially, the British gave vague promises of support to the
Chaldeans, and Persians before the Palestinian region Zionists, but needing to have Arab backing during the war,
came under Roman rule from 63 BCE. Jews living in the the British mooted the idea of creating an independent
area refused to accept Roman culture and deities and Arab state comprising parts of the Ottoman Empire fol-
unsuccessfully rebelled against Roman rule in 70 CE and lowing the empire’s defeat in the war. The British, together
135 CE. The Romans expelled the defeated Jews, leaving with France, also negotiated the Sykes-Picot Agreement
very few Jews living there by the end of the second cen- that saw the allies agree to divide the Middle East once
tury. Following the Jews’ expulsion, the Romans renamed the Ottomans had lost. However, in 1917, Britain, under
the region Palestine, after the Philistines. By the start of pressure from powerful members of the Jewish diaspora
the fourth century, most of Palestine’s inhabitants had con- as well as other allies, issued the Balfour Declaration,
verted to Christianity. which promised Jews a homeland in Palestine on the con-
During the period 636 to 640, Muslim Arabs invaded dition that the Jews would not impinge on the civil and
Palestine, which was by now poverty-stricken and unde- religious freedoms of the area’s non-Jews. The declaration
veloped. The invasion resulted in most Palestinians adopt- was vaguely worded, for it promised Jews a national home
ing Islam as their religion. Although the Muslims initially rather than a state and did not designate boundaries of the
tolerated Christians and Jews, over time, non-Muslims national home.
were suppressed. The persecution of Christians, especially Post–World War I, the British and French divided for-
the destruction of churches, was one of the reasons for the mer Ottoman land into League of Nations mandates. The
Crusades (a series of religious wars between Christians Palestine Mandate included modern-day Israel, Jordan,
and Muslims) from 996 to 1021. In 1099, Christian Cru- Gaza, and the West Bank. Then, in 1921, the British divided
saders captured Jerusalem. However, Muslims regained Palestine into the Kingdom of Trans-Jordan, a move partly
Palestine in 1187. intended to appease Arabs, who felt disappointed that
In 1516, the Ottoman Turks conquered Palestine. Under an independent Arab state had failed to materialize after
the Ottomans, Palestine was neglected and marginalized. the war. The creation of Trans-Jordan increased tension
862 Palestinian

between the Arabs and Jews within Palestine, both of now left without anyone influential to fight their cause.
whom had been promised land in Palestine. This proved to be one of the main causes of the collapse
In reaction to Arab pressure, the British placed restric- of Arab society in Palestine. Later, as fighting continued in
tions on further Jewish immigration to Palestine. How- the region, many more Palestinians fled under the belief
ever, this move did not end the tension, for anti-Jewish that they would be able to return to their homes once the
riots erupted in 1929 and 1936 in response to illegal immi- Jews had been driven out.
gration by European Jews desperate to leave the continent By the end of the conflict, up to eight hundred thou-
after the Nazis came to power in Germany. The Jews in Pal- sand Arab refugees were left in land now in Israeli con-
estine sensed the British were sympathetic to their plight trol (Minahan 2002). A UN-brokered cease-fire resulted
and began to work with the British. In contrast, the Arabs in Israel controlling 30 percent more Palestinian land;
saw the British as enabling Jews to take over Arab land. Egypt took control of the Gaza Strip, and Jordan took over
In 1937, a British commission recommended Palestine’s the West Bank. Meanwhile, Palestinians lingering in ref-
partition into Arab, Jewish, and British sectors. The Jews ugee camps became increasingly nationalist. Palestinian
consented to this reluctantly, and the Arabs rejected the nationalism deepened when Israel refused to allow Pal-
idea. The Arabs’ unwillingness to cooperate led the British estinian refugees to return home unless they agreed to a
to fear the Arabs would side with Fascist forces in the war comprehensive peace settlement.
that was looming in Europe. Ultimately, however, many The Palestinians that had refused to flee during the
Arabs supported the British during World War II, as did fighting resisted Jewish rule through a policy of sumud
the Jews. (“steadfastness”). This policy saw the steadfast Palestin-
The events of the Holocaust gave rise to a wave of sym- ians obey Israeli law so that the Israelis would have no
pathy for the Jews. However, the British, who were keen to cause to deport them, knowing that their presence within
limit Jewish immigration to Palestine to keep the Arabs Israel disrupted the Jewish plan for a homogenous Jewish
on their side, tried to prevent some Jewish Holocaust sur- state. However, many Palestinians living outside Palestine
vivors from reaching Palestine. These attempts deepened hated the sumud Palestinians for allowing themselves to
international sympathy for the Jews and strengthened live under Israeli rule. Members of the Palestinian dias-
the feeling that a Jewish state within Palestine should be pora also resented that the sumud Palestinians became
created. Unable to find a solution that would satisfy both prosperous by living in Israel, where they received some
Jews and Arabs, in 1947, the British turned to the United benefits. The Israelis placed Palestinians in Israel under
Nations for help in resolving the Palestinian issue. The military rule that was not lifted until 1963.
United Nations responded by suggesting separate Arab Individual Arab countries backed the Palestinian cause
and Jewish states be created, with Jerusalem kept under in the belief that doing so might lead to a pan-Arab nation-
UN control. The Jews agreed to the plan, but Palestinian alist movement. However, only Jordan allowed Palestinian
Arabs, with the backing of nearby Arab states, vetoed refugees to become citizens. Consequently, thousands of
the plan. Instead, Arabs suggested the whole of Palestine Palestinians were left lingering in squalid refugee camps.
come under Arab control with guaranteed rights for Jew- In 1963, the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO)
ish residents. formed in Egypt as an umbrella group to oversee Pales-
Nonetheless, in 1948, the Jews announced the creation tinian nationalist groups. These groups included Fatah,
of the State of Israel with the backing of the United Nations, headed by Yasser Arafat, which launched attacks on Israel
which went hand in hand with the expulsion of many in an attempt to provoke Israel into a war that would see
Arabs from Palestine. This move prompted an immediate Israel defeated by Arab fighters and thereby end the Jewish
invasion by Arab states. The invasion was unsuccessful, state. Over time, numerous conflicts of various size broke
for the Jews outfought the Arabs and caused thousands of out between the Israelis and Arabs. One of these, the Six-
Palestinians Arabs to flee their homes. The defeat, called Day War (1967), saw Israel cripple the Egyptian, Syrian,
Il Nakhhah (“the Catastrophe”) by Palestinians, originated and Jordanian armies, with the result that Israel captured
the Palestinian diaspora. The early diaspora included the Gaza Strip and Sinai Peninsula from Egypt, the West
many elite Palestinians, including political, religious, and Bank from Jordan, and the Golan Heights from Syria.
judicial figures. Consequently, the Palestinians remaining Despite international pressure to do so, Israel refused to
in Palestine were mostly villagers and peasants who were return the land until Arabs, including the Palestinians,
 Palestinian 863

recognized Israel’s right to existence. The issue of the Pal- of the 9/11 atrocities led to calls from Israel for Palestini-
estinian territories occupied by Israel since 1967, including ans to denounce terrorist acts perpetrated by the Palestin-
the West Bank, Gaza Strip, and East Jerusalem, remains at ian militant Islamic nationalist movement, Hamas.
the heart of today’s Palestinian-Israeli tensions. As of 2013, the Palestinian government officially uses
Eventually, Fatah took control of the PLO with Yasser the name the State of Palestine rather than Palestinian
Arafat as the leader. Throughout the 1970s and 1980s, Authority. Palestine is recognized by many national gov-
groups allied to the PLO perpetrated acts of terrorism, ernments, even though Palestine remains under Israeli
including attacks on Jewish civilians, aircraft hijacks, and control. Many Palestinians continue to call for the creation
the massacre of Israeli athletes at the 1976 Munich Olym- of a Palestinian state, Dawlat Filastı̄n (State of Palestine).
pic Games. The relationship between the Palestinians and
Arab authorities varied over time. For example, in Jordan,
Palestinian refugee camps were run as enclaves, often in Society, Culture, and Tradition
defiance of Jordanian authorities. Also, when the Pales- Palestinians speak an Arabic dialect based on a
tinian Marxist-Leninist group the Popular Front for the nineteenth-century Palestinian peasant dialect. The dia-
Liberation of Palestine called for the end of the Kingdom lect contains many borrowings from the Turkic language
of Jordan while also hijacking four Western aircraft, the as well as English. This dialect is the basis of the Palestin-
Jordanian king Hussein sent in troops, resulting in bat- ian literary language and the official language of educa-
tles between the Jordanian army and Palestinian guerril- tion and administration in autonomous Palestine. Many
las. The fighting became known as the Black September Palestinians speak Hebrew, English, or French as second
conflict. languages.
In 1973, the so-called Yom Kippur War broke out when The vast majority of Palestinians are Sunni Muslims.
Egypt and Syria launched a surprise attack on Israel dur- There is a sizeable, but declining, minority of Pales-
ing the Day of Atonement, the holiest day in the Jewish cal- tinian Christians, many of whom owe their religion to
endar. Israel, supported by the United States, beat back the nineteenth-century missionary activity. Palestinian Chris-
Arab forces before the United States managed to impose a tians tend to be Roman Catholic or Protestant. There are
cease-fire. In 1987, frustrated Palestinians began the inti- also some Palestinian Druze. Since 1990s, radical Islam
fada, a Palestinian revolt against Israeli military rule and had gained support among some Palestinians. This growth
increasing numbers of Jewish settlers on Palestinian land. in radical Islam is due in large part to resentment felt by
The following year, however, the Palestinian leadership Palestinians at their lack of progress after years of negoti-
disowned violence and their desire to see Israel’s collapse. ation with Israel.
Also in 1988, the Palestinian National Council announced
the founding of the independent State of Palestine. In 1993,
the Gaza Strip and part of the West Bank became auton- Health Care and Education
omous. However, both Palestine and Israel continued to Palestinians living in the West Bank area have limited
dispute control of Jerusalem, which both parties claimed access to specialized hospitals in East Jerusalem. These
as their own. In 1994, the Palestinian National Authority health services are fragmented, as they are provided by
(an interim self-ruling body overseeing the Gaza Strip and numerous providers. The health system is physically sep-
parts of the West Bank) was created, and Israeli troops left arated from the rest of occupied Palestinian land and is
the Palestinian Autonomous Area (the autonomous areas severely impacted by a blockade that has been in place
of the West Bank and Gaza Strip). since 2006. Health facilities in Gaza experience power cuts
In 2000, Yasser Arafat postponed the announcement of that affect medical equipment. Healthcare providers are
an independent Palestinian state, having been persuaded also unable to carry out maintenance or acquire spare parts
by international governments to continue discussions over for equipment. Medical centers experience frequent short-
the future of Jerusalem. All the while, violent acts contin- ages of medicines. The deterioration of health care in Gaza
ued between Israel and Palestinians. When the 9/11 terror- means many Palestinian patients are referred for special-
ist attacks occurred, Yasser Arafat condemned those who ized care outside the Gaza Strip. However, the movement
claimed the attacks were in the name of the Palestinian of people in and out of Gaza is heavily restricted. In 2010,
cause, including Osama bin Laden. Arafat’s condemnation Israel denied around one in five applications for patients
864 Palestinian

to leave Gaza for hospital treatment in East Jerusalem, the from the Jewish population, with most Palestinians liv-
West Bank, Israel, and Jordan (WHO 2011). Despite these ing in Palestinian-majority towns. These settlements are
issues, the public health system of the West Bank and Gaza among the poorest and most marginalized parts of the
are fairly well developed and able to provide a range of country. Palestinians in Israel also face discriminatory
healthcare services. The main challenges are providing planning policies, resulting in housing inequality, and
mental health care, maternal and neonatal health care, and Israelis build illegal settlements in the West Bank.
funding for HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis care. Palestinians in Israel also have to contend with incite-
Palestinians’ access to education is severely compro- ment to violence on social media as well as abusive graffiti
mised. In the West Bank, Palestinians’ education is ham- and attacks on their property. Palestinians face harass-
pered by the detainment of children, military operations, ment and assault by Israeli nationalists, and there is a
incidence of civil unrest, a lack of infrastructure caused by general air of hostility that is aggravated by provocative
building restrictions, and restrictions on people’s move- anti-Palestinian statements from public figures.
ment, including checkpoints. In the Gaza Strip, armed con- Israel continues to implement legislation that curtails
flict has resulted in the destruction of educational facilities the rights of Palestinians in Israel. Palestinian Israelis are
and the disruption to lessons. subject to discrimination in housing, welfare, education,
and criminal justice. In 2015, the Israeli Parliament passed
a new antiterror law that broadened the definition of ter-
Threats to Survival rorist organization membership to include passive mem-
Life in the occupied Palestinian territory is characterized bership. Some commentators feel this move was intended
by political stalemate, violence, restrictions on people’s to criminalize Palestinian political, humanitarian, and
movement, and continual human rights violations. Many cultural activities. In 2018, the Israeli Parliament debated
Palestinians live in poverty, with 76 percent of Palestinians the “nation-state bill.” Critics view the act as paving
in East Jerusalem and 83 percent of Palestinian children the way for legal segregation, as it encourages exclusively
there living below the poverty line as defined by Israel Jewish communities, stressing that Jews have an exclusive
(OCHA 2017). Many Palestinians in Israel live segregated right to national self-determination within Israel. The bill

Ahed Tamimi
Ahed Tamimi (b. 2001) is a Palestinian activist from the West Bank village of Nabi Salih. She is best known for con-
fronting Israeli soldiers in videos that go viral on social media. Tamimi’s supporters view her as an advocate of Pal-
estinian independence and as a symbol of resistance against Israel’s occupation of the West Bank. In December 2017,
Tamimi was detained by Israeli authorities for slapping a soldier in a video that went viral, sparking international
interest in the situation facing Palestinians in the West Bank. Following the video, Tamimi was sentenced to eight
months in prison after agreeing to a plea bargain. She left prison in July 2018.
Tamimi’s family is also involved in protests against the expansion of Israeli settlements and detention of Palestini-
ans. At age eleven, Tamimi was commended on her bravery by the Palestinian president Mahmoud Abbas for trying to
intervene during her mother’s arrest, and at age twelve, she became famous for confronting an Israeli soldier who had
arrested her older brother. Tamimi argues that documented, organized protests against the Israeli occupation raise
the profile of the Palestinian struggle for autonomy. As part of this drive to highlight the plight of the Palestinians,
Tamimi has become the most recognizable Palestinian activist, partly on account of her appearance, which is not typ-
ically Palestinian. Tamimi is also credited with stimulating Palestinian activists in the West Bank and for highlighting
Israel’s treatment of Palestinian minors.
Tamimi’s detractors consider her actions staged performances, and both Tamimi and her family have been
denounced in Israel as being sympathetic to terrorists. In 2016, Tamimi was denied a U.S. visa for a speaking tour
titled No Child behind Bars/Living Resistance.
Tamimi can be followed on Facebook at @ahedtamimi.palestine.
 Pangasinan 865

also strips Arabic of its status as an official language of Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations.
Israel. Vol. 3, L–R. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
In Syria, Palestinians have suffered immensely during Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Israel: Palestini-
ans.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples,
the ongoing civil war. According to some Syrian Palestin- June 19. https://minorityrights.org/minorities/palestinians.
ian groups, between 2011 and 2016, several thousand Pal- Minority Rights Group International. 2018. “Palestine.” World
estinians were killed in the Syrian war, and others were Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples. https://​
tortured to death in prisons. According to UNRWA, more minorityrights.org/country/palestine.
than 120,000 Palestinian refugees fled Syria in 2017, and Rothschild, Kate. 2016. “How the Environment Can Bridge the
280,000 were internally displaced. An estimated 43,000 Israeli-Palestinian Impasse.” Haaretz, October 16. https://​
www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-how-environment​
remain trapped in inaccessible areas of Syria. In addition -can-bridge-israeli-palestinian-impasse-1.5449553.
to the usual problems faced by displaced persons, Palestin- United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian
ians face extra difficulty because they lack national iden- Affairs (OHCA). 2017. “West Bank/East Jerusalem: Key
tity documents. Humanitarian Concerns.” Occupied Palestinian Territory,
Minority Rights Group International reports that the December 21. https://www.ochaopt.org/content/west-bank​
situation in Yarmouk (the largest Palestinian refugee com- -east-jerusalem-key-humanitarian-concerns.
World Health Organization (WHO). 2011. “The Occupied Pal-
munity in Syria) has been described as one of the worst estinian Territory: Providing Health Care despite the Lack of
humanitarian situations in the Syrian war. Before 2011, a Stable Environment.” WHO: Monthly Highlights, February
around 200,000 people lived in Yarmouk. Then, in 2012, 2011. https://www.who.int/hac/crises/international/wbgs​
the Assad regime attacked the refugee camp with barrel /highlights/february2011/en/.
bombs. Most residents fled the bombing, which prevented
food, water, and medicine from reaching the camp. As a
result of the lack of supplies, over 1,270 Palestinians in
Yarmouk died from starvation, lack of medicine, or vio-
lence. In 2015, the Islamic State (IS) took control of the PANGASINAN
camp, leading to reports of executions, violence, and fur- Current Location Philippines
ther displacement. By mid-2017, it was reported that at Current Population 1.7 million
least 3,502 Palestinian refugees residing in Yarmouk had Language Pangasinense
died since the beginning of the Syrian war.
Interesting Fact The use of Pangasinense is threat-
Palestinians constitute around half of the population of ened by the wide use of the Philip-
Jordan, yet they are vastly underrepresented in Jordanian pines’ national language, Tagalog.
politics. Palestinians in Jordan also face discrimination
in employment and high education. Palestinians are the
focus of Jordanian security operations targeting terrorist Overview
groups, with reports that Palestinian detainees face tor- The Pangasinans (also called the Oangasinan) are an
ture in detention. Recently, in Lebanon, Palestinians have ethnic group living in the Philippines. The Pangasinans
been blamed for terrorist acts and bank robberies, leading call themselves the Totoon Pangasinan. The Pangasinans
to Lebanese forces attacking Palestinians refugee camps. speak Pangasinense, a language of the Pangasinac sub-
There are also reports of the army looting and destroying group of the Malayo-Polynesian languages. The majority
Palestinian houses. of Pangasinans are Roman Catholic. Catholic Pangasinans
Although Palestine is now recognized by many national often include pre-Christian rituals into their religious
governments, it remains under Israeli control. Conse- practice.
quently, many Palestinians continue to call for the creation
of a Palestinian state, Dawlat Filastı¯n (State of Palestine).
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
See also: Druze; Jews
The roughly 1.7 million Pangasinans inhabit the Pangasin-
Further Reading
Abu Safieh, Yousef. 2012. “The Radical Transformation of Pales- ian region along the Linganyen Gulf of the west and north-
tine’s Environment.” Al Jazeera, May 2. https://www.aljazeera​ west area of the Philippine island of Luzon. A Pangasinan
.com/indepth/opinion/2012/04/201242811593745665.html. diaspora exists in other areas of the Philippines, especially
866 Pangasinan

around the Philippine capital of Manila, and in the United History and Politics
States. The Pangasinans are descended from Austronesian settlers
who arrived on Luzon from Southeast Asia in prehistoric
times. These settlers called themselves Anakbanua (“child
Geography and Environment of banua”) after a concept of the homeland and territory.
Luzon is the largest island of the Philippines. The national The settlers traded with other people living throughout
capital, Manila, is located on the island, as is the major Southeast Asia and the Pacific and Indian Oceans from
metropolis of Quezon City. The island is located on the their bases around the Linganyen Gulf as part of a huge
northern part of the Philippine archipelago, where it is Austronesian maritime trade bloc. The early Pangasinans
bordered by the Philippine Sea to the east, the Sibuyan Sea were expert sailors who were able to navigate canoes
to the south, and the South China Sea to the west. Luzon across vast distances.
is separated from Taiwan by the Luzon Strait. Pangasi- Over time, the area around Linganyen Gulf became
nan is situated on the west and northwest central area of known to locals as Pangasinan, and the interior areas were
Luzon. The region is bordered by La Union to the north, called Kabolcan. Pangasinan and Kabolcan were united
Benguet and Nueva Vizcaya to the northeast, Nueva Ecija as the Luyag na Kaboloan kingdom, which early Chinese
to the southeast, and Zambales and Tarlac to the south. and Indian chroniclers report as a significant location
The South China Sea lies to the west of Pangasinan. The on ancient trade routes. As the kingdom grew, it came to
province contains the Lingayen Gulf. include most of northwest Luzon.
The Pangasinan terrain is flat apart from a few upland From the fourteenth century, Europeans began to arrive
areas. The region’s northeast municipalities of San Manuel, in the Philippines. For example, according to the Pangasi-
San Nicolas, Natividad, San Quintin, and Uminganhave nans, in 1324, an Italian missionary converted the first
are hilly to mountainous, being located at the tip of the Philippines to Roman Catholicism. In 1565, the Spanish
Cordillera Mountains. The Zambales Mountains reach to arrived in the Philippines, and, having overrun the rulers
the region’s west. in the south of Luzon, the Spanish then headed northward.
Pangasinan includes several inactive volcanoes, with Then, in 1571, the Spanish attacked Luyag na Kaboloan
a caldera-like landform located between the towns of before conquering the Pangasinans in 1580. Once defeated,
Malasiqui and Villasis. Pangasinan is crossed by several the Pangasinans came under Spanish rule, and those Pan-
rivers, including Agno River, which originates from the gasinans that had not converted to Roman Catholicism
Cordillera Mountains before emptying its waters into were converted by Catholic missionaries, often against
the Lingayen Gulf. Other rivers include the Bued River, their will (Minahan 2012). In 1611, Pangasinan became a
Angalacan River, Sinocalan River, Patalan River, and the Spanish province and was then a larger territory than the
Cayanga River. region is today. The Pangasinans remained defiant against
Temperatures in Luzon vary with elevation. Lowland Spanish rule, however, either by escaping attempts to gar-
temperatures are fairly uniform at about 25°C to 28°C. rison them by fleeing to mountain areas or participating
The lowlands experience seasonally variable rainfall. in underground resistance. The resistance managed to free
Northwest Luzon experiences two distinct seasons, for the Pangasinan from Spanish rule between 1660 and 1661, but
area is wet from May to October and dry from Novem- was defeated around a year later. In 1762, another revolt
ber to April. Vegetation in lowland Luzon is dominated occurred, followed by the declaration of Pangasinan’s
by massive dipterocarp trees. There is also an abundance independence. However, Pangasinan remained independ-
of herbaceous undergrowth, with ferns and orchids being ent only until 1765, after which time the Pangasinans
prevalent on the large branches of tall trees. The ecoregion were once again under Spanish control. Under Spanish
also contains mangrove forests and beach forests close to rule, a number of new provinces were created on Pangasi-
the coasts. There are also some natural grasslands in valleys nan land.
and on plateaus. Luzon is the Philippines’ main agriculture Many Pangasinans joined the Philippine Revolu-
area, with rice, maize, coconuts, sugarcane, mangoes, and tion (1896–1898). During the revolution, rebel forces
bananas all grown there. fought against Spanish forces by freeing towns one after
 Pangasinan 867

the other from Spanish control. In 1898, Pangasinan Rosary of Manaoag on two feast days: the third Wednes-
rebels bearing images of their patron saint, Our Lady of day after Easter and the first Sunday in October. Roman
Manaoag, attacked Spanish strongholds. Around the same Catholicism is central to Pangasinan life, for the Church
time, the Spanish were defeated in the Spanish-American regulates the people’s cycle of annual festivals, holidays,
War of 1898 and as a consequence, had to give the Philip- and ceremonies.
pines to the United States. The United States subsequently Skills and crafts play an important part in Pangasinan
sent forces to break up the First Philippine Republic culture, with the Pangasinans making things from bam-
(the revolutionary government of the Philippines) and boo, marsh grass, and rattan. The name Pangasinan trans-
dissolved the new republic. However, the United States lates into English as “land of salt” or ”place of salt making”
permitted the establishment of a Philippine Assembly, and is a reference to the fact that early Pangasinans were
which comprised members from each of the Philippines’ renowned for producing salt. Today, Pangasinan salt con-
provinces. tinues to be considered the finest in the Philippines.
During World War II, once the Japanese had overrun The Pangasinense language is the main language
the Philippines, Linganyen Gulf became a major mili- used by the Pangasinans. The language belongs to the
tary target. In 1945, the Invasion of Lingayen Gulf saw Pangasinac subgroup of the Malayo-Polynesian languages
an Allied amphibian operation drive out Japanese forces and is written using the Latin alphabet with the addition
stationed in the area. In 1946, the Philippines became of a twenty-seventh letter based on the Pangasinense
independent. After independence, the Pangasinans were letter ng. Although Pangasinense is also used by many
incorporated into the peoples of the Ilocos Region. This non-Pangasinans who live near the Pangasinans, the lan-
was despite the fact that the Pangasinans spoke a differ- guage is threatened by the wide use of Tagalog, which is
ent language and had a different culture to the other peo- the Philippines’ national language. Pangasinan cultural
ples living there. Today, although the Pangasinans make groups together with Pangasinan government officials have
up more than half of the population of the Ilocos Region, tried to ensure that Pangasinense is taught in Pangasinan
they have seen their demands for a separate administra- schools. This policy has halted the language’s decline to a
tive region denied. Since the 1970s, widespread corrup- degree, but Pangasinense remains endangered.
tion and a lack of economic development in Pangasinan
areas has caused many Pangasinans to migrate in search of
opportunities and work. Most Pangasinan migrants have Health Care and Education
headed to the capital of the Philippines, Manilla, or the Pangasinan contains many hospitals and rural health
United States. centers. Pangasinans can also access major medical centers
in the cities of Dagupan, San Carlos, and Urdaneta. In
2018, Pangasinan local government declared its intention
Society, Culture, and Tradition to improve state-run hospitals within the province while
Pangasinan culture combines Malayo-Polynesian, His- also improving a better doctor/nurse per patient ratio so
panic, and American elements. The influence of the that a doctor or nurse treats fifteen patients a day. At the
Spanish and Americans is evident in the Pangasinan archi- moment, one doctor or nurse in a Pangasinan provincial
tecture and festivities, especially those involving Roman hospital cares for up to eighty patients per day. There are
Catholicism and American popular culture. also plans to open more hospital facilities in Pangasinan,
There is a long history of Pangasinan folk healers including a center for mental health (psychiatric depart-
(managtambal), which have existed since before the ment) and a dermatology center. The province’s medical
Spanish conquered the Pangasinans. The faith healers are equipment will also be upgraded to include new CT scan
associated with the cult of Our Lady of Manaoag. Faith and MRI machines (PIA 2018).
healing for folk healing is an element of Pangasinan At the moment, the Philippines has the fastest-growing
Roman Catholic practice. To the Pangasinans, Our Lady of HIV rates in the Asia-Pacific region. According to the Joint
Manaoag is the patroness of the sick, helpless, and needy, United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), the
and as such, they celebrate the Feast of Our Lady of the number of new HIV cases in the Philippines rose from
868 Papuan

4,300 to 10,000 between 2010 and 2016, respectively. few years, the Philippines has made international head-
Around 83 percent of the new cases are among men and lines for extrajudicial killings after populist president
transgender women who have sex with men. Research- Rodrigo Duterte (elected in 2016) began a “war on drugs”
ers have found that many sexually active Filipinos have that Human Rights Watch describes as the Philippines’
little understanding of the role of condoms in preventing “worst human rights crisis” since the 1970s. In a quest to
sexually transmitted diseases because the Philippine gov- eradicate the drugs trade, over twelve thousand people,
ernment does not provide school programs on safe-sex including many innocent adults and children, have been
practices (Human Rights Watch 2018) shot by the Philippines police, the armed forces, and by
Pangasinan is home to thousands of public schools as vigilantes. Most of the victims are poor and from urban
well as hundreds of private schools that provide primary areas (Human Rights Watch 2018). President Duterte has
and secondary education. In addition, many Pangasinans declared that this antidrug campaign will continue until
travel to Manila, Baguio City, or the United States to access his term ends in 2022.
tertiary and higher education. The Philippines’ deteriorating human rights situation
Recently, the Philippines has experienced a decline in has not impacted the country’s economic growth, however,
national educational standards. In 2008, research revealed for the country’s economy is booming, allowing for greater
that participation and achievement rates in the Philip- spending on health care and education, which should ben-
pines for basic education had fallen dramatically because efit the Pangasinans.
of chronic underfunding of education. The net enrollment
See also: Bicol; Bunun; Igorot
rates for elementary education had risen to 98.6 percent
Further Reading
in 2000 but fell to 84.4 percent in 2005. The completion
Clark, Nick. 2018. “Education in the Philippines.” World Educa-
rate for elementary school in 2005 was also thought to be tion News and Review, March 6. https://wenr.wes.org/2018​
below 70 percent. The country’s youth literacy rate, while /03/education-in-the-philippines.
still high by Southeast Asian standards, declined from Human Rights Watch. 2018. “Philippines: Events of 2017.”
96.6 percent in 1990 to 95.1 percent in 2003. This decline https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2018/country-chapters​
means the Philippines is the only Southeast Asian country /philippines#.
Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the
with falling youth literacy rates.
Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Recently, the Philippine government has introduced PIA. 2018. “Pangasinan Improves Health Services.” Manila
structural changes to the country’s basic education sys- Times, January 16. https://www.manilatimes.net/pangasinan​
tem while also spending more on education. One of the -improves-health-services/374579.
biggest changes was the 2013 Basic Education Act, which
extended the elementary and secondary school cycle from
ten to twelve years, thereby bringing the Philippines in
line with international education standards. To accommo-
date these changes, the Philippine government had 86,478 PAPUAN
classrooms built, and it hired over 128,000 new teachers.
At the same time, the Philippines government has also Current Location Indonesia; Papua New Guinea
increased education spending. In 2018, spending on edu- Current Population 7.9 million
cation increased further to PHP 533.31 billion (US$10.26 Language Papuan languages
billion), or 24 percent of all government spending. Sim- Interesting Fact Some Papuan tribes practice canni-
ilarly, from 2016 to 2017, the higher education budget balism by eating men they consider
increased by almost 45 percent (Clark 2018). witches.

Threats to Survival Overview

A direct threat to Pangasinan culture is that the people’s Papuans are the indigenous Melanesian peoples of New
language is in danger of becoming obsolete through the Guinea (an island shared by Papua New Guinea and Indo-
widespread use of Tagalog. A potential threat to individ- nesia) and neighboring islands. The Papuans speak Pap-
ual Pangasinans comes in the form of the deteriorating uan languages. Most Papuans hold traditional religious
human rights situation in the Philippines. Over the past beliefs, though some urban Papuans are Christian.
 Papuan 869

Population, Diaspora, and Migration by the Arafura Sea to the west and by the Torres Strait and
The Papuan population is estimated at 7.9 million people Coral Sea to the east. The landmass on which New Guinea
(Minahan 2012). The population is divided between around stands is divided between the independent nation of Papua
one thousand tribes. Some of these tribes are quite large. For New Guinea to the east and the Indonesian provinces of
instance, both the Kombai (BBC Two 2013) and Korowai Papua and West Papua to the west. New Guinea contains
(Raffaele 2006) have around four thousand members. How- a variety of ecosystems, including alpine tundra, savanna,
ever, the island of New Guinea is sparsely populated. dense rainforest, mangroves, wetlands, river ecosystems,
The jungles of New Guinea are divided into territories and coral reefs.
belonging to clans. Some territories are left empty of peo- Papuans living in the New Guinea interior are careful
ple because tribes believe this land is inhabited by spir- not to overexploit their surroundings. For example, the
its. Papuan tribes consider it a major threat for a nonclan sago palm, which grows wild in the forest, is a staple food
member to enter a clan’s territory and have been known of the Kombai. Typically, dozens of palms grow in the same
to kill strangers they consider trespassers. For this rea- area, and once a Kombai family has exhausted a clump of
son, the Korowai call strangers kwai, meaning “ghost.” The trees, the family will move to another part of their clan’s
ongoing conflict between Indonesia and the Papuans has territory to let the forest recover.
caused two hundred thousand Papuans to live as refugees The province of Papua contains rich deposits of copper
in camps in Papua New Guinea. and gold. The region’s other valuable resource is gaharu,
a fragrant resinous wood used to make incense, perfume,
and carvings that is prized throughout Asia and the Mid-
Geography and Environment dle East. Gaharu is formed in the heartwood of aquilaria
The tropical island of New Guinea is located in the south- trees when the trees become infected with a certain type
ern hemisphere to the north of Australia. It is surrounded of mold. The wood of older trees is especially scented,

Villagers in Papua New Guinea. Traditionally, Papuan men live in groups inside longhouses set apart from the women and children who
live in single-family dwellings. (Guido Amrein/Dreamstime.com)
870 Papuan

and Papua is home to one of the few remaining stocks claim to head off potential claims to eastern New Guinea
of mature trees. Consequently, deforestation is a major by Germany and Britain. In 1883, the southeast of New
problem in the region. Loggers target Papuan trees, and Guinea was annexed by the British colony of Queensland
government-funded logging roads cut into the forests. in Australia. Subsequently, the land came under direct
Increasingly, Papuan forests are also cleared to make way British rule. In 1884, Germany claimed the island’s north-
for the palm oil industry. The resultant deforestation causes east. Ultimately, Germany and Britain signed treaties with
soil erosion and loss of diversity and habitat. In 2017, the the Dutch that allowed the Dutch to hold much of eastern
district government of Papua province gave indigenous New Guinea. Under colonial rule, Christian missionaries
communities control of state forests, meaning villagers entered some parts of New Guinea. This led to pockets of
could reject logging, pulpwood, and palm oil businesses Christian-educated Papuans who acted as intermediaries
looking to exploit the region’s forests. between colonial authorities and the island’s indigenous
peoples. The educated Papuans began to foster a sense of
unified Papuan identity and went some way to ending the
History and Politics tribal warfare and headhunting that was endemic on the
It is likely that humans have lived on New Guinea for island. Missionaries and colonial authorities tentatively
around fifty thousand years (Minahan 2012). The island’s ventured into New Guinea’s interior. Consequently, many
original inhabitants arrived when New Guinea was Papuans did not meet a European until well into the twen-
attached to Australia via a land bridge. The island’s rugged tieth century (Minahan 2002).
landscape made it difficult for the settlers to communicate In 1905, the British renamed their New Guinea
with each other, and the people soon divided into numer- colony the Territory of Papua. The following year, Britain
ous autonomous tribes, each of which had their own lan- awarded responsibility for the territory’s administration
guage. The tribes existed through hunter-gathering and to Australia. During World War I, Australian troops over-
farming, which the Papuans adopted after indirect contact ran German-held parts of New Guinea. In 1920, this land
with Southeast Asia. became an Australian League of Nations mandate called
New Guinea became known to sailors from Indonesia Papua and New Guinea.
and elsewhere in Asia. In time, outsiders traded with the In 1938, the American zoologist Richard Archbold
island’s coastal communities and also raided the island’s spotted the Baliem River in Papua’s central highlands and
interior to take inhabitants as slaves. In 1511, Portu- discovered the valley was home to more than fifty thou-
guese explorers glimpsed the island, but it was not until sand people belonging to the Dani tribe, who were living
1527 that Europeans began to land on the island. Later, in Stone Age villages (Minahan 2012). Before this time,
Spanish, Dutch, German, and British navigators and Western maps showed most of New Guinea’s interior as
merchants visited the island. In 1546, Spanish explorers uninhabited forests.
named the island Nueva Guinea because the island’s indig- In 1942, Japanese forces occupied Dutch and Australian
enous peoples reminded them of the peoples of Guinea, territories on New Guinea. The Japanese viewed the Papu-
in West Africa. In 1606, Dutch explorers visited the island ans as subhuman and either killed or enslaved thousands
but found nothing of interest and so did not settle there. of Papuans. Consequently, in 1944, the Papuans helped
Soon after the Dutch visit, the Spanish claimed the island the Allies defeat the Japanese and rejoiced when the Dutch
but did not try to impose their authority on islanders. In regained control the next year. When, in 1949, the Dutch
1793, the British considered colonizing New Guinea but East Indies gained independence as independent Indone-
abandoned the idea quickly. All the while, Europeans were sia, the Dutch maintained control of western New Guinea,
contacting Papuans living on the island’s coast rather than arguing that the Papuans wished for them to remain in
tribes living in the interior. This situation led hundreds of charge (Minahan 2002). Despite international pressure on
isolated Papuan interior tribes to believe that they were the the Dutch to decolonize the region, including calls by the
only people alive in the world. United Nations, the Dutch retained colonial rule, and the
In 1828, the Dutch, operating from their East Indies Papuans rejected any attempt to become part of Indonesia.
colony, claimed the region west of the 141st meridian. In Subsequently, a Dutch proposal giving West Papua inde-
so doing, the Dutch renamed the region the Netherlands pendence was vetoed by Indonesia and their supporters in
New Guinea. Then, in 1848, the Dutch expended their land the UN General Assembly.
 Papuan 871

During the 1950s, Australia and the Netherland began The Kombai also eat starch extracted from wild sago palms
to prepare for the two halves of New Guinea to become by the Kombai women. A large sago palm provides enough
two independent entities. However, in 1961, Indonesia starch to feed seven Kombai for ten days (BBC Two 2013).
launched a surprise attack on Dutch New Guinea, lead- A particular Kombai delicacy is the sago grub that lives
ing to heavy fighting. The United Nations negotiated a within felled sago palms.
compromise that made Dutch territory on the island the The Papuans’ history of conflict resulted in men tend-
responsibility of the United Nations, with a provision for ing to live in groups inside longhouses set apart from the
a vote to decide the future of the Papuans. However, the women and children, who live in single-family dwellings.
United Nations gave the territory over to Indonesia after The separate men’s houses were intended to provide pro-
a General Assembly vote, despite Papuan demonstrations tection to the women and children. Today, some Papuans,
against the move. Consequently, the Papuans established such as the majority of Kombai and Korowai, live in tree
the Free Papua Movement to resist Indonesian rule and houses divided into isolated groups of around a dozen
began a low-key conflict that continues today. Australian located in jungle clearings. The tree houses protect the
territory on New Guinea became independent in 1975. inhabitants from the jungle’s tropical heat and mosquitoes
A local Papuan government backed by an upper house as well as from flooding and conflict at ground level.
of indigenous Papuans exists but has limited power. True Papuans speak many local languages, some of which
power over the region is held by the Indonesian police and are as yet unstudied. Until the second half of the twenti-
army. In recent years, there have been reports that the eth century, researchers thought most of these languages
Indonesian police have harassed and ill-treated Papuan were unrelated. Today, however, research has shown that
tribal groups (BBC Two 2013). the languages are related, though dialectical differences
render most of the languages mutually incomprehensible.
There is a small, yet growing, number of urban Chris-
Society, Culture, and Tradition tian Papuans belonging to a variety of denominations.
Papuan culture reflects that there is a multitude of tribes However, the majority of Papuans adhere to traditional
and languages found on New Guinea. The culture is also beliefs in nature spirits, sorcery, and magic. Some Papuan
shaped by the fact that the people lived in isolation for a tribes, including the Kombai and Korowai, still practice
long time. In general, there is a great difference between cannibalism (Raffaele 2006) as a type of tribal punish-
Papuans living in coastal areas, who have a history of mix- ment. Men identified as witches by Kombai and Korowai
ing with non-Papuans such as the Austronesians (people communities (called the khakhua-kumu by the Kombai
from Southeast Asia, Oceania, and East Africa that speak and khakhua by the Korowai) are killed and then eaten by
languages belonging to the Austronesian language family), tribespeople. Both tribes believe that the witches eat the
and tribes living inland, who have been isolated for much souls of their victims, and witches must be killed and eaten
longer. in retribution. The tribespeople believe a person’s soul
Traditionally, Papuans live in small isolated clans or inhabits the brain and the stomach, so those body parts
tribal groups. The people marry within these groups and must be eaten to defeat a witch.
only encounter outsiders when trading pigs. Pig-based Other Papuan traditions include ornamental nose
trade is very important to the Papuans. Inland Papuan piercing. The Kombai pierce their noses using a sago thorn.
tribes were one of the last peoples to trade using metal Once a nose is pierced, bat body parts are hung from the
implements such as axes and knives. In the most remote noses as decoration (this is especially true for female Kom-
parts of the New Guinea interior, people still trade metal bai). Another Papuan tradition sees Papuan men, such as
tools, shells, and bamboo. Pigs in general are significant in Kombai men, invert their penises by pushing their penises
Papuan culture, for the animals are domesticated for use back into their bodies before wrapping the part left outside
in rituals, with pork being a mainstay of Papuan feasts. the body inside a leaf.
In the most remote areas, Papuans slice pork and other
meat using stone axes that they also use to fell bamboo
and trees. Some Papuans, such as the Kombai, maintain Health Care and Education
a hunter-gatherer lifestyle. Kombai men use bows and Papua is one of Indonesia’s poorest areas. In 2018, an
arrows to hunt animals, including cassowaries and boars. outbreak of measles coupled with malnutrition in the
872 Papuan

impoverished province killed dozens of Papuan children. because the Indonesian government has moved hundreds
Papua’s public health system struggles to meet the needs of of thousands of non-Papuan settlers to New Guinea. The
Papuans because the province has too few healthcare pro- occupation of New Guinea has been brutal, with multiple
viders and medicines are of poor quality. In 2012, Papua reports of abuses being committed against Papuans by
had two doctors and seventeen nurses per ten thousand the Indonesian government, including rapes and killings
people. This was above the national average of 1.4 doctors (BBC Two 2013).
and 5 nurses, but data showed the health personnel were In recent years, entrepreneurial traders have illegally
not evenly distributed throughout the province, with some traded items such as metal tools, food, and clothes with
Papuan areas having fewer than 1 doctor and 5 nurses Papuans such as the Kombai in return for gaharu wood.
per 10,000 people (IRIN 2013). Over the past few years, If managed sustainably, the gaharu wood trade could
increased overcrowding in Papua, together with a lack of both protect the people’s environment and provide them
medical staff, has led to lengthy waiting times. with a valuable trade. As the protection of New Guinea’s
Recently, a health insurance scheme has been estab- forest is so important to the Papuans’ survival, some non-
lished intended for use in Papua’s tertiary referral hospi- governmental organizations (NGOs) have helped Papuan
tals. Many Papuans, however, are unaware of the health communities establish associations that aim to sustainably
plan that makes health care almost free of charge, thus manage the forest and identify profitable products that can
people living in remote villages die because they do not be harvested without causing deforestation. For instance,
know of the scheme and therefore do not receive treat- in addition to sustainably produced gaharu wood,
ment. Villagers suffering from serious conditions pay for damar resin (from trees of the Dipterocarpaceae species)
their treatment because they do not have health insurance. can be used to glaze products, and rotan (from the woody
Villagers also continue to pay for their transportation to stems of palm trees) can be made into cane furniture and
hospitals. baskets.
Plans to improve Papuan health care include the build- Although the culture of some tribal communities, high-
ing of four new referral hospitals, establishing more med- land villages, and riverside groups have been affected by
ical schools, and providing free medical training online. contact with missionaries and local authorities, in remote
As most indigenous Papuan communities live in remote areas, peoples such as the Kombai have been influenced
areas, in 2012, it was announced that a flying provincial very little. The attachment of the Kombai and other peo-
health service would serve these areas, with medics stay- ples to their tree houses and to the land in general lies at
ing in villages for several months at time to treat residents the core of their cultural identity. The deforestation of the
and train locals to provide medical care (IRIN 2013). Papuan forests means the people’s traditional ways of life
According to UNICEF, 30 percent of Papuan pupils do is under great threat.
not complete primary education or junior high school.
See also: Bougainvillian; Torres Strait Islanders
In the Papuan interior, around 50 percent of elementary
Further Reading
school students and 73 percent of junior high school
BBC Two. 2013. “Kombai.” Tribe. http://www.bbc.co.uk/tribe​
pupils leave school early. The main reasons for the high /tribes/kombai.
Papuan dropout rate are geographical conditions that IRIN. 2013. “Free Healthcare Overwhelming Indonesia’s Papua.”
make it difficult for children to reach school and the fact IRIN, December 3. http://www.irinnews.org/report/99247​
that many Papuan children have to work to support their /free-healthcare-overwhelming-indonesias-papua.
family (Kusuma 2017). Kusuma, Bayu. 2017. “Papua Education, the Key to Overcome
Separatism.” Republika, July 22. https://www.republika.co.id​
/berita/en/speak-out/17/07/22/oth7t2413-papua-education​
-the-key-to-overcome-separatism.
Threats to Survival Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
New Guinea often makes headlines for issues that include nic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 3, L–R. West-
intertribal tension, news of Indonesian mistreatment of port, CT: Greenwood Press.
Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the
minority groups, and environmental damage caused by
Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
logging, palm oil production, and mining. The ongoing Raffaele, Paul. 2006. “Sleeping with Cannibals.” Smithsonian
violence in Papua province has killed thousands of people. Magazine, September. https://www.smithsonianmag.com​
The people’s traditional way of life has also been impinged /travel/sleeping-with-cannibals-128958913.
 Pashtun 873

Shah, Vaidehi. 2017. “West Papua Gives Indigenous Communi-

ties Control over Forests.” Eco-Business, March 14. https://​
www.eco-business.com/news/west-papua-gives-indigenous​
Malala Yousafzai
-communities-control-over-forests. Malala Yousafzai (b. 1997) was born in the Swat Dis-
trict of northwest Pakistan, where her father owned
a school. She first came to prominence in 2009 as a
blogger for the BBC, documenting her experiences
while living under the growing influence of the Tali-
ban, who banned girls from education. As a result of
PASHTUN
Yousafzai’s activism, she was shot in the head at the
Current Location Afghanistan; Pakistan age of fifteen. She survived the attempted assassina-
Current Population 50 million tion but underwent many operations in the United
Language Pashto; Pakhto; Urdu; Dari; English; Kingdom, where she lives today. The Pakistani Tal-
Farsi iban claimed that they had shot Yousafzai because
Interesting Fact The Pashtun are the largest ethnic she promoted Western culture in Pashtun areas.
group in Afghanistan. Together with her father, Yousafzai established
the Malala Fund, a charity dedicated to providing
girls with opportunities, especially those in the Swat
Overview Valley. In recognition of her work, in 2014, Yousafzai
The Pashtuns, also called the Pushtan, Pashto, Paktun, or became the youngest winner of the Nobel Peace
Pathan, among other names, are an Indo-Iranian people Prize as well as the first Pashtun winner and the first
living in Afghanistan and Pakistan. The Pashtuns speak Pakistani to win the prize.
languages called Pashto and Pakhto, Iranian dialects In 2013, Yousafzai coauthored I Am Malala, an
belonging to the Indo-European language group. Most international best-selling autobiography. The year
Pashtuns also have Urdu, Dari, or English as second lan- before, she received Pakistan’s first National Youth
guages. Many Pashtuns can also speak Farsi, which the Peace Prize. In 2015, Yousafzai was the subject of
Pashtuns use when making financial dealings. The Pash- the documentary He Named Me Malala. From 2013
tuns are predominantly Muslim, with most being Sunni or to 2015, Time magazine featured Yousafzai as one
Shia, though there are some Ahmadi and Ismaili Muslim of the world’s most influential people. In 2017, she
Pashtuns. There is also a small Pashtun Christian minority. received honorary Canadian citizenship and became
the youngest person to address the Canadian House
of Commons.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration You can learn more about Yousafzai at https://​
The Pashtuns are one of the largest ethnic groups in Asia www.malala.org/malalas-story or follow her on
with an estimated population of over fifty million people. Twitter at @Malala.
The Pashtuns are the largest ethnic group in Afghanistan,
and with a population of over thirty million in Pakistan,
the Pashtuns are Pakistan’s second-largest ethnic popula-
tion (Siddique 2018) and the largest ethnic group in the The Pashtun population subdivides into four major
Pakistani province Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, northern Bal- groups, the Durrani, who live in Afghanistan, and three
uchistan, and the Federally Administered Tribal Areas (a groups residing in Pakistan: the Gilzai, Tribals (highland
semiautonomous tribal region in northwestern Pakistan nomads), and Lowland Pashtuns. There are also over sixty
made up of tribal agencies and frontier regions) (Minahan Pashtun tribal subgroups (Minahan 2002). Besides tradi-
2014). It should be noted that it is difficult to give accu- tional Pashtun tribal areas, there are significant Pashtun
rate population figures for the Pashtuns, however, because communities elsewhere in Pakistan and Afghanistan. A
of the nomadic nature of many Pashtun tribes and the Pashtun diaspora exists in the United Arab Emirates, Iran,
people’s tradition of secluding women. Most Pashtuns in India, Bangladesh, the United Kingdom, the United States,
Pakistan live in and around cities, including Abbottabad, Canada, Germany, Tajikistan, Russia, Australia, Malaysia,
Mardan, Mutan, and Peshwar. and China.
874 Pashtun

Geography and Environment Pashtuns often fought among themselves, but when threat-
The Pashtuns sometimes refer to their homeland as Pash- ened by invaders, they would unite to see off the interlop-
tunistan or Pakhtunkhwa. The area stretches from north- ers. In the fifteenth century, the Pashtuns expanded their
west Pakistan to southern and eastern Afghanistan. The territory northward and eastward to include the Peshawar
Pashtun homeland is mountainous and home to many of Valley. Historically divided into tribal groups, the Pash-
the passes that lead to the Indian Plain, an area extend- tuns only began to feel a sense of unity and shared iden-
ing westward from the delta of the Brahmaputra River tity during the sixteenth century. This common identity
valley and the Ganges River to the Indus River valley. In helped the Pashtuns unite behind the Afridi Pashtun tribe
northeastern Afghanistan, the Pashtuns primarily reside to defeat the invading army of the Indian Mughal Empire
in an area located in the lofty, snow-capped Hindu Kush in the seventeenth century. Realizing that they would be
mountain system. In Pakistan, the Pashtuns live around unable to quell the warrior-like Pashtuns, the Mughal
the northern stretch of the Indus River, the longest river Empire began to pay local chiefs to keep the peace along
in Pakistan. the border between Pashtunistan and the Mughal realm.
From the 1700s to the start of the 1900s, Pashtunistan
was divided between Shia Persians who lived in western
History and Politics areas and the Mughal Empire, which held nominal con-
The origins of the Pashtuns are unknown. According to trol over the rest of the territory. However, in 1707, the
Pashtun legend, the people are descended from Afghana, Mughal Empire’s authority began to wane dramatically.
the grandson of the Hebrew king Saul. The most widely The Mughal Empire’s loss of control allowed the Pashtuns
accepted academic theory, however, is that the Pashtuns to unite behind the Durrani Sultanate of Afghanistan (also
descended from many Aryan tribal groups that mixed called the Afghan Empire) in 1747. Under the Durrani, the
with tribes that invaded their homelands. Pashtuns began to gain control over Afghanistan’s other
From the third century, the Pashtuns were known gener­ ethnic groups and started to spread out across the country,
ally as the Afghans, but now this term is used to describe all with many settling around the capital of Kabul.
citizens of Afghanistan. For many thousands of years, the
mountainous Pashtun homeland has served as a gateway
for invaders to the great Indian Plain. In the first century Society, Culture, and Tradition
CE, the Kushan Empire (a syncretic empire formed by the Pashtun society and culture is highly diverse because the
ancient Chinese Yuezhi people) conquered the area. Then, Pashtun population comprises many different types of
in the seventh century, Aryan tribes driven from the Ira- people, ranging from tribal nomads to urban profession-
nian Plateau overran the mountains inhabited by the Pash- als. Nevertheless, there exists a strong Pashtun sociocul-
tuns. The Aryans established small tribal states in the steep tural identity. Underpinning this ethnic identity is the
mountain valleys. These states absorbed the communities concept of Pashtunwali (or Pukhtunwali, “the way of the
already inhabiting the mountains. Also in the seventh cen- Pashtuns”), which combines a tribal code of honor with
tury, Persian traders introduced Islam to the Pashtuns liv- local interpretations of Islamic law and adherence to estab-
ing in the west of the Pashtun homeland. Later, Pashtuns lished etiquette and customs. Pashtunwali is unwritten but
living farther east converted as well, meaning that by the obliges followers to perform three duties: nanawatai (pro-
tenth century, almost all Pashtuns were Muslim. Muslim vide refugees with asylum, even if the refugees are ene-
settlements in Pashtun areas soon became major centers mies), melmastia (afford strangers hospitality), and badal
of the Islamic world. However, in the thirteenth century, (seek vengeance for wrongs). Pashtuns are also expected
invading Mongols destroyed the Islamic centers, forcing to defend their property, honor family, and protect female
the inhabitants to flee urban areas and resettle in the coun- relatives. A Pashtun tribal council called a jirga adjudicates
tryside, where they resumed their previous agrarian, tribal in disputes and makes local decisions.
lifestyle. Most Pashtuns are farmers growing irrigated wheat
A succession of would-be invaders attempted to con- or animal herders. However, chronic political and social
quer the Pashtuns, but the repeated assaults on the Pash- instability in Afghanistan has disrupted Pashtun society
tun homeland honed the people’s fighting skills, leading in some areas, causing poverty. As a result of poverty,
to the Pashtuns becoming renowned guerilla fighters. The there has been an increase in Pashtuns in Afghanistan
 Pashtun 875

participating in the drug industry. In particular, opium is Afghanistan’s most powerful and influential population,
being trafficked via Pakistan to Europe and North America are significantly underrepresented in central govern-
(Minority Rights Group International 2015). ment, which is dominated by Uzbeks and Tajiks (Persian-
Pashtuns maintain a traditional endogamous marriage speaking people of Iranian origin). Losing their privileged
system that favors marriage between parallel cousins (the social status and administrative authority has caused dis-
child of a father’s brother or of a mother’s sister). Pashtun satisfaction among the Pashtuns. This has led in turn to
society focuses on the extended family, with women being Pashtun political protests claiming electoral fraud and
secluded. It is a cause of great shame (haram) for a Pash- intimidation has kept Pashtun candidates from power.
tun family if an outsider tries to become intimate with Nonetheless, the Pashtuns are still the largest ethnic group
their family, most especially if they show romantic interest in Afghanistan and so are likely to resume their dominance
in female members. As part of this Pashtun desire to keep as part of an increasingly democratic political system.
women secluded and protected, Pashtun women wear a In Pakistan, since February 2018, tens of thousands
full-length Islamic garment called a burka. of young Pashtun activists belonging to the PTM (Pash-
tun Protection Movement) have demanded that Pakistan’s
military recognize the Pashtuns’ human rights. The PTM
Health Care and Education also wishes to achieve justice for thousands of alleged
Pashtuns, especially those in rural areas, often live in sub- Pashtun victims said to have disappeared through Paki-
standard conditions lacking clean water and healthcare stan’s court system or suffered extrajudicial killings in the
facilities. This lack of safe water and healthcare provision Pashtuns’ northwestern homeland. So far, Pakistan’s mil-
results in the Pashtuns having an average life expectancy itary leaders have accommodated the PTM’s demands to
of only around forty-six years, though Pashtuns living in relax curfews, to stop checkpoint searches, and to demine
Kabul enjoy slightly better living standards and so live remote mountain regions in which some Pashtuns live.
longer (Minority Rights Group International 2015). However, the generals remain unwilling to address the
The literacy rate of Pakistan runs at 50 percent, one issue of disappearances and extrajudicial killings (Sid-
of the lowest in the world. However, the literacy rate for dique 2018).
girls is even lower at 25 percent. This is especially true In April 2018, in a rare public demonstration against
for girls in rural areas. The largest gap in school attend- Pakistan’s military authorities, thousands of Pashtun pro-
ance between Pakistani boys and girls occurs in the rural testers demanded an end to what they consider decades
Pashtun areas of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and the Federally of anti-Pashtun oppression. In response, Pakistani police
Administered Tribal Areas. For the Pashtuns, girls’ edu- arrested several PTM leaders. Pashtuns claim they have
cation is a social, economic, political, and religious matter borne the brunt of Pakistan’s involvement in the war on
to which poverty, females’ low social status, poor access to terrorism, which has resulted in thousands of Pashtuns
schools, security issues, lack of transport, and a shortage disappearing or being targeted for extrajudicial killings. In
of female teachers all contribute. Two decades of war, vio- contrast, the country’s military leaders accuse protesters of
lence, and religious extremism have further complicated trying to undermine Pakistani society and security.
the issue of girls’ education. The impact of these factors Only the future will tell how the Pashtun demonstra-
can be seen in the figures for Pashtun tribes living near tions will impact on Pakistan’s domestic security policies
Pakistan’s border with Afghanistan, where only 13 percent and how the Pakistani government will respond to the
of primary school–aged girls go to school (Jamal 2016). Pashtuns’ demands.

See also: Aimaq; Baluch; Hazara; Turkmen; Uzbek

Threats to Survival Further Reading
In Afghanistan, the collapse of the predominantly Pashtun Boyajian, Vehe S. 2017. “Pashtuns.” In Etiquette and Taboos
Taliban and the signing of the Bonn Agreement (2001, a around the World: A Geographic Encyclopedia of Social and
Cultural Customs, edited by Ken Taylor and Victoria Wil-
series of agreements intended to reestablish the State of
liams, 231–234. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Afghanistan following the U.S. invasion of Afghanistan) Jamal, Aamir. 2016. “Why He Won’t Send His Daughter to
greatly reduced Pashtun supremacy over the country’s School—Barriers to Girls’ Education in Northwest Pakistan:
other ethnic groups. At present, the Pashtuns, historically A Qualitative Delphi Study of Pashtun Men.” SAGE Open 6,
876 Pech

no. 3 (August 8). http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/full/10​ Macro-Chibchan languages. Young Pech people mainly
.1177/2158244016663798. speak Spanish, however, and though they understand
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Pech on the whole, young Pech do not speak the language.
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 3, L–R.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Some Pech also speak Miskito, the language of the Miskito
Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East and Cen- indigenous people. As young Pech people in general do not
tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. speak the Pech language, the Pech native tongue is in dan-
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Afghanistan: Pash- ger of becoming extinct very soon.
tuns.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples,
June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/pashtuns.
Siddique, Abubakar. 2018. “Pashtun People Power Is Jolting Population, Diaspora, and Migration
the Military Establishment in Pakistan.” Washington Post,
According to the 2001 Honduras census, there were 3,848
May 10. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/democracy​
-post​/wp/2018/05/10/pashtun-people-power-is-jolting-the​ Pech people in Honduras. This means that the Pech rep-
-military-establishment-in-pakistan. resent around 0.06 percent of Honduras’ total population,
and are the seventh-largest Honduran population group
(United Nations 2013). The number of full-blooded Pech
is, however, most likely considerably smaller, as the num-
ber of people identifying as Pech is often less than the
PECH number of full-blooded people belonging to the tribe.
Pech settlements can greatly vary in size. For example, the
Current Location Honduras village at Waikatara is home to only a few families who
Current Population 7,205 had fled from Olancho to avoid land conflicts, and Santa
Language Pech; Spanish Maria del Carbon has a Pech population of over 1,000 Pech
Interesting Fact The Pech hunt many different types people (Gold 2009).
of animals, including monkeys, igua-
nas, wild pigs, deer, and turkeys.
Geography and the Environment
The relationship between the Pech and the land cannot be
Overview underestimated, something that was recognized by Span-
The Pech (also spelled Pesch), previously called the Paya, ish missionary Father Manuel del Jesus Subirana, who
are an indigenous people living in northeastern Honduras, helped the Pech acquire title to their territory in 1862. It
particularly in the departments of Colon, Gracias a Dios, is when the Pech are able to live on land that they consider
and Olancho. In the settlement of Las Marías, where the it their own, and it is either outside the realm of strangers
Pech are in the minority, they live alongside the Garífuna or of no interest to outsiders whether the Pech survive and
and Miskito. The Pech tend to live on mountainous land. thrive. Over the years, however, gold prospectors and log-
The name Pech means “people” in the Pech language. gers have been attracted to Pech land, and the presence of
However, this term only refers to their own ethnicity, for the sarsaparilla plant on Pech territory has attracted other
the Pech refer to other groups as Pech-Hakua, meaning Hondurans and foreigners to Pech settlements. These out-
“other people.” Other Latin peoples sometimes refer to siders variously enslaved the Pech, employed the Pech to
the Pech pejoratively as the Payas or Payitas. The Pech are extract the natural resources from their own land, or sim-
among the indigenous peoples recognized by Honduras ply snatched Pech land away to strip the land of its gold,
under International Labour Organization (ILO) 160, the timber, and plants.
Convention Concerning Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Today, though the Pech still hunt, fish, and grow plants
in Independent Countries of 1989, which was ratified in such as yucca, maize and beans, their main economic
1995. The Pech are distant relatives of the Jicaque or Tolu- activities also include tree clearing, gold panning, breed-
pan indigenous group living on the northwest coast of ing domestic animals, and extracting fragrant resin from
Honduras and the La Montaña del Flor settlement located liquidambar trees so that it can be used to produce per-
in central Honduras. fumes, adhesives, and incense. The Pech also earn money
One of the main characteristics of the Pech is that they from selling handcrafted items, such as woven bags, bas-
speak their own language, which belongs to the family of kets and placemats, ribbons, corn-grinding stones, and
 Pech 877

wooden furniture. Pech artisans are organized into com- In 1864, the Pech were given land by the Honduran gov-
munal indigenous councils allied to the Federation of Pech ernment. However, this land was densely forested, mainly
Indigenous Tribes of Honduras (FETRIPH). with pitch pine (known as ocote in Central and South
Economic activity is not confined to Pech men, how- America) and mahogany. As a result, loggers pressured
ever, for the social structure of Pech life is based around the Pech into leaving their territory and ravaged the Pech
the concept of the extended family. To this end, Pech lands, felling the trees that grew there.
women play an important role in the economic life of their Despite the land they were given by the government,
people. Over the years, Pech women have been artisans, the Pech hit a population low during the 1920s, when there
healers, farmers, shamans, and fisherwomen, and a small were only six hundred Pech left alive. Ever since this time,
but significant number have also grown sugarcane. the Pech population has dwindled. Furthermore, many
Pech have totally assimilated into Honduras’ urban cul-
ture and no longer speak their native language, speaking
History and Politics
Spanish instead of Pech. Indeed, by the late 1980s, there
Throughout time, the Pech people have migrated and existed only around two hundred Pech speaking the Pech
followed a seminomadic or nomadic lifestyle to survive. language, though around one thousand identified as Pech
Ethnographers believe the Pech are descended from the without speaking the language. In fact, one of the ways
Paya people and originally lived on the Bay Islands that in which the Pech have managed to survive thus far is by
lay off Honduras’ north coast in the Caribbean Sea, before self-consciously identifying as a people. To further aid
extending their territory south to Olancho. The early Pech their chances of survival, in 1978, the Pech joined with
were one of several indigenous peoples living in the area, other Honduran indigenous peoples to form the National
and it seems that there was contact between the groups as Federation of Tribes for the Liberation of the Honduran
well as some level of cultural crossover. The oral history Indian (CONATRIN), which was affiliated with ANACH,
of the different peoples varies, however, so it is clear that the Honduran peasant union.
although the groups were influenced by each other, they
remained distinct. Various artifacts found on Pech terri-
tory, including pottery, cave drawings, and ceremonial Society, Culture, and Tradition
stones, all indicate early Pech culture. The Pech who survived their encounter with the Miskito
In earlier times, the Pech are thought to have occupied moved inland, where Spanish missionaries tried to make
an area of roughly 10,039 square miles and cultivated var- the Pech live in settlements, where they could be converted
ious crops. In 1498, Christopher Columbus encountered to Catholicism. The Pech, however, resisted these attempts
the Pech (though he referred to them as the Taia) when he at religious conversion and left the missions. A legacy of
made his third voyage to the New World. At this time, the this Spanish desire to convert the Pech is that today most
Pech were seminomadic agriculturalists growing mainly Pech identify as Catholic. Today, the Pech with the strong-
tubers. When the Spanish colonized Honduras in the six- est cultural roots live in the community of Las Marías.
teenth century, the early Pech lost much of their influence. The Pech living in the isolated Las Marías, a mixed Pesch-
Indeed, the Spanish expelled the early Pech from the Bay Miskito Indian settlement situated on the banks of the Río
Islands because the Spanish suspected the Pech of collud- Plátano, maintain much of the traditional Pech lifestyle.
ing with the British. After their expulsion, the Pech arrived Living in the remotest region of the Honduran Mosquitia,
on the northern coast of Honduras, where they encoun- the Pech in Las Marías continue the subsistence lifestyle
tered the Miskito people, who had been armed by the of their ancestors, for they grow shifting plots of rice, cas-
British. The Miskito wasted no time in attacking the Pech, sava, beans, and corn in clearings hewn from the rainfor-
and they also captured and sold some Pech as slaves. The est lying along the river as well as opuntia cacti that they
enslavement, combined with outbreaks of disease caught cultivate using basic tools.
from Europeans, decimated the Pech population. The Pech living in Las Marías hunt game animals,
Meanwhile, up until the eighteenth century, some including iguanas, tapirs, deer, monkeys, wild pigs, and
nomadic Pech lived in the center of the mountainous wild turkeys, that abound in the forests of the surround-
Agalta National Park, and their principal activities were ing area. The Pech use their handmade dugout canoes to
hunting, fishing, and growing tubers, including sweet fish in the Río Plátano using handmade harpoons. Alter-
yucca and maize. natively, the Pech fish underwater using improvised spear
878 Pech

guns. The most coveted catch is the cuyamel, a large fish natural resources that exist on the land. To this end, the
that is facing extinction elsewhere in Honduras. In fact, the biosphere has seen forests logged and converted for use as
environment of Las Marías provides the Pech with such a pasture and the illegal extraction of natural resources.
healthy diet that the Pech living in this region do not show Today, with increasing assimilation into Latino society
the signs of malnutrition that are prevalent among other and more intermarriage, the future of pure Pech people is
Honduras population groups. That said, the Pech living in looking uncertain. Of those Pech that remain, less than half
Las Marías suffer from high rates of gastrointestinal com- of them speak the Pech language fluently. Some commen-
plaints and malaria as well as other widespread medical tators believe that this language is the key to the survival of
problems. the Pech, meaning that the extinction of the Pech tongue
will lead to the ultimate disappearance of Pech society.
In recent years, Honduras’ Ministry for Indigenous and
Health Care and Education Afro-Honduran Peoples has taken action to defend and
Though the Pech rely on their locality for much of the promote the human rights of nine indigenous and Afro-
things in their lives, they do not financially benefit from Honduran peoples, including the Pech. In particular, the
the natural resources found on their territory. This is ministry aims to help public bodies provide the Pech with
evinced by the fact that Pech individuals have one of the financial support, legal advice, and multilingual education
lowest monthly incomes of any indigenous Honduran while also promoting Pech culture. In addition, Pech elders
people. Indeed, according to figures collated by the United and community leaders try to preserve elements of tradi-
Nations, 84.4 percent of Pech people live in extreme tional Pech music and oral literature, and they encourage the
poverty. While many indigenous Honduran and Afro- production of traditional Pech drinks such as muniá (based
Honduran families have an average of 2.9 children, Pech on yucca) and Ohtiá, which is based on sugarcane juice.
families have an average of more than three children per
household. Pech households often have low incomes, See also: Garifuna; Lenca; Mayan; Miskito
meaning Pech children often live in poor conditions. Further Reading
Indeed, official figures suggest that 88 percent of Pech Gold, Janet M. 2009. Culture and Customs of Honduras. West-
port, CT: Greenwood Press.
children live in extreme poverty. This high percentage of Joshua Project. 2017. “Pech in Honduras.” https://joshuaproject​
extreme poverty is mainly due to the remote geographical .net/people_groups/14349/HO.
location of Pech settlements, the Pech’s reliance on sub- Kolankiewicz, Leon. 1989. “The Pesch of Honduras Face
sistence crops, and the anti-Pech discrimination that has Uncertain Prospects.” Cultural Survival, September. https://​
existed for centuries. In the long term, such factors mean www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival​
that Pech children often grow up to a life of inequality and -quarterly/pesch-honduras-face-uncertain-prospects.
Moore, Kerry, and Rob Walker. 2013. “Paya: Database for Indig-
the lack of opportunities experienced by other children enous Cultural Evolution (DICE).” Anthropology 4680 (Feb-
and young people living in Honduras. By way of contrast, ruary 22). http://dice.missouri.edu/docs/chibchan/Paya.pdf.
39 percent of English-speaking Afro-Hondurans live in Olson, James S. 1991. The Indians of Central and South America:
extreme poverty, a figure that is significantly lower than An Ethnohistorical Dictionary. New York: Greenwood Press.
the national figure of 41.6 percent. Tomczyk, Thomas. 2011. “The Paya of Bay Islands.” Bay Islands
Voice, May 1. http://www.bayislandsvoice.com/the-paya​
-of-bay-islands-after-around-1000-years-of-living-on-the​
Threats to Survival -archipelago-the-original-inhabitants-of-bay-islands-have​
-been-forcibly-removed-the-echo-of-their-presence-is​
With the exception of Santa Maria del Carbon, Pech land is -hidden-in-pottery-moun-201105011535.
still in danger of being taken over by neighboring mestizo UNESCO World Heritage Centre. 1992–2017. “Río Plátano Bio-
and non-Pech farmers, who are able to use knowledge of sphere Reserve.” http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/196.
Honduran laws to their advantage and are wealthy enough United Nations. 2013. “International Convention on the Elimina­
to buy Pech land. Even in the Río Plátano Biosphere Reserve, tion of All Forms of Racial Discrimination: Honduras.” United
Nations, May 13. http://docstore.ohchr.org/SelfServices​
a UNESCO World Heritage Site that preserves a number of
/FilesHandler.ashx?enc=6QkG1d%2FPPRiCAqhKb7yhsryC
endangered species and contains some of Honduras’ larg- SwE1zhGSy1dtWJQsJli3gb5xYdlw4clp0jCbc%2BX4PwfUtg​
est sections of forest, and in which only indigenous Hon- %2FavLIuMhjL1cOijn%2BhK6xAx9bUDrEZq95pz8AEvwA
durans are allowed to live, a lack of land law enforcement 8eXi4JYWLlM8Qk5NO.
means that outsiders are able to exploit Pech land and the
 Pemón 879

PEMÓN The establishment of Pemón towns, the continuation of

Pemón villages, and a general increase in the Pemón pop-
Current Location Venezuela ulation means the overexploitation of local resources such
Current Population 30,148 as forests and game animals has occurred in Pemón areas.
Language Pemon; Spanish
Interesting Fact The name given to the Pemón Geography and Environment
homeland by other Venezuelans, El
Mundo Perdido is reputed to have
The Pemón live along Venezuela’s southeast border with
inspired the title of British writer Brazil in the Gran Sabana (“Great Savanna”) municipality.
Arthur Conan Doyle’s sci-fi novel The border between Venezuela and Brazil consists of only
The Lost World (1912) a paved border crossing (Ramirez 2019).
The Gran Sabana includes large stretches of plateau that
are dominated by open savannas. The flatness of this land
Overview emphasizes the numerous tepuis (table top mountains)
The Pemón (also written as Pemon and sometimes called found in the area. Tepui is a Pemon word meaning “house
Arecuna, Kamarakoto, or Taurepan) are an indigenous of the gods.”
people living in southeast Venezuela. Among them- Gran Sabana contains many rivers and waterfalls that
selves, the Pemón speak Pemon (or Arekuna), which is a run north to south, which are part of the upper basin of
Cariban language. The Pemón speak Spanish to outsid- the Caroni River. The waters of the Caroni River feed the
ers. The Pemón combine indigenous religious beliefs with Guri Dam, one of Venezuela’s main hydroelectric plants.
Christianity, especially Catholicism. The name Pemón is a In Gran Sabana, rivers spill over the edges of escarp-
self-designation meaning “people.” The Pemón adopted this ments and table mountains to create dramatic waterfalls,
name to distinguish themselves from neighboring peoples. the most famous of which is the Angel Falls, the world’s
tallest waterfall. Other waterfalls in the area include the
Chinak-Merú, Kamá Falls, and Jaspé Falls. The Jaspé Falls
Population, Diaspora, and Migration are noted for having clear waters that tumble over red and
According to the 2011 Venezuelan national census, the oranges river beds made from the semiprecious stone solid
Pemón population comprises 30,148 people (Minority jasper.
Rights Group International 2017). The Pemón population Another notable geographic feature of the Gran Sabana
is divided between three subgroups based on dialect: the is Mount Roraima, a 9,200-foot-high mountain that is
Kamarokoto, Taurepan, and Arekuna. Most Pemón live in considered a sacred place by the Pemón and regarded as a
Venezuela’s Gran Sabana (“Great Savannah”) municipality spiritual symbol by many non-Pemón Venezuelans. Parts
within the Canaima National Park. of Mount Roraima contain layers of pure white quartz
Traditionally, the Pemón live in highly dispersed areas crystals, and pools of water inside the rock are inhabited
with low population densities—in 1973, there was 1 by insectivorous plants.
Pemón person per 4.1 kilometers (Cochrane 2009). How- Gran Sabana’s weather is unpredictable, for the area’s
ever, since the start of missionary activity in the Pemón mountains can cause rain to fall locally at any time, and
homeland as well as societal changes brought about by long dry spells can occur during the wetter May–August
contact with nonindigenous peoples (criollos), Pemón set- period. Typically, a drier season lasts from October to
tlement patterns have greatly changed. The Pemón have March. By the end of this period, the land is arid and
started to inhabit areas surrounding missions, as this ena- dusty. When rainfall increases in April or May, the area’s
ble them to access to healthcare and education services. grasslands revive and the rivers rise, allowing their waters
Then, in the 1970s and 1980s, a road network was built to feed the waterfalls. Much of Gran Sabana is covered in
across Pemón land. The introduction of roads meant the evergreen rainforests that contain hundreds of endemic
Pemón largely abandoned their tradition of living in many plant species. Additionally, the Canaima National Park
small scattered villages, and they began to inhabit several that occupies roughly the same area as the Gran Sabana
densely populated towns that were home to between one contains part of the Guayanan Highlands moist forest
hundred and two thousand people (Cochrane 2009). These ecoregion. The Canaima National Park is home to many
towns were usually near missions and roads. animals, including armadillos, cougars, hummingbirds,
880 Pemón

and parrots. In contrast, wildlife is sparse in the grasslands Guard and the army when security forces moved tanks to
of Gran Sabana. the border with Brazil. According to witnesses, security
Beyond the boundaries of Canaima National Park, for- forces used tear gas and bullets on Pemón demonstrators,
ests are threatened by gold and diamond mining. In recent who retaliated using rocks and arrows.
years, ecotourism companies have sold holidays that allow
tourists to stay in mucoposadas (guesthouses) among the
Pemón. Society, Culture, and Tradition
Traditionally, the Pemón subsist through activities that
include slash-and-burn farming, hunting, and fishing.
History and Politics Mining and tourism have provided the Pemón with some
The history of the Pemón prior to 1750 is unknown, with employment opportunities, but the Pemón disagree over
no historical record dating to before this time. In 1931, the extent to which such activities negatively impact their
the first Catholic mission was established on Pemón land. land and communities. In villages, the Pemón live in round
Soon after, rich gold and silver deposits were discovered. thatched homes called churuatas.
As a result of this discovery, a gold rush began in Pemón Fire is an essential element of Pemón life, for fire is nec-
areas in 1936. essary for the Pemón to be able to clear forests for cultiva-
In 1993, the National Indian Council of Venezuela tion and to keep away dangerous animals. It also serves as
(CONIVE) protested against the development of Pemón a form of communication and cleans pathways. Fire also
land by Venezuela’s Ministry of Energy and Mines that has a spiritual and cultural significance to the Pemón, for
would see the blasting apart of the rocks comprising the Pemón believe fire has magical properties and is able
Roraima National Park, which was in violation of Pemón to cure illness.
religious beliefs. Although Pemón leaders showed some Jasper is also important to the Pemón, for the Pemón
support for the government of then president Hugo use jasper to make graters that they use to prepare yucca.
Chavez, in 2001, the Pemón destroyed electrical towers The yucca graters are highly valued and traded with neigh-
and kidnapped executives of Corporación Venezolona boring peoples both in Venezuela and Brazil.
de Guayana to protest against government plans to build The Pemón combine Christian beliefs with belief in the
an electrical plant on their land (Minority Rights Group spirit of evil, Kanaima. In Pemón mythology, gods and
International 2017). ancestral spirits called mawari inhabit the tepuis of their
During Venezuela’s ongoing hyperinflationary eco- homeland. Consequently, the living are not supposed to
nomic collapse, which has caused malnutrition and a dra- walk on the mountains. Important Pemón myths describe
matic fall in living standards in Venezuelans, humanitarian the creation of the tepui and the origins of the sun and
aid has become a flashpoint amid an intensifying politi- moon that rise dramatically from the savannah of the
cal and social crisis. The Pemón have made international Gran Sabana. Local names given to the tepuis suggest the
headlines for their determination to allow humanitarian mountains’ mystical nature: for example, Sororopan (“the
aid into Venezuela, even when that defiance resulted in a whisper of waterfalls”) and Aparaman (“house of the evil
showdown with Venezuelan security forces. In February spirits”).
2019, Pemón leaders told the Reuters news agency that as The rocks found at the top of Mount Roraima include
the Venezuelan people’s need for help should trump any some of the world’s oldest geological formations. Wind and
politicization of humanitarian aid, they were prepared to storms have eroded the rocks into strange, labyrinthine
open the Venezuelan border of their homeland to receive shapes that the Pemón refuse to visit for fear of disturbing
humanitarian aid (Ramirez 2019). The Gran Sabana the gods. Non-Pemón Venezuelans call the Pemón home-
region’s councilman for indigenous communities was land El Mundo Perdido (“the Lost World”) on account of
quoted as saying that neither the National Guard nor the its otherworldliness. The Pemón revere a creator hero
government can stop them, as the Pemón “are the natives called Makunaima as well as folk and cult saints along
of Gran Sabana and we will not allow some generals from with official Catholic saints. Their main Pemón holidays
outside to decide for us. . . . We are the legitimate authori- are Catholic holidays, particularly Holy Week and Christ-
ties” (Ramirez 2019). It was later reported internationally mas. Baptism via a Catholic mission is the most important
that the Pemón clashed with the Venezuelan National Pemón rite of passage.
 Piaroa 881

Health Care and Education Prengaman, Peter. 2018. “Brazil Struggles to Care for Venezuela’s
Indigenous Warao.” Associated Press News, March 27. https://​
Long-standing shortages of medical supplies, skyrock- www.apnews.com/d19b805f7a384e2481429e4db236d676.
eting inflation, and the loss of doctors who wish to work Ramirez, Maria. 2019. “Indigenous Pemon on Venezuela’s bor-
abroad means Venezuela’s healthcare system, which was der with Brazil Vow to Let Aid In.” Reuters, February 9.
once world class, has almost totally collapsed. A 2018 https://www.reuters.com/article/us-venezuela-politics-aid​
survey found that of 104 Venezuelan healthcare facilities -indigenous/indigenous-pemon-on-venezuelas-border-with​
-brazil-vow-to-let-aid-in-idUSKCN1PY0MO.
checked, 79 percent did not have running water, and 25
Sequera, Vivian, and Francisco Aguilar. 2018. “Venezuelan
percent of pediatric intensive care units together with 14 Schools Emptying as Chavez Legacy under Threat.” Reu-
percent of other intensive care units had shut due to a lack ters, April 25. https://www.reuters.com/article/us-venezuela​
of supplies (Prengaman 2018). Pemón leaders report that -schools/venezuelan-schools-emptying-as-chavez-legacy​
at the local hospital, both patients and doctors despair at -under-threat-idUSKBN1HW1KL.
the lack of medicines available. In emergency situations,
Pemón patients are taken to Brazil’s Boa Vista hospital in
the Brazilian border state of Roraima.
In Venezuela, almost three million children are missing
some or all of their schooling as a result of the country’s PIAROA
economic crisis. Although free education was a principle
Current Location Venezuela; Colombia
of former president Hugo Chavez’s 1999–2013 socialist
Current Population 20,000
administration, today, Venezuela’s education system is in a
state of total collapse (Sequera and Aguilar 2018). Language Piaroa dialects
Interesting Fact The Piaroa consider tarantulas a
delicacy.

Threats to Survival
Venezuela’s worsening economic crises coupled with an Overview
uncertain political landscape have caused many millions of The Piaroas (sometimes called the De’aruas, Wothuhas,
Venezuelans to flee the country; those that remain, includ- Guaguas, Kuakuas, Quaquas, or Wo’tihehs, among other
ing the Pemón, endure hyperinflation as well as severe names) are a South American ethnic group living in Vene-
shortages of food, fuel, and basic goods and services. zuela and Colombia. The Piaroas speak dialects of the Pia-
In late February 2019, it was widely reported that at roa language, which is part of the Saliban language family.
least one Pemón person has been killed and a dozen more Most Piaroas are Christian, though they tend to combine
injured in a clash between the Pemón and Venezuelan Christian customs with pre-Christian rituals.
security forces who were moving tanks to the country’s
border with Brazil. The day before, President Nicolás
Maduro had ordered the border be closed, as his political Population, Diaspora, and Migration
opposition planned to bring humanitarian aid into Vene- The roughly twenty thousand Piaroas live in the rainfor-
zuela from Brazil and neighboring countries. ests of Venezuela and Colombia found in the upper Ori-
The role that the Pemón take in the ongoing Venezuelan noco River region. Since the 1990s, an increasing number
economic and political turmoil will likely help shape their of Piaroas have migrated from their traditional rainforest
future. homes to settle in new towns along the Orinoco River.
See also: Piaroa; Warao; Wayuu

Further Reading Geography and Environment

Cochrane, Mark A. 2009. Tropical Fire Ecology: Climate Change, The traditional Piaroa homeland is located in the center
Land Use and Ecosystem Dynamics. Berlin, Germany: Springer
of the Orinoco River basin. The Orinoco River is a major
in association with Chichester, UK: Praxis Publishing.
Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Venezuela: Pemón.” river of South America. To the west and north, the river is
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, bordered by the Andes Mountains; the Guiana Highlands
December. https://minorityrights.org/minorities/pemon. of Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and
882 Piaroa

Brazil lie to its east; and the Amazon watershed borders particularly peaceful people that avoided contact with
the river to the south. The river flows in a gigantic arc from outsiders.
its source in the Guiana Highlands to the Atlantic Ocean. In the sixteenth century, Europeans settled on the coast
Most of the river flows through Venezuela, with part of it around the Orinoco River delta. By the 1530s, European
forming the border between Venezuela and Colombia. The expeditions had started to sail up the Orinoco, and while
Parguaza River lies to the north of the Piaroa homeland, the expeditions claimed the land for Spain, the expedi-
the lower Ventuari River is to the south, the Orinoco River tions did not colonize the rainforests or the peoples living
is to the west, and the Manapiari River lies to the east. The within the forests. However, although the rainforest people
Piaroa homeland consists predominantly of tropical rain- remained free of contact with the Spanish, the rainforest
forests interrupted by sandstone mountains. tribes caught the European diseases that had been intro-
In 2016, the Venezuelan government decreed that the duced to South America by the Spanish settlers. Soon,
upper reaches of the Amazon Rainforest were to become epidemics of smallpox and measles broke out that killed
a special economic zone called the Arco Minero del Ori- entire tribal bands.
noco (Orinoco Mining Arc), which would be devoted to In the mid-eighteenth century, Spanish colonizers
the mining of gold, diamonds, coltan, iron, and bauxite. moved inland via the Orinoco River, though they did not
The area constitutes around a quarter of the Guiana shield, make contact with the Piaroas. At the start of the nine-
a mineral-rich geological formation that stretches into teenth century, Spain lost control of South America. This
Colombia, Venezuela, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, had little impact on the Piaroas, however, for their land
and Brazil. The Guaiana area corresponds with the upper was first explored by a Venezuelan expedition as late as
reaches of the Amazon Rainforest and as such is an area of 1897. The designation of the Venezuela-Colombia border
outstanding environmental significant, for it contains 60 divided Piaroa land, however, leaving a small number of
percent of Venezuela’s freshwater resources and 50 percent Piaroas living on the western bank of the Orinoco River
of the country’s animal biodiversity. Around 64 percent of inside Colombia.
the Arco Minero landscape is forested, with over a third of During the 1950s, Roman Catholic missionaries founded
forested areas being rainforests (Marcello 2017). missions on Piaroa land. The missionaries taught the Pia-
The Piaroa are one of eleven indigenous peoples roas a peaceful version of the Catholic religion that chimed
directly affected by mining in the Arco Minero. The newly with the Piaroas’ inherently peace-loving nature and won
approved coltan mines are located close to where the Par- many Piaroa converts. Subsequently, Protestant mission-
guaza river meets the Orinoco, at the border with Colom- aries entered Piaroa territory, a move that resulted in great
bia. This is an area inhabited by the Piaroas. The decision religious confusion among the Piaroas. As a result of mis-
to allow the mining was taken despite opposition from sionary activity, by the mid-1960s, roughly 80 percent of
the Piaroas and also without an environmental assess- the Piaroas were at least nominally Christian, though they
ment (Marcello 2017). Although some Piaroa represent- maintained many of their traditional shamanistic beliefs
atives claim the Piaroas support the mining because it (Minahan 2013). In the 1990s, some Piaroas migrated
will benefit the community by improving social programs to towns that had sprung up along the Orinoco River. In
through the provision of health clinics, schools, roads, and 2011, Piaroa leaders expressed their frustration with the
such like, other Piaroas campaign against the mining on Venezuelan government following repeated requests for
the grounds that is will destroy Piaroa culture by clearing the Piaroa homeland to be designated reserved lands to
parts of the rainforest and polluting local waterways, leav- protect their territory from exploitation by oil prospec-
ing the Piaroas without water for drinking and bathing tors and prevent outsiders from settling in the territory.
(López 2017). In 2016, the Venezuelan government announced plans to
allow mining on Piaroa land.

History and Politics

The Piaroas have lived in the rainforests of the upper Ori- Society, Culture, and Tradition
noco since prehistoric times. Over time, the Piaroas gar- Piaroa culture is a rainforest culture that sees the peo-
nered a reputation among neighboring tribes as being a ple use canoes called bongos to navigate the tributaries
 Piaroa 883

of the Orinoco River. The Piaroas are regarded as one of being accessible by traveling along rivers for several days.
the world’s most peaceful societies (Minahan 2013), a This, together with Venezuela’s crumbling healthcare sys-
peace-loving nature that springs from the Piaroa belief tem, impedes the Piaroas’ access to health care.
that cooperation is all important and competition is In the recent past, the Venezuelan government vowed to
evil. The Piaroas’ peaceful nature means that murder is overhaul the education of the country’s indigenous peoples
unknown among the Piaroas (Minahan 2013). In addition by providing bilingual classes and adapting curriculums
to being peaceful, the Piaroas have a strongly antiauthor- to reflect indigenous language, history, and culture while
itarian egalitarian society that denounces the hoarding of extending education into more tribal areas, including Pia-
resources. Although Piaroa chiefs are traditionally male, roa territory. However, although some improvements have
Piaroa society is not patriarchal, and men do not dominate occurred, the deteriorating state of the Venezuelan edu-
tribal life. The Piaroas’ peaceful nature is shaped by their cation system, together with a lack of qualified teachers,
religious beliefs. According to these beliefs, the ancient means the overhaul is unlikely to materialize.
gods were materialistic, violent, and proud. Piaroa sha-
mans control this violence through chants and blowing
words into a mixture of water and honey that is then con- Threats to Survival
sumed by the Piaroas to ensure the people’s safety. Venezuela is in the midst of a deep economic crisis that sees
Historically, the Piaroas’ religious beliefs entailed the the country’s people suffering from widespread hunger, a col-
mummification of the dead. The mummies and the pos- lapsed health and education system, extremely limited access
sessions of the deceased were kept in caves. Today, how- to medicines, and escalating human rights abuses. Venezue-
ever, as around 80 percent of the Piaroas are Christian la’s downward spiral has been exacerbated by widespread
(Minahan 2013), this type of burial practice occurs very corruption as well as the mismanagement of environmental
infrequently. One custom that missionaries have failed resources (Marcello 2017). These factors have resulted in
to curb is the Piaroas’ fondness for eating tarantulas and more Piaroas moving away from their rainforest homeland
other large jungle spiders, which the Piaroas consider a to towns in search of health care, education, and jobs.
great delicacy. The Piaroas have grown cassava roots for The mining occurring on Piaroa land pollutes the peo-
many generations, with the cultivation of cassava being an ple’s water and leads to disputes within the people’s tradi-
extremely important status symbol among Piaroa women. tionally peaceful society. Mining has also led to a rise in
prostitution among the Piaroa. Additionally, the Piaroas
traditional crafts, religious beliefs, and ceremonies are van-
Health Care and Education
ishing, as Piaroa culture is increasingly influenced by the
The Piaroas consider illness and death as punishments for prevailing Hispanic culture of Venezuela and Colombia.
disobeying the fundamentals of Piaroa society. In recent
years, many Piaroas have started to migrate to live in riv- See also: Warao
erside towns, where they can access better health care Further Reading
and schools. In recent years, researchers have discovered Heckler, Serena. 2012. “On Knowing and Not Knowing: The Many
some Piaroas suffering from tuberculosis, parasitic infec- Valuations of Piaroa Indigenous Knowledge.” In Anthropolo-
gists, Indigenous Scholars and the Research Endeavour: Seek-
tions, and severe malnourishment. Very recently, the liv-
ing Bridges towards Mutual Respect, edited by Joy Hendry
ing conditions of the Piaroas have worsened, as a severe and Laara Fitznor, 138–153. New York: Routledge.
malaria epidemic has taken hold on Piaroa areas. The López, Édgar. 2017. “Fighting Large-Scale Mining with Bows
malaria originates around mining sites, where trees have and Arrows.” OCCRP, October 3. https://www.occrp.org/en​
been cleared and replaced by pools of stagnant water that /goldandchaos/fighting-large-scale-mining-with-bows-and​
are the perfect breeding grounds for mosquitoes. Mining -arrows.
Marcello, Lucio. 2017. “Saving the Venezuelan Amazon.” Inter-
has also caused a surge in prostitution in Piaroa areas that
continental Cry, April 1. https://intercontinentalcry.org​
has associated health risks. Some Piaroa villages contain /saving-venezuelan-amazon.
an Integrated Diagnostic Center (Centro Diagnóstico Inte- Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An
gral), which is part of the Venezuelan national healthcare Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
system. However, Piaroa villages tend to be remote, only
884 Pipil

PIPIL regarded as less hospitable than some parts of El Salvador

because it is interrupted by dormant volcanoes and has
Current Location El Salvador poor drainage and highly acidic soil. Until the building
Current Population 220,000 of two major hydroelectric installations, the Lempa River
Language Spanish; Nawat (Nahuat) was navigable for several miles inland.
Interesting Fact The first Pipils probably settled in Little of El Salvador’s soil is suitable for farming. The
western El Salvador around 3000 CE. soil that is farmable is composed of volcanic ash, lava, and
alluvium. This soil has, however, supported farming for
centuries, with coffee being a major export. El Salvador’s
Overview southern coast has particularly fertile alluvial soils depos-
The Pipils (also sometimes called the Nawats or Nahuats, ited by the numerous rivers that flow from the central
among other names) are an indigenous people that live highlands. This soil, combined with hot temperatures and
mostly in El Salvador as well as in neighboring parts of high amounts of rainfall, creates good growing conditions.
Honduras. Almost all Pipils have Spanish as their main El Salvador’s climate is tropical, though temperatures tend
language, though some Pipils speak the Nawat (Nahuat) to be warm rather than hot. Heavy rains called the tem-
language. Most Pipils are Roman Catholic though there porales fall from May to October. A dry summer season
some Pipils are Mormon or belong to evangelical Prot- extends from November to April.
estant denominations. The name Pipil was coined by the
Nahuas and translates as either “child” or “little old man.”
History and Politics
Pipils probably originate from the Nahua people who
Population, Diaspora, and Migration formed a branch of the pre-Columbian Toltec civilization
The Pipil population is estimated at around 220,000 peo- that flourished in Central Mexico toward the end of the
ple (Minahan 2013). The Pipils reside in El Salvador’s first millennium CE. Although most Nahuas settled in
southwestern region in the departments of Sonsonate Mexico, some carried on moving southward to Central
(especially the communities Nahuizalco and Izalco), America. The first Pipils, as a subgroup of the Nahuas,
Ahuachapán, La Libertad, and (to a lesser degree) Santa likely settled in the west of El Salvador around 3000 CE.
Ana. The most well-known Pipil communities are Santo During the tenth century, a second group of Nahuas
Domingo de Guzmán (in Sonsonate department), Cacaop- called the Izalco Pipils settled on land west of the Lempa
era (in Morazan department), and Panchimalco, which is River. To start, the Izalco Pipils lived separately from the
located just outside of the country’s capital, San Salvador. existing Pipils. However, in the eleventh century, the Izalco
Some Pipils also live in areas of Honduras bordering El Pipils united with the other Pipils to form a civilization
Salvador. The most traditional Pipil communities live in called the Cuzcatlán (“Land of the Jewel”). The Pipils soon
the southwestern highlands near El Salvador’s border with established large urban settlements, including at least two
Guatemala (Minority Rights Group International 2017). centralized city-states that were also home to groups of
The Pipils have greatly influenced El Salvador’s culture, as Mayas. In time, Cuzcatlán exhibited a blend of Mayan and
much of the country’s population claims Pipil ancestry. Nahua culture and language. In addition, Pipil religious
sects became very similar to those established by Central
Mexican Aztecs, though the Pipils abandoned human sac-
Geography and Environment rifice early on. In addition to urban settlements, the Pipils
El Salvador is bordered by Honduras to the north and east, established irrigated farming over a wide area. Pipil agri-
by the Pacific Ocean to the south, and by Guatemala to the culture was maize-based but also produced cotton. This
northwest. El Salvador is volcanic. The country’s central allowed the Pipils to create textiles and woven goods that
highlands consist mainly of a line of over twenty volcanoes they sold via a trade network alongside their farm produce.
(some active), including the Izalco Volcano, which reaches At the start of the 1700s, Spanish conquistadors started
an altitude of 6,447 feet. North of the central highlands is a to enter Pipil territory, having traveled south from Mexico.
broad interior plain drained by the Lempa River, the most By this time, the Pipils controlled almost all of western El
important of El Salvador’s two main rivers. The plain is Salvador plus much of the central area, up to the banks of
 Pipil 885

Pipil women participate in a ceremony to celebrate the spring equinox at the temple of San Andrés, near San Salvador, El Salvador. Pipil
culture includes many folk traditions tied to the natural world. (Jose Cabezas/AFP/Getty Images)

the Lempa River. In 1524, the Spanish, assisted by thou- Additionally, El Salvador’s relative isolation, the colonial
sands of Mayas, invaded Pipil land. By this time, the Pipils elite’s disinterest in the treatment of the Pipils, and colo-
had a reputation as fierce warriors bent on preserving the nial officials’ willingness to take bribes from Spanish land-
Cuzcatlán civilization. Though the Spanish managed to owners did little to improve the fortunes of the Pipils well
overcome the Pipils at two major battles, they were unable after the end of the colonial period.
to defeat mountain-dwelling Pipil fighters. A prolonged At the start of the twentieth century, El Salvador’s farms
period of guerrilla warfare ensued between the Pipils swapped cacao and indigo farming for coffee growing. The
and the Spanish. The Pipils forced the Spanish to retreat Pipils lived on the coffee plantations either as forced lab-
to Guatemala, but in 1525 and 1528, the Spanish renewed orers or as bonded serfs. Salvadorans, who had become
military efforts that saw the final defeat of the Pipils. independent of Spain in 1821, continued to practice mon-
Soon after the conquest, the Pipils became assimilated oculture by specializing in farming one crop for export
into the colonial economy. The Spanish, realizing that El rather than subsistence farming. In the early twentieth
Salvador had little in the way of precious metals, started century, most of El Salvador’s land was controlled by an
to develop the land. To this end, the Spanish confiscated oligarchy called the Fourteen Families. The boom-and-
Pipil land. This land loss, together with outbreaks of Euro- bust nature of the coffee industry meant that declines in
pean diseases, resulted in a rapid decrease of the Pipil pop- coffee growing impacted most heavily on poor, landless
ulation. A landownership system called repartimiento (a laborers such as the Pipils, whom landowners could fire
forced labor system that saw the Pipils made to perform without warning. This situation led to violent civil unrest.
low-paid or unpaid labor on Spanish farms) gave Span- El Salvador became known for repeated revolts by the
ish landowners almost limitless power over the Pipils. landless poor, with each rebellion followed by a brutal
886 Pipil

crackdown by landowners. Under the influence of the decision-making processes. This was the first such decree
Fourteen Families, successive Salvadoran governments in El Salvador.
ignored the mistreatment and resentment of the Pipils. The
Pipils’ situation worsened in 1881 when the government
abolished all land titles for the country’s indigenous com- Society, Culture, and Tradition
mon land, a move that left most Pipils as landless peasants. Because many modern Salvadorans claim Pipil ancestry,
In 1912, the Salvadoran National Guard was founded as a the Pipils have had a major influence over prevailing Salva-
rural police force intended to control the country’s rebel- doran culture. Pipil culture is village-centric and includes
lious peasants and indigenous peoples. Then, in 1931, a many folk traditions and customs that revolve around the
coup introduced a new government that brutally repressed natural world, especially the mountains, forests, and fields
all peasant resistance. Despite government crackdowns of the traditional Pipil homeland.
on rural resistance, the Pipils and other groups rebelled In the 1980s, only twenty Pipils spoke Nawat. However,
against the government, only for the national army to ram- during the 1990s, there was a resurgence of interest in the
page through villages, targeting anyone they discovered language among young Salvadorans. Today, some three
wearing indigenous dress or speaking native languages thousand Salvadorans speak Nawat (Minahan 2013). The
(Minahan 2013). During the retaliation, around thirty-five Nawat renaissance enabled the preservation of Pipil cus-
thousand people died, including many thousands of Pipils, toms and gave the Pipils confidence to enjoy their culture
and numerous indigenous villages were also destroyed. (music, dances, costume) openly when Salvadoran author-
Over the following decades, the military government ities had once banned it.
dominated Salvadoran life. In the 1960s, dissident groups
bent on improving the lot of El Salvador’s poor began to
form. Feeling threatened by these groups, the government Health Care and Education
repressed them severely and even sent death squads to Municipalities with the highest number of indigenous peo-
assassinate dissident leaders, including the majority of ple are among El Salvador’s poorest. The people inhabiting
Pipil leaders. During the late 1970s, general social insta- these municipalities lack basic services, including health
bility took hold in El Salvador and began to undermine and education services. The biggest killers in El Salvador
both the country’s military and social elite. Eventually, include ischemic heart disease, violence, respiratory dis-
a civil war occurred from 1980 to 1992, during which eases, and diabetes. However, the leading causes of death
guerrilla groups comprising Pipils and others took on among young people in El Salvador include murder, sui-
the Salvadoran military, which had received training and cide, and traffic accidents. Sexual violence is an important
equipment from the United States. The war resulted in the factor in the country’s high rate of adolescent pregnancy, as
deaths of seventy-five thousand people, mostly civilians or is the fact that young Salvadoran’s face difficulties in access-
those murdered by military death squads (Minahan 2013). ing sexual health information and services. This is evinced
After the war, the Pipil community began to recover, and by the fact that, in 2011, El Salvador’s adolescent fertility
young Pipil activists called for reparation for the past mis- rate was 77.3 births per 1,000 women aged fifteen to nine-
treatment of their people. There also occurred a reawak- teen, one of the highest rates of youth fertility in the world.
ening of the Pipil cultural identity as young Pipils began Limited access to sexual health information makes young
to take a greater interest in Pipil language and heritage. Salvadorans more vulnerable to sexually transmitted infec-
Nawat-language classes became available to stop the lan- tions and HIV/AIDS. Indeed, 41 percent of all HIV/AIDS
guage from becoming extinct, and interest in Pipil culture cases in El Salvador were recorded as being people aged
spread to Honduras, where assimilation had caused the between fifteen and nineteen years (OECD 2018).
small Pipil community to almost entirely lose touch with El Salvador’s public health system is overburdened,
their language and culture. The fostering of ties between and public health care is limited outside of El Salvador’s
the Pipils in El Salvador and in Honduras has enabled the capital of San Salvador. Health care in public hospitals is
Honduran Pipils to become reculturated. free, but these hospitals experience shortages of medicines
In 2011, the Nahuizalco municipality in Sonsonate and equipment. Ironically, El Salvador produces too many
recognized the Pipils as the original settlers of the terri- healthcare workers in certain fields, leading to medical
tory and encouraged the participation of the Pipils in the staff being unemployed.
 Pipil 887

In El Salvador, education is free until the ninth grade Particular problems face El Salvador’s young poor peo-
(up to fourteen years of age). Recently, El Salvador has ple, including young indigenous people. El Salvador has
made significant improvements in education. In 2013, the one of the world’s highest murder rates. In 2011, there were
enrollment rate in primary schools was 91 percent, and sixty-one homicides per one hundred thousand inhabit-
the enrollment rate for secondary schools was 62 percent. ants. Of these deaths, over 50 percent of murder victims
However, El Salvador faces three major challenges in edu- were between fifteen and twenty-nine years old, with most
cation. First, poor-quality teaching leaves young people being young men from poor urban areas. The homicide
lacking basic skills and results in high dropout rates (in rate for young women has also increased rapidly in recent
El Salvador, young people tend to complete only six grades times. The numerous factors contributing to El Salvador’s
out of nine). Second, children from disadvantaged groups high levels of youth violence include endemic poverty,
such as the rural poor and minorities have difficulty unemployment linked to dropping out of school, dysfunc-
accessing quality education—this is a particular problem tional family structures, general social inequality, and easy
for indigenous girls and the children of uneducated par- access to weapons, alcohol, and drugs. The proliferation of
ents. Third, young people who leave school to earn money gangs and organized crime (particularly drug trafficking)
often end up joining gangs, committing crime, and living also contribute. It has been estimated that up to thirty-five
in poverty (OECD 2018). The illiteracy rate for indige- thousand young Salvadorans belong to gangs called maras,
nous children is 78 percent, compared to 43 percent for with social exclusion being the main factor for joining a
the country’s nonindigenous poor (Minority Rights Group gang, for members consider gangs a source of stability as
International 2015). well as a way to earn a living (OECD 2018).
However, education may prove a way to preserve the Landownership is another major issue for El Salva-
Pipil language. In 2012, El Salvador’s Ministry of Educa- dor’s indigenous people. In El Salvador, only 5 percent of
tion and Don Bosco University partnered to found an initi- indigenous people own land, 60 percent live on communal
ative aimed at the revitalizing Nawat through intercultural lands, and 35 percent rent land. In contrast, 95 percent of
education. nonindigenous Salvadorans live on their own land, with
the remaining 5 percent renting land. At the same time,
the country’s agricultural sector is shrinking. Although
Threats to Survival work in this sector is usually poorly paid, it was the tradi-
People in El Salvador face problems of rising crime, a fal- tional source of income for indigenous Salvadorans such
tering economy, and pervasive social inequality that sees as the Pipils, who earn money from coffee and sugarcane
society divided into people that own land and the landless. harvesting.
Landless people such as the Pipils have little choice but to The reduction of the agricultural sector means there
work as laborers employed without consideration for their are fewer jobs for indigenous Salvadorans. This issue
working conditions or wage demands (Minahan 2013). especially impacts indigenous men and people of working
Indigenous Salvadorans such as the Pipils suffer poor age; hence, many migrate unofficially to the United States
living conditions. People living in El Salvador’s rural areas (Minority Rights Group 2015). Indigenous Salvadorans
tend to be the country’s poorest, and municipalities that are that travel to the United States face increased marginali-
home to the most indigenous people tend to be the poorest zation in their host society, and their lack of legal status
in the country. Residents of these municipalities lack basic means they have little access to social services, including
services, including health care and education. Studies have health care. Young migrants often lack economic oppor-
revealed that 80 percent of El Salvador’s indigenous peo- tunities, which coupled with a lack parental protection,
ple obtain water from ground sources, and the remaining leaves them at increased risk of involvement in gangs,
20 percent use water from rivers or public fountains. Most criminality, and substance abuse (OECD 2018).
indigenous people live in very basic housing, with 80 per- El Salvador’s prevailing social and economic conditions
cent of the roofs on indigenous homes being made from mean it is unlikely that the Pipils’ situation will improve
zinc, plastic, or cardboard. The average number of people soon. As a result, the country’s indigenous people, includ-
living in an indigenous home is thirteen, while an aver- ing the Pipils, increasingly call for the protection of com-
age of six people live in a nonindigenous home (Minority munal lands, the preservation of their culture, bilingual
Rights Group International 2017). education, equal civil rights, and greater political agency in
888 Pomak

their own communities. The revival of the Nawat language, Bulgarian, most Pomaks self-identify as Turks because the
does, however, allow the Pipils hope that their linguistic Turkish government has promoted Pomak welfare. The
and cultural heritage will survive. Pomaks also speak Turkish, Greek, and Arabic, which is
the language of the Koran.
See also: Lenca; Mayan
The origins of the name Pomak are not known, but the
Further Reading
name may derive from the Turkish word pomagach, mean-
Boland, Roy C. 2001. Culture and Customs of El Salvador. West-
port, CT: Greenwood Press. ing “helper.”
Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An
Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “El Salvador: Indig- Population, Diaspora, and Migration
enous Peoples.” World Directory of Minorities and Indige- It is difficult to give accurate population figures for the
nous Peoples, June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities​
Pomaks because they are not included as a separate eth-
/indigenous-peoples-2.
Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “El Salvador: Pip- nic group in the Bulgarian national census. However esti-
ils.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, mates suggest that the total Pomak population is between
September 21. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/pipils. 130,000 and 250,000 people, of which around 30,000
Organisation for Economic Co-Operation and Development Pomaks live in Greece (Frusetta 2011).
(OECD). 2018. “Key Issues Affecting Youth in El Salvador.” Most Pomaks live in the Rhodope Mountains that
http://​www.oecd.org/dev/inclusivesocietiesanddevelopment​
stretch across southern Bulgaria and Greece. Additionally,
/youth-issues-in-el-salvador.htm.
approximately 250,000 people are descended from the
Pomaks. Sometimes the Torbeshi, a Slavic-speaking Mus-
lim tribe of Macedonia, are considered part of the Pomak
community, but there is much dispute among researchers
as to the Torbeshi’s ethnic relationship to the Pomaks.
POMAK Pomak villages are usually grouped together and home
Current Location Bulgaria; Greece to self-sufficient agriculture and tobacco fields.
Current Population 130,000–250,000
Language Pomak dialects; Bulgarian; Greek;
Turkish; Arabic
Geography and Environment
Interesting Fact The Pomaks are sometimes called The Pomak homeland is located in the south of the Balkan
the Bulgarian Muslims, but many Peninsula in a region historically known as Western Thrace.
Pomaks are Bulgarian Orthodox The Rhodope Mountains are 149 miles long and 75 miles
Christians. across at their widest point. The mountain’s average altitude
is 2,575 feet. In some areas, the mountains slope steeply
downward to the Thracian Sea to the west of the Turkey-
Overview Greece border. In other parts, the mountains descend quickly
The Pomaks are a European ethno-religious Muslim to the Upper Thracian Plain and the coastal plains of Greek
group living on the Balkan Peninsula. The Pomaks are Thrace. Throughout the mountains are complex systems of
sometimes called the Bulgaromohamedani, the Bulgar- deep river valleys, ridges, rivers, streams, and lakes.
ian-speaking Muslims, or the Bulgari-miosliolmani. In The Rhodope Mountains have a generally mild cli-
Bulgaria, the Pomak are called the Pomatsi, and in Greece, mate, though winter temperatures can dip to 5°F. Fifteen
they are called the Achrjanis. The Pomaks are also some- nature reserves are located in the region, with some under
times referred to as the Rhodopes. UNESCO protection. The mountains are home to exten-
Most Pomaks are Sunni Muslim, although some Pomaks sive coniferous woods populated by hornbeam, oak, and
have recently become members of the Bulgarian Orthodox birch trees, and there are also fir and spruce trees on the
Church. There are also some Pomak atheists. Despite being higher peaks. The Rhodope Mountains have an abundance
known as Bulgarian-speaking Muslims, most Pomaks of birds of prey, bears, wolves, and fish.
speak Pomak, which is a dialect usually classified as Bul- Much of Bulgaria’s hydropower comes from the western
garian. However, despite speaking a dialect considered portion of the Rhodope Mountains, where there are also
 Pomak 889

several hydro-cascades and hydroelectric dams. Dams are in the Rhodope Mountains before acceding to the Otto-
also used for irrigation. man Empire.
The Balkan Wars of 1912–1913 and the end of World
War I saw the Pomak homeland divided between Bulgaria,
History and Politics Greece, and Turkey, and the people endured massacres,
The origins of the Pomaks are disputed. Greek historians forced migration, and forced conversions to Christianity.
suggest the Pomaks were originally Greek and only later Under the 1923 Treaty of Lausanne, Greece recognized the
became Slavic and converted to Islam. In contrast, Turkish Pomaks as a Muslim group but not as an ethnic popula-
academics maintain the Pomaks are the descendants of tion. In Bulgaria, Pomaks who had converted to Christi-
Arabs, Konyar Turks, or Cumans who settled in the Pomak anity continued to face prejudice because of their cultural
homeland before the Ottomans conquered it. Meanwhile, difference. Additionally, Bulgarian authorities attempted
Bulgarian scholars believe the Pomaks were a Bulgarian to dilute Pomak ethnic identity, a move that intensified
ethnic group who later converted to Islam but did not during the 1930s, when Bulgaria was gripped by fascism
assimilate into Turkish culture during the Ottoman era. and nationalism. Then, in the 1940s, communism took
Another theory is that the Pomaks are descended from hold in Bulgaria, and entire Pomak villages consisting of
people who migrated to Thrace during the second millen- over fifteen thousand inhabitants were forcibly moved
nium BCE. During the seventh century BCE, the ancient (Minahan 2002). Many of the displaced Pomaks landed in
Greeks invaded the area. Over time, the various peoples jail or in detention camps before being allowed to return to
inhabiting Thrace were either assimilated into the colonial their villages in 1955.
Greek culture or moved to isolated settlements at higher From 1967 to 1974, Greece was ruled by a military dic-
altitudes. It was while living in isolation in the mountains tatorship that offered financial bonuses to Christians if they
that the Pomaks developed their culture and adopted Bul- moved into Pomak areas to dilute the Pomak population.
garian as their language. Meanwhile, by the mid-1960s, the Bulgarian communist
In the fourteenth century, Ottoman Turks overran regime had failed to deliver prosperity to its citizens. To
Thrace. Over the subsequent centuries, although most of legitimize communist rule over the country, the Bulgar-
the inhabitants of Thrace remained Christian, those living ian authorities decided that the regime was in the national
in the Rhodope Mountains converted to Islam. Most early interest. To this end, the regime decided to implement
Pomaks were forcibly converted. According to oral history, extreme assimilationist policies that saw the Pomaks forced
they were forced to become Muslim because a Turkish sul- to adopt Bulgarian Christian names, and Muslim holidays
tan enjoyed hunting in the mountains, and he, his family, were banned as were Muslim wedding and death traditions.
and companions could only be waited upon by fellow Mus- Muslim customs, including circumcision, were also forbid-
lims and so converted most Pomaks. However, it was also den. To break down Pomak resistance to the bans, over five
the case that some Pomaks converted to Islam willingly to hundred Pomaks were imprisoned (Minahan 2002).
avoid paying higher taxes and discrimination. Additionally, The assimilationist policy left many Bulgarian Pomaks
Muslim Pomaks enjoyed a higher status than non-Muslim torn between assimilating into Bulgarian society or los-
Pomaks, who were denied Ottoman citizenship. ing their distinct identity by migrating to countries where
High up in the Rhodope Mountains, the Pomaks stayed Islam was better tolerated but would see the Pomaks
remote from the Turks who had conquered Thrace. This overwhelmed in a larger Muslim society. In 1989, Bulgar-
isolation allowed the Pomaks to retain their traditional ian authorities launched another wave of assimilationist
culture, and as they did not intermarry, they also retained policies aimed at Bulgarian Muslims. As a result, over
their typical physical appearance. The Pomaks also contin- three hundred thousand Bulgarian Muslims, including
ued to speak Bulgarian dialects rather than Turkish. Pomaks, migrated to Turkey (Minahan 2002). Trouble
In 1876, the Pomaks helped the Turks defeat the Chris- flared in some parts of Bulgaria when some Pomaks were
tian Bulgarians during a revolt. However, after the Russo-​ denied passports to leave the country. Those Pomaks that
Turkish War (1877–1878), the Pomaks inhabiting the remained in Bulgaria were not allowed to gather in public
Rhodope Mountains rebelled against the Bulgarian nation or to leave their villages.
to whom Thrace had been annexed in 1885. The Pomaks The collapse of communism allowed Bulgarian Pomaks
then established their own short-lived autonomous state to reclaim their identity, but the new Bulgarian government
890 Pomak

was wary of the Pomaks’ reinvigorated nationalism, which grow, demanding recognition of the Pomaks as a Bulgar-
saw new Pomak demands for cultural, religious, and ian ethnic group. However, in 1998, the Bulgarian prime
financial autonomy. Eventually, Bulgarian Pomak soci- minister declared the Pomak nation did not exist. Around
ety divided between Pomaks that were willing to assimi- this time, Greece was reprimanded by both the European
late into Bulgarian society and those that sought Pomak Union and human rights organizations for its discrimina-
self-rule in Bulgaria and Greece. However, in Greece, the tion against minority groups, including the Pomaks.
Pomaks had also faced assimilationist policies, with the
people made to abandon the Pomak dialect on account of
its being deemed Bulgarian by authorities, and they were Society, Culture, and Tradition
forced to adopt Christian names. When Greece joined the The majority of Pomaks are Sunni Muslims of the Han-
European Economic Union in 1981, Greece was required nafi school. Many Pomaks celebrate Islamic holidays and
to adopt policies to protect minority rights, but in actual- traditions while shunning the eating of pork and drink-
ity, little changed for the Pomaks. ing alcohol. Some Pomak villages also celebrate Chris-
In both Bulgaria and Greece, the Pomaks stayed liv- tian Orthodox customs such as saints’ feast days. Pomak
ing in mountain villages. Small factories established in women tend to wear a head scarf called a shamiia. Tra-
the Rhodope Mountains provided Pomak jobs, and the ditional Pomak handwoven clothes are increasingly out
introduction of tobacco production increased the people’s of favor, with the people opting for Western-style clothes.
wealth while also enticing non-Pomaks to Pomak areas. Similarly, fewer Pomak men now wear their traditional
During the 1990s, the Pomaks were forced to choose headwear of the fez and turban.
their nationality (Bulgarian or Turk) for the Bulgarian One particularly famous Pomak tradition is the gelina
census. At the same time, Pomak nationalism continued to wedding in which Pomak brides are painted with thick

Pomak women make final adjustments to a wedding costume and sacred belilo make-up before a marriage ceremony in Ribnovo, Bul-
garia. In order to keep the belilo intact, a bride must keep her face immobile during her wedding. (Anton Chalakov/Dreamstime.com)
 Pumi 891

facial makeup called belilo. The brides have their faces representation in Greece is better with Pomaks repre-
decorated with sequins arranged in floral patterns, black- sented at local and region levels.
ened eyebrows, and vivid lipstick. The mask-like makeup
See also: Bulgarian; Croat; Macedonian
takes hours to apply and is intended to symbolize female
Further Reading
purity. To keep the mask intact on her wedding day, the
Frusetta, James. 2011. “Pomaks.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe: An
bride keeps her face immobile. An imam blesses the Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 280–290. Santa Bar-
makeup before the bride’s relatives escort her from her bara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
childhood home to her groom’s house, where her husband Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations:
removes the makeup. Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 3, L–R.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Minority Rights Group International. 2015a. “Bulgaria: Bulgarian-​
Health Care and Education Speaking Muslims (Pomaks).” World Directory of Minori-
ties and Indigenous Peoples, June 19. http://minorityrights​
There is no information available on Pomak access to .org/minorities/bulgarian-speaking-muslims-pomaks.
health care. Minority Rights Group International. 2015b. “Greece: Turks and
In Bulgaria, Pomaks have limited access to education, Pomaks.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peo-
though this has as much to do with their living in geo- ples, June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/turks-and​
-pomaks.
graphically isolated areas as it does anti-Pomak prejudice.
Recently, authorities have closed many schools in the
Pomak homeland, and those that remain open are poorly
equipped. Under Greek law, Muslim minorities such as the
Pomaks are entitled to education in their own language. In PUMI
actuality, however, only Turkish is used for teaching. This
is because the Pomaks identify as Turkish and because, Current Location China
until recently, Greek authorities wanted to distance the Current Population 38,000
Pomaks from Bulgaria. Language Pumi
Interesting Fact Pumi children are considered adults
at age 13 years.
Threats to Survival
Bulgaria, Greece, and Turkey each want the Pomaks to
assimilate into their respective national populations, with Overview
each nation laying claim to Pomak origins. As a result of this, The Pumi (also called the Primi, Premi, Pimi, or Prummi,
the Pomaks have divided loyalties and are also split between among other names) are an officially recognized nation-
those Pomaks that wish to assimilate and those that aim to ality of China. The Pumi speak the Pumi language (com-
carve out Pomak autonomy. That some Pomaks are trying monly called Primi), which divides into at least five
to establish a distinct national identity for Pomaks living in dialects. The language is part of the northern Qiangic
the Rhodope Mountains may ease some of these divisions. language group of the Tibeto-Burman language family. It
In the meantime, in Bulgaria, there are no Pomak contains many Tibetan and Mandarin Chinese loan words.
members of the National Assembly, and Pomak participa- The name Pumi translates to English as “white people.”
tion in politics is restricted to the local level. In 2007, Bul- Most Pumi follow a belief system called Zanbala, which
garia joined the European Union and became the member is a form of the pre-Buddhist Bon religion. Recently, a
state with the largest percentage of Muslim inhabitants, minority of Pumi people has converted to Tibetan Bud-
with communities of Pomaks, Turkish, and Roma. Despite dhism, in line with nearby Tibetan communities.
extreme right-wing Bulgarian organizations launching
anti-Muslim propaganda, the Bulgarian government has
a track record of religious tolerance. Instead, the gov- Population, Diaspora, and Migration
ernment’s continuing refusal to recognize Pomaks as a There are approximately thirty-eight thousand Pumi
distinct ethnic group results from its insistence on Slavic people living in China. The majority of the Pumi live in
ethnic homogeneity among Bulgarians. Pomak political Yunnan Province, located in the far southwest of the
892 Pumi

country (Minahan 2002). A smaller Pumi community to the mountainous areas of Yunnan—Ninglang, Weixi,
lives in neighboring Sichuan Province. Lijiang, and Lanping—where the people survived as
hunter-gatherers, peasant farmers, and pastoralists. By the
seventeenth century, the majority of the Pumi had become
Geography and Environment farmers. Over time, Hui landlords came to dominate the
Yunnan is the most southwesterly province of China. Yun- Pumi, as except for a few communal Pumi village regions,
nan borders Guangxi and Guizhou to the east, Sichuan to Hui landlords owned the land on which the Pumi lived
the north, and the Tibet Autonomous Region to the north- and charged the Pumi rent. Around the same time, both
west. Myanmar borders Yunnan to the west, Laos lies to Pumi chiefs and Hui landlords began to earn money by
the south, and Vietnam borders the province to the south- participating in the domestic slave trade, which saw many
east. The north of Yunnan province forms part of the high- Pumi enslaved.
land area known as the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau. This is By the start of the nineteenth century, the Pumi popu-
a ruggedly mountainous area featuring steep karst peaks lation comprised various intermarried clans that served as
and deep ravines. The plateau is buttressed by the Heng- extended families. During this time, Hui landlords owned
duan Mountains to the northwest and by lowland to the most of the land on which the Pumi lived, thereby relegat-
north, east, and southeast. Many of Asia’s great rivers flow ing the Pumi to the position of debt slaves or sharecrop-
southward to the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau. The rivers split pers. During this time, it was often the case that very poor
around the plateau, with the Salween River and Mekong Pumi families would give away some of their children to
River traveling south of the plateau and the Yangtze trave- cancel debts.
ling northeast. Much of the western plateau is drained by By the twentieth century, almost all Pumi were operat-
two headwaters of the Pearl River, the Nanpan River and ing as hillside farmers. As landlords owned most of these
Beipan River. The plateau is also home to major lakes. hills, they were permitted to take 50 percent of the Pumi
Yunnan has an extremely rich biodiversity, includ- farmers’ harvest as rent. The Pumi remained fairly iso-
ing lush alpine flora, subtropical evergreen forests, and lated until 1949, when the Chinese Civil War ended and
a variety of animals, such as tigers, elephants, monkeys, communist agents moved on to Pumi territory, eliminat-
hundreds of different types of fish, and the extremely rare ing the landlords and redistributing land to the Pumi. The
Yunnan box turtle. returned lands were collectivized, however, so Pumi farm-
In the past, the Pumi practiced slash-and-burn farm- ers became employees of the Chinese state.
ing, but now they tend to use fertilizers and irrigation In 1960, Chinese authorities grouped together various
techniques that allow the people to produce higher yield- related ethnic groups under the umbrella term Pumi. The
ing crops with which to feed their communities. state then organized the Pumi into small tribal groups,
each of which had a different name. In the 1980s, the rela-
tive relaxation of Chinese state authority enabled the Pumi
History and Politics to buy back some of their previously owned land, on which
Thousands of years ago, the Pumi originated as nomads they established extended rice paddy fields. The Pumi also
living on the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau. Circa the fourth started to trade, selling their handicrafts (mainly knitting
century BCE, the Pumi headed south, most likely on the and weaving) and wooden products.
trail of game animals. Eventually, the Pumi settled in the
warmer environs of the Hengduan Mountains that lie on
the east of the plateau, just west of the Sichuan Basin low- Society, Culture, and Tradition
land region. By the seventh century, the Pumi had settled Centuries of interaction with neighboring Tibetans means
in Sichuan, where they formed part of the area’s major eth- Pumi culture closely resembles that of Tibet. At the same
nic group. Here, under the influence of neighboring Tibet, time, however, Han Chinese culture is increasingly influ-
the Pumi adopted the pre-Buddhist Bon religion, though encing Pumi culture.
they maintained some of their traditional beliefs. Subse- In general, the Pumi are monogamous and patrilin-
quently, the Pumi adopted Tibetan Buddhism following eal, though some Pumi living in northerly areas practice
their continued close contact with Tibetans. polygamy. Most Pumi are subsistence farmers, growing
During the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, pos- crops that include corn, oats, barley, and buckwheat as
sibly to avoid invading Mongols, the Pumi traveled south well as vegetables such as cabbage, eggplant, and carrots.
 Pumi 893

Other Pumi rear animals (cattle, sheep, pigs, chickens), are people is approximately two hundred thousand, though
involved in small-scale industry (liquor distilling, charcoal reliable data is not available (Médecins Sans Frontières
production, bamboo working), or sell handcrafted goods. 2000). The prevalence of HIV/AIDS is such that nongov-
The Pumi’s staple food is rice, which they supplement with ernmental organizations (NGOs) have launched HIV/
corn, flour, oats, beef, and pork. The Pumi enjoy various AIDS awareness campaigns to educate rural people about
teas that they drink from ox horns or through bamboo the risks of sexually transmitted diseases in Yunnan Prov-
straws. A beer-like drink, priis, is extremely important to ince. Drug addicts in Yunnan Province, whose immune
Pumi culture, for it is consumed at all ceremonial events systems are suppressed, have been found to have high
and is synonymous with Pumi weddings. Pumi homes are rates of Cryptosporidium respiratory and gastrointestinal
made of timber and constructed around one central room infections, while in subtropical areas of Yunnan, Blastocys-
containing a burner. The head of an ox or sheep is often tis hominis (a parasite living in the intestine that is passed
used to decorate a Pumi home, as this is considered a sign through feces) is prevalent. Historically, Schistosomiasis
of wealth. japonica (a parasitic disease often spread by bovine ani-
Most Pumi follow the polytheistic Zanbala belief sys- mals) is endemic to Yunnan (Lv et al. 2013).
tem. This is related to the ancient Tibetan religion, Bon, In China, children must complete nine years of basic
and also contains elements of Buddhism and philosophies education (six primary years and three in junior secondary
borrowed from neighboring ethnic groups. The Pumi school). As the Pumi live in inaccessible areas, education
believe that if spirits are offended, they will send beasts is often the only way in which the Chinese state is pres-
to destroy their crops and animals. The Pumi also revere ent in their lives (in the form of state-run schools). Village
their ancestors, whom they think influence the living. schools reinforce the concept of the state through ritu-
Pumi festivals include the Spring Festival and the als such as national flag raising and singing the national
New-Grain Tasting Festival. During the Spring Festival, anthem, and schools also use textbooks approved by
families worship their ancestors, enjoy feasts, and take authorities. Historically, many Pumi school-age children
part in horseracing and shooting. The New-Grain Festi- did not attend school regularly for reasons such as fam-
val is held to celebrate the harvest and sees oxen eat rice ily poverty, traditional views on educating daughters, and
before humans do as a token of the people’s gratitude for living too far from schools. Today, however, most Pumi
the animals’ hard work and loyalty. Once the oxen have families are poor enough to qualify for state benefits that
tasted the rice, the Pumi begin to eat the rice. The occasion enable parents to afford education for their children. Addi-
also includes an element of ancestor worship, singing, and tionally, the “Two Exemptions and One Subsidy” (liang-
dancing. mian yibu [2006]) policy impacts Pumi areas for it aims
Pumi children are considered adults when they reach to abolish tuition fees and provides small sums of living
thirteen years of age. To celebrate this achievement, the subsidies to students from poor families (Yang 2014).
Pumi perform a ceremony that sees an adolescent step
forward by placing his or her right foot on a piece of ani-
mal fat and then the left foot on a bag of rice. When he Threats to Survival
or she has done this, the new adult performs a traditional Pumi areas have little in the way of developed infrastruc-
kowtow (kneeling and bowing action), first toward a stove, ture, especially in terms of roads and transport. This
then to the oldest relatives, and then to the eldest brother. means the people’s opportunities for economic develop-
From this time on, the new adult can participate in more ment are limited, as is there access to health care. Dis-
social activities. Additionally, a girl’s mother will give her a ease and assimilation with other population groups also
milk cow as part of her future dowry. When the daughter threaten the survival of the Pumi.
marries, she is expected to take the cow with her to her
See also: Dai; Hui; Manchu; Mosuo; Uyghur
husband’s home.
Further Reading
Lv, Shan, Li-Guang Tian, Qin Liu, Men-Bao Qian, Qing Fu, Peter
Health Care and Education Steinmann, Jia-Xu Chen, Guo-Jing Yang, Kun Yang, and
Xiao-Nong Zhou. 2013. “Water-Related Parasitic Diseases in
Many Chinese minorities are facing a rapid rise in rates of China.” International Journal of Environmental Research and
infectious diseases, including HIV/AIDS, tuberculosis, and Public Health 10 (5): 1977–2016. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih​
hepatitis. In Yunnan Province, the number of HIV-positive .gov/pmc/articles/PMC3709360.
894 Pumi

Médecins Sans Frontières [Doctors without Borders]. 2000. Travel China Guide. 1998–2018. “Primi (Pumi) Nationality.”
“China: Healthcare and MSF Activities.” Médecins Sans https://www.travelchinaguide.com/intro/nationality/pumi.
Frontières, March 31. http://www.msf.org/en/article/china​ Yang, Peidong. 2014. “Empire at the Margins: Compulsory Mobil-
-healthcare-and-msf-activities. ity, Hierarchical Imaginary, and Education in China’s Ethnic
Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East and Cen- Borderland.” London Review of Education 12, no. 1 (March).
tral Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1160386.pdf.
 Q

QASHQAI Qashqai population consists of a number of tribes that

form a Qashqai tribal confederacy.
Current Location Iran The Qashqai practice a form of annual transhumance
Current Population 400,000–2.5 million that in summer sees the people migrate to mountainous
Language Turki; Persian locations north of Shiraz before returning to lowland,
Interesting Fact The Qashqai flag is based on the peo- warmer land near the Persian Gulf in winter, some three
ple’s traditional carpet design. The hundred miles away. However, in recent years, Iran’s assim-
flag has a gold center surrounded by ilationist policies have resulted in many Qashqai living in
green, red, orange, and blue triangles urban areas rather than following nomadic ways. Tradi-
with a central white crescent moon tionally, Qashqai who settle in urban areas live in poverty
and eight-pointed star. in expanding shantytowns (Cultural Survival 1984).
A Qashqai diaspora exists in Europe and North Amer-
ica. Here, exiled nationalist communities strive to estab-
Overview
lish a Qashqai state of Kashkaia (Minahan 2016).
The Qashqai (also called the Ghashghai, Kashgai, and
Kaskay, among other names) are a Turkic nomadic tribe
living in Iran. The Qashqai speak a Turkic language called Geography and Environment
Turki that belongs to the Western Orghuz language family. The Qashqai live in an area that they call Kashkaia. This
Most Qashqai also speak Persian. All Qashqai are Muslim, area covers the Zagros Mountains, coastal lowlands of
with most following Shia Islam and the rest being Sunni. Iran, the southern Iranian province of Isfahan and the
former Iranian districts of Bushehr, Fars, Charamahal and
Bakhtiari, Kohgiluyeh, Khuzestan, and Boyer-Ahmad.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration The Zagros Mountains are home to fertile plains, pow-
There is some dispute over population figures for the erful rivers, and ravines. This landscape makes the moun-
Qashqai. For example, according to 2015 estimates, there tains a formidable natural barrier that throughout history
are between 1.6 million and 2.5 million Qashqai people has acted as a boundary between different cultures. Signif-
(Minahan 2016). However, in 2016, the BBC reported icant petroleum reserves are located around the mountain
there were only 400,000 Qashqai (Mannaerts 2016). The range’s southwestern foothills, and the discovery of oil in

895
896 Qashqai

1996 has resulted in the significant urbanization of cities lived an isolated existence, ignored by outsiders, except
such as Isfahan. Growing urbanization poses a threat to for invading forces that traveled through their land. This
Qashqai nomads because it is starting to impinge on Qash- situation changed in the nineteenth century, when the
qai grazing land. Qashqai became a significant player in the Persian polit-
ical landscape.
During World War I, under the influence of a German
History and Politics officer, the Qashqai sided with Germany despite Britain’s
The origins of the Qashqai are unknown because they do growing authority over Persia. In the 1930s, like many
not appear in any historical records until the eighteenth other nomadic groups in Iran, the Iranian authorities tried
century (Stokes 2009). However, one theory as to the ori- to disarm the Qashqai and force them to live in settled vil-
gins of the Qashqai is that they originated in Central Asia lages. After Reza Shah was ousted in 1941, Qashqai leaders
before migrating to Iran, possibly as early as the eleventh who had fled the country returned.
century. According to the Qashqai, they are descended During World War II, the Qashqai revolted as a uni-
from the Aq-Qoyunlu, or White Sheep, Turkmen. How- fied, cohesive entity against the British and Soviet forces
ever, researchers believe that the Qashqai have a varied that occupied Iran. The Qashqai rebelled again during the
ancestry, having being descended from a number of dif- period 1962–1964, in an uprising known as the White
ferent people, including Turkmen, Lurs, Arabs, and Kurds. Revolution, which was born of Qashqai concerns over land
Between 1000 and 1200 CE, the Qashqai migrated from reforms. This revolt was also unsuccessful and resulted in
northern Iran to southern Iran, where they settled in the Qashqai leaders being exiled from Iran, and many Qash-
Zagros Mountains. In the sixteenth century, the Qashqai qai communities were forced to live in settled villages.
settled across their present homeland. Here, the Qashqai Initially, the Qashqai supported the Iranian Revolution in

A nomadic Qashqai shepherdess herds goats and sheep in Firuzabad, Iran. Livestock are central to Qashqai life—providing milk,
butter, and cheese. Increasingly, however, Qashqai grazing land is threatened by urbanization. (Ozbalci/iStockphoto.com)
 Qashqai 897

1979, but Qashqai support soon began to dissipate when doctors recruited from among the Qashqai. These doctors
the Qashqai’s relationship with Iran’s new religious fun- were trained in medicine and then returned to Qashqai
damentalist regime soured. In 1980, six hundred Qashqai communities, which they then treated, providing pri-
defied Iran’s Revolutionary Guard to occupy mountains in mary health care and referring patients to hospitals when
the Fars district. These Qashqai managed to put up armed necessary.
resistance for two years before being overpowered, with The Qashqai believe education is vital to preserving the
the group’s leaders either imprisoned or executed. The people’s ethnic identity and culture. However, it is becom-
Qashqai became further disillusioned with the idea of ing increasingly difficult to find teachers willing to travel
rebelling when the exiled Qashqai leader Khosrow Khan to remote Qashqai communities. The problem of a lack
Qashqai returned to Iran only to be arrested, charged with of teachers is compounded by the fact that few nomadic
nationalism, and, ultimately, executed in 1982. During Qashqai are qualified to teach and so cannot educate chil-
the rest of the 1980s, the Qashqai faced great repression dren formally. Attending school is not an ingrained part
because Iran’s authorities were suspicious of the people’s of Qashqai culture, so Qashqai children living in urban
Turkic connections. areas are not used to education being part of their lifestyle.
However, Qashqai culture began to recover in the Another educational issue facing the Qashqai is that rural
1990s, with the cultural revival continuing well into the Qashqai that can afford to send their children to school
twenty-​first century. have to send them away to schools based in cities. It is
often the case that Qashqai children sent to urban schools
wish to stay in the city once their education has concluded
Society, Culture, and Tradition (Mannaerts 2016).
The Qashqai’s livestock are central to their lives. For exam-
ple, the Qashqai herd goats because goats are available to
provide the Qashqai with milk, butter, and cheese, and Threats to Survival
the kids can be sold at markets such as that at Shiraz to The Qashqai traditional way of life is in danger of disap-
earn money with which they buy equipment and daily pearing. This is partly due to state attempts to assimilate
essentials. However, with grazing land endangered by them into mainstream Iranian society. Assimilationist
increasing urbanization, growing numbers of Qashqai are policies have pushed increasing numbers of Qashqai to
abandoning animal husbandry and nomadism to earn a live settled existences in cities, with the result being that
living in Iran’s cities. the growing cities are encroaching on Qashqai graz-
For centuries, Qashqai women have been famous across ing land. Nevertheless, many Qashqai have managed
Iran for producing pile carpets and other woolen items. to resist the assimilationist policies and continue to live
The carpets are commonly referred to as Shiraz carpets as their ancestors did. The people’s inherent nomadism
because they are mainly sold at the market in Shiraz. The has created strong bonds within Qashqai extended com-
wool used to make these carpets and other items is pro- munities, and it may be that these enable the Qashqai to
duced in the mountains and mountain valleys surround- maintain their traditional lifestyle, as is evinced by the
ing Shiraz and is known for its exceptional softness and Qashqai cultural revival that began at the end of the twen-
ability to take on deep colors when dyed. tieth century.
Although the Qashqai are Muslim and uphold Islamic See also: Bakhtiyari; Kurd; Lur; Turkmen
marriage and birth customs, the Qashqai have no contact
Further Reading
with Iran’s religious bodies and do not pray daily or fast Borrini-Feyerabend, Grazia, Michel Pimbert, M. Taghi Far-
during Ramadan (Mannaerts 2016). This religious free- var, Ashish Kothari, and Yves Renard. 2007. Sharing Power:
dom stems from the people’s many years of nomadism that A Global Guide to Collaborative Management of Natural
saw the Qashqai removed from regular Iranian society. Resources. Abingdon, UK: Earthscan.
Cultural Survival. 1984. “The Qashqa’i of Iran.” Cultural Survival
Quarterly Magazine, March. https://www.culturalsurvival​
.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/qashqai-iran.
Health Care and Education
Mannaerts, Pascal. 2016. “The Last Nomads of Iran.” BBC,
Following the Iranian Revolution, the Qashqai had access August 22. http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20160817-the​
to mobile healthcare services with so-called barefoot -last​-nomads​-of-iran.
898 Quechua

Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: between Quechua speakers and people of Quechua her-
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa itage. The number of different Quechua groups also con-
Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. fuses population figures.
Stokes, Jamie, ed. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and
the Middle East. New York: Facts on File.
For these reasons, Quechua population estimates can
vary greatly; hence, some researchers put the population
at 6.6 million people (Borsdorf and Stadel 2015), and other
estimates suggest the population is nearer 8 million peo-
ple (Minority Rights Group International 2017). The great-
est concentration of Quechua is found in Peru, where 4.5
QUECHUA million people speak Quechua, followed by Bolivia, which
Current Location Peru; Bolivia; Ecuador; Argentina is inhabited by 2.53 million Quechua. The third-highest
Current Population 6.6 million–8 million concentration of Quechua can be found in Ecuador, where
Language Quechua; Spanish 500,000 Quechua live, and then comes Argentina with
Interesting Fact The words puma, condor, llama, and 300,000 million Quechua (Borsdorf and Stadel 2015).
alpaca all derive from Quechua. Most Quechua live in farmsteads or villages in the moun-
tains, though there are also a number of Quechua commu-
nities living in the Amazon basin.
Overview
Quechua (also known as the Quechua Runa or Runakuna)
is the collective term for the indigenous South American Geography and Environment
Indians that speak one of the many regional varieties of the Geographical conditions between Quechua areas differ
Quechua language. The Quechua language is also known greatly. The Quechua living in mountain valleys enjoy rich
as Runa simi, meaning “the people’s language.” Quechua soil and (in theory) have plentiful access to streams that
is a language family, and although there is some overlap provide water for drinking, washing, and farming. The
between the variations of Quechua, it does not follow that majority of the Quechua, however, live on the steep wind-
the varieties of Quechua are mutually understandable. swept slopes of the central Andes, where the soil is poor
Quechua was the language spoken in the Incan Empire and and the climate is cold.
subsequently became the lingua franca of the Spanish and The Andes is the world’s longest continental mountain
Indians throughout the high Andes. Thus, today, Quechua range, and it forms a continuous highland along the west-
dialects are spoken in Peru; areas of Bolivia, Chile, and ern edge of South America that is 4,300 miles long. The
Argentina; and in Andean regions of Ecuador and Colom- average height of an Andean mountain is thirteen thou-
bia. Today, Quechua is the most widely spoken indigenous sand feet. Because the Quechua live at high altitudes, they
language in Peru and is considered one of the country’s have been the subject of numerous biological and medical
official languages along with Spanish. The most commonly studies aimed at understanding the physiological adapta-
spoken Quechua variation is Southern Quechua. In 1969, tion of humans living in high-altitude areas.
Quechua was made Peru’s second official language under
the military regime of Juan Velasco Alvarado.
Examples of Quechua groups include the Q’ero and History and Politics
the Wankas of Peru, the Kichwas and Otavalos that live Quechua was the language spoken by the people living in
in Ecuador, the Ingas of Colombia, and the Kolla who the Andean highlands prior to advent of the Incan Empire
inhabit Bolivia. The Quechua are sometimes described as (1200–1572). Although the Incan royalty had their own
being the direct descendants of the Incas, but this is an private language, Quechua was the unifying language of
oversimplification. the Incas, who chose Quechua as the language of coloni-
zation and used the language throughout their territory—
either using the language alongside existing languages or
Population, Diaspora, and Migration replacing the languages in the lands they conquered with
It is difficult to give exact population figures for the Que- Quechua. When the Spanish conquered South Amer-
chua because some population counts blur the distinction ica, Spanish administrators and missionaries adopted
 Quechua 899

Quechua. Indeed, it was the Spanish that named the lan- themselves in defense patrols known as rondas campesi-
guage Quechua, in reference to the people who used the nas. The Peruvian government supported the patrols, and
language. The Spanish also referred to the Quechua lan- it was the development of the patrols, together with better
guage as runa simi (people’s language) to differentiate it police and military intelligence, that resulted in the defeat
from their own language, kastilla simi (Castilian language). of the Sendero Luminoso in 1992.
Although Spanish colonizers adopted the Quechua Despite early reports describing Sendero Luminoso as
language, when the Spanish conquered the Incan Empire an indigenous nationalist movement, the party’s leader-
in the sixteenth century, Quechua society dramatically ship never claimed to fight for indigenous rights, nor did
changed. The Spanish encomienda system, which allowed the party acknowledge the problems facing indigenous
tributes to be demanded and forced labor from the indig- minorities in the face of increasing urbanization and mass
enous inhabitants of a colonized area, meant the Quechua communication. During the manchay tiempo, many young
were forced to grow unfamiliar crops for their Spanish rul- Quechua migrated to urban areas, and many thousands of
ers at the expense of food needed to feed themselves. The other Quechua had no choice but to move to shantytowns
Spanish system did not provide for the welfare of farmers in Lima and Ayacucho as a result of Sendero Luminoso’s
or their families. The Spanish also moved the Quechua activities and the Peruvian authorities’ response to the
into highly populated villages. As the Quechua were not Sendero Luminoso. It was only in the 1990s that the Que-
used to living in populous settlements, this move placed chua could return to their homes.
great strain on Quechua political and social institutions. Historically, Peruvian government policy has seemingly
Over time, there arose a growing desire for the trappings supported the cultural survival of the country’s Quechua
of Spanish wealth among the colonized people of South people. During the populist period (1930–1950), succes-
America, and by the end of the Spanish colonial period sive governments promoted indigenous folkloric festivals
in the nineteenth century, many Quechua were relegated and organizations, and the radical military government of
to the role of servants working on grand estates. Other General Juan Velasco (1968–1975) employed neo-Incaic
Quechua either moved to urban areas in lowland areas in symbolism while also promoting bilingual education and
search of work or to become traders or returned to their recognizing Quechua as an official language in places with
mountain homelands. That the Quechua have a history of a high proportion of Quechua speakers. The military gov-
working in low-status employment is one of the reasons ernment also issued new laws aimed at protecting indig-
that they have faced discrimination in modern times. enous land, and while these laws were primarily aimed
Quechua campesinos (peasant farmers) were among at Amazonian peoples, they applied to the Quechua too.
those worst affected during the period known by the Under the military government, highland indigenous
hybrid Quechua/Spanish term manchay tiempo, meaning communities such as the Quechua were transformed into
“time of fear.” The manchay tiempo began in 1980, when peasant communities, thereby incorporating them into
the Marxist-Maoist group Sendero Luminoso (Shining the national class-based politics.
Path) burned election papers in the Quechua village of Generally, the indigenous peoples of the Peruvian high-
Chuschi. In the beginning, the Sendero Luminoso guer- lands have not tended to group together along ethnic lines.
rilla movement was received warmly by locals, as it initi- Recently, however, this has begun to change. For example,
ated educational projects and meted out justice for local in 1999, highland indigenous communities involved in
crimes, such as corruption, theft, and domestic abuse, and mining conflicts established the Coordinadora Nacional
because members of Sendero Luminoso could speak indig- de Comunidades Afectados por la Minería (CONACAMI)
enous languages. Soon, however, the Sendero Luminoso and the Coordinadora Nacional de Comunidades Camp-
began to repress the Quechua peasant farmers pitilessly. esinas e Indígenas de Peru. Highland indigenous leaders
Community leaders were executed, and ordinary Quechua have also sought to form relationships with Amazonian
not in positions of authority would be killed for suspected indigenous movements through umbrella groups, such as
“collaboration” with Peruvian government forces or for the Conferencia Permanente de los Pueblos Indígenas del
failing to adhere to the party’s ideology. At the same time, Perú (COPPIP), to better safeguard the rights of Peruvians
Quechua communities located in the conflict areas were highlanders.
also targeted by government counterinsurgency forces. By At the start of the twentieth century, the majority of
the start of the 1990s, the Quechua had started to establish Quechua were living isolated lives as marginal farmers
900 Quechua

high up in the Andes or earning small incomes from sell- The Quechua see God as an organizational figure who
ing handicrafts, spinning wool, and weaving. At the same gives as well as takes. According to Quechua beliefs, part
time, some Quechua have started to enter national politics, of God’s organizational capacity saw God divide time into
with some becoming important politicians, including Evo three eras represented by the Father (during which the
Morales, Bolivia’s first indigenous president, and Quechua earth and humans were created), the Son (that spanned
women leaders such as Hilaria Supa and Maria Sumires, the era of the Incan Empire to the present time), and the
who have been elected to the Peruvian Congress. Holy Spirit (the future). Although the Quechua believe in
God, it is Catholic saints that they worship alongside the
Virgin Mary and Jesus Christ, whom they view as the Son
Society, Culture, and Tradition of God.
In the most remote Quechua settlements, communities are The Quechua often blend the identity of the Catholic
organized into ayllus, autonomous extensive family net- saints with the gods of the Quechua indigenous religion.
works that own collective lands and have reciprocal labor Additionally, in the Quechua imagination, these saints also
arrangements. Economically, ayllus rely on subsistence merge with the apus and wamanis, guardian deities that
agriculture and raising animals. The houses in ayllus are watch over Andean areas. Underlying Quechua religious
often basic adobes or consist of stone walls with thatched practice is the belief in Pachamama (Mother Earth), who is
roofs made from straw. The animals (llamas, alpacas, vicu- said to confer fertility on the land. The Quechua make offer-
nas) reared by Quechua pastoralists produce the wool that ings and sacrifices to Pachamama to thank her for showing
the Quechua used in the handicrafts that are extremely benevolence and to ensure her continued goodwill.
important, both economically and culturally, to the Que- The Quechua consider worshipping saints an extremely
chua. Some Quechua groups, such as the Chinchero and important activity, so they tend to hold many festivals and
Taquile, are celebrated for producing high-quality textiles saints days. Quechua festivals usually comprise vespers
made from the wool of llamas, alpacas, and sheep, which is followed by a mass, then a procession, religious dances,
then spun, dyed, and woven to make blankets and garments and then secular activities that nonetheless have some
such as ponchos and chullos (hats with ear flaps). Each religious element, such as parades, feasts, and drinking.
Quechua group has its own individual patterns (pallay) and The most widely celebrated Quechua ritual festival is the
designs that the people pass down through the generations festival known as Inti Raymi (Sun Festival) that takes place
as a kind of heirloom. The symbols and stories associated annually on June 24 at the Ancient Incan capital of Cusco.
with these patterns are locally important. Another form of It is attended by both Quechua people and tourists. Inti
Quechua employment is mining, for Quechua men have Raymi is a celebration of Apu Inti (God Sun), the most
been involved with mining since colonial times. highly revered god in the Inca religion. According Incan
During the Spanish colonization of the Quechua, the tradition, the first Inca Pachatutec created the Inti Raymi
Spanish destroyed the Incan religion and embarked on a to celebrate the winter solstice that marked the start of the
campaign to eradicate the indigenous religions that had Incan New Year. Although the winter solstice begins on
existed before the Incan Empire. The Spanish conquest of June 21, according to the Incas, the sun remains stationary
South America resulted in many Quechua converting to until June 24, when it then rises.
Roman Catholicism. However, although the Quechua had Part of the Inti Raymi festival involves a ceremonial
converted, the close association of the Quechua religion reading of sacred coca leaves to foresee the fate of the Incan
with Quechua family life meant that the Spanish could not Empire for the following year. The leaves of the coca plant
repress the Quechua religion entirely. Indeed, the Quechua are used in many Quechua rituals and are also chewed by
began to reinterpret Catholicism, combining elements of the Quechua as a stimulant to distract the Quechua from
Christianity with native beliefs. their, at times, difficult living conditions. Unfortunately,
Although there are differences in the religious beliefs the coca plant is a source of cocaine, so legislation aimed at
of modern Quechua, there are some unifying factors. For stopping the export of coca abroad has actually resulted in
instance, the Christian influence has resulted in a belief in the criminalization of a traditional aspect of Quechua life.
heaven and hell and a belief that time is a series of inter- The growing of coca has also meant that the Quechua have
linked spirals of time as opposed to the pre-Christian Que- become involved with local drug mafias, who purchase the
chua belief that time is a series of individual cycles. coca to process it further.
 Quechua 901

In contrast, another Quechua crop, quinoa, is not only services or inpatient care, as they often live in remote
a staple indigenous food but also a food highly prized in areas and have extremely limited access to land transport,
the United States and Europe. On the down side, the fact meaning healthcare facilities may be several days’ travel
that quinoa can command a high export price means that away. A 1999 study of health care among indigenous and
Quechua families often sell quinoa rather than eat it them- campesino communities found that around 20 percent of
selves, resulting in food shortages. the population had never seen a doctor, though 47 percent
Quechua women are instantly recognizable by their had visited a traditional healer. Meanwhile, 70 percent of
traditional outfit, which consists of a heavy, puffy, mul- the people surveyed would be unable to see a doctor if
tilayered skirt with petticoats; a long shawl; bowler hat; required, though financial limitations were a greater bar-
jewelry; and flat pumps accompanied by a flirtatious atti- rier to healthcare access than distance to medical facili-
tude. Quechua women wearing the traditional outfits have ties (Brierley et al. 2014). Trauma and infectious disease
become fashionable figures in some areas of South Amer- such as malaria and tuberculosis as well as diarrhea are
ica. For instance, for many years, Quechua women were not the main contributors to morbidity and mortality among
allowed to walk freely in Plaza Murillo, the central square indigenous and campesino communities. Although coun-
in Bolivia’s capital city of La Paz, nor in wealthy suburbs tries such as Peru have rapidly developing economies with
of the city, such as Zona Sur. The Quechua women could evolving healthcare systems, healthcare provision has yet
also be refused entry to restaurants and forbidden to ride to improve for people living in isolated rural communi-
in taxis and on public buses. This discrimination occurred ties. For this reason, indigenous peoples in these countries
because the Quechua were considered the lowest class of rely on traditional medical approaches involving the use of
citizen on account of their being rural peasants who had plants and spiritual healers.
migrated to the cities to work as servants or traders. A recent instance of Quechua women in Peru being
Today, however, the Quechua known informally as urged to have medical procedures occurred between 1996
cholitas are reclaiming their identity and spearheading and 2000, when, according to data released in 2002 by
social change. A rise in the number of Quechua grassroots Peru’s Health Ministry, 260,874 Quechua women were
movements in Bolivia—led by rural peasant groups— sterilized during tubal-ligation operations (Lizarzaburu
culminated in the 2005 election of Bolivia’s first indige- 2015). The rights group the Latin American Committee
nous president, Evo Morales, an event that has been cred- on Women’s Rights (CLADEM) claims that as few as 10
ited with instigating a societal transformation that sees percent of the women that underwent sterilization dur-
political policies and laws focus on the plight of women ing this period gave consent, and the other women were
and indigenous people. Although poverty and inequality victims of forced sterilizations or harassed, threatened, or
are still issues in Bolivia, the country’s economy is grow- coerced into undergoing the operation. The sterilization
ing, meaning there is more money in circulation and that program was launched in 1996 by then president Alberto
cholitas, as traders of goods, have more cash to spend. This Fujimori, who maintained that a lower birth rate would
in turn means that the cholitas have recently achieved a reduce the country’s poverty rate. To start, the program
degree of influence over the Bolivian economy, politics, received much praise nationally, but then increasing num-
and fashion industry. bers of women—all poor Quechua speakers—complained
In addition to being known for their religious festivals that they had been sterilized without their consent. Some
and dress, the Quechua are also known for their haunt- women died as a result of their operations, and there were
ing folk music played on panpipes, flutes, and drums and claims that women had been refused postoperative medi-
occasionally on stringed instruments made from the shells cal attention.
of armadillos (charangos). Advances have been made in Quechua education,
especially the people’s bilingual education. Education pro-
grams have been paid for by increased state funding and
Health Care and Education the provision of Microsoft Word and Google in Quechua.
Indigenous and campesino communities often have poor Many Quechua people reject bilingual education, however,
access to health care and low levels of education, and protesting the need for them to receive a better education
their settlements may lack basic sanitation. The Quechua in Spanish. Many Quechua would prefer their children
find it difficult to access health care, including diagnostic speak Spanish rather than the Quechua language, which
902 Quechua

is seen as lower class and a hindrance to children attaining bypasses Quechua settlements that rely on the streams for
good jobs. There have been many conversations between their drinking water supplies and irrigation. At the same
the Quechua and local nongovernmental organizations time, as demand for water increases, climate change has
(NGOs) and indigenous intellectuals about this issue. resulted in mountain glaciers retreating, so there is less
meltwater to feed the streams, thereby reducing Quechua
water supplies further.
Threats to Survival
See also: Aymara
The unifying aspect of Quechua society is the speaking
of the Quechua language, so to an extent, the survival of Further Reading
Borsdorf, Axel, and Christoph Stadel. 2015. The Andes: A Geo-
the Quechua people depends on the survival of their lan-
graphical Portrait. Heidelberg, Germany: Springer Geography.
guage. At present, there is some hope that the language Brierley, Charlotte K., Nicolas Suarez, Gitanjli Arora, and Devon
will survive because so many people speak it and because Graham. 2014. “Healthcare Access and Health Beliefs of the
bilingual Quechua/Spanish education means the language Indigenous Peoples in Remote Amazonian Peru.” American
is being passed on to younger generations. In addition, Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 90, no. 1 (January
the Quechua language is becoming more evident in soci- 8): 180–183. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles​
/PMC3886418.
ety. This can be seen in Peru’s national Quechua-language
Dear, Paula. 2014. “The Rise of the ‘Cholitas.’” BBC Maga-
television news program Ñuqanchik (meaning “all of us” zine, February 20. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine​
in Quechua) that was first aired in 2016. Despite these -26172313.
advances, however, it is still the case that the breakdown of Lizarzaburu, Javier. 2015. “Forced Sterilisation Haunts Peruvian
traditional Quechua economic areas, such as mining and Women Decades On.” BBC, December 2. http://www.bbc.co​
climate issues affecting farming, result in unemployment .uk/news/world-latin-america-34855804.
Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Peru: Aymara
that in turn leads to a loss of both Quechua ethnic identity
and Highland Quechua.” World Directory of Minorities and
and the Quechua language as Quechua people migrate to Indigenous Peoples. http://minorityrights.org/minorities​
cities in search of work. Once they start living in the cit- /aymara-and-highland-quechua.
ies, the Quechua tend to become assimilated into Hispanic Noble, Judith, and Jaime Lacasa. 2010. Introduction to Quechua:
society. Language of the Andes. 2nd ed. Indianapolis, IN: Dog Ear
The Quechua also continue to encounter political and Publishing.
Ortiz, Patricio R. 2013. “Quechua.” In Native Peoples of the
social discrimination. This was highlighted when the
World: An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contem-
Peruvian parliamentary president and the parliamentary porary Issues, edited by Steven Danver, 153–156. Vols. 1–3.
officer rejected the oaths of office of newly elected Peru- London: Routledge.
vian Congress members Hilaria Supa and Maria Sumires Oxfam International and FEDIQUEP. 2016. Land Is Life: The
because the oaths had been made in Quechua. Struggle of the Quechua People to Gain Their Land Rights.
Quechua communities are involved in a major strug- 2016. Oxfam.org. https://www.oxfam.org/sites/www.oxfam​
.org/files/file_attachments/bn-land-is-life-peru-land-rights​
gle for water resources. Population growth in urban areas
-260916-en.pdf.
and the building of tourist hotels in mountain valleys have Starn, Orin, Carlos Iván Degregori, and Robin Kirk, eds. 2005.
seen the Peruvian government allow towns to tap streams The Peru Reader: History, Culture, Politics. 2nd ed. Durham,
in Quechua mountain areas. This means that the water NC: Duke University Press.
 R

RAPA NUI some researchers say is increasingly influenced by Spanish

sentence structure.
Current Location Easter Island (Chile)
Current Population 2,553
Language Spanish; Rapanui (Pascuan) Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Interesting Fact Some people think the Rapa Nuis According to Rapa Nui oral history, their population once
were taught to make statues by numbered around 10,000 people, but at one point, there
ancient space aliens. were as few as 111 Rapa Nuis (Polynesian Cultural Centre
2005). Exact population figures for the Rapa Nuis are dif-
ficult to ascertain, however. For example, in 1992, it was
Overview reported that over 20,000 people identified themselves as
The Rapa Nuis (sometimes written as Rapanuis) are the Rapa Nuis, but by 2002, this number had dropped to 4,650
indigenous Polynesian people living on the Chilean terri- people (Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Censo Nacional
tory of Easter Island located in the Indian Ocean. The Rapa 2002). This reduction in population figures does not, how-
Nuis refer to Easter Island as Rapa Nui (“Great Rapa”) or Te ever, indicate a high mortality rate among the Rapa Nuis,
Pito o te Henua, meaning “Navel of the World” or “Center but rather reveals the flexible nature of cultural categori-
of the World” but also sometimes translated as “the End of zation. In 2013, 2,553 people self-identified as Rapa Nuis,
the Land.” The name Rapa Nui came about when a Tahi- meaning the Rapa Nuis made up 0.3 percent of Chile’s total
tian visitor to the island thought it reminded of him of his indigenous population. There were also a few hundred
homeland, Rapa Iti (Small Rapa), and so today the island- Rapa Nuis living on mainland Chile and in Tahiti (Minor-
ers tend to refer to Easter Island by its Polynesian name, ity Rights Group International 2017).
Rapa Nui. Although the Rapa Nuis are technically Chilean,
they share a heritage with other Polynesians. Rapa Nuis
have Spanish as their first language, but many Rapa Nui Geography and Environment
also speak their native language, Rapanui (also known as Easter Island is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one
Pascuan). Rapanui is an Eastern Polynesian language that of the most remote islands in the world, as it lies some

903
904  Rapa Nui

4,300 miles southeast of Hawaii, 2,000 miles east of Tahiti, meant that soil erosion set in on the island, thereby reducing
and 2,200 miles from the coast of Chile. The island has an crop harvests. As they were unable to fish and had smaller
area of 63 square miles, and its nearest neighbor, Pitcairn harvests, the Rapa Nuis began to eat seabirds and so dis-
Island, is over 1,200 miles away. The geographical location turbed the island’s ecosystem.
of Easter Island means that the Rapa Nuis are the world’s A counter to this argument suggests that the Rapa Nuis
easternmost Polynesian people. actually practiced sustainable farming methods. The island-
ers built thousands of manavai, circular stone windbreaks,
within which they farmed. The Rapa Nuis also mulched
History and Politics fields using broken volcanic rocks to keep the ground moist
It is impossible to know for sure the history of the Rapa and fertilized the soil with volcanic nutrients.
Nuis, for like all other Polynesians, the Rapa Nuis have no However the deforestation occurred, it resulted in the
written history. Anthologists believe that Rapa Nuis arrived island’s volcanic soil being seriously eroded. As a result of
on the island from French Polynesia around 1,600 years ago. the soil erosion, when the first Europeans arrived in 1722,
Rapa Nui folklore, meanwhile, suggests that around 1,500 they found Easter Island almost totally barren, with few
years ago, the audacious chief Hotu Matu’a led his people inhabitants. The first European to land on Easter Island
to Easter Island, where they lived in isolation from other was Dutch admiral Jacob Roggeveen, who arrived on the
Polynesians for many generations. It is not known for sure island on Easter Sunday (April 5) 1722, hence the English-
whether the Rapa Nuis were visited by outsiders, but some language name for the island—Easter Island. Easter Island
anthropologists think the Rapa Nuis may have encoun- is also known by the Spanish name Isla de Pascua because
tered South Americans at some point; hence, the design of Spanish navigator and mapmaker Felipe González de
the maoi (famous stone statues of Easter Island) seems to Ahedo visited the island in 1770. It was during this visit
have been influenced by Mesoamerican or Incan culture. that Gonzales de Ahedo claimed the island for Spain on
Furthermore, botanists have proven that the sweet pota- a document that the island’s inhabitants wrote in ron-
toes found on Easter Island originate from the Americas. gorongo, a series of glyphs that is the closest Rapa Nuis
According to Rapa Nui tradition, the period between the have to a writing system and that is now unintelligible to
Rapa Nuis’ ancestors arriving on Easter Island and contact islanders. Other European visitors to Easter Island included
with Westerners was characterized by population growth, famous British explorer and navigator Captain James Cook
infighting, and cannibalism. It was also during this period and French naval explorer Jean-François de Galaup, who
that the maoi were constructed for unknown reasons. arrived on the island in 1774 and 1786, respectively.
At some point, before Europeans arrived on the island, Between 1859 and 1862, around 1,500 Rapa Nui were
Easter Island suffered deforestation. There is some debate as captured and taken to Peru as slaves. Fifteen Rapa Nui
to why this deforestation occurred. One theory is that Poly- managed to return to their homeland, but these former
nesian rats arrived in the canoes used by the human settlers. slaves carried with them diseases, including smallpox,
These rats had no predator on the island and so quickly which devastated the island population. Indeed, by 1877,
overran the place, feasting on palm nuts and thereby pre- the island’s population had fallen from several thousand
venting the sprouting of new, slow-growing trees that would to around one hundred. Chilean authorities annexed the
replace those that had been cleared by the early Rapa Nuis. island in 1880, and Easter Island has remained under Chil-
Another related theory is that the earliest Rapa Nuis com- ean control ever since. Up until 1953, the Chilean author-
mitted accidental ecocide (destruction of the natural envi- ities allowed a Scottish company to manage the island as
ronment). Unbeknownst to the islanders, Easter Island has a free-range sheep ranch. Although the sheep were free to
a very fragile environment—the climate is dry and cool, and roam about the island, the Rapa Nuis were penned into
the soil is not very fertile, as it consists of volcanic ash and the island’s only town, Hanga Roa, which had an area of
dust blown onshore by the wind. When the Rapa Nuis prac- around one thousand hectares. The Rapa Nuis were also
ticed slash-and-burn techniques to clear the island of its made to work on the ranch for free or for a tiny income.
trees to clear farmland or gather firewood, the trees did not Chilean president Eduardo Frei Montalva (1911–1982)
regrow. This lack of regrowth meant that wood became hard sought to improve life for the Rapa Nuis, and in 1966,
to find, so the islanders could no longer make the oceango­ Montalva’s government made the Rapa Nuis full citizens of
ing canoes that they used to go fishing. The lack of trees also Chile with the same rights as other Chileans. The Chilean
 Rapa Nui  905

authorities also acknowledged the distinctiveness of Rapa

Nui society by changing the sentences for some crimes com- The Return to the Stars Theory
mitted on Easter Island. For instance, the government ruled According to the Swiss author Erich von Däniken,
that Rapa Nuis found guilty of theft should receive lighter known for his books that claim extraterrestrials
sentences than Chileans living on the mainland. This was influenced early human culture, aliens may have
because the government felt that the Rapa Nuis had a dif- created the Rapa Nui moai. In his book Return to
ferent concept of private property than other Chileans. Mili- the Stars (1970), von Däniken suggests that small
tary dictator Augusto Pinochet (1915–2006) maintained the group of extraterrestrials were stranded on Easter
infrastructure on Easter Island out of public funds, but in Island following a technical hitch with their craft.
1985, Rapa Nui objections to the extension of the island’s air- The stranded aliens had great knowledge, advanced
strip for use by NASA was ignored by the Pinochet regime. weaponry, and a way of working stone unknown to
In 1992, Mr Hotu, a Rapa Nui elder, became Easter humankind. Either to leave the Rapa Nuis with a last­
Island’s first elected mayor. The following year, Chile ing memory of their stay or to signal to other aliens
passed a law recognizing the cultural and territorial rights that they needed rescue, the aliens created the moai,
of the Rapa Nuis and paved the way for the creation of a which they set on stone pedestals along the coast.
Commission for the Development of Easter Island. The
commission became active in 1999. In 2001, the Council
of Elders No. 2 set up the Rapa Nui Parliament. This self- and other important people. It is known that the Rapa Nuis
appointed authority intended to recover all Rapa Nui used a combination of toki (traditional adze), chisels, and
land and demanded a limit to Chile’s economic and com- hammers to fashion the statues, but how the maoi were
mercial activities on Easter Island. erected without using pack animals or wheels has been the
subject of much discussion. The answer seems to be that the
Rapa Nuis maneuvered the statues into upright positions
Society, Culture, and Tradition and then corralled them down paths using ropes. Once the
In the 1950s, celebrated Norwegian ethnographer Thor statues arrived at the desired position, with their backs to
Hyerdahl arrived on Easter Island to excavate and research the Pacific Ocean, the statues were placed on their stone
the maoi. The visit of such a famous individual spurred platforms.
islanders to restore the previously toppled statues to their Today, virtually all jobs on Easter Island depend on the
former upright positions and to restore the ahu platforms tourism. Tourism accounts for 80 percent of the island’s
on which the statues used to sit. The moai are world economy and revolves around visitors’ desire to see the
famous examples of indigenous art and were fashioned maoi. Every week, flights arrive from Chile, Peru, and
between the tenth and sixteenth centuries. The statues, Tahiti, bringing with them many thousands of tourists. In
which are shaped like faces and torsos and are made from 2014, eighty thousand tourists visited Easter Island, a fig-
scoria (hardened volcanic ash), range in height from a ure that dwarfed the island’s total permanent population
few feet tall to nearly thirty-two feet high and weigh up to of six thousand residents (Long 2014).
eighty tons each. In total, Rapa Nuis created around nine
hundred moai, but many were never erected properly or
even finished. Health Care and Education
As the Rapa Nuis have no written records, no one Rapa Nuis face several social issues, including a shortage
knows why the Rapa Nuis created the maoi. This has led of healthcare facilities and insufficient educational services
to a range of theories as to how the statues came to be. (Minority Rights Group International 2017). To combat
According to Rapa Nui oral tradition, the statues were the lack of schools on Rapa Nui, Rapa Nuis are awarded
animated by mana, a spiritual force conveyed by their grants to study on mainland Chile, and the government
ancestors, although best-selling author Erich von Däniken provides student accommodation in the Chilean capital
suggested that the moai were erected by stranded extrater- city of Santiago. Many Rapa Nui students opt to study
restrials. Similar theories have also been suggested by televi- engineering and plan to return to the island on graduation
sion shows such as Ancient Aliens. Most researchers believe, with the intention of using their newfound engineering
however, that the statues were created to honor ancestors knowledge to improve facilities for the Rapa Nuis.
906  Rapa Nui

Threats to Survival Rapa Nuis see music as a way to communicate with peo-
Easter Island tourism is causing island culture to modern- ple throughout Oceania and Southeast Asia. Indeed, it is
ize rapidly. Thirty years ago, cars, electricity, and telecom- through music that modern-day Rapa Nuis have forged
munications were rare on Easter Island, but today, Hanga ties with other indigenous populations in countries such as
Roa is home to cybercafés, restaurants, and nightclubs, and Borneo and Taiwan. Traditional Rapa Nui music consists
there are so many cars and trucks that traffic jams occur. of choral singing and chanting accompanied by instru-
Tourism also brings other challenges to Easter Island. Both ments such as conch shell trumpets, accordions, and the
the island’s booming tourist trade and expanding popu- kauaha, a percussion instrument created from a horse’s
lation are straining the island’s limited water supply and jawbone. However, modern Rapa Nui music reflects the
sewer system, and litter is also an increasing problem. In Chilean influence on island life, for it features Latin Amer-
2014, the island produced 20 tons of trash per day, and ican elements. This has led to the creation of new musical
in 2011, 230 tons of trash had to be transported from the genres, such as a Rapa Nui style of tango. Easter Island’s
island to Chile. That same year, the island’s recycling plant most famous band is arguably Matato’a (which translates
was processing forty thousand plastic bottles every month as “the eye of the warrior”). The group employs traditional
(Long 2014). However, despite the recycling plant, much musical instruments, such as kauaha and bombo drums,
of the island’s trash is not recyclable, so the rubbish is flat- as well as electric guitars to create a fusion sound. The
tened and buried in landfill sites, where it attracts rats, group aims to promote the Rapa Nui culture and tries to
dogs, and mosquitoes. showcase Rapa Nui dances, costumes, and traditional ta
Another problem facing Easter Island is the erosion kona body art in their high-energy performances.
of the moai. Although tourists are forbidden from touch- Music may not be sufficient to preserve Rapa Nui life,
ing the statues, the horses that are used for transport rub and in recent years, Rapa Nui activists have stepped up
against the statues, wearing away the porous stone from their calls for the right to self-governance. The activists
which the moai are made. The horses are also known to have also called for the possession of the ancestral lands
relieve themselves on the ahu platforms. they feel the Chilean government has taken from them.
Rapa Nuis are in two minds about the influence of Chile Recent protests by activists against Chilean rule have seen
on their island. On the one hand, the islanders depend on the Chilean police react violently against Rapa Nui demon-
Chile for fuel and food that is delivered daily by air and strators, who in turn have threatened to declare independ-
ships. Moreover, the Chilean influence extends to the ence and lodge a complaint against Chilean authorities at
islanders speaking Spanish (as well as the indigenous Rapa the International Court of Justice. In 2009, the Rapa Nuis
language) and going to university on the mainland. Chil- blocked the island’s airport for two days to both disrupt
eans move to Easter Island for two reasons on the whole: tourist flights and protest against the Chilean domination
property and income are exempt from tax as long as the of the island’s economy. Twice in December 2010, the Chil-
taxpayer is an Easter Island resident, and plentiful job ean government used military police to remove protestors
opportunities are provided by the booming tourist trade. occupying a public building that was earmarked for con-
Handily for Rapa Nuis, Chilean immigrants are often will- version into a luxury hotel by Chilean and U.S. investors.
ing to do the jobs that Rapa Nuis refuse to do. Chilean Chilean security forces also removed protestors from the
immigrants have, however, married Rapa Nuis, meaning main square in Hanga Roa. This action saw many dozens
that there is concern among some islanders that Rapa Nui of demonstrators injured and arrested.
indigenous culture is becoming diluted. Some Rapa Nuis Although some Rapa Nuis have suggested that they
are now voicing resentment at the arrival of Chilean immi- should ask to become part of Polynesia, the Chilean gov-
grants to Easter Island, with some Rapa Nuis arguing that ernment is said to seek a peaceful solution to the situation
the number of immigrant residents should be restricted to while maintaining Chile’s authority over the island.
ensure the Rapa Nuis’ quality of life and to prevent Rapa See also: Anutan
Nui culture from being destroyed by people with whom
Further Reading
they have little in common (Long 2014).
Batty, David. 2012. “Easter Island Statues ‘Walked’ into Posi-
One of the ways in which Rapa Nuis try to preserve tion, Say Experts.” The Guardian, October 25. https://www​
their traditions is through music. Moreover, as Rapa .theguardian.com/science/2012/oct/25/easter-island-statues​
Nuis now have more chances to travel than ever before, -walked-into-position.
 Rohingya 907

Bendrups, Dan. 2011. “A Rapa Nui Perspective on Shared Cul-

ture and Contact.” In Austronesian Soundscapes: Performing
Arts in Oceania and Southeast Asia, edited by Birgit Abels,
Tun Khin
261–275. Amsterdam, the Netherlands: Amsterdam Univer- Tun Khin is a Rohingya activist who has lived in
sity Press. the United Kingdom since 2004. He is the founder
Bloch, Hannah. 2012. “If They Could Only Talk.” National Geo- and president of the Burmese Rohingya Organi-
graphic, July. http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2012/07​ sation UK, the leading voice for Rohingya people
/easter-island/bloch-text. around the world. Khin, who was born and grew up
Dangerfield, Whitney. 2007. “The Mystery of Easter Island.”
in Arakan State, Myanmar, is the grandson of a par-
Smithsonian.com, March 31. http://www.smithsonianmag​
.com/travel/the-mystery-of-easter-island-151285298. liamentary secretary who served during Myanmar’s
Fischer, Steven Roger. 2005. Island at the End of the World: The democratic period. In 1982, Tun Khin was rendered
Turbulent History of Easter Island. London: Reaktion Books. stateless by a nationality law that excluded the
Long, Gideon. 2014. “Trouble in Paradise for Chile’s Easter Rohingya from a list of groups considered indige-
Island.” BBC, April 18. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world​ nous and therefore eligible for Burmese (Myanmar)
-latin-america-26951566.
nationality.
Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Chile: Rapanui.”
http://minorityrights.org/minorities/rapanui. Khin has briefed officials on the human rights
Observatorio Ciudadano. 2012. The Human Rights of the Rapa violations committed against the Rohingya popu-
Nui People on Easter Island: Observers Report Visit to Rapa lation at the U.S. Congress and State Department,
Nui 2011. International Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. the British and Swedish Parliaments, the European
Report 15. http://www.iwgia.org/iwgia_files_publications​ Union Parliament and Commission, the United
_files/0597_Informe_RAPA_NUI_IGIA-Observatorio​
Nations Indigenous Forum in New York, and the
_English_FINAL.pdf.
Polynesian Cultural Centre. 2005. “Rapa Nui (Easter Island).” United Nations Human Rights Council in Geneva,
http://www.polynesia.com/polynesian_culture/rapa-nui​ Switzerland. He has also written articles about the
/index.html#.WWIR1DOZOb8. plight of the Rohingya for British newspapers and
Wade Young, Forrest. 2016. “Unsettling the Moral Economy the Huffington Post as well as the exiled media out-
of Tourism on Chile’s Easter Island.” In Political Ecology of lets the Democratic Voice of Burma and Mizzima
Tourism: Community, Power and the Environment, edited
Burmese Medias.
by Mary Mostafanezhad, Roger Norum, Eric J. Shelton, and
Anna Thompson-Carr, 134–150. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. Khin has appeared as a featured speaker on
Rohingya rights on news outlets that include the
BBC and Al Jazeera. In 2015, Khin received a lead-
ership award from Refuges International on account
of his work in publicizing the problems faced by the
Rohingyas.
ROHINGYA Khin can be followed on Twitter at @tunkhin80.
Current Location Myanmar
Current Population 3.5 million
Language Rohingya related to Bengali, most especially to the Bengali Chittago-
Interesting Fact The Rohingya have been described as nian language used in southwestern Bangladesh.
the world’s most persecuted people. The Myanmar government denies the Rohingya offi-
cial documents that allow the Rohingya to travel, study,
work, marry, or access health care. As a result of this
Overview oppression, the Rohingya are effectively a stateless people
The Rohingya (also sometimes called the Ruainggas) are and have been described as “the world’s most persecuted
an Indo-Aryan people living predominantly in Rakhine minority” (Al Jazeera Staff 2017). The Myanmar census of
State (also known as Arakan State) in western Myan- 2014 did not include the Rohingya in the list of 135 offi-
mar (the country known formerly as Burma). Smaller cial Myanmar ethnic groups. Many people in Myanmar,
Rohingya communities can also be found in eastern Bang- including the country’s de facto leader Aung San Suu Kyi,
ladesh, Thailand, Malaysia, and elsewhere. The Rohingya refuse to use the term Rohingya to describe the Rohingya
speak Rohingya (also known as Ruaingga), a dialect that is people.
908 Rohingya

Population, Diaspora, and Migration Rohingya people, who established their own separate lan-
There are around 3.5 million Rohingya worldwide (Mina- guage and culture.
han 2012), but only 1.1 million live in Myanmar (Kelly Most Rohingya living in Myanmar today are descended
2017). Nearly all of the Rohingya in Myanmar live in from Bengali Muslims who came to work on farms when
villages and townships, such as Maungdaw and Buthi- Rakhine State was annexed by the British in 1826. Dur-
daung in Rakhine State. The Rohingya are not permit- ing the era of British rule in what was then Burma (1824–
ted to leave their settlements without local government 1948), a substantial number of migrant laborers from
approval. In Rakhine State, the Rohingya form the major- India and Bangladesh entered the country. As the British
ity of the population. Rakhine state is also home to other administered Myanmar as a province of India, which they
minority ethnic groups, including the Chin, Kaman, Mro, also ruled, authorities viewed the migration as internal.
Khami, Dainet, and Maramagyi. Rakhine State is one of However, the native population of Rakhine State consid-
Myanmar’s poorest states, and settlements lack basic ered the migrants negatively as immigrant workers. When
amenities. Myanmar gained independence from the British in 1948,
The Rohingya face continuing violent persecution, the Myanmar government viewed the migration that had
meaning hundreds of thousands of Rohingya have fled occurred under British rule as illegal. For this reason, the
by land or boat to neighboring countries. Indeed, since Myanmar authorities denied citizenship to the majority
the 1970s, the maltreatment of the Rohingya in Rakh- of Rohingya under the 1948 Union Citizenship Act. The
ine State by Myanmar authorities has forced hundreds of act did, however, allow the Rohingya to request identity
thousands of Rohingya to escape to Bangladesh, Malaysia, cards if their families had lived in Myanmar for at least two
Thailand, and other Southeast Asian countries. There are generations. To begin with, the Rohingya were permitted
also smaller Rohingya settlements in Saudi Arabia, the identification documents, and some Rohingya even served
United Arab Emirates, Pakistan, Australia, New Zealand, in the Myanmar government.
the United Kingdom, and North America. Life for the Rohingya changed dramatically after a mil-
itary coup took place in Myanmar in 1962. In the wake
of the coup, all Myanmar citizens were made to obtain
Geography and Environment national registration cards. However, the Rohingya were
Myanmar is the northwesternmost country on the main- only provided with foreign identity cards, which limited
land of Southeast Asia. Rakhine State extends some 348 their educational opportunities and job applications. This
miles along Myanmar’s north coast and borders Bangla- discrimination linked back to the controversy that has
desh to the northwest. The state is separated from Myan- surrounded the origins of the Rohingya for many years.
mar’s central, low-lying landmass by the Yoma Mountain Myanmar’s Buddhists, who account for 80 percent of the
range (also known as the Rakhine Mountains, Burmese country’s population, view the Rohingya negatively. This
Rakhine Yoma, or Arakan Mountains) that lies between is because the Buddhists conflate the Rohingya with Bang-
the Rakhine coast and the valley of the Irrawaddy River. ladeshi Muslims who fled their homes in 1971 during
Bangladesh’s war of independence. In 1978, the Myanmar
military regime tried to expel the Bangladeshi Muslims,
History and Politics and as the Rohingya are considered the same as Bangla-
The history of the Rohingya can be traced back to the sev- deshi Muslims by the Myanmar Buddhists, many Myan-
enth century, when Arab sailors and merchants established mar Buddhists regard the Rohingya as illegal immigrants.
communities around the ports of Arakan. Buddhists, At the same time, however, the Bangladeshi authorities
Hindus, and animists living in the region soon adopted do not consider the Rohingya as Bangladeshi and tend to
the newcomers’ Islamic religion. The Muslim influence repatriate any Rohingya that enter into Bangladesh.
on the area increased further when nearby Bengal came In 1982, a new citizenship law was passed that, essen-
under Islamic control during the thirteenth century. A tially, left the Rohingya stateless, as it did not acknowledge
Muslim kingdom was established in Arakan in 1430 that the Rohingya as one of Myanmar’s 135 ethnic groups. This
subsequently attracted Muslims from elsewhere, includ- law recognized three levels of national citizenship, but to
ing Turks, Persians, and Bengalis. Over time, the assorted acquire the most basic level of national citizenship, known
Muslims living in the Arakan kingdom merged to form the as naturalized citizenship, a person must have proof that
 Rohingya 909

Rohingya refugees travel by boat across the border from Rakhine State in Myanmar to Bangladesh, September 6, 2017. Many Rohingya
were forced to flee Myanmar to neighboring Bangladesh in the face of violent persecution by the Myanmar government. (Mushfiqul
Alam/NurPhoto via Getty Images)

his or her family had lived in Myanmar before British rule. In recent years, the Rohingya have faced a great deal of
Many Rohingya lacked this documentation, however, as violent repression. In 2012, an outbreak of mass violence
the paperwork was either unavailable to them, or if the resulted in more than one hundred thousand Rohingya
Rohingya did apply for the documentation, it was not pro- being displaced, with tens of thousands of Rohingya made
vided to them. As a consequence of the law, the Myanmar to live in crumbling camps from which their travel was
found their education, employment, and health services restricted. The violence also meant hundreds of thousands
rights restricted. Meanwhile, the Rohingya right to marry of Rohingya fled to live in secret in Bangladesh (Ponniah
was curtailed, and it became increasingly difficult for the 2017).
Rohingya to practice their religion, with the building of In January 2017, the Myanmar security authorities’
new mosques prohibited. treatment of the Rohingya made international headlines.
In 1994, the Myanmar government stopped issu- The Myanmar authorities refuted claims that they were
ing birth certificates for Rohingya children. Today, the mistreating the Rohingya, saying that they were attempt-
Rohingya are denied the right to vote and must identify ing to restore law and order in Rohingya villages after
themselves as naturalized rather than Rohingya. There are nine policemen were murdered in 2016. The killings were
also limits on the number of Rohingya able to enter cer- blamed on the Rohingya, who in turn claimed they were
tain professions, including medicine, law, and politics. The being scapegoated for the murders by security forces.
Rohingya are also supposed to gain permission from local Then, in September 2017, reports surfaced of Rohingya
authorities and pay a fee every time they wish to travel adults being burned to death, children beheaded, and
outside of their village. Usually, the Rohingya are denied women raped. Reports also claimed that 90,000 Rohingya
permission to travel to Yangon, Myanmar’s capital city. fleeing across the border into Bangladesh claimed that the
910 Rohingya

Myanmar security forces were perpetrating a bloody cam- government (ten Veen 2005). Most Rohingya in Myan-
paign to drive them from Myanmar. The estimate of 90,000 mar are unable to earn a living. Instead, they are forced
refugees was based on calculations made by UN workers to work on government projects such as road building
stationed on the Bangladeshi border. If such estimates are or in military camps. Those Rohingya that are employed
accurate, then, in total, around 174,000 Rohingya have in unforced labor often face arbitrary taxation and have
sought safety in Bangladesh since October 2016. The refu- their land confiscated by authorities (ten Veen 2005). In
gees that are not forced back to Myanmar by Bangladeshi areas with a long history of Rohingya settlement, new
authorities strain the resources of aid agencies and local Muslims are not allowed to move into the area or buy land
communities already trying to help hundreds of thou- or houses.
sands of Rohingya refugees who have fled previous vio-
lence in Myanmar.
Commentators across the world looked to Myanmar’s Health Care and Education
de facto leader, the Nobel Peace Prize–winner Suu Kyi, to The government denies the Rohingya official documents
condemn the violence or curb the army’s mistreatment that allow them to move, study, work, marry, or access
of the Rohingya, and several Nobel laureates, including health care. As they cannot travel at will, the Rohingya
Malala Yousafzai, wrote an open letter to Suu Kyi, pressing cannot access health care outside of their settlements.
her to intercede on behalf of the Rohingya. Rohingya that make it to Bangladesh claim that they do
The reports of violence against the Rohingya have also not have enough food, that women are giving birth on the
affected international politics in Southeast Asia. Typically, roads, and that sick children cannot access medicines.
Southeast Asian countries do not criticize each other’s Among the refugees are an estimated sixteen thousand
internal affairs—this is a fundamental principle of the school-age children, at least five thousand of whom are
ten-member Association of South East Asian Nations. less than five years old (Lewis and Lone 2017). Nongov-
Nonetheless, the reported violence against the Rohingya ernmental organization (NGO) staff claim that these chil-
has resulted in condemnation from Muslim-majority dren need to be vaccinated to prevent outbreaks of disease.
countries neighboring Myanmar. Indonesian police even However, according to The Guardian, Myanmar authorities
claim to have foiled a bomb plot linked to the Islamic State blocked all UN aid agencies from delivering vital supplies
(IS) that intended to target the Myanmar embassy. The of food, water, and medicine to Rohingya refugees trying
prime minister of Malaysia, Najib Razak, is also on record to leave northern Rakhine State. In addition, for more than
condemning the treatment of the Rohingya and even a week, staff from UNICEF and the UN refugee agency the
questioned Suu Kyi’s right to a Nobel Peace Prize given United Nations Population Fund were not able to work in
her apparent lack of intervention in the situation (Ponniah northern Rakhine State, meaning that life-saving relief
2017). work could not be carried out. This was potentially harm-
Meanwhile, Amnesty International reports that since ful to both the Rohingya and poor Buddhist residents liv-
October 2016, hundreds of fleeing Rohingya have been ing in the area (Holmes 2017).
detained in Bangladesh before being forced to return to Only Myanmar citizens have access to public second-
Myanmar, where they face an uncertain future. The United ary education. Therefore, Rohingya children do not have
Nation’s refugee agency says countries bordering Myan- access to schooling at anything above the primary level.
mar should keep their borders open to allow access to des- Recently, a number of NGOs have tried to improve the
perate Rohingya refugees. children’s education in Rakhine State. For instance, the
European Commission’s International Cooperation and
Development department awarded a grant of €2 million
Society, Culture, and Tradition toward a project aimed at improving children’s access to
The Rohingya are predominantly Muslim, belonging quality education in a safe learning environment and to
mainly to the Sunni branch of Islam. There have been ensure access to primary education and nonformal educa-
reports that Rohingyas have been forced to provide build- tion for children displaced within the state. The project is
ing materials for the construction of Buddhist settlements intended to run from January 2015 to December 2017 and
that are categorized as Muslim-free zones by the Myanmar is implemented by the Lutheran World Federation.
 Roma 911

Threats to Survival ROMA

The Rohingya face ongoing persecution in Myanmar.
Current Location Europe; United States
Indeed, so severe is the treatment faced by the Rohingya
Current Population 13 million
that, in November 2016, a UN official described the Myan-
mar government of perpetrating a campaign of ethnic Language National languages; Romani-Domani
languages
cleansing against the Rohingya (Al Jazeera Staff 2017). In
January 2017, according to the United Nations, more than Interesting Fact The Roma are Europe’s largest indig-
enous ethnic group.
sixty-five thousand Rohingya fled persecution by fleeing
to Bangladesh, with twenty-two thousand of the refugees
fleeing in just one week. Most of these fleeing Rohingya Overview
are living in makeshift refugee camps. Meanwhile, media
The Roma, also called the Romanis, Romany, or Gypsies,
reports in September 2017 claim that the Myanmar mili-
among other names, are Europe’s largest indigenous
tary are torturing and killing civilian Rohingya that remain
ethnic group. The Roma speak the languages of the
in Myanmar. Other reports describe the beheading of
countries in which they live. Some Roma also speak lan-
Rohingya children and the raping of Rohingya women. As
guages belonging to the Romani-Domani branch of Indo-
a result of these reports, human rights groups have accused
European languages. Roma living in the Americas speak
the Myanmar military of carrying out crimes against
English, Spanish, French, and Portuguese as well as Romani-
humanity. In January 2017, however, an interim report by
Domani languages. Most Roma are Christian, especially
a Myanmar government special committee appointed to
Roman Catholic or Orthodox. There is a growing number
investigate reports of violence occurring in Rakhine State
of Protestant Roma as well as a Roma Muslim minority.
found no evidence to support claims of mass atrocities
Other Roma are atheists.
against the Rohingya nor of widespread allegations of rape.
In general, the Roma consider the term gypsy derog-
See also: Karen; Koryak; Mon; Naga atory, but cognates (words with a common etymological
origin) for the word are used across Europe to describe the
Further Reading
Al Jazeera Staff. 2017. “Myanmar: Who Are the Rohingya Roma. For example, in Hungary, the Roma are called the
Muslims?” Al Jazeera, September 4. http://www cigány; in Romania, they are the țigani; in Latvia, they are
.aljazeera​.com/indepth/features/2017/08/rohingya-muslims​ the Čigāni; and in Germany, the Roma are called the zige-
-170831065142812.html. uner. Many Roma in England prefer to be called Gypsies,
Holmes, Oliver. 2017. “Myanmar Blocks All UN Aid to Civil- though in the United Kingdom, non-Roma tend to call
ians at Heart of Rohingya Crisis.” The Guardian, September 4.
Roma people Travellers, though there is some disagree-
https://​www.theguardian.com/world/2017/sep/04/myanmar​
-blocks-all-un-aid-to-civilians-at-heart-of-rohingya-crisis. ment as to whether the terms Roma and Travellers should
Kelly, Liam. 2017. “Myanmar: Who Are the Rohingya?” News- be used interchangeably. The Roma refer to non-Roma
week, January 12. http://www.newsweek.com/explainer-who​ people as Gadjo. The Roma also use this term to describe
-are-rohingya-541575. assimilated Roma.
Lewis, Simon, and Wa Lone. 2017. “Explosions Rock Myan-
mar Area Near Bangladesh Border amid Rohingya Exo-
dus.” Reuters, September 4. https://www.reuters.com​
Population, Diaspora, and Migration
/article/us-myanmar-rohingya/explosions-rock-myanmar​
-area-near-bangladesh-border-amid-rohingya-exodus​ There are four main Roma population groups: the Lovaris,
-idUSKCN1BF0FJ. Kalderash, Churaris, and Machavaya. Roma subgroups
Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the include the Gitanoes, Luris, Sinti, Romungros, and Xorax-
Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. ais. Population figures for the Roma are approximate
Ponniah, Kevin. 2017 “Who Will Help Myanmar’s Rohingya?”
because the Roma do not always wish to be identified as such
BBC, January 10. http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia​
-38168917. in official censuses. Reasons for this include not wanting to
ten Veen, Rianne. 2005. Myanmar’s Muslims: The Oppressed of the suffer anti-Roma discrimination. Alternatively, Roma peo-
Oppressed. Wembley, UK: Islamic Human Rights Commission. ple may lack identity cards and so cannot be documented.
Most Roma live in Central and Eastern Europe. However,
912 Roma

there is a huge worldwide Roma diaspora. The Roma pop- include former Soviet states toward the Ural Mountains
ulation of Europe is estimated at ten million (Harper and or Russia.
Timmer 2011), and three million Roma are believed to live
in the Americas (Minahan 2013). Studies indicate that the
Roma population in Turkey numbers between two million History and Politics
and five million people. The exact number is unknown The history of the Roma is contentious, with most aca-
because most Roma in Turkey do not have identity cards. demic study of the subject revolving around linguistics.
In Sweden, the Roma are one of the country’s five offi- According to Roma legend, their people originated in
cially recognized minorities, and the Romani language southwestern Pakistan’s Sindh province. It is likely that
is officially recognized as a minority language in Sweden. nomadic Roma migrated westward between 600 and 500
According to the 2011 Poland national census, 12,560 peo- BCE, and others headed to Iran during the first millen-
ple identified primarily as Roma. The actual number of nium CE. Many researchers believe the Roma that left
Roma in Poland is probably much higher, however, with their homeland for Iran did so to escape the Muslim inva-
some estimates suggesting the figure is nearer 50,000 sion of Sindh around 711 CE. Once in Iran, the Roma split
(Minority Rights Group International 2018a). into three groups: the Kalderash, Manush, and Gitanos.
Non-Roma often consider the Roma nomadic, but Following the split, some Roma in Iran migrated to North
nomadism is usually the preserve of Roma in the United Africa, especially to Egypt.
Kingdom and France. Elsewhere, Roma live in villages By the end of the ninth century, some Roma lived
and settlements that have existed for generations. Dur- within the Byzantine Empire, and in the tenth century,
ing times of conflict and adversity, however, settled Roma some Roma moved to Russia. During the fourteenth cen-
will migrate. For instance, during the Balkan Wars of the tury, a number of Roma settled in Eastern Europe. Over
1990s, many settled Roma fled to Western Europe. Today, the course of the next hundred years, others settled in
when Eastern European Roma migrate westward in search Western Europe. In the late fifteenth century, a significant
of seasonal work, they follow migration routes of non- number of Roma traveled to Britain.
Roma migrants. Over time, most nomadic Roma adopted settled life-
At present, European Roma women are producing styles as farmers, merchants, metalworkers, and smiths.
fewer children than before. However, Roma birth rates Others continued to travel widely, often in response to
are still positive and higher than those of most European hostility when they did try to settle. By the mid-fifteenth
countries, which tend to have population rates below century, opposition to the Roma was widespread across
replacement levels. Thus, the Roma will play a significant Europe, with many anti-Roma laws enacted. Much of the
role in future European population growth. basis for the anti-Roma discrimination derived from sus-
picions about the people’s heritage—with their dark col-
oring and foreign appearance, the Roma were viewed as
Geography and Environment exotic and mysterious. This view influenced the belief that
Eastern Europe is bounded to the east by the Ural Moun- Roma women were expert fortune-tellers.
tains, Ural River, and the Caucasus Mountains. The By the sixteenth century, Roma in most parts of Europe
western edge of Eastern Europe is harder to define. Cen- had been relegated to the margins of society. While in Eng-
tral Europe is bordered to the north by the Baltic Sea, land and Wales, the Roma were offered citizenship if they
north of which lies Scandinavia. To the south of Central assimilated into mainstream society, elsewhere in Europe,
Europe are the Alps, Italy, and the Balkan peninsula. the Roma faced widespread persecution. In some parts of
South of this, the Pannonian Plain extends across Aus- Europe, the Roma were reduced to living as serfs or forced
tria, Croatia, Hungary, Romania, Serbia, Slovakia, and laborers. For example, Roma were kept as slaves in the
Slovenia as well as parts of Bosnia and Herzegovina and United Principalities of Wallachia and Moldova (mod-
Ukraine. The term Central Europe sometimes denotes the ern Romania) up until the end of the nineteenth century
Danube region in the center of Europe, plus Croatia, the (Harper and Timmer 2011). The Roma were also often
Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, Serbia, Slovakia, Slo- deported from areas in which they had settled, with Chris-
venia, Austria, and Germany. Central Europe does not topher Columbus forcibly relocating many Roma when he
 Roma 913

set off for the New World (Minahan 2013). Persecution of treatment during World War II. International Roma activ-
the Roma in Portugal led to many Roma being transported ists have also organized such committees as the European
against their will to the country’s new Brazilian colonies. Roma and Travellers Forum of the Council of Europe. This
This combination of slavery and deportation prevented body unites European Roma and related groups under
the Roma from owning land or gaining any kind of social the sponsorship of the Council of Europe, an organization
standing. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, responsible for upholding human rights, democracy, and
various European rulers, including the Austrian Hapsburg law in Europe.
empress Maria Theresa (r. 1740–1780), attempted to settle In the 2000s, the Roma population of Europe greatly
nomadic Roma groups. increased. This rise prompted the formation of official
During World War II, Roma living in Germany and the programs such as the Decade of Roma Inclusion (initiated
Axis countries were a target for forced labor and exter- in 2005) as well as bodies that include the European Roma
mination by the Nazis. The number of Roma killed by Rights Centre and the European Roma Information Office.
the Nazis is unknown, but it is likely that at least 220,000 Roma politicians have started to come to the fore in coun-
European Roma died between 1933 and 1945. This figure tries such as Hungary and Moldova, and grassroots and
represents around 25 percent of the European Roma at nongovernmental Roma groups have become established
this time. Nazi death statistics for the Roma are imprecise across Europe. There are also a growing number of inter-
because, according to Nazi ideology, the Roma were con- national Roma organizations.
sidered mentally ill and genetically flawed. As such, Nazis
decided it was unnecessary to document Roma deaths.
Some Roma refer to the era of Nazi genocide as porrajmos Society, Culture, and Tradition
(“the devouring”), though other Roma dislike this term All Roma groups and subgroups have their own cultures
because it carries sexual overtones in some Roma dia- featuring distinct customs, traditions, and dialects. How-
lects. During the Nazi era, the forced sterilization of Roma ever, Roma groups share distinctive art forms, crafts such
women began. The recent continuation of this medical as metalwork, a love of horsemanship, and folk music and
procedure is well documented in countries that include dance styles. Romani languages are a source of shared
Slovakia and the Czech Republic. Roma identity. Although there is an array of Roma dia-
The rise of communism brought many changes to the lects, many of these are shared, allowing Roma people to
lives of European Roma. Initially, communist authorities enjoy simple conversations. Such conversation conveys
considered the Roma as operating outside the class system ethnic pride, and as such, Roma activists strive to keep the
and so denied the Roma land rights, identity papers, and languages and dialects alive.
employment opportunities. By the end of the 1950s, how-
ever, many communist regimes had forcibly integrated the
Roma into the industrial workforce. Consequently, many Health Care and Education
Roma relocated from the countryside to urban industrial The Roma face difficulty in accessing both health care
areas. Although this move meant some Roma enjoyed and education in a number of countries. Lack of access
better living standards and could access formal educa- to health care can be caused by various factors, includ-
tion, it also endangered the people’s languages and shared ing authorities’ anti-Roma prejudice or the Roma’s lack
cultural elements. The end of the communist era and the of documents needed to use healthcare services. The lack
loss of state industries resulted in Roma unemployment. of health care is evident in Serbia, for example. Here, the
Accordingly, many Roma suffered higher levels of poverty. national immunization coverage runs at 97 percent, but
In 1971, the First World Romani Convention was held. the Institute of Public Health of Belgrade estimates the
This was the first in a series of conventions to discuss coverage among the Roma is as low as 20 percent (Minor-
issues relating to the worldwide Roma diaspora. Among ity Rights Group International 2015). In the United King-
the main aims of Roma conventions is the standardization dom, it is thought around one-third of Travellers live in
of the Roma languages, improvements in Roma rights and unauthorized nomadic camps on public land or land
education, the preservation of the Roma culture and herit- belonging to private landowners. These sites tend to lack
age, and the arrangement of compensation for the Roma’s facilities such as running water and electricity. These
914 Roma

living conditions mean that, according to the British Med- The United Kingdom’s Office for Standards in Educa-
ical Association, Travellers have the lowest life expectancy tion, Children’s Services and Skills (Ofsted) report low
and highest child mortality rates in the United Kingdom levels of educational achievement and high rates of illit-
(O’Hanlon 2012). eracy among Traveller communities. This is because the
Recently, Roma women have also been embroiled in children’s schooling is disrupted as their families travel.
medical scandals that hark back to the Nazi treatment of Although parents in the United Kingdom face jail if their
the Roma. For example, in Slovakia, anti-Roma discrim- children are repeatedly absent from school, there are
ination resulted in eight Roma women bringing to the special rules for Traveller children, and their parents are
European Court of Human Rights legal cases over their shown a great deal of tolerance (O’Hanlon 2012).
forced sterilization. Similarly, in the Czech Republic, many
Roma women have reported their involuntary sterilization
when staying in hospitals. Threats to Survival
Typically, Roma educational attainment is low, and the Settled Roma often live in isolated ghetto-like settlements
Roma tend to have low literacy rates. Many Roma fami- characterized by poor infrastructure and situated amid
lies prefer not to send children to mainstream schools for unhealthy surroundings. For instance, although Roma
fear the children will lose touch with their Roma roots. have lived in Bulgaria’s Fakulteta district since the 1940s,
Alternatively, some Roma parents prefer their children to the area has no electricity or sanitation system. In Slova-
attend only a few years of school. kia, Roma have been expelled from towns and forced to
In Slovakia, the Roma face deep discrimination in edu- live in wooded areas and abandoned industrial zones that
cation. Despite legal provisions for minority-language flood and are used as dumping grounds for toxic waste.
education in Slovakian schools, at the moment, Slovakia Similarly, Roma communities in Kosovo that have been
lacks Roma-language schools. Instead, Roma children in displaced by recent conflict live in refugee camps con-
Slovakia are placed in separate schools for children with structed on old lead mines, thereby exposing residents to
learning difficulties. Similarly, in Slovenia, Roma children lead poisoning (Harper and Timmer 2011).
are typically entered into schools for pupils with special Although there is a Roma elite of educated profession-
needs. If they do study at mainstream Slovenian schools, als and a Roma middle class that stay in employment such
Roma children are often placed in special study groups. as metalworking, the Roma typically have high unemploy-
In Poland, in 2013, the Association of Roma stated that ment rates and poor levels of educational attainment. The
half of all Roma children in Poland were not enrolled in combination of high unemployment and little education
schools. The reason for this was that families feared their leads to Roma marginalization, a cycle that is perpetuated
children would be assimilated into mainstream Polish by the fact that many young Roma do not go to school (and
society. As elsewhere, Roma children in Poland that do if they do, it is often to nonmainstream schools). Even
attend school often attend schools designed for children fewer Roma attend vocational classes or higher education,
with mental disabilities. In 2017, the Committee of Minis- thereby limiting their job prospects further.
ters of the Council of Europe requested that Poland review The Roma face suspicion and discrimination across
its policies for Roma integration in mainstream education Europe. In 2008, a European Commission survey found
and that authorities should provide improved multilin- that anti-Roma prejudice was rising across Europe, with
gual schooling for minority groups, including the Roma attacks against the Roma reported in Italy, the Czech
(Minority Rights Group International 2018a). Republic, and Hungary. Recently, an increased level of
In Turkey, the Roma suffer widespread discrimination Roma migration into Sweden from Eastern Europe has
in education. According to the human rights bodies the resulted in hostility and social prejudice toward the Roma
European Commission against Racism and Intolerance within Sweden. The migration worsened underlying anti-
(ECRI) and the Committee on the Elimination of Racial Roma prejudice in Sweden, meaning the Roma there are
Discrimination (CERD), Roma literacy rates are lower the target of threats and abuse (Minority Rights Group
than that of the general Turkish population because fewer International 2018b). As the Roma have lower levels of
Roma children complete their schooling. The low literacy education and high unemployment rates than the rest of
rates of Roma adults in Turkey means they often lack the Swedish society, the Swedish government has launched
basic skills needed to find work. a long-term strategy for Roma inclusion with the aim of
 Roma 915

providing young Roma with the same opportunities as ostensibly as part of Turkey’s policy of urban regeneration.
their Swedish peers by 2032. The strategy intends to pri- The leveling of Roma neighborhoods is often carried out
oritize Roma health care, education, employment, hous- with scant regard as to whether the Roma actually own
ing, and social care as well as safeguard Roma culture, the property that is destroyed. However, as the Roma in
language, and participation in society (Minority Rights Turkey are largely illiterate, they are usually unaware of
Group International 2018b). their rights. Additionally, many Roma in Turkey fear they
In Moldova, Roma are disadvantaged in most areas, will be punished by authorities if they oppose government
including employment, health care, and education. development projects. Increasingly, however, Roma activ-
According to a 2014 UN report, Roma children in Moldova ists have started to organize and demand an end to their
are segregated at school, and Roma families live in sub- ill-treatment by Turkish authorities. Consequently, a num-
standard housing and lack access to health care. Human ber of initiatives aimed at obtaining equal rights for the
trafficking, domestic abuse, child labor, and child mar- Roma in Turkey have emerged.
riage were also found to be widespread among the Roma Roma women in Turkey are especially marginalized.
in Moldova. Moldovan authorities implemented a plan to Although gender-based violence and underage marriage
improve life for the Roma, but the United Nations’ Con- are major issues facing women in general in Turkey, these
vention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination issues affect Roma girls and women particularly. Uçan
against Women (CEDAW) Committee raised concerns Süpürge, a Turkish women’s rights organization, suggests
that the plan was underresourced. that one in five of all Roma girls living in an area northwest
Roma activists in Russia have documented numerous of the Turkish capital of Istanbul are married before they
human rights abuses against the Roma perpetrated by reach fifteen years of age (Minority Rights Group Interna-
Russian law enforcement, including torture, indiscrimi- tional 2018c).
nate raids on Roma settlements, arbitrary detention, and In Serbia, Roma are almost unrepresented in local
extortion. Roma in Russia are also stopped from accessing and national politics. Anti-Roma discrimination is wide-
housing, health care, and education. Some sections of the spread if not overt, and negative Roma stereotypes are
Russian press have praised authorities for officials’ treat- prevalent. There are also multiple reported cases of police
ment of the Roma while also promulgating negative Roma ill-treatment of the Roma. However, a plan to improve the
stereotypes of the Roma as beggars and criminals. Govern- situation for the Roma in Serbia forms part of the Decade
ment officials have also issued public statements encour- of Roma Inclusion. There are also national strategies in
aging violence against Roma and the mass expulsion of place to increase the Roma’s integration into mainstream
Roma from Russia. The proliferation of negative Roma Serbian society. Similarly, Slovenian authorities have tried
stereotypes in Russia means the Roma there find it very to improve life for the Roma by increasing Roma access
difficult to find work or renew their temporary residence to housing and education. Despite these improvements,
permits. As Roma in Russia lack political representation, however, Roma poverty and unemployment are wide-
their concerns remain largely unheard. Additionally, spread in Slovenia. The high rate of Roma joblessness is
because the Roma do not have a homeland but rather exist caused by factors that include the Roma’s poor level of
as a diaspora, their efforts at achieving linguistic recogni- education and the hidden anti-Roma prejudice of some
tion have proven unsuccessful. Russian authorities have Slovenians.
also rejected Roma requests for federal funds to improve Only time will tell whether the rising number of
Roma education standards. national and international programs focused on the Roma
In addition to underfunding, another issue affecting together with the emergence of Roma politicians improves
Roma education in Russia is that Roma girls living in Rus- the Roma’s situation.
sia are often removed from school by their parents at an
See also: Bulgarian; Dom; Gorani; Moldovan
early age so that the girls can marry. Once they are wed,
the girls are usually unable to reenroll in school or find Further Reading
Harper, Krista, and Andria Timmer. 2011. “Roma.” In Ethnic
work outside the home because Roma culture stereotypes
Groups of Europe: An Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole,
wives as belonging at the home. 297–303. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Traditionally, in Turkey, the Roma live in isolated slums. Minahan, James B. 2013. Ethnic Groups of the Americas: An Ency­
Recently, many of these settlements have been leveled, clopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
916 Romansh

Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Serbia: Roma.” a first language, and 10.2 percent have Italian as their main
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, June language (Coray 2011). The Romansh also live elsewhere
19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/roma-16. in Switzerland. In recent years, many Romansh have emi-
Minority Rights Group International. 2018a. “Poland: Roma.”
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, July.
grated from their traditional homeland in the high valleys
http://minorityrights.org/minorities/roma-23. of the upper Rhine region to find employment in lowland
Minority Rights Group International. 2018b. “Sweden: Roma.” areas.
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, April. The Romansh can be divided in five subgroups based
http://minorityrights.org/minorities/roma-24. on the written form of Romansh regional dialects that the
Minority Rights Group International. 2018c. “Turkey: Roma.” people use: Sursilvan, which is the most widely spoken
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples, June.
http://minorityrights.org/minorities/roma-19.
variety of Romansh, is used within the Surselva District
O’Hanlon, Christine. 2012. “Whose Education? The Inclusion of of Graubünden; Sutsilvan; Surmiran (spoken in Surmeira
Gypsy/Travellers: Continuing Culture and Tradition through and the Albula Valley in Graubünden); and the two Eng-
the Right to Choose Educational Opportunities to Support adine or Ladin idioms (that is, dialects spoken in the
Their Social and Economic Mobility.” In Migration, Education Engadin valley), Puter and Vallader, the latter being spo-
and Socio-Economic Mobility, edited by Nitya Rao, 103–118. ken in the Lower Engadine valley between the villages of
London: Routledge.
Martina and Zernez. Puter and Vallader are heavily influ-
enced by Italian, because for centuries Romansh people
migrated over the border to Italy for winter work before
regularly returning to Engadine in the summer. Sursilvans
tend to be Roman Catholic, and Engadines are usually
ROMANSH Protestant.
Current Location Switzerland
Current Population 35,095–50,000
Language Romansh
Geography and Environment
Interesting Fact The area of Switzerland in The canton of Graubünden/Grisons is the largest, most
which the Romansh live is easterly canton of Switzerland. The canton is bordered
Switzerland’s only trilingual by Italy, Austria, and Liechtenstein. The canton is entirely
canton. mountainous, consisting of the highlands of the Rhine and
Inn River valleys. Only around a third of the canton is con-
sidered to having productive land because most of the land
Overview is covered in forests. The southeast of the canton is the
The Romansh (also sometimes called the Rhaetians) are the home of Switzerland’s only official national park. Adjacent
speakers of the Romansh language (also called Rumantsch to the Swiss National Park is a biosphere reserve called the
or Rhaeto-Romance) living in Switzerland. The Romansch Biosfera Val Müstair. In 2008, the north of the canton was
are at least bilingual, for they speak Romansh as well as declared a geologic UNESCO World Heritage Site under
German. Many Romansh also speak Italian. The major- the name Swiss Tectonic Arena Sardona. The highest peak
ity of Romansh are Roman Catholic, with the rest being in the Grison Alps is Piz Bernina, which reaches 13,284
Protestant. feet. Many of the canton’s mountains feature extensive
glaciers. The mountain ranges in the center of the canton
are very steep and create some of Europe’s deepest valleys.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration It was the isolating effect of these deep valleys that led to
Population estimates for the Romansh vary from 35,095 the creation of the five Romansh dialects. The famous ski
(Coray 2011) to around 50,000 (Minority Rights Group resorts of St. Moritz and Davos-Klosters are located within
International 2015). The Romansh are the smallest of the canton.
Switzerland’s four linguistic communities. Most Romansh Since the 1980s, Swiss environmental policy has reduced
speakers live in the trilingual canton of Graubunden/ environmental pollution across the country. Although
Grisons (Grischun, in Romansh) located in eastern Swit- Switzerland’s air quality has considerably improved, the
zerland, where 68.3 percent of inhabitants have German as ambient concentrations of certain pollutants (especially
 Romansh 917

ozone, ammonia, nitrogen oxides) are regularly high. Also, In 806, Frankish king Charlemagne introduced the
chemical substances, including drugs and pesticides, are Franconian, German-language administration to Rhae-
not removed by wastewater treatment plants, leading to tia. As part of the Frankish Empire, a political and eccle-
the damage of ecosystems in the form of micropollutants. siastical restructuring occurred that led to the rise of a
In general, Switzerland has good quality surface waters German-speaking elite. Additionally, around 846, the Dio-
and groundwater. cese of Chur separated from the Archdiocese of Milan to
The pressure on Switzerland’s natural resources is high become part of the Archdiocese of Mainz, thereby further
because a growing population means there is pressure on detaching Rhaetia from its Latin roots and making the
surface waters and the land to meet high energy needs. Rhaetia further embedded in the German-speaking world.
The expansion of settlement and transport infrastructure Then, in the thirteenth century, many German-speaking
means there is a decline in the country’s biodiversity. Walser people settled on Romansh land. It was not until
It is possible that Switzerland will be affected very the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries that Graubünden
severely by climate change, for it is likely that the coun- began to gain political autonomy, as the existing feudal
try will experience drier, hotter summers and winters will system was supplanted by a more democratic system based
become wetter, leading to a higher likelihood of flood- around autonomous communes. In 1471, these communes
ing. Heavier rainfall in general is expected, resulting in united to form a loose confederation called the State of the
more frequent flooding. At present, rising temperatures Three Leagues. In time, the confederation made German
are causing rockfalls, as permafrost zones (rocks and soil the official written language of government, and Romansh
that are frozen permanently) are melting, resulting in the remained the language of the people.
newly released rocks and soil moving as massive rock The switch to German had been accelerated by a dev-
slides. Climate change will also cause Swiss glaciers to astating fire that destroyed the cantonal capital of Chur in
melt. Although snow may remain on mountains, it will be 1464. The fire strengthened Rhaetia’s move toward Ger-
unlikely at lower elevations. Consequently, some resorts man because the city was rebuilt by German speakers,
may not be able to host winter sports, something that will who later stayed on in the city and became the dominant
impact the Swiss tourist industry. society. The settling of the German speakers on Romansh
territory was a blow to the Romansh speakers, who found
their language relegated to being the language of rural
History and Politics areas.
The Romansh are descended from the Rhaetian tribe that In the sixteenth century, the Romansh developed a writ-
is thought to have arrived in the Swiss Alps around 500 ten language that arrested their diminution. The written
BCE. In 15 BCE, the Romans conquered Rhaetian territory language was constructed around religious texts inspired
extending from the Rhaetian Alps on the Italian-Swiss and by the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation.
Austrian-Swiss borders to the River Danube in Central For practical reasons, German remained the official lan-
and Eastern Europe. In time, a regional New Latin lan- guage of the State of the Three Leagues until 1794, when
guage, Romansh, developed from the Vulgar Latin spoken the state became trilingual, with German, Romansh, and
by the Romans. Also, under the Romans, the Province of Italian becoming official state languages. In 1803, the State
Raetia emerged that stretched from Regensberg to Trient of the Three Leagues became the canton of Graubünden.
and from Konstanz to Kufstein. The province was divided The same year, Graubünden was incorporated in the Swizz
into two parts: Raetia prima and Raetia secunda. In the Confederation. This move reinforced the influence of the
third century, the Germanic Alemanni and Bavarii tribes German language over the Romansh as authorities pushed
invaded Romansh land. The following century, Christian- for the Germanization of the Romansh. The nineteenth
ity spread through Romansh areas. In the fifth century, century saw the industrialization of Romansh areas, and
Raetia secunda fell under the influence of German tribes. at the same time, tourism and transport also developed in
Following the fall of the Roman Empire, the eastern Ger- the region.
manic Ostrogoth tribe (493–537) emerged as powerful In the latter half of the nineteenth century, a Romansh
force and incorporated Raetia prima within the Frankish renaissance occurred in response to the industrializa-
Empire. As such, Raetia prima became the medieval prov- tion as local intellectuals started to campaign for the
ince of Raetia Curiensis (or Churrätien). preservation of the Romansh language and culture. As
918 Romansh

part of this movement, several Romansh-language pres- to be considered by most Swiss as the language associated
ervation organizations were founded. Then, in 1919, a with professionalism and society.
Romansh umbrella cultural and linguistic organization, In the 1970s and 1980s, Swiss authorities tried to pro-
Lia Rumantscha, was created to coordinate the work of tect Romansh from extinction through support for Lia
the many Romansh-language preservation organizations, Rumantscha at the national and cantonal level. Since 2008,
to represent the Romansh people, to oversee the teaching Graubünden has enforced the legal status of Romansh
of Romansh in Romansh kindergartens (scolettas), and to as a national language. The Romansh have access to
translate official documents into Romansh. Soon after the Romansh-language radio television broadcasts as well
creation of Lia Rumantscha, Romansh demands to make as a Romansh-language daily newspaper. There is also a
Romansh Switzerland’s fourth national language intensi- Romansh-language publishing house. It is unlikely, how-
fied. The growing calls to strengthen Romansh’s position ever, that such measures will prove able to stave off the
occurred in the face of Italian Irredentism, a nationalist extinction of the Romansh language.
movement that wanted to unify areas of Europe in which
indigenous ethnic Italians and Italian-speaking people
lived. The Italian Irredentists argued that Romansh was in Society, Culture, and Tradition
fact an Italian dialect and that, as such, Romansh-speaking The Romansh have a strong cultural identity forged
Graubünden should be incorporated into Italy. In through linguistic ties and the people’s alpine isolation.
1938, 92 percent of Swiss voters approved Romansh to Romansh villages are connected to the outside world by
join German, French, and Italian as a national language telecommunications and the Internet, and many ancient
of Switzerland. Although around half the population of Romansh customs are maintained. These continuing
Graubünden spoke Romansh, it continued to be con- Romansh customs include those intended to banish win-
sidered a rough peasant language that served as a hin- ter, such as Chalandamarz. Romansh villages also cele-
drance to the economic development of Romansh-speaking brate their patron saints, called Perdanonzas.
areas. In common with other rural regions, Romansh villages
Until the nineteenth century, most Romansh continued have an active social life. Typically, this active social life
to inhabit rural alpine areas of Graubünden, where they revolves around youth associations and choral, theatrical,
lived as peasants and artisans. The advent of Switzerland’s and sporting societies. It is, however, the Romansh lan-
alpine tourism allowed the Romansh to earn a living from guage that forms the basis of Romansh culture. Romansh
trades associated with the tourist industry as well as from is a Rhaeto-Romance language. The three main variations
the commercial traffic that traveled through the Alps. The of Romansh—Sursilvan, Vallader, and Puter—each have
alpine tourist industry led to the growth of the service sec- their own grammar, dictionary, and literature. Attempts
tor in Romansh areas. Today, the service industry is the by authorities to promote a standardized form of Romansh
most important Romansh economic sector, with tourism called Grischun have proven unpopular. Other Romansh
being a Romansh specialty. dialects spoken in Switzerland include Surmiran and Sut-
The reputation of Romansh as a peasant language con- silvaun. Two further Romansch dialects are spoken in
tinued to hinder Romansh economic and cultural develop- Italy: Ladin (spoken around Bolzano and Cortina) and Fri-
ment for many years. This was because German continued ulaner (spoken by around five hundred thousand people

Chalandamarz
Chalandamarz is a festival celebrated on March 1 in the Romansh-speaking part of the Swiss canton of Grisons/
Graubünden. The festival marks the end of winter and the arrival of spring. Chalandamarz involves the symbolic
scaring away of the evil spirits of winter and the revival of the good spirits of spring. The spirits are roused through
noise made by large, ornate cowbells (called plumpa), whips, and singing. On March 1, brightly dressed children from
each village parade through the streets, ringing bells, singing, and cracking whips. After the noisemaking, the children
enjoy a feast that includes such foods as chastognas cun latmilch, chestnuts with whipped cream.
 Romansh 919

along the Adriatic coast to the north of Venice). The term knowledge of the language helps children learn languages
Ladin is also used to describe the Puter and Vallader dia- such as Italian and French (Tagliabue 2010).
lects in Switzerland (Minority Rights Group International
2015).
Recent decades have seen the literary development Threats to Survival
of Romansh, though Romansh-language literature tend Demographic trends suggest that there is a decline in
to attract only a small number of readers. A written ver- the number of people that speak Romansh. Many young
sion of Romansh invented in 1982 by Lia Rumantscha, Romansh have emigrated in search of better education and
called Rumantsch Grischun, was based on the three employment opportunities and no longer speak Romansh
most used varieties of Romansh. The written language in their daily lives. Although efforts have been made to
was intended to help Romansh speakers in everyday life. stave off the extinction of Romansh, including language
Today, Rumantsch Grischun is the official language of support for Romansch children living in the Romansh
Romansh administration at both the national and canton diaspora, it is unlikely such efforts will prove successful.
level. Many Romansh do not like Rumantsch Grischun, Additionally, although today the negative stereotypes
however, because they consider it artificial and lacking in associated with Romansh have diminished to a degree,
heritage. German remains the dominant language.
Many Romansh have emigrated from the high valleys
of their homeland, where they traditionally survive as
Health Care and Education small-scale farmers. Today, the migrant Romansh work in
The Swiss healthcare system is widely acknowledged as lowland areas. At the same time as many Romansh have
outstanding. Spending on the healthcare system equates to moved from their homeland, many Swiss German speak-
around 11.4 percent of Switzerland’s gross domestic prod- ers have migrated to the Romansh homeland to work in
uct (GDP) (Expatica 2019). The Swiss healthcare system the tourism industry. Consequently, nowadays, less than
takes the form of a network comprising highly qualified 50 percent of people living in Graubünden speak Romansh
doctors and hospitals equipped with top medical facilities but instead speak German or Italian. Increasingly, English
and no waiting lists. This excellent health care comes at is the language of commerce, the Internet, and pop culture,
a price, however, for much of the funding for the system meaning that young Romansh are further detached from
comes from mandatory Swiss health insurance premiums Romansh. Local authorities have been slow to enact laws
and out-of-pocket payments. In line with high Swiss living to protect the language. That said, the formal framework
costs, Swiss health insurance equates to around 10 percent for supporting Romansh exists, and significant efforts are
of the average Swiss salary. Although the Swiss health- being made to ensure Romansh survives at the cost of
care system is universal, it is administered by individual some $4 million a year in funding to promote the language
cantons. Unlike in other European countries, the Swiss (Tagliabue 2010). Another positive for the survival of
healthcare system is not funded by taxation or by employ- Romansh is that the Lia Rumanscha runs Romansh librar-
ers. Instead, individuals pay for their healthcare through ies, language courses, and a translation service in the three
contributions into Swiss health insurance schemes. most spoken dialects of Romansh. Also, the Swiss public
Romansh, particularly Rumantsch Grischun, is a com- broadcasting company SSR-SRG broadcasts in Romansh
pulsory subject in many local primary and secondary and has a dedicated Romansh unit at Chur. Another tel-
schools and in teacher training. However, the teaching of evision and radio station, Radio e Televisiun Rumantscha
Romansh is complicated by the fact that there are several (RTR), broadcasts a daily Romansh news bulletin as well
distinct Romansh dialects. Romansh is also taught in three as weekly Romansh children’s programs and cultural pro-
universities (at Friburg, Zurich, and Geneva). The trend grams. There is also a daily Romansh newspaper, La Quo-
for teaching foreign languages (especially in English) in tidiana, and a youth magazine, Punts. A Romansh news
Swiss primary schools is regarded by many Romansh as agency, the Agentura da Novitads Rumantscha, also exists.
a threat to the Romansh language, who feel Switzerland’s However, not all Romansh are in favor of the language’s
traditional languages should be taught more often than promotion, for some Romansh business leaders believe
foreign languages. Some Romansh parents are also in clinging to a dying language prevents the Romansh home-
favor of their children learning Romansh because they feel land from developing (Tagliabue 2010).
920 Rotuman

See also: Liechtensteiner; Walser years, relatively few Rotumans have migrated to Fiji. How-
Further Reading ever, from the early to mid-twentieth century, many Rotu-
Coray, Renata. 2011. “Romansh.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe: An mans settled in Fiji’s Ba Province, which was home to a
Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 308–310. Santa Bar- large gold mining industry (Minority Rights Group Inter-
bara, CA: ABC-CLIO. national 2015).
Expatica. 2018. “Healthcare in Switzerland.” Expatica, Novem-
ber 26. https://www.expatica.com/ch/healthcare/healthcare​
-basics/healthcare-in-switzerland-103130.
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Rhaetians/
Geography and Environment
Romansh-Speakers.” World Directory of Minorities and Rotuma lies in the South Pacific Ocean, about two-thirds
Indigenous Peoples, June 19. https://minorityrights.org/?s=​ of the way between Hawaii and New Zealand and around
romansh. five hundred miles west of Samoa. Rotuma comprises the
Tagliabue, John. 2010. “In Multilingual Switzerland, One Tongue
island of Rotuma as well as the nearby islets of Hatana,
Struggles.” New York Times, September 28. https://www​
.nytimes.com/2010/09/29/world/europe/29swiss.html. Ha.f Liua, Solkope, Solnoho, and Uea. Rotuma is divided
into seven districts that are subdivided into roughly fifteen
villages that lie on the Rotuman coast. Of volcanic origin,
Rotuma is mountainous and forested by palm trees and
other vegetation, including lowland rainforests that reflect
the island’s substantial rainfall. Rotuma has a rocky coast
ROTUMAN
and beaches interspersed with sandy mud bays that are
Current Location Rotuma (Fiji) home to seagrass, mangroves, and coral reefs. The island
Current Population 13,000 has coconut plantations alongside subsistence farms. At its
Language Rotuman; English highest point, Rotuma is 840 feet above sea level. Rotuma
Interesting Fact The Rotuman language can be writ- suffers from large populations of flies and mosquitos that
ten using three different spelling have not been eradicated by biological control methods.
systems. There are no major resource-based industries on Rotu-
man, though copra production has been developed. Some
island men engage in deep-sea fishing. However, most of
Overview the islanders’ fish comes from the surrounding fringing
The Rotumans (also called the Rotunans, Rutumans, or reef that is home to a variety of fish, octopus, crustaceans
Rotuman Islanders) are the indigenous inhabitants of such as lobster, and edible seaweed. Traditionally, tourism
Rotuma (or the Rotuma Islands), a dependency of the is not encouraged on Rotuma because the islanders wish
Republic of Fiji, though most Rotumans live away from to preserve their homeland’s pristine environment as well
their homeland. The Rotumans have mixed Polynesian, as their traditional culture.
Micronesian, and Melanesian ancestry. This heritage is
reflected in the fact that the Rotuman language com-
bines Polynesian and Melanesian elements. The major- History and Politics
ity of Rotumans speak English as well as Rotuman. Most The exact origins of the Rotumans in unknown. However,
Rotumans are Christians, typically Methodist or Roman by piecing together Rotuman oral history, language, and
Catholic. culture as well as archaeological finds, it is likely that the
earliest inhabitants of Rotuma were Micronesian migrants.
The Micronesians were followed by waves of Polynesian
Population, Diaspora, and Migration migrants (probably from Samoa and Tonga) before Mel-
The Rotuman population is estimated to comprise around anesian settlers arrived on the island. According to Rotu-
thirteen thousand people. The vast majority of Rotumans man legend, the first people on Rotuma came from Samoa.
(around ten thousand) live elsewhere in Fiji, with just In 1791, the crew of the British ship Pandora sighted
under three thousand living on Rotuma (Institute of Island Rotuma. Initially, the islanders were hostile to the British
Studies 2007). Rotumans also in Samoa, Australia, New sailors, but they later traded food and water with them.
Zealand, or the United States (Minahan 2012). For several Soon, other European ships also traded with the Rotumans,
 Rotuman 921

who, although reluctant at the intrusion initially, subse- Fiji’s 2013 constitution, the Rotumans were again identi-
quently welcomed trading opportunities. Later, whalers fied as indigenous people of Fiji.
and merchants also started to visit Rotuma because the Rotuma has its own senator and three representatives
island made an excellent stop to replenish supplies. In time, in the Great Council of Chiefs and greater autonomy than
however, the Rotumans began to catch European diseases. any other political subdivision of Fiji (Minority Rights
During the early nineteenth century, islanders’ contact Group International 2015).
with Europeans increased greatly as whalers and traders Due to the lack of opportunity in their homeland,
stopped on the island to trade supplies. At the same time, Rotumans are highly dependent on employment in Fiji,
European labor recruiters discovered many Rotumans and many have also migrated overseas. In the wake of the
were willing to leave their homeland to work on planta- 1987 coup, there was some interest in gaining a separate
tions elsewhere in the Pacific Ocean. Young Rotuman men independence, but this interest has subsequently declined.
also joined ships’ crews to sail the world. Although the Though fully integrated into Fiji, it is nevertheless a
Rotumans were very willing to leave their home island, dependency with a degree of autonomy and devolved local
the island also became home to Europeans who deserted government. Today, the Rotumans have integrated with
ship, often marrying local women with whom they had the rest of Fiji, though they have retained their unique
children. The settlement of Europeans caused mass out- culture and language. On the whole, Rotuman interest in
breaks of European diseases among the Rotumans, how- independence has declined.
ever, which reduced the Rotuman population dramatically.
From the 1850s, more Europeans settled on Rotuma in
the form of missionaries who established missions of the Society, Culture, and Tradition
island. The first missionaries were French Roman Catholics Rotuman culture is a unique blend of Polynesian, Micro-
who were followed by British Wesleyan Methodists. Each nesian, and Melanesian cultures as well as many elements
mission marked out their own territory and were posses- of the cultures found in Samoa, Tonga, and mainland Fiji
sive of their converts (Minahan 2012). Ultimately, tension as well as that found in the French overseas Pacific ter-
between the island’s Catholics and Methodists resulted in ritory of Wallis and Futuna. Despite blending these var-
a civil war that saw the more numerous Methodists defeat ious heritages, Rotuman culture tends to be classified as
the Catholics. The postwar period was dominated by such a Western Polynesian culture. Traditionally, Rotuman
civil unrest that the Rotuman chiefs that ruled seven of the culture is based on kinship while placing great emphasis
island’s districts asked the British to annex Rotuma. on the concepts of community, sharing, cooperation, and
Consequently, in 1881, Rotuma became a British terri- individual freedom.
tory, though the island was run as part of the British Fijian As the Rotuma soil is extremely fertile, food is abun-
colony rather than as a separate territory. British author- dant. Most Rotumans grow their own staple foods, includ-
ity brought peace to Rotuma, though the tension between ing taro, yams, tapioca, breadfruit, and bananas. The
Rotuman Methodists and Catholics continued well into Rotumans also eat fish, shellfish, and edible seaweed gath-
the twentieth century. ered from the reef that surrounds their island. Meats such
In 1970, Fiji gained independence from Britain. How- as beef, goat, and pork are eaten only on special occasions.
ever, in 1987, Fiji’s democratic rule was interrupted by two The Rotuman language is hard to classify because it
military coups. The tension between the Rotumans and has a unique vocabulary. However, although the language
Fiji’s military government led to the rise of the Rotuman contains many loan words from Samoan and Tongan, the
independence movement, which sought the island’s seces- Rotuman language is often regarded as a language isolate.
sion from Fiji. The leaders of the Rotuman secessionist Linguists do, however, class the language as Austronesian
movement claimed that the Rotumans suffered because of the West Fijian Rotuman branch of the Central Pacific
the Fijian government was pro-Fijian and pro-Indian. In subgroup of Oceanic languages. Rotuman has been written
1990, Rotuman rights were protected by a new Fijian con- in three different orthographies (spelling systems). One
stitution that saw Rotumans identified as an indigenous orthography was invented by English Methodist mission-
people alongside the country’s majority Melanesian popu- aries, one by French Roman Catholics missionaries, and
lation. Some Rotumans continued to call for the Rotumans one by the twentieth-century linguist C. Maxwell Church-
to have specific recognition, however. In the foreword to ward. The Methodist orthography is used very rarely today.
922 Rotuman

A Rotuman Methodist church service in Rarotonga, Fiji. Most Rotumans are Christian, typically Methodist or Roman Catholic. (Rafael
Ben Ari/Dreamstime.com)

Most Methodist Rotumans use the Churchward orthogra- and filariasis (a parasitic disease caused by roundworm
phy, which is the spelling system used in Rotuman schools. infection) are both quite common conditions on Rotuma.
However, most Catholic Rotumans use the French Roman Rotumans enjoy a high level of education. Most Rotu-
Catholic orthography, though the Catholics increasingly man children attend one of the four primary schools or the
use a modified version of Churchward’s orthography. Most high school in Malhaha district. Such is the Rotuman high
Rotumans are bilingual, for they speak English as well as level of education that many Rotumans living in Fiji have
Rotuman. Today, most Rotumans continue to be either professional, managerial, or highly skilled jobs.
Methodist or Roman Catholic.

Threats to Survival
Health Care and Education There are no immediate threats to the Rotumans, for
Health care is available on Rotuma, though in recent years, although modern Rotumans are fully integrated into Fijian
it has suffered from underfunding (Institute of Island life, they still hold a degree of autonomy. In 2015, the gov-
Studies 2007). Recently, however, the island has had only ernance of Rotuma together with Rotuman land rights
one doctor, and the island experiences chronic shortages was reviewed following the tabling of the parliamentary
of antibiotics, analgesics, and medical supplies. Typically, Rotuma Bill and the Rotuma Lands Bill. Subsequently,
the most severe medical cases are flown to Fiji, as there are the legislations were presented to parliament for a second
limited operating facilities on the island. Rotuma has very time in 2016. The two pieces of legislation were drafted
basic dental services, and extraction is the usual remedy following requests from some Rotumans seeking reform
for toothaches. Scabies (a skin infection caused by mites) that would improve Rotuman land access, especially for
 Ryūkyūans 923

women. Ultimately, the Council of Rotuma (Rotuma’s leg- Japonic language family. These dialects include Okinawan,
islative body) and the Fiji Rotuma Association rejected the Amami, Miyako, Yaeyama, and Yonaguni, which are
bills. The rejection was on the basis that most Rotumans incomprehensible to most Japanese people. However, dia-
did not support the reforms and that the reforms under- lect speakers tend to be elderly, and so the dialects are in
mined established Rotuman cultural and social values danger of becoming extinct because Japanese has replaced
and thus did not reflect the views of the larger Rotuma them in all spheres of life. The majority of Ryūkyūans
community. follow Buddhism or Shintoism, though some follow the
Traditional Rotuman culture, with its firm belief in Ryūkyūan indigenous shamanistic religion that resembles
sharing and community cooperation is increasingly Shintoism.
threatened by the people’s assimilation into the modern
money-based Fijian economy. In general, however, the
Rotumans have lost interest in gaining independence from Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Fiji, so it may be that the Rotuman culture continues to be The Ryūkyūan population is estimated to consist of 1.5
overtaken by that of Fiji. million people (Minahan 2014). Most Ryūkyūans live on
the Ryūkyū archipelago that is part of Japan’s Okinawa pre-
See also: iTaukei; Samoans; Tongan
fecture. Additionally, many Ryūkyūans have migrated to
Further Reading
other parts of Japan, especially the capital of Tokyo.
Institute of Island Studies. 2007. “Rotuma.” Island Studies:
Jurisdiction Project. http://projects.upei.ca/iis/files/2016/11​
/Rotuma.pdf.
Minahan, James B. 2012. Ethnic Groups of South Asia and the Geography and Environment
Pacific: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. The Ryūkyūan homeland includes the Ryūkyū Islands
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Fiji Islands: Rotu- and the Amami Islands that extend southward across the
mans.”World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples,
East China Sea from the Japanese island of Kyushu to Tai-
June 19. https://minorityrights.org/minorities/rotumans.
wan, located off China’s east coast. The Ryūkyūan Islands
consist of the Ōsumi, Tokara, Amami, Okinawa, and Sak-
ishima Islands and are divided further into the Miyako
and Yaeyama Islands. The largest individual island of
- - the Ryūkyūan Islands is Okinawa Island. In general, the
RYUKYUANS
larger Ryūkyūan Islands are volcanic high islands, and
Current Location Japan the smaller islands are made of coral. The climate of the
Current Population 1.5 million Ryūkyūan Islands ranges from humid subtropical climate
Language Japanese; Ryūkyūan dialects in the north to a tropical rainforest climate in the south.
Interesting Fact The Ryūkyūans invented karate The islands experience very high rainfall, including a rainy
when they used farm tools as weap- season and typhoons.
ons to see off invaders during the
seventeenth century.
History and Politics
The earliest ancestors of the Ryūkyūans are thought to be
Overview Caucasian tribes or ancient Siberians. Over the course of
The Ryūkyūans are the indigenous people living on Japan’s millennia, these peoples absorbed Asian migrant popu-
Ryūkyū archipelago. The name Ryukyu is the Japanese lations to create the Ryūkyūans of today. Over time, the
pronunciation of the word Liuqiu, which is the name given people created their own dialects and culture, which was
to the Ryūkyū archipelago by China’s Ming dynasty. Other influenced by Chinese and Japanese culture yet remained
names for the Ryūkyūans include the Okinawans, Lewche- separate.
wans, Luchu, and Riukiuans. Early in their history, the Ryūkyūan Islands were divided
In general, the Ryūkyūans speak Japanese. A small into three kingdoms that frequently fought each other while
number of Ryūkyūans also speak dialects belonging to the also uniting to see off outsiders. From the sixth century to the
924 Ryūkyūans

ninth century, islanders allowed the Japanese to frequently Ryūkyūans greatly increased because the authorities were
come into contact with them, but after the ninth century, suspicious of Ryūkyūan loyalty to Japan. As a result of these
China began to exert a greater influence than Japan over the suspicions, the Japanese fortified the Ryūkyūan homeland
islanders and constantly threatened to invade the islands. when World War II fighting began in the Pacific Ocean.
In the mid-fourteenth century, a king belonging to Nonetheless, in 1945, U.S. forces landed on the islands and
the Sho kingdom on Okinawa Island united the king- fought for three months to dislodge the Japanese troops
doms on the Ryūkyūan islands as one kingdom. By the stationed there. Despite losing the battle, the Japanese
mid-fifteenth century, the united kingdom had spread to forced Ryūkyūan civilians to continue fighting, resulting
include the Amami Islands and Taiwan. Although small in in approximately a third of them being killed (Minahan
size and population, the united Ryūkyūan kingdom held 2014). Indeed, the number of Ryūkyūan deaths was one of
great sway over the marine trade between mainland Asia the deciding factors in the decision to drop atomic bombs
and Southeast Asia. on Nagasaki and Hiroshima, for U.S. authorities feared a
From the mid-fourteenth century, the Ryūkyūans were repeat of such a high death toll elsewhere. Eventually, in
made to pledge their loyalty to the Chinese emperor and 1945, the Ryūkyū Islands and the Amami Islands were
pay an annual tribute to China, though the islands contin- occupied by U.S. forces, and U.S. financial support allowed
ued as an autonomous kingdom ruled by the Sho. Under the islands to recover quickly from the war.
this dual administration, the Ryūkyūans entered a golden In 1953, the Amami Islands were returned to Japa-
period during which their culture flourished, and the peo- nese control, with the Ryūkyū Islands returning to Japan
ple experienced great prosperity. This era lasted until the in 1972. Following their incorporation with Japan, the
start of the sixteenth century. Ryūkyūans saw their economic power diluted, and Jap-
In 1609, the Japanese emperor allowed the Satsuma anese companies opened heavily polluting factories on
Samurai clan to attack the Ryūkyūan kingdom. The Sam- Ryūkyūan land. By the 1990s, the Ryūkyūans, who had
urai invaders soon overran the islands and removed all become used to having a much higher income than the
bladed weapons from the islanders to prevent their rebel- Japanese living on central islands, found their living stand-
ling against their new rulers. However, the Ryūkyūans ards were rapidly falling. At the same time, the Japanese
decided to use farm tools as weapons in a move considered authorities’ insistence on a unified Japanese ethnicity led
the forerunner of modern karate (Minahan 2014). After to anti-Ryūkyūan discrimination and official irritation at
the Samurai invasion, the Ryūkyūans were made to pay the Ryūkyūans’ refusal to assimilate.
tribute to both China and Japan. As a consequence of this In the 1990s, the Japanese government apologized for
financial burden, the Ryūkyūan kingdom began to disinte- its past mistreatment of the Ryūkyūans and continuing
grate and lost control of Taiwan to China. anti-Ryūkyūan prejudice and vowed to raise Ryūkyūan
For the next two hundred years, the Ryūkyūan king- incomes in line with those of other Japanese.
dom remained independent, but only because Japan and
China both realized that as the islands got poorer, they
became riper for colonization. In the nineteenth century, Society, Culture, and Tradition
European and American explorers began to arrive in Ryūkyūan society is a blend of the people’s indigenous cul-
Ryūkyūan areas. The Americans established friendly rela- ture and Japanese, Chinese, and American influences. The
tions with the Ryūkyūans and were permitted to establish family is central to the people’s way of life, with extended
a base on the islands from which they could enter Japan. Ryūkyūan families often living together. Families are
In 1872, however, the Japanese launched an occupying tightly knit, as are friendships on the islands. Traditionally,
force to settle in the Ryūkyūan homeland to see off the Ryūkyūan women are regarded as powerful and hold sway
potential Chinese colonization of the area. Two years later, over households. Ryūkyūan women also act as shamans.
the Japanese annexed the Ryūkyūan kingdom despite the Unlike the generally reserved Japanese, the Ryūkyūans are
islanders’ intense resistance. In 1879, Japanese authorities noted for their outgoing personalities and raucous sense of
ousted the last Ryūkyūan king so that the Ryūkyūans could humor. The people are also generous and direct (Minahan
be fully assimilated into Japanese society. 2014).
When the Japanese military took over control of the Many Ryūkyūans maintain indigenous shamanistic
country in the 1920s and 1930s, discrimination against the religious beliefs despite being Buddhist or Shinto. The
 Ryūkyūans 925

people believe in a variety of demons, deities, and ances- specifically referred to the people of Okinawa as a national
tral spirits. The latter are thought to reside in the tombs minority with their own an indigenous culture in a 2006
in which the ancestors are buried and should be invited report.
to return by the living so they can continue to exist. The Another issue souring relations between Japan and
Ryūkyūans believe that kami (spirits) control the ancestral the Ryūkyūans is the U.S. military presence on Ryūkyūan
spirits as well as the sea and land. land as part of Japan’s alliance with the United States.
The military bases take up agricultural land, and this is
a major objection of the Ryūkyūans against the Japanese
Health Care and Education government. Technically, the land is rented, with the local
The Ryūkyūans have among the lowest prevalence of landowners and farmers (or their descendants) receiving
cardiovascular disease and other age-associated diseases payments for its use from the Japanese government. How-
in the world. They also enjoy a very low mortality rate at ever, Ryūkyūans have no choice as to whether to lease the
older ages as well as the highest life expectancy at older land or not because the leasing arrangement is forced on
ages of all Japanese people. Specifically, Okinawa has had them by national legislation and the Special Measures Law
among the highest prevalence of centenarians among the for U.S. Military Bases. Many Ryūkyūans would welcome
forty-seven Japanese prefectures. This has been the case the removal of the base or to see their people benefit finan-
since records began in Japan, and while it is known that the cially from the base’s presence, but these financial gains
Okinawans’ good diet and other nongenetic factors are in go to Japan’s national government (Minority Rights Group
part responsible for this high level of longevity, scientists International 2015).
also theorize that there may be some an unknown genetic Another factor clouding the Ryūkyūans’ cultural sur-
factor causing the Okinawans to live longer. vival is that, according to UNESCO, the Ryūkyūans’ dia-
Japanese became the language of education in Ryūkyūan lects and the culture expressed through these dialects are
schools in 1880, with schools considered by Japanese expected to become extinct by 2050.
authorities as the best tool for assimilating the Ryūkyūans
See also: Ainu
into mainstream Japanese society. In the past, Ryūkyūan
schoolchildren were forced to wear a degrading “dia- Further Reading
Bendjilali, Nasrine. 2014. “Who Are the Okinawans? Ancestry,
lect tag” around their necks if they were found speaking Genome Diversity, and Implications for the Genetic Study
Ryūkyūan. Today, the Ryūkyūan language is taught either of Human Longevity from a Geographically Isolated Popula-
as part of national language classes or during monthly tion.” Journals of Gerontology Series A: Biological Sciences and
integrated studies periods, during which a little of the peo- Medical Sciences 69, no. 12 (December): 1474–1484. https://​
ple’s culture (mainly singing and dancing) is taught. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4271021.
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of the Stateless Nations:
Ethnic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 3, L–R.
Westport, CT: Greenwood Press.
Threats to Survival
Minahan, James B. 2014. Ethnic Groups of North, East and South
Japanese authorities continue to discriminate against the Asia: An Encyclopedia. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Ryūkyūans and show preference to people living on the Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Japan: Ryukyuans
country’s central islands. Despite the Japanese govern- (Okinawans).” World Directory of Minorities and Indige-
ment’s pledge to raise Ryūkyūan incomes Japanese soci- nous Peoples, June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities​
/ryukyuans-okinawans.
ety in general continues to take a dim view of Ryūkyūan
Ono, Azusa. 2015. “Ryukyuans.” In Native Peoples of the World:
ethnicity, even though other ethnicities such as the Ainu An Encyclopedia of Groups, Cultures and Contemporary
are recognized and the fact that the UN special rapporteur Issues, edited by Steven Danver, 234–235. Abingdon, UK:
on contemporary forms of racism and related intolerance Routledge.
INDIGENOUS
PEOPLES
 INDIGENOUS
PEOPLES
An Encyclopedia of Culture, History,
and Threats to Survival

VOLUME 4: S–Z

Victoria R. Williams
Copyright © 2020 by ABC-CLIO, LLC

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review, without
prior permission in writing from the publisher.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Williams, Victoria, author.

Title: Indigenous peoples : an encyclopedia of culture, history, and
  threats to survival / Victoria R. Williams.
Description: Santa Barbara, California : ABC-CLIO, an Imprint of ABC-CLIO,
  LLC, [2020] | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019026786 (print) | LCCN 2019026787 (ebook) | ISBN
  9781440861192 (v. 1 ; hardcover) | ISBN 9781440861208 (v. 2 ; hardcover)
  | ISBN 9781440861215 (v. 3 ; hardcover) | ISBN 9781440861222 (v. 4 ;
  hardcover) | ISBN 9781440861178 (hardcover) | ISBN 9781440861185 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Indigenous peoples—Encyclopedias.
Classification: LCC GN380 .W5494 2020 (print) | LCC GN380 (ebook) | DDC
 305.8003—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019026786
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019026787

ISBN: 978-1-4408-6117-8 (set)

978-1-4408-6119-2 (vol. 1)
978-1-4408-6120-8 (vol. 2)
978-1-4408-6121-5 (vol. 3)
978-1-4408-6122-2 (vol. 4)
978-1-4408-6118-5 (ebook)

24 23 22 21 20   1 2 3 4 5

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 Contents

List of Entries, vii

Geographical List of Entries, xiii
Preface, xix
Introduction, xxi

A–Z Entries, 1

Appendix: United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, 1211

Selected Bibliography, 1219
Index, 1223

v
 List of Entries

Volume 1
Abkhaz Armenian
Aboriginal Australian Aruban
Acehnese Asháninka
Acholi Asiri
Adivasi Assyrian
Aeta Avar
Afar Aymara
Agul Azeri
Ahwazi
Aimaq Baganda
Ainu Baka
Ajar Bakhtiyari
Aka Balawar
Akan Baluch
Akha Bamileke
Akie Bashkir
Alawi Basque
Albanian Bassa
Aleut Batak
Altai BaTwa
Ambonese Bavarian
Amhara Bedouin
Annang Beja
Anuak Berber
Anutan Bhil
Apache Bicol

vii
viii  List of Entries

Bilen Faroese
Bonairean Finn
Bosniak Flemish
Bougainvillian Fon
Breton Frisian
Bribri Friulian
Bubi Fulani
Bugi Fur
Bulgarian
Bunun Gagauz
Burakumin Galician
Buryat Garifuna
Garo
Cabindan Gilaki and
Canarian  Mazandarani
Carpatho-Rusyn Gond
Catalan Gorani
Cham Greek
Chamorro Guarani
Chechen Guaymi
Chewa Gujarati
Chiquitano Guna
Chukchi Gwich’in
Chuvash
Circassian Hadhramis
Comanche Hadza
Copts Haida
Cornish Hani
Corsican Haratine
Crimean Tatar Hausa
Croat Hazara
Hezhe
Daasanach Himba
Dai Hindi
Dayak Hmong
Degar Hopi
Dinka Hui
Diola Hutu and Tutsi
Dogon
Dom Icelander
Doma Igbo
Druze Igorot
Ijaw
Volume 2 i-Kiribati
Ingush
East Timorese Innu
Edo Inuit
Evenk iTaukei
Ewe Izhorian
 List of Entries  ix

Jews Maltese
Juhuro Manchu
Jumma Mande
Mandean
Kachin Mansi
Kalasha Manx
Kalenjin Māori
Kanak Mapuche
Kanaka Maoli Maronites
Kanuri Marsh Arab
Karakalpak Marshallese
Karamojong Martu
Karbi Matis
Karelian Mayan
Karen Mbuti
Kasaian Mende
Kashmiri Mi’kmaq
Kavalan Mingrelian
Kayapó Miskito
Ket Mixtec
Khasi Moldovan
Khmer Mon
Kickapoo Mongol
Komi Mordvin
Korean Moriori
Koryak Mossi
Kumyk Mosuo
Kurd Mozabite
Kyrgyz Muhamasheen
Mursi
Volume 3
Naga
Lak Nahua
Lakota Nanai
Latgalian Nauruan
Latvian Nenet
Lenca Nicobarese
Lezgin Ni-Vanuatu
Lhotshampa Nivkh
Liechtensteiner Nogai
Livonian Nuba
Lozi Nubian
Lur Nyamwezi

Maasai Occitan
Macedonian Ogiek
Madurese Ojibwe
Magyar Onge
Malagasy Orang Asli
x  List of Entries

Oraon Svan
Oromo Swahili
Ossetian Swede
Otomi Székely

Palestinian Tahitian
Pangasinan Talysh
Papuan Tamil
Pashtun Tharu
Pech Tibetan
Pemón Tiv
Piaroa Tlingit
Pipil Toba
Pomak Tohono O’odham
Pumi Tokelauan
Tonga
Qashqai Tongan
Quechua Torres Strait Islanders
Tripuri
Rapa Nui Trique
Rohingya Trobriander
Roma Tsonga
Romansh Tuareg
Rotuman Tubu
Ryūkyūans Turkana
Turkmen
Tuvaluan
Volume 4
Udmurt
Saharawi
Uncontacted Peoples
Sakalava
Urueu-Wau-Wau
Samaritan
U’wa
Sami
Uyghur
Samoans
Uzbek
San
Sardinian
Sateré-Mawé Vep
Sea Gypsy
Selkup Walloon
Seminoles Walpiri
Serer Walser
Shabak Wanniyala-Aetto
Shilluk Waorani
Shipibo-Conibo Warao
Sidama Wayuu
Sikh Welsh
Somali Worimi
Sorb Wurundjeri
 List of Entries  xi

Xhosa Zápara
Xicaque Zapotec
Zaza
Yagnobi Zomi
Yanomami Zoque
Yapese Zulu
Yazidi Zuni
Yoruba
Yupik
 Geographical List of Entries

Africa and Middle East Chewa

Copts
Acholi
Afar
Ahwazi Daasanach
Aka Dinka
Akan Diola
Akie Dogon
Alawi Dom
Amhara Doma
Annang Druze
Anuak
Asiri Edo
Assyrian
Ewe
Baganda
Baka Fon
Bakhtiyari Fulani
Bamileke Fur
Bassa
BaTwa Gilaki and Mazandarani
Bedouin
Beja Hadhramis
Berber Hadza
Bilen
Haratine
Bubi
Hausa
Cabindan Himba
Canarian Hutu and Tutsi

xiii
xiv  Geographical List of Entries

Igbo Tiv
Ijaw Tonga
Tsonga
Jews Tuareg
Tubu
Kalenjin Turkana
Kanuri
Karamojong Xhosa
Kasaian
Kurd Yazidi
Yoruba
Lozi
Lur Zulu

Maasai
Central and South America
Malagasy
Mande Aruban
Mandean Asháninka
Maronites Aymara
Marsh Arab
Mbuti Bonairean
Mende Bribri
Mossi
Mozabite Chiquitano
Muhamasheen
Mursi Garifuna
Guarani
Nuba Guaymi
Nubian Guna
Nyamwezi
Kayapó
Ogiek
Oromo Lenca

Palestinian Mapuche
Matis
Qashqai Mayan
Miskito
Saharawi
Sakalava Pech
Samaritan Pemón
San Piaroa
Serer Pipil
Shabak
Shilluk Quechua
Sidama
Somali Sateré-Mawé
Swahili Shipibo-Conibo
 Geographical List of Entries  xv

Toba Liechtensteiner
Livonian
Urueu-Wau-Wau
U’wa Macedonian
Magyar
Waorani Maltese
Warao Manx
Wayuu Moldovan
Mongol
Xicaque
Occitan
Yanomami
Pomak
Zápara
Roma
Europe Romansh
Albanian
Sami
Sardinian
Basque
Sorb
Bavarian
Swede
Bosniak
Székely
Breton
Bulgarian
Walloon
Walser
Carpatho-Rusyn
Welsh
Catalan
Cornish
Corsican North America
Crimean Tatar
Aleut
Croat
Apache

Faroese Comanche
Finn
Flemish Gwich’in
Frisian
Friulian Haida
Hopi
Gagauz
Galician Innu
Gorani Inuit
Greek
Kanaka Maoli
Icelander Kickapoo

Karelian Lakota

Latgalian Mi’kmaq
Latvian Mixtec
xvi  Geographical List of Entries

Nahua Tongan
Torres Strait Islanders
Ojibwe Trobriander
Otomi Tuvaluan

Seminoles Walpiri
Worimi
Tlingit Wurundjeri
Tohono O’odham
Trique Yapese
Tsimshian
Other
Yupik
Sea Gypsy
Zapotec
Zoque Uncontacted Peoples
Zuni
Russian Federation and Central Asia

Oceania Abkhaz
Agul
Aboriginal Australian Ajar
Anutan Altai
Armenian
Bougainvillian
Avar
Azeri
Chamorro
Bashkir
i-Kiribati
Buryat
iTaukei
Chechen
Kanak Chukchi
Chuvash
Māori
Circassian
Marshallese
Martu Evenk
Moriori
Hazara
Nauruan
Ni-Vanuatu Ingush
Izhorian
Papuan
Juhuro
Rapa Nui
Rotuman Karakalpak
Ket
Samoans Komi
Koryak
Tahitian Kumyk
Tokelauan Kyrgyz
 Geographical List of Entries  xvii

Lak Dai
Lezgin Dayak
Degar
Mansi
Mingrelian East Timorese
Mongol
Mordvin Garo
Gond
Nanai Gujarati
Nenet
Nivkh Hani
Nogai Hezhe
Hindi
Ossetian Hmong
Hui
Selkup
Svan Igorot

Talysh Jumma
Turkmen
Kachin
Udmurt Kalasha
Uzbek Karbi
Karen
Vep Kashmiri
Kavalan
Yagnobi Khasi
Khmer
South and Southeast Asia Korean
Acehnese
Adivasi Lhotshampa
Aeta
Aimaq Madurese
Ainu Manchu
Akha Mon
Ambonese Mosuo

Balawar Naga
Baluch Nicobarese
Batak
Bhil Onge
Bicol Orang Asli
Bugi Oraon
Bunun
Burakumin Pangasinan
Pashtun
Cham Pumi
xviii  Geographical List of Entries

Rohingya Uyghur
Ryūkyūans
Wanniyala-Aetto
Sikh
Zaza
Tamil Zomi
Tharu
Tibetan
Tripuri
 S

SAHARAWI Rights Group International 2015). There are also smaller

Saharawi communities in the valleys of Senegal and Niger.
Current Location Western Sahara (Morocco; Sahrawi The Saharawi population is divided into twenty-two
Arab Democratic Republic) tribes as well as a multitude of clans all of which are united
Current Population 250,000 by a common language, history, and religion. Around one-
Language Saharawi fifth of Saharawis follow a nomadic lifestyle. A Saharawi
Interesting Fact The Saharawi homeland has been diaspora exists in Europe, particularly in France and Spain.
described as Africa’s last remaining
colony.
Geography and Environment
The Saharawi homeland stretches across a mainly arid
Overview desert area of northwest Africa. The territory runs parallel
The Saharawis (or Sahwaris) are the indigenous inhabit- with the Atlantic Ocean between Morocco and Maurita-
ants of the disputed Western Sahara region of northwest nia. Western Sahara is recognized by many international
Africa that is under the joint control of Morocco and governments and is a full member of the African Union.
the self-proclaimed Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. Nonetheless, most of Western Sahara is occupied and con-
The Saharawis speak the Saharawi (or Hassinya) dialect. trolled by Morocco.
Almost all Saharawis are Sunni Muslim. Western Sahara’s terrain is mainly low, flat desert punc-
tuated by rocky areas rising to small mountains in the
south and northeast. The region’s climate is hot and dry
Population, Diaspora, and Migration desert with little rain. Western Sahara is also prone to cold
Saharawis are of mixed Sanhaja Berber, Bedouin Arab, and offshore air currents that produce fog and heavy dew. In
black African slave descent. There are no official popula- winter and spring, Western Sahara experiences hot, sand-
tion figures for the Saharawis, but various sources estimate laden sirocco winds. The Harmattan haze (a heavy amount
the total Saharawi population consists of 250,000 peo- of dust in the air that blocks out the sun for days at a time)
ple. Of this population, around 90,000 Saharawis live in frequently restricts visibility.
Western Sahara while approximately 160,000 Saharawis Western Sahara contains phosphate and iron ore depos-
remain displaced in Algerian refugee camps (Minority its and has rich coastal fishing grounds. The region is also

927
928 Saharawi

likely home to untapped offshore oil deposits. A buffer drove the Spanish out of Western Sahara. However, the fol-
strip containing land mines and defenses stretches the lowing year the Spanish returned, abetted by the French, to
length of the disputed territory to separate the Moroccan- reclaim the land and punish the rebels. When the Spanish
administered western section of Western Sahara from the returned, the rebellion restarted and the Spanish found
eastern section controlled by the Polisario Front. that most of the region’s inhabitants supported the rebels.
As a result of the resumed revolt, Spanish control of the
region was reduced to ruling a handful of garrison towns.
History and Politics Soon, newly independent Morocco laid claim to Western
Berbers tribes have inhabited Western Sahara desert since Sahara on historical grounds, with Moroccan authorities
ancient times. The harsh desert environment attracted few claiming that traditionally, the inhabitants of the region
invaders, so the Berbers lived as independent tribal groups had paid tribute to Morocco. Around the same time, Mau-
enjoying an isolated existence, although they were gov- ritania, which had gained independence in 1960, also laid
erned by many ancient states. In the eighth century, Arabs claim to Western Sahara, citing the fact that the Saharawis
invaded the region and converted the Berbers to Islam. The were related to northern Mauritanian tribes. The Moroccan
Berbers also took on the Arabs’ social structure and cul- and Mauritanian claims were rejected by Spain, however,
ture while remaining nominally autonomous. In the tenth and in 1958, Spain changed the status of Western Sahara to
century, Morocco claimed the area. During the eleventh or that of an overseas province. In 1959, Spanish and French
twelfth century, the theologian Abdullah ibn Yasin, founder soldiers defeated a Moroccan attempt to acquire the region
of the Almoravid imperial dynasty, converted some inhab- by force. When rich phosphate reserves were discovered in
itants of Western Sahara to his own form of Islam and led the region in 1963, claims to the region took on an eco-
the converts northward to conquer Morocco. nomic significance. Until the late 1950s, most Saharawis
In the fifteenth century, Portuguese traders became maintained nomadic lives. Economic changes of the 1960s
the first Europeans to contact the inhabitants of Western and early 1970s resulting from industrialization led to
Sahara with whom the Portuguese established a lucra- the rapid modernization of Saharawi life. The majority
tive trade in slaves and gold. Then, in the sixteenth cen- of Saharawis became sedentary while the existing urban
tury, Western Sahara came under nominal Moroccan rule, Saharawi population trebled in seven years (Minority
with the region’s inhabitants having little to do with the Rights Group International 2015).
Moroccan authorities despite being classed as subjects of Inspired by Moroccan radicals who had brought about
the sultan. their country’s independence, the Saharawis rebelled
In the mid-eighteenth century, Europeans began to against the French and Spanish. In 1966, the Spanish
explore northwest Africa’s Atlantic coast and made contact promised the United Nations that it would allow Saha-
with the western Saharan tribes. In 1860, Morocco granted rawis self-determination, but this never occurred. Conse-
Spain rights to the Western Sahara. Subsequently, Spain quently, widespread, resentful Saharawi nationalism arose,
established a protectorate divided into two territories— which in 1973 led to the founding of the Popular Front for
Saguia El Hama to the north and Rio de Oro in the south— the Liberation of Saguia el Hama and Rio de Oro (Polis-
with the Spanish colonial administration located mainly ario). The Polisario grew rapidly into a mass movement
on the coast. The administration ventured to the interior that included tens of thousands of refugees who had fled
of the protectorate as recently as 1934 after receiving assis- Spanish rule and were living in Algerian camps. In 1975,
tance from French troops stationed in French Morocco. thousands of Polisario rebels overran the entire Western
From 1900 to 1910, religious leader Sheikh Ma el Amin Sahara region save for the largest towns.
led the Saharawis against Spanish rule in the northwest Bowing to international pressure, Spain agreed to with-
section of the Spanish protectorate. The sheikh was allied draw its troops from Western Sahara in the run-up to
to the sultan of Morocco, who helped Saharawi revolu- Saharawi independence, and the United Nations endorsed
tionaries obtain weapons from Germany and Spain. After a resolution granting the Saharawis’ right to independence.
the sheikh’s death, the sheikh’s son, who established the However, King Hassan II of Morocco reasserted Morocco’s
Saharawi nationalist movement during the 1950s, led the claim to Western Sahara and rejected the concept of Saha-
rebels. In 1957, the Tekna and Regueibat Saharawi tribes rawi autonomy. Therefore in 1975, the king launched the
 Saharawi 929

Green Revolution, a march into Western Sahara by 350,000

civilian Moroccans. Shortly after the start of the Green Rev-
olution, Spain suddenly deserted Western Sahara, prompt-
ing the International Court of Justice to rule in favor of the
region’s independence. However, in 1976 Morocco agreed
with Mauritania that Western Sahara should be partitioned
formally with two-thirds of the territory going to Morocco
but with Mauritania ruling the region’s southern third. The
day after the partitioning, Saharawi rebels declared the
region the Saharawi Arab Democratic Republic and began
a guerrilla war against Moroccan and Mauritanian occu-
pying forces.
To protect the phosphate reserves and hundreds of
nationals who had settled in its section of Western Sahara,
Morocco built a wall topped with landmines, barbed
wire, and observation posts to secure the partition; ini-
tially, the wall measured four hundred miles long but was
later increased by another eight hundred miles (Minahan
2002). Moroccan jets also attacked Saharawi settlements.
The wall and air attacks effectively pushed Saharawi guer-
rillas deeper into the desert. At the same time, Saharawi
refugees began to leave their homeland, and within six
months fifty thousand people had migrated to camps in
Algeria. The majority of the camps’ residents were women
and children because Saharawi men enlisted in the Polis- A Saharawi man riding his camel at the Taragalte Festival in
ario’s Saharawi Peoples Liberation Army (SPLA) (Minor- M’hamid, Morocco. The Saharawis are the indigenous inhab-
ity Rights Group International 2015). In 1979, the United itants of the disputed western Sahara region that is controlled
States aided Morocco by arming them with advanced jointly by Morocco and the self-proclaimed Saharawi Arab
Democratic Republic. (Fabbrielba/Dreamstime.com)
weapons, although the United States stopped short of rec-
ognizing Morocco’s claim to the land. France also armed
the Moroccans. Meanwhile, the war was unpopular among Moroccan army, thereby risking the king’s hold on power.
Mauritanians. Many Mauritanians were Moors and thus Meanwhile, the United Nations was loath to risk destabi-
related to the Saharawis, whereas others, being black Afri- lizing Morocco given that civil war in neighboring Algeria
cans, considered the war an inter-Arab conflict. Following was escalating.
a military coup in Mauritania in 1978, a peace treaty was Although the United Nations agreed to send military
signed that saw Mauritania abandon all claims to Western and civilian units as part of the UN Mission for a Ref-
Saharan. erendum in Western Sahara (MINURSO) to supervise
In 1985, Morocco left the Organization of African Unity Morocco’s partial withdrawal, it did not pressure Morocco
because it had recognized Western Sahara as a member to implement the referendum. There were also concerns
state. International pressure for an end to the conflict that a referendum might not be held freely and fairly while
intensified, and in 1988 UN secretary-general Perez de voter registration was complicated by the fact that some
Cuellar launched a peace plan for the region. In 1991, the Saharawis continued with their traditionally nomadic life-
United Nations began to develop a multinational force to style, whereas others were living as refugees and migrants
supervise a cease-fire and organized a referendum, but outside the territory. In 1991, the Moroccan govern-
King Hassan II still considered Moroccan withdrawal ment presented the United Nations with lists of 120,000
unthinkable because such a move would offend the nation- Moroccan settlers in Western Sahara who threatened to
alism shared by most Moroccan political parties and the swamp the core list of voters and sway the referendum
930 Saharawi

in Morocco’s favor (Minority Rights Group International Although urban Saharawis usually practice orthodox
2015). Morocco was so keen to avoid voting in areas it did Islam, nomadic Saharawis maintain pre-Islamic religious
not control that it sent its Forces Armées Royales (FAR) to beliefs and traditions.
stage air strikes beyond its wall, thereby bringing an end
to the de facto cease-fire. A standoff continued between
Morocco and the Polisario, and in 1997 former U.S. sec- Health Care and Education
retary of state and UN special envoy James Baker started Information on Saharawis’ access to health care and educa-
three years of mediation between the two sides. Some tion tends to focus on Saharawis living in Algerian refugee
agreements were reached, including the release of prison- camps. Here, the Saharawi refugees have a scarcity of fresh,
ers of war, but the sides failed to agree on referendum voter varied foods; limited access to clean water; and inadequate
eligibility. In 2001, Baker proposed a compromise granting health care and education. These factors impact directly
the Saharawis a referendum on independence four years on the refugees’ health. Child and maternal death rates are
after a transitional period. The Saharawis would enjoy high, and anemia is rife. Personal hygiene kits for women
broad autonomy but live under Moroccan rule. The Polisa- of reproductive age are distributed throughout the year by
rio and its ally, Algeria, rejected this proposal. In 2003, the nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) because there is
United Nations proposed a similar compromise that was no availability at local markets—and even if such items
broadly accepted by the Polisario but rejected by Morocco. were available to buy, refugees cannot afford to purchase
Since then, Morocco has consistently refused to permit them. The management of human waste is also problem-
the holding of a referendum, and Western Sahara remains atic, and all the camps contain open garbage pits.
under military rule. Saharawi nationalists still seek inde- Education is mandatory for all children aged six to fif-
pendence and the full recognition of the Saharawi state, teen years staying in the camps. Primary and intermediate
the Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic. Meanwhile, the education is available, with around 8,000 refugee children
dispute over Western Sahara continues to involve countries enrolled in preschool and 31,500 children enrolled in pri-
outside of Morocco. In 2018, Morocco severed diplomatic mary and intermediate schools. However, these schools
ties with Iran, accusing Iran and its Lebanese ally, the polit- lack trained teachers and sufficient educational supplies
ical and militant group Hezbollah, of training and arming and equipment. In 2015, floods damaged fifty-seven of the
Polisario fighters via the Iranian embassy in Algeria. sixty-four preschools and intermediate schools, with only
nineteen of these schools having been repaired. The camps
do not have any secondary schools, so children who grad-
Society, Culture, and Tradition uate from intermediate schools have to leave their camps
Saharawi society maintains a strict caste system and is if they wish to continue their education (UNHCR 2016).
also divided along tribal and gender lines. The harsh living
conditions and population dispersal experienced by the
Saharawis means no single body has been able to establish Threats to Survival
sufficient power or resources to form a supreme tribal gov- A leaked 2006 UN report raised concerns that the Saha-
ernment. Instead of a central authority, the Saharawi abide rawis were suffering police brutality, torture, and lack
by an assembly (the djemaa) that maintains its own body of freedom of expression. Little seems to have changed
of law, the A’arf, which complements the basic Islamic judi- since then because a 2014 press report noted that Western
cial code of sharia law. Each Saharawi tribe and clan regu- Sahara is ruled as a police state (Hilary 2014). All Saha-
lates its own political affairs through the djemaa, which is rawi organizations are banned in Western Sahara, and
composed of the male leaders of the most respected Saha- Saharawi demonstrations are forbidden. Saharawis who
rawi families. do protest find their way blocked by police and paramil-
The Saharawi (or Hassinya) dialect combines Berber itaries that try to prevent rallies from occurring. Protes-
and Arab elements that reflect the people’s heritage. The tors face being driven at by police vans and baton charges
dialect is classified as a south Arabic dialect, but it is unin- (Hilary 2014).
telligible to speakers of other Arabic dialects including Human rights groups have demanded the release of
Moroccan Arabic. Almost all Saharawis are Sunni Muslim. Saharawi political prisoners held in Moroccan jails and an
 Sakalava 931

Aminatou Haidar
Aminatou Haidar (b. 1966) is a Sahrawi human rights activist and an advocate for Western Sahara’s independence
from Morocco. Her leadership of nonviolent protests has seen her dubbed the “Sahrawi Gandhi” by the international
press. Haidar is part of a younger generation of Sahrawi activists who organize peaceful demonstrations calling for a
referendum to settle the conflict between the Moroccan military and Sahrawi independence groups.
Haidar’s peaceful efforts have been met with brutality by Moroccan authorities. In 1987, at age twenty-one, Haidar
was one of hundreds of peaceful protestors arrested for participating in a proreferendum rally. She was subsequently
imprisoned without charge or trial for four years, during which time she was tortured by having electric shocks
applied to her body. In 2005, the Moroccan police detained and beat her following another peaceful protest. This time,
Haidar was released after seven months, thanks to pressure from organizations such as the European Parliament and
Amnesty International. During her imprisonment, Haidar went on hunger strike to protest against prison conditions
and the prison’s use of torture. In 2009, upon attempting to return home after visiting the United States, Haidar’s pass-
port was revoked, and she was exiled. In response, she again went on a hunger strike until she was able to return home.
Haidar has received many plaudits for her activism, including the 2006 Juan Maria Bandres Human Rights Award,
the 2007 Silver Rose Award, the 2008 Robert F. Kennedy Human Rights Award, and the 2009 Civil Courage Prize. The
European Parliament nominated Haidar for the Andrei Sakarov Human Rights Award, and she has also been nomi-
nated for the Nobel Peace Prize.

extension of the UN monitoring body, Minurso, to include SAKALAVA

human rights. Morocco has encouraged successive waves
of immigration into Western Sahara that have resulted Current Location Madagascar
in the Saharawis becoming a minority in their home- Current Population 600,000–1,210,000
land. Calls for Saharawi independence are deemed crimes Language Malagasy; Sakalava
against the Moroccan state, as is displaying the Saharawi Interesting Fact It is traditional for a Sakalava
flag in public. Nonetheless, many Saharawis display that grandfather to eat his grandson’s
flag as a sign of their rejection of Moroccan military rule. cut foreskin after the boy has been
circumcised.
See also: Bedouin; Berber
Further Reading
Hilary, John. 2014. “Western Sahara Activists Feel Full Force Overview
of Moroccan Intimidation.” The Guardian, February 25.
https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/poverty The Sakalava are an indigenous people of Madagascar. The
-matters/2014/feb/25/western-sahara-saharawi-activists Sakalava are also one of the country’s eighteen officially
-moroccan-intimidation. recognized indigenous kingdoms. The name Sakalava is
Keenan, Jeremy, ed. 2007. The Sahara: Past, Present and Future. usually translated as “people of the long valley,” though
Abingdon, UK: Routledge. an alternative translation suggests the name derives from
Minahan, James B. 2002. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
the Arabic word sakaliba and the Latin word esclavua,
nic and National Groups around the World. Vol. 4, S–Z. West-
port, CT: Greenwood Press. both meaning “slave.” This translation is somewhat con-
Minority Rights Group International. 2015. “Morocco: Saha- troversial because it hearkens back to the Sakalavas’
rawis.” World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peo- past involvement in the slave trade. The Sakalava speak
ples, June 19. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/saharawis. a dialect also known as Sakalava, as well as the Malayo-
United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). Polynesian language of Malagasy. The Sakalava have
2016, July. “Humanitarian Needs of Sahrawi Refugees in Alge-
darker skin than many other Madagascans on account
ria 2016–2017.” http://reporting.unhcr.org/sites/default/files/
Humanitarian%20Needs%20of%20Sahrawi%20Refugees%20 of their historical links to mainland Africa. There is also
in%20Algeria%202016-2017%20-%20June%202016.pdf. a strong Bantu influence over the Sakalava dialect and
customs.
932 Sakalava

Population, Diaspora, and Migration History and Politics

It is difficult to give population figures for the Sakalava The origins of the Sakalava probably stretch back to before
because the Madagascan government often changes the the ninth century, when waves of migrants from India,
parameters of ethnicity when collecting such informa- Indonesia, eastern Africa, and the Persian Gulf landed on
tion. Therefore, some population counts for the Sakalava Madagascar. The migrants spread out throughout Mada-
estimate that there are between six hundred thousand and gascar and intermarried, with the Sakalava being the result
one million Sakalava (Appiah and Gates 2010), whereas a of this intermarriage.
2014 estimate suggests the Sakalava population consisted The Sakalava rose to power in the early 1400s when
of around 1.2 million people (Ethnologue 2014). The Saka- King Andrianmisara I ordered that the city of Andakabe
lava inhabit the sparsely populated western side of Mada- (now called Morondava) be built as the main settlement of
gascar. When the Sakalava lost their local dominance to the his people who lived in the southwest of the island. In 1610,
Merina people during the nineteenth century, many Saka- King Andriandahitfotsy used weapons he had acquired
lava migrated to the nearby islands of Mahoré and Mwali. from slave traders to expand the Sakalava kingdom north-
ward. Then, in 1690, King Andriamandisoariva carved out
numerous Sakalava settlements before combining them
Geography and Environment into one state called Iboina. Within a decade, King Andri-
The environment in which the Sakalava live is character- amandisoariva had conquered all the tribes of western
ized by vast rolling plains, grasslands, and foothills. The Madagascar and had also managed to expand the king-
southern part of Sakalava territory, Madagascar Menabe dom into the center of the island. As the dominant group
region, lies between the Mangoky and Manambolo Riv- of western Madagascar, the Sakalava forced the weaker but
ers and is characterized by rock that is rich in iron and more populous Merina people to pay tribute to them.
aluminum, resulting in a reddish landscape. The capital of In the mid-eighteenth century, the Sakalava were at the
Menabe, Morondava, is famous for its Avenue of Baobabs, a peak of their power, with King Andrianinevenarivo con-
group of ancient baobab trees that was granted temporary trolling the most powerful of all the tribes on Madagascar.
protected status in 2007 by the Madagascan government. The Sakalava came to prominence by being fierce fighters.
The climate of Menabe is dry, with a noticeable wet sea- However, it was through slave trading that the Sakalava
son. The natural vegetation is mainly dry deciduous forest, held on to power. To start with, the Sakalava traded with
though there is significant runoff from highlands areas the Swahili and Omani people, and then, in the late eight-
that can make roads impassable even during dry weather. eenth century, the Sakalava began to trade with the British,
Some of the area’s rivers provide water for year-round irri- French, and Portuguese colonialists. The Sakalava raided
gation, whereas others flow intermittently. Lack of water non-Sakalava settlements throughout Madagascar and on
is the main reason that rice farming in this area is limited. the Comoros Islands, taking people to sell as slaves while
The region’s soil is poor, resulting in trees growing slowly. also acting as brokers dealing in slaves brought over from
Sakalava territory also includes the Tsingy de Bemaraha mainland Africa. As a result of these business dealings, the
Strict Nature Reserve, which was listed as a UNESCO Sakalava cities of Toliara and Mahajana became important
World Heritage Site in 1990 on account of its wide variety centers of the slave trade.
of geomorphic limestone structures, mangrove forests, and The influence of the Sakalava waned toward the end
lemur population. of the eighteenth century. Islam came to the foreground
The sea is important to the Sakalava because their econ- on Madagascar during the reign of Queen Ravahiny, and
omy relies heavily on fishing. The coastal settlement of some Muslims started to lay claim to Ravahiny’s crown.
Nosy Hara is notable for the Nosy Hara Marine Park, which Around the same time, the leader of the island’s Merina
features an archipelago of islands surrounded by coral people created the Imerina kingdom. The creation of this
reefs. The Sakalava consider the island to be sacred (fady) kingdom increased the influence of the Merina, who felt
and so safeguard its natural environment, which consists sufficiently confident to stop paying tribute to the Saka-
of sandy beaches, steep cliffs, and colonies of birds, lemurs, lava. By the start of the nineteenth century, the Merina
chameleons, and marine creatures. Because the Sakalava had become far more powerful on Madagascar than the
consider the area to be fady, or taboo, no slash-and-burn Sakalava. The abolition of the slave trade in the nineteenth
clearance takes place there. century also impacted on the influence of the Sakalava. In
 Sakalava 933

1828 the Sakalava tried to reclaim power from the Merina. Traditionally, fitampoha occurred every July. Today, fit-
Although the French colonial authorities managed to sup- ampoha takes place every ten years in August on a Friday
press the Merina a little, the Sakalava attempt to regain on which there is a full moon. The ritual sees the living
their power proved futile, meaning the Sakalava have members of the Sakalava royal family wash the relics of
never again come to enjoy the same amount of influence their dead ancestors. These relics usually consist of teeth,
on Madagascar. hair, bones, and fingernails, which are kept in a bag inside
an iron trunk housed in a sacred house or royal residence
called the zomba, in the village of Belo Tsiribihina, which
Society, Culture, and Tradition in turn is protected by a fence of sharpened sticks. The
Central to the Sakalava religion are the tromba, or the zomba is further protected by the so-called guard of the
spirits of dead royalty. Deceased royals are held in great dady, the only person allowed to enter the zomba.
esteem by the Sakalava, with royal funerals being particu- The Menabe royal family and the guard of the dady
larly lavish affairs that often last for several months or even arrange the cleaning of the relics. Before the ritual wash-
years. A number of taboos, known as fady, and a special- ing, twenty oxen are killed in preparation for the feast that
ized vocabulary have evolved around Sakalava rituals sur- is part of the occasion, and all the local tribes people con-
rounding royalty, most especially dead royals. For instance, tribute to the expense of hosting the event. The washing
the Sakalava believe that their royals do not die in the way is performed in the River Tsiribihy, which the Sakalava
that non-royals stop living. Rather, the Sakalava employ consider sacred, and starting on the Thursday before fit-
the verb mihilana to describe the way in which a royal has mapoha takes place, a form of fitampoha etiquette called
ceased to be alive. Mihilana translates as “to turn around fomba (meaning “customs”) comes into force. This eti-
or perform a volte-face” and so suggests that the royal is quette means that from midnight on the Thursday, nobody
still alive. Another tradition pertaining to Sakalava royal is allowed to wash in the River Tsiribihy or wear shoes.
deaths is that a royal corpse must not enter a royal house- Reeds are collected from a certain site along the river
hold. Further, if a royal dies inside a royal residence, the amid much singing, dancing, wrestling, and the playing of
residence is considered forever polluted and must not be music on dabalava and hazolahy drums, the latter being
inhabited by other royals. During a Sakalava royal funeral drums played when royalty are present and during ritu-
(as at the funeral of a non-royal Sakalava member), tribe- alistic ceremonies such as coronations and circumcisions.
speople may not wash, wear shoes, or comb their hair, and Meanwhile, descendants of the Sakalava royal family wash
they must dress in traditional Sakalava body wrapping their ancestors clothing and leave it to dry on the river’s
clothing. For a royal funeral to take place, the corpse is reed beds. Also on the eve of fitampoha, tribe members
transported to a selected location and placed inside a tem- take part in a collective sexual act that the people believe
porary building, where it is attended to by a caste of royal symbolizes the chaos of the world’s beginning.
slaves called the Sambarivo. Although the corpse is inside On Friday, the royal relics are cleaned lovingly using
the temporary structure, the Sambarivo collect the bodily dusters, olive oil, honey, and vegetable-based soaps called
fluids and what is emitted by the corpse as it rots in special fihositry. Once the relics have been washed, they are put on
ceramic pots, which are discarded during special noctur- display by hanging them on a line of poles, protected by a
nal rituals that take place at consecrated locations. white awning called the rivotse. The Sakalava consider the
A particularly noteworthy Sakalava royal death tradi- displayed relics with great pride and affection as the relics
tion is fitampoha, meaning royal relics bath. In fitampoha, shine in the moonlight and reflect the sunset. Once the fit-
the Sakalava celebrate relics, called dady, that belong to ampoha is considered to have ended, all the relics are put
nine of their dead kings. These relics are very important to back in the zomba.
the Sakalava because they believe that their rulers do not Fitampoha is not just a form of ancestor worship
stop being royal just because they have died but continue because the ritual also reinforces the idea that the Saka-
to be noble even in death; in times past, these relics were lava royal family possesses supernatural powers. During
carried into battle to afford supernatural powers to their fitampoha, it is also thought that the spirits of ancestors
people. Indeed, honoring royalty and ancestors is central contact the Sakalava people through a possessed woman
to the Sakalava way of life, and the fitmaphoa celebrations known as the bilo. On a more prosaic level, fitampoha is a
are advertised on Madagascan national television. time when tribal members settle disputes. The royal family
934 Sakalava

also performs a ritual called lohavony, during which they pay for bedsheets, dressings, and food. Families in rural
pray that their ancestors will bless their tribe. areas also have to pay transport costs to reach healthcare
Burials are not permitted to take place during fitam- facilities. Hospitals are often short-staffed and lack spe-
poha, so if someone dies shortly before the ritual washing, cialist doctors. Depending on their illness, Madagascans
their relatives may not attend the fitampoha ritual. may turn to local healers for help rather than visit a doctor.
The Sakalava are predominantly cattle herders and rice Madagascar has such as rich flora, so traditional healers
farmers. Although their rural economy is ostensibly a cash often use forest plants to make medicines. Church groups
economy, in actuality most Sakalava follow a subsistence and international nongovernmental organization (such as
lifestyle, eating food produced locally. To this end, rice is UNICEF) help to train healthcare providers and run health
the most important staple crop to the Sakalava, with their centers.
diets supplemented by vegetables, fish, reared meat, and Health services in Menabe have been described as “dire”
game (though animal products are eaten rarely as they are (Ghouri), with some hospitals lacking even basic sanitation,
expensive to produce). Due to the mainly dry climate in including lavatories. At the referral hospital in Morondava,
which they live, it is really only possible for the Sakalava to lavatories were installed recently by the nongovernmental
grow rice on well-irrigated land close to river and canals. organization WaterAid. These lavatories are the only public
Although rice is the Sakalava staple food and most Sakal- latrines in the surrounding area and are free to use for hos-
ava grow their own rice, it does not follow that all Sakalava pital patients; other people must pay a small fee to use the
own rice fields. Many Sakalava sharecrop, giving one-third facilities. A two-tier service also occurs inside the hospital.
to two-thirds of their rice harvest to the owners of the rice Patients receiving free health care sleep on iron beds fitted
fields. The rice field owners may be local or live faraway. with wooden slats. These patients also have to use outside
Absentee field owners often occur in Sakalava areas where showers. Contrastingly, in the salles payantes (wards for
the initial Sakalava settlers in an area were able to acquire paying patients), the rooms have en suite shower facilities
the best, irrigated land, thereby earning an income that and comfortable beds. In 2016, the regional health director
allowed them to move to another town while retaining for Menabe claimed that the biggest problem facing the
their rice fields. Absentee landowners, combined with lim- area’s health system was a lack of infrastructure—namely
ited land resources, means the Sakalava have to compete water, sanitation, and electricity—as well as the cleanliness
for land on which to grow food. This means that villagers of staff accommodation and wards. The other main issue
have to cultivate land that is far away and spend a lot of was a lack of qualified doctors being hired by the national
time traveling to tend their crops. When they travel to their government (Ghouri 2016).
fields, the Sakalava will often sleep in temporary shelters The quality of education in Madagascar is hampered by
close to their fields. serval factors. Firstly, many schools in Madagascar do not
have any running water, and only 18 percent of the schools
have access  to drinking water (Siddiqui). Consequently,
Health Care and Education many students become ill and cannot attend classes.
Poverty is widespread across Madagascar, with at least According to UNICEF, most children in Madagascar
two-thirds of Madagascans surviving on less than $1 per study in overcrowded classrooms that lack learning mate-
day. Such low incomes affect the health of children: Mada- rials. Some Madagscan communities have no schools at all.
gascar has one of the highest rates of stunted growth in the Where schools do exist, they are often destroyed by annual
world, with half of all Madagascan children suffering from cyclones and tropical storms.
stunting caused by poor diets. Common illnesses occur-
ring on Madagascar include tuberculosis and malaria, with
cholera prevalent during the rainy season. Although HIV/ Threats to Survival
AIDS is not as prevalent in Madagascar as on mainland Despite conservation efforts, the deciduous forests located
Africa, the disease has killed one or both parents of eleven in the Menabe region are at severe risk of deforestation.
thousand Madagascan children (Our Africa n.d.). The main activities leading to the deforestation are land
There are a number of state-run hospitals in the main clearance for agriculture, charcoal production, and illegal
towns and cities of Madagascar. Basic health care is pro- woodcutting. Land clearance is achieved through slash-
vided free of charge at these facilities, but families have to and-burn techniques and by woodcutting. There are two
 Samaritan 935

types of woodcutting that occur in Menabe: small-scale Ghouri, Nadine. 2016. “Health in Madagascar Takes Turn for the
woodcutting by locals for home building, fencing, and fire- Worse as $22m Hospital Abandoned.” The Guardian, August 3.
wood, and logging for profit. Logging is carried out in a https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2016/aug
/03/madagascar-health-22m-dollar-hospital-abandoned
fairly low-key manner and so does not tend to attract the -morondava.
notice of authorities. Despite being low-key, however, log- Middleton, John. 2015. World Monarchies and Dynasties.
gers target large trees that take time to replace. Charcoal 3 vols. London: Routledge. http://wwf.panda.org/?199906%2
production is performed for profit, and because locals can- Fmadagascar-nosy-hara-mpa.
not afford to use charcoal, it is transported in bulk to urban Our Africa. n.d. “Madagascar: Poverty & Healthcare.” http://www
areas, where it is sold. Timber extraction is regulated by a .our-africa.org/madagascar/poverty-healthcare.
Sandy, Clare. 2006. “Real and Imagined Landscapes: Land Use
permit system, but this is not rigorously enforced. For this and Conservation in the Menabe.” Conservation Society 4 (2):
reason, many governmental and nongovernmental organ- 304–324. http://www.conservationandsociety.org/article.asp?
izations work with local people to educate them about issn=0972-4923;year=2006;volume=4;issue=2;spage=
the importance of conserving their forest resources and 304;epage=324;aulast=Sandy.
to develop alternative money earning opportunities. On Siddiqui, Noor. 2014. “Education in Madagascar.” Borgen Maga-
the whole, however, such schemes have proven to be inef- zine, August 7. https://www.borgenmagazine.com/education
-madagascar/.
fectual (Sandy 2006). The Sakalava claim that many des- Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
titute, non-Sakalava people have migrated to their areas World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA:
and use slash-and-burn techniques to clear new plots of ABC-CLIO.
land in forested areas. The Sakalava believe that because
the strangers have no ties to the forests, they do not care
whether the forests are destroyed.
As well as deforestation, in some Sakalava coastal areas,
conservation efforts are focusing on water resource pres- SAMARITAN
ervation. In Ampasindava, a small fishing village near the
Nosy Hara National Park, villagers used to complain of Current Location Israel; Palestine
foreign fishermen overfishing their waters. Now, however, Current Population 700
fishing licenses issued by the national park authority are Language Palestinian Arabic; Modern Hebrew;
needed to fish in the area. In addition to the permits and Aramaic
rules established by park authorities, villagers have formed Interesting Fact The Samaritans are the only minority
a Fishermen’s Association that creates rules intended to to hold both Israeli and Palestinian
safeguard marine resources. For example, the association citizenship.
decided to increase the closure period for octopus fishing
from three months to four months to give the octopus pop-
Overview
ulation time to recover from the fishing season. Problems
may arise with regard to the marine conservation in the The Samaritans are an ethnoreligious community living
near future, however. Increasingly erratic climatic condi- in Israel and Palestine. The Samaritans speak Palestinian
tions are resulting in some Sakalava villages receiving less Arabic as well as Ancient and Modern Hebrew, but they
rain during the rainy season. This reduced water supply use Aramaic as a liturgical language. The Samaritans are
makes it virtually impossible for the affected Sakalava to the world’s only practitioners of Samaritanism, an ancient
farm inland, so farmers are moving from cultivating the Israelite religion. The name Samaritan may derive from
soil to fishing the ocean. Samaria, the name of a mountainous central region of the
Eastern Mediterranean, or from Shamarin, an Aramaic
See also: Malagasy word meaning “the guardians.”
Further Reading
Appiah, Kwame Anthony, and Henry Louis Gates Jr., eds. 2010. Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Encyclopedia of Africa. Vol. 1. Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press. The exact Samaritan population is disputed; although most
Ethnologue. 2014. “Malagasy, Sakalava.” https://www.ethnologue estimates put the figure at around seven hundred people
.com/language/skg. (Schreiber 2014), others claim the Samaritan population
936 Samaritan

consists of 865 people (Reed 2016). Presently, there are well as in the writing of the first-century Romano-Jewish
only four Samaritan clans, meaning the Samaritans have a scholar and historian Josephus. Ancient writings tend
very small gene pool, resulting in generations of Samaritan to describe the Samaritans as a despised community
children suffering genetic disorders (Sherwood 2013). (Zabecki 2008).
Around four hundred Samaritans live in Palestine, with The schism between Judaism and Samaritanism results
the rest living in Israel. In Israel the Samaritans live near from the ancient rivalry between Judah (now Judea) and
the city of Holon, whereas in Palestine the Samaritans live the Israelite kingdoms of Israel. According to Samaritan
in the village of Kiryat Luza, in the occupied West Bank. history, the Samaritans split from Judaism ultimately after
Kiryat Luza is located near the town of Nablus, beside the fall of Jerusalem in 586 BCE. During this time, King
Mount Gerizim. The Samaritans consider Mount Ger- Nebuchadnezzar II laid siege to Jerusalem, destroying
izim their holiest site because they believe it was here that the city and its First Temple while also deporting Jew-
God built a temple and where Abraham’s near sacrifice of ish religious and political leaders to Babylon, where they
Isaac occurred. Kiryat Luza is the last entirely Samaritan were held in captivity. When Jews returned from exile to
village and is under joint Israeli and Palestinian control. Jerusalem in 539 BCE, their traditions and philosophies
Until recently, there was also a Samaritan community in had changed so greatly that the differences between Jews
Nablus, but this dispersed during the First Intifada (1987– and Samaritans were insurmountable. The Samaritans
1993, a Palestinian uprising against the Israeli occupation came to reject entirely the supremacy of the Temple at
of the West Bank and other areas) so that they would not Jerusalem. Instead, the Samaritans believe the true tem-
get caught up in the disturbance. The Samaritans who ple to be located on Mount Gerizim, where archaeolo-
left Nablus reestablished their community near Mount gists believe Samaritans built a temple around 330 BCE.
Gerizim. Samaritans living in the West Bank have Israeli The Jewish Hasmonean leader John Hyrcanus destroyed
and Palestinian citizenship, and some also hold Jordanian this temple around 128 BCE. However, the Samaritans
documents. rebuilt their temple on Mount Gerizim in 135 CE after
the Romans crushed the Bar Kokhba Revolt (a Jewish
rebellion against the Roman Empire that occurred in the
Geography and Environment Roman province of Judea). Subsequently, the Samaritan’s
Mount Gerizim is one of the two mountains in the imme- temple was destroyed again under the repressive reign of
diate vicinity of the West Bank city of Nablus, forming the the Byzantine emperor Zeno toward the end of the fifth
southern side of the valley in which Nablus is situated; century. Zeno, according to Samaritan sources, tried to
the northern side of the valley is created by Mount Ebal. force Samaritans living in Sichem to convert to Christian-
Mount Gerizim is one of the West Bank’s highest peaks, ris- ity, with those who refused being massacred. Zeno is also
ing to 2,890 feet. The city of Holon is located on the Plain said to have rebuilt a Samaritan synagogue as a church.
of Sharon, near the Mediterranean Sea and just south of Ultimately, the Samaritans revolted against Zeno, burn-
Tel Aviv, and is part of the Tel Aviv–Yafo metropolitan area. ing churches the emperor had ordered built on Samaritan
Holon is heavily industrialized, being home to the Israeli holy sites and cutting the fingers off a bishop. The Samar-
textile industry; metals, plastics, and rubber are also man- itans also elected Justa as their king and moved to Cae-
ufactured there. In contrast, the Plain of Sharon is home to sarea, where a significant Samaritan community existed.
citrus fruit farms and small agricultural plots. At some time under Zeno’s rule, Samaritans were banned
from Mount Gerizim. Modern historians believe the order
of these events may be confused, with Zeno’s persecution
History and Politics of the Samaritans being a result of their rebellion rather
According to Samaritan tradition, the people believe they than the cause of the insurrection.
are descended from ancient Israelites. That the Samaritans In 529 CE, the Samaritans revolted against Byzantine
are an ancient people is attested by the fact that Jewish rule under the leadership of the charismatic, messianic
religious leaders have not considered the Samaritans to Julianus ben Sabar in the hope of creating their own
be Jewish since at least the time of the construction of the independent state. However, by 531, ben Sabar had been
Second Temple, circa 515 BCE. The Samaritans are referred beheaded, with his head sent to Byzantine emperor Jus-
to multiple times in both the Old and New Testament, as tinian I. Many thousands of Samaritans died during the
 Samaritan 937

bloody revolt. Under Justinian I, Samaritans were captured Traditionally, Samaritans do not accept converts and
or enslaved, prohibited from serving in political or mili- very rarely marry outside of their faith. Non-Samaritans
tary positions, barred from testifying in Christian courts, who join Samaritan communities have to uphold Samar-
and prevented from passing possessions to their children. itan traditions. One custom that non-Samaritan women
In addition, the Samaritan religion was banned through- joining the Samaritans are reputed to find particularly dif-
out the Byzantine Empire. After the Byzantines, Mamluks ficult is the purifying ritual, which demands women are
(a powerful Muslim army of slave origin controlled by completely separated from their family for seven days dur-
Arab rulers) and Ottomans also persecuted the Samari- ing their monthly period. Women are also segregated from
tans. Under the Mamluks and Ottomans, many Samaritans the rest of society after childbirth (or after an abortion)
were forced to convert to Islam while their synagogues for forty days following the birth or abortion of a boy and
were transformed into mosques. eighty days after a girl is born or aborted.
During the fourth and fifth centuries, the Samaritan pop-
ulation measured around 1.2 million people, with Samari-
tan communities found across an area stretching from Health Care and Education
northern Egypt to southern Syria and from Sicily (Italy) The Samaritans’ traditional reluctance to intermarry
to Thessalonica (Greece). By 1919, however, the Samaritan means genetic diseases and physical deformities are
population had decreased to just 150 people (Zabecki 2008) prevalent in the Samaritan community. To try to reduce
as a result of assimilation, conflict, and disease. By 1948, this incidence of these conditions, improved health care and
figure had increased to 250 people, and by 2003, it had risen genetic screening of prospective partners have been intro-
again to the current figure of 700–900 people. duced to Samaritan areas, along with a move to recruit
foreign women as wives. During the 1990s, Samaritans
living near Mount Gerizim gained Israeli citizenship.
Society, Culture, and Tradition This allowed them to access Israel’s high-tech hospitals,
Samaritans consider themselves the descendants of where Samaritan women undergo routine genetic testing.
Jacob (or Israel) and the protectors of their ancient way Samaritan women are encouraged to have abortions
of life—hence the name Samaritan (“the guardians”). whenever the risk of birth defects is detected, meaning
Although Samaritan religious practice is very similar to around one in five Samaritan pregnancies is terminated
Judaism, Samaritans are neither Jewish nor Muslim. In (Sherwood 2013).
general, Samaritans follow the monotheistic beliefs of The doctrinal differences between Samaritans and Jews
other Abrahamic religions because Samaritans worship means that in Israel, Samaritans are educated in secular
the Biblical figure Yhwh (Yahweh) as their god, as do Jews. schools. In Kiryat Luza, Samaritan children attend classes
Samaritans are forbidden from depicting Yhwh visually on Samaritan history, customs, and language traditions,
as well as from saying Yhwh’s name. Instead of declaring with children as young as seven being able to speak ancient
his name, Samaritans must instead replace Yhwh’s name Hebrew.
with the expression Shēmā,’ meaning “the name.” The holy
text of the Samaritans is the Samaritan Torah, which the
Samaritans believe is the text’s original version. Other tra- Threats to Survival
ditions adhered to by the Samaritans that are shared with The Samaritans live in an area of the Middle East that
Judaism include the use of Hebrew, celebrating Sukkot (a is often a site of conflict. The Samaritans speak ancient
commemoration of the forty years Israelites spent in the Hebrew and pray in synagogues, so non-Jews often mis-
desert), and the slaughtering and eating of lambs at Pass- take them for Jews. For Samaritans residing in the West
over. Samaritans also maintain the tradition of the Count- Bank, this can be problematic. Although Palestinians
ing of the Omer—that is, the verbal counting of each of understand that the Samaritans are an Arab people, they
the forty-nine days between the Jewish holidays of Passo- nonetheless suspect that the Samaritans maintain links
ver and Shavuot (Pentecost). Unlike Muslims, Samaritans to Judaism. Samaritans are careful to remain impartial so
make wine and arak (an aniseed liquor). Some Samaritans as not to incur reprisals. Additionally, the minuteness of
also earn money from fortune-telling, thereby capitalizing the Samaritan populations means they do not represent a
on local beliefs that Samaritans have supernatural powers. threat to either side in the Arab-Israeli conflict. Samaritans
938 Sami

are not excluded from politics and are able to vote in both SAMI
Palestinian and Israeli elections.
At present, Samaritans enjoy generally good relations Current Location Arctic Europe
with their Palestinian and Jewish neighbors, and Samari- Current Population 80,000–100,000
tans are the only people in the region to hold both Israeli Language Sami
and Palestinian identity papers. The Samaritans’ dual papers Interesting Fact The Sami have more than 300
allow them to travel easily between Israel and the West words for snow.
Bank. Entrepreneurial Samaritans use their dual papers to
earn an income by offering a courier service to businesses in
Nablus and in Israel, although because the people and goods
Overview
have to pass Israeli checkpoints, deliveries can be slow.
Samaritan neutrality means the people have escaped the The Sami, also known as the Saami, Samme, Sabme, Sápmi,
political conflict that affects Israel and Palestine, but some Laps, Lapps, Laplanders, or Finns, are an indigenous peo-
Samaritans still fear their people will become extinct. This ple living in several European countries within the Arctic
fear arises from the Samaritan tradition of rarely marrying Circle. The Sami consider the term Lap or Lapp derogatory.
outside their faith and being unwilling to accept converts. The Sami call their traditional homeland Sápmi.
These traditions mean the Samaritan population strug- The Sami language belongs to the Finno-Ugric lan-
gles from a tiny gene pool and resultant genetic issues. To guage family, and although it is related to Finnish, it is not
counter this problem, in recent years, some Samaritan men related to Swedish, Norwegian, or Russian. It should be
have started to look outside their faith for potential wives. noted that to a certain extent, the term Sami language is
In particular, Samaritans have used both marriage agen- misleading because there are numerous Sami languages,
cies and the internet to find brides, most of whom come including Akkala Sami, Inari Sami, Kildin Sami, Lule
from Eastern Europe, particularly Ukraine and R ­ ussia. Saami, North Saami, Pite Saami, Skolt Sami, South Saami,
More recently, an American woman has made history by and Ume Saaami. The exact number of Sami who speak a
being the first person to convert to Samaritanism without Sami language is unknown, but researchers estimate that
marrying into the faith. the number is around forty thousand to fifty thousand
people, with 90 percent of these people speaking the North
See also: Assyrian; Druze; Mandean; Maronites; Shabak; Sami language. If this figure is correct, then it may mean
Yazidi that Sami dialects with smaller numbers of speakers face
Further Reading extinction (Thuen 2011).
Barbati, Gabriele. 2013. “Israeli Election Preview: The Samari­ The Sami flag features bands of blue, red, yellow, and
tans, Caught between Two Votes.” International Business Times, green, the colors most often seen on traditional Sami
January 21. http://www.ibtimes.com/israeli-election-preview clothes. In the middle of the flag is a circle symbolizing
-samaritans-caught-between-two-votes-1028684.
the sun. The circle is half red (the color of Sami shaman
Reed, John. 2016. “Samaritans Form Bridge of Peace between
Isralis and Palestinians.” Financial Times, April 22. https:// drums) and half blue (which represents the moon). The
www.ft.com/content/365747cc-07c4-11e6-a623-b84d06a39ec2. Sami have eleven days set aside for flying their flag, includ-
Russell, Gerard. 2015. Heirs to the Forgotten Kingdoms: Journeys ing February 6, which is the Sami National Day. The flag
into the Disappearing Religions of the Middle East. London: and flag days are the same for all Sami regardless of which
Simon & Schuster. country they inhabit. Many Sami do not identify as having
Schreiber, Monika. 2014. The Comfort of Kin: Samaritan Com-
any religion, but those who do usually say that they are
munity, Kinship, and Marriage. Leiden, the Netherlands: Brill.
Sherwood, Harriet. 2013. “How Ukrainian Women Saved the Lutheran. In addition, some Sami living on the Kola Pen-
Samaritans of Mount Gerizim.” The Guardian, February 11. insula identify as Russian Orthodox.
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/feb/11/ukrainian
-women-samaritans-mount-gerizim. Population, Diaspora, and Migration
Zabecki, David T. 2008. “Samaritans.” In The Encyclopedia of the
Arab-Israeli Conflict: A Political, Social and Military History, There are no official population figures or census for the
edited by Spencer C. Tucker and Priscilla Roberts, 887–888. Sami, but their population is estimated to measure between
Vol. 3. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. eighty thousand and one hundred thousand people in
total. The Sami are spread over four countries with fifty
 Sami 939

thousand to sixty-five thousand Sami living in Norway, population and not inhibit the local Sami people’s ability
twenty thousand to forty thousand Sami in Sweden, eight to follow their traditional lifestyle. In Russia’s Kola Penin-
thousand in Finland, and two thousand in Russia. There are sula, however, large areas of Sami land have been ruined
fifty-one Sami villages in total, with the largest being Sir- by mining and oil and natural gas exploration. Side effects
kas in Jokkmokk, Sweden (Swedish Institute 2013–2017). of such activity also impacts on the Sami because oil
In Norway the Sami are concentrated in Finnmark County, spills harm Sami fishing grounds, and road building and
where around twenty-five thousand Norwegian Sami live the erecting of power lines can prevent the Sami gaining
(Minority Rights Group International 2017). access to reindeer calving grounds.
The earliest Sami were nomads living in tents during In northern Finland, there has long been the focus of
the spring and summer and in sturdier huts made from arguments over the destruction of forests, an activity that
peat during the autumn and winter. Nowadays, the Sami stops reindeer from migrating between feeding grounds,
live in modern houses and only live in tents for short peri- removes the lichen that grows on the upper branches of
ods during times of reindeer migration, though often the older trees, and forms the reindeer’s only winter food source.
Sami reindeer herders will own cottages in the mountains Changes in reindeer grazing rights have often caused
and forests and so do not need to use a tent. disputes between reindeer herding Sami and landowners,
A sameby (Sami village) is not a village in the traditional especially in Sweden. In 2011, the Swedish Supreme Court
sense but rather is a complex administrative union created ruled in favor of the Sami, giving them common-law rights
with the intention of keeping reindeer; it is regulated by a to a specific land area. In 2016, Sami reindeer herders in
Swedish law called the Reindeer Husbandry Act. Sameby Sweden won a thirty-year court battle for land rights in a
members are entitled to participate in reindeer husbandry case that had seen Swedish authorities accused of racism
in the area governed by the sameby, and they can build toward the Sami. A decision in the Gällivare district court
whatever facilities they need for their animals. Members granted the Sami village of Girjas exclusive rights to con-
of the sameby also have local fishing and hunting rights. trol hunting and fishing in their region, thereby restoring
Similarly, after World War II, many Sami migrated powers removed from the Sami people by Swedish author-
southward to set up home in the capital cities of Scandi- ities in 1993.
navia. Once ensconced in the cities, the Sami assimilated
to the extent that many of them identify as being of mixed
ethnicity or as belonging to the majority population. In History and Politics
recent years, however, ethnographers have noted a rise in The origins of the Sami are unknown. It may be that
the number of Sami identifying as Sami in terms of culture the Sami are descended from people who inhabited the
and politics. Fenno-Scandic region between six thousand and eight
thousand years ago, having arrived in the area from the
east, possibly from Central Asia. However, as a people with
Geography and Environment their own distinctive language, the Sami probably began
The Sami homeland, Sápmi, stretches across the Arctic during the first millennium BCE, when they met with
Circle. Sapmi includes the northern two-thirds of Nor- other peoples to the south. Around two thousand years
way, containing the provinces of Tromsøn and Nordland; ago, however, the early Sami were driven from the south
parts of Sweden, including the eastern districts of Norr- by successive waves of invasion, and they headed north to
botten and Vasterbotten; eastern Finland and the northern the Arctic Circle to escape conflict. Once living in the Arc-
Finnish district of the Lappi Province; and the majority of tic, the Sami established a society based around hunting,
­Russia’s Kola Peninsula. The Sami are the majority popula- fishing, whaling, agriculture, and most especially reindeer
tion in only a few of these areas. herding. Indeed, the earliest written reference to the Sami
Precious metals, oil, and natural gas are all found in dates to 890 CE and refers to the Sami as nomadic hunting
the Sami homeland. Mining activities in Arctic Sapmi people who used reindeer as transport. During the 800s,
have caused great controversy because the Sami fear such the Vikings conquered the western Sami tribes, but on
activity disturbs the location where reindeer grazing and the whole, the Vikings allowed the Sami to continue their
calving occurs. The Sami Parliament stresses that any min- traditional lifestyle. Then, in the 1200s, Sami living on the
ing activity in Sami areas should benefit the local Sami Kola Peninsula came under the control of the Slavs.
940 Sami

By the end of the Middle Ages, the Sami were subject or language and taught that reindeer herding was a dying
to heavy taxes by the authorities in the country in which practice that was destined to become extinct.
they lived, especially in Sweden, Denmark, and Russia. Over the last fifty years, a Sami nationalist movement
The Sami had also adapted from being hunters to living as has arisen and become a powerful force throughout Sami
nomadic reindeer herders, as well as carrying out fishing regions. A particularly important period in the history of
and farming along the Norwegian coast and fjords. Sami nationalism was the controversy caused by the pro-
The inhospitable environment of the Arctic Circle posal to build a dam and hydroelectric power plant across
deterred most colonists from settling in Sami areas, and Norway’s Alta River (1979–1981). The construction of the
it was not until 1673 that Swedish and Finnish settlers dam and power plant would have flooded the Sami village
arrived in Sapmi. During the seventeenth and eighteenth of Máze, displacing Sami villagers and disrupting reindeer
centuries, Lutheran and Russian Orthodox missionar- migration patterns and salmon fishing. In 1979, as con-
ies arrived in Sami areas with the result that by the end struction of the dam and power plant were about to start,
of the eighteenth century, nearly all Sami had converted Sami protesters sat down on the ground, blocking the way
to Christianity. This level of conversion meant that the for construction machines, and others went on a hunger
indigenous Sami shamanistic religion was suppressed; strike outside the Norwegian parliament. These actions
those Sami who had not become Christian followed their put the spotlight on the issue of Sami rights as an indig-
religion secretly. Also during the eighteenth century, enous people with distinct land rights over territory in
Sami who owned farmland lost their farmlands and were Norway. Ultimately, the dam and plant were built despite
made to become tenant farmers. Then during the nine- the protests, but the Sami did achieve an important win in
teenth century, the Swedish and Norwegian governments the shape of the passing of the 2005 Finnmark Act (Finn-
declared Sami reindeer pastures ownerless and therefore marksloven in Norwegian). This act transferred almost all
the property of the state—without agreeing any form of of the land in Finnmark county to the Sami inhabitants of
treaty with the Sami. At the same time, the establishment Finnmark. Today, the Finnmark Estate manages the land.
of land borders between countries in which the Sami lived The Finnmark Estate is administered by a six-member
further reduced Sami access to their traditional reindeer board of directors, with three of the board members
pastures. The creation of national borders, such as that appointed by the Sami Parliament of Norway. The Sami
drawn up between Norway and Sweden in 1751, made Parliament and the county council jointly select the leader
it difficult for the Sami to travel across their traditional of the board.
grazing lands. At around the same time, many Swedish The Alta River protests brought the plight of the Sami
northern Sami were made to move from their summer to the wider international consciousness and marked the
settlements in Norway to southern parts of Sweden, and start of the Sami’s fight for recognition as an indigenous
southern Sami were made to accept the northern Sami on people who deserved to be self-governing. There are now
their land. Sami governments in three countries (Sweden, Norway,
The second half of the nineteenth century saw a reli- and Finland), and the Kola Sámi Assembly (an elected
gious movement called Laestadianism sweep through the assembly formed by the Sámi people of Russia’s Kola Pen-
Sami population. Laestadianism favored the concept of insula) was established in 2010. The assembly is based on
renouncing worldly goods, particularly alcohol, while also the structure of Sámi parliaments in Nordic countries, but
repenting for sins, with followers forgiving each other for it is not recognized by Russian authorities. The main role
wrongdoing. Also during the nineteenth century, govern- of the Sami political bodies is to advise national govern-
ments of the countries in which the Sami lived initiated ments about Sami issues. In many areas, Sami land right
assimilation policies aimed at destroying Sami culture and issues have been resolved, though this has caused disquiet
language. The Norwegian government was particularly among some non-Sami who resent the Sami being given
keen on eradicating Sami culture because it wished to create land, arguing that land rights should be equal for all cit-
a united nation-state that would be able to find independ- izens and not seen as a privilege reserved for indigenous
ence from Sweden (Norway was aligned to Sweden from ethnic groups.
1814 to 1905). The main way in which governments tried to Recently, there has been a move toward the creation
make the Sami assimilate was through education for school of a united, independent Sami state within the European
curriculums that made no mention of Sami history, culture, Union.
 Sami 941

Society, Culture, and Tradition A particularly well-known traditional Sami folk cos-
tume is the kolt or gákti, which was worn originally as work
The Sami language is spoken in parts of Sweden, Norway,
clothing but is now worn during important occasions such
Finland, and Russia and is divided into three main lan-
as baptisms, funerals, weddings, and confirmations. The
guages: Eastern Sami, Central Sami, and Southern Sami.
design of the kolt varies from place to place, meaning there
These languages are subdivided into numerous distinct
are at least a dozen different styles with variations for men
variations. The Central Sami language is divided into two
and women. The version for men is shorter than the female
varieties: North Sami, which is spoken in the northern-
one, but it tends to be longer in southern Sápmi than in
most Sami area, and Lule Sami, which is spoken around the north. The usual accessories worn with the kolt are a
Jokkmokk and Gällivare in Sweden, as well as parts of leather belt; lace-up shoes or leather boots; a shawl, silk
Tysfjord in Norway. North Sami has the largest number scarf, or bib; a decorative belt; a collar; and a hat. The kolt
speakers, with an estimated fifteen thousand to seventeen is made from leather, animal sinews, wool, and sometimes
thousand speakers across the Sami homeland. Around from silk and velvet. The way in which the kolt is deco-
five thousand to six thousand of North Sami speakers are rated varies. Northern Sami decorate their kolts with sil-
based in Sweden. Southern Sami and Lule Sami are spo- ver whereas Southern Sami and Lule Sami prefer pewter
ken in areas lying along the Swedish-Norwegian border embroidery. The colors, patterns, and jewelry worn on the
from Arjeplog-Saltfjäll in the north to Idre and Røros in kolt are deeply symbolic. For example, the shape of the but-
the south (Swedish Institute 2013–2017). The Sami lan- tons on a kolt can reveal whether the wearer is married or
guage was recognized as an official minority language single (married Sami wear square buttons, whereas unmar-
of Sweden in 2000 and is also an official language of ried Sami wear a belt with round buttons), and the color
Norway. of the kolt’s cloth can denote where a Sami person is from.

A Sami reindeer breeder wearing national costume near Honningsvag, Norway. Reindeer are central to Sami culture. Knowledge of
reindeer is passed down through formal education and oral tradition. (Zhykharievavlada/Dreamstime.com)
942 Sami

It is widely reported that only around 10 percent of forgotten. Modern Sami music often combines yoik with
modern Sami are involved in traditional Sami reindeer rock and pop. The Sami also have a rich history of story-
herding (Martin 2008). Nonetheless, reindeer are still a telling, and in recent years this tradition has transferred
huge part of Sami culture because they traditionally pro- to the theater, with old Sami legends used as the basis for
vide food and raw materials that the Sami use in everyday theatrical productions.
life. Sami pass on knowledge of reindeer through their
formal education and from generation to generation by
oral tradition. Traditionally, the Sami use every part of a Health Care and Education
reindeer: the animal’s skin and horns were used to make Little is known about the health of the Sami, and research
shoes and knives, and the flesh was cooked and eaten or into this area tends to be unsystematic and anecdotal. It is
processed further for future use. In earlier times, reindeer known, however, that the life expectancy and death rates of
was a staple food of the Sami. Today, the eating of rein- the Sami are similar to those of the majority population in
deer has fallen out of fashion somewhat, though there is the areas in which they live. The traditional Sami lifestyle,
a movement among many young Sami and non-Sami to which involves lots of physical activity and a diet rich in
rediscover traditional Sami dishes that are in danger of antioxidants and unsaturated fatty acids, seems to reduce
disappearing. the Sami’s risk of developing cancer and cardiovascular
Sami handicrafts, known as duodji, are seen by the Sami diseases. However, the traditional Sami activity of reindeer
as an expression of their culture because the crafts employ herding is associated with high accident rates, and Sami
colors, patterns, and techniques specific to the Sami. The people belonging to reindeer-herding families often report
Sami Handicrafts Foundation (Sami Duodji) certifies that pain in their lower backs, necks, shoulders, elbows, and
items are made exclusively by Sami artisans who typically hands. In Sami men, pain in these parts of the body often
make items from reindeer antlers, bones, and leather; result from using vehicles such as snowmobiles.
wood; and pewter. Reindeer-herding men are also at significantly higher
Traditional Sami singing, yoik, was originally closely risk of being involved in fatal accidents and committing
linked to the now defunct Sami religion and is one of the suicide. Researchers in Sweden, Norway, and Finland have
oldest European types of music. The Swedish Lutheran all found that Sami reindeer-herding men are at high risk
Church, which considered yoik pagan and uncivilized, of suicide. Indeed, during the periods 1961–1980 and
has long banned yoik. Yoik music is passed down through 1981–2000, suicides rates among Sami reindeer-herding
generations, with the music usually dedicated to a person, men increased by 75 percent. Common methods of Sami
animal, or place to ensure that subject of the music is never suicide include death from self-inflicted gunshot wounds
and hanging. The geographic distribution of the suicides
revealed that suicide rates were significantly higher in the
Mere-Ama, the Sami Water southern areas of the reindeer-herding district of Sweden.
Mother One theory proposed to explain this is that reindeer farm-
Mere-Ama is a Sami water goddess associated with ing is more difficult in the southern areas because reindeer
ocean, rivers, and streams. Mere-Ama is also associ- farmers face competition to use grazing pastures from
ated with fertility. When a Sami bride moves into her non-Sami people who wish to use the land for forestry,
husband’s home, she offers Mere-Ama cheese and tourism, and mineral production.
bread by placing it on the side of the stream nearest Sami culture and language only became a subject in
her new home. Once the bride has made the offering, Swedish schools as recently as 1962, and guidelines for the
she sprinkles herself with water from the stream. If language’s spelling system were not published until 1979.
a Sami woman marries when streams are frozen, she For this reason, many older Sami can neither read nor
will carry out the tradition once the ice has thawed. write their own language (Swedish Institute 2013–2017).
By sprinkling herself with water, the bride invokes A 2010 Swedish government bill, Strategy for the National
Mere-Ama’s blessings, thereby ensuring the health Minorities, has made it possible for the Sami people to pro-
of the children produced by her marriage. tect their culture, traditions, and language. Part of this bill
includes the teaching of Sami history in primary schools,
 Sami 943

as well as Sami information signs in schools. The Sami liv- able to speak, read, and write a Sami language after having
ing in rural areas do not have great access to education. For learned it at school.
instance, in Jokkmokk, in the very north of Sweden, there One other potential threat to the Sami is environmental
is only one upper secondary school teaching the Sami lan- change, which, together with the modernization of reindeer
guage and reindeer care, as well as traditional Sami cook- herding techniques, is threatening the continuation of tradi-
ery and handicrafts. The school’s pupils live at the school tional Sami culture. The reindeer is central to Sami culture, so
during term time and return home in the holidays. The many Sami consider the continuation of herding as vital to the
south of the Sami area of Sweden has five Sami schools survival of Sami ethnic identity. The reduction in the size of
in Karesuando, Kiruna, Gällivare, Jokkmokk, and Tärnaby, traditional herding lands, coupled with environmental dam-
which educate children up to the age of twelve. The schools age, threatens the Sami. For instance, the Sami living along
aim to teach children Sami languages and culture. Univer- the border of Russia and Finland are faced with a shortage of
sity courses in Sami can be studied at the Swedish univer- grazing land because although they are entitled to herd their
sities at Umeå and Uppsala. The Centre for Sami Research reindeer under Norwegian law, there are few reindeer grazing
(CeSam) at Umeå directs research into Sami culture, lan- sites left for them to use because they have been encroached
guage, history, and sociology. upon by the Sea-Sami (a subgroup of Sami who live along Nor-
way’s fjords and inland waterways, where they combine farm-
ing with cattle raising, hunting, and fishing). The UN Human
Threats to Survival Rights Committee has pressed the Norwegian government to
During the period of 1900–1940, there were many attempts designate a region along the Neiden River that crosses both
to assimilate the Sami into the general populations of the Finnish and Norwegian Lapland for the exclusive use of the
countries in which they lived. This harmed Sami culture East Sami, but this has yet to happen (Minority Rights Group
greatly—something that has been widely recognized by both International 2017). With growing environmental change, the
the Sami and national governments. Indeed, in 1997, Nor- issue of land and pasture rights may become increasingly sig-
way’s King Harald V apologized to the Sami for their treat- nificant for the Sami in the future.
ment at the hands of the Norwegian government. Despite
See also: Aleut; Chukchi; Inuit; Yupik
assimilationist policies, the Sami have resisted attempts to
integrate them fully into non-Sami society. The Sami par- Further Reading
liaments in Finland, Norway, and Sweden have established Crouch, David. 2016. “Sweden’s Indigenous Sami People Win
a joint Nordic convention to strengthen the Sami’s status as Rights Battle against State.” The Guardian, February 3. https://
a minority people, and today there are numerous political www.theguardian.com/world/2016/feb/03/sweden-indige
nous-sami-people-win-rights-battle-against-state.
parties and lobbying organizations representing Sami rights.
Martin, Suzanne. 2008. “Sami.” In Encyclopedia of Race, Ethnicity,
Sami society is adapting to survive in the modern and Society, edited by Richard T. Schaefer, 1187–1189. Vol. 1.
world. For example, younger Sami are finding employ- Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
ment in professions other than reindeer herding, and Sami Minahan, James B. 2016. Encyclopedia of Stateless Nations: Eth-
authorities are beginning to ease sameby regulations so nic and National Groups around the World. 2nd ed. Santa
people can belong to a Sami village without having to herd Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Minority Rights Group International. 2017. “Norway: Sami.”
reindeer. This measure is being instigated to ensure that
World Directory of Minorities and Indigenous Peoples.
the sameby do not die out. http://minorityrights.org/minorities/sami-2.
Another issue that might affect the survival of the Sjölander, Per. 2011. “What Is Known about the Health and Liv-
Sami is that many young Sami marry partners who speak ing Conditions of the Indigenous People of Northern Scan-
either a non-Sami language or a different Sami language dinavia, the Sami?” Global Health Action 4. https://www.ncbi
to themselves. As a result of marriage across language bar- .nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3195409.
Swedish Institute. 2013–2017. “Sami in Sweden.” Sweden.se.
riers, children are growing up not learning Sami because
https://sweden.se/society/sami-in-sweden.
either one parent does not speak the language at all, or Thuen, Trond. 2011. “Saami.” In Ethnic Groups of Europe: An
parents cannot decide which of the Sami languages to Encyclopedia, edited by Jeffrey E. Cole, 319–321. Santa Bar-
teach their children and so decide against teaching any bara, CA: ABC-CLIO.
Sami language. On the plus side, many younger Sami are
944 Samoans

SAMOANS areas of Samoa, though Savai’i is actively volcanic. Ameri-

can Samoa is situated around forty miles east of Samoa and
Current Location Samoa; American Samoa; consists of five rugged, volcanic islands (Tutuila, Aunu’u,
New Zealand Ofu, Olosega, Ta’u) and two coral atoll islands (Swains and
Current Population 380,000 Rose Atoll). Rose Atoll is a type of uninhabited marine pro-
Language Samoan; English tected area designated a Marine National Monument. Both
Interesting Fact In 2011, Samoa moved west of the Samoa and American Samoa have warm tropical climates
International Date Line so that it was that allow vegetation to flourish. Samoa is home to rich
in the same time zone as neighboring soils, tropical rainforests, lagoons, and swamps. Local wild-
countries, thereby allowing the peo- life includes lizards, snakes, and many bird species as well
ple to forge closer links with others. as the endangered flying fox.

Overview History and Politics

Samoans, or Tagata Māo’I, are a Polynesian ethnic group Both Samoan traditional history and academic research
indigenous to Samoa, New Zealand, Tahiti, Hawaii, and agree that the ancestors of the Samoans traveled from
Tonga. Today, Samoans live in Samoa and American Southeast Asia to settle on the Samoan islands. Although
Samoa as well as in many other countries across the world. Samoan tradition suggests the people’s ancestors arrived
Many Samoans speak the Samoan language as their first before 1000 BCE, historians and anthropologists believe
language. Samoan is a Polynesian language belonging to the settlement of the Samoan islands occurred around
the Samoan-Tokelauan language family. Most Samoans 3,500 years ago. Around the beginning of the first century
also speak English because both Samoan and English are CE, Samoan migrants sailed to New Zealand and Hawaii in
the official languages of Samoa and American Samoa. The large canoes. By 200 CE, the Samoan islands were the focus
majority of Samoans are Christian. of eastern Polynesian society, and as the Samoan popula-
tion increased, many Samoan families decided to leave to
find new islands upon which to settle.
Population, Diaspora, and Migration During the eighteenth century, European explorers
The Samoan population consists of approximately 380,000 began to alight upon the Samoans. For example, in 1722
people. Many Samoans live in Samoa and American Samoa, Dutch navigator Jacob Roggeveen espied the Manua Islands
which is an unincorporated area governed by the United (part of what is now American Samoa, including the islands
States. The Samoan diaspora exists mainly in New Zealand, of Ofu, Olosega and Tau) but made no contact with island-
Australia, and the United States, with 130,000 Samoans liv- ers. In 1768 and 1787, French explorers visited the islands
ing in New Zealand. Smaller Samoan communities live in with the result that Samoans, scared by the intrusion on
Europe, Canada, and Japan (Minahan 2012). Samoans are the to their land, killed eleven of the French exploration party.
largest Pacific Island minority group, making up 48.7 percent For the next forty years, European explorers did not go
of all Pacific New Zealanders (Minority Rights Group Inter- near the islands, though they did become a hub for escaped
national 2018). Samoans living in American Samoa are U.S. convicts and deserters. As a result of convicts and the like
nationals but are not citizens of the United States. At present, landing on the islands, European diseases became rife on
there are more American Samoans living in America than the islands, leading to many deaths among the indigenous
there are living in American Samoa (Simanu-Klutz 2011). population, who had no natural immunity to the illnesses.
In the 1830s, European missionaries began to arrive in
Samoa and soon set about trying to end Samoan traditions
Geography and Environment (including ritual tattooing) and make the people adopt
The independent country of Samoa is located in the central Western clothing. Soon French, British, American, and
Pacific Ocean some 1,800 miles northeast of New Zealand German merchants sailed to Samoa, with the Germans
and 2,500 miles southwest of Hawaii. Samoa consists of dominating trade among the western Samoan islands. In
two large islands, Upolu and Savai’i, as well as eight smaller 1839, the U.S. Navy began to send ships to Samoa, thereby
islands. The large islands are the most heavily populated starting U.S. commercial interest in Samoa. Then, in 1876,
 Samoans 945

local chiefs, fearing Samoa might be overrun by European power, and it is a matter of pride for a Samoan to receive
(most especially German) colonists, petitioned the United tattoos. Samoan tattoo artists (tafuga) draw their designs
States to annex eastern Samoa. using pigment made from mixing sugar water with burned
Around this time, weapons began to be shipped into candlenut soot. Samoan males receive traditional tattoos,
Samoa, and at the same time, rivalry between local chiefs called pe’a, with their first tattoo inked when they start
mounted. Both factors contributed to the outbreak of civil puberty. These tattoos are especially painful to receive
war in Samoa from 1886 to 1894. In 1896, civil war began because they are administered using a tool consisting of
again but was quelled when the Tripartite Convention of a short length of bamboo with a piece of tortoiseshell tied
1899 saw Britain, the United States, and Germany consider at right angles to one end that in turn has a bone comb
the territory neutral and govern it as a tripartite state. East- attached. The tafuga uses a small hammer to tap the tool,
ern Samoa was given over to the United States, and West- thereby inserting the pigment under the skin. The tattoo-
ern Samoa became a German colony. When World War I ing process can take months to complete, and it may be
broke out in 1914, New Zealand seized German Samoa necessary for the person being tattooed to have periods of
and governed the area until 1962. During this time, around recuperation between tattooing sessions.
one-fifth of Samoans died from influenza (Minahan 2012). Samoan tattoos still include traditional elements, such as
At the start of the twentieth century, a Samoan unionist geometric lines, but over the years, the tattoos have altered
movement began in opposition to colonial rule. This move- to include freehand symbols, including the kava bowl (sig-
ment spread from Western Samoa to American Samoa but nifying hospitality) and emblems taken from nature (such
was soon quashed. In 1962, Western Samoa gained inde- as seashells, birds, and centipedes). A Samoan male receiv-
pendence, and in 1997, the nation changed its name to the ing a pe’a is still considered an achievement because a tat-
State of Samoa. too can extend from the midback to the knees, including
very sensitive body parts. Indeed, there are various types of
pe’a designs that are specific to certain parts of the body. For
Society, Culture, and Tradition instance, a va’a (canoe) stretches across the midback, a tasele
Samoan culture is governed by the tenet of fa’a Samoa, covers the perineum, a tafumiti appears on the scrotum, and
a lifestyle based on the principle of communal sharing tafito is specific to the penis. Any man who displays a com-
and the importance of extended family. Samoan soci- plete a pe’a tattoo is respected for his courage and endur-
ety is hierarchical and authoritarian, with societal strata ance. In contrast, men who are not tattooed are commonly
extending from villagers to matai (chiefs). A matai is the referred to as telefua or telenoa, meaning “naked,” whereas
head of a family or community and governs his or her aiga men who display an unfinished tattoo because they have
(extended familial network) while ensuring justice and not been able to withstand the pain of receiving a whole
protecting the people’s heritage including Samoan folklore design (or cannot afford to pay a tattooist for a large tattoo)
and family histories. are referred to as pe’a mutu (mark of shame).
In Samoa, it is customary for young men and women to Samoan women also receive a tattoo, called a malu, to
receive ritual tattoos to show their social rank and family mark their attainment of adulthood. Malu designs are less
heritage. The history of tattooing in Samoa stretches back elaborate than pe’a designs, and because they extend only
over two thousand years. Prior to the arrival of Christian from the thighs to the knees, these tattoos are rarely visible
missionaries in Samoa, all Samoan males were tattooed except during traditional siva dances.
between the ages of fourteen and eighteen years. Males The Samoan indigenous religion has all but died out, with
were tattooed at this age because this was when they almost all Samoans being Christian and over half of Samo-
were deemed to have stopped growing. This was impor- ans belonging to the Congregational Church. The remainder
tant because if a male continued to grow once he was are Methodist or Roman Catholic (Minahan 2002).
tattooed, his tattoo would stretch and become deformed.
Missionaries disapproved of the ritual tattooing and per-
suaded islanders to tattoo only the sons of chiefs, with Health Care and Education
tattoos serving as a permanent mark of their dedication According to a survey conducted from 1997 to 2010, Samo-
to their culture and their ability to withstand pain. Today, ans had access to 48 doctors and 185 nurses and midwives
Samoans see tattoos as signifying status, community, and per 100,000 people.
946 San

Qualified health staff attend most Samoan births, and West, Barbara A. 2009. Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Asia and
most youngsters are immunized. The people have access Oceania. New York: Facts on File.
to adequate sanitation facilities and safe water. However, Williams, Victoria. 2017. Celebrating Life Customs around the
World: From Baby Showers to Funerals. Santa Barbara, CA:
Samoan tertiary health care is limited with that which ABC-CLIO.
is available, provided mostly by New Zealand. Samoa
imports almost all medicines. However, drug companies
are interested in the anti-HIV drug Prostialin, which orig-
inates from the Samoan rainforest. Some companies have
donated revenue from medicines to the Samoan people SAN
(Commonwealth of Nations 2018).
In Samoa, the country’s Department of Education and Current Location Southern Africa
several religious missions provide pupils with formal edu- Current Population 100,000
cation. All schools teach the same syllabus, and pupils sit Language Khoe; San
the same exams. Village schools provide four years of pri- Interesting Fact The San are the world’s oldest
mary schooling. The most able village pupils then attend indigenous people.
district schools that educate them through the upper pri-
mary level. Samoan schools aim to make Samoans bilin- Overview
gual, with Samoan as children’s first language and English
The San (or Saan) are a diverse, indigenous people inhab-
as pupils’ second tongue.
iting Southern Africa, most especially Namibia and South
Africa. The San are also known as the Bushmen, though
Threats to Sur