PRINCE SRIVARI SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOL

MADIPAKKAM, CHENNAI - 91

PHYSICS
LAB MANUAL
CLASS 12

NAME :
______________________

CLASS AND SECTION : ______________________

ROLL NO : ______________________
 INDEX
Sl. PAGE TEACHER
DATE NAME OF EXPERIMENT
NO NO SIGN

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

ACTIVITY
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

4
 Section A
DATE: EXP. NO. 1

OHM’S LAW

Least count of voltmeter = ___________

Least count of ammeter = ___________

DETERMINATION OF RESISTANCE OF GIVEN WIRE

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE V CURRENT I R = V/I

S.NO.
(volts) (amperes) (Ω)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Mean R = ____________

5
DATE: EXP. NO. 1

OHM’S LAW
AIM: To find the resistance per cm of a given wire by plotting a graph of potential difference vs.
current.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Battery eliminator, rheostat, dc voltmeter, dc ammeter, resistance coil,

connecting wires, meter scale.

THEORY: According to Ohm’s law, the current ‘I’ flowing through a conductor is directly proportional
to the potential difference ‘V’ across the ends of the conductor, provided the physical conditions of
the conductor (such as temperature, dimensions) are kept constant.

I∝V (OR) V∝I

V = RI (OR) V/I=R
Where ‘R’ is known as the resistance of the conductor which depends upon the nature and dimensions
of the conductor. The resistance per cm of the wire is given by the ratio of its resistance to its length
in centimeters. ‘R’ is a constant value.

FORMULA:
V/I=R
V = potential difference (volt)
I = Current (A)
R = Resistance of the conductor (Ω)

PROCEDURE:
The circuit is made as shown in the diagram. The least count and the zero error of the ammeter
and voltmeter are noted. The sliding contact of the rheostat is adjusted so as to pass a small current
through the circuit. The values of potential difference and current are noted from the voltmeter and
ammeter respectively. The readings noted should not be less than the least count of the instruments.
The experiment is repeated for varying positions of the slider of the rheostat. The observations are
tabulated. A graph is plotted with potential difference per cm on the x-axis and current on the y-axis.
The slope of the line is determined and its reciprocal is compared with the calculated value.

6
GRAPH:

7
SOURCES OF ERROR:
(i) The connecting wires may not be of negligible resistance.
(ii) The resistance at the end of the coil may change with the passage of current through it.
(iii) The connections may be lose.
(iv) Insulation may not be removed at the point of contact.

PRECAUTIONS:
(i) The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and their ends must be cleaned with sand
paper.
(ii) A low resistance rheostat should be used.
(iii) The connections should be neat and tight.
(iv) Insulation must be removed at the point of contact.

RESULT:
The ratio of V/I is found to be a constant. The value of the resistance per cm of the given coil is found
to be:
(i) From calculation, R = ______________

(ii) From graph, R = ______________

8
DATE: EXP. NO. 2

METER BRIDGE - DETERMINATION OF RESISTIVITY

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Bt - Battery
RB - Resistance Box
HR - High Resistance

Least count of meter scale = ___________

9
DATE: EXP. NO. 2

METER BRIDGE – DETERMINATION OF RESISTIVITY

AIM: To find the resistance of a given wire using meter bridge and hence determine the resistivity
of its material.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Battery, resistance box, experimental resistance coil, meter bridge,
galvanometer, high resistance box, connecting wires, jockey.

THEORY: The resistance X of a wire can be determined using the wheatstone’s balance condition
formula.
Now,

P =R
Q S

Here,

X  BJ  AJ R

Where P, Q, R are the resistances in the ratio arms AJ, BJ are balancing lengths.
The resistivity of the material of the wire is determined using the formula,   XA l where A is the
area of cross section of the wire and l is the length.

FORMULA:

  XA l

A = area of cross section of the wire

l = length of wire (cm)

X = resistance of wire (Ω )

ρ = resistivity of the materials ( Ω m )

10
 DETERMINATION OF RESISTANCE

BALANCING LENGTH
RESISTANCE (Ω)
S.NO. RESISTANCE (Ω)
X = (BJ / AJ)R
AJ (cm) BJ (cm)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

CALCULATIONS

11
PROCEDURE:
The circuit is made as shown in the diagram. To check the circuit, the jockey is gently pressed
at the left end and then at the right end of the meter bridge wire. If the galvanometer shows deflection
in two opposite side directions, the connections are correct. A suitable value of resistance R in the box
is included such that the galvanometer shows zero deflection between 35 cm and 65 cm. The position
of balance point is noted. This is repeated for varying values of R. the observations are tabulated. The
length of the experimental wire is measured using a scale. Its diameter is measured using a screw
gauge, whose least count and zero error is measured.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
(i) The connecting wires may not be of negligible resistance.
(ii) The resistance of the coil may change with the passage of current through it.
(iii) The connections may be loose.
(iv) Insulation may not be removed at the point of contact.
(v) The entire length of the bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross section.
(vi) End corrections are not considered.

PRECAUTIONS:
(i) The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and their ends must be cleaned with sand
paper.
(ii) A low resistance rheostat should be used.
(iii) The connections should be neat and tight.
(iv) Insulation must be removed at the point of contact.
(v) The plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
(vi) The jockey should be slided gently over the bridge wire.

RESULT: The resistivity or specific resistance of the material of the given wire is found to be:
__________

12
DATE: EXP. NO. 3
METER BRIDGE – RESISTORS IN SERIES

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Bt - Battery
RB - Resistance Box
HR - High Resistance

13
DATE: EXP. NO. 3

METER BRIDGE – RESISTORS IN SERIES

AIM: To verify the laws of combination of resistances in series, using a meter bridge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Battery, resistance box, resistance coils, meter bridge, galvanometer,
high resistance box, connecting wires and jockey.

THEORY: The resistance X of a wire can be determined using the Wheatstone’s balance condition
formula.

   
X JB AJ R [according to X = O P R]

Where P, Q and R are the resistances in the ratio arms. The effective resistance of coil of resistance
R1 and R2 connected in series is

Rs = R1 + R2.

FORMULAE:

X = (Q/P)R

X = resistance of wire (Ω)

P, Q, R = resistances in ratio arms (Ω)

Rs = R1 + R2

Rs = effective resistance (Ω )

R1, R2 = resistances of the coils ( Ω)

PROCEDURE:
The circuit is made as shown in diagram (a). To check the circuit, the jockey is gently pressed
at the left end and then at the right end of the meter bridge wire. If the galvanometer shows deflection
into opposite directions, the connections are correct. A suitable value of resistance R n the box is
included such that the galvanometer shows zero deflection, between 35 cm and 65 cm. the position
of balance point is noted. This is repeated for varying values of R1. The observations are tabulated.
The average resistance of R1 is calculated using the formula. The circuit is made as shown in diagram
(b). The experiment is repeated for various of R2. the average resistance of R2 is calculated using the
formula. The circuit is made as shown in diagram (c). the experiment is repeated and the average of
the effective resistance in series is calculated.

14
 DETERMINATION OF EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE

BALANCING  BJ 
RESISTANCE R =
RESISTANCE S. LENGTH (cm) RE
BOX  AJ 
COIL NO.
RB (Ω) AJ BJ (Ω)
1.

R1 2.

3.

1.

R2 2.

3.

1.

RS 2.

3.

Mean = ____________

Theoretical value Rs = ____________

15
SOURCES OF ERROR:
(i) The connecting wire may not be of negligible resistance.
(ii) The resistance of the coil may change with the passage of current through it.
(iii) The connections may be loose.
(iv) Insulation may not be removed at the point of contact.
(v) The entire length of the bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross section.
(vi) End corrections are not considered.

PRECAUTIONS:
(i) The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and their ends must be cleaned with sand
paper.
(ii) A low resistance rheostat should be used.
(iii) The connections should be neat and tight.
(iv) Insulation must be removed at the point of contact.
(v) The plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
(vi) The jockey should be slided gently over the bridge wire.

RESULT: Within experimental errors, the experimental values of resistances in series is __________
which is in agreement to the theoretical value of _____________

16
DATE: EXP. NO. 4

METER BRIDGE – RESISTORS IN PARALLEL

Bt - Battery
RB - Resistance Box
HR - High Resistance

17
DATE: EXP. NO. 4
METER BRIDGE – RESISTORS IN PARALLEL
AIM: To verity the laws of combination of resistances in parallel, using a meter bridge.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Battery, resistance box, resistance coils, meter bridge, galvanometer,
high resistance box, connecting wire and jockey.

THEORY: The resistance X of a wire can be determined using the Wheatstone’s balance condition
formula.
 JB  Q
X=   R [according to X =   R]
 AJ  P
Where P, Q and R are the resistances in the ratio arms. The effective resistance of coil of resistance

R1 and R2 connected in parallel is

1 11 2 1 RR
R = + or R P =
P R1 R 2 R1 + R 2

FORMULAE’:
Q
X=  R
P
X = resistance of wire (Ω)

P, Q, R = resistances in ratio arms (Ω)

1 1 1 R1R 2
= + or R P =
R P R1 R 2 R1 + R 2

RP = effective resistance (Ω)

R1, R2 = resistance of the coils (Ω)

PROCEDURE :
The circuit is made as shown in diagram (a). To check the circuit, the jockey is gently pressed
at the left end and then at the right end of the meter bridge wire. If the galvanometer shows deflection
into opposite directions, the connections are correct. A suitable value of resistance R n the box is
included such that the galvanometer shows zero deflection, between 35 cm and 65 cm. the position of
balance point is noted. This is repeated for varying values of R1. The observations are tabulated. The
average resistance of R1 is calculated using the formula. The circuit is made as shown in diagram (b).
The experiment is repeated for various values of R. the average resistance of R2 is calculated using
the formula. The circuit is made as shown in diagram (c). The experiment is repeated and the average
of the effective resistance in parallel are calculated.

18
 DETERMINATION OF EFFECTIVE RESISTANCE

BALANCING  BJ 
RESISTANCE R =
RESISTANCE S. LENGTH (cm) RB
BOX  AJ 
COIL R (Ω) NO.
RB (Ω) AJ BJ (Ω)
1.

2.

3.

1.

2.

3.

1.

2.

3.

Mean = ____________

Theoretical value Rs = ____________

19
SOURCES OF ERROR:
(i) The connecting wires may not be of negligible resistance.
(ii) The resistance of the coil may change with the passage of current through it.
(iii) The connections may be loose.
(iv) Insulation may not be removed at the point of contact.
(v) The entire length of the bridge wire may not be of uniform area of cross section.
(vi) End corrections are not considered.

PRECAUTIONS:
(i) The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and their ends must be cleaned with sand
paper.
(ii) A low resistance rheostant should be used.
(iii) The connections should be neat and tight.
(iv) Insulation must be removed at the point of contact.
(v) The plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
(vii) The jockey should be slided gently over the bridge wire.

RESULT: Within experimental errors, the experimental values of resistances in parallel is __________
which is in agreement to the theoretical value of _____________

20
DATE: EXP. NO. 5

POTENTIOMETER - COMPARISON OF EMFs

Bt - Battery
Rh - Rheostat
HR - High Resistance

21
DATE: EXP. NO. 5

POTENTIOMETER - COMPARISON OF EMFs

AIM: To compare the EMFs of the two given primary cells using the potentiometer.

APARATUS REQUIRED: Battery, rheostat, ammeter, potentiometer, Daniel cell, Lechlanche cell,
two way key, galvanometer, high resistance box, connecting wires and jockey.

THEORY: According to the principle of the potentiometer, the fall of potential ‘V’ across the wire is
directly proportional to its length ‘l’, provided the current ‘I’ flowing through the wire and area cross
section of the wire are kept constant.

Jpl
V = A (OR) V ∝ l
E1 l1
For two cells of EMFs – E1 and E2; =
E2 l2

FORMULAE:
Isl
V=
A
V = fall of potential (volt)

l = length of wire (cm)

I = current (A)

A = area of cross section (m2)

E1/E2 = l1 /l2

E1, E2 = EMFs of cells (volt)

l1, l2 = Lengths (cm)

PROCEDURE:
The circuit is made as shown in diagram. The positive terminals of the battery and the two
cells should be connected to the same point. The plug is inserted in the gap between A and C such that
cell E1 is included in the circuit. The ammeter reading is noted. The plug in the high resistance box is
removed, so that, a high resistance is included in the circuit. To check the circuit, the jockey is gently
pressed at the left end of the first wire segment and then at the right end of the last wire segment of
the potentiometer wire.

22
 DETERMINATION OF EMFs
BALANCING
BALANCING LENGTH OF LECHLANCHE LENGTH OF E1 l1
S.NO. =
CELL l1 (cm) DANIEL E2 l2
CELL l2 (cm)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Mean = ____________

Calculations:

23
If the galvanometer shows deflection in two opposite side directions the connections are correct.
The position of the jockey is adjusted such that the galvanometer shows no deflection. The plug in
the high resistance box is put back and the exact position of the null point is found. The balancing
length is noted as l1. Without disturbing the ammeter reading, the plug from the gap between A and
C is removed and then inserted between B and C so that the cell E2 is included in the circuit. The
procedure is repeated and the value of l2 is found. This is repeated for the varying values of current
through the potentiometer wire and the observations are tabulated.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
(i) The connecting wires may not be of negligible resistance.
(ii) The resistance of the potentiometer wire may change with the passage of current through it.
(iii) The connections may be loose.
(iv) Insulation may not be removed at the point of contact.
(v) The entire length of the potentiometer wire may not be of uniform area of cross section.
(vi) End corrections are not considered.
(vii) The EMF of the driver cell may be less than the EMF of the experimental cells.

PRECAUTIONS:
(i) The connecting wires should be thick copper wires and their ends must be cleaned with sand
paper.
(ii) A low resistance rheostat should be used.
(iii) The connections should be neat and tight.
(iv) Insulation must be removed at the point of contact.
(v) The plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
(vi) The jockey should be slid gently over the bridge wire.
(vii) The EMF of the driver cell may be less than the EMF of the experimental cells.
(vii) The current in the circuit should be adjusted such that the balance points are obtained at large
distances from the zero of the potentiometer wire.

RESULT: The ratio of the EMF of the Lechlanche cell to the Daniel cell is found to be ______________

24
DATE: EXP. NO. 6

GAlVANOMETER - FIGURE OF MERIT

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Bt - Battery
RB - Resistance Box
G - Galvanometer

EMF: ____________

25
DATE: EXP. NO. 6

GAlVANOMETER - FIGURE OF MERIT

AIM: To determine the resistance of a galvanometer by half deflection method and find its figure of
merit.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Battery, galvanometer, resistance boxes, key, connecting wires.

THEORY: The effective resistance of resistance ‘S’ and the resistance of the galvanometer ‘G’ is
given by:
1 1 1
= +
Roff G S

The resistance of the galvanometer is given by:

RS
G=
R−S

Figure of merit is the amount of current required to produce one division deflection in the scale of
galvanometer. It is given by:
 E 1
k = 
 R+Gθ

Where E is the EMF of the battery and θ is the deflection produced in the galvanometer.

FORMULAE:
1 1 1
= +
Roff G S
G = Resistance of galvanometer (Ω)

S = Resistance (Ω)

Roff = Effective resistance (Ω)

RS
G=
R−S
 E 1
k = 
 R+Gθ
F = Figure of merit (Adiv)

E = EMF of the battery (volt)

θ = Deflection produced in the galvanometer (div)

26
 DETERMINATION OF RESISTANCE OF GALVANOMETER

SHUNT HALF RS
S. RESISTANCE DEFLECTION RG =
RESISTANCE DEFLECTION R−S
NO. (Ω) (div) ()
(S) (Ω) (div) (/2) (Ω)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Mean = ____________

TO FIND FIGURE OF MERIT

Bt - Battery
RB - Resistance Box
G - Galvanometer

Bt - Battery
RB - Resistance Box
G - Galvanometer

27
PROCEDURE:

RESISTANCE OF GALVANOMETER:

The circuit is made as shown in diagram (i). A suitable resistance is included in the resistance

box R. So that there is almost full scale deflection or even number of divisions in the galvanometer.

This is noted as. The key is closed and the value of resistance in the resistance box S is adjusted
O
such that the deflection in the galvanomela become exactly half   . The value of S is noted. The
2
experiment is repeated for varying values of R.

FIGURE OF MERIT:

The circuit is made as shown in the diagram (ii). The EMF of the battery is noted. A suitable

resistance is included in the resistance R. So that there is almost full scale defection or even number of

division in the galvanomela. This is noted as ‘n’ for the resistance R. Deflection n for varying values

of R is noted and the observations are tabulated.

SOURCES OF ERROR:

• The connecting wires may not be of negligible resistance.

• The connections may be loose.

• Insulation may not be removed at the point of contact.

• The resistance of the coils in the resistance box used may not exactly the same as marked.

• The plugs in the resistance box may be loose which will produce a large error in the observation.

28
 DETERMINATION OF FIGURE OF MERIT

 E 1
S. RESISTANCE VOLTAGE DEFLECTION k = 
 R + RG  θ
NO. (RS) (Ω) (E) (V) (Div) ()
(A Div–1)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

Mean = ____________

Calculations:

29
PRECAUTIONS:
(i) The connecting wires should be made of thick copper wires and their ends must be cleaned with
sand paper.
(ii) The connections should be neat and tight.
(iii) Insulation must be removed at the point of contact.
(iv) The plugs in the resistance box should be tight.
(v) The circuit should be switched on only with a resistance value included. Otherwise, a large
current may flow through the circuit and damage galvanometer.
(vi) The value of R should be large compared to the value of G.

RESULT: The resistance of the given galvanometer is found to be _____________________ .

Its figure of merit is found to be ______________________

30
DATE: EXP. NO. 7

FREQUENCY OF AC MAINS

31
DATE: EXP. NO. 7

FREQUENCY OF AC MAINS

AIM: To find the frequency of ac mains with a sonometer, electromagnet.

MATERIALS REQUIRED: Sonometer (with soft iron wire). ½ kg slotted weights.1/2 kg hanger,
an electromagnet with a step-down transformers, clamp stand, rubber stamp, paper and scale.

THEORY:
The electromagnet is a soft iron cylindrical core on which an enameled copper wire is wrapped.
Alternating current from main is stepped down by a step down transformer and passed in the wrapped
copper wire. The current magnetizes and demagnetizes the cylindrical core twice during one cycle.
AC from the main has a frequency of 50 Hz. The frequency of magnetization of the wire becomes
100 Hz. When the tip of this cylindrical core is kept very close to the stretched wire, the wire will be
pulled towards the tip 100 times per second. This becomes equivalent to exciting the wire withy a
fork of frequency 100 Hz.

FORMULA:
Let the AC mains have a frequency so that when a sonometer wire of length l. mass per unit length m
be stretched between two wedges by applying a force (T) tensin, is plucked from the middle and then
released, it will execute transverse vibration with a fundamental note of frequency.
1 T
γ = ( Hz )
21 m
When an electromagnet is held with its core just above the middle point in stretched sonometer wire
and AC is passed, the iron core will be temporarily magnetized twice in one cycle. Due to this, the
sonometer wire is attached twice between the wedges and the length and the tension in it is adjusted
so that it is set into resonant vibrations by AC. Then the frequency of AC wire will be half that of the
frequency of vibrations of the stretched wire. If f is the frequency of AC and n is the frequency of the
fundamental note produce by the stretched string then:

32
Density of wire = 78000 kg/m3
Mean corrected diameter of the wire =
Mass per unit length of the wire =
Z.E = O ZC = O

MEASUREMENT OF RADIUS OF SONOMETER WIRE

S. CORRECTED TR = PSR + HSR
PSR (mm) HSR (mm)
NO. HSR (mm) (mm)

1.
2.
3.

LEAST COUNT: 0.01 mm MEAN:

RESONATING LENGTH (cm)

S. MASS TENSION
NO. (kg) (N)
T
l N m
L1 L2 MEAN
(l)

MEAN:

33
 n 1 1 T  1 T
γ= =  × = ×
2 2  2l m  4l m

Here T = Mg where M is the mass of the weights and g is the

y = 1 Mg
2l m
acceleration due to gravity.
PROCEDURE:
(i) The sonometer is placed on the table and suitable weights are put in the hanger.
(ii) The wooden bridges P, P’ are moved outwards to include maximum length of wire (AB) between
them
(iii) Electromagnet is clamped in the stand such that its core is vertical and its lower tip is brought
just over the wire in the middle of AB.
(iv) Electromagnet is switched on.
(v) Electromagnet imposes its frequency on the soft iron wire.
(vi) Length of the wire is continuously decreased till sonometer wire starts vibrating.
(vii) The length of the wire AB is measured between two edges of the two bridges and is now
brought closer and the length is adjusted till maximum amplitude by moving it.
(viii) The resonating length is measured and recorded.
(ix) The same procedure is repeated for 5 different weight in the hanger and using this is frequency
is determined.

SOURCE OF ERROR:
(i) Wire may not be rigid and may not have uniform cross sectional area.
(ii) Pulley may not be frictionless.
(iii) Weights may not be sharp.
(iv) Knife edges may not be sharp.
(v) Main frequency may not be stable.

PRECAUTIONS:
(i) Wire should be rigid and of uniform cross sectional area.
(ii) Pulley should be frictionless.
(iii) Knife edges should be sharp and of same height.
(iv) Tip of electromagnet should be very close to wire in the middle.
(v) Length should be noted for maximum amplitude of vibration.

RESULT: The frequency of alternating current is _____________

34
DATE: EXP. NO. 8

CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER TO AMMETER

TO FIND RESISTANCE OF GALVANOMETER

EMF: _________volt

Resistance of given galvanometer G = ____________ Ω

Figure of merit of galvanometer K = ____________ A/div
Calculation of shunt resistance :
No of divisions on galvanometer scale n = ____________
Current for full scale galvanometer Ig = nK = ____________
Conversion of galvanometer to ammeter =

(Ig  G )
Shunt resistance (S) = (I  Ig )
Calculation of length of wire:
Radius of wire =
Resistivity of wire = ____________ Ωm
Length of wire = l = (A × S) / ρ

35
DATE: EXP. NO. 8

CONVERSION OF GALVANOMETER TO AMMETER

AIM: To convert a galvanometer of known resistance and figure of merit into an ammeter of desired
range and to verify the same.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: A moving coil galvanometer, ammeter (0-3V range), battery eliminator,
2 resistance boxes, 2 one-way keys, rheostat, connecting wires.

FORMULA: A shunt resistance ‘S’ required for conversion of galvanometer to ammeter is:
S = (Ig × G) / I – Ig)
I is the range of conversion. (A)
Ig is the current for full scale deflection of galvanometer. (A)
G is the galvanometer resistance. (Ω)

PROCEDURE:
(i) Let the total number of divisions of either sides of zero of galvanometer scale be ‘a’. Then the
current for full scale deflection is calculated using
Ig = nK
(ii) The values of shunt resistance for conversion into ammeter is calculated using
S = (Ig × G) / (I – Ig)
(iii) The values of shunt resistance ‘S’ being very small is by taking a piece of copper wire whose
length is calculated using the formula:
I = (A × S) /ρ
Where (A = πr2)
S is shunt resistance. (Ω)
ρ is the resistivity of the material. (Ωm)

36
Least count of galvanometer converted to ammeter = ____________
Range of galvanometer converted to ammeter = ____________

VERTIFICAION OF CONVERTED AMMETER:

DEFLECTION OF CURRENT
S. AMMETER DIFFERENCE
GALVANOMETER I1 = θ × LC
NO. READING I2 (A) (I –I1) (A)
(θ) (div) (A)

1.

2.
3.
4.
5.

CALCULATION OF RADIUS OF WIRE

Least Count of Screw Gauge = ____________
Zero Error = ____________
Zero Correction = ____________

S. CORRECTED TR = PSR + HSR

PSR (mm) HSR (mm)
NO. HSR (mm) (mm)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

37
Length of wire is cut 2 cm more than the required length for making connections. This wire is
connected to a terminator of the galvanometer. This galvanometer with the shunt wire works as an
ammeter of range X. The connections are made as shown in the circuit diagram. The key is inserted
and the rheostat is adjusted to take different readings of the galvanometer and the corresponding
readings on the ammeter.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
(i) The connecting wires may not be of negligible resistance.
(ii) The connections may be loose.
(iii) The insulation may not be removed at the point of contact.
(iv) The resistance of the coil in the resistance box may not be exactly the same as measured,
(v) The plugs in the resistance box may be loose which will produce a large error in observation.

PRECAUTIONS:
(i) Connections should be neat and tight.
(ii) EMF of the battery should remain constant.
(iii) Ammeter should be of same range of conversion.
(iv) Diameter of shunt resistance should be measured accurately.
(v) Value of required series resistance should be calculated accurately.

RESULT: The given galvanometer was converted to ammeter of desired 0-5 A range.

38
DATE: EXP. NO. 9

CONCAVE MIRROR

Least count of meter scale = __________

Focal length by distant object method = __________

Focal length by u-v method = __________

39
DATE: EX. NO. 9

CONCAVE MIRROR

AIM: To find the value of v for different values of u in case of a concave mirror and to find the focal
length.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Concave mirror, screen, mirror stand, lamp box, meter scale.

THEORY:

The focal length of a mirror is given by
1/f = 1/u + 1/v
Where ‘u’ is the object distance and ‘v’ is the image distance.

FORMULA:
1/f = 1/u + 1/v

f=focal length (cm)

u=object distance from mirror (cm)

v=image distance from mirror (cm)

PROCEDURE:

(i) DISTANT OBJECT METHOD:

The given concave mirror is mounted upright on the mirror stand and light from a distant object
is made to fall on it. The position of the screen is adjusted in front of the mirror, such that a clear
image of the distant object is formed on it. The distance between the mirror and the screen is
measured as the focal length ‘f’ of the given cancave mirror.

(ii) u-v METHOD:

The illuminated wire gauze, which is the object, is placed at a distance greater than 2f from
the mirror. The position of the screen is adjusted to get a clear image of the cross wires of
the gauze. The distance between the object and the mirror is measured as the object distance
‘u’. the distance between the image and the mirror is measured as the image distance ‘v’. the
focal length of the mirror is calculated using the formula. This is repeated for another distance
greater than 2f. The object is placed at a distance equal to 2f, the image position is observed
and the focal length calculated. This is repeated for 2 more object distances less than 2f and the
readings are tabulated.

40
 DETERMINATION OF FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE MIRROR
OBJECT IMAGE POSITION
S. OBJECT f=uv/u+v
DISTANCE DISTANCE OF
NO. DISTANCE (cm) –ve)
u (cm) - ve v (cm) - ve IMAGE
1. Beyond 2f

2. Beyond 2f

3. At 2f

4. Between f and 2f

5. Between f and 2f

Mean f = _________________

Calculations:

41
SOURCES OF ERROR
(i) The object, mirror and screen may not be at the same height.
(ii) The mirror may not be mounted exactly vertical on the stand.
(iii) There may be parallax error.

PRECAUTIONS:
(i) The object, mirror and screen should be along the same horizontal line at the same height.
(ii) The principal axis of the mirror must be horizontal and parallel to the scale used for measurement.
(iii) Readings should be taken with one eye closed to avoid parallax error.

RESULT: The focal length of the given concave mirror is found to be:
(i) By distant object method f = __________
(ii) By u-v method f = __________

42
DATE: EX. NO. 10

CONVEX LENS

43
DATE: EX. NO. 2

AIM: To determine the focal length of a convex lens by:

(i) Distant object method (ii) u-v graph and / or (iii) 1/u – 1/v graph.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Convex lens, screen, lens stand, lamp box, meter scale.

THEORY: The focal length f of a lens is given by

1/f = 1/v – 1/u
Where ‘u’ is the object distance and ‘v’ is the image distance.

FORMULA:
1/f = 1/v – 1/u
f=focal length (cm) v-image distance (cm) u=object distance (cm)

PROCEDURE:
(i) DISTANT OBJECT METHOD: The given convex lens is mounted upright on the lens stand
and light from a distant object is made to fall on it. The position of the screen is adjusted behind
the lens, such that a clear image of the distant object is formed on it. The distance between the
lens and the screen is measured as the focal length f of the given convex lens.
(ii) u-v-Graph: The illuminated wire gauze, which is the object, is placed at a distance greater than
2f from the lens. The position of the screen is adjusted to get a clear image of the cross wires
of the gauze. The distance between the object and the lens is measured as the object distance
‘u’. The distance between the image and the lens is measured as the image distance ‘v’. This is
repeated for another distance greater than 2f. The object is placed at a distance equal to 2f, the
image position is observed and the focal length is calculated. This is repeated for 2 more object
distances less than 2f and the readings are tabulated. A suitable and same scale is chosen to
represent u on the x-axis and v on the y-axis. The values of u and v are marked on it and joined
to form a rectangular hyperbola. A y=x line is drawn and the point of intersection between the

line and the curve is produced to x and y axes to give the value of 2f. Hence f is calculated.

44
Least count of meter scale = _____________

Focal length by distant object method = _____________

DETERMINATION OF FOCAL LENGTH OF CONVEX LENS

OBJECT IMAGE POSITION 1/u 1/v
S. OBJECT
DISTANCE DISTANCE OF (cm–1) (cm–1)
NO. POSITION
(cm) –ve (cm) +ve IMAGE (–ve) (+ve)
1. Beyond 2f

2. Beyond 2f

3. At 2f

4. Between f and 2f

5. Between f and 2f

45
 (iii) 1/u – 1/v GRAPH: A suitable and same scale is chosen to represent 1/u on the x/axis and 1/v on
the y-axis. The values of 1/u and 1/v are marked on it and joined to form a straight line. The line is
produced to x and y axes. The intercepts give the value of 1/f. hence f is calculated.

SCOURES OF ERROR:
(i) The object, lens and screen may not be at the same height.
(ii) The lens may not be mounted exactly vertical on the stand.
(iii) There may be parallax error.

PRECAUTIONS:
(i) The object, lens and screen should be along the same horizontal line at the same height.
(ii) The principal axis of the lens must be horizontal and parallel to the scale used for measurement.
(iii) Readings should be taken with one eye closed to avoid parallax error.

46
GRAPHS:

47
RESULT: The focal length of the given convex lens is found to be:

(i) By distant object method: f = _____________

(ii) By u-v graph: f = _____________

(iii) By 1/u – 1/v graph : f = _____________

48
DATE: EX. NO. 11

CONCAVE LENS

DETERMINATION OF FOCAL LENGTH OF CONCAVE LENS

DISTANCE BETWEEN CONCAVE DISTANCE BETWEEN

S. F = uv/u–v
LENS AND FIRST IMAGE CONCAVE LENS AND
NO. (cm) (–ve)
(L2A) (cm) SECOND IMAGE (L2B) (cm)
1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean f = ______________

49
DATE: EX. NO. 11

CONCAVE LENS

AIM: To determine the focal length of a given concave lens using convex lens.
APPARATUS REQUIRED: Given concave lens, convex lens of suitable focal length, screen, lens
stand,
lamp box, meter scale.

THEORY: The image obtained using a convex lens serves as a virtual object for the concave lens,
which in
turn, forms a real image. The focal length F of the combination is
1/f = 1/f1 -1/f2
Where ‘f1’ is the focal length of the convex lens and ‘f2’ is the focal length of the concave lens. Hence
the
focal length of the lens is given by:
1/f =1/v – 1/u = u-v / uv (OR) f = uv / u-v
Where L2 A = u and L2 B = v.

FORMULAE:
1/f = 1/f1 – 1/f2
f1=focal length of the convex lens (cm)
f2=focal length of the concave lens (cm)
f = uv / u-v
u-L2 A=distance between lens and 1st image (cm)
v=L2 B=distance between concave lens and 2nd image (cm)

PROCEDURE: A convex lens of suitable focal length is chosen such that the lens system comprising
of the convex and concave lenses becomes converging. The convex lens is mounted upright on the
lens stand and light from the illuminated wire gauze is made to fall on it. A clear image is obtained on
the screen, placed behind the lens. The position of the image is marked as point A.

50
Calculations:

51
The given concave lens, mounted upright on a lens stand is introduced between the convex lens
and point A. The positions of the screen and the concave lens are adjusted such that a clear image is
obtained on the screen. This position of the screen is marked as point B. The distance between the
concave lens and point A in measured as the object distance ‘u’. The distance between the concave
lens and point B is measured as the image distance ‘v’. The focal length f of the concave lens is
calculated using the formula. The experiment is then repeated for varying values of object distance
and the readings are tabulated.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
(i) The object, lenses and screen may not be at the same height.
(ii) The lenses may not be mounted exactly vertical on the stand.
(iii) There may be parallax error.
(iv) The convex lens may have focal length greater than that of the concave lens.

PRECAUTIONS:
(i) The object, lenses and screen should be along the same horizontal line at the same height.
(ii) The principal axis of the lenses must be horizontal and parallel to the scale used for measurement.
(iii) Readings should be taken with one eye closed to avoid parallax error.
(iv) A convex lens of focal length lesser than that of the concave lens should be chosen such that the
lens system is convergent.

RESULT: The focal length of the concave lens is found to be: ______________

52
DATE: EX. NO. 12

CONVEX MIRROR

RAY DIAGRAM

Least count of meter scale = ______________

DETERMINATION OF RADIUS OF CURVATURE OF CONVEX

MIRROR

S. DISTANCE BETWEEN CONCAVE DISTANCE BETWEEN LENS R = LC – LP

NO. LENS AND MIRROR (LP) (cm) AND SCREEN (LC) (cm) (PC) (cm)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

Mean R = ____________
F = R/2 = ____________

53
DATE: EX. NO. 12

CONVEX MIRROR

AIM: To determine the focal length of a given convex mirror using convex lens.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Given convex mirror, convex lens of large focal length, screen, lens
stands, lamp box, meter scale.

THEORY: The convex mirror is a divergent mirror. One of the indirect methods to find its focal
length is to use a convex lens. Let a convex lens with optic center L be interposed between an object
O and a convex mirror with pole P. The position of O is adjusted so that a real inverted image of O is
formed at O itself. This would happen when rays starting from O and refracted through the lens fall
normally on the convex mirror and retrace their path on reflection from the mirror. The rays refracted
from the lens would fall normally on the mirror only when they are directed towards the centre of
curvature of the mirror C. Hence, PC = R, the radius of curvature of the mirror and its focal length is
calculated using the formula:

f = R/2

f-focal length of mirror (cm)

R=radius of curvature of mirror (cm)

PROCEDURE: A convex lens of large focal length is mounted upright on the lens stand and light
from the illuminated wire gauze is made to fall on it. A clear image is obtained on the screen, placed
behind the lens. The given convex mirror, mounted upright on a mirror stand is interposed between
the convex lens and the image and its position is adjusted such that a clear image is formed on the
object it self the convex lens and the screen is measured as LC. The distance between the convex lens
and the convex mirror is measured as LP. The distance between the convex mirror and the screen PC
is the radius of curvature of the given convex mirror and is calculated using PC the diatance between
LC – LP. The experiment is then repeated for varying values of distances between the lens and the
mirror and the readings are tabulated.

54
Calculations:

55
SOURCES OF ERROR:

(i) The object, mirror, lens and screen may not be at the same height.

(ii) The mirror and lens may not be mounted exactly vertical on the stand.

(iii) There may be parallax error.

(iv) The focal length of the concave lens may not be large.

PRECAUTIONS:

(i) The object, mirror, lens and screen should be along the same horizontal line at the same height.

(ii) The principal axis of the mirror must be horizontal and parallel to the scale used for measurement.

(iii) Readings should be taken with one eye closed to avoid parallax error.

(iv) The focal length of the concave lens should be large.

RESULT:
The focal length of the given convex mirror is found to be: _______________

56
DATE: EX. NO. 13

REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM

Least count of protractor = _______________

Angle of prism = _______________

DETERMINATION OF ANGLE OF DEVIATION

S.NO. ANGLE OF INCIDENCE (i)0 ANGLE OF DEVIATION

1. 30°

2. 35°

3. 40°

4. 45°

5. 50°

57
DATE: EX. NO. 13

REFRACTION THROUGH A PRISM

AIM: To plot the graph showing the variation of angle of deviation with the angle of incidence for a
glass prism, and to determine the angle of minimum deviation.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: A drawing board, white paper, drawing pins, few board pins, protractor
and glass prism.

THEORY: As angle of incidence is increased, angle of deviation first decreases till it becomes
minimum for a particular angle of incidence. The corresponding angle of deviation is called the
angle of minimum deviation ‘Dm’. At the angle of minimum deviation, the angle of incidence and
emergence will be equal. The refracted ray inside the prism will be parallel to the base. As the angle
of incidence is further increased, angle of deviation also increases.

PROCEDURE: The white sheet of paper is fixed on the drawing board with drawing pins. A line
XX’ is drawn on the sheet and the outline of ABC of the prism is traced such that its face AB lies
on XX’. The prism is removed. A normal NL is drawn and an angle of incidence of 30 is marked.
Two pins P1 and P2 are fixed on the incident ray. The prism is carefully put back into the outline and
looking through the face AC of the prism, 2 more pins P3 and P4 are fixed in line with P1 and P2.
The pins are removed and the incident and emergent rays are drawn. The angle of deviation, the angle
between the incident and emergent rays is measured. This is repeated for angles of incidence of 40,
50 and 60. A graph is plotted between the angle of incidence on the x-axis and the angle of deviation
on the y-axis. The angle of minimum deviation is determined from the graph. The refractive index of
the material of the prism is calculated using the formula.

58
GRAPH:

59
SOURCES OF ERROR:
(i) The prism may have been moved from the outline.
(ii) The distance between the pins on the incident ray may be very less.
(iii) The pins may not be vertical.
(iv) Parallax error may arise.

PRECAUTIONS:
(i) The prism should not be displaced from the outline throughout the procedure.
(ii) The distance between the two pins on the incident ray should be at least 7 cm.
(iii) The pins must be fixed vertically.
(iv) The image of the pins should be observed with one eye closed to minimize parallax error.

RESULT: The anlge of minimum deviation is found to be _____________ .

60
DATE: EXP. NO. 14

TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE

DETERMINATION OF LEAST COUNT:

IMSD = 0.5 MM
50 VSD = 49 MSD
So, 1 VSD = 49/50 MSD

Least Count = 1MSD – 1 VSD

= 1 MSD – 49/50 MSD
= 1/50 MSD
= 0.01 mm = 0.001 cm

61
DATE: EXP. NO. 14

TRAVELLING MICROSCOPE
AIM: To determine the refractive index of a glass slab using a travelling microscope.

APPARATUS REQURED: Travelling microscope with Vernier scale, a glass slab, a white sheet of
paper,
pen.

THEORY: Let a ray PQ from a point P travelling in the glass slab (medium b) make a small angle
i with the normal. On refraction, at the surface, it will proceed along some direction QR, making an
angle r with the normal at Q. consequently, an observer in the medium ‘a’ will see a refracted image
of P at P’. Now,

Sin i / sin r = bµa (OR)

Sin < APQ / sin <AP’Q = bµa

(i.e) AQ / PQ / AQ/P’A = bµa

b
1 PO
Now, aµ = a

b P 'Q

For small angles, the distances PQ and P’Q may be taken equal to PA and P’A respectively.

aµb = PA / P’A = Real thickness / Apparent thickness

PROCEDURE:
An ink spot P is marked on a piece of paper placed on the bench. A travelling microscope
arranged to move vertically is placed on the paper on the paper and adjusted so as to bring the point
P in focus. The reading of the Vernier is taken. The glass slab is now placed over the mark P and the
microscope is re-adjusted to bring P in focus again (at P’). Again the Vernier is read. Finally an ink
spot on the top surface of the glass slab and the reading of the Vernier is taken when this mark is in
focus of the microscope.

62
CORSS MARK WITHOUT CROSS MARK WITH ABOVE SLAB (A) (cm)
SLAB (P) (cm) SLAB (P') (cm)
MSR VSR TR MSR VSR TR MSR VSR TR

DETERMINATION OF REFRACTIVE INDEX

REAL DEPTH (A-P) APPARENT DEPTH REFRACTIVE INDEX
(cm) (A-P') (cm) µ = AP / AP'

63
PRECAUTIONS:
(i) The glass slab should be cleaned before performing the experiment.
(ii) The screw should always be moved along one direction only while taking the reading to avoid
backlash error.
(iii) The coinciding mark of the main and Vernier scale readings should be read carefully.
(iv) Before noting the readings, ensure that the mark is clearly focused.
(v) While reading the observations, ensure that the glass slab is not moved from its position.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
(i) The microscope may have backlash error.
(ii) The marking of the scales may not have been accurate.
(iii) The cross mark may not be sharply focused.

RESULT:
The refractive index of the glass slab was found to be : _______

64
DATE: EXP. NO. 15

JUNCTION DIODE
FORWARD BIAS CHARACTERISTICS

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

Voltmeter: Ammeter:

Least count: _________ Least count: _________

Range : _________ Range : __________

MODEL GRAPH:

Forward blas

v
Forward voltage

65
DATE: EXP. NO. 13

JUNCTION DIODE

AIM: To draw the I - V characteristics curve of a p - n junction diode in forward and reverse bias.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: A ready made kit comprising of in built p-n junction (semi-conductor
diode), a 3V battery, a 50V battery, a high resistance rheostat, a 0-3V voltmeter, a 0-50V voltmeter,
a 0-100 mA milli ammeter, a 0-100 µA micro ammeter, connecting wires.

THEORY

FORWARD - BIAS CHARACTERISTICS:

When the p-section of the diode is connected to positive terminal of a battery and n-section is
connected to negative terminal of the battery that junction is said to be forward biased. With increase
in bias voltage, the forward current increases slowly in the beginning and then rapidly. At about 0.7V
for Si (1.02V for Ge), the current increases suddenly. The value of forward bias voltage, at which the
forward current increases rapidly, is called cut-in voltage or threshold voltage.

REVERSE - BIAS CHARACTERISTICS:

When the p-section of the diode is connected to negative terminal of high voltage battery and
n-section of the diode is connected to the positive terminal of the same battery, then junction is said to
be reverse biased. When reverse bias voltage increases, initially there is a very small reverse current
flow, which remains almost constant with bias. But when reverse bias voltage increases to sufficiently
high value, the reverse current suddenly increases to a large value. This voltage at which breakdown
of junction diode occurs is called Zener breakdown voltage or inverse voltage. The breakdown voltage
may start from one volt to several hundred volts, depending upon dopant density and the depletion
layer.

66
 FORWARD BIAS:

S. FORWARD - BIAS FORWARD - BIAS

NO. VOLTAGE (V) CURRENT (mA)

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

67
REVERSE BIAS CHARACTERISTICS:

V-Voltmeter ; mA – Milli ammeter

Voltmeter: Ammeter:
Least count: Least count:
Range: Range:

MODEL GRAPH:

REVERSE BIAS:
S.
REVERSE-BIAS VOLTAGE(V) REVERSE-BIAS CURRENT(mA)
NO.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

68
PROCEDURE:

FOR FORWARD-BIAS:

A circuit is made as per the circuit diagram. The connections are made neat and tight. Least count and
zero error of voltmeter and milli ammeter are noted. The knob that controls the forward bias voltage
to the diode is set at minimum value and then gradually increased. Current remains zero. Increase
the voltage to a little above 0.3V. Current increases slowly and then rapidly till voltage becomes 0.7
V. Exceed the voltage beyond 0.7 V and the current increases suddenly. This represents ‘forward
breakdown’ stage. If the voltage is increase beyond ‘forward breakdown’ stage, the forward current
does not change much. The observations are recorded.

FOR REVERSE-BIAS:

Neat and tight circuit is made according to the diagram. The least count and zero error of voltmeter
and milli ammeter are noted. The knob that regulates the reverse bias voltage to the diode is set at a
minimum value and then gradually increased. The reading is initially zero, which is recorded. The
reading in the micro ammeter gradually begins to increase. V is increased to 0.2V. Current increases
slowly first and then rapidly till VR becomes 20V. Once VR is made 25V, the current suddenly
increases. This represents ‘Reverse breakdown’ stage. The observations are recorded.

69
SOURCES OF ERROR:
The junction diode supplied may be faulty.

PRECAUTIONS
(i) All connections should be neat and tight.
(ii) Knobs should be turned slowly.
(iii) Forward-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.
(iv) Reverse-bias voltage beyond breakdown should not be applied.

RESULT
Junction Resistance for forward-bias: __________
Breakdown-voltage-reverse-bias: __________

70
 ACTIVITIES
ACTIVITY NO. 1
REFRACTION THROUGH A GLASS SLAB

r1

r2

e
d

(i) Thickness of glass slab = _____________

DETERMINATION OF LATERAL DEVIATION

ANGLE OF ANGLE OF ANGLE OF LATERAL
S.
INCIDENCE REFRACTION EMERGENCE DEVIATION
NO.
(<i) (<r) (<e) (cm)

1.

2.
3.
4.
5.

(ii) Thickness of glass slab = _____________

ANGLE OF ANGLE OF ANGLE OF LATERAL
S.
INCIDENCE REFRACTION EMERGENCE DEVIATION
NO.
(<i) (<r) (<e) (cm)

1.

2.
3.
4.

71
 DATE: ACTIVITY NO. 1

REFRACTION THROUGH A GLASS SLAB

AIM: To study refraction and lateral displacement of a ray of light passing through a glass slab.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Glass slab, drawing board, pins.

PROCEDURE:
A glass slab is placed on a sheet of white paper and the outline is traced. A normal is drawn on one side
and 2 pins are fixed along an angle of incidence of 30°. The image of these pin is is seen through the
opposite face of the slab. 2 more pins are fixed in line with these pins and then an enlarged emergent
ray is drawn. The angle of refraction and emergence are marked. The perpendicular distance between
the incident and emergent ray, namely the lateral deviation is measured. This is repeated for the angle
of incidence of 40°, 50°, 60° And for varying thickness of glass slab.

PRECAUTIONS:
(i) Care should be taken to see that the slab does not get displaced from the position.
(ii) Parallax error can be minimized by keeping one eye closed.

RESULT:
(i) The total lateral displacement was found to be increasing with increase in angle of incidence.
(ii) The lateral deviation was found to be decreasing with decreasing thickness of the glass slab.

72
 DATE: ACTIVITY NO. 2

POTENTIAL GRADIENT OF WIRE

Least count of voltmeter = ______________

S. VOLT METER READING LENGTH OF THE POTENTIAL GRADIENT

NO. (V) WIRE (AJ) (cm) (V/L) (V cm–1)

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Mean = __________

73
 DATE: ACTIVITY NO. 2

POTENTIAL GRADIENT OF WIRE

AIM: To study the variation of potential drop with the length of a wire for a steady current.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Battery eliminator, potentiometer, voltmeter, connecting wires.

PROCEDURE: The circuit is made as shown in the diagram. For a fixed position of the jockey on
the wire AB, the voltmeter reading V and the length of the wire. l = AJ are noted. This is repeated for
varying positions of the jockey on the wire. The ratio of v and l is called ‘POTENTIAL GRADIENT’
and is calculated in each case and found to be constant.
 pl 
V = IR = I  
A
For constant values of I, ρ, A :
V∝l

SOURCES OF ERROR:
(i) The connections may be loose.
(ii) Insulation may not be removed at the point of contact.
(iii) Current may have been kept flowing for a long time.

PRECAUTIONS:
(i) The connections should be neat and tight.
(ii) Insulation must be removed at the point of contact.
(iii) Current should not be allowed to flow for a long time since the wire gets heated up and its
resistance varies.

RESULT:
The potential gradient of the given wire was found to be _______________

74
 DATE: ACTIVITY NO. 3

CONVEX LENS AND CONCAVE MIRROR

CONVEX LENS

Focal length by distant object method is :

DETERMINATION OF SIZE AND POSITION OF IMAGE

POSITION OBJECT IMAGE POSITION NATURE
S. SIZE OF
OF DISTANCE DISTANCE OF OF
NO. IMAGE
OBJECT (cm) (cm) IMAGE IMAGE

1. Beyond 2f

2. At 2f

Between f and
3.
2f

75
 DATE: ACTIVITY NO. 3

CONVEX LENS AND CONCAVE MIRROR

AIM: To study the position, nature and size of the image obtained using:
(a) Convex lens
(b) Concave mirror
and using a candle and a screen.

APPARATUS REQUIRED:
Convex lens, concave mirror, candle, lens stand, screen and meter scale.

PROCEDURE:
(i) CONVEX LENS:
The focal length of the given convex lens is determined by the distant object method. A burning
candle is kept between F and 2F position and a sharp image is obtained. This is repeated for
distances beyond 2F and then at 2F. A sharp image is obtained in each case. The nature, size and
the position of the image were observed.

(ii) CONCAVE MIRROR:

The focal length of the given concave mirror is obtained by the distant object method. A burning
candle is kept between F and 2F position and a sharp image is obtained. This is repeated when
object is at 2F and beyond 2F. The nature, position and size of the image were obtained.

76
CONCAVE MIRROR

Focal length by distant object method is :

DETERMINATION OF POSITION AND SIZE OF IMAGE

POSITION OBJECT IMAGE POSITION NATURE
S. SIZE OF
OF DISTANCE DISTANCE OF OF
NO. IMAGE
OBJECT (cm) (cm) IMAGE IMAGE

1. Beyond 2f

2. At 2f

Between f and
3.
2f

77
PRECAUTIONS:
(i) The object, lens, screen should be at same height on a straight line.
(ii) A clear image should be obtained carefully.
(iii) Readings should be taken with one eye closed to avoid parallax error.

RESULT:
The focal length was found to be:

(i) Convex lens : ______________

(ii) Concave mirror : ______________

78
DATE: ACTIVITY NO. 4

ASSEMBLING THE COMPONENTS OF A CIRCUIT CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

79
 DATE: ACTIVITY NO. 4

ASSEMBLING THE COMPONENTS OF A CIRCUIT CIRCUIT

AIM: To assemble the components of an electric circuit.

MATERIALS REQUIRED: Battery eliminator, rheostat, ammeter, voltmeter, resistance coil,

connecting wire.

PROCEDURE: The circuit is made as shown in the diagram.

DESCRIPTION:
(i) BATTERY ELIMINATOR: It consists of a step-down transformer rectifier and filter circuit.
It is a source of potential difference.
(ii) BHEOSTAT: It is a variable resistance device for adjusting the strength of electric current in a
circuit. A slider / jockey slides over a rod attached to the frame of a cylinder over which a long
wire of constantan is wound.
(iii) VOLTMETER: It is a high resistance device used to measure potential difference between two
points. It is connected in parallel.
(iv) AMMETER: It is a device used to measure current in a circuit and is connected in series. It has
a very low resistance.

SOURCES OF ERROR:
(i) Connections may be loose.
(ii) Insulations may not be removed at the point of contact.
(iii) The current may have been kept on for a long time leading to heat of coil.

PRECAUTIONS:
(i) Connections should be neat & tight.
(ii) Insulations must be removed at the point of contact.
(iii) Current should not be made to flow for a long time.

RESULT: The given components were assembled to make a circuit to verify Ohm’s law.

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DATE: ACTIVITY NO. 5

COMBINATION OF LENSES

DETERMINATION OF FOCAL LENGTH OF COMBINATION OF LENS

LENS-1 LENS-2 RELATION CALCULATED OBSERVED

S. BTWN FOCAL FOCAL
NO. FOCAL FOCAL F1 & F2 LENGTH LENGTH
NATURE LENGTH NATURE LENGTH (cm) (cm)
(cm) (cm)

1.

2.

3.

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 DATE: ACTIVITY NO. 5

COMBINATION OF LENSES

AIM: To obtain a lens combinations of specific focal length by using two lenses from the given set
of length.

MATERIALS REQUIRED:
Converging lenses, diverging lenses of different focal lengths, candle, screen, lens stand.

PROCEDURE:
The rough focal lengths of lenses are determined. A combination of two lenses is formed by joining
them with a band. The behavior of the combination is checked and verified using the formula.

1 1 1
= +
f f1 f 2

Where f1 and f2 are focal lengths of lenses used in combination and f is the effective focal length of
combination. This is repeated for other combination of lenses.

PRECAUTIONS:
(i) Object, lens and screen should be placed at same height on a straight line.
(ii) Clear image should be carefully obtained.
(iii) Readings should be taken with one eye closed.

RESULT: Different lens combinations of specific focal lengths were obtained.

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