RESEARCH ON GLASS FIBERS(FIBRES DE VE)

Glass fiber (or glass fibre) is a material consisting of numerous extremely

fine fibers of glass.
Glassmakers throughout history have experimented with glass fibers, but
mass manufacture of glass fiber was only made possible with the invention
of finer machine tooling. In 1893, Edward Drummond Libbey exhibited
a dress at the World's Columbian Exposition incorporating glass fibers with
the diameter and texture of silk fibers. Glass fibers can also occur naturally,
as Pele's hair.
Glass wool, which is one product called "fiberglass" today, was invented
some time between 1932 to 1933 by Games Slayter of Owens-Illinois, as a
material to be used as thermal building insulation.[1] It is marketed under the
trade name Fiberglas, which has become a genericized trademark. Glass
fiber when used as a thermal insulating material is specially manufactured
with a bonding agent to trap many small air cells, resulting in the
characteristically air-filled low-density "glass wool" family of products.
Glass fiber has roughly comparable mechanical properties to other fibers
such as polymers and carbon fiber. Although not as rigid as carbon fiber, it
is much cheaper and significantly less brittle when used in composites.
Glass fiber reinforced composites are used in marine industry and piping
industries because of good environmental resistance, better damage
tolerance for impact loading, high specific strength and stiffness

Fiber formation[edit]
Glass fiber is formed when thin strands of silica-based or other formulation
glass are extruded into many fibers with small diameters suitable
for textile processing. The technique of heating and drawing glass into fine
fibers has been known for millennia, and was practiced in Egypt and
Venice.[3] Before the recent use of these fibers for textile applications, all
glass fiber had been manufactured as staple (that is, clusters of short
lengths of fiber).
The modern method for producing glass wool is the invention of Games
Slayter working at the Owens-Illinois Glass Company (Toledo, Ohio). He
first applied for a patent for a new process to make glass wool in 1933. The
first commercial production of glass fiber was in 1936. In 1938 Owens-
Illinois Glass Company and Corning Glass Works joined to form
the Owens-Corning Fiberglas Corporation. When the two companies joined
to produce and promote glass fiber, they introduced
continuous filament glass fibers.[4] Owens-Corning is still the major glass-
fiber producer in the market today.[5]
The most common type of glass fiber used in fiberglass is E-glass, which
is alumino-borosilicate glass with less than 1% w/w alkali oxides, mainly
used for glass-reinforced plastics. Other types of glass used are A-
glass (Alkali-lime glass with little or no boron oxide), E-CR-
glass (Electrical/Chemical Resistance; alumino-lime silicate with less than
1% w/w alkali oxides, with high acid resistance), C-glass (alkali-lime glass
with high boron oxide content, used for glass staple fibers and
insulation), D-glass (borosilicate glass, named for its low dielectric
constant), R-glass (alumino silicate glass without MgO and CaO with high
mechanical requirements as reinforcement), and S-glass (alumino silicate
glass without CaO but with high MgO content with high tensile strength).[6]
Pure silica (silicon dioxide), when cooled as fused quartz into a glass with
no true melting point, can be used as a glass fiber for fiberglass, but has
the drawback that it must be worked at very high temperatures. In order to
lower the necessary work temperature, other materials are introduced as
"fluxing agents" (i.e., components to lower the melting point). Ordinary A-
glass ("A" for "alkali-lime") or soda lime glass, crushed and ready to be
remelted, as so-called cullet glass, was the first type of glass used for
fiberglass. E-glass ("E" because of initial electrical application), is alkali
free, and was the first glass formulation used for continuous filament
formation. It now makes up most of the fiberglass production in the world,
and also is the single largest consumer of boron minerals globally. It is
susceptible to chloride ion attack and is a poor choice for marine
applications. S-glass ("S" for "Strength") is used when high tensile strength
(modulus) is important, and is thus important in composites for building and
aircraft construction. The same substance is known as R-glass ("R" for
"reinforcement") in Europe. C-glass ("C" for "chemical resistance") and T-
glass ("T" is for "thermal insulator" – a North American variant of C-glass)
are resistant to chemical attack; both are often found in insulation-grades of
blown fiberglass.[7]

Common Fiber Categories and Associated Characteristic [8]

Fiber
Characteristic
Category

A, alkali Soda lime glass/ high alkali

C, chemical High chemical resistance

D, dielectric Low dielectric constant

E, electrical Low electrical conductivity

M, modulus High tensile modulus

S, strength High tensile strength

Special Purpose

Long term acid resistance and short term alkali

ECR
resistance

High tensile strength and properties at high

R and Te
temperatures
Chemistry[edit]
The basis of textile-grade glass fibers is silica, SiO2. In its pure form it
exists as a polymer, (SiO2)n. It has no true melting point but softens up to
1200 °C, where it starts to degrade. At 1713 °C, most of the molecules can
move about freely. If the glass is extruded and cooled quickly at this
temperature, it will be unable to form an ordered structure.[9] In the polymer
it forms SiO4 groups which are configured as a tetrahedron with
the silicon atom at the center, and four oxygen atoms at the corners. These
atoms then form a network bonded at the corners by sharing
the oxygen atoms.
The vitreous and crystalline states of silica (glass and quartz) have similar
energy levels on a molecular basis, also implying that the glassy form is
extremely stable. In order to induce crystallization, it must be heated to
temperatures above 1200 °C for long periods of time.[4]
Although pure silica is a perfectly viable glass and glass fiber, it must be
worked with at very high temperatures, which is a drawback unless its
specific chemical properties are needed. It is usual to introduce impurities
into the glass in the form of other materials to lower its working
temperature. These materials also impart various other properties to the
glass that may be beneficial in different applications. The first type of glass
used for fiber was soda lime glass or A-glass ("A" for the alkali it contains).
It is not very resistant to alkali. A newer, alkali-free (<2%) type, E-glass, is
an alumino-borosilicate glass.[10] C-glass was developed to resist attack
from chemicals, mostly acids that destroy E-glass.[10] T-glass is a North
American variant of C-glass. AR-glass is alkali-resistant glass. Most glass
fibers have limited solubility in water but are very dependent
on pH. Chloride ions will also attack and dissolve E-glass surfaces.
E-glass does not actually melt, but softens instead, the softening point
being "the temperature at which a 0.55–0.77 mm diameter fiber 235 mm
long, elongates under its own weight at 1 mm/min when suspended
vertically and heated at the rate of 5 °C per minute".[11] The strain point is
reached when the glass has a viscosity of 1014.5 poise. The annealing point,
which is the temperature where the internal stresses are reduced to an
acceptable commercial limit in 15 minutes, is marked by a viscosity of
1013 poise.

Properties[edit]
Thermal[edit]
Fabrics of woven glass fibers are useful thermal insulators because of their
high ratio of surface area to weight. However, the increased surface area
makes them much more susceptible to chemical attack. By trapping air
within them, blocks of glass fiber make good thermal insulation, with
a thermal conductivity of the order of 0.05 W/(m·K).[12]
Selected properties[edit]

Tensil Young' Thermal

e Compress s Densi Pric
expansi Softeni
Fiber streng ive Modulu ty e
on ng T
type th strength s, E (g/cm ($/k
3 (µm/m·° (°C)
(MPa) (MPa) ) g)
(GPa) C)
[13]
[14]

E-
3445 1080 76.0 2.58 5 846 ~2
glass

C-
glass[ 3300 -- 69.0 2.49 7.2 -- --
14]

S-2
4890 1600 85.5 2.46 2.9 1056 ~20
glass

Mechanical properties[edit]
The strength of glass is usually tested and reported for "virgin" or pristine
fibers—those that have just been manufactured. The freshest, thinnest
fibers are the strongest because the thinner fibers are more ductile. The
more the surface is scratched, the less the resulting tenacity.[10] Because
glass has an amorphous structure, its properties are the same along the
fiber and across the fiber.[9] Humidity is an important factor in the tensile
strength. Moisture is easily adsorbed and can worsen microscopic cracks
and surface defects, and lessen tenacity.
In contrast to carbon fiber, glass can undergo more elongation before it
breaks.[9] Thinner filaments can bend further before they break.[15] The
viscosity of the molten glass is very important for manufacturing success.
During drawing, the process where the hot glass is pulled to reduce the
diameter of the fiber, the viscosity must be relatively low. If it is too high, the
fiber will break during drawing. However, if it is too low, the glass will form
droplets instead of being drawn out into a fiber.

Manufacturing processes[edit]
Melting[edit]
There are two main types of glass fiber manufacture and two main types of
glass fiber product. First, fiber is made either from a direct melt process or
a marble remelt process. Both start with the raw materials in solid form.
The materials are mixed together and melted in a furnace. Then, for the
marble process, the molten material is sheared and rolled into marbles
which are cooled and packaged. The marbles are taken to the fiber
manufacturing facility where they are inserted into a can and remelted. The
molten glass is extruded to the bushing to be formed into fiber. In the direct
melt process, the molten glass in the furnace goes directly to the bushing
for formation.[11]
Formation[edit]
The bushing plate is the most important part of the machinery for making
the fiber. This is a small metal furnace containing nozzles for the fiber to be
formed through. It is almost always made of platinum alloyed
with rhodium for durability. Platinum is used because the glass melt has a
natural affinity for wetting it. When bushings were first used they were
100% platinum, and the glass wetted the bushing so easily that it ran under
the plate after exiting the nozzle and accumulated on the underside. Also,
due to its cost and the tendency to wear, the platinum was alloyed with
rhodium. In the direct melt process, the bushing serves as a collector for
the molten glass. It is heated slightly to keep the glass at the correct
temperature for fiber formation. In the marble melt process, the bushing
acts more like a furnace as it melts more of the material.[16]
Bushings are the major expense in fiber glass production. The nozzle
design is also critical. The number of nozzles ranges from 200 to 4000 in
multiples of 200. The important part of the nozzle in continuous filament
manufacture is the thickness of its walls in the exit region. It was found that
inserting a counterbore here reduced wetting. Today, the nozzles are
designed to have a minimum thickness at the exit. As glass flows through
the nozzle, it forms a drop which is suspended from the end. As it falls, it
leaves a thread attached by the meniscus to the nozzle as long as the
viscosity is in the correct range for fiber formation. The smaller the annular
ring of the nozzle and the thinner the wall at exit, the faster the drop will
form and fall away, and the lower its tendency to wet the vertical part of the
nozzle.[17] The surface tension of the glass is what influences the formation
of the meniscus. For E-glass it should be around 400 mN/m.[10]
The attenuation (drawing) speed is important in the nozzle design.
Although slowing this speed down can make coarser fiber, it is uneconomic
to run at speeds for which the nozzles were not designed.[4]
Continuous filament process[edit]
In the continuous filament process, after the fiber is drawn, a size is
applied. This size helps protect the fiber as it is wound onto a bobbin. The
particular size applied relates to end-use. While some sizes are processing
aids, others make the fiber have an affinity for a certain resin, if the fiber is
to be used in a composite.[11] Size is usually added at 0.5–2.0% by weight.
Winding then takes place at around 1 km/min.[9]
Staple fiber process[edit]
For staple fiber production, there are a number of ways to manufacture the
fiber. The glass can be blown or blasted with heat or steam after exiting the
formation machine. Usually these fibers are made into some sort of mat.
The most common process used is the rotary process. Here, the glass
enters a rotating spinner, and due to centrifugal force is thrown out
horizontally. The air jets push it down vertically, and binder is applied. Then
the mat is vacuumed to a screen and the binder is cured in the oven.[18]

Safety[edit]
Glass fiber has increased in popularity since the discovery
that asbestos causes cancer and its subsequent removal from most
products. However, the safety of glass fiber is also being called into
question, as research shows that the composition of this material (asbestos
and glass fiber are both silicate fibers) can cause similar toxicity as
asbestos.[19][20][21][22]
1970s studies on rats found that fibrous glass of less than 3 μm in diameter
and greater than 20 μm in length is a "potent carcinogen".[19] Likewise,
the International Agency for Research on Cancer found it "may reasonably
be anticipated to be a carcinogen" in 1990. The American Conference of
Governmental Industrial Hygienists, on the other hand, says that there is
insufficient evidence, and that glass fiber is in group A4: "Not classifiable as
a human carcinogen".
The North American Insulation Manufacturers Association (NAIMA) claims
that glass fiber is fundamentally different from asbestos, since it is man-
made instead of naturally occurring.[23] They claim that glass fiber
"dissolves in the lungs", while asbestos remains in the body for life.
Although both glass fiber and asbestos are made from silica filaments,
NAIMA claims that asbestos is more dangerous because of its crystalline
structure, which causes it to cleave into smaller, more dangerous pieces,
citing the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services:
Synthetic vitreous fibers [fiber glass] differ from asbestos in two ways that
may provide at least partial explanations for their lower toxicity. Because
most synthetic vitreous fibers are not crystalline like asbestos, they do not
split longitudinally to form thinner fibers. They also generally have markedly
less biopersistence in biological tissues than asbestos fibers because they
can undergo dissolution and transverse breakage.[24]
A 1998 study using rats found that the biopersistence of synthetic fibers
after one year was 0.04–13%, but 27% for amosite asbestos. Fibers that
persisted longer were found to be more carcinogenic.[25]

Glass-reinforced plastic (fiberglass)[edit]

Main article: Fiberglass
Glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) is a composite material or fiber-reinforced
plastic made of a plastic reinforced by fine glass fibers. Like graphite-
reinforced plastic, the composite material is commonly referred to
as fiberglass. The glass can be in the form of a chopped strand mat
(CSM) or a woven fabric.[6][26]
As with many other composite materials (such as reinforced concrete), the
two materials act together, each overcoming the deficits of the other.
Whereas the plastic resins are strong in compressive loading and relatively
weak in tensile strength, the glass fibers are very strong in tension but tend
not to resist compression. By combining the two materials, GRP becomes a
material that resists both compressive and tensile forces well.[27] The two
materials may be used uniformly or the glass may be specifically placed in
those portions of the structure that will experience tensile loads.[6][26]

Uses[edit]
Uses for regular glass fiber include mats and fabrics for thermal
insulation, electrical insulation, sound insulation, high-strength fabrics or
heat- and corrosion-resistant fabrics. It is also used to reinforce various
materials, such as tent poles, pole
vault poles, arrows, bows and crossbows, translucent roofing
panels, automobile bodies, hockey sticks, surfboards, boat hulls, and paper
honeycomb. It has been used for medical purposes in casts. Glass fiber is
extensively used for making FRP tanks and vessels.[6][26]
Open-weave glass fiber grids are used to reinforce asphalt pavement.
[28]
 Non-woven glass fiber/polymer blend mats are used saturated with
asphalt emulsion and overlaid with asphalt, producing a waterproof, crack-
resistant membrane. Use of glass-fiber reinforced polymer rebar instead of
steel rebar shows promise in areas where avoidance of steel corrosion is
desired.[29]
Potential uses[edit]
Glass fiber use has recently seen use in biomedical applications in the
assistance of joint replacement[30] where the electric field orientation of
short phosphate glass fibers can improve osteogenic qualities through the
proliferation of osteoblasts and with improved surface chemistry. Another
potential use is within electronic applications[31] as sodium based glass
fibers assist or replace lithium in lithium-ion batteries due to its improved
electronic properties.

Role of recycling in glass fiber manufacturing[edit]

Manufacturers of glass-fiber insulation can use recycled glass. Recycled
glass fiber contains up to 40% recycled glass

REFERENCES AND NOTES

1.  Slayter patent for glass wool. Application 1933, granted 1938.

2. ^ Sathishkumar, Tp; Satheeshkumar, S; Naveen, J (July
2014). "Glass fiber-reinforced polymer composites – a
review". Journal of Reinforced Plastics and Composites. 33 (13):
1258–1275. doi:10.1177/0731684414530790. ISSN 0731-6844. S2
CID 136242178.
3. ^ "Inorganic and Composite Fibers |
ScienceDirect". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2021-07-21.
4. ^ Jump up to:a b c Loewenstein, K.L. (1973). The Manufacturing
Technology of Continuous Glass Fibers. New York: Elsevier
Scientific. pp. 2–94. ISBN 978-0-444-41109-9.
5. ^ "A Market Assessment and Impact Analysis of the Owens Corning
Acquisition of Saint-Gobain's Reinforcement and Composites
Business". August 2007. Archived from the original on 2009-08-15.
Retrieved 2009-07-16.
6. ^ Jump up to:a b c d E. Fitzer; et al. (2000). "Fibers, 5. Synthetic
Inorganic". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry.
Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co.
KGaA. doi:10.1002/14356007.a11_001. ISBN 978-3527306732.
7. ^ Fiberglass. Redorbit.com (2014-06-20). Retrieved on 2016-06-02.
8. ^ ASM handbook. ASM International. Handbook Committee.
(10th ed.). Materials Park, OH: ASM International. 2001. pp. 27–
29. ISBN 978-1-62708-011-8. OCLC 712545628.
9. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Gupta, V.B.; V.K. Kothari (1997). Manufactured
Fibre Technology. London: Chapman and Hall. pp. 544–
546. ISBN 978-0-412-54030-1.
10. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Volf, Milos B. (1990). Technical Approach to
Glass. New York: Elsevier. ISBN 978-0-444-98805-8.
11. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Lubin, George, ed. (1975). Handbook of
Fiberglass and Advanced Plastic Composites. Huntingdon NY:
Robert E. Krieger.
12. ^ Incropera, Frank P.; De Witt, David P. (1990). Fundamentals
of Heat and Mass Transfer (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons.
pp. A11. ISBN 978-0-471-51729-0.
13. ^ Frederick T. Wallenberger; Paul A. Bingham (October
2009). Fiberglass and Glass Technology: Energy-Friendly
Compositions and Applications. Springer. pp. 211–. ISBN 978-1-
4419-0735-6. Retrieved 29 April 2011.
14. ^ Jump up to:a b Hull, D.; Clyne, T. W., eds. (1996), "Fibres and
matrices", An Introduction to Composite Materials, Cambridge Solid
State Science Series (2 ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, p. 15, doi:10.1017/cbo9781139170130.004, ISBN 978-1-
139-17013-0, retrieved 2020-11-07
15. ^ Hillermeier KH, Melliand Textilberichte 1/1969, Dortmund-
Mengede, pp. 26–28, "Glass fiber—its properties related to the
filament fiber diameter".
16. ^ Loewenstein, K.L. (1973). The Manufacturing Technology of
Continuous Glass Fibers. New York: Elsevier Scientific.
p. 91. ISBN 978-0-444-41109-9.
17. ^ Loewenstein, K.L. (1973). The Manufacturing Technology of
Continuous Glass Fibers. New York: Elsevier Scientific.
p. 94. ISBN 978-0-444-41109-9.
18. ^ Mohr, J.G.; W.P. Rowe (1978). Fiberglass. Atlanta: Van
Nostrand Reindhold. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-442-25447-6.
19. ^ Jump up to:a b "Fiber Glass: A Carcinogen That's
Everywhere". Rachel's News. Environmental Research Foundation.
1995-05-31. Retrieved 2008-10-30.
20. ^ John Fuller (2008-03-24). "Fiberglass and Asbestos". Is
insulation dangerous?. Retrieved 27 August 2010.
21. ^ "Fiberglass". Yeshiva University. Archived from the
original on 20 July 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2010.
22. ^ Infante, PF; Schuman, LD; Huff, J (1996). "Fibrous glass
insulation and cancer: response and rebuttal". American Journal of
Industrial Medicine. 30 (1): 113–20. doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-
0274(199607)30:1<113::aid-ajim21>3.3.co;2-n. PMID 16374937.
23. ^ "What does the research show about the health and safety of
fiber glass?". FAQs About Fiber Glass Insulation. NAIMA. Archived
from the original on 13 June 2010. Retrieved 27 August 2010.
24. ^ Toxicological Profile for Synthetic Vitreous Fibers (U.S.
Department of Health and Human Services, Public Health Services,
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry), September
2004, p. 17.
25. ^ T. W. Hesterberga, G. Chaseb, C. Axtenc, 1, W. C. Millera,
R. P. Musselmand, O. Kamstrupe, J. Hadleyf, C. Morscheidtg, D. M.
Bernsteinh and P. Thevenaz (2 August 1998). "Biopersistence of
Synthetic Vitreous Fibers and Amosite Asbestos in the Rat Lung
Following Inhalation". Toxicology and Applied
Pharmacology. 151 (2): 262–
275. doi:10.1006/taap.1998.8472. PMID 9707503.
26. ^ Jump up to:a b c Ilschner, B; et al. (2000). "Composite
Materials". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry.
Weinheim, Germany: Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co.
KGaA. doi:10.1002/14356007.a07_369. ISBN 978-3527306732.
27. ^ Erhard, Gunter. Designing with Plastics. Trans. Martin
Thompson. Munich: Hanser Publishers, 2006.
 28. ^ "Reflective Cracking Treated with GlasGrid" (PDF). CTIP
News. 2010. Archived from the original (PDF) on 26 February 2013.
Retrieved 1 September 2013.
29. ^ "Steel Versus GFRP Rebars?". Public Roads. September–
October 2005. Retrieved 1 September 2013.
30. ^ Electric Field-Assisted Orientation of Short Phosphate Glass
Fibers on Stainless Steel for Biomedical Applications Qiang Chen,
Jiajia Jing, Hongfei Qi, Ifty Ahmed, Haiou Yang, Xianhu Liu, T. L. Lu,
and Aldo R. Boccaccini ACS Applied Materials & Interfaces 2018 10
(14), 11529-11538 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.8b01378
31. ^ Nandi, S., Jaffee, A. M., Goya, K. F., & Dietz, A. G. (2019).
U.S. Patent No. US10193138. Washington, DC: U.S. Patent and
Trademark Office.
32. ^ New recycling effort aims to push KC to go green with its
glass, Kansas City Star, October 14, 2009
33. ^ FAQs About Fiber Glass Insulation. North American
Insulation Manufacturers Association

FIBRE GLASS MOLDING

Fiberglass molding is a process in which fiberglass reinforced resin

plastics are formed into useful shapes.[1]
The process usually involves first making a mold and then using the mold
to make the fiberglass component.

Mold making[edit]
The fiberglass mold process begins with an object known as the plug or
buck. This is an exact representation of the object to be made. The plug
can be made from a variety of materials, usually certain types of foam.
After the plug has been formed, it is sprayed with a mold release agent.
The release agent will allow the mold to be separated from the plug once it
is finished. The mold release agent is a special wax, and/or PVA (Polyvinyl
alcohol). Polyvinyl alcohol, however, is said to have negative effects on the
final mold's surface finish.
Once the plug has its release agent applied, gelcoat is applied with a roller,
brush or specially-designed spray gun. The gelcoat is pigmented resin, and
gives the mold surface a harder, more durable finish.
Once the release agent and gelcoat are applied, layers of fiberglass and
resin are laid-up onto the surface. The fiberglass used will typically be
identical to that which will be used in the final product.
In the laying-up process, a layer of fiberglass mat is applied, and resin is
applied over it. A special roller is then used to remove air bubbles. Air
bubbles, if left in the curing resin, would significantly reduce the strength of
the finished mold. The fiberglass spray lay-up process is also used to
produce molds, and can provide good filling of corners and cavities where a
glass mat or weave may prove to be too stiff.
Once the final layers of fiberglass are applied to the mold, the resin is
allowed to set up and cure. Wedges are then driven between the plug and
the mold in order to separate the two.
Advanced techniques such as resin transfer molding are also used.

Making a component[edit]
The component-making process involves building up a component on the
fiberglass mold. The mold is a negative image of the component to be
made, so the fiberglass will be applied inside the mold, rather than around
it.
As in the mold-making process, release agent is first applied to the mold.
Colored gelcoat is then applied. Layers of fiberglass are then applied, using
the same procedure as before. Once completed and cured, the component
is separated from the mold using wedges, compressed air or both.

REFERENCES

References[edit]

1. ^ Company, DIANE Publishing (March 1991). The Fiberglass-

Reinforced and Composite Plastics Industry: Guides to Pollution
Prevention. DIANE Publishing. ISBN 9781568060811.
 RESEARCH ON POLYESTER RESIN

Definition:

Polyester resins are synthetic resins formed by the reaction

of dibasic organic acids and polyhydric alcohols. Maleic anhydride is a
commonly used raw material with diacid functionality
in unsaturated polyester resins.[1] Unsaturated polyester resins are used
in sheet moulding compound, bulk moulding compound and
the toner of laser printers. Wall panels fabricated from polyester resins
reinforced with fiberglass—so-called fiberglass reinforced plastic (FRP)
—are typically used in restaurants, kitchens, restrooms and other areas
that require washable low-maintenance walls. They are also used
extensively in cured-in-place pipe applications. Departments of
Transportation in the USA also specify them for use as overlays on
roads and bridges. In this application they are known AS Polyester
Concrete Overlays (PCO). These are usually based on isophthalic
acid and cut with styrene at high levels—usually up to 50%.[2] Polyesters
are also used in anchor bolt adhesives though epoxy based materials
are also used.[3] Many companies have and continue to
introduce styrene free systems mainly due to odor issues, but also over
concerns that styrene is a potential carcinogen. Drinking
water applications also prefer styrene free. Most polyester resins are
viscous, pale coloured liquids consisting of a solution of a polyester in a
reactive diluent which is usually styrene,[4] but can also include vinyl
toluene and various acrylates.

Advantages[edit]
Polyester resin offers the following advantages:

1. Adequate resistance to water and variety of chemicals.

2. Adequate resistance to weathering and ageing.
3. Low cost.
4. Polyesters can withstand a temperature up to 80 °C.
5. Polyesters have good wetting to glass fibres.
6. Relatively low shrinkage at between 4–8% during curing.
7. Linear thermal expansion ranges from 100–200 x 10−6 K−1.
Disadvantages[edit]
Polyester resin has the following disadvantages:

1. Strong styrene odour
2. More difficult to mix than other resins, such as a two-part epoxy
3. The toxic nature of its fumes, and especially of its catalyst, MEKP(
methyl kethyl ketone peroxide), pose a safety risk if proper
protection isn't used
4. Not appropriate for bonding many substrates
5. The finished cure is most likely weaker than an equal amount of an
epoxy resin.