Table of Contents

List of Acronyms...........................................................................................................................................i
List of Tables................................................................................................................................................ii
List of figures...............................................................................................................................................ii
Abstract......................................................................................................................................................iii
1. Introduction.............................................................................................................................................1
1.1. Crop production................................................................................................................................1
1.2. Excess water / Water logging...........................................................................................................1
1.3. Detection of water logging...............................................................................................................2
1.4. Causes of Excess water in field.........................................................................................................2
3. Methodology...........................................................................................................................................3
4. Discussion................................................................................................................................................3
4.1. Factors favoring occurrence of water logging...................................................................................3
4.1.1. Increasing water input...............................................................................................................3
4.1.2. Slow drainage of water through soil profile...............................................................................3
4.2. Effects of water logging (Flash).........................................................................................................4
4.2.1. Soils............................................................................................................................................4
4.2.2. Crops..........................................................................................................................................5
4.2.3. Inputs.........................................................................................................................................5
4.3. Impacts of Flooding (water logging) on Crop Development.............................................................6
4.3.1. Morphological and physiological...............................................................................................6
4.3.2. Increase in saline and alkaline elements in soil or increase in salinity.......................................7
4.3.3. Hindrance in Air Communication...............................................................................................7
4.3.4. Reduction in Temperature of Soil..............................................................................................8
4.3.5. Shallowness of Roots.................................................................................................................8
4.3.6. Marshy Land..............................................................................................................................9
4.3.7. More Nitrate Formation............................................................................................................9
4.3.8. Shortage of Soil Nutritive Elements and Decrease in Productivity.............................................9
4.3.9. Acidity of Soil.............................................................................................................................9
4.3.10. Attack of diseases....................................................................................................................9
4.3.11. Availability of plant nutrients.................................................................................................10
4.4. Management of Excess Water in Crop Field...................................................................................10
 4.4.1. Prevent/Reduce Occurrence of Water logging in Agricultural Lands.......................................10
4.4.2. Improving Land Drainage.........................................................................................................11
4.4.3. Tillage......................................................................................................................................12
4.4.4. Crop Selection..........................................................................................................................12
4.4.5. Submergence Tolerance Variety..............................................................................................13
4.4.6. Plant Breeding.........................................................................................................................14
4.4.7. Nutrient management.............................................................................................................14
5. Summary and Conclusion......................................................................................................................15
References.................................................................................................................................................16
List of Acronyms
mmd-1 Millimeter per day

NAR Net Assimilation Ratio

LAR Leaf Area Ratio

RGR Relative Growth Rate

% Percent

i
List of Tables
Tabl Page
e no. No.
1 water stress tolerance period for different types of crops 12
2 Submerged tolerance genes with chromosomes number of different crops 13

List of figures
Figur Page
e No.
No.
1 Control of the groundwater table by means of deep open drains 11

ii
Abstract
The soil and crop environment are affected by excess water through the depletion of oxygen,
leading to reduced root respiration and other vital plant processes, as well as the production and
accumulation of phytotoxic compounds, such as ethylene, in plant roots and soil. Saturated soil
conditions change the soil’s redox potential, favouring the loss of nitrogen and production of
ions that are toxic under certain soil conditions. These factors combine to hamper plant growth
and cause significant yield losses. Crop tolerance and adaptation to waterlogging is plant species
dependent. Plant roots and shoots can adapt to short-term reductions in oxygen levels by
lowering respiration rates and slowing growth of shoots. Supplemental nitrogen fertilizer can
offset a portion of the yield losses due to excess water because nitrate can act as a secondary
source of oxygen for the plant. Prolonged exposure to excess water creates symptoms similar to
those experienced by crops under drought conditions. The degree of impact excess water has on
yield emphasizes the importance of improved field drainage and proper crop selection.

iii
1. Introduction

1.1. Crop production

Crop production is the harvest of solar energy by the crops and convert into the organic product
(food, fibre, and feed etc.) that is valuable for mankind.

1.2. Excess water / Waterlogging

Excess water is a condition of land in which the soil profile is saturated with water either
temporarily or permanently that suffocate the plant's roots and may not be able to sustain the
normal morphological and physiological process (Sharma & Swarup, 1988).
The waterlogging is defined as rendering the soil unproductive and infertile due to excessive
moisture and creation of anaerobic conditions. The phenomenon of water logging can be best
understood with the help of a hydrologic equation, which states that
Inflow = Outflow -I- Storage
Here, inflow represents that amount of water which enters the subsoil in various processes. It
includes seepage from the canals, infiltration of rainwater, percolation from irrigated fields and
subsoil flow. Thus although it is loss or us, it represents the amount of water flowing into the
soil.
The management in different factors for crop production in water logged condition due to excess
water and minimizing its harmful effect is a very important agronomic aspect. Harmful effects
due to excess water as listed by (“Water Management | Excess Water harms the crop |
Indiaagronet,” n.d. 2018) are as follows:-

 The field will get water logged and the crop cannot get sufficient water and air, as good
aeration and warmth in the root zone are essential for proper plant growth.
 Bacteria that change organic matter into plant foods cannot get the necessary air and
warm temperature in the soil.
 Desirable chemical reactions cannot take place and nutrient availability is not easily to
the plants.
 Proper root development and absorption of nutrients is not accelerated.

1
  Seed germination is affected due to poor aeration and warm temperature.
 Plants affected by diseases and pest attack.

In waterlogged field, the water table rises to an extent that the soil pores in the crop root zone are
saturated resulting in restriction of the normal circulation of air. This causes a decline in the level
of oxygen and increase in the level of carbon dioxide. Areas with water table within 2 m below
the ground surface are considered as prone to water logging and those with water table within 2-
3 m are considered to be at risk. Thus, waterlogged condition in field reduces the agricultural and
economic value and become the most important limiting factors to crop productivity and
ultimately the food security.

1.3. Detection of water logging

The best way to detecting water logging is done by observing variations in the groundwater
level. It can be done by measuring the depth of water levels at regular intervals and continuous
high water level indicate the problem of water logging in the area(“Water logging: Definition,
Causes, Effects (With Statistics),” n.d. 2018).

1.4. Causes of Excess water in field

1. Inadequate drainage increases the rate of percolation and raising the water table.
2. Infiltration of water from rivers into the soil.
3. Seepage of water from earthen canals also adds significant quantity of water to the
underground reservoir continuously.
4. Excessive flooding the fields during irrigation also help appreciably in raising the water
table.
2. Objectives
1. To get acquainted with the excess water stress
2. To identify harmful effects of excess water in crop production
3. To develop management strategies to overcome the harmful effects

2
3. Methodology
A review of literature on the effect of excess moisture on a growing crop was done to understand
the processes affected by excess water and to quantify the impact on crop yields.

4. Discussion
The soil and crop environment is highly affected by excess of water through the depletion of
oxygen, leading to reduced root respiration and other vital plant processes as well as the
production and accumulation of phytotoxic compounds, such as ethylene in plant roots and soil.
Saturated soil conditions change the soil’s redox potential, favoring loss of nitrogen and
production of ions that are toxic to soil environment conditions. These factors combine to
hamper plant growth and cause loss in yield drastically.

4.1. Factors favoring occurrence of water logging

4.1.1. Increasing water input

Water logging in the soil occurs when water enters soil faster than it can drain away under
gravity. Increase in rainfall frequency and magnitude of flooding from rivers overflow as a
consequences of climate change i.e. rise in global temperature submerged the arable cultivable
land causing stagnation in it.
Intensive and large-scale irrigation of farmland also increase the incidence of water logging of
the soil resulting rise in water table.
A third contributory factor is change of land use pattern. Conversion of meadow land to arable
farming has contributed to increased surface run-off and increase flooding problems.

4.1.2. Slow drainage of water through soil profile

The duration and severity of flooding is influenced not only by the rate of water input but also by
the rate of water outflow from the rooting zone. Water outflow or drainage is the natural or
artificial removal of a surface's water and sub-surface water from an area. The rate of drainage
through the soil profile is critical and strongly affected by soil structure. The pores of clay soils
are less well connected than those of sandier soils and thus drain more slowly in clay soil than
sandy soils because of low hydraulic conductance (mm d-1).

3
4.2. Effects of water logging (Flash)

4.2.1. Soil
1. Lack of aeration
Water logging expels air from the soil pores resulting in a saturated condition. Without
air, plant roots degenerate and crops can die. Certain microorganisms cannot survive
resulting in reduced microbiological activity necessary for formation of plant food. Water
logging also increases acidity build up which is harmful to most food crops.
2. Reduced soil temperature
Waterlogged soil is slow to warm up. Lower soil temperature restricts root development,
depresses biotic activity in the soil resulting in lowered rate of production of available
nitrogen hampering seed germination and seedling growth. Reduction of soil
temperatures; results in stunted growth and reduced production of nitrogen.
3. Salinization
Salinity build up is increased when water from lower soil layers which may contain salts
is brought up to the soil surface by capillary action. Thus, high salinization and deposits
of sodium salts in the soil at or near the ground surface are created which may be toxic or
lead to the formation of alkaline conditions
4. Inhibiting activity of soil bacteria
When soil structure is affected and tillage and cultivation of wet soil takes place, bacteria
tend to reduce normal biotic activity and this affects root development.
5. De-nitrification: De-nitrification occurs because of the competition for nitrogen by the
soil micro-organisms that thrive in saturated soil and reduction in numbers of nitrifying
organisms due to lack of aeration. There is reduction of nitrogen in the soil which in
affects plant nutrients uptake
6. Retards cultivation
Normal cultivation practices is difficulty in water logged condition. Waterlogged fields
cannot be tilled properly. The reason is that the soil contains excessive moisture content
and it does not give proper tilth.

4
4.2.2. Crops
Delayed cultivation operations: normal cultivation operations of tillage and ploughing are
adversely affected due to presence of excess water in the soil.
1. Aquatic weeds
Water-loving wild plants grow profusely and have competition with the crops, thereby
affecting the growth of useful crops weed removal also entails extra investments and in
extreme waterlogged conditions, only wild grow is there.
2. Diseased crops
Waterlogged conditions cause physiological disease to crops. Decay of roots, external
symptoms on the foliage and fruits are common.
3. Loss of cash crops
Cash crops desired to be grown cannot be cultivated and the land is restricted to few
crops like paddy rice.
4. Low yields
Maturity period of crops is reduced resulting in low yields. The yield of crops is
adversely affected if the water table is within 90 cm (sugarcane), 60 cm (rice), 90 cm
(gram and barley), 90-125 (wheat), 120 cm (fodder), 125 cm (maize and cotton), and
210-240 cm (Lucerne).
5. Oxygen depletion
In saturated soil, plant roots are denied normal circulation of air; the level of oxygen
declines and that of carbon dioxide increase resulting in wilting and ultimately death of
plants. The rotting of the plant roots under conditions of reduced supply of oxygen causes
yellow color to leaves. The lack of air in the soil causes precipitation of Manganese that
is toxic to plants.

4.2.3. Inputs
1. Fertilizers loss
Due to excess water, leaching losses of fertilizer namely urea, occur and unavailable to
the plants. Also availability of other nutrients affected.
2. Poor germination
Due to poor aeration and warmth in the soil, seed germination is badly affected and
ultimately there is a poor stand of crop.

5
 3. Effect on irrigation layout
Excess water causes damage to irrigation layouts namely sara, basin, and furrow, which
cause flowing of water and required labour to correct the layout.
4. Effect on cultural operation
Excess water interfere with inter-cultivation field requires frequent weeding as excess
water accelerates weed growth. Due to wetting of land harrowing, earthing-up etc. get
affected and farm implements turn to wear –tear.
5. Additional cost of labour and plant protection
Due to frequent weeding and damage cause to layout it requires more labour for weeding
and correction of irrigation layout. As plants/crop affected due to diseases and attack of
pests it add cost of control measure of these diseases and pests.

Thus excess water causes harmful effects on soil and plant and other input it is necessary to
apply proper drainage methods and reclamation.

4.3. Impacts of Flooding (water logging) on Crop Development

4.3.1. Morphological and physiological

The morphological and physiological impacts as stated by (Maryam & Nasreen, 2012)
are:-
a. Morphological
 The most unpleasant consequence of the water logging is hypoxia i.e. shortage of
oxygen or anoxia i.e. total lack of oxygen in the soil medium which causes the
reduced growth, inhibits the metabolic processes and finally reduces the yield.
 Fatality of seeding when water-logging in functional during seed sowing or sprouting.
 Death of seeding due to decline in NAR, LAR, RGR by water stagnation
 Leaf lengthening rates and interaction is vital for the stimulation of adventitious root
total size of leaf become decreased
 Transpiration rate affected unless roots regain aerobic environment from anaerobic
environment
 Water logging prevents shoot growth; dry matter accretion and final acquiesce

6
 b. Physiological
 In anoxia condition oxidative phosphorylation of mitochondria is stopped
 Under hypoxia condition reduction in normal photosynthetic rate and chrolophyll
content and leaf senescence occur and shrinking of leaves may also complete
inhibition of photosynthesis.

4.3.2. Increase in saline and alkaline elements in soil or increase in salinity

When irrigation is done regularly with excessive water, groundwater level comes up and
quantity of solvent salts increases. Due to evaporation, salts from saline groundwater
collect on the surface of the soil. Seepage of canal water also results in more salts in
irrigation water. Concentration of soluble salts is so much in water logged soil that has
adverse effect on the growth of crops and the production is reduced.

4.3.3. Hindrance in Air Communication

Excessive water replaces air in pores of the soil. Hence, roots of plants and beneficial
organisms do not get sufficient air for breathing and living. Hence, growth of plants is
stopped and diseases destroy crops. In water logged soil, diffusion of gases through soil
pores is so strongly inhibited by water content that plant fails to match the needs of
growing roots. A slowing of oxygen influx is the principal cause of injury to roots, and
the shoots they support (Vartapetian, B.B. and Jackson, 1997) . The small amount of
oxygen is quickly consumed during the early stages of flooding by aerobic micro-
organisms and roots. In addition to imposing oxygen shortage, flooding also impedes the
diffusive escape and/or oxidative breakdown of gases such as ethylene (Arshad.M. and
Frankenberger,1976) or carbon dioxide that is produced by roots and soil micro-

7
 organisms.

Fig: effect of water logged condition on crop

This leads to accumulations that can influence root growth and function. 

4.3.4. Reduction in Temperature of Soil

Excess collected water becomes cold in the process of evaporation and it causes
reduction in temperature of the soil. Seeds do not settle properly and growth of plants is
affected. Activeness of organisms is also reduced.

4.3.5. Shallowness of Roots

Due to excess water and shortage of air, roots do not go deep and they remain on the
upper surface. Plants are not able to get nutritive elements in sufficient quantity, low root
development which cause in lodging of plants.Water logged conditions can predispose
the plant to root rots. Plants grown in water logged condition show nitrogen and
phosphorus deficiencies later in the season due to restricted root development.  Yield
losses can occur even if these obvious visible symptoms are not observed.

8
4.3.6. Marshy Land
Land becomes marshy due to stagnant water for a long duration and only grass can grow
there. The land does not remain useful for agriculture.

4.3.7. More Nitrate Formation

Due to absence of oxygen in waterlogged soil, process of de-nitrification starts.
Organisms themselves start drawing available oxygen in nitrate, which convert nitrate
into nitrous oxide, nitric oxide and nitrogen gases. Being in gas form, they are useless for
plants. Such problems will not exist by balanced irrigation. Waterlogging can also
indirectly impact cereal growth by affecting the availability of nitrogen in the
soil. Excessive water can leach nitrate nitrogen beyond the rooting zone of the developing
plant, particularly in well-drained light textured soils. The amount of loss depends on the
amount of nitrate in the soil, soil temperature, and the length of time that the soil is
saturated.

4.3.8. Shortage of Soil Nutritive Elements and Decrease in Productivity

Due to excessive water, nutritive elements of soil flow to sub-soil, resulting in decrease in
soil productivity and deficiency in crops.

4.3.9. Acidity of Soil

In excessively water logged areas, H+ replaces positively charged Ca2+, Mg2+, K+, Na+
stick to colloid granules of soil. These positively charged particles flow away to lower
levels which cause decrease of basic positively charged particles and there is an excess of
colloidal granules. This result in excess of H+ in soil water and soil becomes acidic.

4.3.10. Attack of diseases

Flooding increases the incidence of soil-borne fungal diseases (Yanar.et.al.
1997).  Germinating seeds are particularly vulnerable to fungal colonization. Infection of
alfalfa, vegetables and trees by Phytophthora (wilting), Pythium (damping-off) and
anaerobic bacteria (e.g. Pseudomonas putida) are common problems in practical
farming (Walker, 1991). However it is not always clear whether injury is principally the
result of the microbial infection or of the direct effects of flooding.

9
4.3.11. Availability of plant nutrients
1. Nitrogen
Nitrogen deficiency is extremely common in water-logged soils. Due to lower
temperature and reduced condition, mineralization of organic N is affected.
2. Phosphorus
The inorganic forms of P are usually present at higher levels in flooded soils than in
upland soils. An experiment showed that reduction of the soil by flooding decreases P
absorption by 28-70%.
3. Potassium
K response is apparent in many lowland soils. Flooding and puddling of the soils
during lowland preparation may considerably increase the soil solution concentration
of K because of displacement of exchangeable K by the large amounts of Fe ++ and
Mn++ in the soil solution.

4. Sulphur
Sulphur deficiency has been reported from many lowland areas. The reduction of
SO4– in flooded soils has three implications for rice culture; the supply may become
insufficient, Zn and Cu may be immobilized, and H2S toxicity may arise particularly
in soils low in Fe.
5. Zinc
Widespread deficiency of Zn to rice crop in wetland conditions is reported. Zinc is
most frequently deficient in alkaline soils.
6. Iron and Manganese:
Availability of excess Fe2+ and Mn2+ causes toxicity to the plant.

4.4. Management of Excess Water in Crop Field

4.4.1. Prevent/Reduce Occurrence of Water logging in Agricultural Lands

Waterlogged in arable agriculture land by simply adopting various designs and proper
land husbandry can be reduced or even eliminated.

4.4.1.1. Preventing Water logging in Irrigated Agriculture

 Control of canal seepage

10
  In-field water management
 Control of inflow from other water bodies
 Control of ground-water inflows
 Control of water from higher ground into lower fields

4.4.1.2. Preventative measures in rainfed agriculture

 Reducing unnecessary percolation of rainfall
 Controlling surface runoff
 Tree planting

4.4.2. Improving Land Drainage

Drainage is necessary in heavy clay soils. Drainage in sandy soils leads to leaching of
nutrients. Drainage can be through vertical drainage or surface drainage. Drainage exerts
beneficial effects on soils with abundant production of toxic substances and also in fields
where large quantity of green manure have been applied. The extent of drainage and type
of drainage system to be adopted will depend on several factors relating to soil, crop,
weather and the hydrological characteristics of an area. Moreover, certain stages of
growth like early flowering have been reported to be more susceptible to water logged
conditions than other stages of crop growth. The drainage should be synchronized with
the period just following tillering and flowering. Even 4 days complete submergence at
flowering was more detrimental than 8 days of submergence at seedling establishment
and 12 days of submergence during the late vegetative phase. The drainage period could
last from 3-7 days depending upon the type of soil.

Fig: Control of the groundwater table by means of deep open drains

11
4.4.3. Tillage
The flooded field needs to be managed carefully. Avoid any extensive tillage that may
compound the problem by creating soil compaction that will reduce water penetration and
increase potential soil erosion. The lessons of such wet conditions are to evaluate the
field conditions and assess the needs for implementing management practices that will
minimize such impact in the future.

4.4.4. Crop Selection

A general tolerance period for excess water stress varies according to plant type. Most
annual crops can tolerate 3-7 days of water stress; forage legumes tolerate 9-14 days
stress; forage grasses can tolerate excess water for 10-49 days. However, it is important
to remember other factors that can influence the tolerance period, such as soil type, plant
species, soil temperature etc. Relative crop tolerance to excess water varies according to
plant species. Part of difference may be due to varying levels of resistance to disease,
while most of the differences are due to physiological characteristics.
Table 1: water stress tolerance period for different types of crops

Crops Tolerance Period (days)

Annual Crops 3-7
Forage Legumes 9 - 14
Forage Grasses 10 -49

Manitoba Agriculture (2018) found sequence based on tolerance capacity to water

logging condition is as follows:-

 Cereal crops:  oats > wheat > barley;

 Pulse crops:  fababeans > soybeans >>> field beans > peas;
 Oilseed crops: canola > sunflower > flax;
 Forage crops:  grasses > legumes, with reed canarygrass > timothy > orchardgrass
= perennial ryegrass; and birdsfoot trefoil/red clover > alsike clover >> sweet
clover > alfalfa.

12
4.4.5. Submergence Tolerance Variety
Submergence tolerance is a metabolic adaptation in response to anaerobisis that enables
cells to maintain their integrity so that the plant survives hypoxia without major damages.
A critical evaluation of submergence-tolerant and intolerant rice cultivars revealed that
seedlings of tolerant and intolerant rice cultivars revealed that seedlings of tolerant
species have 30-50% more non-structural carbohydrates compared to the susceptible to
the susceptible cultivars.
Various submergence tolerance varieties have been developed and utilized like in rice
Swarna, swarna sub-1 (Sona Mansuli), I Sambha Mansuli sub 1 are the varieties
developed for central and eastern Nepal while IR64 sub-1 for Western Nepal. These
varieties have the greater cooking quality and they can tolerate submergence up to 15
days. The genes responsible for developing submerged tolerance ability are shown in
table below:
Table 2: Submerged tolerance genes with chromosomes number of different crops

Species QTL/chromosome No./genes Marker Metho

used d
Rice (Oryza sativa Sub1 (Ch. 9) SSR MAS
L.)
Barley (Hordeum Qwt4-1 SSR MAS
vulgare L.)
Barley (Hordeum tfy2.1-1, tfy1.1-2, tfy1.2-1 RFLP MAS
vulgare L.)
Barley (Hordeum tfy1.1-3, tfsur-2 tfsur-1, tfy1.1-1, tf DArT MAS
vulgare L.) mas, tfy2.1-2
Maize (Zea mays Ch. 4, 9 SSR CIM
L.)
Maize (Zea mays Ch. 1–3, 6, 7, and Ch. 10 SSR CIM
L.)

13
 Soybean [Glycine Rps SSR SMA
max (L.) Merr.]
Soybean [Glycine Rps SSR CIM
max (L.) Merr.]
Source: Ahmed et al.,( 2013)

4.4.6. Plant Breeding

Linking tolerance with identifiable phenotypic traits, such as aerenchyma may help guide
evaluation and selection processes associated with breeding. For example, Garthwaite,
Bothmer, & Colmer, (2003) linked tolerance in certain wild accessions of Hordeum and a
modern barley cultivar with both constitutive aerenchyma in the roots and with the
development of an effective barrier to radial oxygen loss that renders internal oxygen
transport towards root tips more efficient. Interestingly, this barrier developed most
strongly in accessions collected from naturally wet habitat

4.4.7. Nutrient management

Nutrient losses can be minimized by good nutrient management practices. Soil-testing to
determine the amount of fertilizer needed to satisfy crop requirements - along with well-
timed application - are key elements of optimal fertilization. Application of variable
fertilizer rates according to soil type, or split applications, can lower the risk of losing
nutrients by avoiding over-application and minimizing the amount of time the fertilizer is
in the ground. Inoculation of legume crops is particularly important in wet conditions
when nitrogen-fixing populations may be much reduced.

The following concept may increase N-use efficiency in lowland rice:-

 Deep placement
 Slow and controlled release fertilizers
 Use of nitrification and urease inhibitors

14
5. Summary and Conclusion
Water logging of agricultural lands occur when soil profile gets saturated with water either
temporarily or permanently that suffocate the plants roots and may not be able to sustain the
normal morphological and physiological process resulting inadequate oxygen available to
crops root zone. Reduced oxygen supplies to a crops root due to shallow water table reduces
nutrient uptake, crop growth, and yield. In general, when a shallow water tables exists the
yields of most crops can be related to the depth of the water table. For most crops there exists
an optimum water table depth, at which aeration, moisture, and nutrients are such that crop yields
can be maximized. When the water table rises above this threshold, crop yields begin to decline.
Thus, consequences of water logging impart adverse changes in different characteristics of crops
and decline in the overall yield of crops and ultimately leading to financial loss.

15
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