Curtin University of Technology Master of Petroleum Well Engineering

Department of Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering Fundamentals

Chapter 4

Introduction to Hydraulics

By definition, a static fluid cannot sustain shear stresses, otherwise it will enter
in motion (and will not be static anymore). The consequence of this is that
the state of stress inside a fluid is such that the normal stresses are the same
in any direction. This state of stress is called hydrostatic state of stress. The
magnitude of the stress is called pressure.

4.1 Hydrostatic Pressure

The hydrostatic pressure inside a homogeneous fluid comes from the pressure
at the surface and the weight of the fluid above the point in question. To calcu-
late the pressure at any point inside a column of fluid of density ρ (gas or liquid),
we consider an infinitesimal element of fluid with volume dV = dx · dy · dz as
shown in Figure 4.1.

Figure 4.1: Stress state about a point in a fluid.

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Introduction to Hydraulics
Curtin University of Technology Master of Petroleum Well Engineering
Department of Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering Fundamentals

To remain in equilibrium, the resulting forces acting in all 3 directions must

be zero. Then we have:
X
Fx = px dy dz − (px + dpx ) dy dz = 0 → dpx = 0
X
Fy = py dz dx − (py + dpy ) dz dx = 0 → dpy = 0
X
Fz = py dz dx − (py + dpy ) dz dx − ρ g dx dy dz = 0 → dpz = −ρ g dz

The horizontal gradients (dpx /dx and dpy /dy) are zero. Using p instead of
pz , we have, for the hydrostatic gradient:
dpz
= −ρ g
dz

Since in general we will be dealing with depth D, and since a point at depth
D has coordinate z = −D, the expression for the pressure differential in terms
of depth is:
dp = ρ g dD (4.1)

Note that ρ is mass per volume, or specific mass, or density. Therefore, ρ g

is weight per volume or specific weight, usually noted as γ. For a gravitational
system of units as the British System, the acceleration of gravity is equal to 1 G.
Such that
1 lbm × 1 G = 1 lbf .
That is the magnitude of the force is numerically equal to the magnitude of the
mass. For a scientific or non–gravitational system as the International System
(SI), the acceleration of gravity is equal to 9.80665m/s2 , such that

1 kg × 9.80665m/s2 = 9.80665 N .

To integrate (4.1), we need to know how the density depends on the pres-
sure. All fluids are compressible, but for some applications, some fluids can
be classified as incompressible. Liquids, in general are incompressible up to a
considerably high pressures. Gases are, in general, incompressible.

4.1.1 Hydrostatic Pressure for Incompressible Fluids

For incompressible fluids (liquids in general are in this class), the density ρ is
constant and integrating the (4.1) yields:

p1 = p0 + ρ g (D1 − D0 ) ,

which allows us to calculate the pressure at a point with depth D1 if we know

the pressure p0 at a point of depth D0 . For pressure in psi, density in lbm/gal,
and depth in feet we have:
12
p1 = p0 + ρ(D1 − D0 ) ≈ p0 + 0.0519ρ(D1 − D0 )
231

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Introduction to Hydraulics
Curtin University of Technology Master of Petroleum Well Engineering
Department of Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering Fundamentals

For pressure in psi, density in lbm/gal, and depth in meter we have:

12 D1 − D0
p1 = p0 + ρ ≈ p0 + 0.1704ρ(D1 − D0 )
231 0.3048

Example 6: Calculate the absolute pressure 1 at the depth of 3,000 ft in a

borehole filled with a drilling fluid with 9.2 lb/gal, in a location where the atmo-
spheric pressure is 13.5psi.
Solution:

p = 13.5 psi + 0.0519 × 9.2 lbm/gal × (3, 000 ft − 0 ft) = 1, 446 psia

Example 7: Calculate the fluid density required to drill a permeable forma-

tion at 12,000 ft if the pore pressure of the formation is 8,200 psig, with an
overbalance of 50 psi.
Solution:
8200 psig + 50 psid = 0.0519 × ρ × 12000 ft
ρ = 13.25 lbm/gal

4.1.1.1 Complex Fluid Column and Equivalent Density

If the column of fluid is composed of several segregated fluids with different

densities (complex fluid column), we still can use the expression for hydrostatic
pressure above, considering that at the top of a homogeneous column of fluid
acts a pressure resulting from the fluid above:
X
p=g ρi Ti ,

where ρi is the density of the ith layer of fluid and Ti its thickness.
For a complex fluid column, the equivalent fluid density at a given depth
is the density of a homogeneous fluid that would cause the same hydrostatic
pressure at that depth. Note that the equivalent density depends on the depth
in consideration.
1
The zero point of an absolute reference is the absence of all matter. There is no pressure
at absolute zero. On the other hand, a gauge pressure measures pressure relative to the local
atmosphere. Changes in local atmospheric pressure occur due to weather, altitude, and/or
depth. Gauge pressure indications usually use a "g" after the unit as in "psig". Absolute pres-
sure may have the letter "a" after the unit as in "psia". For pressure differential, it is common to
use a "d" after the unit.

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Introduction to Hydraulics
Curtin University of Technology Master of Petroleum Well Engineering
Department of Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering Fundamentals

P
A general expression for the equivalent density at depth D = Ti is
P
ρi Ti
ρeq = .
D

Example 8: A borehole is filled with fluid of density 8.8 lbm/gal from the sur-
face to the depth of 8,000 ft, and a fluid with 10.0 lbm/gal below 8,000 ft. Cal-
culate the absolute pressure at 12,200 ft. What is the equivalent density of the
fluid at 12,200 ft. Assume standard atmospheric pressure.
Solution:
lbm lbm
p12200 = 14.696 psi+0.0519×8.8 gal
×8000 ft+0.0519×10 gal
×(12200 ft−8000 ft)

P12000 = 5848 psia

5848 psia = 14.696 psi + 0.0519 × ρeq × 12200 ft
ρeq = 9.21 lbm/gal

4.1.2 Hydrostatic Pressure for Compressible Fluids

The density ρ of a compressible fluid (gases in general are compressible) is not

constant and depends on the pressure and temperature. In order to account
for this, we must consider the equation of state for real gases:
m
pV = z n R̄ T = z R̄ T ,
M
where z is the real gas deviation factor (see Figure 4.2) of the real gas at
pressure p and temperature T . Solving for ρ = m/V results in:

M
ρ= p. (4.2)
z R̄ T

Considering the expression (4.1) for the pressure differential we have:

Mg
dp = p dD .
z R̄ T
Since z depends on p, separating variables and integrating results in: 2
Zp2
z Mg
dp = (D2 − D1 ) .
p R̄ T
p1

2
And assuming that the temperature is constant in the gas column.

CHAPTER 4 Page 4–4

Introduction to Hydraulics
Curtin University of Technology Master of Petroleum Well Engineering
Department of Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering Fundamentals

Figure 4.2: Real gas deviation factor.

CHAPTER 4 Page 4–5

Introduction to Hydraulics
Curtin University of Technology Master of Petroleum Well Engineering
Department of Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering Fundamentals

The pressure integral can only be calculated if we know how z depends on

p. This is normally very complicated. For short columns, z cam be considered
constant and we can write:
Zp2
dp Mg
z = (D2 − D1 ) ,
p R̄ T
p1

M g
(D2 −D1 )
p2 = p1 e z1 R̄ T , (4.3)
where z1 is the compressibility factor at pressure p1 and T . A more accurate
approach is to use an average value for z given by:
z1 + z2
z̄ = ,
2
where z2 is the deviation factor for p2 calculated using the expression above.
Using this new average value of the compressibility factor, a new pressure p2 is
obtained from M g
p2 = p1 e z̄R̄ T (D2 −D1 ) ,
and compared with the previous one. The process is repeated until conver-
gence is obtained.
Values for the universal gas constant R̄ for various units are:
psi ft3
R̄ = 10.732
lb–mole◦ R
lbf ft
R̄ = 1545.4
lb–mole◦ R
kPa m3
R̄ = 8.3145
kg–mole K
J
R̄ = 8314.5
kg–mole K
It is important to note that pressure and temperature must be given in absolute
scales, as required by the gas equation of state. The absolute temperatures
are normally the Rankine and the Kelvin scales and given by:

T [◦ R] = t[◦ F] + 459.67 ,

T [K] = t[◦ C] + 273.15 .

The figures above are normally approximated to 460 and 273 respectively.
The Fahrenheit and Celsius temperature are converted using the following re-
lations:
9
t[◦ F] = (t[◦ C] + 40) − 40 ,
5
5
t[◦ C] = (t[◦ F] + 40) − 40 .
9

CHAPTER 4 Page 4–6

Introduction to Hydraulics
Curtin University of Technology Master of Petroleum Well Engineering
Department of Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering Fundamentals

Example 9: What is the density of the air at 13 psia and 60◦ F? (assume ideal
gas)
Solution:
With sufficient accuracy, the molecular weight of the air is:
lbm
Mair = 22% × 32 + 78% × 28 = 28.88
lb–mole
Using Equation (4.2) gives:
lbm
M 28.88 lb–mole 
144 in2

ρ= p= lbf ft ◦
13 psi 1 ft2 = 0.0673 lbm/ft3
z R̄ T 1 × 1545.4 lb–mole◦ R × (60 + 460) R

Example 10: Consider a 10,000 ft deep borehole with a drillstring and bit
to the bottom. The annular is completely filled with methane (CH4 ), and the
drillstring is filled with a 8.4 lbm/gal mud. After closing the BOP, the pressure
in the drill pipe at the surface is 640 psia. What is the expected pressure in the
casing at the surface, assuming ideal gas and average temperature of 150 ◦ F.
Solution:
The mass of one lb–mole of methane is 1x12+4x1 = 16 lbm. The drillstring–
annular system form a U–tube system. The pressure at the bottom of the bore-
hole can be calculated using the fluid inside the drill pipe and the surface pres-
sure:
pbottom = 640 psi + 0.0519 × 8.4 lbm/gal × 10000 ft = 5000 psi

This pressure is balanced by the pressure of the casing at the surface and the
hydrostatic pressure of the gas. Using Equation (4.3) gives:
16×1
psur = 5000 e 1×1545.4×(150+460) (0−10000)
psur = 4220 psi

4.2 Buoyancy

Archimedes principle of buoyancy states that the buoyant force exerted on a

body fully or partially immersed in a fluid is equal in magnitude (and opposite in
direction) to the weight of the volume of fluid which is displaced by that body.
For homogeneous bodies immersed in homogeneous fluids, the net or buoyed
weight of the body can be calculated from
 
ρf
Wnet = 1 − W
ρb

CHAPTER 4 Page 4–7

Introduction to Hydraulics
Curtin University of Technology Master of Petroleum Well Engineering
Department of Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering Fundamentals

where W is the weight of the body (in the air),

 ρf is the density of the fluid,
ρ
and ρb is the density of the body. The term 1 − ρfb is called buoyancy fac-
tor. This expression is valid only for homogeneous bodies fully immersed in
homogeneous fluids.
For homogeneous bodies, the geometric center of the body coincides with
the center of mass. For non–homogeneous bodies, an equivalent density (total
mass/volume) can be used, but it is important to keep in mind that the geometric
center (where the buoyant force applies) may not coincide with the center of
mass. In these cases, stable or instable equilibrium may exist.

Example 11: What is the weight of 0.4 ft3 of carbon steel? What is its buoyed
weight when submerged in a 9.3 lbm/gal fluid? What is the equivalent density
of the buoyed body in lbm/gal?
Solution:
The average density of carbon steel is 490 lb/ft3 = 65.5 lb/gal, so that the
weight of the body is

lbm
W = ρs g Vb = 490 × 1 G × 0.4 ft3 = 196 lbf
ft3
The buoyed weight is:
   
ρf 9.3
Wbuoyed = 1 − W = 1− × 196 = 168.2 lbf
ρs 65.5

The equivalent density is the density that would result in the same buoyed
weight:    
ρf ρf
1− Wb = 1 − ρb g Vb = ρeq g Vb
ρb ρb
ρeq = ρb − ρf = 65.5 lbm/gal − 9.3 lbm/gal = 56.2 lbm/gal

Example 12: A 12,000 ft long drillstring is composed of the following elements

(bottom up): 420 ft of 8 in OD–3 in ID DC, 840 ft of 7 in OD – 3 in ID DC, and
5 in E-75 19.5lb/ft drill pipe (22.28 lb/ft). The fluid density is 8.9 lb/gal. Calculate
the expected hook load when the drillstring is hanging on the elevator (out of
the bottom).
Solution:
The linear weight of the DCs are
π 
1 ft2

8 in DC: w = × (8 − 3 ) × 144 in2 × 490 lbm/ft3 = 147.0 lbf/ft
2 2
4

CHAPTER 4 Page 4–8

Introduction to Hydraulics
Curtin University of Technology Master of Petroleum Well Engineering
Department of Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering Fundamentals

Figure 4.3: Drillstring schematics for Example 12.

CHAPTER 4 Page 4–9

Introduction to Hydraulics
Curtin University of Technology Master of Petroleum Well Engineering
Department of Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering Fundamentals

π 
1 ft2

7 in DC: w = × (7 − 3 ) × 144 in2 × 490 lbm/ft3 = 106.9 lbf/ft
2 2
4
The weight in the air of the drillstring is

Wair = 420 × 147.0 + 840 × 106.9 + (12000 − 420 − 840) × 22.28 = 390823 lbf

The buoyed weight of the drillstring is:

 
8.9
Whook = Wbuoyed = 1 − × 390823 = 337719 lbf
65.5

If the body is either not totally submerged, or submerged in a inhomoge-

neous fluid, the expression above cannot be used. This may be complicated
for complex shape bodies. A more general way to calculate the buoyed weight,
even for partially immersed bodies and for complex fluid column is to calculate
the effect of the hydrostatic pressure on the body. This is demonstrated in the
next example.

Example 13: Recalculate the hook load of Example 12 using the effect of the
hydrostatic pressure on the drillstring.
Solution:
Here we face a problem: the tool joints of the drill pipes causes a considerable
increase in the average linear weight os the drill pipe body. Although we can
consider each tool joint of the drillstring, a most appropriate way is to consider
an equivalent cross section of the drill pipe. Since the purpose is to determine
the effect of the fluid in the weight, it is not important if we choose to change
the inside or the outside diameter (or both). In the present example, we chose
to change both, such that the average diameter remains the same. In this case,
the average diameter is Dave = 5+4.276
2
= 4.638 in, and the area is given by

As = π Dave t ,

where t is the thickness of the equivalent drill pipe. The equivalent outside
diameter is Dave + t and the inside diameter is Dave − t. Therefore, for a drill
pipe with 22.28 lb/ft, we have:

1 ft2
 
lb lb
π × 4.638 in × t × 490 3 × 2
= 22.28
ft 144 in ft
t = 0.449 in
Do = 4.638 + 0.449 = 5.087 in
Di = 4.638 − 0.449 = 4.189 in
Note that these figures are for buoyancy calculation only, and should never be
used for strength calculations (torque, tensile, burst, collapse, etc).

CHAPTER 4 Page 4–10

Introduction to Hydraulics
Curtin University of Technology Master of Petroleum Well Engineering
Department of Petroleum Engineering Drilling Engineering Fundamentals

Now, the fluid pressure acts in the cross section areas at 10,740 ft, 11,580 ft,
and 12,000 ft. In the first and second areas, the forces are downwards, and in
the third case the force is upward. These forces add and subtract to the weight
of the drillstring. To calculate the force we need the pressures at each depth
and the area exposed to the fluid. The values are:

p10740 = 0.0519 × 8.9 × 10740 = 4961 psi

p11580 = 0.0519 × 8.9 × 11580 = 5349 psi

p12000 = 0.0519 × 8.9 × 12000 = 5543 psi

π
[72 − 5.0872 ] + [4.1892 − 32 ] = 24.87 in2


A10740 =
4
π 2
8 − 72 = 11.78 in2


A11580 =
4
π 2
8 − 32 = 43.20 in2


A12000 =
4
The hook load is:

Whook = 390823 + 4961 × 24.87 + 5349 × 11.78 − 5543 × 43.20 = 337756 lbf

This result should be compared with the previous example. The discrepancy is
due rounding errors.

This method should always be used when either the annular or the drillstring
is filled with non–homogeneous fluids, partially filled, etc.

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Introduction to Hydraulics