Key terms in ELT/SLA

1. Acculturation:
Acculturation is the process through which an individual or group becomes part of a new
culture. This may involve learning a new language, forsaking a lifestyle, or engaging in
certain rituals.
Types:
There are four major strategies of acculturation. Each of them is used in different
situations, and each has a different outcome. They are
• assimilation,
• integration
• separation
• marginalization.
Example:

An example of group acculturation is the forced assimilation of many American Indian

groups into white culture in the nineteenth century. An example of individual assimilation
is a boy who decides to leave the religion of his family and join another religious faith.

• Learning a new language. ...

• Adopting new customs. ...
• Changing dress and appearance. ...
• Adjusting to new foods and cuisine. ...
• Modifying behavior to conform to new social norms. ...
• Making friends with people from the new culture. ...
• Acquiring new cultural knowledge. ...
• Participating in new cultural activities and hobbies.

2. Affective filters:

Affective filter is a metaphorical barrier that prevents learner from acquiring language
even when appropriate input is available.

Affect refers to the feelings, motives, needs, attitudes and emotional states.

The best acquisition will occur in an environment where anxiety is low and defensiveness
is absent. A learner who is tense or anxious, may filter out the input, making it unavailable
for acquisition.
Examples:

Negative feelings such as lack of motivation, lack of self-confidence and learning anxiety
act as filters that hinder and obstruct language learning.

3. Aptitude:
Language aptitude refers to the potential that a person has for learning languages.
This potential is often evaluated using formal aptitude tests, which predict the degree of
success the candidate will have with a new language.
• It refers to the ability to learn quickly and is thought to predict success in
learning.
• It is hypothesized that a learner with high aptitude may learn with greater ease
and speed, but other learners may also be successful if they persevere.
• Language aptitude test usually measure the ability to:
• Identify and memorize new sounds.
• Understand the function of particular words in sentences
• Figure out grammatical rules from language samples
• Memorize new words
Example:
The Modern Language Aptitude Test (MLAT) evaluates language aptitude.
In the classroom Language aptitude may be fixed but there are many things teachers can
do in the area of learner training to improve the learner's ability. These include helping
learners identify their preferences for learning; thinking about learning styles, and then
looking at how these can be developed; and developing learner autonomy by teaching
learners how to study effectively.
4. Bilingualism:
Bilingualism means to have the ability to communicate in two languages.
Bilingual method means using one language (mother tongue) which the students have
mastered in learning English. The mother tongue is learnt by the child in real life situations
and thus has various ideas and concepts in his mind because of the direct experience.
The experiences can be employed successfully in learning English.
Example:
a person could communicate in French and Spanish or English and American Sign
Language. A person could become bilingual because they are raised in a dual-language
household or because they learn a second language later in life.
An education in bilingualism requires the college student to take both French classes and
Spanish classes.
bilingual education means that learner’s study typical school subjects – for example,
math’s or geography – through an additional language (such as English) and some
subjects through their first language, or they may study the same subject through two
languages.
5. Communicative competency:

Communicative competency in semantics in English Language Teaching (ELT) refers to

a learner's ability to understand and use meaning in language for effective
communication. It involves understanding the denotative (literal) and connotative
(implied) meanings of words, phrases, and sentences, as well as understanding how
meaning is constructed through context and reference. For example, a learner with
communicative competency in semantics would be able to understand figurative
language, such as idioms (e.g., "kick the bucket" meaning to die), and use appropriate
synonyms or antonyms to convey nuances in meaning. They would also understand how
words can have different meanings in different contexts, and how reference words (e.g.,
pronouns) can be used to refer back to previously mentioned information. Communicative
competency in semantics helps learners convey meaning accurately and effectively in
various communication situations.

Communicative competency in pragmatics in English Language Teaching (ELT) refers to

a learner's ability to use language effectively and appropriately in real-life communication
situations, taking into consideration the social and cultural context. It involves not only
knowing the grammar and vocabulary of a language but also understanding how to use
language in different social contexts, understanding implied meanings, and using
appropriate speech acts (e.g., requests, apologies, compliments) and politeness
strategies. For example, a learner with communicative competency in pragmatics would
be able to understand when to use "please" or "thank you" appropriately, how to refuse a
request politely, or how to engage in small talk in different social settings. Communicative
competency in pragmatics helps learners navigate social interactions and convey
meaning effectively in a variety of communicative situations.

6. Error Analysis:

Error analysis is a critical component of language teaching as it helps teachers to identify

and address the linguistic mistakes made by learners. Here are two examples of error
analysis in English language teaching:

Example 1:

A student writes the following sentence: "I have been lived in London for two years."

Error analysis:
The student has used the past participle form of the verb 'live' instead of the present
perfect continuous form. The correct sentence should be: "I have been living in London
for two years." This error can be attributed to the student's lack of understanding of the
correct verb tense and their inability to apply the rules of the present perfect continuous
tense.

Example 2:

A student speaks the following sentence: "Me and my friends went to the beach
yesterday."

Error analysis:

The student has used the object pronoun 'me' instead of the subject pronoun 'I'. The
correct sentence should be: "My friends and I went to the beach yesterday." This error
can be attributed to the student's lack of understanding of the correct use of subject and
object pronouns in English grammar.

In both examples, the errors are related to the learners' lack of understanding of grammar
rules and failure to apply them correctly in their communication. As part of the English
language teaching process, teachers can identify such errors, explain the grammar rules
and help learners correct their mistakes through practice and feedback.

7. Explicit and implicit Knowledge:

Explicit knowledge in English Language Teaching (ELT) refers to the knowledge or skills
that learners acquire through direct instruction, explicit explanations, and conscious
awareness of the rules or principles governing that knowledge. It involves explicit
instruction, practice, and feedback to help learners understand and use language forms
or concepts accurately. For example, a teacher may provide explicit explanations and
practice activities to teach verb tenses (e.g., past simple, present perfect) or vocabulary
related to a specific topic (e.g., food, transportation). Explicit knowledge is often
developed through structured lessons, exercises, or explicit instruction on language rules,
and it can be assessed through quizzes, tests, or other formal assessments. Explicit
knowledge is an important component of language learning as it provides learners with a
conscious understanding of the language rules and principles, which can aid in accuracy
and precision in language use.

Implicit knowledge in English Language Teaching (ELT) refers to the knowledge or skills
that learners acquire unconsciously or implicitly through exposure to language input and
use, without necessarily being explicitly aware of the rules or principles governing that
knowledge. It is often associated with intuitive or automatic language use.

For example, native speakers of a language have implicit knowledge of the grammar
rules and vocabulary of their language without necessarily being able to explain them. In
ELT, learners can also develop implicit knowledge of language through extensive reading,
listening, and communicative activities that provide rich and authentic language input.
Implicit knowledge is considered an important aspect of language acquisition, as it allows
learners to use language effectively and naturally in communicative contexts, even if they
cannot explicitly explain the rules or principles behind it.

8. Feedback:

Feedback is an essential component in English language teaching as it helps students to

understand their strengths and weaknesses, and improve their language skills. Here, I
provide two examples of feedback in English language teaching:

Example 1:

Teacher: Today, we are going to focus on using adjectives to describe people. Can you
give me an example of an adjective?

Student: Beautiful.

Teacher: Excellent! Now, let's take a look at your writing assignment. You did a great job
of describing the physical appearance of the person. However, you could add more
adjectives to describe their personality. For example, you could use adjectives like kind,
funny or thoughtful. This will make your writing more interesting and engaging.

Example 2:

Teacher: Now, let's practice speaking in the past tense. Can you tell me what you did last
weekend?

Student: I go to the movies.

Teacher: Good effort, but remember to use past tense. You should have said, "I went to
the movies." Also, make sure to pronounce the words correctly. It's "movies" not
"moobies." Keep practicing and you'll get better.

9. Focus of form:

Focus on form in English Language Teaching (ELT) refers to a teaching approach where
explicit attention is given to the form of language elements, such as grammar, vocabulary,
pronunciation, or other aspects of language structure or usage. It involves providing
learners with focused instruction or practice on specific language features to help them
understand and use them accurately.

For example, a teacher may provide explicit explanations, drills, or activities to teach a
particular grammar rule, such as the present continuous tense (e.g., "I am studying"), or
practice word stress in English words to improve pronunciation. Focus on form aims to
help learners develop their accuracy in using language forms, complementing a more
communicative approach that emphasizes fluency and meaning.

10. Formulaic Chunks:

Formulaic chunks in English Language Teaching (ELT) refer to fixed and commonly used
expressions or sequences of words that are used as a whole, without necessarily
understanding the individual words or grammar. They are often used in social and
functional language interactions and are considered as formulaic language or lexical
phrases.

Examples of formulaic chunks include greetings (e.g., "Hello!", "How are you?"),
expressions of gratitude (e.g., "Thank you!", "You're welcome."), and idiomatic phrases
(e.g., "Break a leg!", "Piece of cake!"). Formulaic chunks are important in ELT as they
provide learners with ready-made language that can be used in various communicative
situations, helping them sound more natural and fluent in their language use.

11. Declarative/procedural knowledge:

Declarative knowledge in English Language Teaching (ELT) refers to the knowledge

about the rules, facts, and concepts of a language. It involves understanding and being
able to explain the grammatical rules, vocabulary, and other linguistic elements of a
language.

For example, knowing the rule of forming plurals in English (e.g., adding "-s" to most
nouns) or understanding the meaning and usage of a specific phrasal verb (e.g., "look
up," "turn off") are examples of declarative knowledge. In ELT, declarative knowledge is
typically taught through explicit instruction, such as grammar lessons, vocabulary
explanations, and explanations of language functions or concepts. It forms the foundation
for learners to understand and produce language accurately and meaningfully in
communication.

12. Fossilization

Fossilization refers to the process in which incorrect language becomes a habit and
cannot easily be corrected.

Many advanced level learners who have Spanish as an L1 do not distinguish between
'he' and 'she'

Example:

Pronunciation: Despite receiving feedback and practice, a learner persistently

mispronounces the "th" sound as "s" or "z," such as saying "sree" instead of "three" or
"zis" instead of "this."
Grammar: Even after instruction and correction, a learner continues to misuse
prepositions, such as saying "I am in the bus" instead of "I am on the bus" or "I live in
United States" instead of "I live in the United States."

In both examples, despite receiving instruction and practice, the learners have formed
fixed patterns of errors and continue to make the same mistakes, which is indicative of
fossilization. It may require targeted instruction, corrective feedback, and ample practice
to help learners overcome these persistent errors and internalize the correct language
forms.

13. Input:

Input refers to the exposure learners have to authentic language in use. This can be
from various sources, including the teacher, other learners, and the environment around
the learners. Input can be compared to intake, which is input then taken in and internalized
by the learner so it can be applied.

Example:

Comprehensible input in English is English language that you can understand. Language
inputs are things that you hear (like podcasts, the radio, conversations, and so on) as
well as things you read (like books, articles, English blog articles, etc).

Authentic Input: In a language classroom, the teacher plays an audio recording of a native
English speaker having a casual conversation with a friend. The learners listen to the
recording and try to identify new vocabulary, note down useful phrases, and discuss the
content of the conversation. This authentic input exposes the learners to real-life
language use, including natural pronunciation, intonation, and colloquial expressions,
helping them develop their listening and speaking skills in a meaningful context.

14. Intake:

intake refers to the part of input which the learner comprehends and acts on to develop
his or her internal grammar of the target language and its rules of use.

Example:

Intake in English Language Teaching (ELT) refers to the language input that learners
actively notice, pay attention to, and process for further learning. It is the portion of
language input that learners actively "take in" and use to build their language knowledge
and skills. For example, if a learner is exposed to a conversation in English but only
notices and remembers certain words or phrases, those would be considered intake.
Intake is the language input that learners effectively internalize and incorporate into their
existing language knowledge. It may involve conscious or subconscious processing, and
it forms the basis for language acquisition and development. In ELT, teachers aim to
create opportunities for learners to engage in meaningful and relevant language input to
promote intake and facilitate language learning.

15. Metalinguistic Knowledge:

Metalinguistic knowledge is typically defined as the learners' ability to correct,

describe, and explain second language (L2) errors.

Metalinguistic knowledge refers to the ability of language learners to consciously reflect

upon and discuss the rules, structures, and conventions of language.

Here's an example of metalinguistic knowledge in English language teaching:

With metalinguistic awareness, a person can reflect on the language. They could also
understand – with metalinguistic awareness – that not all language is literal. For example,
if someone says, “My little dog is an Olympic athlete,” it doesn't mean that the dog
participates in the Olympic athletic events.

16. Negotiation of meaning:

Negotiation of meaning in English Language Teaching (ELT) refers to the process by

which learners and speakers of different proficiency levels interact and communicate to
ensure mutual understanding. It involves clarifying and confirming meaning when there is
a breakdown in communication due to language barriers.

For example, learners may use gestures, facial expressions, or paraphrasing to seek
clarification or confirm understanding during a conversation or a language activity. It can
also involve asking for repetition, clarification, or providing feedback to ensure that the
intended meaning is understood. Negotiation of meaning promotes effective
communication and helps learners develop their language skills by actively engaging in
meaningful exchanges to resolve communication difficulties. It is an important aspect of
communicative language teaching approaches where the focus is on meaningful and
authentic language use.

17. Noticing:

Noticing in ELT is when learners consciously observe and become aware of language
features during the language learning process.

For example, during a conversation activity, a learner says "I am go to the store." The
teacher prompts the learner to notice the error by saying, "You said 'I am go.' What tense
should you use?" This encourages the learner to reflect on the correct usage of the
present continuous tense and make the necessary correction. Noticing helps learners
actively engage with language and integrate it into their language production for improved
accuracy and fluency.
 18. Speech act:

A speech act in English Language Teaching (ELT) refers to the intention and purpose
behind a specific utterance or speech expression. It involves understanding how
language is used to perform different functions, such as making requests, giving advice,
making offers, and more.

For example, a teacher may use a speech act to give instructions, such as "Please open
your books to page 10" or "Could you pass me the pen, please?" Speech acts are
important in ELT as they help learners understand how language is used in real-life
communication and how to appropriately respond to different social situations using
language.

19. Output:

Output, in the context of English Language Teaching (ELT), refers to the language
production or output that learners generate during language learning activities. It involves
learners actively using the language they are learning to express themselves in speaking
or writing.

For example, in a classroom activity where learners are practicing speaking skills, a
student may engage in output by participating in a discussion, sharing their opinion, or
answering questions using the target language. Output is important in ELT as it allows
learners to practice and apply the language they are learning in real-life situations,
reinforcing their language skills and promoting language development.

20. Recast:

A recast in English Language Teaching (ELT) is when a teacher subtly corrects a learner's
language error by rephrasing their utterance in a corrected form, without directly pointing
out the mistake. It is a form of implicit feedback that helps learners notice their error and
learn from it.

For example, if a learner says, "He go to the store yesterday," the teacher may recast by
responding with, "Yes, he went to the store yesterday." The teacher's recast provides a
model of the correct form while maintaining the flow of the conversation. Recasting can
be an effective technique for providing corrective feedback in a non-threatening way and
encouraging learners to self-correct their errors.

21. Scaffolding:

Scaffolding in English Language Teaching (ELT) refers to the supportive framework that
teachers provide to help learners build their language skills gradually. It involves tailoring
instruction to learners' needs, providing assistance, and gradually reducing support as
learners gain proficiency.
For example, a teacher may scaffold a reading activity by pre-teaching vocabulary,
providing visual aids, and guiding learners through the text with questions. As learners
become more confident, the teacher may gradually withdraw support, allowing them to
work independently. Another example is using sentence frames or prompts to support
learners in generating their own sentences or paragraphs. Scaffolding in ELT helps
learners develop their language abilities incrementally, while providing the necessary
support to ensure success and progress.

22. Second language:

A second language in English Language Teaching (ELT) refers to a language that is

acquired or learned after the learner's first language. It is often used in the context of
teaching English to speakers of other languages (TESOL).

For example, if someone whose first language is Spanish is learning English, English
would be their second language. In ELT, teachers use various strategies and approaches
to help learners develop proficiency in their second language, such as teaching
vocabulary, grammar, listening, speaking, reading, and writing skills. Examples of second
language learning activities include practicing conversation skills, reading authentic texts,
writing essays, and listening to English language podcasts.

23. Uptake:

Uptake in English Language Teaching (ELT) refers to the extent to which learners
internalize and apply new language input or feedback. It is the process of incorporating
new language forms or structures into one's own language production.

For example, if a teacher provides corrective feedback on a learner's error by saying,

"You said 'I goed to the store,' but it should be 'I went to the store,'" and the learner
subsequently uses the correct form "went" in their next response, that would be
considered uptake. Another example could be when a learner learns a new vocabulary
word from a lesson and later uses it appropriately in a speaking or writing activity. Uptake
is an indicator of language learning progress and successful language acquisition.