Reference

Reference:
Reference refers to the situation where the identity of an item can be retrieved from either
within or outside the text.
The main reference patterns are anaphoric, cataphoric, exophoric and homophoric
reference.
Anaphoric Reference:
“Anaphoric reference is where a word or phrase refers back to another word or phrase
used earlier in a text.”
An anaphoric reference happens when a word or phrase references something

mentioned earlier in the text. This could be a thing/idea mentioned in a previous
sentence, or something mentioned a while ago.
To use anaphoric reference correctly, it must be clear what the word or phrase is referring
to, especially if it is referencing something much earlier in the text.
Example:
• Michael went to the bank. He was annoyed because it was closed.
• Andy wrote the letter. Later that day, he posted it.
In this example, the word 'he' is referring back to 'Andy' who is mentioned in the first
sentence. By using the pronoun, we avoid repetition, this is a good use of anaphoric
reference. The word 'it' has also been used to replace the word 'letter'.
Cataphoric Reference:
“Cataphoric reference describes an item which refers forward to another word or phrase
which is used later in the text.”
Cataphoric references are when words or phrases are clues to point out information that
will appear later in the text. This technique helps to create anticipation, connect ideas and
guide the reader or listener through the information being presented. Whether it's a novel,
an article, or a speech, cataphoric references can enhance the overall flow and
understanding of the material.
Example:
• It ran over time. The speech didn't finish until eight.
Here, the pronoun 'it' is being used as a cataphor to refer to 'the speech' which is the
postcedent mentioned in the second sentence.
• I went to say hello once she arrived. Mary was usually early.
This time, the cataphor is referring to a person. The pronoun 'she' is used to refer to
'Mary'. We can use cataphoric references to refer to people, objects, or other nouns.
• Although I phone her every week, my mother still complains that I don't keep in
touch often enough.
Her refers to my mother.
Exophoric Reference:
“Exophoric reference looks outside the text to the situation in which the text occurs for the
identity of the item being referred to.”
An exophoric reference is a reference within a text to something outside of the text.

Typically, an exophoric reference will rely heavily on the context to be understood.
Example:
• Look over there!
We have no way of understanding what ‘there’ refers to. ‘There’ can only be understood
by the listener, who can see what the speaker is referring to.
‘There’ is being used to refer to something outside of the text that we, as readers, are not
privy to. ‘There’ has no meaning to us because we do not have the context of the situation.
Therefore, this is an exophoric reference.
1. Exophora relies heavily on context, thus, it is typically used in speech and dialogue
rather than expository prose, which aims to enlighten and inform the reader.
2. Exophoric storytelling relies heavily on referencing events outside of the text that
the readers can only understand with additional context.
• “They're late again, can you believe it?”
They refer to some people outside the discourse known to both speakers.
Substitution:
With substitution, a substitute form is used for another language item, phrase or group. It
can involve substituting an item for a noun.
Examples:
• In the following example, ‘one’ substitute for the noun ‘book’:

Try reading this book. Th at one ’s not very good.
• It can involve substituting an item for a verb. In this example ‘done’ substitutes for
‘had dinner’:
A: Has he had dinner yet?
B: He must have done. There’s no food in the fridge.
• An item may also substitute for a clause. In the following example, ‘so’ substitutes
for the clause ‘you’re still happy’:
A: That’s great to hear you’re still happy.
B: Oh yes very much so.
Lexical Cohesion:
Lexical cohesion refers to relationships in meaning between lexical items in a text and, in
particular, content words and the relationship between them. The main kinds of lexical
cohesion are repetition, synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy, meronomy and collocation.
Example:
• Repetition uses the same word, or synonyms, antonyms, etc.
"Which dress are you going to wear?" – "I will wear my green frock," uses the
synonyms "dress" and "frock" for lexical cohesion.
• Collocation uses related words that typically go together or tend to repeat the same
meaning.

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An anaphoric reference happens when a word or phrase references something

• It ran over time. The speech didn't finish until eight.

Her refers to my mother.

An exophoric reference is a reference within a text to something outside of the text.

• Look over there!

• “They're late again, can you believe it?”

• In the following example, ‘one’ substitute for the noun ‘book’:

A: Has he had dinner yet?

B: He must have done. There’s no food in the fridge.

A: That’s great to hear you’re still happy.

B: Oh yes very much so.

• Repetition uses the same word, or synonyms, antonyms, etc.

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