1.

INTRODUCTION TO TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS

AIM: In this Experiment, we will introduce topographical maps and its procedure of interpretation.

INTRODUCTION: A map, is a simplified depiction of whole or part of the earth on a piece of paper. In
other words, it is a two-dimensional form of the three-dimensional earth. Hence, a map can be drawn using
a system of map projections. As it is impossible to represent all features of the earth’s surface in their true
size and form, a map is drawn at a reduced scale. Hence, maps are drawn at a scale and projection so that
each point on the paper corresponds to the actual ground position. Besides, the representation of different
features is also simplified using symbols, colours and shades. A map is, therefore, defined as selective,
symbolised and generalised representation of whole or a part of the earth's surface on a plane surface at a
reduced scale.
A topographic map is a detailed and accurate two-dimensional representation of natural and
human-made features on the Earth's surface drawn on a large scale. These are of utmost importance to
geographers. They serve the purpose of base maps and are used to draw all the other maps.
In India, these maps are prepared and published by the Survey of India and are drawn in the form
of series of maps at different scales: 1:10,00,000, 1:250,000, 1:1,25,000, 1:50,000 and 1:25,000 providing
a latitudinal and longitudinal coverage of 4° x 4°, 1° x 1°, 30' x 30', 15' x 15' and 5' x 7' 30", respectively.
Hence, in the given series, all maps employ the same reference point, scale, projection, conventional signs,
symbols and colours.

INTERPRETATION OF TOPOGRAPHICAL MAPS

Map interpretation involves the study of factors that explain the causal relationship among several features
shown on the map. For example, the distribution of settlements can be examined in association with the
levels of transport network system and the nature of topography.
Knowledge of map language and sense of direction are essential in reading and interpreting
toposheets. You must first look for the Northline and the scale of the map and orient yourself accordingly.
You must have a thorough knowledge of the legends / key given in the map depicting various features. All
toposheets contain a table showing conventional signs and symbols used in the map. Conventional signs
and symbols are internationally accepted; so, anyone can read any map anywhere in the world without
knowing the language of that particular country.
A topographic sheet is usually interpreted under the following heads:
(a) Marginal Information (d) Cultural Features and Means of Transport
(b) Relief and Drainage and Communication
(c) Land Use
(a) Marginal Information: It includes the topographical sheet number, its location, grid references, its
extent in degrees and minutes, scale, the districts covered, etc.
(b) Relief and Drainage of the Area: The elevation and depressions of the earth’s surface are known as
topograpahical features or relief features of the earth. The general topography of the area is studied to
identify the plains, plateaus, hills or mountains along with peaks, ridges, spur and the general direction of
the slope. Contours are predominantly used to depict the relief of an area on all topographical maps.
Contours are imaginary lines joining places having the same elevation above mean sea level. Contours are
drawn at different Vertical Intervals, like 20, 50, 100 metres above the mean sea level. While the vertical
interval between the two successive contour lines remains constant, the horizontal distance varies from
place to place depending upon the nature of slope. The horizontal distance, also known as the horizontal
equivalent, is large when the slope is gentler and decreases with increasing slope gradient.
Drainage of the Area covers information regarding the important rivers and their tributaries and
the type and extent of valleys formed by them, the types of drainage pattern, i.e. dendritic, radial, ring,
trellis, internal, etc.
(c) Land Use: It includes the use of land under different categories like :
➢ Natural vegetation and forest (which part of the area is forested, whether it is dense forest or thin,
and the categories of forest found there like Reserved, Protected, Classified / Unclassified).
➢ Agricultural, orchard, wasteland, industrial, etc.
➢ Facilities and Services such as schools, colleges, hospitals, parks, electric substations, etc.
(d) Cultural Features, Transport and Communication Pattern:Settlements, buildings, roads and
railways are important cultural features shown on topographical sheets through conventional signs,
symbols and colours. Settlements are studied under the following heads :

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􀂒 Rural Settlements: The types and patterns of rural settlements, i.e. compact, semi-compact,
dispersed, linear, etc.
􀂒 Urban Settlements: Type of urban settlements and their functions, i.e. capital cities, administrative
towns, religious towns, port towns, hill stations, etc.
The means of transportation include national or state highways, district roads, cart tracks,
footpaths, railways, waterways, major communication lines, post offices, etc. .

Reading of Topographical Maps: The study of topographical maps is simple. It requires the reader to
get acquainted with the legend, conventional sign and the colours shown on the sheets. The
conventional sign and symbols depicted on the topographical sheets are shown below

CONCLUSION: All conventional symbols to interpret various features in topographical maps have
studied.

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 2. INTERPRETATION OF REMOTE SENSING DATA

Aim: To introduce various interpretation keys used in aerial photo/ imagery interpretation or
photo interpretation techniques:

Introduction: Interpretation may be broadly termed as the indirect “Prediction of terrain

features (which cannot be directly observed) by a combined process of deductive and
inductive reasoning (Logical explanation) aided by ground verification”. The concepts of
photo/image interpretation have been well elucidated in various works and is carried out in
the following four phases -
➢ Photo/Image-reading - involving detection, recognition and identification.
➢ Analysis - deals with the purpose or aim for which interpretation is carried out, and
accordingly the boundaries of interest are delineated.
➢ Classification - whereby the comparison of different units is made by their physical
and cultural features.
➢ Deduction - is a combined process of photo/image observation supported by
observation from other sources e.g. existing literature.
Rules of Systematic Image Interpretation: In image interpretation, a system approach (what
must be done?) and proper methodology have to be employed. A biased (rigid) view has to
be avoided. Stone (1955), made first attempt, involving following four steps -
➢ Interpretation is to be performed in steps.
➢ Interpretation has to be more from general to specific purpose, i.e. small scale to large
scale.
➢ Interpretation has to be carried out from known to unknown object.
➢ Photographs are analysed for its photographic quality.

Recognition elements: The different reflection properties of terrain features produce varying
tonal expressions on remotely recorded photographs and images. This, together with other
interpretative elements such as shape, size, drainage pattern, texture, landforms, soils,
vegetation and land use etc. enables an experienced photogeologist and remote sensing
specialist to distinguish different units and features from the remotely sensed data following
‘convergence of evidence’. Investigations range in scope from reconnaissance surveys to
detailed studies incorporating field investigations aided by visual interpretation, using
suitable scales of air photos and images in different multispectral bands as required. The
most important and commonly employed recognition elements in photo interpretation are: a)
Tone b) Texture c) Colour d) Pattern e) Shape f) Size g) Association. These elements can
be ranked in relative importance:

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Since aerial photography is dependent on photographs, we need, at this juncture, some basic insight
into how a photo is made.

1. Tone: Tone (closely related to Hue or Color) -- Tone refers to the relative brightness or color of
elements on a photograph. It is, perhaps, the most basic of the interpretive elements because without
tonal differences none of the other elements could be discerned.

2. Texture: This may be defined as the frequency of tonal change within an image. It is produced by
a set of features too small to identify individually. Grass, cement, and water generally appear
"smooth", while a forest canopy may appear "rough".
The scale of photo, therefore, had an important bearing on the texture. The texture may be defined as
coarse, fine, mottled, banded, dotted, smooth, rough, even, uneven, speckled, granular, blocky,
rippled, matted, etc.

3. Colour: Colour as a criterion for recognition of objects can be successfully employed while
handling colour photographs/imagery. On the basis of colour differences, different features can
perhaps be better identified and delineated on colour photographs/imagery than in black and white
photographs/imagery. Colour images may be 'True colour' or 'False colour' depending upon the film
type and filters used. In false colour photography using appropriate filters, certain features can be
enhanced for better delineation.

4. Pattern (spatial arrangement) -- The patterns formed by objects in a photo can be diagnostic.
Consider the difference between (1) the random pattern formed by an unmanaged area of trees and (2)
the evenly spaced rows formed by an orchard.
a. Drainage pattern: Drainage pattern is an important element in geologic interpretation of
aerial photos. In bedrock areas the drainage pattern depends for the most part on the
lithologic character of the underlying rock, the attitude of these rock bodies and arrangement
and spacing of the plane of lithologic and structural weakness encountered by runoff.
Different drainage patterns interpreted are dendritic, trellis, parallel, radial, annular,
rectangular etc.,
b. Vegetation pattern: Study and analysis of vegetation pattern also often yield clues to the
identification of underlying lithology or structures. For instance a linear vegetation pattern
clearly reveals a geological structures such as joint or fracture or fault.

5. Shape: Shape -- refers to the general outline of objects. Regular geometric shapes are usually
indicators of human presence and use. Some objects can be identified almost solely on the basis of
their shapes: for example - the Pentagon Building, (American) football fields, cloverleaf highway
interchanges

6. Size: The size of objects must be considered in the context of the scale of a photograph. The scale
will help you determine if an object is a stock pond or Lake Minnetonka.

7. Location/Association: Some objects are always found in association with other objects. The
context of an object can provide insight into what it is. For instance, a nuclear power plant is not
(generally) going to be found in the midst of single-family housing.

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RESULT: Recognition elements for Land nuse/ land cover features have studied.

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 3. MODULES AND SALIENT FEATURES OF QGIS
Aim: To illustrate the modules and salient features of the QGIS software.

Introduction: Geographical Information System (GIS) is an integrated system of computer

hardware, software, trained personnel for capturing, storing, checking, integrating,
manipulating, analyzing and displaying geographically referenced data. QGIS is one of the
simplest open-access software that is available for all platforms used to perform various tasks
related to geographical analysis.

When QGIS s/w opens, QGIS main window will be appear like below figure. The numbers 1
to 5 in yellow boxes refers to the five major components of the interface and described
below:

1. Menu bar:
provides access to
various QGIS
features.
2. Toolbar: provides
access to most of
the same functions
as the menus.
3. Layer Panel: This
area lists all the
layers in the
project.
4. Map view: maps
are displayed in
this area.
5. Status Bar: The
status bar shows you your current position in map coordinates as the mouse pointer is
moved across the map view.

3.1 Explore the Menu Bar

1. FILE menu is for Opening, Saving, Printing the data layers and closing the current
project.
2. EDIT menu is for adding, modifying, deleting spatial features within an editable data
layer.
3. VIEW menu is for primary Pan, Zoom, Feature Selection, and Toolbar Controls.
4. LAYER menu is for adding, removing, visibility of data layers, and for changing Layer
Projections.
5. SETTINGS menu controls all basic Project settings, Project projection & other defaults

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6. PLUGINS menu lists the installed Plugins and their sub-routines, and it can Add or
Remove Plugins.
7. RASTER menu is for Raster processing functions.
8. VECTOR menu is for standard Vector GIS spatial operations like buffering, dissolving,
query, etc.

3.2 Project Menu

1. New: To get a new QGIS project.

2. Open: To open an existing QGIS project.
3. New from template: To get a new QGIS with a created
template.
4. Open recent: Opens the recently used QGIS projects/files.
5. Save: saves the current QGIS file/project
6. Save as: To save with a different name/different location.
7. Save as image: saves in image format.
8. DXF export: exports in dxf format.
9. Project properties: Displays the QGIS project’s properties
such as project’s name, projection type, default styles etc.
10. New print composer: To Compose the layout.
11. Compose Manager: Assign the new composer
name title by using add button.
12. Exit: To exit the QGIS s/w.
3.3 Edit Menu
1. Undo : Ignores the previous edit.
2. Redo : Gets back to the undo edit.
3. Cut Features: (ctrl+x): Disappears the
selected features, we can paste them at our
layer of interest.
4. Copy Features: Copies the selected features
and paste a set of them at our place of interest.
Here the selected features will not disappear
from their original place.
5. Paste Features: The cut or copied features
will be pasted at the place of interest.
6. Add Feature: Adds a new feature
7. Move Feature(s): Moves the selected
feature(s) to the desired location.
8. Deleted selected: Deletes the selected
feature(s)
9. Simplify feature: Simplifies the feature,
Curve will turn into a straight line.
10. Add Ring: To create a ring inside a polygon which takes off that part from the
polygon. So, now the polygon area is the area between ring and the polygon.
11. Add part: To create an extra part outside the polygon of interest. The polygon now
would look like a multi polygon.

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12. Delete Ring: To delete the added ring inside the polygon of interest.
13. Delete part: To delete the part added outside the polygon of interest.
14. Reshape features: To modify the shape of a particular line/polygon.
15. Split Features: It is split/cut the polygon/line. The splitted polygons/lines have the same
attributes. We can change the attributes.
16. Merge selected features: Merging combines the feature to have the same boundary as
well as same attributes. At least two features must be selected for merging.
17. Merge attributes of selected features: This tool merges the attributes of selected
features to have a common attribute values. We can change the attributes if required.
18. Node Tool: To select multiple vertices at a time and to move, add or delete them
altogether.
19. Rotate point symbols: we can rotate the point features. Select the feature and hold the
left button till the required rotation is achieved.

3.4 View Menu

1. Pan - move around the map by holding the left mouse button down and drag.
2. Zoom In - Click to zoom in once, draw a box to zoom in to an area, or use the mouse
wheel.
3. Zoom Out - works the same as the Zoom In tool but instead zoom out the view.
4. Identify Features -allows to interact with map canvas to get data attribute on a pop-up
windows. To identify feature use View→ Identify features, or click on the Identify features
icon in the toolbar.
5. Measure - Measuring works within projected coordinate systems (e.g., UTM) and
unprotected data. If the loaded map is defined with a geographic coordinate system
(latitude/longitude), the results from line or area measurements will be incorrect. To fix this
you need to set an appropriate map coordinate system. To select a measure tool click on
and select the tool you want to use.
6. Zoom full - Will zoom the window to the maximum extent of all visible layers
7. Zoom To Layer - zooms to the maximum extent of the feature currently selected in the
Map Layer window.
8. Zoom To Selection - zooms to selected features
9. Zoom Last - returns to your previous zoom
10. Zoom Next - moves you forward to your next zoom (if you have already used zoom
last)
RESULT: Salient features and various modules of QGIS Observed.

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 4. DISPLAYING THE DATA
Aim: To illustrate the various functions of GIS to display the data

Introduction: Although the two terms, data and information, are often used indiscriminately,
they both have a specific meaning. Data can be described as different observations, which are
collected and stored. Whereas, Information is that data, which is useful in answering queries
or solving a problem. Geodata is information about geographic locations that is stored in a
format that can be used with a GIS. GIS technology utilizes two basic types of data. These
are:

Spatial Data: Spatial data describes the locations of spatial features. Two basic types of
spatial data models have evolved for storing geographic data digitally. These are referred to
as: Raster and Vector

Raster Data Formats: Raster data model is a geographic data model that represents
information as a regular array of rows and columns (or pixels), similar to a grid or image,
where each cell contains a value representing information, such as temperature. Rasters are
digital aerial photographs, imagery from satellites, digital pictures, or even scanned maps.
Data stored in a raster format represents real-world phenomena:
• Thematic data (also known as discrete) represents features such as land-use or soils
data.
• Continuous data represents phenomena such as temperature, elevation, or spectral
data such as satellite images and aerial photographs.
• Pictures include scanned maps or drawings and building photographs.
Vector Data Formats: Vector data model is a data model in which the location and shape of
objects is represented by points (zero dimensional objects with only a position in space but
no length), lines(also termed segments or arcs, are one-dimensional spatial objects where ,
besides having a position in space, they also have a length) and areas (also termed polygons,
are two-dimensional spatial objects with not only a position in space and a length but also a
width) that are fundamentally made up of x,y coordinates. Shapefile is the one of the
common format to store all vector data.

Non-spatial data or Attribute Data: Describes characteristics of the spatial features. These
characteristics can be quantitative and/or qualitative in nature. Attribute data is often referred
to as tabular data.

Geodata can be stored in a database, geodatabase, shapefile, coverage, raster image, or even a
dbf table or Microsoft Excel spreadsheet.

PROCEDURE:

4.1 Starting a new project: Go to Project menu, save→ Save As (the same options
are available in the toolbar). Then, choose the name for your project (e.g., my project) and
browse the location to save it.

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4.2 Setting Coordinate Reference System: In QGIS the default projection, or CRS, is WGS84
Geographic Coordinate System. This CRS has become a global standard for latitude and longitude
positions, such as those captured with GPS devices. Note that "un projected" data, or those with
projections that cannot be interpreted will be projected by default in WGS-84 when using QGIS. It is
possible to load layers with different CRS into a QGIS project and view them seamlessly in the same
coordinate space. From the Menu go to Project and select PROJECT PROPERTIES.
1. Note the checkbox for enabling "on the fly" CRS transformations
2. The CRS Selection Panel shows the current project CRS.
3. We can select the CRS by recently used CRS options or by searching from browsing CRS
Options.
4. The Search by CRS Name panel provides a drop-down selection of the main Projection
Authorities, such as EPSG, and a form to search for a name or ID number within that authority
list.
5. You can also select from Recently used projection settings.
6. After setting the CRS options, Click ok.
4.3 Creating shape files like point, line & Polygon: Go to layer menu → create
layer→ New Shape file Layer from the Layer menu (or the same button on the toolbar).
The New shape file layer dialog box will be displayed.
Choose the type of layers like point, line or polygon. Below the New field list, type a name
(e.g., location), select the type as text data & type the field length click ok . Then click on
[Add to field list] icon, location field name will be displayed in field list table likewise we
add two more fields by following the same procedure, and then click [OK]. To remove the
unwanted fields in the list just select the name in field list and click remove field.
After clicking ok, you will be prompted to the Save layer as dialog box. Type the file
name as (e.g., Housing location) and click [Save]. You will be able to see the new layer in
the Layers list in the window.
The same procedure will be followed to create another layers like line & polygon
also.

4.4 Adding vector layer (shape files): To add a vector layer, click on the Add Vector
Layer toolbar button or, on the menu, select the option Layer → Add Vector Layer. This will
bring up a new window. From the available options check File. Click on button [Browse] to
navigate the file system and select the shape file to add it and start editing the layer.

4.5 Adding Raster layer (images): To add a raster image, click on the Add Raster

Layer toolbar button or, on the menu, select the option Layer → Add Raster Layer.
This will bring up a new window and select the raster file name and click ok.
After clicking ok, The Raster layer added in your layer view panel, automatically raster

image tool bar will be display in menu bar.

To assigning the Raster band values for your image, Right click the raster image go to
properties & click the style. In Band rendering, click the render type as multiband color &
change the Red band value as band 3, Green band value as band 2 & Blue band as band 1
by using drop down list arrow.

In Resampling, zoomed in option need to set as Bilinear by using drop down arrow.

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 After setting these all band layer options in layer properties - style tab dialog box, click ok.

then go to raster tool bar . Click the first option as Local cumulative cut stretch icon. Now the
image will be appear as per given below.

4.6 Layer Properties: Layers will not contain any geographical data, but it references the data
location. Any data opened in the GIS software is treated as a layer. Layers will be resided
within a data frame. Layer stores the symbology of data. Layers can be moved by Click and
Drag method within Table of Contents.

The Layer Properties dialog for a vector layer provides general settings to manage appearance
of layer features in the map (symbology, labeling, diagrams), interaction with the mouse (actions,
map tips, form design). It also provides information about the layer.

To access the Layer Properties dialog:

• In the Layers panel, double-click the layer or right-click and select Properties… from the
pop-up menu;
• Go to Layer ‣ Properties… menu when the layer is selected.

The vector Layer Properties dialog provides the following sections: Information, Source, Symbology
(also available in the Layer styling panel), Labels (also available in the Layer styling panel),
Diagrams, 3D View (also available in the Layer styling panel), Source Fields, Attributes Form etc.,

4.7 Symbology or Displaying features by category: By default, all the parcels are drawn using the
same symbol when you add them. You can also draw them based on an attribute. In this case, type of
land use.

1. Right-click shape file in the table of contents and click Properties.

2. Click the Symbology tab. All the features are currently drawn using the same symbol (the same
solid fill color).
3. Click Categories in the Show box or simple fill and click the symbol layer type drop-down arrow
and click elevation zone or id (based on which you are going to classify) as the field to use to shade
the area.
4. Click Add All Values. A unique color is assigned to each elevation zone. Change the colour by
selecting a various colour ramps.
5. Click Ok

RESULT: Raster and Vector data structures displayed and viewed in QGIS.

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 5. Manual Digitisation and Editing of Vector Data In QGIS

Aim: To create a vector data using the digitisation method and to illustrate various modifying and
editing tools used in the digitization method.

Introduction: The process of representing an analogue signal or an image by a discrete set of its
points is known as Digitizing. This data after conversion is in the binary format, which is directly
readable by computer. This is the mostly used Vectorisation method. The digitisation methods are of
four types based on the instruments and methods using. Here we are using a type called as Heads-up
Digitizing/on screen digitising. It is similar to manual digitizing in the way that lines have to be
drawn manually but directly on the computer screen. So in this level of accuracy increases and time
taken decreases.

PROCEDURE:
5.1 Editing layers
In editing session Right Click on the layer name to select the layer you have just created. All

editing sessions start by choosing the Toggle editing option (either on the toolbar or under the
Layer menu). Select this option and note that the little pencil symbol will show up beside the name of
the layer, indicating that the layer is now editable. This procedure is same for all three layers like
Point, Line, Polygon.

for editing point layer, click on the Add Feature icon (or select Edit → Add Feature). When
you do this, the cursor will look different (not an arrow head). click on the map area to create the first
point of your new feature. After editing Right click the mouse, feature attribute small dialog box
will appear and enter the location name (e.g., Ramapuram) then click ok.

By right clicking the vector layer, select open attribute table, the edited attribute table will be
displayed.

Keep on clicking for each additional point you wish to include in your point layer by following the
same procedure & naming the features attributes as per given above. When you have finished
adding points to your layer. Then, click on Save Layer Edits (either on the toolbar or under the
Layer menu).

for editing line/Polygon , the same procedure shoul be followed as noted for point features by click
on the Add Feature icon (or select Edit → Add Feature).

By right clicking the vector layer, select open attribute table, the edited attribute table will
be displayed.

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5.2 Adding fields in attribute data
In editing mode you want to add one more field or delete field for your vector layer, Right click
your vector layer & click on open attribute table, window will be appear as on below. By clicking
add field icon in above mentioned ,small add field dialog box appear, type the name of the field,
enter the type as text by using drop down list & enter the length as 50, then click ok.

After clicking ok, automatically area field will be added in your attribute data as per below.
5.3 Deleting fields in attribute data
In QGIS Vector layer you want to delete some unwanted fields. Right click your vector layer &
click on open attribute table, window will be appear as on below. By clicking delete field icon a
small delete field dialog box appear, click the unwanted field what u want to delete in vector layer,
then click ok ( e.g., delete the area column in attribute data).

After clicking ok, automatically area field will be deleted in your attribute data as per given below.

5.4 Calculating area and perimeter

The field calculator button in the attribute table allows you to perform calculations on the basis of
existing attribute values. It is used to calculate length, area & Perimeter etc parameters of geometry
features.
Open the attribute table of the existing vector layer and then click on the field calculator icon
in top view . The field calculator dialog box will be appear.
In the field calculator dialog box check the create a new field option, enter the output field
name as area, Output field type as Decimal number (real) & Output field length as 10.
In Right side of the dialog box, below the row number and select the geometry parameters like $area
then click ok. Set the geometry parameter like area as shown in above image. Then click ok and take
a look at the attribute table. Area column are added in attribute table, The same procedure will be
followed by changing the geometry parameters like length, area& perimeter

5.5 Converting area into acres by using field calculator in attribute data

In the field calculator dialog box check create a new field, enter the output field name as acres,
Output field type as Decimal number (real) & Output field length as 10.

In Right side of the dialog box, below the row number and select the geometry parameters like $area
then use the expression * then type 0.00024711 and click ok.
After clicking ok, take a look at the attribute table, area will be calculated as acres in new column.

RESULT: Point, Line and Polygon features along with attributes were manually created and
calculated.

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 6. WORKING WITH RASTER DATA

AIM: To practice various spatial analysis tools for Raster data in QGIS.

Introduction: Raster products are actually raster datasets with some known associated
metadata. They are standard products provided from several imagery vendors, such as
satellite image products like Landsat or IRS. The application combines the bands to create
one of several products, which makes it easier for you to add that data to your display. Raster
analysis is similar in many ways to vector analysis. However, there are some key differences.
The major differences between raster and vector modeling are dependent on the nature of the
data models themselves. Raster analysis, enforces its spatial relationships solely on the
location of the cell. Once added, the raster datasets appear in the table of contents, and if your
raster dataset is within the extents of your display view, you will see the image. Optimized
display parameters, including renderer type, stretching type, gamma, and contrast, are applied
based on the properties of the data. Therefore, if it's a single-band dataset, the grayscale
stretch is applied. If that single band has a color map, the Colormap renderer is used. If it's a
multiband image, the default RGB band combination is applied. If the input has the required
wavelength information, a natural color band combination will be displayed. If it's a raster
product, the bands are named appropriately. If it's a mosaic dataset, you can view the
multiple layers that compose the datasets. And if it's a raster catalog with more than nine
images in the display, it is displayed as polygons (a wireframe).

PROCEDURE: the various raster analysis functions can be performed by the following methods.

Raster Calculator Tool: The Raster Calculator in the Raster menu allows you to perform
calculations on the basis of existing raster pixel values. The results are written to a new raster layer
with a GDAL-supported format.

Raster Alignment: This tool is able to take several rasters as input and to align them perfectly, that
means: reproject to the same CRS, resample to the same cell size and offset in the grid, clip to a
region of interest, rescale values when required.
All rasters will be saved in another files.
First, open the tools from Raster ‣ Align Raster… and click on the Add new raster button to choose one
existing raster in QGIS. Select an output file to save the raster after the alignment, the resampling
method and if the tools need to Rescale values according to the cell size.
Raster conversion
• gdal2xyz: Converts raster data to XYZ ASCII file format.
• PCT to RGB: Converts an 8 bit paletted image to a 24 bit RGB. It will convert a pseudocolor
band from the input file to an RGB file of the desired format.
• Polygonize (raster to vector): Creates vector polygons for all connected regions of pixels in
the raster sharing a common pixel value. Each polygon is created with an attribute indicating
the pixel value of that polygon.
• Rearrange bands: Creates a new raster using selected band(s) from a given raster layer. The
algorithm also makes it possible to reorder the bands for the newly-created raster.
• RGB to PCT: Converts a 24 bit RGB image into a 8 bit paletted. Computes an optimal
pseudo-color table for the given RGB-image using a median cut algorithm on a downsampled
RGB histogram. Then it converts the image into a pseudo-colored image using the color
table. This conversion utilizes Floyd-Steinberg dithering (error diffusion) to maximize output
image visual quality.
• Translate (convert format): Converts raster data between different formats.

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Raster projections
• Assign projection: Applies a coordinate system to a raster dataset.
• Extract projection: Extracts the projection of a raster file and writes it into a world file with
extension .wld.
• Warp (reproject): Reprojects a raster layer into another Coordinate Reference System
(CRS). The output file resolution and the resampling method can be chosen.
Raster extraction
• Clip raster by extent: Clips any GDAL-supported raster file to a given extent.
• Clip raster by mask layer: Clips any GDAL-supported raster by a vector mask layer.
• Contour: Extracts contour lines from any GDAL-supported elevation raster.
Raster Properties Dialog: To view and set the properties for a raster layer, double click on the layer
name in the map legend, or right click on the layer name and choose Properties from the context
menu. This will open the Raster Layer Properties dialog. There are several tabs in the dialog:
• Information Properties: The Information tab is read-only and represents an interesting place
to quickly grab summarized information and metadata on the current layer. Provided
information are:
based on the provider of the layer (format of storage, path, data type, extent, width/height,
compression, pixel size, statistics on bands, number of columns, rows and no-data values of the
raster…);
• picked from the filled metadata: access, links, contacts, history… as well as data information
(CRS, Extent, bands…).
• Source Properties: The Source tab shows the Data Source file location and a number of
other pieces of information, such as the Cell Size, the number of Rows and Columns, the grid
Type (Float or Integer), Coordinate Reference System and the Status (Temporary or
Permanent).
• Symbology Properties:
Band rendering: QGIS offers four different Render types. The renderer chosen is dependent on the
data type.
Color rendering: For every Band rendering, a Color rendering is possible.
Resampling: Resampling modes can optimize the appearance of the map. They calculate a new gray
value matrix through a geometric transformation.
• Transparency Properties: QGIS has the ability to display each raster layer at a different
transparency level. Use the transparency slider to indicate to what extent the underlying
layers (if any) should be visible through the current raster layer. This is very useful if you like
to overlay more than one raster layer (e.g., a shaded relief map overlayed by a classified
raster map). This will make the look of the map more three dimensional.
• Histogram Properties: The Histogram tab allows you to view the distribution of the bands or
colors in your raster. The histogram is generated when you press the Compute Histogram
button. All existing bands will be displayed together. You can save the histogram as an image
with the Save button.
At the bottom of the histogram, you can select a raster band in the drop-down menu and Set
min/max style for it. The Prefs/Actions drop-down menu gives you advanced options to
customize the histogram.

RESULT: Various spatial analysis models and algorithms were applied to the given raster data.

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 7. Generation of DEM and its Derivatives using SRTM Data

AIM: To create Digital Elevation Models and its derivatives using different algorithms.
INTRODUCTION: Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) is the digital representation of the natural
topography as well as man-made features on the surface of the earth. This has improved the face of
topographical studies, hydrological modelling and water resources management over the last few
decades (Moore et al., 1991). This is because the DEM has been found to efficiently represent ground
surface and allow automated derivation of various shaded relief maps, thus bringing advantages in
terms of processing efficiency, cost effectiveness, and accuracy assessment, compared with
traditional methods based on topographic maps, field surveys, or photographic interpretations.
PROCEDURE:
Data Input: Take SRTM data as Input for all Raster/Analysis Tools in QGIS. The Shuttle Radar
Topography Mission (SRTM) is an International research endeavour that obtained digital elevation
models on a near-global scale from 56° S to 60° N, to generate the most complete high-resolution
digital topographic database of Earth. SRTM DEMs are freely available globally and was
downloaded from GLCF site (GLCF (http://glcf.umiacs.umd.edu). Perform various surface analysis
tools by using Raster Menu/Analysis.

Patch Missing data / fill raster regions: The downloaded SRTM data contains “no-data” gaps, where
elevation values are missing from the terrain grid. Intermittently it will be essential to patch/fill
missing elevation data points in theDEM. Fill raster regions with no data values by interpolation from
edges. The values for the no-data regions are calculated by the surrounding pixel values using inverse
distance weighting. After the interpolation a smoothing of the results takes place.

Generation of various Derivatives:

Hillshade: Hillshade is a technique for generating shaded topographic images of the earth’s surface
elevations where the reflection of artificial light arriving from a point source of illumination from a
given altitude (inclination) and azimuth (declination) is simulated. A DEM could be artificially
illuminated from any direction desired, which is not possible in optical satellite imagery and can
create grid of shadows for a specific time of day.

Aspect: An aspect slope map shows the direction and degree of slope for a terrain by assigning a
number between 0 and 360, for each cell in the grid. An aspect value of a cell is measured clockwise
in degrees from 0-due north – to 360 again due north, forming full circle. The value of each cell in an
aspect dataset indicates the direction of the cell’s slope faces. Flat slopes have no direction and are
given a value of -1, direction 0 is north, 90 is east and so on. Aspect categories are symbolized using
hues (e.g., red, orange, yellow, etc.) and degree of slope classes are mapped with saturation (or
brilliance of color) so that the steeper slopes are brighter.

Roughness: Outputs a single-band raster with values computed from the elevation. Roughness is the
degree of irregularity of the surface. It’s calculated by the largest inter-cell difference of a central
pixel and its surrounding cell. The determination of the roughness plays a role in the analysis of
terrain elevation data, it’s useful for calculations of the river morphology, in climatology and physical
geography in general.
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Sieve: Removes raster polygons smaller than a provided threshold size (in pixels) and replaces them
with the pixel value of the largest neighbour polygon. It is useful if you have a large amount of small
areas on your raster map.

Slope: Generates a slope map from any GDAL-supported elevation raster. Slope is the angle of
inclination to the horizontal. You have the option of specifying the type of slope value you want:
degrees or percent slope.

Terrain Ruggedness Index (TRI): Outputs a single-band raster with values computed from the
elevation. TRI stands for Terrain Ruggedness Index, which is defined as the mean difference between
a central pixel and its surrounding cells.

Topographic Position Index (TPI): Outputs a single-band raster with values computed from the
elevation. TPI stands for Topographic Position Index, which is defined as the difference between a
central pixel and the mean of its surrounding cells.

RESULT: The Digital Elevation model is created and further analysed to generate various
derivatives.

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 8. Working with Vector Layers

AIM: To practice various spatial analysis tools for vector data in QGIS.

INTRODUCTION: The heart of GIS is the analytical capabilities of the system. What distinguish
the GIS system from other information system are its spatial analysis functions. Although the data
input is, in general, the most time consuming part, it is for data analysis that GIS is used. The analysis
functions use the spatial and non-spatial attributes in the database to answer questions about the real
world. Geographic analysis facilitates the study of real-world processes by developing and applying
models. Such models illuminate the underlying trends in geographic data and thus make new
information available. Results of geographic analysis can be communicated with the help of maps, or
both. The organization of database into map layers is not simply for reasons of organizational clarity,
rather it is to provide rapid access to data elements required for geographic analysis. The objective of
geographic analysis is to transform data into useful information to satisfy the requirements or
objectives of decision-makers at all levels in terms of detail. An important use of the analysis is the
possibility of predicting events in the another location or at another point in time.

PROCEDURE:
Before commencing geographic analysis, one needs to assess the problem and establish an
objective. The analysis requires step-by-step procedures to arrive at the conclusions.

The range of geographical analysis tools in QGIS can be subdivided into the following categories.

Vector data can also be analyzed to reveal how different features interact with each other in
space. There are many different analysis-related functions in GIS, so we won’t go through them all.
Rather, we’ll practice vector overlay or geometric processing tools that QGIS provides.

Default menu: Vector ‣ Geoprocessing Tools

Clip: Clips a vector layer using the features of an additional

polygon layer. Only the parts of the features in the input layer that
fall within the polygons of the overlay layer will be added to the
resulting layer. The attributes of the features are not modified,
although properties such as area or length of the features will be
modified by the clipping operation. If such properties are stored as
attributes, those attributes will have to be manually updated.

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Difference: Extracts features from the input layer that don’t fall within the boundaries of the overlay
layer. Input layer features that partially overlap the overlay layer feature(s) are split along the
boundary of those feature(s) and only the portions outside the overlay layer features are retained
(Revese To Clip Feature). Attributes are not modified.

Extract/clip by extent: Creates a new vector layer that only contains features which fall within a
specified extent. Any features which intersect the extent will be included.

Intersection: Extracts the portions of features from

the input layer that overlap features in the overlay
layer. Features in the intersection layer are assigned
the attributes of the overlapping features from both
the input and overlay layers. Attributes are not
modified.

Line intersections : Creates point features where the lines from both layers intersect.

Split with lines: Splits the lines or polygons in one layer using the lines in another layer to
define the breaking points. Intersection between geometries in both layers are considered as
split points. Output will contain multi geometries for split features.

Symmetrical difference: Creates a layer containing features from both the input and overlay layers
but with the overlapping areas between the two layers removed. The attribute table of the
symmetrical difference layer contains attributes and fields from both the input and overlay layers.
Attributes are not modified.

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Union: Checks overlaps between features within the input layer and creates separate features
for overlapping and non-overlapping parts. The area of overlap will create as many identical
overlapping features as there are features that participate in that overlap.

An overlay layer can also be used, in which case features from each layer are split at their overlap
with features from the other one, creating a layer containing all the portions from both input and
overlay layers. The attribute table of the union layer is filled with attribute values from the respective
original layer for non-overlapping features, and attribute values from both layers for overlapping
features.

RESULT: Various spatial analysis tools applied to vector data.

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9. Interpretation and digitisation of Land Use and Land Cover features using LISS III data

AIM: To interpret various LU/LC features using LISS III data in QGIS.

INTRODUCTION: Land use refers to mans activities which are directly related to land where as
land cover denotes the natural features and artificial constructions covering the land use surface. The
terms land use and land cover are strongly correlated and in many cases have been used
interchangeably. Land use practices of a region are influenced by a number of parameters namely
physical and chemical environments, socio-economic factors and needs for the masses. Ever
increasing demand due to rapid growth of population has put heavy pressure on natural resources of
the country in general and the study is in particular. The knowledge of land use and land cover is very
important for land planning and land management activities. Land is the most important natural
resource on which most developmental activities are based. Over the past few decades there has been
raising concerns from the researchers and planners about the increasing anthropogenic influence on
land resources. More recently high resolution satellite data and aerial photography have enhanced and
opened new fields for detailed planning of land use and land cover mapping for various
developmental and scientific schemes.

PROCEDURE: The experiment used a satellite geocoded imagery (IRS P6 LISS-III), acquired June
2007 with spatial resolution of 30 meters and Survey of India toposheet on 1:50,000 scale. To prepare
thematic map pertaining to Land use /Land cover features in the given area data is incorporated in
QGIS and have digitised using visual interpretation of the satellite imagery. Visual interpretation is
carried out based on the image characteristics like tone, size, shape, pattern, texture etc. in
conjunction with existing map/literature. The image interpretation keys used for land use land cover
classification. The land use and land cover system adopted in mapping of earth surface features is a
system derived from the United States Geological Survey (USGS) land use/land cover classification
system, showed in below table, fall under the broad categories of built up land, agricultural land,
forest land, uncultivable land and Waterbodies.

LEVEL 1 LEVEL 2
i. Residential
ii. Industrial
1.Urban or built-up
iii. Transportation
land
iv. Communication
v. Utilities
i. Crop land ----- Wet cultivated land
2. Agriculture land
Dry cultivated land
ii. Fallow land
i. Fairly dense forest land
3. Forest land
ii. Sparse forest land
i. Streams and canals
4.Water bodies ii. Lakes
iii. Tanks or Reservoirs
i. Barren land
5.Uncultivable land
ii. Waste land
Table Showing the LULC Classification derived from the USGS classification system

RESULT: A new thematic map is prepared pertaining to land use / land cover features in the given
study area.

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 10. Map Preparation in QGIS
AIM: to illustrate how different map elements are add by QGIS and to create a map for the
existing features
INTRODUCTION: One of the most exciting aspects of GIS technology is the variety of
different ways in which the information can be presented once it has been processed by GIS.
Traditional methods of tabulating and graphing data can be supplemented by maps and three
dimensional images. In QGIS a various types of maps can be produced with different
templates and layouts.
A map is the fundamental component you work with in QGIS. Maps help you
visualize geographic data by showing you where things are, telling you what they are, and
helping you understand why they are that way. Maps serve a variety of purposes. Some maps
are interactive and meant to be browsed online, while others are formatted for printing or
embedding in another application such as a word processor. Every map can have a unique
look, including both its graphic layout and interface.

PROCEDURE:
QGIS allows you to create maps. To compose map, go to project and new composer or press new
composer icon. The composer titledialog box appear, enter the composer title.

Enter the map composer title in it then click ok. After pressing OK button, new window will
popup

In composer interface, there are many buttons. If you hover over the button you can see the tool-
tip providing info about it. select the layout tab in menu bar, The following map elements are
explained below here.

Add map: This button add the QGIS canvas (the map that we want to present) to your
composer.

Add image: to add image

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 Add label: This button help to provide information about generated map such as Title, Author,
and Date etc.

Add Legend: This button bring the symbol from the map canvas.

Add scale: This button provide the map scale.

Add arrow: This button help to show north arrow in map.

Add attribute: This will add the desired attribute table of available layer. This help to show
statistics data on map.

This buttons help to print map either in hard-copy or in image or in pdf as per
user needs.

To compose map, first click Add map, then draw rectangle box in working space, map will be added
in map composer window. By following these above map elements like Add Label, Add Legend, Add
scale, Add new arrow etc.. By using these item properties in the right side of the mapping window we
can modified the settings of map elements to compose the following map.

RESULT: Map is succesfully composed using different map elements.

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