Module – 5 Wave Energy

12.1 GENERAL

Waves get their energy from the solar energy through the wind. Wave energy will never be
depleted as long as the sun shines. Energy intensity may, however, have variation but it is
available 24 h a day in the entire year. They are caused by the wind blowing over the surface
of the ocean with enough consistency and force in many areas of the world to provide
continuous waves along the shoreline. It contains tremendous energy potential and wave
power devices extract energy from either the surface motion of ocean waves or from pressure
fluctuations below the surface. The movement of the ocean water and the changing water
wave heights and speed of the swells are the main sources of wave energy.

12.2 MOTION IN THE SEA WAVES

When the wind blows across smooth water surface, air particles from the wind grab the water
molecules they touch. Stretching of the water surface by the force or friction between the air
and the water creates capillary waves (small wave ripples). Surface tension acts on these
ripples to restore the smooth surface, and thereby, waves are formed.

The combination of forces due to the gravity, sea surface tension, and wind intensity are
the main factors of origin of sea waves as shown in Figure 12.1, which illustrates the
formation of sea waves by a storm. Wave size is determined by wind speed and fetches
(defined as the distance over which the wind excites the waves) and by the depth. Sea waves
have a regular shape at far distance from the fetch and this phenomenon is called swell. Wave
formation makes the water surface further rough and the wind continuously grips the
roughened water surface, and thus, waves are intensified.

Figure 12.1 Sea wave formation by storm

A wave is a forward motion of energy and not the water in deep sea. In true sense, the
seawater does not move forward with a wave. Waves are characterized by the following
parameters, as shown in Figure 12.2.

1. Crest: The peak point (the maximum height) on the wave is called the crest.
2. Trough: The valley point (the lowest point) on the wave is called the trough.
3. Wave height (H): Wave height is a vertical distance between the wave crest and the
next trough (m).
 4. Amplitude (α): It is defined as H/2 (m).
5. Wave length (λ): It is the horizontal distance either between the two successive crests
or troughs of the ocean waves (m).

Figure 12.2 Sea wave propagation

6. Wave propagation velocity (v): The motion of seawater in a direction (m/s).

7. Wave period (T): It measures the size of the wave in time(s). It is the time required for
two successive crests or two successive troughs to pass a point in space.
8. Frequency (f): The number of peaks (or troughs) that pass a fixed point per second is
defined as the frequency of wave and is given by f = 1/T (cycle/s).

12.3 POWER ASSOCIATED WITH SEA WAVES

It has been concluded by researchers through linear wave motion theory that the kinetic and
potential energy (E) of a wave per meter of crest and unit of surface can be approximated as

(12.1)

where ρ = density of water; g = gravitational acceleration; and a = amplitude of the wave

(approximately equals to half its wave height H).

The power that a meter of crest holds can be obtained by multiplying the amount of energy
transported by the group velocity.

In deep water, dispersion relation (k) is given as

(12.2)

Further, group velocity (12.3)

The total power (P) is obtained as

 (12.4)

Further, wave period

Therefore, (12.5)

For irregular waves of height H (m) and period T(s), an equation for power per unit of
wavefront can be derived as

(12.6)

From the above mentioned equations, it is seen that the wave power is directly proportional to
the square of wave height.

Example 12.1

A 2–m sea wave has a 6 s period and occurs at the surface of 100-m deep water. Assume sea-
water density equals to 1,025 kg/m3. Calculate the energy and power densities of the wave.

Solution

Wavelength of the sea wave, (P12.1.1)

where v is wave propagation velocity (m/s); and T = time period of the wave (s).

The wave time period (T) and wave propagation velocity (v) depend upon the wavelength
and depth of seawater. The relationship between the wavelength and the time period can be
approximated as

(P12.1.2)

Therefore,

Therefore, velocity of wave propagation, v = λ/T = 56.16/6 = 9.36 m/s and height of the wave
is the height from the crest to trough, H = 2 m

Wave frequency,

Energy density = (1/8) (ρgH2) = 1,025 × 4 × 9.81/8 = 5,027.625 J/m2

Power density = E/T = E.f = 5,027.625/6 = 837.9375 W/m2

12.3.1 Another Wave Power Formula

In deep water, where the water depth is larger than half the wavelength, the wave energy flux
power is
 (12.7)

where P = wave power per unit of wave-crest length, (k/m); H = significant wave height
(m); T = wave period (s); ρ = density of water; and g = acceleration due to gravity.

Example 12.2

An ocean swell, a few kilometres away from the coastline and in deep seawater, has wave
height of 3 m and wave period of 8 s. Obtain power of the wave energy flux per unit of wave
crest length.

Solution

From Eq. (12.7),

12.4 WAVE ENERGY AVAILABILITY

The density of water is about 800 times higher than air, and therefore, the energy density of
ocean waves are significantly several times more than air. The amount of energy available in
ocean waves is tremendously high, and hence, it is considered as a renewable, zero emission
source of power. Estimates of the global ocean wave energy are more than 2 TW (which
means 17,500 TWh/year) according to the World Energy Council.

It has been reported that the total available US wave energy resource is 23 GW, which is
more than twice as much as Japan, and nearly five times as much as Great Britain. The West
Coast of US is the most promising area with wave energy densities in the range of 25–40
kW/m. The ocean wave along the western coast of Europe is characterized by particularly
high energy. It has over half the wave energy potential of Europe and has power up to extent
of 75 kW/m off the coastal area of Ireland and Scotland.

Generally, extreme latitudes and west coasts of continents are the best wave location. A
view of global wave atlas (based on satellite data) and another world wave map are shown in
Fig. 12.3.

Figure 12.3 Location of wave power plant

Wave energy is converted into electricity by placing wave energy converter on the surface
of the ocean. The electrical energy generated is the most often used in desalination plants,
power supply to electrical consumers, and energizing water pumps.
 They are mostly using the first generation oscillating water columns (OWS) converters.
Other technologies such as the Japanese Pendulor and the Tapchan can also be fit in this
category.

These ocean wave energy technologies rely on the up-and-down motion of waves to
generate electricity.

Several installations have been built in Scotland, Portugal, Norway, the USA, China,
Japan, Australia, and India. The next generation of devices comprises new, modular floating
devices, but these require further research and/or demonstration.

A few installation of wave power converts are as follows:

1. The first wave-power patent was for a 1799 proposal by a Parisian named Monsieur
Girard and his son got patented the first wave power converter in 1979 to use direct
mechanical action to drive pumps, saws, mills, or other heavy machinery.
2. During the first decades of the 19th century, a device was put in operation in Algeria
that captured wave oscillation and transformed it into usable form by using a system
of cams and gears.
3. A 10-kW compliant flap pilot plant was installed in the Baltic sea in 1917 and later on
dismantle.
4. Pelamis became the world’s first offshore wave machine to generate electricity and
fed into the grid, when it was first connected to the UK grid in 2004.
5. Salter Duck wave converter was developed around 1980 in UK.
6. A 120 kW (Oscillating wave column) prototype (The Mighty Whale) with 3 OWCs in
a row has been operating since 1998 (1.5 km off Nansei Town, Japan) at 40 m depth
7. A 2 MW (AWS) system off the coast of Portugal.
8. The prototype (Wave Dragon) is deployed in Nissum Bredning, an inlet in the
northern part of Denmark.
9. A 40 m long prototype (McCabe Wave Pump) was deployed in 1996 off the coast of
Kilbaha, County Clare, Ireland
10. A typical 30 MW (Pelamis) installation would occupy a square kilometre of ocean
and provides sufficient electricity for 20,000 homes.
11. A 750 kW project (Pelamis) off Islay, Scotland.
12. A 2 MW (Pelamis) project off the coast of Vancouver Island, Canada.
13. A 5 MW (perhaps the world’s first commercial wave energy plant) developed by
Wave Gen is located in Isle of Islay, Scotland.

12.4.1 Wave Energy Availability in India

The coastal area of Maharashtra has an annual wave potential ranging between 4 kW/m and 8
kW/m wavefront, which is quite high as 12–20 kW/m during the monsoon.

The wave energy potential of the most feasible sites in Maharashtra is given in Table 12.1
for offshore location.
 Table 12.1 Offshore Location of Wave Power in Maharashtra

Coastal average power location site in Maharashtra is given in Table 12.2.

Table 12.2 Coastal Average Power Location Site in Maharashtra

The Vengurla and Malvan rocks and Redi are on the top among the offshore locations. In the
coastal location, however, Pawa and Ratnagiri top the list followed by Girye and Miyet point.

Vizhinjam fishing harbour, Kerala, is the site of a unique demonstration plant that converts
sea wave energy to electricity and is given to the local grid. This plant has oscillating water
column (OWC) converter in 1990.

12.5 DEVICES FOR HARNESSING WAVE ENERGY

There are three basic technologies for converting wave energy to electricity. They are as
follows:

1. Terminator devices: It is a wave energy device oriented perpendicular to the direction

of the wave and has one stationary and one moving part. The moving part moves up
and down like a car piston in response to ocean waves and pressurizes air or oil to
drive a turbine. An oscillating water column (OWC) converter is an example of
terminator device. These devices generally have power ratings of 500 kW to 2 MW,
depending on the wave parameters and the device dimensions.
 2. Attenuator devices: These devices are oriented parallel to the direction of the waves
and are long multi-segment floating structures. It has a series of long cylindrical
floating devices connected to each other with hinges and anchored to the seabed
Pelamis wave energy converter is one of the known examples of attenuator devices.
3. Point absorber: It is a floating structure with parts moving relative to each other
owing to wave action but it has no orientation in any defined way towards the waves
instead absorbs the wave energy coming from any direction. AquaBuOY WEC is an
example of point absorber devices.
4. Overtopping devices: These devices have reservoirs like a dam that are filled by
incoming waves, causing a slight build-up of water pressure. Gravity causes released
water from reservoir to flow back into the ocean through turbine coupled to an
electrical generator. Salter Duck WEC is the example of overtopping devices.

12.5.1 Float or Buoy Devices

This system is shown in Figure 12.4. A series of anchored buoys rise and fall with the wave
that creates mechanical energy to drive electrical generator for generation of electricity,
which is transmitted to ocean shore by underground cables.

Figure 12.4 Float or buoy device

12.5.2 Oscillating Water Column Devices

An oscillating water column device (OWC device) is shown in Figure 12.5. It is a form of
terminator in which water enters through a subsurface opening into a chamber, trapping air
above. The wave action causes the captured water column to move up and down like a piston,
forcing the air though an opening connected to a turbine to generate power.

Figure 12.5 Schematic of an oscillating water column device

 It is a shoreline-based oscillating water column (OWC) build in UK. Further, it is installed
at Islay. It is a concrete structure partially submerged in seawater and encloses a column of
air on top of a column of water.

12.5.3 Pendulum System

The pendulum system is a shoreline device that consists of a parallelepiped concrete box,
which is open to the sea at one end, as shown in Figure 12.7.

Figure 12.7 Pendulum devices

A pendulum flap is hinged over this opening, which swings back and forth by the actions
of the waves. The back and forth motion of pendulum is then used to power a hydraulic pump
and an electric generator.

12.5.4 TAPCHAN (Tapered Channel)

The schematic arrangement of TAPCHAN device (a Norwegian system) is shown in Figure

12.8. It has a tapered channel connected to a reservoir constructed above the sea level at a
height of 3–5 m. They are relatively low power output devices and suitable for deep-water
shore line and low tidal range. It is a very simple device. Waves collect into a channel, which
tapers into a large reservoir. As the wave width decreases, the wave amplitude increases
according to the principles of conservation of energy and this enables the waves to travel up a
ramp and pour into the reservoir as shown in Figure 12.8.

Figure 12.8 TAPCHAN

The potential energy of water stored in the reservoir is extracted by releasing the reservoir
water back to the sea through a low head Kaplan turbine coupled to an electrical generator.
12.5.5 Salter’s Duck System

Salter Duck WEC is the example of overtopping devices. It was invented in Scotland in 1970
to extract mechanical energy from the ocean waves. The schematic cross section of Salter
Duck is given in Figure 12.9.

Figure 12.9 Salter duck

It is an egg-shaped device that moves with the motion of the waves. The shape of leading
edge of the duck is in such a way that the approaching sea wave pressure is exerted on the
duck. It forces the duck to rotate about a central axis and the tip of the cam bobs up and down
in the water. As the Salter Duck moves (or bobs or rocks) up and down on the sea waves,
pendulum connected to electrical generator swings forward and backward to generate
electricity.

12.5.6 Offshore Wave Dragon System

The wave dragon is an overtopping device that elevates ocean waves to a reservoir above sea
level as shown in Figure 12.10. Water is let out through a number of turbines, and in this
way, it is transformed into electricity. The basic idea of this system consists of two large
‘arms’ that focus waves up a ramp into a reservoir. The water returns to the ocean by the
force of gravity via a low head hydro turbine that drives an electric generator.

Figure 12.10 Offshore wave dragon devices

12.5.7 Bristol Cylinder

The Bristol cylinder operates under the sea level, as shown in Figure 12.11. It consists of a
floating cylinder that collected the wave’s movement. The cylinder is mechanically
connected to the energy unit by flexible joints and rods. The rods are moving slowly with
cylinder and the reciprocating motion is transferred to the axels in converter unit.

Figure 12.11 Bristol cylinder devices

When transferring converter movements with mechanical arms and rotation to the enerator,
the efficiency should be kept as high as possible.

12.5.8 Archimedes Wave Swing Devices

Figure 12.12 Archimedes waves swing device

The Archimedes wave swing device (shown in Fig. 12.12) is an underwater buoy of which
the upper part (floater) moves up and down in the wave, while the lower part stays in
position. The floater (air-filled chamber) is pushed down under a wave crest (top) and moves
up under a wave trough (valley). The interior of the system is pressurized with air and serves
as an air spring. The mechanical power is converted into electrical power by means of a
power take-off system (PTO). The PTO consists of a linear electrical generator and a nitrogen
filled damping cylinder.

It has the advantage of being a ‘point’ absorber that absorbs power from waves travelling
in all directions, and extracts about 50% of the incident wave power in addition to the
advantage of being able to survive despite rough sea conditions on the surface.
12.6 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WAVE POWER

12.6.1 Advantages

1. Sea waves have high energy densities and provide a consistent stream of electricity
generation capacity.
2. Wave energy is clean source of renewable energy with limited negative
environmental impacts.
3. It has no greenhouse gas emissions or water pollutants.
4. Operating cost is low and operating efficiency is optimal.
5. Damage to ocean shoreline is reduced.

12.6.2 Disadvantages

1. High construction costs.

2. Marine life is disrupted and displaced.
3. Damage to the devices from strong storms and corrosion create problems.
4. Wave energy devices could have an effect on marine and recreation environment.

12.7 KEY ISSUES

In general, the key issues affecting wave power devices are as follows:

1. Energy barriers: The main wave energy barriers result from the energy carrier itself.
The peak-to-average load ratio in the sea is very high and difficult to predict.
2. Navigational hazards: Offshore wave energy devices may be a potential navigation
hazard to ships. Near shore devices will have a visual impact
3. Survivability in violent storms: The structural loading in the event of extreme weather
conditions, such as hurricanes and Tsunami may be as high as 100 times the average
loading.
4. Vulnerability of moving parts to seawater: Damage due to strong storms and
corrosion is expected.
5. High capital and operational cost: High construction costs induce high power
generation costs, thus making the technology uncompetitive.

The incidence of wave power at deep ocean sites is three to eight times the wave power at
adjacent coastal sites, but the cost of electricity transmission from deep ocean sites is often
prohibitively high.

SUMMARY

The sea has long been seen as a source of energy, and the idea of harvesting energy from sea
waves was first patented in 1799, in Paris, by Girard and his son.

• Blowing wind and pressure fluctuations below the surface are the main reasons for
causing waves. However, consistency of waves differs from one area of ocean to
another. Some regions of oceans receive waves with enough uniformity and force.
Ocean wave energy can be captured directly from surface waves.
• It is an irregular and oscillating low-frequency energy source that can be converted to
grid frequency and can then be added to the electric utility grid.
• Energy in waves comes from the movement of the ocean and the changing heights
and speed of the swells.
 • Wave power is the transport of energy by ocean sea waves, and the capture of that
energy to do useful work; for example, electricity generation, water desalination, or
pumping of water into reservoirs.
• Machinery able to exploit wave power is generally known as a wave energy converter
(WEC).
• Large amounts of money and research are required for wave power to catch up with
wind and solar energy.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Discuss the principle and working of sea wave energy conversion system.
2. Discuss the performance and limitations of sea wave energy conversion plants.
3. State the expression for energy and power in ocean waves.
4. Discuss limitations of ocean wave energy.
5. Describe principle of oscillating air column ocean wave machine.
6. Describe principle of oscillating hydraulic piston accumulator wave energy convertor.
7. Describe Dam-atoll concept of wave machine.
8. Compare ocean waves and ocean tides with reference to the period energy density and
energy conversion plants.
9. State main criteria for deciding the location of ocean wave plants.