CHAPTER TWO

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

This Chapter presents the review of related literatures related to this study. The review

involves conceptual framework, theory on Examination preparation strategies and

Examination malpractice, some common forms of Examination malpractice among Students.

The sections review the following:

2.2 Conceptual Framework

2.2.1 The Concept Examination

2.2.2 The Purpose of Examination

2.2.3 Examination Preparation Strategy

2.2.4 Examination Malpractice

2.2.5 Genesis of Examination Malpractice

2.2.6 Forms of Examination Malpractice

2.2.7 Causes of Examination Malpractice

2.3 Theoretical Framework

2.3.1The Behavioral theory of Operant Conditioning by B.F Skinner (1937)

2.3.2 Social Learning Theory by Albert Bandura (1997)

2.4 Review of Related Empirical Studies

2.5 Summary of Literature Review and Uniqueness of the Study

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2.2 Conceptual Framework

2.2.1 The Concept Examination

Examination has been defined as a way to ascertain how much of a subject matter in a

particular field of study the candidate has mastered. Examination is viewed as a formal test of

somebody’s knowledge or ability in a particular subject, especially by means of answering

questions or practical exercises. Also examination as the process through which students are

evaluated or tested to find out the quality of knowledge they have acquired within a specified

period.Examinations could be internal or external. It could be oral or written, essay or

objective type, theory or practical constitutes an integral part of the education process.

Examples of internal examinations are continuous assessment tests, terminal, semester and

annual or promotional examinations. Examples of external (public) examinations common in

Nigerian schools are Common Entrance Examination for admission into secondary school.

School Certificates examination is conducted by West African Examination (WAEC) and

National Examination Council (NECO). The Joint Admission Matriculation Board (JAMB)

and National Teachers’ Institute (NTI) conduct admission tests into tertiary institutions while

National Business and Technical Examination Board (NABTEB) conducts professional

examination for teachers and technicians respectively. The outcome of the examination is

used as a basis for decision-making on the examinee’s ability. The examinee is consequently

awarded a certificate which could qualified students for admission into a school, promotion

into higher level of an institution and employment opportunities.

An examination is a form of evaluation where the learner is tested in all areas covered in the

process of teaching at the end of a semester for proper placement and certification. It has a

time table and a time frame. Its always has an external body or examination committee to

moderate. Moderation in an examination comes after the marking. Examination usually

comes in the form of:

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i) Essay: which involves choice of questions where lengthy written answers are expected.

ii) Objective: this is designed to make students to answer a large number of questions either

by making statements as true or false or by selecting the best of several (multiple choice)

given answers.

iii) Practical: this is employed in scientific and technical fields to test theory.

iv) Oral this is given to simply recognize phonetic symbols in a given word commonly used

to test languages. The examination therefore, lies at the heart of any academic exercise. Its

natural tendency is to establish a meritocracy in which power, earnings and status depend, to

a high degree, on education and passing of examinations. This may explain why, for example,

public examinations conducted by examination bodies such as the West African Examination

Council (WAEC), National Examination Council (NECO), Joint Admission Matriculation

Board (JAMB) and Interim Joint Matriculation Board (IJMB) assume a tremendous

importance. That is why teachers and students spend a great amount of time on those topics

they expect to appear in a given examination. Students on the other hand utilized all means,

right and wrong, available to them to ensure that they passed their examinations.

Examinations are conducted in schools year in, year out. Although the period of examinations

brings a lot of anxieties to students all over the world, it is an integral part of our educational

system and there can be no short cut to it.

2.2.2 The Purpose of Examination

Examination can provide information about an individual, student or group of students, a

school (in terms of whether it is performing according to expectation), or about educational

system (in terms of whether or not the set objectives are being met), (Oyetunde 2004

&Alhassan 2006). The examination lies in the center of any educational enterprise as it serves

three main purposes:

i) Measuring competence or achievement in a given field of endeavour.

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ii) Helping predict future success and also assisting in selection purposes.

iii) As an activity, providing incentives to learning, (Aboki, 2000).

Examination and education are inseparable, for the efficiency and quality of an educational

system is usually determined through the performance of its products in an examination or a

set of examinations. The examination therefore, influences what is taught and learned in

schools, especially when the results of the examinations are used to make important decisions

on achievement, selection and placement purposes. In Nigeria, examinations therefore,

become a fulcrum for determining promotion from one level to another and the acquisition of

certificates which consequently determine the future occupational career of a student or

candidate. The examination therefore, becomes a “do or die” affair. Examinations exert a

very powerful influence on the educational system, on what is taught or how it is taught, and

they determine how far students can go in their academic pursuits and job aspirations,

(Onyetunde, 2004). The “entire families‟ lives can be influenced by a child’s performance on

an examination because that performance can constrain or expand future employment

possibilities for the child”, (Capper, 1996).

In this sense, the examination becomes a social issue, a public concern. This high stake

associated with examination induces desperation in students to the extent of wanting to do

anything and everything to ensure success. All stakeholders in educational planning have a

responsibility to influence positively on how examinations are administered.Nigeria’s

education system like any other country has its problems, lapses, controversies and issues.

Many problems confront Nigeria educational system and institutions prominent among them

are the issue of examination malpractice. Examination malpractice is a kind of conduct that

violates the acceptable laid down rules and regulations of Nigeria’s education system. On the

other hand, examination malpractice is any wrong doing before, during or after any

examination. Although one may not be able to rule out examination malpractice in the past,

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the current trend is alarming and calls for proper management in order to save the nation’s

most important sector. Whereas, in the past, students tended to hide the acts, now they

advertise them with reckless abandon. It has become a prolific business enterprise branded

with the name of private examination centers aided and abetted by corrupt examination

officials, supported by parents who will not allow their children to be left out from the Trojan

gift of malpractice. Examination malpractice occurs in both internal and external

examination. It is a problem which has been afflicting the educational system for many years.

It seems to have defied solutions, as all antidotes applied so far have been faulted by

fraudsters. In fact, it constitutes the most serious problem facing Nigerian education system

in general and secondary education in particular.Therefore, there is need to sanitize the

nation’s education system by getting rid of examination malpractices.

2.2.3 Examination Preparation Strategy

Examination preparation can be seen as a set readiness of the examinee before the slated time

of a test or examination been it Internal or external with the Students aiming for success.

However, examination preparation strategies are the techniques, plans of action prior to

commencement of the test/examination with an attempt to obtain an excellent result.

Individual Student prepare for the examinations/tests using various strategies during lectures

and few days before examinations.

Physical preparation

This has to do with the way you treat your body during examination, which directly affects

your one’s Performance on examination. Even if one is consciously aware of the effects , it

will cause trouble remembering facts and writing the exam. There will be that one concept

one can not remember or, that sentence that will be badly written and cost the examinee half

of the mark. It is therefore always important to make sure that you prepare physically for an

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exam. Your body is a machine which is used to certain patterns and schedules. So, don’t

interrupt the following while preparing physically for an exam.

 Sleep well and get normal amount of sleeping (hopefully around 8hours )

 Maintain routine exercise schedules

 Maintain the eating habits. Don’t skip any meals and eat healthy.

Mental preparation

Just as Important as Physical preparation, cannot cram for an examination and expect to do

well. Properly preparing yourself for an exam is vital to your success. Remember

 To study in advance. This will move information to the long term memory, and you

will have less pre-exam stress and anxiety

 Clarify all the details in advance. Know what sort of questions to expect, where the

exam will be held.

Physical and mental preparation for an exam is all about balance. If you study too much that

you forgot to eat or well, you are hurting your ability to do well on an exam and this can lead

to involvement in to the examination malpractice.

2.2.4 Examination Malpractice

Examination malpractice is defined as a deliberate wrong doing contrary to official

examination rules designed to place a candidate at unfair advantage or disadvantage.

Malpractice is defined as any deliberate act of wrong doing contrary to the rules of

examinations designed to give a candidate an unfair advantage, (Malami, 2013).

Examination malpractice is described as the “massive and unprecedented abuse of rules and

regulations pertaining to internal and external examinations, beginning from the setting of

such examinations through the taking of the examinations, their marking and grading, to the

release of the results and the issuance of certificates”, (Nwana, 2000)

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According to Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary malpractice is a wrong or illegal

behaviour exhibited by a person while discharging professional responsibilities. In the light

of this definition, examination malpractice is simply illegally obtaining an answer to an

examination question from any other source other than the brain of the examine. Malpractice

refers to all illegal means adopted by students in passing examination either within or outside

the examination hall. It can be taking to mean cheating or fraud (Ayanniyi et al, 2018).

Malpractice therefore, is the use of unconventional behavior or methods before, during and

after examination to aid, assist & attain desired success in examination.

Examination malpractice is no longer a desperate candidates’ affair, rather school teachers

and even principals are now involved in the perpetration of this vice, (Ojerinde, 2002).

Malpractice refers to all illegal means adopted by students in passing examination either

within or outside the examination hall. It can be taking to mean cheating or fraud (Ayanniyi

et al, 2018). Malpractice therefore, is the use of unconventional behavior or methods before,

during and after examination to aid, assist & attain desired success in examination.

Even with the promulgation of Decree No 33 of 1999(Now Act of Parliament) designed to

check examination malpractice; the crime appears to be on the increase.

2.2.5 Genesis of Examination Malpractice

The very date and place examination malpractice started in the world is not known but it

could be said to be one of the fall-outs of the fall of man in the Garden of Eden when Satan

deceived Adam and Eve to sin. Satan solved this ugly seed which germinated into various

forms of sin and vices including examination malpractice.Examination malpractice has been

in existence a long time ago. According to various sources examination malpractice was first

reported in Nigeria in 1914 when there was a leakage of senior Cambridge Local

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Examination. After independence, there was hardly any year when no examination

malpractice was not recorded

In Nigeria, however, examination malpractice became prominent in the 1970s, when youths

who were in the colleges and universities before the advent of the Nigerian civil war in 1967,

who were conscripted into the army during the war, came back at the end of the war in 1970

and went back to schools to continue with their education. These youths who understood the

language of the trigger of the gun more than what the teacher was saying, were not psycho-

emotionally stable and prepared for examinations and so resorted to alternative means of

passing the examinations such as direct cheating in examinations, bribing examiner to allow

them to indulge in mass cheating, hiring of machineries to write for them. This was clearly

manifested in the West African School Certificate Examination of 1970/1971 when all

manner of irregularities ranging from examination malpractice to leakage of examination

question papers characterized with the conduct of the examination.

2.2.6 Forms of Examination Malpractice

There are dimension of examination malpractices year-in-year-out, students come up with

new dimensions of examination malpractices. The instances of examination malpractices

vary. Some of the forms of examination malpractice are discussed below:

1. Bringing of Foreign Materials Into Examination Hall: This is a situation where

students bring into the examination hall notes, textbooks and other prepared materials.

The method is nicknamed as hide and seeks, microchips, tattoo and magic desk.

Sometimes, students bring into the hall unauthorized materials like sophiscated and

scientific calculators Abba (1998) identified some methods like giraffing, contraband,

bullet, super print, escort, pregnant biros and so on.

2. Assistance from Educational Stakeholders: Examination stakeholders include

parents, teachers, lecturers, security agents, printers, and staff of examination bodies.

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Some parents go to any length in buying question papers for their children while some

others even buy certificates for their children. Supervisors colluding with students by

allowing the students to communicate, exchange answer booklets during examination

period, lecturers or teachers releasing question papers or giving underserved marks or

allowing students to illegally re-take examination papers. Security agents, printers and

staff of examination bodies also sell question papers.

3.Giraffing. This is an act of sticking out one’s neck to see another student’s answer

sheet in the examination hall.

4.Lateral Connection.This is a sitting arrangement whereby the „bright‟ student is

seated in the centreflanked on both sides by other students.

5.Dubbing. This is when students copy in the examination hall either another

student‟s paper or the material they brought into the examination hall.

6. Contract. This reflects a situation when a student’s‟ grade is influenced with the

assistance of a friendly Teacher.

7.Tatoo. This is when a male/female student writes information on the tender parts of

his/her thigh or in a shoe where he/she can easily adjust to reveal the material and

such material can be cleared within a second when there is a problem.

8. Rank Xeroxing. This indicates a situation when a student collects and writes

another students answer word for word.

9. Computo. This involves the use of calculators, which has facilities for multiple

entries. The Invigilator may not know that it has such facilities; she/he may think it is

an ordinary calculator.

10. Missile Catch.Represent answer written on a piece of paper, squeezed and thrown

to a student while the examination is going on.

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11. Swapping. Is an exchange of paper booklets so that the bright student can write

answers out for his/her colleague or friend.

12. Token: Involve jotting of points on the mathematical set, razor blades, rulers,

hankies and others for referencing during examination

13. Mercenary Service (impersonation). Involve employing the service of another

student/person to write the examination.

14. Table Toping .Is writing of anticipated answers on the top of a desk before the

commencement of examination?

15. CNN. Is the sharing of questions and answers between groups for eventual

connection in the examination hall.

16. Time Out. Is the act of going out to the „toilet‟ to read up answers?

17. Stroke. Is a situation whereby students pretend to be sick during an examination

in order to gain the Examiner’s sympathy while marking?

18. E-Cheating. Is the habit of students engaging ICT devices to indulge in

examination malpractices? The introduction of the Global System for Mobile

Communication (GSM) in Nigeria has become revolution in examination

malpractices in all tiers of our school system. A lot of academic information is now

stored in these electronic gadgets for direct use in examination halls or for onward

transfer via Short Message Service (SMS) to other students in any other part(s) of the

country. There is a worrisome dimension of this act by asserting that female students

actually hide their phones, which contain answers to questions being examined in

their under-wears and when confronted by the Invigilators, they claimed they were

only adjusting their sanitary towels to make it firm. Indicating the level of its

escalation in Nigeria, JAMB confiscated one thousand nine hundred and forty-eight

(1, 948) mobile phones in 2007 with evidence of prepared answers sent through SMS.

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 (Assam, 2009). The figure increased to three thousand and thirty-nine (3,039) in 2008

(IT Realms online, 2009). There is also undue assistance by supervisors/invigilators

when examination is in process, matriculated Students taking examination for other

students and forged GCE results. These acts were detected by vigilant and loyal

officials in spite of the high degree of sophistication in used in by –passing

regulations and procedures to commit the crimes. Scientific Calculators that are

capable of retrieving data stored, performing symbolic mathematical manipulation,

integration and differentiation have also been caught with students in examination hall

(Assam, 2009). The level of Sophistication of the forms used in committing the

offenses and determination with which they are persistently committed give some

concern. In another development, pocket organizers, hand-held computers, laptop

computers, electronic writing pads, calculators with typewriter-like keypads known as

QWERTY, calculators with graphical display, calculators that make noise or talk,

have equally been associated with examination fraud in developed countries (Assam,

2009). A new dimension of examination malpractice has been added in the name of

Special Centres and venues or miracle centres and venues.

2.2.7 Causes of Examination Malpractice

Many deeply rooted underlying factors have been reported to be the causes of examination

malpractices in our schools. Fear and anxiety are pressures which „push‟ students to want to

do well and this usually lead to all forms of examination malpractices (Alhassan, 1991). More

emphasis put on examination has caused indescribable anxiety, shock and nervousness in

students and their parents, (Cookey, 2001). Laziness and inadequate preparation for

examination are also identified as important causal factors of examination malpractice. This

confirms the saying that, „he who fails to prepare, prepares to fail‟, and since many students

who failed in preparation are bent on passing at all cost; cheating becomes their only option

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1.Society-Related Factors:

a)Undue emphasis on Certificates*

b)Poor staffing of schools

c)Laxity in prosecuting offenders

d)Inadequate funding

e)Law Enforcement Agents

2.Institution-Related Factors:

a)Too difficult examination questions

b)Poor invigilation

c)Lack of conducive examination environment

d)Examination Officials

e)Examining office Computer Operators

3.Teacher/Lecturers-Related Factors:

a)Teacher’s threat to fail students

b)Lack of commitment on the part of teachers

c)Anxiety caused by non-completion of the syllabus

d)Leakages through teachers

e)Un-stimulating course materials

f)Strikes that often interrupt the school programme

4.Learner-Related Factors:

a)The fear of failure*

b)Inadequate preparation

c)Desire to meet societal expectations

d)Lack of confidence in one’s ability

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2.3Theoretical Framework

This section deals with theoretical backing to this study. According to this research, two

theories have been used to support this literature. These are the social learning theory of

Albert Bandura, and the Behavioural theory of Operant Conditioning by B.F Skinner.

2.3.1The Behavioral theory of Operant Conditioning by B.F Skinner (1937)

Operant conditioning refers to a kind of learning process where by a response is made more

probable or more frequent by reinforcement. It helps the learning of operant behaviour, the

behaviour that is not necessarily associated with known stimuli. Skinner called this theory

operant conditioning because it is based on certain operations which an organism has to carry

out. The term ‘operant’ stresses that behaviour operates upon the environment to generate its

own consequences. An operant is a set of acts which conditions an organism in doing

something. In the process of operant conditioning, operant responses are modified or changed

by reinforcements. Reinforcements are special kinds of conditioning within which the

tendency for a stimulus to evoke a response on subsequent occasions is increased by

reduction of a bond. Based on the findings of his experiment, skinner concluded that

behaviour is shaped and maintained by the consequences. It is operated by the organism and

maintained by its results. Skinner believed that behaviours could be learnt from the

environment. It could also be unlearned through reinforcers, which could be negative or

positive. Through negative reinforcers, the organism can be punished for doing something

wrong, so that such an act is not repeated again. Positively, it could be rewarded to repeat an

act if it was good.

Learning here is facilitated by the kind of intimate personal relationships, which a habitual

examination cheat shares with another cheat or potential cheat. Learning also entails learning

the skills, motives, rationalisation and all other mechanisms of carrying out the malpractice

behaviour. Such skills and techniques include innovating different rationalising behaviour

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with such aphorism mind-set as ‘everyone in Cameroon is a cheat’, ‘I need good grade to get

a job’, ‘no success without element of crime’

Relating the theory to the current study, the theory is very important to this body of

knowledge as it brings out the tenets of behaviour, how they are learnt, and how they can

unlearn. It is also linked in that, students learn cheating malpractices from others (their

environment), which could be peers, parents, supposed role models in their communities, and

even teachers. This automatically means that some of these examination malpractices

portrayed by students today, they learned from some parents, teachers, peers and others in the

community.

This theory also links to this work by making us understand that these cheating behaviours

can be unlearn through punishment. If students who cheat during exams are severely

punished, commensurate to the degree of the crime committed, it is possible that they can

unlearn the cheating behaviour as well as others will realise and not carry out such acts

because they are aware of what awaits them.

2.3.2Social Learning Theory by Albert Bandura, 1977

The social learning theory of Albert Bandura, postulated in 1977 agrees with the

behaviourists theories of classical conditioning and operant conditioning that behaviour is

learnt form the environment through the process of observational learning (McLeod, 2016).

This theory emphasizes the importance of observing and modelling the behaviours, attitudes

and emotional reactions of others. Bandura (1997) states: “Learning would be exceedingly

laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to rely solely on the effects of their own

actions to inform them what to do. Fortunately, most human behaviour is learned

observationally through modelling: from observing others, one forms an idea of how new

behaviours are performed, and on later occasions this coded information serves as a guide for

action. Nowadays children are surrounded by many spheres of influence (models) such as

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parents, teachers, the television, social media and peer groups. These models groups exhibit

various types of behavioural patterns that might be imitated by with children with little

regards as to whether the behaviours is ‘gender appropriate’ or not. Bandura suggests that a

child who has seen his\her parents being kind and caring will tend to do conversely the same.

Conversely, a child who has seen aggressive behaviours of parents is likely to be violent in

solving problems.

Social learning theory explains human behaviour in terms of continuous reciprocal

interaction between cognitive, behavioural and environmental influences. The component

processes underlying observational learning are; Attention, including theory modelled events

(distinctiveness, affective valence, complexity, prevalence, functional value) and observer

characteristics (sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement.

Retention, it involves symbolic coding, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor

rehearsal. Motor Reproduction, includes aspects like physical capabilities, self-observation of

reproduction, accuracy of feedback. Motivation, it includes issues like external, vicarious and

self-reinforcement.

Wherever they go, they learn what they see. Whatever they hear, they take, especially from

their heroes and elders. In the community in general, when students enter offices and they are

demanded to offer bribes for services, they in turn learn and use it in their examination halls.

They learn to bribe their classmates to write their exams for them. They also bribe teachers to

leak examination questions to them. In situations where their prey refuses their offers of

bribe, they switch to intimidate them.

Summarily, students could also learn a great deal from their peer groups and teachers at

school. Examples of such behaviours to observe and imitate can include; male and female,

pro and anti- social groups. These children devote much attention to some of these people

they call heroes, and encode their behaviour at a later time; they may mimic the encoded

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(observed) behaviour which had been observed. All these bad behaviours when learnt have

damaging effects on the student’s future.

Relating this theory to the current research, the importance of this theory to the current study

under investigation is that this theory is highly connects the social environment and

examination malpractice. It shows how the school in general as a social environment

influences students to indulge in examination malpractice. It shows how students indulge in

bribery, impersonation and intimidation, because they learn from their peers, heroes

(teachers, principals), and their parents. Students live in the social environment which is their

school campuses. Their homes too are also an environment. This theory also makes us

understand that just like bad behaviours are learnt from the social environment, with the

actors being parents, teachers, heroes (public figures), these same personalities, through their

behaviours can make the students unlearn these bad behaviours.

2.4 Review of Related Empirical Studies

In a study conducted by Adegoke, (2010), the research was carried out to investigate

examination malpractice among secondary school students in Mushin Local Government area

in Lagos State. The study highlights the causes of examination malpractice among secondary

school students, the effect of examination malpractice and solution to examination

malpractice in secondary schools. In this research work, a sample of twenty (20) teachers and

one hundred (100) students were collected by means of simple random sampling techniques

from five secondary schools in Mushin Local Government. The research instrument used for

the study was the teacher’s and student’s perception questionnaire which was validated by the

supervisor and used for the collection of data from the respondents. The data collected from

respondents were analyzed with distribution tables and simple percentage.At the end of the

analysis the study revealed the major reasons for examination malpractice which include

parental pressure for good grades, value attached to certificate and so on. The study further

16
recommends that parent should not put pressure on their children for good grades. Also

emphasis should not be lay on certificates.

Emaikwu, and Sunday (2012) carried out a study titled Assessing the impact of examination

malpractices on the measurement of ability in Nigeria. The purpose of the research work was

to assess the impact of examination malpractices on the measurement of ability in Nigeria.

The design of this study is survey research. A sample of 300 students and 100 lecturers

randomly selected from four universities in North Central Nigeria was used for the study. The

instrument for data collection was a structured questionnaire developed by the researcher.

Four research questions were answered and one hypothesis was tested. The result indicates

that lecturers and students indulge in examination malpractice in Nigeria. It is affirmed that

examination malpractice is caused by undue emphasis on paper qualification, fear of failure

and inadequate preparation among other factors. The result also shows that the major types of

examination malpractice being perpetuated in universities are possession of ‘foreign

materials’ during examination, collusion by students to cheat in examination and continuous

assessment malpractice. It reveals further that examination malpractice leads to lack of

confidence in Nigerian educational products, results in half-baked graduates, discourages

hard work and lowers the standard of education. The article maintains that the calamity of

examination malpractice is not just the havoc it wrecks in our educational system but the

gradual indoctrination of youths into the practice of fraud. It is recommended that

examination malpractice legislation should be enforced and that guidance and counseling

services be adequately provided in universities to minimize the incidence of examination

malpractice.

Adegokeh (2016) carried out a survey. This research was carried out to investigate

examination malpractice among secondary school students in Mushin Local Government area

in Lagos State. The project highlights the causes of examination malpractice among school

17
students, the effect of examination malpractice and solution to examination malpractice in

secondary schools. In this research work, a sample of twenty (20) teachers and one hundred

(100) students were collected by means of simple random sampling techniques from five

secondary schools in Mushin Local Government. The research instrument used for the study

was the teacher’s and student’s perception questionnaire which was validated by the

supervisor and used for the collection of data from the respondents. The data collected from

respondents were analyzed with distribution tables and simple percentage. At the end of the

analysis the study revealed the major reasons for examination malpractice which include

parental pressure for good grades, value attached to certificate and so on. The study further

recommended that parent should not put pressure on their children for good grades. Also

emphasis should not be lay on certificates.

In a study conducted byAlabi (2016), on assessment of examination malpractices in Nigerian

colleges of education,the purpose of the study was to assess examination malpractices in

Colleges of Education, its consequences on Nigeria’s educational system and the way out.

Three research questions were answered. The study adopted survey research design.The

target population for the study comprised all academic staff of five Colleges of Education

drawn from five geographical political zones in Nigeria from which the samples for the study

were drawn.Systematic random sampling technique was used to select fifty (50) academic

staff for the study.The instrument used for the study was a structured questionnaire. The

items in the questionnaire were organized in accordance with the research questions

formulated to guide the study.Three lecturers; one from Department of Technical Education,

Federal College of Education, Pankshin and two from Federal College of Education

(Technical), Akoka validated the instrument for data collection. Cronbach alpha reliability

method was used to determine the internal consistency of the questionnaire items. Fifty

18
copies questionnaire were administered on the fifty (50) academic staff in College of

Education outside the study area. The reliability coefficient of 0.82 was obtained.

The data collected was analysed using Mean and Standard Deviation Statistics. The responses

in the questionnaire were tabulated; strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Disagree (D), and

strongly disagree (SA). The calculated Mean was interpreted in relation to the real limits of

the codes assigned to the options as follows;Strongly Agree(SA) =3.5-4.0 Agree (A) =2.5-

3.49 Disagree(D) =1.5-2.49, Strongly Disagree (SD) =1.0-1.49 .The decision of the

findings were guided by using a Mean score of 2.5 and above as a cut-off point as items

being agreed to, while questionnaire items that fall below 2.5 were rejected.

The result of the study shows that mean ratings of the responses of the respondents on 20

items on the causes of examination malpractices in Colleges of Education. Four of the items

had their real limit below cut-off point of 2.5. This indicates that the respondents agreed that

all the items except four are causes of examination malpractices in Colleges of Education.

The result further revealed that, other effects of examination malpractices such as production

of mediocre NCE graduates and teachers who are bad influence to students in primary and

secondary schools as well as defeated aim of College of Education; to acquire both physical

and intellectual skills that enable individuals to be self-relevant and useful members of the

society seriously undermine the foundations of educational practice in Nigeria.

The study concluded that, examination malpractices are virus which has invaded our

educational system and threatening its consolidation thereof. Act of examination malpractices

is dishonest, illegal and immoral behaviour in which measures need to be put in place to

improve the moral conduct and education standard, motivate both students and lecturers on

the need to be hard working, as cheating in examination is capable of not only running our

educational system, but also impairing the efficacy of our labour force.

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The study recommended among others that, College management and student union

government should join hands in re-orienting students; higher premium should be placed on

hard work, honesty, integrity, obedience to the laws of the college and rewarded accordingly

by the college authority. The school should be fair and thorough in setting questions,

conducting exams, marking of answer scripts, awarding marks and grading of student and

Adequate punishment should be meted out to defiant and erring students as well as culprit

lecturers and workers.

Similarly, Kebuya and Mekongtso (2020) investigated the Effects of Examination

Malpractices on Students Future, Case Of Higher Technical Teachers Training College,

Bambili-Bamenda. The study was necessitated by the fact that the researchers noticed so

many mishaps during their final exams, amongst which was that many students were moving

up and down in the exam hall, students identification papers were not checked upon entering

the exam hall nor when they were writing, students going out after receiving their question

papers without any invigilator accompanying them and thus it sought to examine the effects

of examination malpractice on student’s future. It made use of four research objectives which

are; To examine the relationship between impersonation on students’ future, to find out the

effects of bribery on students’ future, to evaluate the effects of intimidation on students

future, and to propose possible solutions to curbing examination malpractice. The

Behavioural theory of Operant Conditioning by B.F Skinner and Social Learning Theory by

Albert Bandura were used. The research design was a survey, and questionnaire was used to

get respondents’ opinions. Analysis was done using simple percentage count. Test was

carried out using 120 respondents as the sample. The results revealed that impersonation is

negatively related to student’s future, bribery is negatively related to student’s future, and

intimidation is negatively related to student’s future. From the objectives, we see that there is

a relationship between cheating, personification, and exam malpractices as well as the fact

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that cheating during exams affects students future. Amongst the many recommendations, one

of them was that the government through the Ministry of Higher Education (MINESUP)

should integrate examination malpractices in the school curriculum as one of the cross cutting

issues in the institutions of learning in order to enhance continuous awareness among

learners.

Similarly Okafor, (2021) investigated Causes and Consequences of Examination Malpractice

among Senior Secondary School Students in Eti-Osa L.G.A. of Lagos State, Nigeria. Two

research questions and four hypotheses were formulated and tested.The research design used

in this study was a descriptive survey with a target population of 540 from 20 selected

secondary schools. 27 respondents were selected from each school using random sampling

techniques. A self-developed instrument titled the “Causes and Consequences of Examination

Malpractice Questionnaire’ (CACOEMQ) was used to collect the data. The CACOEMQ has

15 items and two sections; Section A and B. Section A relates to the demographic data of the

respondents and section B contains the variables on causes and consequences of examination

malpractices. The instruments were validated by experts in test construction and

measurement from the University of Ilorin and a reliability coefficient of 0.76 was

established. Rank order was used to test the research questions while t-test was used to

analyse the research hypotheses at a 0.05 level of significance.

The study revealed that, 540 respondents participated in this study. The major causes of

examination malpractice in secondary schools in the Eti-Osa Local Government Area of

Lagos State was, sexual harassment by teachers can lead to examination malpractice’ which

has a mean score of 3.32. Inadequate teacher students’ interaction can lead to examination

malpractice’ which has a mean score of 3.23. And ‘extortion of money from students by

invigilators can lead to examination malpractice’ which has a mean score of 3.10. Also,

‘student laziness’ can promote examination malpractice and ‘negative peer influence can

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bring about examination malpractice’ both of which have a mean score of 2.72. Inadequate

funding’ in school and teachers welfare can encourage examination malpractice’ has a mean

score of 2.66. Inability to get reading materials in the library can make students indulge in

examination malpractice’ which has a mean score of 2.57. And ‘too much involvement in

social activities can make students engage in examination malpractice’ has a mean score of

2.53. Frequent strike actions can lead to examination malpractice’ has a mean score of 2.52.

The study concluded that, the major causes of examination malpractice in secondary schools

in the Eti-Osa Local Government Area of Lagos State was that sexual harassment by teachers

can lead to examination malpractice. Another finding revealed that the main consequences of

examination malpractice in secondary schools in the Eti-Osa Local Government Area of

Lagos State, wasthat examination malpractice deprives an innocent student’s opportunity for

admission. The study recommended among others that, A change in the value system. The

situation where people place so much value on certification does not augur well for our

academics as it encourages examination malpractice. Sound educational policy should be put

in place with a de-emphasis on the supremacy of certificates over skills and professional

competence. Also there should be an improvement in the delivery of instruction especially at

the foundation. Stakeholders in education should be firm in instilling moral values in their

children and wards to avoid examination malpractice at all levels of education. And teachers

and supervisors should be persons of proven integrity. The invigilators should be very

vigilant in the supervision of examinations and should be fair to all. The question of double

standards should not arise.

2.5 Summary of Literature Review and Uniqueness of the Study

The study review related literatures related to this study. The review involves conceptual

framework, Concept Examination, Purpose of Examination, Examination Preparation

Strategy, Examination Malpractice, Genesis of Examination Malpractice, Forms of

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Examination Malpractice and Causes of Examination Malpractice. Theory on Examination

preparation strategies and Examination malpractice, some common forms of Examination

malpractice among Students were reviewed. According toBehavioural theory of Operant

Conditioning by B.F Skinner, and Social Learning Theory by Albert Bandura, Relating the

theory to the current study, the theory is very important to this body of knowledge as it brings

out the tenets of behaviour, how they are learnt, and how they can unlearn. It is also linked in

that, students learn cheating malpractices from others (their environment), which could be

peers, parents, supposed role models in their communities, and even teachers.The social

learning theory of Albert Bandura, postulated in 1977 agrees with the behaviourists theories

of classical conditioning and operant conditioning that behaviour is learnt form the

environment through the process of observational learning. Empirical Studies were reviewed.

According to the review, many causes have been linked to the prevalent cases of examination

malpractice, poorpreparation for examinations,low morality andpoor school facilities as

causes of examinationmalpractice. Othercauses may include the fearof failure, craze for

certificate, desire of parents to have their children in choice professions and university,

pressure on students to pursue courses for which they have no aptitude, pressure on teachers

who want to gain favour of student and overcrowded sitting arrangement.

Examinationmalpractice has serious implications for the educational system, students,

teachers, parents and the school as a whole. Nigeria has been graded with reliability of half-

baked graduates, low productivity and poor jobperformance,certificateracketeering and

qualificationinflation. The credibility of our certificates becomes questionable internationally.

The reasons for examination malpractices have been categorized into psychological and

sociological cause.

The Uniqueness of the Study lies in the geographical location of the study, department of

technology education, faculty of education, Bayero University Kano. Others studies were in

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colleges of education and senior secondary schools. The study is also unique in research

design, population, and sample size, sampling techniques, instrument and statistical tools.

Others studies adopted correlation design, while this study employed descriptive survey

design. Furthermore, some studies used chi-square to test the hypothesis of the study, while

this study employs descriptive statistics.

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 References

Adegoke B. (2010) A survey of examination: malpractice among secondary school students

Causes, effects and solutions
Emaikwu, B. and Sunday O. (2012).The nineteen century exam activities amongst students
in teacher training colleges; case of TTC, Yaounde 4-Cameroon.
Kebuya N. N. and Mekongtso N.C. (2020) Effects Of Examination Malpractices On
Students Future, Case Of Higher Technical Teachers Training College, Bambili
BamendaAfrican Journal of Education and Practice 2519-0296 6, ( 5) 55 - 78
Okafor, I. P (2021) Causes and Consequences of Examination Malpractice among Senior
Secondary School Students in Eti-Osa L.G.A. of Lagos State, Nigeria Canadian
Journal of Family and Youth, 13(1), 84-98
http://ejournals,library,ualberta.ca/index/php/cjfy

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