CHAPTER-3|Computer Hardware For Information Systems

CHAPTER-3
COMPUTER HARDWARE FOR INFORMATION SYSTEMS

3.1. INTRODUCTION
• A computer is an automatic machine made up of electronic and electro mechanical devices
that processed data under program control to generate meaningful information with speed and
accuracy.
• It can perform long and complex calculations, and analyse complex scientific or
mathematical data. Computer hardware includes the physical computer and its peripheral
components, is given. Input, output and storage devices, along with other types of computers,
are identified and explained.

3.2. BASICS OF DATA REPRESENTATION

• Data are usually represented in a computer by using the numbers, alphabets-A to Z symbols,
graphs and images.
• This form of representation is used to formulate problem and fed to the computer.
• The processed output is required in the same form. This form representation is called external
data representation.
• However the computer can understand data by strings of binary digits, or bits.
• A bit is a smallest unit of data in a computer. It is represented by a 1 or a 0.
• A unique combination of eight bits referred to as a byte, represents each character in a
computer.
• Two most important characteristics of hardware in a computer are speed and size.
• Computer processing time is measured in millions of a second; the instructions processed per
second is expressed in MIPS (million instruction per second).
• The units of time and size used to describe a computer are as follows:

UNIT SIZE OF MEMORY

Byte 8 bits

Kilobyte (KB) 1000 (103) bytes

Megabyte (MB) 1000000(106) bytes

Gigabyte (GB) 1000000000(109) bytes

Terabyte 1000000000000(1012) bytes

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3.3. TYPES OF COMPUTERS

Computer

Analog computer Digital computer Hybrid computer

Mini computer Main frame Micro computer

computer

 Analog Computer
Analog computers are used to process continuous data. Analog computers represent variables by
physical quantities. Thus any computer which solve problem by translating physical conditions
such as flow, temperature, pressure, angular position or voltage into related mechanical or
electrical related circuits as an analog for the physical phenomenon being investigated in general
it is a computer which uses an analog quantity and produces analog values as output. Thus an
analog computer measures continuously. Analog computers are very much speedy. They produce
their results very fast. But their results are approximately correct. All the analog computers are
special purpose computers.
 Digital Computer.
Digital computer represents physical quantities with the help of digits or numbers. These
numbers are used to perform Arithmetic calculations and also make logical decision to reach a
conclusion, depending on, the data they receive from the user. Digital computer classified into 3
types. These are:
• Main Frame Computer
The most expensive, largest and the most quickest or speedy computer are called mainframe
computers. These computers are used in large companies, factories, organizations etc. the
mainframe computers are the most expensive computers; they cost more than 20 million rupees.
In these computers 150 users are able to work on one C.P.U. The mainframes are able to process
1 to 8 bits at a time. They have several hundreds of megabytes of primary storage and operate at
a speed measured in nano second.
• Mini Computer

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Mini computers are smaller than mainframes, both in size and other facilities such as speed,
storage capacity and other services. They are versatile that they can be fitted where ever they are
needed. Their speeds are rated between one and fifty million instructions per second (MIPS).
They have primary storage in hundred to three hundred megabytes range with direct access
storage device.
• Micro Computer
These are the smallest range of computers. They were introduced in the early 70’s having less
storing space and processing speed. Micro computers of today’s are equivalent to the mini
computers of yesterday in terms of performing and processing. They are also called “computer of
a chip” because its entire circuitry is contained in one tiny chip. The micro computers have a
wide range of applications including uses as portable computer that can be plugged into any wall.
 Hybrid Computer
Various specifically designed computers are with both digital and analog characteristics
combining the advantages of analog and digital computers when working as a system. Hybrid
computers are being used extensively in process control system where it is necessary to have a
close representation with the physical world. The hybrid system provides the good precision that
can be attained with analog computers and the greater control that is possible with digital
computers, plus the ability to accept the input data in either form.

3.4. BASIC COMPONENTS OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS

The computer system consists of four units:-
 Input unit
 Central Processing Unit (CPU) Consisting of ALU (Arithmetic logic unit), Control Unit and
Memory Unit.
 Secondary Storage Unit.
 Output Unit.

 Input Unit: This unit is used for entering data and programs into the computer system by the
user for processing.

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 Storage Unit: The storage unit is used for storing data and instructions before and after
processing.
 Output Unit: The output unit is used for storing the result as output produced by the
computer after processing.
 Central Processing Unit (CPU): The task of performing operations like arithmetic and
logical operations is called processing. The Central Processing Unit (CPU) takes data and
instructions from the storage unit and makes all sorts of calculations based on the instructions
given and the type of data provided. It is then sent back to the storage unit. CPU includes
Arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and control unit (CU)
 Arithmetic Logic Unit: All calculations and comparisons, based on the instructions
provided, are carried out within the ALU. It performs arithmetic functions like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division and also logical operations like greater than, less than
and equal to etc.
 Control Unit: Controlling of all operations like input, processing and output are performed
by control unit. It takes care of step by step processing of all operations in side the computer.
 Memory
Computer’s memory can be classified into two types
 Primary memory
 Secondary memory
 Primary Memory
It can be classified into two types:-
1. RAM (Random Access Memory)
2. ROM.(Read Only Memory)
 RAM or Random Access Memory is the unit in a computer system. It is the place in a
computer where the operating system, application programs and the data in current use are
kept temporarily so that they can be accessed by the computer’s processor. It is said to be
‘volatile’ since its contents are accessible only as long as the computer is on. The contents of
RAM are no more available once the computer is turned off.
 ROM or Read Only Memory is a special type of memory which can only be read and
contents of which are not lost even when the computer is switched off. It typically contains
manufacturer’s instructions. Among other things, ROM also stores an initial program called
the ‘bootstrap loader’ whose function is to start the operation of computer system once the
power is turned on.
 Secondary Memory
Secondary storage devices are of two types: 1. magnetic 2. Optical Magnetic devices include
hard disks and optical storage devices are CDs, DVDs, Pen drive, Zip drive etc.
 Hard Disk
Hard disks are made up of rigid material and are usually a stack of metal disks sealed in a
box. The hard disk and the hard disk drive exist together as a unit and is a permanent part of
the computer where data and programs are saved. These disks have storage capacities ranging
from 1GB to 80 GB and more. Hard disks are rewritable.
Example of secondary memory:-
 Compact Disk

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Compact Disk (CD) is portable disk having data storage capacity between 650-700 MB. It
can hold large amount of information such as music, full-motion videos, and text etc. CDs
can be either read only or read write type.
 Digital Video Disk
Digital Video Disk (DVD) is similar to a CD but has larger storage capacity and enormous
clarity. Depending upon the disk type it can store several Gigabytes of data. DVDs are
primarily used to store music or movies and can be played back on your television or the
computer too. These are not rewritable.
 Input / Output Devices:
These devices are used to enter information and instructions into a computer for storage or
processing and to deliver the processed data to a user. Input/Output devices are required for
users to communicate with the computer. In simple terms, input devices bring information
INTO the computer and output devices bring information OUT of a computer system. These
input/output devices are also known as peripherals since they surround the CPU and memory
of a computer system.

 Input Devices
An input device is any device that provides input to a computer. There are many input
devices, but the two most common ones are a keyboard and mouse. Every key you press on
the keyboard and every movement or click you make with the mouse sends a specific input
signal to the computer.
Example of input device:-
• Keyboard:
• It is an input device. In the key board the keys are arranged in matrix from having rows and
columns. The keys in the keyboard are: Alphabetic keys, Numeric Keys, Control Keys and
Function keys. Alphabet Keys and numeric Keys cause the corresponding characters appear
on the screen. Control keys are used to perform some action and function keys are used to
perform some function as defined by the software or user.
• Mouse:
• A device that controls the movement of the cursor or pointer on a display screen. A mouse is
a small object you can roll along a hard and flat surface. Its name is derived from its shape,
which looks a bit like a mouse. As you move the mouse, the pointer on the display screen
moves in the same direction.
• Trackball:
• A trackball is an input device used to enter motion data into computers or other electronic
devices. It serves the same purpose as a mouse, but is designed with a moveable ball on the
top, which can be rolled in any direction.
• Touchpad:
• A touch pad is a device for pointing (controlling input positioning) on a computer display
screen. It is an alternative to the mouse. Originally incorporated in laptop computers, touch
pads are also being made for use with desktop computers. A touch pad works by sensing the
user’s finger movement and downward pressure. • Touch Screen: It allows the user to
operate/make selections by simply touching the display screen. A display screen that is

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sensitive to the touch of a finger or stylus. Widely used on ATM machines, retail point-of-
sale terminals, car navigation systems, medical monitors and industrial control panels.
• Light Pen:
• Light pen is an input device that utilizes a light-sensitive detector to select objects on a
display screen.

• Magnetic ink character recognition (MICR):

• MICR can identify character printed with a special ink that contains particles of magnetic
material. This device particularly finds applications in banking industry.
• Optical mark recognition (OMR):
• Optical mark recognition, also called mark sense reader is a technology where an OMR
device senses the presence or absence of a mark, such as pencil mark. OMR is widely used in
tests such as aptitude test.
• Bar code reader:
• Bar-code readers are photoelectric scanners that read the bar codes or vertical zebra strips
marks, printed on product containers. These devices are generally used in super markets,
bookshops etc.
• Scanner:
It is an input device that can read text or illustration printed on paper and translates the
information into a form that the computer can use. A scanner works by digitizing an image.

 Output Devices:
Output device receives information from the CPU and presents it to the user in the desired
from. The processed data, stored in the memory of the computer is sent to the output unit,
which then converts it into a form that can be understood by the user. The output is usually
produced in one of the two ways – on the display device, or on paper (hard copy).
Example of output device:-
• Monitor: is often used synonymously with “computer screen” or “display.” Monitor is an
output device that resembles the television screen It may use a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) to
display information. The monitor is associated with a keyboard for manual input of characters

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and displays the information as it is keyed in. It also displays the program or application
output. Like the television, monitors are also available in different sizes.
• Printer: Printers are used to produce paper (commonly known as hard copy) output. Based
on the technology used, they can be classified as Impact or Non-impact printers.
• Impact printers use the typewriting printing mechanism wherein a hammer strikes the paper
through a ribbon in order to produce output. Dot-matrix and Character printers fall under this
category.
• Non-impact printers do not touch the paper while printing. They use chemical, heat or
electrical signals to etch the symbols on paper. Inkjet, DeskJet, Laser, Thermal printers fall
under this category of printers.
• Plotter: Plotters are used to print graphical output on paper. It interprets computer commands
and makes line drawings on paper using multi colour automated pens. It is capable of
producing graphs, drawings, charts, maps etc.

• Facsimile (FAX): Facsimile machine, a device that can send or receive pictures and text over
a telephone line. Fax machines work by digitizing an image.
• Sound cards and Speaker(s): An expansion board that enables a computer to manipulate
and output sounds. Sound cards are necessary for nearly all CD-ROMs and have become
commonplace on modern personal computers. Sound cards enable the computer to output
sound through speakers connected to the board, to record sound input from a microphone
connected to the computer, and manipulate sound stored on a disk

3.5. FACTORS TO BUY A PC:

Following six factors must be considered while buying a pc:
a) Processor- the 286,the 386,the 486 and the Pentium,
b) Clock speed- varies between 25 MHz and 100 MHz,
c) RAM- speed rating in the range of 60,70,100 MHz,
d) Expansion slots and buses-adding features and capabilities to one’s own computer and the
type of electrical connection used in an expansion slot.
e) Monitor- size, resolution, tricolour, interlaced or non-interlaced, radiation levels, and video
boards.
f) Upgrade-Combining some parts of an existing PC with some new components, with the result
cost may be lower then that of a new system.

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CHAPTER-4
COMPUTER SOFTWARE FOR INFORMATION SYSTEMS

4.1. INTRODUCTION
An information system builds both hardware and software are essential, systems being used in
organisations are driven by a programs. A program is a set-up stepwise instruction given to a
computer to accomplish various tasks. Programs are write software using special languages called
programming languages. The process of writing program is referred to as programming. A set of
program which instructs the hardware to perform a job is called as software.

4.2. PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

There are two types of programming languages
1. Procedural language.
2. Non-procedural language.
 Procedural Language:
A language, which explains stepwise sequential explanation to accomplish a given task, is
called as procedural language.
 Non-Procedural Language:
A non-procedural language focuses on what needs to be done, without specifying exactly
how it should be done.
 FIRST GENERATION LANGUAGES (MACHINE LANGUAGE):
• The early computers were programmed in machine language or 1st generation language.
• A series of zeroes & ones then the CPU can interpret & execute. Machine language is
important because it is the only language that the computer understands. Since machine
language is difficult to use. Computer scientist development, programming language which
more closely resembled human communication.
• The program is written in the programmer’s language & is translate into the machine
language before it is run.
• The program written by the programmer is known as the source program. The machine
language is called as the object program.
• The system software translate the source program into the object program is called translator.
 SECOND GENERATION LANGUAGE (THE ASSEMBLERS):
• The 1st translator ware called assemblers. They permitted the programmer to code programs
in assembly language or 2nd generation language.
• An assembly language mnemonic name for the operations that are to be performed symbolic
names for the data that is processed.
• Assembly language was a big improvement over machine language from the programmer’s
point of view, but it had several draw backs.
• The assemble language programs are to be lengthy and ware difficult for programmers to
read.

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 THIRD GENERATION LANGUAGES (3 GLs)

• 3rd generation language can produce multiple object program instruction from a signal source
program instruction. It means that programmers have to produce fewer lines of code in
addition the syntax of 3rd generation language is more like the user’s language.
• Compiler produce a complete object program in one process then the object program is
executed.
• An interpreter translates a source program instruction & executes it before going on the next
instruction.
• COBOL, FORTAN & PL/I are compiler language and basic program are interpreter
languages.
 FOURTH GENERATION LANGUAGES (4GLs)
• 4th generation languages were developed in the 1970 to overcome the demands of procedural
programming language.
• 4th generation languages are non-procedural languages. If allow the programmer & users to
instruct the computer in what to do rather than how to do it.
• The term natural language is also used because the syntax of the 4th generation language can
be very similar to our everyday speech.
• (i) Data base query languages
(ii) Modelling languages
(iii) Very high level languages
(iv)Graph generators
(v)Report writers
(vi)Application generators
 Database query language:
 It is shown here how a manager can use a data base query language that provides a special
report from database contents without the need to code a program. The 4GL used in the
example is FOCUS.
 Modelling languages: A modelling language is especially designed to make the building of
mathematical models easier than when a problem oriented language is used. One of the first
modelling languages was GPSS (General purpose simulation system), developed by IBM in
the early 1960s.The most popular ones that followed include DYNAMO, SLAM,
SIMSCRIPT, GASP, MODEL, and IFPS.
 Very high level language: The term very high level language is often used to describe a
programming language, such as a APL, that offers succinctness and power over and above
that of conventional languages.
 Graph Generators: A graph generator is also called a graphics package, is used to display or
print data in a variety of graphical forms.
 Report writers: A report writer is specifically designed to prepare reports. The first example
was RPG (Report program generator).COBOL has a report writer feature as do most of the
database management systems.
 Application Generators: An application generator produces an application program such as
inventory or payroll, without programming .Examples are MANTIS and MARKV.

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 Some popular third and fourth generation programming language are briefly explained
 BASIC: BASIC is an acronym for Beginners’ All purpose symbolic instruction code.
Program developed at Dartmouth College in 1964 by John Kemeny and Thomas Kurtz. It is
usually the first computer language that novice programmers learn. BASIC is a procedure
oriented; general purpose language that is widely used for commercial and scientific
applications .It is flexible and easy to learn but is not portable.
 FORTAN: FORTAN is and acronym for Formula Translation. The program was developed
by IBM in the mid-1950s.Like BASIC FORTAN is a general purpose, procedure oriented
language. It is widely used for scientific and engineering applications and number crunching.
A large number of languages developed after FORTAN have been influenced by its structure
.However it lacks flexibility in input/output operations.
 COBOL: COBOL is a n acronym for Common Business Oriented Language. The program
was developed at the pentagon in 1959, the product of a joint effort by the federal
government and the computer industry. COBOL is a dominant language of the business
world and many industries use thousand of lines of code written in COBOL. It is easy to learn
and has English like structure. It is excellent for processing large data files and performing
repetitive tasks.
 PASCAL: PASCAL was developed Niklaus wirth of the federal institute of technology in
Zurich, Switzerland in 1968.It is named for the seventeenth century French mathematician
Blaise pascal. PASCAL is widely used for business and scientific applications. The language
is easy to learn and allows a programmer structure programming problems.
 C Language: C is a general purpose language .It is called C because it was an improvement
over another language called B that was developed at AT &T Bell Labs in early 1970s.C was
developed by Brian Kerninghan and Dennis Ritchie. It is closely associated with the UNIX
system since the language was developed on UNIX. Although UNIX was initially written in
assembly language, Dennis Ritchie later rewrote UNIX in C. In a short time C has become an
extremely popular language and is now widely used in system development applications and
for commercial uses.

4.2.1. Object oriented programming

 Object oriented programming also abbreviated as OOP is also a programming language to
enhance the productivity of programmers and reduces software development time. In OOP
systems are modelled using chunks of programming a data called objects. Each object
includes programming code that specifies how it should behave how it should manipulate
data, respond to messages from other objects, and send messages of its own.
 A significant benefit of OOP is code reusability, i.e., the same piece of code can be use for
different applications. Today code reusability has not only become desirable but also
essential in many software development environments. It is estimated that half of the code
required for most applications already exists and that an estimated 40% and 60% of all new
code can come from software libraries of reusable components .Also OOP reduces amount of
testing required .OOP software is easier to update because some aspects of an object have
been often to be modified.

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4.2.2. Visual Programming:

 Visual programming facilitates users to visualize their code and its impact on the system. The
program allows a user to download competitors advertised prices from an external database.
It then compares the competitor’s prices with those of the user organisation and graphically
displays comparisons of the prices.
 Microsoft Company has developed visual BASIC, designed to allow users to integrate
Microsoft Windows application. This feature can reduce the development time for many
applications. Visual BASIC serves as a common macro language for Access, Power point,
Word and Excel.

4.3. CLASSIFICATION OF SOFTWARE:

There are two types of computer software are available:
System software
Application software

4.3.1. System Software

There are three basic types of system software:
 System control software
 System support software
 System development software.
 System control software: System control software helps to monitor, control, coordinate, and
manage the resources and functions of a computer system. System control software can be
classified into two categories:-
 Operating system and its functions
 Operating system environments.
 Operating system and its functions: The operating system manages the computers
processes, functioning as an interface between the user the software that processes the
firm’s data and the hardware. Major functions of an operating system include:
 Helping a CPU to manage or control internal computer operations
 Facilitating communications between an user and a CPU
 Enabling a CPU to communicate with other peripheral devices
 Automating certain program functions to increase the operating efficiency of a
computer system as a whole.
 Other six basic functions that an operating system can perform are:
• Schedule jobs
• Manage hardware and software resources
• Maintain system security
• Enable multiple user resource sharing
• Handle interrupts

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• Maintain usage records

 Operating system environment: There are two types of operating system environments:
 Multiprogramming: It is a computing environment in which multiple users can run
multiple programs on a single CPU computer at the same time. The CPU switches
between programs, however at any given time is executing only one program.
 Multiprocessing: it is system has a number of processors that process data and
instructions, unlike systems that have only one CPU. It is ideally suited for complex
and computationally intensive operations that require extensive processing.
System support software: Programs which support the smooth execution of various programs
and operations of a computer are called system support software. System support software
includes utility programs, programming services software, database management systems,
and security software and system documentation.
 Utility programs
These are among the most popular types of system support software. The perform tasks such
as formatting disks, locating free space on a disk, retrieving lost or damaged files ,sorting and
merging data, converting files from one format to another ,backing up important files and
providing online help.
 Programming services software
It includes
 Language translators
 System loaders
 Link editors,
 System librarians.
 Database management system
It is a set of computer programs that enables a user to define, create access, manipulate, and
output the information in records stored on a database.
 Security software
It protects a computer system and its files from unauthorized access. Examples of security
software includes
 Password programs
 File protect programs
 Encryption software.
 System documentation
It includes manual, flowcharts, reference, guides, and other operating instructions.
System development software:
It helps design and built better system, e.g. a collection of programs that assist developers in
developing an information system also called as computer aided software engineering (CASE).

4.3.2. Application Software:

Application software assists in managing the organisation’s physical and conceptual
resources.

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There are two types of application software:

 General purpose software
 Dedicated software
 General purpose software: it is designed for general applications such as payroll, inventory
management, and accounting. Dedicated software is designed for specific application such as
space shuttle.
 Dedicated software: it includes specialised or customised applications designed for specific
purposes. For example, logistic software helps firms handle the flow of goods and services
from one location to another in order to cut costs, minimize inventory, and reduce the time it
takes for goods, services, or information to reach their destination.

4.4. ROLE OF SOFTWARE IN PROBLEM SOLVING

 Software can play either a direct or an indirect role in problem solving. System software
always plays in indirect role.
 On the other hand, application software can play either a direct or an indirect role.
 Most general business and industry specific packages are designed to play an indirect role by
creating and maintaining the database that provides the basis for the information oriented
subsystems.
 Some industry specific packages go beyond data processing, providing components that
directly contribute to problem solving.
 Some organizational and personal productivity software only indirectly affects problem
solving by simplifying the creation and transmission of data.
 Other productivity software such as electronic spreadsheet, project management, forecasting,
and statistical analysis packages provides direct support.

4.5. CRITERIA FOR INVESTMENT IN HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE

Investment in information systems and technologies include the acquisition of hardware,
software, networks, and other computer related systems and technologies. Criteria for
investment means the standards that an organisation uses to make computer related
investment decisions. Table lists some criteria that organisation use to make information
system and information technology investment decisions and the extent of use of each
criterion.

Table: Criteria for investment used in organizations for purchasing hardware:

Criteria Percentage of companies using criteria

Financial criteria
Discounted cash flow (DCF)
1. Net present value 49
2. Internal rate of return 54
3. Profitability index method 8
Other financial

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4. Average/accounting rate or return 16

5. Payback method 61
6. Budgetary constraints 68
Management criteria
7. Support of explicit business objectives 88
8. Support of implicit business objectives 69
9. Response to competitive systems 61
10. Support for management decision making 88
11. Probability of achieving benefits 46
12. Legal/Government requirements 71
Development criteria
13. Technical/system requirement 79
14. Introduce/ learn new technology 60
15. Probability of project completion 31

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