LECTURE NOTE FOR NCE II (2022/2023 SESSION)

COURSE CODE/TITLE: ISC 224: RESEARCH METHOD

DEPARTMENT OF INTEGRATED SCIENCE

KADUNA STATE COLLEGE OF EDUCATION GIDAN WAYA

LECTURER(S)

DR.SULEIMAN D.GULEE

&

MR. P.Z KWANA

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 ©Gulee

INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH METHOD

Consider the following questions:

i. Are children of divorced parents less likely to perform better academically in school than children
with not divorced parents?
ii. Are adolescents who play violent video games more aggressive than adolescents who do not play
violent video games?
iii. How many hours of sleep are necessary to maintain maximum mental alertness for study for
study for exams?
iv. Do children who grow with single mothers develop better social skills and better academic
performance than children who grow up with both parents?

You might already know the answer – or know a variety of different ways to find the answers to
questions like these. In this course, we would be focusing on the method that scientists use to
answer questions: the scientific method. The scientific method is considered basic, standard
practice in the world of science and the students in sciences (for examples physical, behavioral,
natural, etc.) should understand how this process works and have some appreciation of its
strengths and weakness. Before we launch into the meaning and specifics of methods used in
scientific research, we must understand a few things why an understanding of research
methodology could be important to you as students.

WHY TAKE A RESEARCH METHODS COURSE

1. It is science-based- method: Professionals in sciences and education rely on the methods of

science to gather and interpret information. I.e. the scenario is a simplified overview of scientific
research. The point is that ,science provides a carefully developed system for answering questions
so that answer we get are accurate and complete as possible.
2. Meeting immediate needs for conducting a study: The course in research methods will be most
useful if you actually conduct a research projects at some times in the future. One of the
requirements of graduation might involve independent study or conducting a study.
3. Reading and evaluating other people’s studies: A research methods course will help students
to understand how to read and critically evaluate journals articles, detailing research studies.
4. Research studies in your daily life: An understanding of research methodology will enable
students to make educated decision about the research claims they encounter in everyday life.

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5. Information-based-decision making: Finally, one can use the methods learned in this course to
help make decisions in his/her own everyday life. Research method is all about, how to collect
and interpret the information that you need to make the best possible decisions. As we discuss
later, ‘’the scientific method is a procedure for acquiring knowledge and answering questions.
In other words, scientific method is an approach to acquiring knowledge that involves
formulating specific questions and then systematically finding answer. It is the method of
acquiring knowledge-scientists seeks answer to the questions they devise. It is a logical and
objective method for abstaining information and making decisions based on the information. This
way of thinking is not limited to scientific research but can be applied to all aspects of life. A
research methods course will teach students to think like scientists, which – we hope will see-
need not be restricted to the laboratory. The steps of scientific method includes: observation,
defining the problem, formulation of hypotheses, conducting experiments, making
generalization or conclusion from the findings and theory formulation.

THE MEANING OF RESEARCH

The scenario of scientific method is a simplified overview of scientific research. The point is that,
science provides a carefully developed system for answering questions so that answer we get are
accurate and complete as possible. Encata Dictionary (Microsoft, 2005) refers to scientific
research as an organized study ‘‘involving methodical investigation into a subject in order to
discover facts, to establish or revise a theory, or to develop a plan of action based on the facts
discovered’’. In other words, scientific research is simply the application of scientific method to
problem-solving and involving careful observations, orderly co-variations among measurable
phenomena, objectives interpretation of facts and validation of accepted theories or their revision
in the light of the new facts or evidence

In addition to the definition of scientific research, a set of overriding principles governs scientific
investigation or research. These important principles or elements of the scientific research
includes:

(1)Objectivity: Research search for solution of a problem. In other words, it involves the quest
for objective, unbiased solutions to problem

(2) Empiricism: Research is based upon observable evidence. I.e. it accepts only what can be
verified by observation. It does not accept the supernatural and dogma methods of getting
knowledge

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 (3) Reliability: Research findings are tentative and can be replicated. When the previous study is
deliberately repeated, using identical or similar procedures, with different subjects, different
setting or area of study, and at a different time. This process is called replication, a fusion of a
word repetition and duplication. Replication is always desirable to confirm or to questions about
the conclusions or findings of the previous study with the purpose to fill the gap

(4) Systematic: Research involves careful collection, organization and articulation of what is
already known about the problem and what is yet to be known. In other words, research is a
structured process, which follows an order or a procedure in executing it

(5) Expertise: Research requires expertise in the sense that the researcher knows what is already
known about the problem and how others have investigated it. He also searched the related
literature carefully. He is also grounded in the terminology, the concepts, and the technical skill
necessary to understand and analyze the information or data he has gathered

(6) Theoretical: It is a scientific research aims at building a relevant theory that can explain
certain phenomena among variables in a science education situation

(7) Cumulative: Each scientific investigation tries to build upon existing facts and theories and
helps in refining and extending the existing principles

(8) Non-ethical: It does not consider issues. That is, scientific investigations do not seek answer
to questions such as whether an action is right or wrong. They attempt to find the logical
explanation for any action and avoid value judgment.

Educational Research: Educational research deals with learning and conditions of learning and
may employ a variety of methods, scientific and non-scientific, in the process of gathering and
analyzing systematic knowledge to solve a variety of problems in these areas. In other words,
educational research is the application of the scientific approach to the study of educational
problems.

Importance of studying Science Education Research

Importance of research method can be summarized as follows:

1. Research yields valuable information and expands student understanding, but it is not 100 percent
foolproof i.e. it does not guarantee perfect results every time or offer ‘absolute truth’ sometimes.
2. To orient, familiarize, or acquaint students with the nature of science or educational research: its
purposes, forms and importance.

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3. To provide information which helps students become more intelligent consumers of science and
educational research: where to locate it, how to understand it, analyze it and critique it.
4. To provide information on the fundamentals of doing science and educational research such as
selecting a problem, using available tools, organizing a projects etc.
5. Doing research can be exciting. i.e. it is a process of discovering in which the students learn many
new things.
6. To provide answers to unresolved questions in science or education or to push back the frontiers
of ignorance.
7. Research is devoted to uncovering the ways we misjudge, over or underestimate, and make
mistakes.
8. It helps in evaluating current educational policies or practice
9. The findings of students’ research projects can add to the pool of data, which are required for
planning and development.
10. It helps in the advancement of knowledge in science or education and to increase understanding
of educational and science phenomena.

Types of Educational Research

Broadly speaking, researchers has classified educational research into three types

(1) Typology based on use or purpose

(2) Typology based on form or method and

(3) Typology based on kind of evidence and analysis used.

Typology based on use or Purpose

Action or Applied Research: Applied research also known as field or contractual research is
undertaken to solve an immediate, specific and practical problem and the goal of adding to
scientific knowledge is secondary. The goal of this research is to determine the applicability of
educational theory and principles by testing hypotheses within specific settings. Action research
in education is a practical way of addressing issues that are socially relevant and professionally
important to teachers.

Basic, Pure, Academics or Fundamental Research: Basic research sometimes also called
fundamental or pure research, is primarily concerned with the development and
advancement/testing of knowledge or theory through verification of hypothesis. It is undertaken
mainly to add knowledge to an organized body of knowledge and does necessarily produce

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results of immediate practical value or direct practical utilization. The main aim of basic research
is the discovery of knowledge solely for the sake of knowledge. Its findings will lead to the
development of theories. It has little concern for the practical application of the findings or social
usefulness of the findings. i.e. to solve every day problems or to introduce reforms into the
present practice.

Evaluation Research: Evaluation research is a decision-oriented inquiry designed neither to

support nor to undermine particular education theory but rather to contribute recommendations
for improved action. An evaluation research is a process by which relevant data are collected and
transformed into information for decision making.

Typology based on Form or Method

Historical Research: This is a documentary research that aims at predicting the future based on
the past, or from analyzing the present. It attempts to discover, describe and explain or interpret
the conditions, situations and events of the past. That is, it attempts to establish facts so as to
arrive at conclusions concerning past events or what existed in the past. This is usually
accompanied by an interpretation of these events and their relevance to present circumstances and
what might happen in the future.

Descriptive Research: This type of research states the prevailing conditions of the subject
matter. It describes the situation of events as they are, and does not make predictions and does not
determine cause-effect relationships. Some researchers have categories descriptive research into
three: viz: surveys, case-study, and observational methods. The descriptive survey design is
concerned with the conditions or practice that exists or prevail, beliefs or attributes of people.

Experimental Research: The purpose of experimental research is to establish the existence of a

cause-and-effect relationship between the two variables. To accomplish this goal, the researcher
manipulates one variable while a second a second variable is measured and other variables are
control. This type of research which attempts to investigate the basic relationships among
phenomena under controlled conditions or, more simply, to identify the conditions underlying the
occurrence of a given phenomena. Unlike descriptive research methods, the researcher has some
degree of control over the variables involved and the experimental research. The researcher
causes certain things to happen, and he observes how the conditions is affected or changed.
Though, this method is the classic laboratory method of psychology, physics, chemistry and other
sciences, it has been used effectively in non-laboratory educational settings such as classroom.

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There are some essential characteristics of experimental research viz: control, manipulation,
observation and replication.

The experimental research is considered a precise method of research in the field of education
because of the complex nature of human beings and problems of controlling the extraneous
variables. However, in spite of all such difficulties, experimentation has been put to use variously
in solving educational problems. Some researchers have classified experimental research into two
viz: True experiment research and quasi experiment research.

Because of the complexity of human circumstances and behavior, it is not often practical to carry
out the traditional controlled experimental research or true research. Therefore, quasi-
experimental research is widely used as a near and useful substitute in areas where it is not
feasible or desirable to conduct and experiment or randomized control trial. As the name implies,
quasi-experimental research is an approximation of experimental research where the researcher
controls some but not all of the extraneous factors.

Typology Based on Kind of Evidence and Analysis Used

Quantitative Research: Quantitative research as the names implies relies mostly on numerical
data such as the use of mathematical tools (especially statistics) .The main type of quantitative
research is: experimental research among others.

Qualitative Research: On the other hand, involves the collection of extensive, narrative data (i.e.
non-numerical data) on many variables over a period of time in order to gain insights into
phenomena of interest. The main type of qualitative research is: case study, narrative research,
historical research, Ethnography etc.

SCIENCE RESEARCH PROCESSES

Any scientific research involves a number of processes or steps that are executed in a systematic
manner. Science education research is a scientific investigation involves sequential; logical steps
of execution. The logical steps you take when carrying out the science education research
processes include:

Step 1: Identifying a researchable problem area, or need worth investigating;

Step 2: Reviewing related literature to the topic in step 1(i.e. concepts, theories and previous
research findings);

Step 3: Formulation of research questions and hypotheses (if any);

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 Step 4: Research designing (i.e. designing a study or a road map to collect pertinent data);

Step 5: Collection of Data (i.e. collecting pertinent data for answering the research data and
testing the hypotheses;

Step 6: Organization of Data (i.e. organizing data according to the subjects selected using
appropriate sampling techniques;

Step 7: Data Analysis (i.e. analyzing the data collected using appropriate statistics, to answer the
research questions and tests the hypotheses if any;

Step 8: Interpretation of Data;

Step 9: Drawing necessary inferences or conclusion based on results of the analysis, implication
of results, and identification of future research problem and limitation of the study; and

Step 10: Writing the research project.

CHOOSING A PROJECT TOPIC

A project is said to have begun when a project topic is gotten. The first step in getting a project
topic is to identify a research problem. You get yourself familiarized with your area of interest by
reading widely on that area. You read relevant materials on your area of interest to gather all facts
about the problem you intending to solve. You can also consult professionals in the area of your
study.

Common Sources of Research Topics

The student can get project topic from any of these Areas:

i. Immediate environment: There are problems facing individuals, organization or the society at
large. These problems just like the ones mentioned above are looking for solutions(s).You can
choose to work on any of the problems if they are related to your field.
ii. Personal experience or personal interests and curiosities: Topic can also come from the
experiences one has passed through. The experiences may worth investigating, especially.
Inconsistencies, failures, successes, gaps created due to one reason or the other. Losses
encouragement etc.
iii. Literatures: Research problems can be gotten from books, journals, periodicals, reports, review
etc. Reading relevant empirical materials helps one see some methodological errors that need to
be corrected.

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iv. Projects reports: From previous projects one can get new projects topics. Most projects have a
subsection in the last chapter that suggests areas for further research. Again, one can decide to
repeat a project already done by another person on any of these conditions:
- If the students feel that the results obtained must have affected by time and the other factors
- One can use another design other the one already used with the purpose of correcting the error.
- If one want to prove or reprove the result obtained by the former study.
- Current issues and innovation
- Practical problems or Questions
- Projects supervisors

Common Mistakes in choosing a research Topic

Over the years, students make many mistakes in trying to find a research topic. We these
mistakes in the hope that students will either avoid them altogether, or recognized when they are
making one and quickly shift gears:

i. Topic does not interest the students

ii. Topic is to safe or too easy
iii. Topic is too difficult
iv. Topic is too broad
v. Sticking with the first topic that comes to mind
vi. Inadequate literature on the topic

How to know a good project topic

i. A good project topic must be researchable i.e should have at least two or more than two
variables( i.e dependent and independent variable)
ii. Should not be too lengthy but rather precise to make for easy understanding of the topic(some
institution suggest that the research topic must not be more than twenty words)
iii. Should give a clear picture of the precise area of coverage.
iv. Should not be outside the field of study
v. The variable should be dependent and independent variables.

RESEARCH PROBLEM

Formulation of the research problem is the first and most important step of the research process.
Research problem is the situation or circumstances (either good or bad) which a researcher is
studying. In other words, research problem is any question that the researcher wants to challenge

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 or investigate. For clarification, problem here does not meant the dictionary meaning of the
problem. The word problem in research means the phenomena that is occurring, or that has
occurred or that may occur which is why research is being carried out (Ozo et.al, 2007).It is then
reason for the study.

The intention of the researcher is to solve research problem. Research is being carried out
because of any of these:

1. To reveal the effect of a (research) problem

2. To show how to improve in the research problem
3. To show how to avoid the problem or its effects(if it is a bad circumstances)
4. To proffer solution(s) to a research problem and;
5. How to stop the effect of the research problem

Note: It is from the research problem that a project topic is coined.

Steps in formulating a research Problem

Formulation of research problem involves the following steps:

Step 1: Identify a broad field or a subject area of interest to you: You ask yourself, ‘what is it
that really interests me most in my subject Area’? For example, if you are a student of
Biology/Int. Science, you may wish to research in any of the subject, Biology or Int. Science.

Step 2: Dissect the broad Area into sub Area: You will realize that the two subjects have broad
areas to research on, examples: pollution, student’s behaviors, academic performance, diseases,
etc.

Step 3: Select what is of most interest to you: It is neither advisable nor feasible to study all sub-
Areas. Out of this list, select issues or sub-Areas about which you are passionate. Because your
interest should be the most important determine.

Step 4: Raise research questions: At this stage ask yourself what is it that I want to find out about
in this sub-area? Make a list of whatever questions come to your mind relating to your chosen
sub-Area and if you think there is too many to be manageable, go through the process of
elimination, as you did in step 3.

Step 5: Formulate objectives: Both your main and sub-objectives now need to be formulated,
which grow out of your research questions. This main difference between objectives and research
questions is the way in which they are written.

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 Step 6: Assess your objectives: This step you examine your objectives to ascertain the feasibility
of achieving them through your research endeavor. Consider them in the light of time, resources
(financial and human) and technical expertise at your disposal.

Step 7: Double-Check: This is the last step; you go back and give final consideration to whether
or not you are sufficiently interested in the study, and have adequate resources to undertake the
study.

How to develop a Project Topic from research problem

1. Identifying the problem

2. Stating the problem in broad general term
3. Studying the problem and its objectives
4. Go through relevant literatures: From literatures, one is likely to see, knowledge gap or missing
links that need to be bridge, the right method to be used in data collection and analysis and the
difficulties that may be encountered in the study.
5. Discussion the ideas gathered in the literatures with your supervisors
6. Recasting research problem

Qualities of a good research problem

1. Must be relevant and related to your field of interest

2. Significant : that is it must have both theoretical and practical significance
3. It must researchable
4. Novelty: you don’t go into projects that have already been carried out by others. You can only do
that on the condition that:
a. The time and environment are different.
b. The issue raised in the previous project were not adequately resolve
c. When using a different techniques.
5. Ethical

Note: The research problem should be adequately original.

Research variables

What are variable?

They are qualities, attributes, or properties of objects, thing and or persons which are of interest
for scientific study, observation and measurement. For example, age of students, gender religious

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affiliation, state of origin, attitude to school subjects, level of aspiration, performance in school
subjects are all variables. When the attributes relate to persons, they are called personal logical
variables e.g. height, weight, intelligence, gender, age, reading ability, marital status, religion and
so on.

Types of Variables

Usually, variables can be classified as – Qualitative and Quantitative; discrete and Continuous;
Independent and Dependent.It is also important to consider measurement, measurement scales the
stages in the process of measurement. This is with the aim of collecting valid, reliable, objective,
usable and interpretable data for our research.

1. Independent Variables: They come first and influence or predict another variable. These
variables elicit changes in other variables of the study. They are manipulated or controlled by the
researcher. They are non-manipulatable in non-experimental research. They are represented by
“X”.

2. Dependent Variable: They are affected or predicted by the independent variables. They
change as a result of changes in other variables. They are represented by “Y”.

Measurement Scale: These are the medium in which measurement of variables are done for
research. Appropriate scale are used for measurement of a variable in order to ensure valid and
reliable measures are taken. Four scales suffice: Nominal, Ordinal, Interval and Ratio scale.

Nominal Scale: Entails the use of numbers (or any set of symbols) for the purpose of naming,
renaming, or categorizing a set of things, objects, events, or observations. Most important
requirement here is Identification of members. It does not satisfy the three conditions of
magnitude, interval and ratio.

Ordinal Scale: A scale of measurement in which numbers are used to order things, objects,
events or observations. The two requirements here are Identification and Orderliness.
Linguistically, when the words first, second, third, etc. are numbers being used in an ordinal
sense.

Interval Scale: This is one in which the unit of measurement is the same on the scale. The
properties of Identification, Orderliness and Equal interval are important at this level of
measurement. This is the scale that is mostly employed in education. There is no true zero point
here

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 Ratio Scale: Is one that has the properties of Identification, Orderliness, Equivalence with a true
zero point. The scale employed in the physical sciences: Biology, Physics and Chemistry

Data Instruments: An instrument is a device, or a tool that is used for a particular task especially
for scientific work. Particularly, research instruments are devices used for gathering evidence for
the purpose of solving problems that constitute research. Various instruments are available at the
disposal of the researcher for him/her to collect information related to his/her work. Some of
these include: questionnaire, questionnaire, checklists, interview schedule and observation
schedule. Others are: rating scales, anecdotal records, attitudes scales, guess-who technique,
value scales, projective techniques, unobtrusive method, stoichiometry and tests.

Instrumentation in research refers to the whole process of collecting data. The process involves
the design or selection of instruments to be used for data collection, and the process and
conditions under which the instruments will be administered.

Types of instrument

1. The Questionnaire: A questionnaire is a set of questions relating to the aims of the study and the
hypotheses to be tested to which the respondent(s) is/are required to answer by writing in his/her
response. It is used to collect factual information about past, present and future relating to
respondent’s attitude, opinions, feelings and knowledge. It is the most popular method of data
collection but unfortunately too, the most abused.
A good questionnaire should be legible, neither too short nor too long, should be relevant to the
purpose of the study and should yield consistent responses when it is administered at different
times. Also, the good questionnaire should elicit responses that are easily quantifiable to facilitate
data analysis and interpretation of results of analysis. Two commonest types of questionnaire are:
the structured and unstructured questionnaire. Each type has its comparative advantages and short
comings.
The two methods of direct and indirect administration are available for the researcher to
administer his questionnaire. The methods are respectively referred to as the face-to-face or direct
method and the postal or indirect method.
 The steps involved in the construction of questionnaire are:
 Identification of the objectives of the study
 Consulting with experts and literature review
 Generation of items for the questionnaire
 Editing the generated items
 Validating the questionnaire, and

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 Compilation of the final version.
2. The Interview: The interview is allows the researcher gathers data directly from respondent(s) in
a face-to-face contact. The interview may be said to be adopted as a way to offset some of the
limitations of the questionnaire. This is because the interviewee gives the needed information
verbally in the face-to-face situation rather than putting it in writing. Some characteristics of the
interview are that, it involves at least two people, allows for further probing by the interviewer,
and that if the interviewer is skillful enough, the interview is superior to other data collection
methods.

To use the interview, an interview schedule is developed and validated by the researcher. Two
types of interviews are the structured and the semi-structured interviews. In the former, the same
questions are presented in the same manner and order to each interviewee. While for the latter,
the nature and order in which the interviewer’s questions are asked is, to a large extent,
determined by the responses of the interviewee.

3. Observation: Observation is simply an act of “looking with a purpose” or objectively in order to

obtain firsthand information about an individual’s or objects’ behavior, situations or events.
Observation is the most direct means of studying people when one is interested in their overt
behavior (Sidhu, 2011). Two categories of observation are: participant and non-participant
observation. In the former the observer works his way into the group he wants to observe as a
member, while in the case of the latter, the observer remains aloof from the group. He/she is not
directly involved in the group’s activities but only observing what he has planned to observe.
4. Test: Test as a method of data collection is used to measure performance/achievement of students
in school subjects. A test is an instrument or device for measuring an individual’s or group’s
achievement, ability or performance in school subjects. There are a multitude of tests at the
disposal of the researcher. These include: intelligence, achievement, teacher-made, and
standardized, diagnostic and aptitude tests. A major consideration is that the test user has to
ensure validity and reliability of the instrument using appropriate measures. A high level of
expertise is required in the development and validation of a test, its administration, scoring and
interpretation of its results.
Data Analysis
Sidhu (2011, p. 274) is of the opinion that “analysis is a process which enters into research in one
form or another from the very beginning”. Once the investigator selects a problem and begins to
plan how to address the problem, he engages upon an analysis of the total problem in order to ask
the research question(s) and/or formulate the hypotheses. Data are useful only when they have
been appropriately analyzed.

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 Data organization
A major procedure before any data analysis is what can be referred to as data organization. Data
organization involves arranging the data in more and easily understandable ways using tables,
graphs and charts, data cleaning and data description. Without data organization, it may be nearly
impossible to make meanings from the avalanche of data collected by the researcher.
In data organization, frequency distribution tables are employed. This table may be grouped or
ungrouped fdt. Charts and graphs such as bar chart, histogram, ogive, line graph and pie-chart are
used for data organization.
Data Scoring in Data Organization
Instruments that are employed (mostly in educational research) are various forms of tests,
observations, questionnaires and interviews. Some of the instruments (e.g. tests) produce
numerical data while some interview and observational forms produce data that have to be
transformed into numerical data before they can be subjected to statistical analysis.
Data obtained from the instruments are either in the nominal, ordinal, interval or the ratio form.
Data collected by other research instruments, such as questionnaires, interviews and the different
observational schedules, unlike those collected from educational tests, are not so easily
manageable. The researcher needs to create a response format that will make the scoring and
coding of the data easy and objective.
Scoring Procedure
There are four scoring procedures for most questionnaire items, observational schedules and
some structured interviews: Scale scoring, Rank scoring, Response counting and Respondent
counting.
1. Scale scoring: Items with scaled-response formats such as questionnaire items, graphic or
numerical rating scales including attitude scales can be scored by assigning a number for each
point of the scale. For example, the Likert-type scale may be scored as SA = 1, A = 2, U = 3, D =
4, SD = 5, for positive stem of the item and the reverse for negative stem of the item. In this case,
the respondent’s score on all items can be added. A well prepared scale can generate interval
scale measurement.

2. Rank scoring: Items with ranking response format are usually scored in ordinal level of
measurement. If this is done, ranks assigned by individual respondents to an item of the
instrument can be averaged across all-respondents.
3. Response counting: In the case of items with categorical response format such as Yes/No,
true/false, they can be scored by counting the number of responses in which each respondent gave
a positive or a negative response.

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4. Respondent counting: This is similar to response counting except that in this case, the
respondents that gave a positive or a negative response are counted.

Data coding in data organization

In educational research, data collected in name or word form has to be converted into numeric
form. This process is referred to as coding. If for example, the gender of respondents is a variable
in a study, the respondents are asked to indicate whether they are male or female, which cannot
be subjected to statistical analysis. But when codes are employed by using male = 1, female = 2
which is a numeric form, the data will lend itself to statistical manipulation. During coding, the
researcher should usually take into account the requirement of the research questions and/or
hypotheses. The coding must be consistent with the research questions and even the hypothesis.
The categories into which the scheme of the coding is divided should satisfy the conditions of
mutual exclusivity and exhaustiveness.

Data rearrangement in Data organization

During coding, the researcher should usually take into account the requirement of the research
questions and/or hypotheses. The coding must be consistent with the research questions and even
the hypothesis. The categories into which the scheme of the coding is divided should satisfy the
conditions of mutual exclusivity and exhaustiveness. Some of the terms that are used in
descriptive statistics include range, grouped, ungrouped data, frequency, frequency table, class
interval, class limit, lower boundary, upper boundary, cumulative frequency, mid-points, and
tally. Others are: measures of central tendency (location), measures of dispersion (spread), mode,
mean, media, standard deviation, variance, decile, quartile percentiles etc.

Data Analysis in research

Data analysis in research implies studying the tabulated material in order to determine inherent
facts or meanings from it. It connotes breaking down existing complex factors into simpler parts
and putting the parts together in new arrangements for purposes of interpretation. The plan for
analysis is usually done in advance by specifying how the research questions and hypothesis will
be answered and tested respectively. There is usually a preliminary analysis on the research
proposal which develops into a complete, final analysis in the main research and which can be
worked as and when necessary.

Common statistical methods in Data Analysis

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 Some of the commonly employed methods of analyzing data statistically include: Ranks and
percentile, Measures of central tendency, Measures of variability, Measures of relationship,
Errors and probable errors and others.

LITERATURE REVIEW

A literature review is an account of what has been established and published on a topic by
accredited scholars and researchers .In project writing, literature is any written materials of other
people’s that contain relevant information on the research problem or research topic. In other
words literature review is a critical examination of past work which are relevant and useful to the
very project topic the student is researching on. The project cannot be adjudge to make any
meaning if the researcher did not show how his/her study relate to or differ from other people’s
work or findings.

Sources of Materials for Literature Review

The literature review can be obtained from a variety of sources, which may be categorized into:
Primary and secondary sources:

Primary sources: are those which contain a direct account of events or phenomena given by
someone who actually observed or conduct the research. In primary sources, the reported or
researcher reports his own work directly in the form of research article, books, published journal,
projects, etc.

Secondary source: are those materials, which contain an account of an events or phenomenon by
someone who did not actually witness the events or phenomenon. These materials or sources are
already found in primary sources but being reported by another person.

The decision concerning the use of primary or secondary sources depends largely on the nature of
research study proposed by the researcher. Electronic versions of most of these information
sources are generally now available on-line and can be downloaded from internet.

Importance of Literature Review

1. Guides in defining the problem by suggesting appropriate instrument, study design and sources of
data( i.e. it helps in improving research methodology)
2. It provides evidence that the researcher is familiar with what is known and untested in the area
(i.e. it broaden the researcher knowledge in a research area).
3. It eliminates duplication of what is already known and provides useful hypothesis.

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4. Its enable the researcher to conceptualize the findings

Organization of literature Review

There are steps involved in organizing a literature review:

1. Introduction – A brief description of what to expect in the chapter two)

2. Historical perspective(depending on the institution)
3. Conceptual Framework
4. Theoretical Framework
5. Review of specific relevant studies
6. A summary showing implications of literature reviewed(depending on the institution)

Conceptual Framework

A conceptual framework is a set of ideas and principles adopted in research and used to outline
possible courses of action or to present a preferred study or explanation of a phenomenon. Here
the project writer defines all the terms, concepts and variable in the study. This makes the readers
to be familiar with all the concepts, terms, variable used.

Theoretical Framework

A theoretical framework is a set of ideas and principles adopted in research and used to outline
possible courses of action or to present a preferred study or explanation of a phenomenon.

There are two reasons why theoretical frameworks are important:

First, no matter how little researcher know about the topics, and how unbiased they are, it is
impossible for them as humans not to have preconceived notions. In this, sense researchers are
always being by a theoretical framework, but may not know it.

Secondly, the fundamentals reliefs about human nature affect how one views things when doing
personnel research.

Note: Elements of research includes: Conceptual Framework, Theoretical Framework Empirical

Framework.

Empirical Framework

This is the review of works previously done on the problem and evaluates what those previous
researcher has or have not accomplished in addressing the problem under study. The researcher

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 analyses and finds out the differences and similarities between the previous research and the
current study. In empirical review, you note the following:

1. The researcher name and the year of the research

2. The general purpose of the study/the problem the previous author sought to resolve the place the
study was conducted.
3. Research design adopted for the study
4. Population and sample of the study
5. Instruments used to collect data
6. Statistical tools/techniques used to analyzed the data collected
7. Findings or result obtained
8.
9. Differences and similarities of the previous work under reviewed and the current study.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

This is the chapter three of most projects work. The chapter, often called ‘Methodology’, it
describes the procedures used during the research (i.e. the steps taken by the researcher to arrive
at the results).This sections is broken down into research design, Area of study (optional),
population, sample and sampling techniques, instrument use to collect data (instrumentation),
validity of the instrument(s), reliability of the instrument(s), method of data collection and
method of data analysis.

The Research design: Once the research problem has been formulated clearly enough to specify
the types of information needed, investigators must work out their research design. ‘A research
design is the plan or the strategy of investigation so conceived as to obtain answers to research
questions or problem raised. It describes the various processes to be taken by the project writer in
order to successfully complete his/her work. The major functions of research design include:

1. It provides the researcher with the necessary framework for tackling the research problem
2. It enable the research to delineate the boundaries of the study and provide reliable answer to the
research questions raised
3. It provides insight into potential problems that could arise in the execution of the study.

The research design therefore should provide the following:

1. The type of the study design. For instance descriptive design, experimental design, expo-factor
etc.

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2. Provide detailed information about the following aspects of the study:
- Who will constitute the study population?
- How will the study population be identifying?
- Will the sample or the whole population be selected?
- If the sample is selected how will it be contacted?
- How will consent be sought?
- What method of data collection will be used and why?
- How will the respondents contact you if they have quarries?
- In the case of a questionnaire, where will the responses be returned?
- In the case of interview where will they be conducted?
- How will ethical issue be Taken care of?

Classification of Research Designs

Research designs may differ depending on the nature of the study and the limitations of the
researcher, as a consequence there are many research designs available in the literature but only
three most and basic the authors agree on will be discussed here:

1. Experimental design: Experiments are studies in which the investigator has control over the
independent variables and over assignment of subjects to different conditions. The experimental
design is classified into two: True and quasi experiments.
2. Survey design: could be descriptive or analytical survey.
- Descriptive survey attempts to picture or document current condition or attitude, i.e. describe
what exist at the moment, example unemployment in the community opinions of the electorate
about the candidate and
- Analytic survey attempts to describe and explain why certain situations exist Example how
lifestyles affect television viewing habits.
- Correlational study
- Case study
- Ex-post Facto research
3. Content Analysis: Is a systematic, objective and quantitative procedure devised to examine the
content of recorded information. Newspapers/magazine, company publication as well as
television and radio programme can be content analyzed. This design could take the forms of
historical, Ethnography and observational

Population of the study

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 According to (Kerlinger, 1981),a population is all the members of a well-defined class of people,
events or objects, animals etc. in a particular location. In other word, population is the total
objects or persons to be studied in a given study area. A population can be finite or infinite. Finite
is when the number population is limited. For instance, all the SS 1 students in a particular
school. An infinite population is when the number is not limited. For instance, the population of
blind people in the world.

Importance of population

1. It helps to show the scope of the study

2. When the population is clearly defined, the sample size will be determine easily
3. The definition of the population helps those who may want to replicate the study not to choose
the same population
4. When population is well defined, the researcher shows those who will be affected by the project
results and also know how to draw conclusion.

Sample and Sampling Technique

When the population size is large and there is no enough time and resources to cover the whole
population, the best option is to select the sample of the entire population. A sample therefore, is
a small proportion of a population selected for observation and analysis. It is a collection
consisting of a part or subset of the objects or individuals of the population, which is selected for
the express purpose of representing the population.

Usually, the sampling process comprises of several stages:

1. Defining and listing the population of concern

2. Specifying a sampling frame, a set of items or events possible to measure.
3. Specifying a sampling method for selecting items or events from the frame
4. Determining the sample size
5. Implementing the sampling plan
6. Sampling and data collecting

Sampling Techniques

Sampling procedure or techniques is the selection of sample of individual or measurement from

the total population to be studied.

Three factors determine the size of an adequate sample. There are:

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 1. Nature of population (homogenous or non-homogeneous) if the population is homogeneous, a
small sample is sufficient

2. Types of sampling design

3. Degree of precision desired.

Sampling involve:

1. Defining the population

2. Obtaining the list of units in the population
3. Determine the size of the sample so that all characteristics of the population are represented.
4. Drawing units from the list so they are representatives of the total population.

Method of sampling

Broadly, sampling method is classified into two:

1. Probability sampling and

2. Non-probability sampling

Probability sampling: A probability sampling is one in which every unit in the population has a
chance (greater than zero) of being selected in the sample and this probability can be accurately
determined. In probability sampling, the units are not selected at the discretion of the researcher,
but by means of certain procedures, which ensure that every unit of the population has one fixed
probability of being included in the sample. This method is also called random sampling. The
combination of these traits makes it possible to produce unbiased estimates of population totals,
by weighing sampled units according to their probability to their probability of selection. The
commonly used methods of probability sampling are simple unrestricted random sampling,
stratified random sampling, cluster sampling, multi-stage sampling, systematic sampling etc.

Non-probability: Non-probability sampling procedures do not follow the theory of probability in

the choice of elements from the sampling population. Non-probability sampling procedures are
used when the number of elements in a population is either unknown or cannot be individually
identified. In such situations the selection of elements is dependent upon other considerations.
There are five commonly used non-random procedures, each based on a different consideration,
which are commonly used in both qualitative and quantitative research. These are:

1. Quota sampling
2. Accidental sampling

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3. Judgmental sampling or purposive sampling
4. Expert sampling
5. Snowball sampling

PROJECT REPORT

A complete project report is a full document of a completed project work. The report should be
orderly, logical and coherent. The format of writing a project report may vary depending on the
discipline. But every goo project should have three (3) sections namely: Preliminary Pages, Main
Body of the Report, and the Supplementary information.

SAMPLE OF TABLE OF CONTENTS FORMAT FOR THOSE IN EDUCATION,

SOCIAL SCIENCES ETC.

A. PRELIMINARY PAGES
Title Page……………………………………………………………………….i
Approval Page/Certification Page………………………………………………ii
Dedication………………………………………………………………………iii
Acknowledgement…………………………………………………… ………...iv
Table of content…………………………………………………………………v
List of Table…………………………………………………………………….vi
List of Figures…………………………………………………………………..vii
Abstract…………………………………………………………………………viii
B. MAIN BODY OF THE REPORT
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.0 Background of the study
2.0 Statement of Problem
3.0 Purpose/Objective of the Study
4.0 Research Question
5.0 Research hypotheses(if any)
6.0 Significance or Rationale of the Study
7.0 Scope/Delimitation of the Study

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction
2.2 Conceptual framework
2.3 Theoretical framework

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 2.4 Review of Related Empirical Studies
2.5 Summary of the chapter

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Research Design
1.3 Area of the study
1.4 Population of the study
1.5 Sample and Sampling technique
1.6 Instruments for Data collection/Instrumentation
1.7 Validity of the instrument
1.8 Reliability Of The Instrument
1.9 Method of Data collection
1.10 Method of Data Analysis

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA PRESENTATION AND RESULTS

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Data presentation and interpretations of results
1.3 Summary of the findings

CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, IMPLICATIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

1.1 Introduction
1.2 Discussion of Results
1.3 Conclusions
1.4 Implications of Results
1.5 Recommendations
1.6 Suggestions for further Research
1.7 Limitation
C. SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

References

Appendices

A BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF ALL THE PARTS OF PROJECT REPORT.

2.2.1 PRELIMINARY PAGES

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 The pages are part of the project report but do not belong to main body of the project. The pages
in this section numbered with Roman numerals (i, ii. iii etc.) while the remaining parts of the
report are numbered with Arabic numerals.
2.2.2 THE COVER PAGE
This is the back cover of the project report. The cover page and title page have almost the same
content. It should be well designed to attract the reader. The back page should contain the
following:
- The project topic
- Student Name
- Student Registration/Matriculation number
- Student department
- Student Faculty/School
- Student institution
- Date of submission(Month/Year)
2.2.3 TITLE PAGE
This page is next to the cover page. It is the first type page of the report. It contains the Project
Topic, the student’s Name and registration number/matriculation number, the audience of the
project (Department, School or Faculty and institution), the qualification award sought, date of
submission etc. Below is a Sample of the Title Page:
TITLE PAGE

PROJECT TOPIC

BY
NAME OF STUDENT
MATRICULATION NO:

A PROJECT PRESENTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF INTEGRATED SCIENCE, KADUNA

STATE COLLEGE OF EDUCATION GIDAN WAYA IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT FOR
THE AWARD OF NATIONAL CERTIFICATE ON EDUCATION (NCE) IN THE
DEPARTMENT OF INTEGRATED SCIENCE

DATE OF SUBMISSION (Month, Year)

25
2.2.5 CERTIFICATION OR APPROVAL PAGE
This page follows the title page. This is to show that the project was actually done by the student,
under a proper supervision by the supervisor and that it has met the requirement for the award
aimed at.
At the completion a project report, the student submits it to his/her supervisor. The supervisor
thoroughly goes through the work and appends his/her signature. The H.O.D will also sign the
project, Project coordinator of the department and the External Examiner. See the sample of the
Approval or Certification Page:

APPROVAL PAGE
This project has been approved for the Department of Integrated Science, having satisfactorily
met the requirement. The work is original and has not been submitted in part or full for any other
NCE or Degree in any other institution.

………………………. …………………………
Supervisor Date
……………………….. …………………………..
Project Coordinator Date
………………………… ……………………….
Head of Department Date
………………………… ………………………
External Examiner Date
2.2.6 DEDICATION
This page is optional. In this page, the student associates the work to someone, an institution or
course to dear to him/her. The dedication should not be more than two sentences.
2.2.7 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In this page, the student expresses an appreciation to those (institution or persons) that assisted
him/her in the project work. The names of those that provided him with fund, information,
materials or any other help should be mentioned as a sign of his/her appreciation to them. The
student should not forget to acknowledge the supervisor, the H.O.D and the staff of the
department.
2.2.8 LIST OF TABLES(if any)
This page comes after the table of contents. It is the list of all the tables in the project report. It
shows the chronological order in which the tables appear, the title of each tables and the page
each appears. This is for easy location and reference of the tables.

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 2.2.8. LIST OF FIGURES

This is just like the list of tables but deals with figures instead of tables

1.2.9. ABSTRACT
An abstract is a brief summary which highlights the major features of a research project. It
summarizes what the student has done, how it was done, the findings discovered, conclusion and
recommendation from the findings. Abstract generally include:
- The purpose of the research study
- The research design
- Population/sample of the study
- Instrument used for collection of data
- Statistical techniques used in analyzing data
- Major findings
- Conclusion and recommendation from the findings.

Abstract is always on separate page and not more than one page. Since it is a summary, it should
not be more than 500words.It is typed in single spacing and in a single paragraph wit no
paragraph indentation. The word ABSTRACT is centered at the top of the page.

2.3 MAIN BODY OF THE PROJEC REPORT

2.3.5 BACKGRAOUND OF THE STUDY
Here the student introduces the problem that necessitated the study. The student states all the
factors (historical, environmental, technical etc.) that aroused the researcher interest on the study.
The student also defines some important concepts or variables in the topic and state why they are
important in the study.
2.3.6 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM
After the background of the study comes the problem of the statement. It is an outline of the
phenomenon that is manifesting which prompted the study. Stating the problem clearly and
precisely is the first thing the student should do. A problem should be addressing any of these:
- A missing link
- An imbalance
- A need
- An unanswered question
- An unsatisfactory or satisfactory state of affairs
- An obstacle or barrier
2.3.7 THE PURPOSE OF THE STUDY

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 This can also be called the objective of the study. The student states the objective of the study in
this sub-section. It must center on the research problem. The purpose/objective of the study has
both the general and specific objectives. The specific objectives must tally with the Research
Questions. Once the general objectives and specific objectives are achieved, the research problem
has been solved.

2.3.4 RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES

After stating the specific objectives, the project writer now states the research questions and
research hypotheses (if relevant).As already stated, the research questions must be inline with the
specific objectives. The null hypotheses and the alternative hypotheses are all to be stated. Both
research question and hypotheses give direction to the study. These help the student to focus
his/her attention on the relevant data that will bring the needed solution.

2.3.5 SIGNIFICANCE OR RATIONALE OF THE STUDY

In this sub-section, the student is expected to state the usefulness of the study. The student
should explain the importance of the study to various stakeholders and how the study would
benefit these people. Every research study or project is expected to add value to the body of
knowledge in solving a problem.

2.3.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY OR DELIMITATION

In this sub-section, the student defines the area of coverage of the study or project and possibly
why the area is selected. The student states an aspect the study intending to tackle and how
relevant that aspect is important .The study area(s) or the case organization used for the study are
discuss here briefly.

2.4 REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Review of related past literatures. The student has discuss views (both similar and un similar) of
others who have done related study. He/she has to identify the knowledge gap that needs to be
filled. The knowledge gap or the missing link is an angle or aspect of that problem that has been
neglected avoided or unexplored by other researchers.

The literature review can be under these sub-headings

- Conceptual framework
- Theoretical framework
- Empirical framework

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 - Summary of related literature
2.5 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
This chapter provides information on how the researcher would carry out the study. The
methodology depends on problem the researcher intends to solve. The approach used in finding
relationship may not be used in finding out opinion of people on a particular event. The student
should be sure he/she knows what is needed before he carries out the study.
2.5.1 Research Design: This is the general plan or procedure the student would used to carry out the
study. The design could experimental, quasi-experimental,, descriptive survey, historical etc. The
design should be stated clearly and the reason for the choice of the design.
2.5.2 Area of Study: This is the very geographical location the study was conducted. The student
should adequately describe the suitability of that area for such study. The Area of the study could
be a street, Educational Zone, Urban center, Rural Area, Local Government, State or Community
etc.
2.5.3 Population of the Study: This is the entire group of persons, items or things the project writer is
interested in getting information from for the study. He/she draw sample and also make
generalization of the result from the study.
2.5.4 Sample and Sampling Techniques’: Except when the population is small, it is not possible for
the researcher to study the entire population. The researcher selects some members or number of
the population to be used in the study. These selected numbers constitute the sample. Sampling
technique is the procedure employed in the selection process.
2.5.5 Instrumentation: In this section, the student explains the type of data collection instrument(s)
he/she would use. Some of the instruments for collecting primary data are questionnaire,
interview, observation etc. The student should justify the appropriateness of the very instrument
he/she choose.
2.5.6 Validity of instrument: Here the student describes how she/he will ensure all the instrument are
actually can measures what it was meant to measure. An example of validity testing is giving the
instrument to an expert or supervisors to edit and put it in proper value.
2.5.7 Reliability of the Instrument: Reliability shows that the instrument gives the same result when
used in measuring the same thing. The student has to indicate the approach used in establishing
the reliability and the actual reliability coefficient obtain. Reliability shows the quality and
adequacy of the data collection instrument.
2.5.8 Method of data collection: This shows the steps taken by the student researcher in the data
collection process. These include the personnel used (if any),the number of instruments
distributed, number collected, the means of distribution and how the instrument was returned
back.

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2.5.9 Method of data analysis: This has to do with the statistical methods used in analyzing the data
are explained here. The reason for using the tools is also explained here.

2.6. PRESENTATION OF RESULTS AND INTERPRETATION

This is chapter four of the project.in this section, the student organizes all the data collected
and analyzed them to get a result. It is in this section that: Research Questions are answered and
hypotheses are tested (if any) and the objectives or purpose of the study are achieved.

The data are to be clearly presented using Tables, figures and charts. Appropriate statistical
techniques are to be used in analyzing the data

2.7 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS, CONCLUSIONIMPLICATIONS AND

RECOMMENDATIONS.

This is the final chapter of the project report. Here, the results and findings are applied to solve
the research problem.

2.7.1 Discussion of findings: In this section, possible explanations are given to the results of the
project study. The results and the findings are translated into practical and conceptual meaning.
The student relates his/her findings to previous theories and existing studies in that field of study.
He/she discusses how the findings bring solution to the research problem.

2.7.2 Recommendation: In this section, the student suggests necessary actions, policies, steps to
be taken for the general improvement of the programme or field of study based on the result.
Recommendations help to improve or change the situation of things as shown in the research
findings. Recommendations are based on results and findings of the study and must be in line
with the theories and principles of the profession.

2.7.3 Conclusion: Here, the researcher draws conclusion from all the findings discovered from
the study. Conclusion is to show whether the research problem have been solved and to what
extent. The conclusion drawn from the study should be clearly related to the research questions or
hypotheses (if any) stated in chapter one of the project. The conclusions end by urging positive
actions on the recommendation of the study.

2.7.4 Implication: Here, the student states the practical and theoretical implications of hi/her
findings. He/she discusses what his/her findings are pointing at or suggesting. The implications of
accepting, implementing or rejecting the recommendations are examined. The implications of the

30
 result of the study are logical consequences which those results have on the disciplines or
profession

2.7.5 Suggestion for further studies: the student notes the relevant questions that still remain
unanswered or new questions raised by the study. He/she suggest the kind of research that will
provide answers to these questions.

Recommendation for further studies can also be in any of these areas. Repeating the study using:

a. Different methods of data collection strategy

b. Repeating the project using different location/setting research.
c. Increasing the sample size or studying the entire population instead of a sample
d. Studying other areas of the subject matter which was not covered by the researcher.(other area of
the same study that was not covered)

2.7.6 Limitation: In this sub-section, the student states the shortcomings or difficulties you
encountered in designing and carrying out the study which must have affected the results gotten.
No research can be 100% perfect without any setbacks. There may be conditions in the present
study which limits the extents of legitimate generation of inferences drawn from the study. A
student should be honest enough to accept that he/she experiences some limitations and go ahead
to state the way(s) the manifested. Stating the limitations help those reading and researching in
that area to mark the factors mentioned and knows how to overcome them. This will help in
improving the current study. Limitations can arise from any of the following areas:

- Lack of adequate finances, materials, time etc. or inability to reach all the members of the
sample.

- Non-cooperation from the people can negatively affect the questionnaire or interview results.

- Language barrier or low educational level of the people does also have an affect on the results
of the study

- Poor returned of questionnaire may also be a limitation.

2.7.7 Summary

Here, the student give a brief account of the entire study. He/she begins with short restatement of
the research problem, the methodology, the major findings and the major conclusions drawn from
the project results.

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 2.8 SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION

2.8.1 References: These are the list of all the sources cited in the text or the project report. The
reference must contain all the sources cited in the project report while bibliography is a list of all
the works the author used in the study whether cited or not.

When using APA style of referencing, the following should be noted:

- Do not omit any source cited in a project report and do not reference any source not cited
- References are arranged in alphabetical order of the surnames of the authors.
- The reference should not be number.
- Google APA style referencing for more details.

2.8.2 Appendices: This is the last item in project writing. Such items like maps, circuit diagram,
questionnaires, introductory letters, interview guides, photographs, long mathematical or
statistical calculations and all the relevant information that could not be accommodated in the
main text are found or attached here. They contain all the necessary materials that cannot
structurally fit into the main body of the project report.

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