Untitled
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LOUGHBOROUGH
UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY
LIBRARY
AUTHOR/FILING TITLE
ACCESSION/COPY NO,
by
RICHARD A. SIBBETT
A Doctoral Thesis
Doctor of Philosophy
September 1982
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LeUgl1bOrough Univeroltr r
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.f T e<:MGloIY U~r ... y 4
Clan
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Ale. 1\ ~Sl ~ 19-z..
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To MUM and DAD
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Programme (and Chairman Mr. Peter Thompson, NRDC) for their financial
Drynamels Ltd
GEMA, SA
Volstatic Ltd
and special thanks to Aerostyle Ltd and TAM-SAMES et Cie for the loan
of spray equipment.
spray rigs.
Mr Leo Moore and his team for help in the construction of rigs.
Mr Geoff Boyden for his advice and help with cine photography and
for the loan and use of the Talysurf 10 and Salt Spray booth.
Mr Bill Mackrodt and his team for use of the VAX computer at
Mrs Margaret Redican for her patient help with the plotting of
computer results.
ICI plc for the use of computer facilities and other equipment.
Late Professor A.W. Bright, Dr. S. Singh and Dr. J.F. Rughes
discussions.
helpful discussions.
Finally, thanks to my wife, Ann, for not only her help with
not sacrificed.
properties.
feed materials.
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction 5
1.2 Electrostatic Powder Coating Process 8
1. 2.1 Powder Supply 8
1. 2. 2 Spray Gun 9
1. 2. 3 Spray Booth 10
1. 2. 4 Powder Recovery System 11
1. 2. 5 Stoving Ovens 12
1. 2. 6 Powder 13
1. 2. 7 Colour Change 17
1. 2. 8 Substrate Preparation 18
1.3 Previous Research 19
1.4 Levelling in Powder Coating 24
1.5 Practical Problems 25
1.6 Summary 27
2.1 Introduction 28
2.2 Gloss 29
2.3 Film Thickness 32
2.3.1 Destructive Methods 33
2.3.2 Non Destructive Methods 34
2.4 Roughness 35
2.5 Environmental and Accelerated Weathering 37
2.6 Adhesion 38
2.7 Hardness 40
2.8 Abrasion and Flexibility 41
2.9 Chip or Impact Resistance 42
2.10 Porosity 43
2.11 Summary 45
CHAPTER 3 -
3.1 Introduction 47
3.2 Spray Equipment 48
3.2.1 Static Gun 48
3.2.2 Problems Encountered 49
3.2.3 Commercial Spray Equipment 50
3.2.4 Experimental Method 51
3.2.5 Pretreatment of Sample Plates 54
3.3 Testing Methods and Equipment 55
ii
4.1 Introduction 76
4.2 Stoving Observations 76
4.2.1 Experimental Observations 77
4.2.2 Comparison of Different Types of Powder 79
4.2.3 Determination of Spreading Factor 79
4.2.4 Experimental Results 80
4.2.5 Discussion of Results 81
4.3 Particle Packing Considerations 82
4.3.1 Effect of Formulation on Powder Characteristics 82
4.3.2 Experimental Observations 84
4.3.3 Quantification of Observed Effect 85
4.3.4 Experimental Results 88
4.3.5 Discussion of Results 88
4.4 Summary 89
5.1 Introduction 91
5.2 The Force Balance 92
5.3 Charge on a Particle 94
5.4 Electric Field 97
iii
References
Nomenclature
coating (R. Lever, 1978; J.D. Toff, 1979). In the last 10-15 years
its growth has accounted for approximately 10% of the world protective
has not had a large impact on this market (S.L. Mason, 1974;
The car industry first used a spray gun 1n 1912 for applying
primer coats to car bodies, but although this method is used for
system it is still apt to air and water pollution. The final coat
highly advantageous.
Table Il
System Advantages
films and also when colour changes are required. Unlike liquid paint
simple change of paint supply, since oversprayed paint will not become
airbourne again.
powder coating can very efficiently give final films of 50-150um thick
(J.A. Bassett et a1, 1975; J.A. Cross et a1, 1980). This is due to
the repulsion of charged particles away from the charged packed layer
limiting effect only occurs at thicknesses above 100um and after long
coating times.
- 3 -
1 and 2).
mono sized and size distributed powders was made. A computer program
has been developed using the force balance given in Chapter 5 and is
due to ':the._ charged powder layer. Results are presented in the form
of computer plots.
been sprayed. This work has studied any effects that particle Sl.ze
has had on the properties of the stoved films and also any changes
1.1 Introduction
1. 2. 2 Spray Gun
1. 2. 3 Spray Booth
1. 2. S Stoving Ovens
1. 2.6 Powder
1. 2. 7 Colour Change
1. 2. 8 Substrate Preparation
1.6 Summary
- 5 -
1.1 Introduction.
powder (S.T. Harris, 1976). Since then, and especially in the past
spraying, has grown to take over about 10% of the world market in
coating industries can easily be seen.. When raw material prices are
that was necessary in order to break into various markets. Apart from
many colours and hence can be· used in a vast amount of applications.
properties of the dry and fused films is far from clear. It is with
necessary to know something about the process itself and the problems
. encountered.
equipment:-
and it is not actually dipped into the bed. The particles are
(S. Kut, 197.Ia., 1972, 1974; M. Drury, 1974). They can either be
reservoir to a sp·ray gun. The powder then passes one or more high
and the transport air towards the object, which is earthed and
H.T. Stoving
Supply Oven
Spray Booth
r --- - -- - - - - - - - - - I- - -- "I
I I
I
I
Gun Target I
I
I
-f--- - - r - - - - - - - - - - - -
Powder Recycling of
Feed Hopper Powder
Air Supply
Bag Filter I~
t
Cyclone
Recovery
Air
kec~cle
to the powder gun and hence onto the object is carefully controlled.
types are shown in Figure 1.3 (a),(b) and (c). Air is supplied to the
from the hopper which is then suspended in the air. To aid powder
being drawn out of the hopper the bed can be agitated by an external
driven blade and a screw feeder within the powder (3(b)). The delivery
bed structure, 1.3(c). Air is passed through the powder via a gauze
at the bottom of the bed and the venturi pump is then immersed in
each gun. For multiple arrays .of guns a single supply cylinder can
be used.
from a single spray gun is about 2-5 gms/second of powder, the lower
(
_Powder Storage
~-- Hopper
Vibrator
Compressed
Air Powder to Gun
(a)
~ Hopper
Powder
Agitator
Screw
Feed
Airi
Air ---~~=====~ c::.: ;,:... _. ·. :.:;i;·-.,-.---~- Powder
r"==....,-- Drive
Unit
(b)
Powder
Level
Compressed
Air
Fluidised
Air -"----r--
(c)
(Plates 1.1 & 1.2). In addition to the powder supply air, there is
a separate air supply to the gun which controls the pattern of the
spray. This air passes through the gun and is emitted at the nozzle
The higher the air input then the higher the turbulence and the larger
body of the gun, 'or comprises the voltage supply cable to the gun,
around the sharp point must reach the breakdown strength of the air
40-80 kV.
(as opposed to stiff guns) so· that discharges and sparking to grounded
the voltage will decrease and current increase so that energy output
is constant. A stiff gun would give a constant voltage but the current
overspray for recycling. This is unlike the wet paint system which
traps overspray for disposal. Ideally the air in a spray booth would
velocity from the gun would control the coating process. In practice
areas of plant
funnel shape to the opening of the air withdrawal. The size of the
conveyors (if used) and the number of guns. The air movement in the
forming high concentrations but not enough to blow the powder cloud
clean. Access to the booth should be quick and simple, but it should
powder from the air exhausted from the booth. By removing overspray
and eliminates the need for dispersal equipment. It can also make
the powder from air, collect it, and return it for use in the system.
volume and can easily be cleaned by using reverse air flow. The
particles are thrown out to the walls and drop to the bottom of the
followed by a bag filter can be used. The powder recovered from the
cyclone (about 85%) is recycled and the powder from the bag filter is
the spray booth and cyclone. However, the loading on the bag filter
cycle for a particular powder is closely followed for each and every
where the base metal takes a long time to heat up. With heat applied
upper layers into a continuous film and leave the lower layers unfused.
This results in very poor film qualities and in severe cases leads to
There are two main types of oven - Chamber or box ovens and
continuous ovens, which are open at both ends. The heat for stoving
fired burners are used to heat air which is then transferred to the
production rate required, curing time etc. The higher the air flow
rate through the oven the shorter the stoving time, but the air
velocity is generally kept to 1.5 m/s to avoid powder being blown off.
fast heating with low air velocity. The hot source is created by
very useful for thin plate and large quantities of small parts, but
due to incomplete fusing near the substrate since stoving occurs from
·inside to out.
1. 2.6 Powder
powder used in the industry but they can be classified into two main
categories.
- 14 -
They have very high molecular weights due to long straight chain
melt and flow during fusion and undergo chemical conversion at the
in industry giving high quality thin films from the small particle
weight thermoplastics.
The choice of the resin and hardner is made with respect to the
~) electrical properties
- 15 -
following essentials:-
it batch or continuous.
operations
distribution
reprocessing.
ways. Both have the same objective to mix the ingredients to ensure
extrusion methods. The Z-blade mixer has the advantage of not needing
any pr emixing'. The mixture is first melted in the blender and when
molten the other ingredients are added slowly, whilst using the blade.
difficult to clean and cannot be used for fast curing systems. The
flow agents and hardener are finally added and the mixture is then
Granulate Resins
Weighing Station
Resins Pigments
Additives Hardness
~
/ Premixing
Z blade mixer
~
Extruder
Cooling Band
/
Granulation
Grinding
/ ~
Sieving Classifying !--
~ 7
Packing
EPC Process
section.
tough and resilient and these types of powders are reduced in size
sieves.
D. Primer required
- 17 -
last powder sprayed from the whole plant before another powder is
components
(iii) Cyclone
system:-
powder, which is easy to operate and not space consuming. Hence there
1. 2. 8 Substrate Preparation
coating (5. Kut, t9.71b; H. Stein, 1972; R.A. Ashdown, 1974; W.G. Willows,
1968).
is for internal or external use; the type of coating; and the type
are:
(iv) Anodising
- 19 -
Results have been observed to vary for the flow of the powder
powder process and the powders used therein have been briefly
described. In order to clarify the reasons for this work there are
must be achieved and yet the excellent film properties that the EPC
particle size and film thickness on the properties of the final film
the above problems when the mechanisms involved are more fully
understood.
There have been several workers that have already made fundamental
(A. G61ovoy, 1973abc; G.F. Hardy, 1974; G.D. Cheever, 1975;A. Golovoy, 1975).
These effects have been reported with reference to the film thickness
Some of the results that have been obtained are shown in Figures
1.5-1.12.
particle. its charge, and the forces acting on the particle are all
size, its electrical properties. the gun potential and the strength of
v 60 kV
... 80
=
»
u
.""U
QJ
." 60
""'""'
'"
.""
0
."'"' 40
'"0
Q
""
QJ
20
0.8 mil
80
....
»
u
2 mi
.""u
QJ
60
."
""'""'
'"
.""
0 3 mil
40
."'"'
'0"
""
Q
QJ
20 o
Charging Voltage kV
Figure 1.6. Deposition Efficiency vs Charging Voltage for Various
Film Thicknesses
400
300
e;:l.
'"'"
.,.
'"
.....c<J"
200
....
00
...."
'"0
",. 100
u
20 40 60 80
Coating time, secs
72 kV
54 kV
.........'"e 6
'"'"
.,. <lJ
.....c"u 4
....
e
.........
'" 2
5 10 15 20
Spraying Time, seconds
Figure 1.8. Film Thickness vs Spraying Time for Various Voltages
- 21 -
voltage to electrodes near the end· of the gun. The particles are
hold their charge for the time they are being sprayed and stoved.
hours.
The higher the gun potential the larger the charge on the
particle and hence the greater the initial attraction of the charged
1975; Y.V. Ting,. 1978) found that the coating was thickness limiting
to the earthed substrate, take place after a long coating time (above
are being emitted from the layer and are able to cause further
coating when the potential difference across the powder layer is equal
and the uppermost particles are held on very loosely. Hardy has
the majority of weakly charged powder was removed. (G.F. Hardy, 1974).
the substrate have been carried out by Ong and Cross (P.H. Ong et a1,
Golovoy has shown that the average particle size of the powder
(Figure 1.9).
(K. Venlet, 1973). The greater the spraying distance the thinner
gradient of the air (ratio of air velocity at gun exit and spraying
The substrate width compared to the spray diameter has also been
larger the substrate width compared to the spray diameter, the better
........e
tIl
6
tIl
tIl
...'c:"
.....CJ
..c: 4
E-<
e
........P« 4.51Jm
15 2
Spraying time (s)
Figure 1. 9. Film Thickness vs S2ra;l:ing Time for Various Sized Powders
,
2 ins
5 ins
........e
tIl
6
tIl
tIl
...'c:"
......c:
CJ
E-<
4
e
....
.....
P«
10 ins
2
15 ··:i:ns
~
5 10 15 20
Spraying time (s)
Figure 1.10. Film Thickness vs S2 ra;l:ing Time for Various iliun-target
Distances
-1
3 sec
8
6 sec
-1
.,
....i3
.-< 6
.,., sec
-1
<lJ
.:
.:.:tJ
.....J: 4
....
i3
....
.-<
~
2
5 10 15 20 25
Spraying time (s)
Figure 1.11. Film Thickness vs Spraying Time at Various Air Velocity
Gradients
80
.... V = 60 kV
>.
tJ
.:
....
<lJ
60
........."
.....
'".:
.......0 40
.....,
0
0..
<lJ
<=>
20
o 5 1
powder layer i.e. the way in which the particles have packed, and
therefore the thickness of the coating (G.T. Spitz, 1973; S.E. Orchard,
Nix et a1 and Wo1pert (V.G. Nix et aI, 1973). From their experiments
particle size have less effect than those associated with the flow
then begin and the polymer starts to gel, preventing any further flow
(M.J. Hannon et aI, 1976; A. Quach, 1973). The flow of the particles
1 cm = 2~m
1 cm = 500~m
FLOW
Temperature •
Figure 1.14. Plot Showing Stages in the Melt and Spread of an Epoxy
Resin with Increasing Temperature
1000
Slow Curing
Fast
Curing
10L-_______________________________________________
Temperature •
show the glass transftion point and melting and curing times of the
within the layer. When discharges take place the surface of the layer
becomes rough and cratered. positive ions will stream out towards the
bound particles near the surface of the coating. The same effect
occurs when the particle charge is continually low. The driving force
Tg
\
-.1-- Melting
\ .-------::.- - -
j
.....
CJ
...<ll
~
'"o
.",
...~~~--------------~----------------~----------------~--------------~---
50 100 150 200 250
Temperature °c
field and hence when the voltage on the surface increases due to packing,
substrates.
This is known as the Faraday Cage effect, which states that any empty
number of methods:-
higher momentum)
All these methods effectively mean that the ·particle is entering the
where the surface tension effects pull liquids away from the edges.
Other problems that arise are the space charge effect and
gun. This causes a drop in charging and can even give zero deposition.
1. 6 Sunnnary
has been made. The process, its equipment, powders and operational
factors that contribute to the way in which both dry and fused coatings
are formed.
the stoved film and also to investigate the way in which single
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Gloss
2.4 Roughness
2.6 Adhesion
2.7 Hardness
2.10 Porosity
2.11 Summary
- 28 -
2.1 Introduction
the dry film, formed when spraying, or the conversion of the dry
size can affect packing porosity, thickness, strength and hence give
etc. The spraying process and the stoving conditions employed are
himself has to decide what standards are required and what the
1975) ..
there are many organisations which review and develop tests and
these such organisations are the American Society for Testing af:.
Materials (ASTM) and the British Standards Institution. The main aim
powder layer and/or the fused film. The following is a brief summary
fused film.
2.2 Gloss
the most important features of a coating. There are many methods and
apparatuses for measuring gloss, but one of the most difficult tasks
qualities of the film (5. Huey, 1964; H.K. Hammond Ill, 1974). Indeed
simplest tests is to compare the image formed when using the film
etc.
registered by a photocell.
the mirror reflected beam and the diffusely reflected light. Hence
two panels might have the same 60 0 gloss reading but the eye will
low. The 60° gloss meter constantly needs standardising and checking
difference between the two methods is that in the UK and Europe the
0
standard angle of incidence is 45 and in the USA and other parts of
the world it is 60 0 •
- 31 -
available for measuring gloss and sheen, each one of them measuring
between samples (M. Tehan et al., 1974; P.S. Quinney et al., 1971).
narrow curves indicate high gloss and broad curves indicate low
general yields sufficient detail about the type of gloss and permits
common practice to note the maximum and half width of the peak of the
u. Zorll, 1963).
been carried out for the study of film surface deterioration due to
- 32 -
2 .. 3 Film Thickness
produce thinner films, with a target of about 25~m, but which still
retain all the o~r film properties, and most important of which is
films •
1971) •
categories :-
section of the subs.trate and coating. Any materials can be used for
this technique but problems are encountered with soft or very thin
layers.
off the substrate and the surface area of a piece must be accurately
The coating thickness is then read off calibration charts but again it
at different rates.
desired.
is given in ASTM 01186 where the force that is required to pull off
The more sophisticated forms of:thisc' come 'as the Elcome ter Mini tector,
by a test head placed on the surface coating (D. Jarvis, 1974). The
coating and base metal and on the thickness of the coating. Hence
and Dualscope so that most coatings and substrates can be catered for
particles are emitted from an isotope onto the coating and are
2.4 Roughness
been used since the early 1940's. Vertical movements of the stylus
relative to a skid which is used to guide the pick up over the work-
unit and are used to drive a profile recorder and an averaging meter.
The stylus tip is nominally in the order of about 2~m diameter and so
it will enter very fine grooves, and the large taper angle (90 0 )
the tool and workpiece are classed as waviness. In the case of powder
spraying and the way in which the particles fuse and flow out. The
drawn through the profile. The sum of all the absolute values of the
a modified dial gauge mounted on a flat base which when placed on the
surface coating will rest on all the peaks. The probe of the device
then projects through into the troughs and grooves in the surface,
paint industry where the number of paints that are being developed is
1975). For many years coatings were rated in terms of "number of years
weathering test is performed by using racks which face south and which
atmospheres. These are the simplest form of tests but are very long
The most common indoor accelerated test is the_ salt spray test
(ASTM Bl17-73). Here the test panels are placed in a fog chamber into
Other forms of this test are a combination of salt and acetic acid
the relative humidity in the cabinet above the critical 70% rH level
exposure to a high power arc lamp. The plates are sprayed once every
2.6 Adhesion
fingernail. This tests the strength of all the adhesive forces such
as cohesion, Van der Waals, molecular forces etc. but is little use
Perhaps the most common adhesion test used today is the cross
another set perpendicular to the first ones. The loss of the small
test can be extended in the form of the tape test which is carried out
by placing masking tape over the cross hatching and then slowly
(especially in making the grooves) and the cutting edge itself, must
must be kept constant. The grooves are made closer and closer
determine the critical thrust force when the removal mechanism switches
coating pulls off from the substrate. This is also used for measuring
- 40 -
properties.
2.7 Hardness
provides methods for the measuring of the Knupp Hardness No. and the
Pfund Hardness No. (S. Spindel, 1973). The test is basically performed
diameter is used.
surface with pencils tipped with diamonds where the width of the
1977).
the film. The pendulum rests on the surface to be tested and pivots
on the two steel balls. The time for the pendulum to decay from
tipped with a tungsten carbide hemisphere strikes the test piece with
scraping whilst other forms of wear, such as that of the wind, must
Many use wheels, nylon brushes or rubber cups that impinge on the
the sand falls from a given height onto the panel. A similar device
adhesion.
side up. The panel is then examined for cracks. If no cracks are
Other methods include the Erickson cupping test where the panel
dependent on the thickness and age of the film, and so can indicate
onto the coating, the type of weight being peculiar to various test
coating. The procedure is repeated so that the ball falls on the same·
spot each time and signs of cracking, flaking and detachment are
recorded.
clamped. Such tests are the Charpy (both ends clamped) and the IZOD
very marked and so the panels are kept in a refrigerator at lOaF until
required for the test. The lower the temperature the more severe the
test. At the end of the run masking tape is pressed over the panel
and then pulled off slowly to remove any loose chips. The panel is
2.10 Porosity
the main requirement in that pores may provide a site for corrosion
of the substrate.
·coating, such as pores and cracks, after corrosion tests, which try
over several months, have been carried out. Many tests are based.
on the corrosion of the substrate that occurs when the coated metal
sulphur dioxide and 86% relative humidity can be used in this way
product.
water at 90-9S oC will also produce rust spots in 2-l0h and these can
standards.
react with a reagent marking the sites of the pores. Complex shapes
to this is the Holiday detector which will deal with thicker systems
and applies a voltage between 0-20 kV, again giving an alarm when
electrons) absorption will take place within· the coating due to the
high atomic number elements in the pigments. Pores all the way
The coating is removed from the substrate and the cup exposes 25 cm 2
of film to high humidity on one side and low humidity on the other.
Summary
However, the basic principles are described and in most cases the
obvious that the testing and analysis of data obtained for coating
applicable tests have been chosen for the needs of the experimental
The next chapter fully describes the tests employed and the
results obtained are presented and discussed. The equipment used for
Parts Test
02 Specular Gloss
El Bend Test
E2 Scratch Test
E4 Cupping Test
E5 Pendulum Oamping Test
E6 Cross Cut Test
E7 Resistance to Impact (Falling Ball)
E8 11 11 11 (Pendulum Impact)
E9 Bucholz Indentation
ElO Pull off Test for Adhesion
F2 Resistance to Humidity
Summary
3.1 Introduction
3.5.3 Instrumentation
3.6.1 Instrumentation
3.7 Adhesion
3.8 Corrosion
3.9 Porosity
3.10 Conclusions
- 47 -
3.1 Introduction
particle sizes has been investigated in various ways (A. Golovoy, 1973abc)
properties.
the types of test methods available for testing organic type coatings
was given. Using this information, a set of test methods were chosen
for assessment of films produced for this work. The test methods
method of coating sample plates was required. Using this method the
had six needle electrodes inserted through its walls at the end of
feeder which poured powder into a funnel. The powder was then drawn
compressed air acted as the transport medium for the powder from the
gun to the target (see Figure 3.1). A 2" square sample plate was
minimise edge effects (build up of powder near the edges) which give
Earth
6 II.T. needles
Vibrator
r.===============+=======~
10" sq Aluminium
Feeder
Sheet
,...-11....-,,.------1..,
.:
it
!\"
•• ' -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ~~ _ __ L_ _ _ _ _¥
Brass
Shim
-- /
r-~~~""1'/
Electromagnet
----------~.~ Vacuum
Earth ___
Needle
.....>--_____ 30 cnl"'S'--____--<.~
II.T. Supply
D.C. Supply
Wooden Booth
Hand-held
Control
- 49 -
held approximately 30 cms away from the end of the spray gun. The
which the door operated a safety microswitch for the HT power supply.
of powder to the gun, and hence the presence of excess ions, the
over the vibratory feeder and then the compressed air was supplied
to the gun. The feeder and HT voltage were operated by the hand held
which was held by a retort stand. The current supplied to the electro-
magnet was switched off and the plate taken by hand to the stoving
<lOum, l0-20 um, 20-30 um, 30-40 um, 40-50 um and +50um. The commercial
powder itself was also used. Each set of samples were produced in
problems persisted with this static gun when trying to control film
thickness.
- so -
it was observed that the area covered by the spray gun varied to a
«20, 20-40 &. ~Oum), rings of different colours were produced. The
largest sizes being in the centre and the fines at the outside.
metal booth with both side and front opening hinged doors and a
powder extract section at the floor of the booth. A bag filter unit
gun powder supply unit and HT unit was supplied by Tam-Sames et Cie.
of air to the gun nozzle which varied the spray cloud pattern.
- 51 -
Diagrams of the powder feed hopper and spray gun nozzle are shown
in Figures 3.2 and 3.3. Plate 3.1 shows the spray booth and spraying
equipment. Plate 3.2 gives a close up view of the spray gun, powder
following method was employed. Pi. 10" x 8" steel plate was covered
with twenty 2" x 2" thin steel plates (1/16" thick) and then placed
the electromagnet the assembly was suspended from a metal bar inside
the spray booth, with the plates facing towards the opened door on the
long side (see plate 3.1). The HT unit was set to supply 60 kV when
the spray gun trigger was depressed. The air flow rate to the
fluidised bed was increased to fluidise the 2/3 rds full hopper of
the jet for powder supply and to the gun nozzle were preset to
was immobilised and the coated plates, still held by the electro-
electromagnet was then switched off and the base plate together with
the coated sample plates were placed in a stoving oven. The coatings
o
were stoved for 15 minutes at l80 C, as per the powder manufacturers
recommendations.
Figure 3.2. Spray Gun Powder Feed Honper
Powder +
/
,
Fluidised
Bed
\ ~ ~ ~
Distributor
Plate
\ G~
.
....,
Fluidising
• Alr
H.T. Electrode
Secondary
Air
H. T. Cabl e
to
-Trigger
--~~~--~-------------
_________________ Powder + Air Mixture
~
Deflector
Plate 3.1 . Electrostatic Spray Booth and Equipment
Plate 3.2 . Spray gun, H. T. Supply Unit and Powder Feed Unit
- 53 -
and tests. The only change that was made was in the type of powder
used.
Paints Division, Slough was used as the basis for the experiments.
The pigmentation waS white and the powder had a size distribution as
in Plates 3.3·and 3.4. It can be seen that the particles are very
using an Alpine Zig-Zag air classifier. The ranges were <lO~m, 10-20~m,
sample coatings.
over 2500 sample plates were obtained for the seven different powder
grades and these were then selected into groups of film thickness
ranges. Poor quality coatings (i. e.· those that had been disturbed
100
..
.....,
N
..... 80
6
....
...
.c00
.
.... 60
.
;3
....
I>
...
....'" 40
u
~
20
oJ------r-----.----_.r-----r-----r------r----~-----.r-----r-----'1
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Particle Size (\lID)
Plate 3.3. SEM Photograph of Epoxy Resin Powder (x 1000)
across the plate were not encountered. This system allowed for faster
Edge effects were also reduced since each plate was placed flush
wide and 1/16" thick were employed. These strips were guillotined
into the 2" square sample plate sizes. It was checked that this
edges of the plates to ensure that they would lie flat on -the large
The plates were degreased using carbon tetrachloride and dried using
tissues. Each plate was dedusted, to remove any debris from the
tissues, using a compressed air supply. The plates were then stored
the mild steel plating was particularly chosen for its quality and
corrosion. In these coating trials the samples were not left for any
- 55 -
phosphating and zinc coating were tried and compared using the salt
spray test (described later) but very little difference was found
of a coating.
1) Film Thickness
(c) Scatter
4) Adhesion'
5) Corrosion Resistance
6) Porosity
the results from these types of tests are enhanced by the fact that
commercially used powders are being tested, and as such are known to
employed (i.e. impact, scratch, chipping etc). These tests were used
The test method and equipment used in each case will now be
described and results will be presented and discussed with each test
in turn.
for both changes in type of powder sprayed and film thickness. This
will give guidelines for the optimal film thickness with regards
organic coating measured directly from the scale on the meter. This
apparent impedance of the probe coil that induces the eddy currents
thickness of film expected and the type of metal base being used.
standards between the probe and the metal plate. The standards
After every plate had been measured the various size fractions
in 5~m ranges. The best ten sample plates in each film thickness
range were used for further experiments. This assessment was based
approximately I" in from each corner and also in the centre of the
coating. The average thickness for the coating was calculated and
summary of all the thickness ranges that have been used, the
thickness of the plates in each group. This is done for all seven
case a small offset in the setting up of the sample plate can be seen
as a movement of the peak from this angle and can hence be compensated
for. However, this curve also describes the way in which the incident
I
I
I
............ I
'-.l :--_-\-____
I',
I "
I "
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
. 00 o
h
Gloss factor, GF = -
w
where
h = peak height
w = width of peak at half peak height
3.5.3 Instrumentation
(P.P.I., 1963). The light beam from the lamp (L) passes through a
monochromatic filter (Fl) and into the shutter collimating tube (Cl).
(Figure 3.7) so that the mounted plate can be rotated through 360 0 •
ensures that the front surface of the coating is in the same relative
position to the beam and photocell each time, regardless of the coating
thickness.
Fl
r , '"
. - -.......
"""
\
---Tt-="'
II . r=:V';'L2/
L "
G
\
@
•.,
If' ! / @-- ~ I
,
I ;.. "- 2
- ~ - _I-_~ CD:1. .l • AN
"
--. 2 [G~T ;'
""
L Cl ". , /
::;.:9'
D--~
~ Sample Plate
Angle Adjustment
Screw
-
- 60 -
.be directly plotted. The format of this curve has been previously
shown. It can be seen that the curve occurs after a threshold level.
and low (matt) gloss, the changes in the shape of the goniophotometric
curv~s can be clearly seen (Figure 3.9). For samples of high gloss
the curve is tall and narrow and for low gloss it is short and wide.
From these curves the gloss factor, which takes into account both
Power
Digital Supply Unit
Voltmeter
Back E.M.F.
Chart
Recorder
Digital
Voltmeter
Recorded Output
900
- High Gloss (mirror)
700
\
Medium Gloss
600
500
35 40 45 50 55
Angle of Reflection (Deg.)
••
Plate 3.6. Brice Phoenix Light Scattering Photometer and Related Equipment used for Gloss Measurement
61 -
from 0-90 0 • The time taken for the photocell to do this was measured
ten times and compared to the paper feed rate on the chart recorder.
typically used.
type were tested using this technique. The plates were positioned
in the mounting table and placed in the machine. The photocell was
curve was analysed and the height of the peak (above the threshold
value) and the peak width at half peak height were recorded in terms
converted to mV and degrees and the gloss factor was calculated for
:e
~
...
.= 800
....
,.J
00
...uQJ
.... QJ 600
""'
c::
QJ
""'0
.......co
>. 400
c:
...c:
QJ
....
200
Figure 3.l0(a) and (b). Typical chart recorder outputs from goniophotometer
with (a) no back e.m.f. (above) and (b) with back e.m.f. of
650 mV
750
:>
~
=
...
.=
....co
,.J
~
...
U
QJ
....
QJ
""'c:: 700
'"
......
0
.......co
>.
c:
...'c:"
....
650
45 0
Angle of Reflection
- 62 -
parameters for each different powder type used. The film thicknesses
quoted are the averages for the film thickness range that the samples
used come from. The results are plotted in terms of film thickness
results from any possible trend in most of the graphs and so for
for these fits are given in Table AB for each of the powder types
The results of this analysis have been plotted for each of the
powder types in Figures 3.11, 3.12 and 3.13 for changes in thickness
with gloss factor, peak height and peak width respectively. From
35
31
20-30~m
1O- 2Ol1m
30-40~m
+50~m
27
H 40-50~m
....u0
<U
f«
Ul
Ul
23 Conunercia 1
....0
t!l
19
<IOpm
15~----'-----'-~--'-----'-----~
o 10 20
____~____r-____r -____r -__- .
30 40 50 60 70 80
Film Thickness (I1 m) 90 100
Figure 3.12. Peak Height vs. Film Thickness for Different Powders Sprayed
110
10-20~m~~~~__________________________________________________________~~~~~:::
106
+50~m 30-40~m
~ 40-50~m 20-30~m
~
~
...
.c
102
Conunercial
....
00
~
.:.:<U
Q) 98
~
94
<lO~m
90~------'-------r------'-------r------'-------r------'-------r------'------'
o 10 20 30 1,0 50 60 70 80 90 100
Fi Im Thickness (11m)
Figure 3.13. Peak Width vs. Film Thickness for Different Powders Sprayed'
5.5
<lOl'm
5.0
~
.
00
QJ
A
~
...
.a
-0
4.5
Commercial
.....
:.:
~
~
QJ 4.0 40- 5011m
30-4011tn
+5 0 11m
3.5 1O- 20 11ffi
20-3011m
3.0
2.5~------~----~r-----~-------r------'-----~r-----~-------r------'------'
o 10 20 30 50 60 70 80 90 100
Film Thickness (1Im)
- 63 -
for film thicknesses of 30, SO, 70 and 100~m and the data used for
obvious that the results for the <lO~m range powder are substantially
poorer than the other powders. The reason for this is probably
due to the fact that particles <lO~m in size tend to be very cohesive
in nature and as such form larger lumps when placed together in the
obtained.
Figures 3.17 to 3.19 show the best fit lines to the data of
Figures 3.14 to 3.16, ignoring the <lO~m range results for the linear
fits.
The raw data obtained for each powder type for varying film
scatter of light from the surface. The wider the scatter the more hazy
tall and narrow depicting that a clear, sharp image would be seen.
Table 3.2. Gloss Test Results for Different Sized
Powders at Various Film Thicknesses
Test
Powder Type 30 50 70 100
Parameter
40
.-
0-
Key
30jlm Film
50jlm Film
• - 70jlm Film
0 - 100jlm Fi lm
35
0
'0"' 30
Q
~
'IIIu"'
~
III
III 25
0
.....0
<.!l
•
0
20
•
15
lO;----------r---------r---------.---------.---------,----------r-------~
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 7
Average Particle Size (jlm)
Figure 3.15. Peak Height vs. Size of Powder Sprayed
115
.-.
0-
Key
-
30llm Film
50llm Fi lm
70llm Film
110
~
0 _. 100llm Film
~
~0 ~ i
~
...
.c00 105
.....
'"
p::
7J 100
~'"
0
95
;
90
854---------~--------r_------_,r_------_,--------_,--------_.--------_.
o 20 30 40 50 60 70
Average Particle Size (Ilm)
Figure 3.16. Width at Half Peak Height vs. Size of Powder
5.5 .-
0-
Key
30)lm Film
50)lm Film
~
• - 70)lm Film
•
00
QJ 5.0
A
'-'
0 - 100)lm Fi Im
...
.c00
..... 0
::c 4.5
QJ
.>:
'"
QJ
Po<
....
'H
::c'"
4.0 •
...
...'"
.c
'1j
.....
:;:
3.5
0
•~
3.0
2.5~------~-------'--------r-------r-------'--------r-------'
o 2 30 40 50 60 70
Average Particle Size ()lm)
Figure 3.17. Gloss Factor vs. Particle Size Sprayed
35
33
100llm
..."u
0 31 70llm
50 llm
<U
~ 30llm
III
III
.....0
c.!> 29
27
25~-----------'------------r-----------~--~------~-----------T----------
o 10 20 30 40 50
__
6
Particle Size (Ilm)
Figure 3.18. Gloss Test Peak Height vs. Particle Size Sprayed
110
30llm
108
SO\.lm
70 llm
~
~ 106
~
.
.c
100\.lm
.....00
Gl
;t:
-a 104
...
Gl
102
100
1 2 3 4 5 60
Particle Size (Ilm)
Figure 3.19. Gloss Test Peak Width vs. Particle Size Sprayed
3.8
01)
.
QJ
Q
~
3.6 30\lm
.c 50\lm
....
70\lm
'"
.....
;3: 100jJm
.,.
tU 3.4
QJ
p..
3.2
3.0~----------~~r-------------;-------~----~--------------;-------------~
10 20 30 40 50 60
Particle Size (\lm)
- 64 -
gloss than the others for the reasons previously mentioned. This
Overall the best powder range, based on this data, for the highest
coatings. The visual appearance of the films agreed with the gloss
measurements in that they were all of high quality and none were
significantly different.
- 65 -
The Talysurf 10 is one of the most widely used devices for the
surface roughness by stylus methods has been in use since the early
1940's and they are used in many national standards. This particular
gives quickly readable results (R.e. Spragg and D.J. Whitehouse, 1972).
departures of the profile above and below the reference line (centre
centre line and Roughness Average are given in Figures 3.21 and 3.22.
Waviness
Roughness
Spacing
• L
1
Ra = = L
3.6.1 Instrumentation
in an electric current.
traverse shaft thus acts as the datum and the pick-up assembly is
-
O .lmm
Average
--i io- Wave length
P (A)
Aa
-
O .lmm
--t 10-- Average wavelength
peA) Aa
20 m!
fo-- Average .wavelength l..:~~===:::;.__
1 2.2 211.
5).1mL
.lmm
Open Smooth
2 6.9 320
3 0.64 75
2).1mL
Imm
Open Smooth
4 2.1 361
--- ------------------.,
Mag.
Switch
Ra
meter
Amplifier Filter
/
Pen Shift
Recorder
Meter
Cut Off I
Switch I
L _____ 1 _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
I
-
_
...J
P:~k-UP I
Traverse Unit
lengths were taken for each sample plate, each time the sample being
in roughness.
the data in these plots have been fitted to straight lines using
each powder type for roughness average and roughness wavelength onto
Figures 3.26 and 3.27 and the data for the linear regression fits
roughness with particle size of powder sprayed and the general trend
(see Table 3.3 and Figures 3.28 to 3.31). The <lO~m size range was
not used in the linear regression fits of the last two graphs due
to the poor qualities of film. (See Figures 3.30 and 3.31 and the
0.9
0.8
~
~
~ 0.7 lO\lm
...00
.c
<=
..... 0.6 40-50\lm
Q)
'"
>OJ
Commercial
;3 0.5 +50\lm
III
III
Q)
<= 0.4
.c00
"
~ 30r40\lm
0.3
10-20\lm
0.2 20-30\lm
0.1
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Film Thickness (\lm)
Figure 3.27. Roughness Average vs. Film Thickness for Various Powders
1.6
'.1:..: ';; ~ ,; .. :. ~ I: , ~ '" ::.
~
13
;:l.
~
QI
01) <lOllm
cu 1.2
'"'
Qlo
~
Ul Commercial
Ul
QI 40-501lm
,; 0.8
.c01) +501lm
::0
0
P<::"
30,..401lm
0.4 1O-201lm
20-301lm
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Film thickness (Ilm)
Figure 3.29. Roughness Wavelength vs. Size of Powder Sprayed
.9
.-.
0-
-
Key
30)lm Film
50)lm Film
70)lm Film
.8 0- 100)lm Film
~
~
m
.
.c
00
p .6
•q
Q)
.-<
Q)
;.
C1I
;3:
III
III
Q)
p •4 0
• ~
.c
~
00
" •
0
0
0
.2 •
0 •
•
0
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Average Particle Size ()lm)
Figure 3.30. Roughness Average vs. Particle Size Sprayed
1.0
a 0.8 30\lm
;:I.
~
<Il 50\lm
00
'"
~
<Il
0.6
~
III 70\lm
III
<Il
c::
..c: 100\lm
00
::>
0
p::
0.4
0.2
o
10 20 30 40 SO 60
Particle Size (\lm)
Figure 3.31. Roughness Wavelength vs. Particle Size Sprayed
0.6
,~ O.S 30\lm
'-'
..c:.... SO\lm
on 70\lm
.::QI
...
. QJ
0.4
:> 100\lm
~
U)
U)
QJ 0.3
.::
..c:on
0
lXi'"
0.2
O. 1
o
10 20 30 40 o o
Particle Size (\lm)
Table 3.3. Surface Roughness Results for Different Sized
Powders at Various Film Thicknesses
Roughness
0.81 0.66 0.52 0.30
Average
Commercial
Roughness 0.48 0.42 0.35 0.26
Wavelength
Roughness 1.18 1.12 1.06 0.97
Average
<lOJlm
Roughness
0.73 0.74 0.75 0.77
Wavelength
Roughness 0.36 0.31 0.26 0.18
Average
lo-20Jlm
Roughness 0.23 0.18 0.13 0.07
Wavelength
Roughness 0.32 0.36 0.48
0 .• 41
Average
20-30Jlm
Roughness 0.23 0.28 0.33 0.41
Wavelength
Roughness 0.45
0.51 0.39 0.31
Average
30-40Jlm Roughness 0.29 0.27 0.26 0.23
Wavelength
Roughness 0.77 0.66 0.35 0.39
Average
40-S0Jlm
Roughness 0.53 0.46 0.40 0.31
Wavelength
Roughness 0.76 0.67 0.44
0.57
Average
+50Jlm
Roughness
0.46 0.43 0.40 0.35
Wavelength
/
- 68 -
been measured, Ra and Aa, complement each other and should be used
of these results with figures for other surfaces reveal that there
observed here.
This could be due to having a less random and loose packing than
3.7 Adhesion
nature.
be held on the workpiece by hand, was used to hold the eleven spacing
edges (See Figure 3.32). Due to the small size of the sample plates
on the plate whilst the grooves were cut. Therefore a large plate
with a 2 in square recess was used to house the plate whilst cutting
proceeded. In this way the spacers were held flush against the
10 Spacers Wooden 1
lmm thick Block
1
o 1
Rubber Base 1
1
Figure 3.32. Series of Spacing EdgeS for Cross-Cut Test
1
- 69 -
bladed scalpel, 11 grooves were cut through the film to the metal
substrate. The cuts were made at a uniform and slow speed across
and a similar set of cuts were made to produce a cross hatch on the
coating.
over the cross hatching. The tape was then removed and the remaining
test) only one plate was used to test the adhesion of the coatings
the powder types. Table 3.4 shows the results from both these tests
through the coating to the metal for films that were thicker than
BOum.
Figure 3.33. British Standard Classification Chart (BS3900)
3 The coating has naked along the edges of the cuts partly or
wholly in large ribbons, and/or it has naked partly or wholly
on different parts of the squares. A cross·cut area distinctly
greater than 15 %, but not distinctly greater than 35 % is
affected.
4 111e coating has naked along the edges of the cuts in large
ribbons and/or some squares have detached partly or wholly:
A cross-cut area distinctly greater than 35 %. but not dis:
tinctly greater than 65 % is affected.
t t t t t t t
C T C T C T C T C T C T C T
(llm) (llm) (llm) (llm) (llm) (\lm) (\lm)
15 0 0 18 0 0 29 0 0 28 0 0 33 0 0 37 0 0 21 0 0
25 0 0 27 0 0 38 0 1 36 0 0 39 2 3 49 0 0 33 0 0
38 1 2 39 0 0 41 1 3 49 0 0 40· 1 2 58 0 0 43 0 0
60 1 2 46 0 0 48 0 0 55 0 0 54 0 0 65 0 0 52 0 0
84 1 3 SS 0 0 59 0 0 66 0 0 65 1 2 72 0 0 60 0 0
results. Even the <lO~m range powder type coatin~s gave good results.
These results reflect the fact that the coatings had been stoved
powder has been used for the experiments and it should exhibit good
test also shows that the powder film has been completely fused. If
this was not so and a dry, unfused powder monolayer was left close
to the substrate then large areas would be lifted when the upper fused
greater than 2. In these cases the results show that less than 35%
3.8 Corrosion
compressed air supply and atomising nozzles. The sample plates were
0
held on larger tin plates inclined at 30 to the vertical and parallel
to the principal direction of the flow of the salt spray through the
chamber. The coated plates were held by double sided sellotape and
Plate 3 . 8. Salt- Spray Test Chamber
- 71 - .
the edges of the samples were painted using a zinc based paint to
stop the steel edges from corroding and hence keep the. main sample
95 parts distilled water was used. The salt spray chamber was kept
The samples were split into two halves. One half were scribed
with an 'X' using a scalpel blade. It was ensured that the cuts
were made right through the coating to the metal substrate. The
other half were left untouched. The plates were left in the spray
chamber for 48 hours and then removed. Their conditions after testing
were recorded.
used for the adhesion tests. In all cases there was no detachment of
coating from the plates scribed with an 'X'. Corrosion had taken
place on the metal and was seen by the red/brown stains on the cuts.
coatings again confirmed that the stoving cycle had been correctly
- 72 -
produced coatings.
3.9 Porosity
The first test involved the removal of coatings from the substrate.
This was achieved by first coating the substrate with a very thin
coating was then dissolved in nitric acid after the powder coating
had been stoved. The coating could then be removed from the plate.
of X-rays took place due to the high atomic weight pigment atoms the
picture was darker. Any holes through the coating or air pockets
Thus the porosity of the film could be seen over a sample area.
porosity test. Any pores through to the substrate act for sites of
corrosion and red/brown rust spots would appear in the surface of the
have already shown that no pin holes could be seen in the coating.
pockets in the coatings. These tests were dcne over a random sample
suggests that change in particle size does not unduly effect the
3.10 Conclusions
system and over 2500 plates were produced using this method.
sizes also gave slightly lower gloss results than finer particles.
Thicker films on the whole gave films with better gloss characteristics
any of the other powders used. This is due to the very poor flow
type be used for the production of powder coatings. This powder type
inspection confirms this and all coatings have very good appearances.
The roughness results are very similar in this respect but perhaps
size.
qualities of the coatings and that the stoving cycle has been
experiments all the powders came from the same powder batch and
1972) have given noticeable results for the <lO~m range powder.
for this powder and its size ranges, that particle size has negligible
20 and 100~m.
3.11 Summary
described.
of film produced.
results.
CHAPTER 4
4.1 Introduction
4.4 Summary
-------
- 76 -
4.1 Introduction
physical properties of the coatings for any of the sizes used. The
has been observed that in all the gloss and surface roughness
trends than any other powder. This is the only powder with a wide
powders.
To try and gain some understanding of the reasons why this lack
way in which particles pack and stove have been carried out.
the way in which powders flow out. This was accomplished by observing
A diagram showing the way in which particles flow has been already
given in Chapter 1.
particles, were carried out. A few 2" square plates were coated
using the commercial equipment and then placed on the hot stage.
h
.--.....J ,'--_ _ _ _ _ _..,
c
Cine Camera
I I
Microscope
To Temperature
Powder Sample Controller
Heating Element
Glass Slide
~.
Light
Beam
Mirror
For this case it was found that the thicker layer of particles
depth of field of view the coating then moved out of focus and
the surface could not be clearly seen due to the lack of detail
being applied from the base through the metal, and hence, up through
the coating.
In a stoving oven the heat, for thin plates, will come from
both sides. For large bulky objects that have a large amount of base
metal the heat for melting will mainly come through the surface and
hence the powder layer. It is more likely in these caSes that unstoved
powder could be left near the substrate giving poor adhesion qualities.
As expected, in the case of the thin sample plates used in the previous
experiments, this was not observed and both adhesion and corrosion
From the cine films that were taken of single and groups
powder spread during the flow out stage. When an irregularly shaped
in Plate 4.1. The particle lost all of its irregular shape charac-
teristics. After this stage the powder then flowed out and covered
Plate 4.1. Melting of an Irregular Shaped Particle
- 78 -
stoved it could be clearly seen how the whole of the surface can be
some of the particles contract into balls and then begin to spread .
They then flow into other particles and the flow out continues.
This is also shown on the next plate (Plate 4.3) in which the
used, equal amounts being mixed together, and these were sprayed
are shown in Plates 4.4(a) and 4.4(b). It was found very difficult
different coloured particles are very hazy and do not help in this
matter.
Plate 4.2 . Melting and Fusing of Powder Particles
• • • o •
• • •
•
•
•
\
.t
00
• -: •
•
• •
Plate 4. 3 . Silhouettes of Melting and Fusing of Powder Particles
Plate 4.4. Staved plate coated with coloured particles viewed
from (a) above and (b) underneath (lower picture)
- 79 -
melting, this powder flows to a great extent and this could be the
if there was any correlation between the flow out properties of powder
was used to represent the flow out of the powder. The'final surface
smoothness.
a glass slide and placed between the heating elements. The temperature
0
was rapidly raised to l80 C and the melting of particles recorded by
of merit.
- 80 -
contracted to its smallest size. This was repeated when the particle
which gave a spreading factor based on the ratio of the initial and
is also given. The spreading factor is given as the ratio of the final
given.
they were all very similar. The polyester powder which was the worst
gave a mottled type finish which was very uneven and obviously had
not flowed out very well. In this case levelling had not taken place
• "
•
•
•
•
• •
,
•
~.~------~~.~~.----~,~
.,
,~-- ----.--------~
I i6 ••• •
•
•
• • •
•
•
... •
0
'"
J;. -. •
•
I
0
!
Cl
a
I •
('>
'~~
Change ~n Spreaded Area of Particle during Coating
Table 5.1. Stoving of Five Different Powders - Comparison of Spreading Factors
Fast Cure
180 10 3 3 1.01 1. 76 1. 74 3.03 2
Anhydride Epoxy
can be seen to show a good indication of the type of finish that might
better the flow characteristics of the powder and hence the higher the
agree with the work carried out by Wolpert et al and Nix et al.
effects are important. Nix agreed with this but found that other
one source of orange peel. After individual particles had melted and
the dry powder layer also appeared to have an effect on the flow of
and particle clusters. Again the clusters were observed to have more
1962).
- 82 -
mentioned workers.
distribution.
charging characteristics.
Films taken of the red, orange, white and blue powders melting
given in Table 4.2. It can be seen that the standard deviations about
observed that the red powder was found to be much slower in the time
for analysis. This can also be seen from the table of results. The
orange, white and blue powders were chosen for further experiments
Dr. S. Singh. An airless gun was used to charge the powder and a
Faraday cup used to collect the charged powder. A grid was placed
powder collected and the charge leaked away is recorded hence giving
The results of these measurements are given for the three powders
in Table 4.3. It waS not possible to make measurements for the <20~m
range as the powder would not flow well. Slightly higher values of
Q/M were obtained for the orange and blue powders but it was considered
Table 4.2. Spreading Factor Results of Four Coloured Powders
Before After A/B Before After A/B Before After A/B Before After A/B
1217 2050 1.684 1270 2188 1.723 1225 1986 1.621 1076 1811 1.683
1337 2287 1.711 1110 1846 1.663 1207 1942 1. 609 1489 2360 1.585
1310 2177 1.662 1219 2137 1.753 1011 1721 1.702 1184 2180 1.841
1057 1763 1.668 1512 2601 1. 720 1289 2211 1. 715 1072 1838 1.714
1205 1770 1.469 1145 1973 1. 723 1553 2440 1.571 1384 1969 1.422
1480 2488 1.681 1275 2345 1.839 1772 1988 1.696 1349 2293 1.699
1146 2264 1. 975 1169 1883 1.610 988 1748 1. 769 1118 1842 1.647
977 1713 1. 753 1061 1895 1.786 1136 1813 1.595 1007 1634 1.622
1179 1977 1.676 1076 1897 1. 763 1146 1821 1.589 1007 1945 1.931
1209 2084 1.723 1188 2027 1. 706 1155 1940 1.679 1241 2020 1.628
1350 2190 1.622 1217 2180 1.791 1168 1903 1. 629 1442 2443 1.694
in the table, and it was noticeable that the small particles had
namely <20~m, 20-40~m and >40~m. These fractions were then mixed
Each of the mixtures were sprayed onto the large 10" x 8" plate
which was covered with twenty 2" square sample plates. After spraying,
the plates were compared to the original powder fed to the spray gun,
and this is shown for the three mixtures in plates 4.6, 4.7 and 4.8.
Plate 4.10.
Figure 4.2. Average Size Distribution of Coloured Powders
Coulter Analysis
100
.
....
N
80
"'H
0
'"
:>
N
.... 60
....~.
.
.:3
........:> 40
<11
.....
§
u
20
O;------.------,------.------,------,------,------.------,------.r------y
o 10 20 30 40 50 70 80 90 100
Particle Size
Table 4.3. Charge to Mass Ratio Measurements of Coloured Powders
-3
Orange 20-40 5.25xlO-4 1.17xlO 44%
+40 -4 -4
Orange 5.30xlO 7.07xlO 75%
+40 -4 -4
White 4.47xlO 7.07xlO 63%
and where K = 4
£0 = 8.85 x 10- 12
Eo = 4 x 10 5 V
Plate 4.6. Comparison of coating and feed material for mixture 1
Plate 4.7. " Comparison of coating and feed material for mixture 2
Plate 4.8. Comparison of coating and feed material for mixture 3
fraction. The comparison with the feed material clearly shows the
large crevasses are present between particles and the layers are
that very fine particles, typically <lO~m, stick to larger ones and
in this case very fine orange particles are seen around the large blue
pa~ticles.
to obtain data rather than consider only pictures, the size distributions
Two of the coloured powder mixtures were initially used for this
was difficult without using high stirrer speeds which then gave
would measure size distributions in the range required and which gave
using four different powders, two black and two white. These were:-
The powders were sprayed onto twenty 2" square sample plates
held onto the larger 10" x 8" plate. One of the samples was then
washed into 500 ccs of distilled water. The Microscal wide angle
an intensity of 100% was obtained, when the light beam through the
Table 4.4. Charge to Mass Ratio Measurements for Four
Different Powders
20-40 4.1
White
>40 3.6
Epoxy
Anhydride
20-40 5.3
Black
>40 4.8
20-40 4.9
White
>40 3.8
Epoxy
Polyester
20-40 5.0
Black
>40 3.8
- 87 -
The sample was then placed in the glass cell and the suspension
was well stirred. At this time the chart recorder was switched on.
being when the chart recorder falls to below 30% of full scale. The
cell is then automatically lowered 50 that the light beam 'scans' the
the sampling zone. The chart recording is analysed and the optical
material. This method has the advantage of analysing all the powder
. - - - . ----:--7---;
j
i
---\.----
I
---;--
:
--,-~
i
i
.
:
•
-7 ~8 ,9 I-a \.
iI '"
.....
i : ""...c:
'"
....""
o
""
'"
(l
..,
'"
::: '<
.....
(l
....
'"
(')
:r
...'"
~
...0
,."
. , 3
,
!-~';"
i i '"
:r
o_____~·~~___~-~i.___~3~ ___.~~_~~~~~:6 0
The results from each of the scans are given, for all
these tables. These have been determined for each powder, before
The size distributions are summarised in Table 4.5 for the four
50% of the powders have been shown in each case since it is the fines
lost probably because many of them stick to large particles and hence
and mixtures before and after spraying have agreed with photographed
Microscal.Analysis
Key
100 0- Before
.
.....N
o - After
....
-0
U)
80
§
60
40
20
o
1 o 3 4 5 6
Particle Size (~m)
Figure 4.5. Size Distribution of Powder 2 Before and After Spraying
Microscal AnalYllis ..
Key
70 o - Before
o - After
QJ
N
·M 60
...
Cl)
QJ
."
:§ so
I>t
40
30
20
10
O~--------~----------r---------.----------r---------'---------.
o 2 3 40 so 60
Particle Size (~m)
Figure 4.6. Size Distribution of Powder 3 Before and After Spraying
Microscal Analysis
Key
o - Before
70 o - After
60
50
40
30
20
10
01----------r---------,----------r---------.---------~--------~
o o 20 30 40 50 60
Particle Size (~m)
Figure 4.7. Size Distribution of Powder 4 Before and After Spraying
Microscal Analysis
Key
80
o - Before
o - After
QJ
.....N
en
I< 60
QJ
"t:I
I'l
P
w
...
..c
.....
OJ)
40
~
QJ
.......:>
....'"
u
~ 20
O~--------r---------r--------'---------'---------'---------'
o 10 20 30 40 so 60
Particle Size (~m)
- 89 -
of size distribution shown in the last four figures. For each of four
observed that near the substrate small particles are present in the
powder layer.
etc. 6harge on the particles, the depth of the coating could also be
In the next two chapters the forces acting on the particles will
4. 4 Swinnary
coating. The results suggest that, for the powder used in the experiments
coating. Plate 4.14 shows how the powder coating can level out.
Although this effect has been observed for powders with a wide
open nature although comparisons of packings have not been made with
TRAJECTORY EQUATIONS
5.1 Introduction
5.8 Summary
- 91 -
5.1 Introduction
found that there was a size segregation effect taking place. Large
that these effects were possibly due to the balance of forces (electro-
Although trends and effects have been observed for this wide
substrate the flight of the particles from the gun to the substrate
equations.
sprayed.
time analogy to the real system must be kept where possible in order
a particle in flight.
Figure 5.1. It can be seen that the forces acting on the particle
are:-
Figure 5.1. Forces Acting on a Particle in Flight
Field
Force
I Drag Force
, .- , , .-
,
",.
/
" \ " \ / \ , " Earthed
-
I I \
I Ef); I .$ : I $;",.- I
$: Substrate
\
, \
I \ , ",.,/
~
I
,.. -
",., I
\
\. '
I
...,...~-
,
"- '"
Image Layer
'-- I
\
(f),'---
I
\
•
EfJ!, " ,
-- "
"- , _ /
,
\
I
\
EB,
\
, I
- 93 -
substrate)
These are all the forces that act on the particle and these must
the system.
(i) The spraying of particles is such that they fall onto the
could be gained.
simpler.
Inertial force = Drag force + Image force + Field force + Attractive + Repulsive·
of particle Force due force due
(zero in y) to images to packed
of packing charged
particles
particles are charged and the value of that charge. For the purpose
of this work only corona charging will be considered since this type
has been used in the experiments and is more common than tribocharging.
to various parameters:-
E = 3 x 10 6 m (p + 3.0/p/a) volts/m
Hence, the sharper the point of the electrode the less voltage is
and the earthed substrate. The particles are charged by the electrons
and negative ions in that region. There are two types of charging
mechanism that take place, field and diffusion charging, each being
Ions will tend to move along the electric field lines and hence
collide with particles in the air stream. The charges are maintained
on the surface by the image force of the induced dipoles within the
known as the saturation charge. The electric field lines are shown
in figures 5.2 and 5.3 and show how the field lines intersect the
---- --=::::-.---~---
Figure 5.2. Electric Field in the Vicinity of an Uncharged Particle
-------~---========
Figure 5.3. Electric Field in the Vicinity of a Charged Particle
- 96 -
and is described as
£
o
= permittivity of free space
Since the electric field in the vicinity of the particle (E) is zero
= l21Ta 2 £ E
o 0
=
12 [£!2 ]
by the expression
q (t) =
4£
o
where T = time constant described by T = p.b
1
-3 -4
The time constant is usually of the order of 10 or 10 second
velocity of the powder from the gun is approximately 2-5 m/sec and
the spray distance is normally about 20-30 cms. Hence the time of
flight is about 0.1 sec and thus there is ample time available to
and Physics, 1980). From the equation it can be seen that a large
the overall charge. Other physical variables though can effect the
charge on a particle.
the small changes in measured Q/M with particle size. The charging
voltage, gun to target distance and powder feed rate can all affect
feed rate can also have the same effect as the powder cloud can shield
Spray ChaFging
Powder feed Distance
rate 1 /min Voltage kV
cn
1.0 20 100
Powder Feed Rate
Spray
0.8 ·80
15
Charging
0.6 60 Voltage
10
0.4 40
5
0.2 2
o 0t-------~------~~-----.--------r-------,-------~
-.5 -1 -1.5 -2.5 -3
the gun and target it is necessary to consider the two main components:-
The effect of the space charge is to suppress the effect of the field
near the corona but enhance it near the substrate. The magnitude
with the origin at the electrode of the gun, as shown in Figure 5.5.
then all quantities will be symmetrical about the axis in the conical
given by
+
I av =
r ar
v is the voltage at r
and r is the radial distance from the electrode
ions that go to make up the space charge can be neglected since the
~-
z
L
r
Earthed
Target
R«L)
--
Integration gives
v =
greater than that due to space charge the system is considered to have
V - V
=
o P
Eo
b In (Llb)
Using WU Expression
2000
Spray distance = 0.2m
Applied voltage = -60 kV
Electrode radius = 0.005m
1600
1200
--...
>
El
...
."
....'"
'"
.~ ~800
......
(J
...'"
'"
400
O~--------~--------r-------~--------~---------r
0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16 0.2
Distance from gun (m)
- 100 -
->
V
reI I dp
Re =
p lJ
Newtons law:-
~D
=
seen that for Reynolds numbers of less than 1 the graph is a straight
24
C = Re
D
24 lIdp2 ~
= Re 4 2
p
For Reynolds numbers between 1 and 1000 the drag coefficient has been
et al., 1933).
= 24 (1 + 0.15 R 0.687)
Rep ep
log (C D/2)
C /2 = 0.221 ---
D
C /2 = 0.051 --
D
5
Rep 0.2 Rep = 500 Rep = 2 x 10
log Rep
- 101 -
These are the two areas of interest since it is likely that the
-
particles in flight in the EPC process will have Reynolds numbers in
=
dx
FDx 31TJldp (U: - dt)
and
= 31Tlldp (v - ~)
dt
The velocity components of the fluid (in this case air) will
equal to zero. Therefore the air velocity component did not change
with position, and in effect the air flowed straight through the
expec~ed in r€ality.
been used. It is assumed that, after the jet of air has left the
gun, at some point between the gun and substrate the air flows
The air is then perpendicular to a flat plate and the flow is modelled
- 102.-
later.
circle becomes a straight line and the flow is no: longer uniform
2 2
... + a
W = l.Z2 = i (z2 - ;....) (flow past a circle)
iZ2 z2
Z
w = - [z Z - azr
Zz
also
zz = [zz + : : ] z
therefore wz + zz = 4aZ
Yz
Y
Z2-plane
4a
Overall, w =
Then
,
The final rotation back to the horizontal gives (z" = it)
w = 1z;.2 + 12
w = ~ + iljJ
with ti = dljJ v =
-dljJ
dy dx
= d$ d~
with u y: = dy
dx
Since Z = x + iy
dw =
dw
di dx
dw a ($ + iljJ) ~ + ialjJ
and so
dz
=
ax
=
ax ax
= u - iv
= u - i~~"
dW.' =
Uz
d"z
(z2 + 12)!
- 104 -
subs ti tuting z = x + iy
dw U(x + iy)
dz =
«x+iy)2+ l2)!
dw ( .)( i9)!
dz = U x + 1.:/: Re
«x2_y2+l2)2 + 4x2y2)!
and 9 = tan
-1
[ x 2 -2:/:x
+ 12 - yJ
dw (x + iy)e i9 / 2
Hence
dz
= .;:rU
dw U
dz = ;:r (x + iy)(cos 9/2 + i sin 9/2)
hence dw U
dz = ;:r [x cos 9/2 - Y sin 9/2 + i ( x sin 9/2 + y cos 9/2) J
Since dw = u - iv
dz
are shown at different distances away from the plate in Figures 5.9
and 5.10. It can be seen that a distance of O.lm away from the plate
should be noted that this solution gives the air velocity as infinite
at the gun.
position of the particle in the field and the charge on the particle.
i.e.
-+
= qE
vo - Vp
Ex = r lrL(L/b)
cos e
in the.x direction.
x
Since cos e =
r
and r =
V
q • o
=
1n(L/b)
1.0
--
<Il
!! O.B
.......g
o
QJ
-a" 0.6
><
.....:
t;-
.... 0.4
o
o
.-<
~
...."
..: 0.2
o
o 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Distance from Plate-X (m)
Figure 5.10. Air Velocity Model of Flow Past a Flat Plate
0.5
a'"
~ 0.4
.....,"
0
......
A
QJ
0.3
Y 0.06
I><
..."
...t-
u
o.
....
0
y
~
...<... o.
considered here:-
(i) The image force of the oncoming particle which only has a
(ii) The repulsive forces due to the packed particles on the substrate
again induced.
gun to the substrate and y being the direction that the target lies
in. The origin of the two axes is the needle point of the electrode.
particles on the substrate, Pi' the images, Pj' and the image of the
F'=
Figure 5.11. Convention used for Calculation of Inter-particulate Forces
,-- ... ,
,. - ... ',
,
.... -I
'-
. .'
I
Ro. ,
, ,
I \
., ,-'I
Spray Gun
•
L
.. Substrate
- 107 -
F =
x
(S. Oglesby, 1978)
charge on all particles was the same. Therefore for the force due
=
4TTE: R ~
o oJ
particle is given by
= (no y component)
2
4TTE: o R0 k
Therefore =
Hence
r ~
=
-qoqi cos Si
F·~x =
41lE R •
o o~
(x. - x )
~ 0
x.~ - x 0
cos 8. = =
~ R.
o~
[ (x.
~
- x )
o
2+ (y. - y )
~ 0
2J !
Therefore
(x.~ - x o )
F·~x =
+ (Yi -
i
= E . 3/
1 + (y. - Y )2
~ 0
J 2
expression.
In the x direction
j
= E cos 8
1
which simplifies to
,
- 109 -
(x.-x )
= ~ J 0
1 (R .)3/2
OJ
the charged particle packing and the equations used have been
assuming a porosity of packing the charge per unit length and unit
of one particle diameter (in the 3rd dimension). The charge density
Drag Re < 1
Re > 1
where
FA =~-q q.
J
Attractive I xj-xo I FAy=i-qoqj .IYj-Yol
x 1 ..:£..:J..
411E
.
0 Roj 3/2 4111;
0 R 3/2
oj
Spray Gun
if
0
I
I
Xo
GT
I
0-
Yo
0
o!
I
I
0
I
I
t I Charged Layer
I
(
----- -------
• •
- 110 -
The force between two charged particles (of the same sign) is
FRx =
oncoming particle is the sum of the forces due to all points in the
i GT (x-x )
= f
-i GT-t
f [ z 0 J
3 2 dxdy
«x-x) + (y-y )Z) /
o 0
where GT is the distance between gun and target, and Qa 1S the charge
Putting
c
and substituting
x' = x - x0
y' = y - Yo
and xl = GT-t-x 0
X
z = GT-x0
YI = -(Hy 0 )
yz = i-y 0
. Y2 X2[
= - C f f x' 3/2]dx'dY '
Yl xl + y,2)
Hence
= -
-1
C f Y2 dy , [ ---;;---=--';;" 1 +
2 ,2 2
Yl (X
2 + Y )
= - C
which gives
(Y2 + !xi 2
+ Y2) (Yl + !x~ yi) ]
+
FRx = - Clog [
(Y2 + !x~+ 2
Y2) (Y l + !xi yi)
+
substituting back
= - C
If x o = GT - O.5t .. FRx =0
Similarly in the y direction
i GT
= f f
-i, GT-t
- 112 -
Thus
Y2 x2
FR
Y
= -C f f
Yl xl
[ (X ,2 +Yy'2)3/2
I ] dx'dy'
(xl+~~+xi) (x2+4i+x22)
FRy = -Clog [ ]
x2+~~+X~ (x l +.0i+ x l
2
FRy = 0.
that
= GT-xo
and = GT-xo +t
Also, for the image force the sign of the constant is reversed
hence C =
thickness, charge density and size. This can then replace the section
- 113 -
but even if the particles were sprayed in a thin plane the electro-
area.
are considered.
Although the forces due to drag and the electric field can be
5. 8 Summary.
COMPUTER SIMULATION
6.1 Introduction
6.6 Conclusions
6.7 Summary
- 115 -
6.1 Introduction
and efficiently.
,ways. Three such routines have been used, the final one being most
of varying size and location, were employed, all of them using the
Fortran language. The basis of the program was built around a set
components.
- 116 -
remains stationary.
its size).
(7) The particles do not lose any of their charge on contact with
the packing.
range of integration.
and therefore the NAG routine D02AJF was employed (NAGFLIB, 1976).
Although solutions were achieved with this routine, it was found that
the program became very time consuming (in terms of c.p.u. time) when
routine, D02QBF, was therefore used and it was found that this worked
- 117 -
1978).
z.1 ' =
where i = 1,2 . t- • • N
order variable-step Gear method. The stepsize and order are chosen
bound. The way in which the size of the error bound was chosen is
described later.
by the NAG routine after initial values for the variables have been
routines.
dZ dZx
l
dt = Z = f l {t,Zl,ZZ,Z3,Z4)
dt
dZ
Z dx
dt = dt = f l {t,Zl,ZZ,Z3,Z4)
dZ
3
dt
= .izZ = f l {t,Zl,ZZ,Z3,Z4)
dt
dZ
4
dt = ~
dt = f l {t,Zl,ZZ,Z3,Z4)
The routine chooses a step size which just keeps within the
error bound and then evaluates the derivatives in terms of T, Zl' ZZ'
1978; G. Hall et aI, 1976; A.C. Hindmarsh, 1974; C.W. Gear, 1971).
describe the current status of the routine. This includes the type
landed.
efficiently.
Apart from the NAG routine (which is called from the Library)
is not in itself too large, but when this procedure is carried out
and arrays and avoidance of repeated operations are just some of the
considerations.
For the next fifty particles the c.p.u. time was nearly four times
as long and since this was nearing the available computer users time.
program file was created and used to run programs on the CDC 7600 at
the Manchester computer centre. This very large main frame machine
The latest version of the NAG routine, D02QBF, was written into
MAIN subroutine
!
Dimension Variables
!
Input Data
1
Call plotter, draw axes and label
!
Set Constants
!
Print initial data
1
Set flags for NAG routine
!
Call NAG routine~________________,
, . - - - - -..., DI)I2QBF
by OEC) also enabled the use of the BENSON electrostatic plotter which
reduced plotting time to one quarter and gave 'on the spot' print-
powder layer the distance between the centres of particles are compared
to the addition of the two radii. This is carried out after each
the results be checked but invisible errors (i.e. typing and input
signs etc. such that the trends observed agree to an extent with those
expected.
- 122 -
The input of data comes from a data file unique to each run
positions are read in via this file. This command file also controls
output and assigns the name of the data.file for the plotter.
The plotter file is opened and data is sent for the drawing
for the calculation of start position and particle size (if not
obtained.
The NAG controls are set such that initiallY the integration
direction is reached.
accordingly.
to the main subroutine from NAG. If the particle has not reached
stop .is carried out. This means that with an IFAIL > 0 on exit from
the NAG routine the program prints the control variables which gives
valuable' information for the assessment of the cause' _of :the 'error.
For each trajectory approximately 250 integration steps are used and
carried out for each comparison with a 100 particle packing. Therefore
9
for 350 particles at least 10 operations are performed in this
Check
!
time of integration and y position ______________-,
J
Print trajectory or forces
!
Compare particle position with that
of uppermost particle if out of
r-________~Compare
l
position with other stationary
bounds
1 if collision
record as old position..J
No l
plot trajectory
J
calculate position
by interpolation
~
recall NAG routine
calculate position
on substrate
~l
interpolate other variables
~
plot final position and finish trajectory
l
check to see if last particle is highest
~
Print position and if hit, particle number
!
RESTART LOOP _ -_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _...J
Figure 6.3. Simplified Flow Chart of FUNCTION Subroutine
1
Calculate x and yair velocities
using model
!
Calculate Particle Reynolds number
!
Calculate x and y components of drag force
!
Calculate image force
1
Calculate x and y components of field force
1
...---Calculate distance between oncoming and stationary
particle and its image
1
Calculate angles between image and particle
if
1st
particle
next
particle
1
Calculate attractive and repulsive forces
t,_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
!
Sum with those already calculated
~
1
__________________~Develop 4 differential equations
l
Return to NAG routine
,
- 124 -
to single variables since they are used many times and this reduces
calculated using the flow model and the calculation of forces f').1To'(Ys.
In x direction
mass of particle = d 2x
dt 2
In y direction
particle = .62
dt
into the FUNCTION subroutine for the particle summation loop. The
in several ways.
If Rep < 1 then Stokes Law applies but if it, is greater than 1
particle is less than 0.3, but it does depend on the size of the
approaches the plate the Reyno1ds number is often less than 0.001.
24
= appears reasonable.
Re
when the velocities of the particle are set. Therefore the relative
Law wi 11 app 1y •
Table 6.1. Reyno1ds Numbers of Particles During Flight Without
Applied Field
Particle Re t Re. t
p p Re t
Velocity m/s p
*where 8 landed
o
where all 10 landed
- 126 -
Due to the very complex nature of the air flow exit the
the last chapter formulae were developed for representing the air
the trajectories start mid-way between gun and target. The initial
gas velocity, as used in the flow model, in the x direction and zero
in which only the drag and inertia forces on the particles were
considered. A run using varying sized particles then showed how the
M dV
rel
dt
= -3~~d V
p reI
(assuming Stokes' Law applies)
- 127 -
Integration gives
= e
-tiT
M
where T =
31TlIdp
t = Tln2.
seven of these times (i.e. 0.2 msecs). The distance travelled in this
the distance taken for the particle to settle to within 1% of the air
velocity was between 200um and 2900um (16um diam). The times taken
were between 0.4 msecs and 3.5 msecs. The results are shown in
Table 6.2.
velocity and size of particles as can be seen from the table. Since
TOL = 10- 7
largest integration step possible which just keeps the estimated errors
required. Although this means faster computation the results may not
represent the true system. In severe cases the particles can 'jump'
program is also reliant on the fact that the step size is small
effects of changing tolerance error were observed. For each run the
start conditions remained the same but the final positions were
tolerance error.
.-.-
Key
3000
+- Particle No 2 (6.7)lm)
Particle No 3 (5.4)lm)
Particle No 7 (10.4)lm)
0- Particle No 8 (16.l)lm)
0 0- Particle No 10 (5.8)lm)
2500
2000
e
~
'"
.....,"0
.... 1500
"0
,..'"
1000
500
-"'-- -.--~.. ----.----.;----.
o
.~
-1 -2
". i-.-. . . .
-3
---0
O+-~~~--~----~---.----'-----r----r----'
o -4 -5 -6 -7 -8
0 8===g---g---g
Log (Tol)
lO
Figure 6.5. Calculated Y Position vs. Tolerance Bound
-r - Particle Number 2
11 - Particle Number 3
3000 4t-- Particle Number 7
Cl - Particle Number 8
C> - Particle Number 10
2500
Il--·~ 11----11----11----11----11
2000
6
•
~
"-
1500
...."0
...."" 4t
'"0
"",..
0---'<-
+
500
4t _ _ 4t - - 4 t - - - 4 t - - 4 t - - - . •
O;----,-----~----~---~----r_---~----~--~
o -1 -3 -5 -6 -8
Log (Tol)
lO
Figure 6.6. Calculated Y Position vs. Tolerance Bound
Key
600
;- - Particle Number 2
11 - Particle Number 3
e - :-Particle Number 7
Cl - Particle Number 8
e> - Particle Number 10
500
400 ----------._------.-----.
=
~
~
""
300
......."0
....
'"
0
e
0-
><
2000 e>............
O-----e>--e>--e>--O--e>
+----
1000 -+--+--~--+--+--+
0---\1 - - - 0 0 - - - - - 0 - - 0 0 C c
--e--e e • • e
0-r-----,------r-----~----~----~----~r_----~----~
-3 -4 -5 -6 -7
Log (Tol)
lO
Figure 6.7. Comparison of Particle Trajectories tor Differenc
Tolerance Bounds (U = 5 m/s)
" "
,
'.
Tolerance
Bound = 0.01
Tolerance
Bound = 1 x-lO- 8
- 129 -
packing).
air transport velocity caused large changes in the area covered. This
The widths of the spray close to the substrate were therefore measured
caused the particles not to follow the streamlines and hence in this
The start lengths were rescaled so that the width of spray was
widths, shown in Table 6.4, were therefore used to obtain equal areas
(i) be repelled a long distance away from the spray zone or (ii) reach
very long flight times (in excess of 0.5 s). Since in both these
Table 6.3. Effect of Air Velocity on Splaying of Particles of
Different Sizes Starting at Identical Positions
Velocity
Start length t , llm
m/s
Particle Dist.
10 17.5 25 50
Size, llm
* approximated values
- 130 -
0.009m from the area of interest the integration is stopped and the
case (ii) once the particle has been in flight for longer than 0.45s
computer time.
with each particle trajectory also being plotted. The forces acting
on a particle at any stage in its flight can be known from the print-
However, the plots for all runs, if not given in the main text, can
be found in Appendix E.
- 131 -
acting on the particles. The scale of the inset is exactly the same
particles do not reach the substrate but follow the air streamlines
the substrate.
With Field
Without Field
-
Figure 6.9. Tra'ectories of Particles With and Without Electrostatic Forces - Particle diameter ~ 25~m.
Uniform Velocity - 5 m s
--.,--
~~ -"~
...
er pockjno
: . 11
M."!1I"d'!mi~'\"""
With Field
Without Field
-
Figure 6.10. Trajectories of Particles With and Without Electrostatic Forces - Particle diameter = 50~m.
Uniform Velocity = 5 m/s
With Field
Without Field
Figure 6.11. Tra'ectories of Particles With and Without Electrostatic Forces - Particle diameter = 50~m.
Uniform Velocity = 1 m .s
ing :
With Field
Without Field
Figure 6.12. Trajectories of Particles With and Without Electrostatic Forces - Particle diameter>= 50~m.
Uniform Velocity = 3 m/s
With Field
-.."
Without Field
Trajectories of Particles With and Without Electrostatic Forces - Particle diameter SOllm,
Figure 6.13.
Uniform Velocity - 7 m/s
i
With Field
I
~.l:
n Without Field
I
I
Figure 6,14. Tra'ectories of Particles With and Without Electrostatic Forces l - Particle diameter = 50jJm,
Uniform Velocity = 10 m s
With Field
I Without Field
- I
- 132 -
very thin.
(lOllm, l7\im, 2S11m and SOllm diameters) and five uniform air velocities
since this relates more to the real system (M.L. Ang, 1981). However
commercial powder 90% by number of the particles are less than l711m
100
80
QJ
....
N
""
QJ
."
C
:=> 60
IN!
"
QJ
~z 40
20
04-~~,,~--,,-----r-----r-----T-----T~---'------r-----r-----'
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Particle Diameter (~m)
- 133 -
larger particles.
(iv) Dendrite type formations are formed which for large particles
the packings appear more open and this phenomena agrees with
microscopic observations.
in spray coatings.
Figure 6.16. Tra'ectories of Particles of a Monosized Powder - Particle diameter =
Start Width - 0.00017 m.
10~m, Uniform Velocit = 5 mLs,
Figure 6.17. Tra'ectories of Particles of a Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = l7~m. Uniform Velocit
Start Width = 0.00027 m
Figure 6.18. Trajectories of Particles of a Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = 25~m, Uniform Velocity =5 m!s,
Start Width - 0.00038 m
•
- - - - - - ----_.
Figure 6.19. Trajectories of Particles of a Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = 50\Jm, Uniform Velocity = 5 m/s,
Start Width - 0.00094 m
- 134 -
force or forces. Tables 6.S to 6.10 show the results of this analysis
for particle sizes of 10um, 2Sum and SOum using a uniform air
of each packing whilst the other three tables consider the 200th
particle. The figures in these tables were obtained from the force
for the three different sizes the following effects are observed:-
(i) For small particles the drag and field forces during the initial
opposite in direction).
(ii) Since only a few particles have already landed, the image force
is the largest force just before the particle lands. For larger
(iii) For large particles the drag term is dominant but the field
Particle Air
Velocities· Velocities
Xt Y Time in UI' VI' U V
air air Re
(m) (IIm) flight (m7s) (m7s) p
(m/s) (m/s)
(secs)
0.100 - - - - - - -
0.110 -5.2E-10 1.8E-13 4.9E-10 -1. 9E-13 3.1E-18 -2.5E-20 -4.8E-24
0.150 -3.8E-10 1. 4E-13 3.6E-10 -1. 7E-13 9.7E-18 -1. 4E-19 -1. 5E-22
Particle Air
Velocities ., Velocities
Xt Y Time in UP. VP. U v. ,Re
air a~r p
(m) (jJm) Flight (m7s) (m7s)
(m/s) (m/s)
(secs)
0.100 - - - - - - -
0.110 -6.lE-9 -1.9E-13 3.lE-9 -1.lE-12 1. 2E-16 -2.4E-18 -1.lE-21
0.199 -1. 8E-9 7.3E-13 1.7E-9 -1.8E-12 8.9E-13 -1.lE-12 -1. 7E-13
Particle Air
Velocities Velocities
Xt Y Time in Up Vp U V . Re
(m/s) air an p
(m) (Ilm) Flight (m?s)
(m/s) (m/s)
(secs)
0.100 - - - - - - -
0.110 -2.2E-B -3.9E-12 1. 2E-B -4.5E-12 1. 9E-15 -1.4E-16 -1. 5E-19
0.150 -1. 7E-B -2.4E-13 9.lE-9 -2. BE-12 6.2E-15 -B.SE-16 -1. SE-IS
0.190 -1. 2E-S -1. 3E-13 7.2E-9 -2.6E-12 1. 3E-13 -7.7E-14 -9.4E-16
(iv) In the y direction, the forces are generally much smaller than
(v) In general it is observed that the field and drag forces do not
magnitude between the start point (O.lm from substrate) and the
substrate.
(vi) The particle Reynolds number (Rep) for 10~m particles is less
made:-
forces near the substrate. The repulsive forces are 2-4 times
larger than the drag or field forces. The drag and field
Particle Air
Velocities Velocities
X t Y Time in Up Vp U V . Re
air ur p
(m) (Ilm) Flight (m/s) (m/s)
(m/s) (m/s)
(secs)
0.100 30 - 5.0 - - - -
0.110 33 0.004 2.37 0.00 2.06 0.0 0.17
0.100 - - - - - - -
0.110 -S.2E-I0 -1. 4E-13 4.9E-1O 1. 4E-13 3.1E-18 -9.6E-1O -6.7E-22
0.150 -3.8E-1O -1.1E-13 3.6E-1O 1.3E-13 9.7E-18 -5.4E-18 -3.4E-21
Particle Air
Velocities Velocities
X t Y Time in Up Vp Uair V. Rep
(m) (Ilm) Flight (m/s) (m/s) ur
(m/s) (m/s)
(secs)
0.100 - - - - - - -
0.110 -6.1E-9 3.3E-13 3.1E-9 2.0E-12 1. 2E-16 -2.4E-16 -5.6E-20
Particle Air
Velocities Velocities
X t Y Time in Up Vp Uair V Re p
(m) (Ilm) Flight (m/s) (m/ s) air
(secs) (m/s) (m/s)
the flight showing that the particle has very high inertia.
200th particle, due to the charged layer that has been built.
to 6.13.
Initially the field force is larger than the drag force and
drag force is always greater than the field force (in the x
direction) •
Table 6.11. Forces Acting on a 50~m Particle in Flight
Particle Air
Veloci ties Velocities
X t Y Time in Up Vp U V . . ·Re
(m/s) air al.r p
(m) (llm) Flight (m/s) (m/s) (m/s)
(secs)
0.100 - - - - - - -
0.110 -1.0E-8 6.0E-12 1.2E-8 -1.lE-lO 2.0E-15 -4.7E-17 -1.2E-18
Particle Air
Velocities Velocities
X t Y Time in Up V U V. Re
p air aH p
(m) ( m) Flight (m/s) (m/s) (m/s) (m/s)
(secs)
0.100 - - - - - - -
0.110 -2.2E-S -9.1E-12 1.2E-S -1.1E-ll 1. 9E",ls -4.sE-17 -1.lE-19
0.150 -1. 7E-S -s.sE-13 9.1E-9 6.7E-12 6.2E-ls -2.7E-16 -1. 4E-lS
Particle Air
Velocities Velocities
X t Y Time in Up Vp U V. Re
air al.r p
(m) (~m) Flight (m/s) (m/ s) (m/s) (m/s)
(secs)
0.100 - - - - - - -
0.110 -4.5E-8 -2.5E-IO 1. 2E-8 -1.0E-ll 1. 9E-15 -4.8E-17 -1.1E-19
0.150 -4.0E-8 -1. 7E-1O 9.lE-9 -6.lE-12 5.9E-15 -2.6E-16 -1. lE-18
(ii) At 10 m/s uniform velocity the drag force is dominant for the
over 3 m/so
In Tables 6.5 and 6.8 it is shown how, close to the substrate, all
particles approach the packing at very low velocities (0.2 m/s) they
substrate.
Figures 6.20 to 6.22 show the final stages of the 200th 10~m
The trajectories are subject to 180 0 turns in the direction of travel and
vicinity to them.
350
Figure 6.21. Trajectory of Particle Number 200 Close to the Substrate
500
Figure 6.22. Trajectory of Particle Number 200 Close to the Substrate
(iii) Thicker packings are obtained when using higher uniform air
velocities.
seconds. The computer printout shows that for each case the x and y
velocities of the particle at ,these positions are zero and hence all
the forces are balanced. In Figure 6.20 (1 m/s) there are other
due to limitations of the program the particles are not moved once
200 would probably cause all of them to move to new positions, some
for areas of low population (less repulsive force) and then try to
land. In Figure 6.21 this was achieved but although the particle
turned back in Figure 6.22 particles 189 and 145 were on the substrate
larger extent than can larger ones. Although in the property testing
possible, for poorer flowing powders, that small particles are needed
start width was constant (Figures El7 to E36). In these plots the
particle size and air velocity affect this. The very small areas of
coverage of sOum particles enhance the dendrite effect and show how
collapse.
plots are shown in Figures 6.23 to 6.27 for five different operating
velocities.
Figure 6.23'. Trajectories of Particles of a Size Distributed Powder - Uniform Velocity = 1 m/s,
Start Width - 0.00031 m ..
Figure 6.24. Trajectories of Particles of a Size Distributed Powder - Uniform Velocity ~ 3 m/s,
Start Width - 0.00020 m
Figure 6.25. Trajectories of Particles of a Size Distributed Powder - Uniform Velocity =5 m/s,
Start Width - 0.00013 m
Figure 6.26. Trajectories of Particles of a Size Distributed Powder - Uniform Velocity =7 mLs,
Start Width - 0.00010
Figure 6.27. Trajectories of Particles of a Size Distributed Powder - Uniform Velocity = 10 mls,
Start Width = 0.00010
- 140 -
uniform velocity.
small particles are repelled away from it. The tall dendrite
packing that is usually produced, they show that small particles will
completely covered and layers are built the fine particles will not
be able to land and so will be over sprayed. From these results and
amount of fines can be coated onto a substrate over and above a given
particles are wasted once the first few layers have been completed.
equations, have been carried out for three particle sizes, three
are shown in Figures 6.28 to 6.33 and the remaining plots to complete
(ii) 25Jlm particles landed on 50Jlm and 100Jlm thick layers at any
(iv) For conditions in which the particles did not land an equilibrium
distance from the charged layer was reached and the particles
travelled away from the centre of the plate. All particles had
distance.
distance increased.
Figure 6.28. Trajectories of Particles Approaching a Charged Layer 250llm thick - Particle diameter = 101lm,
Uniform Velocity - 5 m/s
Figure 6.29. = 2Sj.1m,
Uniform Velocity
Figure 6.30. Trajectories of Particles Approaching a Charged Layer 250pm thick - Particle diameter = 25pm,
Uniform Velocity - 1 m/s
" I
Figure 6.32. Trajectories of Particles Approaching a Charged Layer 250~m thick - Particle diameter = 25~m,
Uniform Velocity - 10 m/s
I~
~ 'X..\ v
CH
-1
Figure 6.33. Trajectories of Particles Approaching a Charged Layer 250~m thick - Particle diameter = 50~m,
Uniform Velocity = 5 m/s
•
- 142 -
(vi) Uniform air velocity was found to have little effect on the
the charge layer for each of the conditions considered and shows the
(1 and 5 m/s) but not at 10 m/s, the forces acting on a 25~m particle
have been recorded in Tables 6.15 and 6.16 for various positions
Table 6.15 shows the forces from the start point until the
turn around and at this point the repulsive forces are greater than
the addition of the drag and field forces. Table 6.16 shows results
As the particle turns and heads back towards the gun (Point A)
negligibly over this distance and so then becomes the dominant force.
The relative velocity of the particle slowly approaches zero and then
Table 6.14. Variation of Distance of Equilibrium Trajectories from
Charge Layer with Velocity and Thickness of Layer
50 100 250
Particle Air
Velocities Velocities
X t Y Time in Up Vp U V Re
air air P
(m) (Ilm) Flight (m/s) (m/s) (m/s) (m/s)
(secs)
0.100 -95 0.000 5.00 0.00 - - -
0.110 -98 0.003 3.45 0.00 Z.04 0.00 1.98
0: 150 -143 0.018 1.88 0.00 l.Z3 0.00 0.91
0.100 - - - - - - -
0.110 -5.8E-9 -Z.OE-13 3.1E-9 -Z.7E-1Z 1. ZE-16 -5.ZE-14 -Z.4E-17
Particle Air
Velocities Velocities
Xt Y Time in Up Vp U . V . Re
a1r a1r p
(llm) (llm) Flight (m/s) (m/ s) (m/s) (m/s)
(secs)
X t L(FR,.:+FRy) L(FRy+FAy)
FDx FDy FEx FEy FI
(llm) (N) (N) (N) (N) (N) (N) (N)
509 (D) 5.2E-ll 2.6E-12 1. 7E-9 -7.0E-12 3.SE-12 -1. 7E-9 -4.9E-1S
t approX1mate
. "
x pos1t10n f rom su b strate
650
B
550
D
C
450
350
250
I
-800
I
-700
I
-600
i
-500
- 143 -
the field pushes it back towards the substrate (Point B). Whilst
slowly push the particle in the y direction (in this case negatively)
away in the y direction the field (x) will decrease slightly, compared
slowly increases away· from the substrate. Since all particles, for
a given set of conditions, are the same size they follow the same
at much lower velocities and their stopping distances are much shorter.
have shown that, for identical coating thicknesses and air velocities,
mass.
approximately equal to the drag and field forces acting on the particle
obtained here. Again its effects close to the substrate are reduced
to the gun, gravity would give the particles more inertia towards the
6.6 Conclusions
manner.
The method and working of the computer program has been described
together with the necessary tests that are required to ensure correct
and
trajectory.
range will tend to have a maximum thickness that can be coated onto
static forces close to the substrate and due to their mobility are
dominated by their own inertia and in general the forces due to the
equilibrium position where the resultant of all forces acting on· the
particles. have shown how this can occur and also how particles follow
that both particle size and air velocity affect the splaying of
shadowing effect in that small particles are deflected far away from
them and hence parts of the substrate are left less populated close
25~m particles were repelled from a 25~m thick layer but 50~m
6:7 Summary
7.3.1 Experimental
7.3.2 Theoretical
the influence of such parameters) has not been considered and it has
process.
can affect the final film produced i.e. extent of orange peel.
Similarly, although the fusing and flowing of the powder layer and
tested and collated with thickness, powder type and physical property
The results from these tests were indicative of the fact that
theoretically.
qualitative, the aim was to gain an overall insight into the forces
come close to the substrate. It was then the intention to try and
system.
a commercial powder.
test procedure ..
particles.
did show more marked trends for roughness and gloss with changes in
thickness. When comparing the spread of results from these tests with
low and high quality finishes it could be concluded that the variations
is an important conclusion.
observations that this was primarily from the upper layers of the
coatings.
problems.
- 153 -
was shown that deposition would not occur in the majority of cases.
effect and also the change in the balance between aerodynamic and
electrostatic forces.
regions of the coating. Both these effects show good agreement with
experimental findings.
not occur for small particles. These large particle tree formations
Results indicated that particle size was more important than air·velocity in
thick coatings and in such cases the balance of forces close to the
will cause less size segregation and hence produce more uniform
films .
7.3.1 Experimental
were chosen for tests on film properties with the intended exclusion
7.3.2 Theoretical
solution to be followed.
However, the aim has been to gain an insight into the important
parameters that effect the process and this has been achieved to a
considerable extent.
experimentally.
employed.
It has been shown that for the commercial type powder little
been described and this itself has proved very valuable for under-
more closely:-
- 158 -
(i) Air flow. The model for air flow is currently based on flow
describe the air flow from the gun (including taking into
considerable thought.
(iii) During computer experiments it was found that for large numbers
substantially.
(vii) The problems due to splaying were very marked due to the program
splaying.
from the testing of several hundred sample plates was that particle
coatings for the epoxy powder employed: This suggests that any change
coating.
1.0. Ai tken , 1968, Proc. lnt. Sym. Powder Coatings, Paper No V/18,
13-15 Feb.
J.O. Bassett, R.P. Corbett, J. Cross, 1975, Inst. Phys. Conf. Ser.,
No 27.
24 (288), 4-7.
26-29.
Part E7.
Part E6.
Part 02.
w. Brushwe11, 1973, Ind. Fin. Surface Coating, 25 (297), 24-30.
A.E. C1axton, 1975, Preprints Oil & Colour Chemists Assoc. Biennial
514-546.
No 27, 202-213.
Canada.
Cambridge.
(621), 42-54.
Press.
M.B. Kilcullin, 1975, Preprints Oil Col. Chem. Assoc. Biennal Conf.,
Scarborough, 50-61.
Scarborough, 105-119.
Interscience.
of equations 1387/0 : Mk 5.
Mk 6.
NAGFLIB, 1977b, NAG library routine G05CBF, Setting the state of the
Ser" No 27.
590-615.
P.S. Quinney, N.J. Tighe, 1971, Br. Po1ym. J., l(10), 274-278.
Jan.
March.
G.T. Spitz, 1973, ACS Div. Org. Coatings Plastics Chem. Papers, 33(2)
502-507.
95-101.
W.G. Willows, 1968, Powder Coatings Int. Symp., 13-15 Feb, London.
S.M. Wo1pert, 1973, ACS Div. Org. Coatings, P1ast. Chem. Papers,
33 (2), 485-492.
of plate
CD drag coefficient
d diameter
dp diameter of particle
Eo Uniform field
F Force
m roughness factor
q charge on particle
qs saturation charge
two particles
V voltage potential
x displacement in X-direction
y displacement in Y-direction
z displacement in Z-direction
~ viscosity of fluid
P density of fluid
Pf density of fluid
p.
~
ionic charge density
T time constant
q, potentfal function
.p steam function
Subscripts for use with x, y, q, d and R
22 27 33 37 42 47 52 56 62 67 74 85 100
Average 20.68 22.04 26.30 27.19 26.43 28.07 28.04 29.95 27.49 30.45 29.34 30.91 30.99
Gloss
Factor Standard Deviation 1. 36 0.92 1. 79 1.11 4.44 0.80 1.60 1.84 1.64 1.25 1.71 2.23 1. 26
Probable Error 0.60E 0.411 0.80' 0.496 1.986 0.35E 0.7It 0.823 0.73" 0.559 0.76' 0.997 0.563
Average 99.4 01.2 102.6 ,03.8 ~02.8 05.6 104.6 106.0 ,05.2 108.8 1,03.2 08.2 ,05.8
Peak
Height Standard Deviation 2.94 2.14 1.96 1.72 6.55 2.42 3.14 3.16 3.25 3.66 2.79 3.92 3.31
(mV)
Probable Error 1. 31' 0.957 0.87 ' 0.769 2.929 1.082 1.40l 1.413 1.45 1.637 1.248 1. 753 1.480
Width at Average 4.82 4.60 3.9.2 3.82 3.89 3.76 3.74 3.55 3.83 3.57 3.53 3.51 3.42
Half Peak
Height Standard Deviation 0.24 0.14 0.21 0.10 0.32 0.06 0.13 0.16 0.14 0.09 0.24 0.17 0.07
(DEG)
Probable Error 0.107 0.063 0.094 0.045 0.143 0.027 0.05E 0.072 0.06" 0.040 0.107 0.076 0.031
Table A2. Gloss Test Results at Various Film Thicknesses for <10~m Size Range Powder
16 22 28 32 37 44 56 62 67 74 84 95
Average 21.48 17.36 8.25 17.71 22.35 18.56 25.31 18.38 25.28 22.91 25.10 24.46
Gloss
Standard Deviation 3.24 0.46 3.20 3.30 1. 93 2.68 4.49 2.71 3.36 2.23 2.54 2.82
Factor
Probable Error 1.449 0.206 1.431 1.476 0.863 1.199 2.008 1.212 1.503 0.997 1.136 1. 261
Average 99.8 90.2 92.8 90.8 94.4 90.8 97.2 88.0 97.2 96.2 95.2 96.4
Peak
Height Standard Deviation 5.78 2.32 4.78 4.12 3.14 2.93 5.19 3.52 5.74 3.71 3.54 4.03
(mV)
Probable Error 2.584 1.038 2.138 1. 843 1.404 1.310 2.321 1.574 2.567 1.659 1.583 1.802
Average 4.73 5.20 5.20 5.29 4.25 4.96 3.94 4.86 3.89 4.23 3.82 3.98
Width at
Half Peak
Standard Deviation 0.56 0.12 0.64 0.86 0.29 0.51 0.58 0.47 0.34 0.32 0.24 0.33
Height
(DEG)
Probable Error 0.250 0.053 0.286 0.385 0.130 0.228 0.259 0.210 0.152 0.143 0.107 0.148
Table A3. Gloss Test Results at Various Film Thicknesses for 10-20~m Size Range Powder
18 22 27 32 37 42 46 56 62
Average 29.88 28.57 29.75 31.59 31.21 32.24 29.25 30.55 31.99
Gloss 1. 96 2.43
Standard Deviation 2.92 0.87 1.53 0.79 1.04 1.71 0.73
Factor
Probable Error 1.306 0.389 0.684 0.877 0.353 0.465 1.087 0.765 0.326
Average 110.4 105.4 108.6 111.2 109.0 110.0 106.8 107.2 108.6
Peak
Height Standard Deviation 2.42 2.33 2.58 2.04 1. 79 2.76 2.14 4.79 1.85
(mV)
Probable Error 1.082 1.042 1.154 0.912 0.801 1.234 0.957 2.142 0.827
Width at Average 3.73 3.69 3.66 3.53 3.49 3.41 3.67 3.51 3.40
Half Peak
Standard Deviation 0.34 0.09 0.12 0.17 0.07 0.08 0.27 0.09 0.09
Height
(DEG)
Probable Error 0.152 0.040 0.055 0.076 0.031 0.036 0.121 0.040 0.040
Table A4. Gloss Test Results at Various Film Thicknesses for 20-30~m Size Range Powder
Average 28.83 29.59 30.18 30.42 31.08 30.35 31.02 29.64 29.24 31.43 31.30 29.34 29.37
Gloss Standard
1.60 0.74 0.91 1. 70 1.58 1.34 1.65 0.86 1.86 1.87 3.29 4.22 4.75
Factor Deviation
Probable
0.716 0.331 0.407 0.760 0.707 0.599 0.738 0.385 0.832 0.836 1.471 1.887 2.124
Error
Average 104.2 106.8 107.0 107.2 107.8 107.8 106.0 ~03.0 104.8 107.6 105.0 103.8 103.6
Peak
Standard 2.93
Height 0.98 1.10 3.66 1.17 1.83 2.19 3.74 2.79 3.44 4.52 5.31 3.50
Deviation
(mV)
Probable
1.310 0.438 0.492 1.637 0.523 0.818 0.979 1.673 1.248 1.538 2.021 2.375 1.565
Error
Width at Average 3.62 3.61 3.55 3.53 3.48 3.56 3.42 3.48 3.59 3.43 3.38 3.75 3.59
Half
Standard
Peak 0.11 0.08 0.09 0.13 0.16 0.13 0.12 0.14 0.15 0.16 0.23 0.48 0.42
Deviation
Height
Probable
(DEG) 0.049 0.036 0.040 0.058 0.072 0.058 0.053 0.062 0.067 0.072 0.103 0.215 0.189
Error
Table AS. Gloss Test Results at Various Film Thicknesses for 30-40~m Size Range Powder
29 33 37 42 48 52 57 62 67 72 " 77 82 87 93 104
Average 27.09 28.23 27.38 29.63 28.51 28.25 30.59 28.58 28.00 26.73 26.91 26.21 27.30 27.06 28.60
"Gloss Standard
1.32 1.49 0.99 2.29 1.98 2.30 1.36 0.87 1.37 0.69 1.55 1.48 1.01 2.49 2.18
Factor Deviation
Probable 0.93
0.59 0.67 0.44 1.02 0.89 1.03 0.61 0.39 0.61 0.31 0.69 0.66 0.45 1.11
Error
Average 106.4 107.8 106.4 107.6 105.4 105.2 110.25 106.2 106.6 105.8 104.6 102.4 104.8 104.8 108.0
Peak
Standard
Height 2.33 2.48 3.56 2.06 2.15 4.79 3.34 1.94 1. 36 0.98 1.62 2.87 1.33 3.82 1.9
Deviation
(mV)
Probable 0.85
0.91 1.11 1.59 0.92 0.96 2.14 1.49 0.87 0.61 0.44 0.72 1. 28 0.60 1.71
Error
Width at Average 3.93 3.83 3.89 3.65 3.71 3.74 3.61 3.73 3.82 3.96 3.90 3.92 3.84 3.90 3.80
Half
Standard
Peak Deviation 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.21 0.20 0;16 0.07 0.12 0.20 0.10 0.18 0.16 0.15 0.30 0.31
Height
Probable
(DEG) 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.09 0.09 0.07 0.03 0.05 0.09 0.05 0.08 0.07 0.07 0.13 0.14
Error
Table A6. Gloss Test Results at Various Film Thicknesses for 4o-50~m Size Range Powder
33 37 42 47 52 57 63 75 84 92 97 106;, 135
Average 25.97 25.85 28.58 28.38 27.46 26.95 26.92 28.86 30.37 27.97 28.00 27.42 28.61
Gloss Standard
0.83 3.72 2.19 1. 58 0.97 1. 73 1.63 3.05 0.94 2.68 1.43 2.36 2.59
Factor Deviation
Probable
0.371 1.664 0.979 0.707 0.434 0.774 0.729 1.364 0.420 1.199 0.640 1.055 1.158
Error
Average 104.4 104.4 105.0 106.8 103.0 104.6 103.0 106.0 108.2 104.6 105.4 105.6 107.0
Peak
Standard
Height 1.96 2.28 2.10 2.79 1.10 4.36 2.37 4.15 1.60 3.72 1.96 3.01 2.76
(mV) Deviation
Probable 0.88 1.02 0.94 1.25 0.49 1.95 1.06 1.86 0.72 1.66 0.88 0.35 1. 23
Error
Width at Average 4.02 4.10 3.69 3.77 3.75 3.89 3.83 3.70 3.57 3.76 3oT] 3.87 3.76
Half
Peak Standard 0.10 0.17 .
Deviation 0.56 0.24 0.18 0.09 0.14 0.27 0.10 0.25 0.15 0.23 0.26
Height
Probable
(DEG) 0.05 0.25 0.11 0.08 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.12 0.05 0.12 0.07 0.10 0.12
Error
Table.A7. Gloss Test Results at Various Film Thicknesses for +50pm Size Range Powder
38 43 47 52 57 62 67 71 76 81 87 92 97 104 122
Average 27.10 28.15 28.71 30.99 28.92 29.32 30.00 30.89 29.72 29.09 28.99 29.37 29.00 29.59 30.70
Gloss
Factor Standard 2.46 2.33 0.83 1.22 1.37 1.46 3.01 2.27 3.26 1.22 1.16 1.59 2.04 1.91
1.10
Deviation
Probable 0.55 0.61 0.49 0.65 1.35 1.02 0.55 0.52 0.71 0.91 0.85
1.10 1.04 0.37 1.46
Error
Average 103.8 106.2 105.2 108.2 105.6 105.8 105.4 106.8 105.0 101.8 104.8 106.2 104.8 107.00 107.20
Peak
Standard 2.73
Height 3.19 2.04 2.48 2.04 3.71 1.02 1.94 2.45 8.35 1.72 2.14 3.19 2.68 1.47
Deviation
(mV)
Probable
1.43 0.91 1.11 0.91 1.22 1.66 0.46 0.87 1.10 3.73 0.77 0.96 1. 43 1.20 0.66
Error
Width at Average 3.85 3.80 3.66 3.49 3.66 3.61 3.52 3.49 3.55 3.51 3.62 3.62 3.62 3.63 3.50
Half
Standard
Peak 0.25 0.33 0.04 0.09 0.10 0.11 0.16 0.29 0.21 0.17 0.10 0.11 0.13 0.20 0 •. 18
Deviation
Height
Probable
(DEG) 0.11 0.15 0.02 0.04 0.05 0.05 0.07 0.13 0.09 0.08 0.05 0.05 0.06 0.09 0.08
Error
Table A8. Results of Linear Regression Fit to Experimental
Data from Gloss Test
38 - - - BEST fIT
36
n:= 34
Cl
t-
u 32
a:
lL
30
(f)
(f)
Cl 28
-1
t=I
26
24
22 m
m
20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
28
26
a:: 24
0
. t-
Ll 22
er:
LL
20
en
en 18
C)
-1
<.:J
16
14
12
10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
35 - - - _ BEST FIT
34
33
~ 32
Cl
t-
Ll 31
Cl:
tL. 30
(i) [!]
en 29
Cl [!]
---l
Cl
28
27
26
25
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
34 - BEST fIT
33
~ 32
Cl
t- ~
~
u 31 ~ m
Cl: m ~
LL !I!
30
en ~ ~
en 29 ~ ~
Cl ~
--I
t;J
28
27
26
25
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
FILM THICKNESS (fM. )
FIGURE AS GLOSS FACTOR VS. FILM THICKNESS
rOWOER SIIE RRNGE : 30-40fM.
~EY
34
3Z
Cl::: 31
Cl I!J
t-
l...) 30
I!J
a:
u.. Z9
(J') I!J I!l I!J
t!l [']
•
(J')
Cl
za I!l
...J I!l I!J
t.:J I!J
Z7 I!l
I!J
I!J
Z6
Z5
Z4
la zo 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
32.
a:: 3.1
0 I!l
~
u 3.D
Cl:
u.. 2.9 I!l
I!ll!l I!l
ch
en 2.8 I!JI!l
Cl
-....l I!J
l.:)
V I!J I!J
26
2S
24
0 20 40 60 ao 100 120 140 HiO 180 zoo
FILM THICKNESS
FIGURE A7 GLOSS FACTOR VS. FILM THICKNESS
rOWDER SIIE RRNGE : >50fM.
KEY
35 m- EXrEnl"EHTPL DPTP
34 - - - - BEST fIT
33
~ 32
0
t- I!I
LJ 31 I!I
m
cr·
lJ...
30 m
!!J m
(F) !!J m
(F)
I!l !!J !!J !!J
Cl
29 t!I
--1
t:J I!I
28
!!J
27
26
25
25 35 45 55 65 75 85 95 105 115 125
113 - B£ST r IT
1 11
>
2: 109 I!l
I!l
107
t- I!l
I!l
:r: 105
CJ
--.
Lu
:r: 103
~
IT
101
LU I!I
a... 99
97
95
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 ao 90 100
~
101
• I!I
>-
:::L 99
m m
97 m
I!I
t-
I:
t..:J 95 m
--.
lU 93 ID
I:
y;
a: 91
lU
G- 89
87
85
0 10 zo 30 40 50 60· 70 80 90 100
I!l
~
111
• I!l
> I!l
~ 109 I!l
I!l
107 I!l
t-
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c.::J 105
.....
LW 103
::c
I!l
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cc
LW
Il.. 99
97
95
0 10 ZO 30 40 50 SO 70 80 90 100
~
III
•
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~ 109
[!) [!)
[!)
I!I
107
m
t-
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t!J 105
...... I!I
I!l I!l
L&..I 103 I!l
::J:
:x:: 101
CC
L&..I
CL 99
97
95
0 10 ZO 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 lOO
FILM THICKNESS (~M.)
FIGURE AIZ FEAK HEIGHT VS. FILM THICKNESS
rcrwDER SIlE RRNGE : 30-40~M.
KE'l'
115 ID- EXrEnINENTAL DATA
113 - - - - BEST FH
III
109
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107 [!) [!) [!)
l!l
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105 [!) [!) [!)
103
:s::: 101
a:
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£L 99
97
95
10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110
~
111
•
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107 m
I!I
m
I- m
:c 105 m m
m ill I!I
Cl I!I
...... Iil
w I!I I!I
:c 103
~
a: 101
w
0... 99
97
95
0 ZO 40 60 80 100 1Z0 140 160 180 ZOO
113 - BEST rn
111
•
::t:
:::J 109
I!J
107 m m III
t- m m m
rn e
:::c
l:) 105
I!I I!I m I!I
...... I!I
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:::c 103 I!I
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w
0... 99
97
95
25 35 45 55 S5 75 85 95 105 115 125
5.5
t- --- - BEST r IT
I:
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t- 3.5
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2.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 so 70 80 90 100
KEY
6
t- - - - - 8EST rn
:c
t..:I
.-. 5.5
w m
:c
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3:
3
0 10 20 :SO 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
KEY
4.5
t- --- - BE5T r IT
:r: 4.3
t:J
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t- 2.9
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...... 2.7
~
2.5
0 la 20 30 40 50 so 70 80 90 100
t<EY
4.5
t- - - - - BEST r IT
:::c 4.3
c..::J
..... 4. 1
LW
:::c
:::.::: 3.9
a: m
LW 3.7
a... I!l I!l m
m
LL 3.5
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a:
:::c 3.3
t-
a: 3.1
:z: 2.9
t-
O
....,
~
2.7
2.5
0 10 20 30 40 50 so 70 80 90 100
f'(EI
5
I- --- - BEST rn
I 4.8
t::J
.....,
lI-J
4.5
I
~
4.4
a:
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a..
lL. 4 m
.....J I!I
m I!I m m
a: I!I
I!I
I 3.8 m m m
I- I!I
I!I
a: 3.5
I
l- 3.4
q
.....,
~
3.2
3
10 20 30 40 50 so 70 80 90 100 110
2.5
0 20 40 60 80 100 lZO 140 160 180 ZOO
2.5
25 35 45 55 65 75 95 105 115 125
22 27 33 37 42 47 52 56 62 67 74 85 100
Average 1.03 0.99 0.73 0.76 0.70 0.53 0.56 0.50 0.54 0.51· 0.40 0.42 0.45
Roughness
Standard 0.25 0.16 0.09 0.08 0.11 0.11 0.08 0.12
Average 0.21 0.29 0.22 0.21 0.14
Deviation
(\lm)
Probable 0.06 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03
0.05 0.06 0.05
Error
Average 0.56 0.53 0.46 0.50 0.15 0.34 0.37 0.36 0.38 0.33 0.36 0.35 0.28
Roughness
Standard
Wavelength 0.09 0.10 0.09 0.15 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.08 0.07 0.08 0.16 0.17 0.09
(nun)
Deviation
Probable 0.03
0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.05
Error
Table B2 .. Surface Roughness Results at Various Film Thicknesses for <10~m Size Range Powder
16 22 28 32 37 44 56 62 67 74 84 95
Average 0.86 1.09 1.33 1.29 1.21 1.44 1.01 1.34 1.00 1.12 0.97 0.78
Roughness
Standard
Average 0.20 0.29 0.35 0.39 0.39 0.28 0.42 0.27 0.36 0.40 0.33 0.23
Deviation
(~m)
Average 0.47 0.67 0.77 0.79 0.78 0.92 0.72 0.91 0.74 0.83 0.71 0.59
Roughness
Standard
Wavelength 0.07 0.15 0.16 0.19 0.19 0.16 0.25 0.16 0.22 0.27 0.17 0.14
. Deviation
(mm)
Probable
0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0,04 0.09 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.04 0.04
Error
Table B3. Surface Roughness Results at Various Film Thicknesses for 10-20~m Size Range Powder
18 22 27 32 37 42 46 56 62
Average 0.33 0.35 0.40 0.37 0.38 0.35 0.40 0.24 0.24
Roughness
Average Standard 0.42 0.11 0.12 0.06 0.09 0.10 0.21' 0.05 0.05
Deviation
(~m)
Probable
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.06 0.01 0.01
Error
Average 0.23 0.25 0.22 0.26 0.23 0.21 0.23 0.14 0.15
Roughness
Standard
Wavelength 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.14 0.05 0.06 0.09 0.05 0.05
Deviation
(mm)
Probable
0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.01 0.01
Error
Table B4. Surface Roughness Results at Various Film Thicknesses for 20-30~m Size Range Powder
,
Film Thickness (~m)
27 32 37 42 48 52 57 62 67 71 77 84 100
Average 0.45 0.44 0.39 0.41 0.38 0.37 0.31 0.35 0.38 0.38 0.40 0.45 0.53
Roughness
Standard 0.12
Average 0.11 0.11 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.09 0.13 0.12 0.10 0.17 0.29
Deviation
(~m)
Average 0.30 0.29 0.28 0.29 0.26 0.28 0.21 0.24 0.27 0.29 0.32 0.34 0.56
Roughness
Standard 0.14 . 0.12
Wavelength 0.05 0.08 0.07 0.08 0.04 0.08 0.04 0.06 0.09 0.08 0.42
(mm)
Deviation
Probable
0.01 0.12 0.12 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.12
Error
Table B5. Surface Roughness Results at Various Film Thicknesses for 30-40~m Size Range Powder
29 33 37 42 48 52 57 62 67 72 77 82 87 93 102
Average 0.46 0.54 0.56 0.50 0.43 0.43 0.37 0.46 0.39 0.33 0.38 0.37 0.40 0.33 0.31
Roughness
Standard
Average 0.62 0.16 0.09 0.13 0.10 0.12 0.11 0.08 0.10 0.09 0.08 0.09 0.11 0.09 0.06
Deviation
(~m)
Probable 0.02
0.03 0.04 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.02
Error
Average 0.25 0.31 0.32 0.32 0.26 0.26 0.27 0.29 0.24 0.22 0.23 0.22 0.25 0.28 0.22
Roughness
Standard
Wavelength 0.04 0.07 0.06 0.07 0.04 0.06 0.10 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.05 0.06 0.13 0.08
Deviation
(nun)
Probable
0.02 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.02 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.04 0.03
Error
Table B6. Surface Roughness Results at Various Film Thicknesses for 4o-50~m Size Range Powder
33 37 42 47 52 57 63 75 84 92 97 106 135
Average 0.96 0.83 0.68 0.65 0.48 0.50 0.55 0.55 .0.44 . 0.41 0.39 0.37 0.28
Roughness
Standard 0.22 0.16 0.08 0.10 0.08 0.04
Average 0.30 0.25 0.22 0.16 0.18 0.11 0.06
Deviation
(~m)
Probable 0.07 0.06 0.05 0.05 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.01
Error
Average 0.61 0.54 0.49 0.51 0.34 0.41 0.39 0.37 0.36 0.33 0.30 0.34 0.23
Roughness
Wavelength Standard 0.12 0.08 0.10 0.09 0.10 0.19 0.12
0.16 0.13 0.22 0.15 0.06 0.07
(mm)
Deviation
Probable 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.06 0.03
0.04 0.03 0.05 0.02
Error
Table B7. Surface Roughness Results at Various Film Thicknesses for +50~m Size Range Powder
38 43 47 52 57 62 67 71 76 81 87 92 97 104 122
Average 0.80 0.75 0.74 0.62 0.57 0.62 0.53 0.55 0.46 0.48 0.45 0.53 0.45 0.46 0.39
Roughness
Standard
Average 0.14 0.12 0.13 0.17 0.15 0.19 0.14 0.18 0.13 0.13 0.13 0.10 0.18 0.15 0.13
Deviation
{~m}
Probable
0.04 0.03 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.06 0.04 0.04
Error
Average 0.45 0.46 0.49 0.45 0.37 0.41 0.37 0.41 0.33 0.33 0.33 0.38 0.40 0.33 0.34
Roughness
Standard
Wavelength 0.07 0.08 0.18 0.11 0.08 0.11 0.08 0.11 0.09 0.07 0.06 0.12 0.08 0.13 0,10
Deviation
{mm}
Probable
0.02 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.02 0.02 0.02 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03
Error
Table B8. Linear Regression fits of Roughness Average and Wavelength Results
~_Measured: y Correlation
Powder Type Slope t = 15 t = 100
Quantity Intercept Coefficient
Roughness
-0.0003 1.272 0.367 1.268 1.271
Average
<lO;Jm
Roughness 0.711 0.118
0.0006 0.72 0.771
Wavelength
Roughness
-0.0025 0.434 0.613 0.397 0.184
Average
l0-20Jlm
Roughness 0.299 0.808
-0.0023 0.265 0.069
Wavelength
Roughness 0.929
-0.0054 0.867 0.848 0.389
Average
40-50Jlm
Roughness -0.0031 0.618 0.880 0.308
0.572
Wavelength
1.1
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1 ---", - BEST I'IT
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. 1
a 10 Zo 30 40 50 sa 70 80 90 100
1.2
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0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
KEY
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--- - BEST rn
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d
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a::
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0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
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I!l
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t.:I
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a:
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en .2
w
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t.:I
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Cl
~
o ~--------------~-----------------------~~---~---~----~
o la 20 30 40 50 60 70 110 90 100
t<E'J'
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~ I!l - - - - BEST rn
•. 55 I!l
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3-. .5 I!l
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t.:l
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10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 llO
t(EY
1
m
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LW
t.::J
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a::
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~.3
I:
d .2
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Cl
a::. 1 I!l
I!l
0
0 20 40 60 BO 100 120 140 160 HlO ZOO
FILM THICKNESS
FIGURE 87 ROUGHNESS RVERRGE VS. FILM THICKNESS
rOwDER SIZE RR~GE .. >SO}JM .
~EY
.9 m_ EXrE"I"E"T~L D~T~
~
I!I
- BEST rn
•
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Cl
0:::
o ~----------~------~----~------------------~------~-------------
o 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
FTLM THICKNESS
FIGURE 89 ROUGHNESS WAVELENGTH VS. FILM THICKNESS
I"ClWDER 5 IlE RRNCE •• < 1 OPI1 •
~EY
1 m- EXrE"'HE"TAL DATA
~
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FT LM TH I CKNESS ()-JM. )
FIGURE B12 ROUGHNESS WAVELENGTH VS. FILM THICKNESS
r~WDER SIZE RRNGE : 30-40fM.
KEY
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Table Cl. Mierosea1 Photosedimentometer Analysis of Powder 1. Before Spraying
Ht. of Scan (ems) : 16.4 Ht. of Scan (ems) : 17.1 Ht. of Scan (ems) : 17.2
Averages t
Time to Scan (mins ) : 24.2 Time to Scan (mins): 17.8 Time to Scan(mins): 18.0
Optics1 Time Size cum. wt% Time Size cum. wt% Time Size cum. wt% Size cum. wt%
Density (mins) (\lm) undersize (mins) (\lm) undersize (mins) (\lm) undersize (\lm) undersize
- - - - - - - - - - 10 5.7
(0.96)
- - - - - - - 3.4 55.5 100.0 15 7.3
0.6 4.3 48.8 72 .1 9.3 34.2 50.4 9.3 34.7 40.2 30 29.5
0.50 6.7 41.4 50.5 13.3 29.5 32.9 12.5 30.9 28.4 35 42.0
0.45 8.2 37.2 41.3 16.8 26.0 25.4 14.8 28.0 23.1 40 57.1
0.40 10.2 33.1 33.0 22.0 22.8 18.7 18.6 25.0 18.3 45 70.2
0.35 13.1 29.2 25.7 26.0 20.1 12.9 23.0 23.2 14.1 50 82.1
0.30 17.0 25.3 19.2 28.4 17.6 7.8 25.2 21.7 10.1 60
0.25 20.5 21.5 13.6 31.0 9.1 3.3 27.2 15.8 6.4
0.20 23.2 9.9 8.8 42.0 0.9 1.0 37.0 5.5 3.7
0.15 - - - - - - - - -
t values obtained from size distribution curves
Table C2. Microscal Photosedimentometer Analysis of Powder 1. After Spraying
Optical Time Size cum. wt% Time Size cum. wt% Time Size cum. wt% Size cum. wt%
Density (mins) (pm) undersize (mins) (pm) undersize (mins) (pm) undersize (pm) undersize
- 10 4.9
- 15 5.6
(O. 75) (O. 75)
0.8 1.0 89.6 100.0 3.4 "58.8 100.0 1.3 90.1 100.0 20 7.3
0.7 2.5 61.5 72.6 3.9 54.2 89.2 1.9 69.6 85.3 25 10.9
0.6 4.2 49.2 53.8 4.7 48.9 69.3 3.8 52.4 62.6 30 16.8
0.50 6.0 43.0 38.8 5.9 44.7 51.4 5.7 45.3 45.6 35 24.5
0.45 7.1 39.5 32.2 6.7 41.9 43.2 6.7 42.1 38.2 40 34.7
0.40 8.4 36.0 26.1 7.7 39.0 35.5 7.6 39.1 31.3 45 47.3
0.35 10.4 31.9 20.6 8.9 36.2 28.3 9.0 36.0 25.0 50 62.3
0.30 13.6 27.9 15.8 10.4 32.9 21. 7 10.6 32.4 19.1 • 60 82.3
0.20 22.9 21.3 7.8 17.8 24.1 10.4 18.4 23.9 9.2
0.15 26.6 9.8 4.5 21.3 10.8 6.0 21. 3 11.0 5.4
Ht. of Scan (ems) : 17.5 Ht. of Scan (ems) : 17.5 Ht. of Scan (ems) : 17 .5
Averages
Time to Scan (mins) : 17.0 Time to Scan(mins): 21.8 Time to Scan(mins): 19.2
Optical Time Size cum. wt% Time Size cum. wt% Time Size cum. wt% Size cum. wt%.
Density (mins) (\lm) undersize (mins) (\lm) undersize (mins) (\lm) undersize (\lm) undersize
(1.0) (0.94)
- - - - 4.3 50.1 100.0 1.3 89.8 100.0 10 5.8
(0.9) (0.9)
- - - - 6.2 42.0 80.3 2.0 68.5 88.1 15 7.5
(0.73)
0.8 0.9 104.6 100.0 8.7 35.8 63.7 4.0 50.8 65.3 20 10.0
0.7 1.6 71.6 87.6 11. 7 31.0 49.6 6.4 40.8 48.5 25 15.5
0.6 4.5 46.7 59.3 15.4 27.1 37.4 9.5 33.8 34.9 30 24.5
0.50 8.1 37.7 40.9 20.0 24.6 26.7 13.5 29.5 23.7 35 35.5
0.45 10.2 33.8 33.5 22.1 23.4 21. 9 16.2 27.0 18.8 40 45.8
0.40 12.5 30.7 26.8 22.9 22.4 17.3 19.2 24.5 14.3 45 55.5
0.35 15.0 27.8 20.7 23.8 21.1 12.9 21. 2 22.1 10.3 50
0.30 17.7 25.4 15.2 25.2 15.8 8.7 23.0 15.3 6.6 60
0.25 19.1 20.1 10.2 33.4 5.7 5.6 32.5 4.9 4.0
,
Ht. of Scan (ems) : 17.5 Ht. of Scan (ems) : 17.2 Ht. of Scan (ems) : 17.6
Averages t
Time to Scan(mins): 15.0 Time to Scan(mins): 12.8 Time to Scan(mins): 14.6 .
Optical Time Size cum. wt% Time Size cum. wt% Time Size cum. wt% Size cum. wt%
Density (mins) (\lm) undersize (mins) (\lm) undersize (mins) (\lm) undersize (\lm) undersize
- 10 6.8
(0.95) (0.93)
- 1.5 77 .8 100.0 1.8 74.2 100.0 15 6.9
0.8 1.6 77.0 100.0 3.1 57.9 68.9 3.2 58.3 73.5 20 7.6
0.7 3.1 57.6 74.8 4.7 48.0 53.5 4.6 49.0 57.5 25 10.5
0.6 5.0 46.5 55.9 6.5 40.9 40.7 6.4 41.9 44.0 30 18.0
0.50 7.2 40.6 40.7 8.9 36.4 29.8 8.6 37.5 32.5 35 28.3
0.45 8.5 37.4 34.1 10.2 34.0 24.9 9.9 35.0 27.4 40 39.3
0.40 10.0 34.5 28.0 11.8 31.3 20.4 n.3 32.3 22.6 45 50.0
0.35 11. 7 . 31. 7 22.3 13.6 28.6 16.2 13.6 29.6 18.2 50 60.0
0.30 14.1 28.7 17.1 14.8 26.6 12.4 15.4 27.5 14.1 60
0.25 16.2 26.1 12.4 15.8 23.6 8.9 16.3 25.7 10.3
0.15 - - - - - - - - -
t values obtained from size distribution curves
Table C5. Microsca1 Photosedimentometer Analysis of Powder 3. Before Spraying
Ht. of Scan (ems) : 17.5 Ht. of Scan (ems) : 17.5 Ht. of Scan (ems) : 17.5
Averages t
Time to Scan(mins): 22.0 Time to Scan (mins): 15.7 Time to Scan(mins): 27.2
Optical Time Size cum. wt% Time Size cum. wt% Time Size cum. wt% Size cum. wt% .
Density (mins) (!lm) undersize (mins) (!lm) undersize (mins) (!lm) undersize (!lm) undersize
(1.0)
- - - - - - - 5.8 43.7 100.0 10 5.4
(0.83)
0.9 1.0 104.6 100.0 - - - 7.9 37.7 80.0 15 6.5
0.7 3.3 54.4 62.0 1.2 79.4 100.0 13.6 28.9 47.7 25 14.9
0.6 6.0 41.3 43.3 4.2 47.4 62.7 17.6 25.4 34.4 30 23.0
0.50 9.8 34.5 29.1 8.3 37.1 40.5 22.7 23.0 22.8 35 32.8
0.45 12.0 31.2 23.2 10.6 32.9 31.8 26.2 20.5 17.5 40 43.4
0.40 14.7 28.0 17.8 13.4 29.4 24.1 30.2 16.6 12.8 45 54.2
0.35 18.3 24.5 13.0 16.2 26.2 17. 2 34.8 11.8 9.0 50
0.30 23.4 17.9 8.8 18.2 22.4 11.1 40.1 4.6 6.3 60
Ht. of Scan (ems) : 17.5 Ht. of Scan (ems) : 17 .5 Ht. of Scan (ems) : 17 .5
Averages t
Time to Scan (mins) : 21.5 Time to Scan(mins): 18.5 Time to Scan(mins): 11.2
Optical Time Size cum. wt% Time Size cum. wt% Time Size cum. wt% Size cum. wt%
Density (mins) (j.Im) undersize (mins) (j.Im) undersize (mins) (j.Im) undersize (j.Im) undersize
(1.0) (1.0) (0.1)
- 1.7 76.7 100.0 1.7 80.1 100.0 18.8 9.8 4.0 10 3.5
0.50 9.4 34.9 22.3 8.2 38.0 27.2 1.9 75.0 76.9 35 22.5
0.45 12.0 31. 2 18.3 9.7 34.7 22.5 2.8 62.6 61. 7 40 29.5
0.40 14.6 28.4 14.8 11.8 31. 5 18.3 3.9 53.8 49.1 45 36.5
0.35 17.4 25.9 11.6 14.3 28.4 14.5 5.1 46.7 38.2 50 44.0
0.30 21.1 23.1 8.6 17.8 25.1 11.0 6.9 39.8 28.7 60
0.25 23.9 19.7 6.0 20.8 21. 7 8.0 9.7 33.5 20.7
0.20 27.2 15.1 3.8 23.3 18.6 5.4 12.6 27.3 13.9
0.15 32.3 6.2 2.1 25.9 8.5 3.1 16.1 21.8 8.4
Ht. of Scan (ems) : 17.5 Ht. of Scan (ems) : 17.5 Ht. of Scan (ems) : 17.5
Averages t
Time to Scan(mins): 18.5 Time to Scan(mins): 21. 7 Time to Scan (mins): 19.2
Optical Time Size cum. wt% Time Size cum. wt% Time Size cum. wt% Size cum. wt%
Density (mins) ()Im) undersize (mins) ()Im) undersize (mins) ()Im) undersize ()Im) undersize
- (1. 2)
- 1.6 65.3 100.0 10 6.5
0.50 5.7 43.2 53.7 24.5 19.8 13.9 2.7 65.0 70.3 35 37.9
0.45 8.5 36.0 42.8 26.7 17.4 11.2 . 4.6 48.9 54.9 40 46.7
0.40 11.8 31.0 33.7 28.9 15.2 8.8 6.4 41.6 . 42.5 45 56.5
0.35 15.4 26.2 25.8 30.8 13.2 6.8 8.7 35.9 32.0 50
0.30 20.6 21.5 19.2 32.6 11. 2 5.0 11.6 30.5 22.9 60
0.25 23.7 18.7 13.8 34.3 5.1 3.5 16.8 24.7 15.2
Ht. of Scan (ems) ; 17.5 Ht. of Scan (ems) ; 17.5 Ht. of Scan (ems) ; 17.5
Averages t
Time to Scan(mins}; 15.4 Time to Scan (mi ns) ; 13.8 Time to Scan(mins}; 15.0
Optical Time Size cum. wt% Time Size cum. wt% Time Size cum. wt% Size cum. wt%
Density (mins) ()lm) undersize (mins) ()lm) undersize (mins) ()lm) undersize (j1m) undersize
(0.98)
- 1.1 98.9 100.0 10 3.8
(0.9) (0.82)
- 1.6 80.0 80.5 1.2 99.7 100.0 15 5.1
(0.73)
0.8 2.6 63.2 60.7 1.0 103.0 100.0 1.4 83.1 94.1 20 6.6
0.7 4.1 51.2 45.1 1.5 78.5 89.5 2.6 63.2 69.6 25 9.7>
0.6 6.0 42.7 32.5 3.1 57.1 62.9 4.1 51.0 50.9 30 14.5
0.50 8.4 37.4 21.9 5.2 47.1 43.6 6.1 43.9 35.9 35 21.3
0.45 10.1 33.9 17.3 6.5 42.4 35.6 7.3 40.2 29.4 40 29.2
0.40 12.5 30.1 13.1 7.9 30.4 28.4 8.7 36.6 23.5 45 37.2
0.35 15.9 26.2 9.4 9.7 34.2 21.9 10.7 32.2 18.1 50 47.4
0.30 18.2 22.9 6.2 12.5 29.8 16.1 14.6 27.4 13.3 60
0.25 20.3 13.9 3.3 15.4 25.3 11.1 17.5 22.6 9.3
0.20 31.1 3.3 1.6 18.2 18.6 6.8 20.9 10.1 6.0
APPENDIX D
C C ' C X . ' l I .
C SECTION 1
C
C - SET UP CALL ID MAlLOOX • USED ID KILL JOB AF'IER
C - DP.Y SHIFT HAS BEEN SET BY '!HE OPERA'lOR
C
CALL ~lIULBX(SETCPU)
C INITIAL a::NDITIONS
C
C NUMBER OF PARTICLES
CALL X04AAF (1, 5)
CALL X04ABF(1,5)
REA.D (5, 309G) NUMBER
C GUN ID 'lMGET IYmNCE
GUN'lAR=O • 200
C AANlXM NUMBER GENERA'lOR S'lART NU-!BER
RI\NOO=O
C START UNG'IH FOR PARTICLES IN Y DIREl:TION
CALL INruT (5)
CALL INPF (STARTL)
Page 3
JW=6
C S'mRT D'D'INCE OF S'lART LENG'IH FRCM Y AXIS
P'IST=S'mRTL/-2. ODO
C 'lOLERANCE ERroR
CALL INroT (5)
CALL INPF ('lOL)
C S'mRT UNG'IH m x DIREJ:TION
XLST=O.lDO
C AIR Gl'.S VEIOCITi WHEN m NJRM1'.L Ii'IJ:M
CALL INroT (5)
CALL INPF (UNF)
CALL INroT(5)
CALL INPF (TiPE)
CALL INroT(5)
CALL INPF (D'lRIBO)
IF(D'IRIBO.a;).O)<D 'lO 1
00 1 1=1,11
D'IRIB(I)=DTRIBO
1 ClJNTINUE
REND (5,55)FOHCEP
55 FOlM'.T(I3)
REND(5,122) (PLOTNO(I) ,1=1,7)
REND(5,122) (~(I) ,1=1,7)
C HEIGHT OF 'lARGET PIA'lE
HEIGHT=O.200
C mITIAL PARTICLE VEIOCITi IN X DIREJ:TIOO
UP=UNF
C INITIAL PARTICLE VEIOCITi IN Y DIREJ:TICN
VP=O.ODO
C S'mRT OF 'mAJEX:'IORY PRrnT
TR~-0.0999999DO
•
C SECTIOO 2
•
C PIDT CONDITICNS
C
CALL S!\.VOAA
C UNIT OCP..LE FUR PIDTTING
UNI'ISP=0.080ODO
C IEN3'IH OF PAPER m xDIREJ:TICN
XP~10000.ODO
C· IEN3'IH OF PAPER m Y DIREJ:TICN
~2500.0DO
C S'mRT OF AXIS MiiAY FR:M ORIGIN IN X DIREJ:TICN
AXISST=O.O
C NUMBER OF S'IEP UN3'IHS IN X DIREJ:TION
XS'lEPS=40
C NUMBER OF S'IEP IENG'IHS IN Y DIREJ:TION
YS'lEPS=10
C UN3'lH OF E7\CH S'IEP m x
XL'lH=100
C UN3'lH OF E7\CH S'IEP m Y
YL'lH=100
C NUMBER OF NffiI'\TIVE S'IEPS IN X
NEXiSTP=20
CALL UNI'IS (UNI'ISP)
CALL DEVPAP (XPAPER, YPAPER, 1)
CALL WINJ::X:M (2)
CALL CHASIZ(30.0,30.0)
CALL MJV'102 ((XS'lEPS*XL'lH+2000.0) /2-500.0 ,YPI\PER-50.0)
Page 4
C X AXIS
XAXIS=lOOO.O+(XLTH*NEGSTP)
CALL !Ol'I02(1000.0,50.0)
CALL LINT02 «lOOO.O+XSTEPS*XLTH) ,50.0)
CALL LINT02( (lOOO.O+XSTEPS*XLTH) , (YSTEPS*YLTH1+50.0)
CALL !Ol'I02(1000.0,50.0)
CALL LINT02(1000.0,(YSTEPS*YLTH)+50.0)
CALL MDVT02«1000.O+XSTEPS*XLTH)/2-5.0,5.0)
CALL aJAHOL (12H SUBSTRA'tE*.)
CALL CHASIZ(15.0,15.0)
IDl=XSTEPS+l
DO 10 I=l,IDl
M= (I - (NmSTP+1) ) *XLTH+AXISST
Q=(I-l)*XLTH+1000.0
CALL MDVT02(Q,55.0)
CALL LINT02(Q,45.0)
CALL MDVT02 (Q-50. 0,30.0)
CALL CHAINT (M, 5)
10 ClJNTINUE
Page 5
C·
'"C Y AXIS
C'
ID2=YS'lEPS+l
DO 11 I=1,ID2
M= (1-1) *YL'IH
Q=(I-1)*YL'IH+50.0
CALL M0VT02(1005.0,Q)
CALL LINT02(995.0,Q)
CALL M0VT02(930.0,Q-5.0)
CALL C!lIUNT (M, 4)
C=1000.0+ (XS'lEPS*XL'IH)
CALL M0VT02 (C-5.0,Q)
CALL LINT02(C+5.0,Q)
CALL M0VT02(C+10.0,Q)
CALL C!lIUNT (M, 4)
11 OJNTINUE
CALL M0VT02(0.O,50.0)
CALL LINT02 (XPAPER, 50.0)
ccco::ccccccccnxxrcccccca:::cccco:xn:n:x:ccax:co:xx:ccco o::o::ccccccca::ccc
C SOCTION 3
C SETrING a:::tIDITIONS
C
C
C SIZE D'IRIBUTION OF PARTICLES
C
IF(DTRIBO.NE.O)GO 10 11222
DTRIB(1)=0.000005DO
DTRIB(2)=O.00000575DO
DTRIB(3)=0.0000065DO
DTRIB (4) =O.00000725DO
DTRIB (5) =O.OOOOO8DO
DTRIB(6)=O.00000875
DTRIB(7)=0.0000095DO
DTRIB(8)=0.0000105DO
DTRIB (9) =O.0000125DO
DTRIB(10)=O.000017ODO
DTRIB(11)=O.000095DO
11222 OJNTINUE
RFKlNT=O.ODO
PI=4*n~~(1.ODO)
CAXIS=XAXIS-AXISST
C VISCOSITf OF AIR
VISC=O.0000178D0
C EI.EX:'lRJDE STRENi'IH
EISTR=6D05
C DIELEJ:::TRIC a:NS~T
DIEl:::ST=4.0DO
C PER-1ITTIVITf OF FREE SPlICE
PEI1M=8 .850-12
C EI.EX:'lRJDE NEEDLE RADIUS
TIPRAD=0.005DO
C FIElD PO'IDITIAL
PHI=60000.ODO
C DENSITf OF EaoIDER
DENS=1000
~
Page 6
C CAICUlATICN <rNS'llINTS
C
C
CELEl:=4*PI*PERM
S(JI=HEIGHT**2
CGUN=PHI/ (DrDG (GUN'mR/TIPRAD) )
CIlQJN=2*GUN'mR .
CCRGE=3*PI*(DIECST/(DIECST+2.0))*PERM*ELSTR
CMl\SS=PI*DENS/6
ClDRAG=3*PI*VISC
C
C TIME OF IN'lE3RATICN FOR E7\CH PARTICLE (M1\X)
TmlO=5.000
WRI'lE (JW ,1000)
WRI'lE (JW ,1020)
WRI'lE (JW ,1021)
WRI'lE(JW,123) (PLOTNO(I),I=l,7)
WRI'lE(JW,122) (CXXoIENT(I) ,I=l, 7)
WRI'lE(JW,1023)NUMBER
WRI'lE (JW ,1024) RANDC)
WRI'lE(JW,1025)XLST
WRI'lE(JW,1026)S~TL
WRI'lE (JW ,1027)UNF
WRI'lE(JW,1028)HEIGHT
WRI'lE(JW,1029)UP
WRI'lE(JW,1030)VP
WRI'lE(JW,1031)TOL
WRI'lE(JW,1032)TEND
WRI'lE(JW,1033)TRAJST
122 FORMI'.T(7A4)
123 FORolAT(- PIDT FILE NAME IS -, 7A4)
1020 FORolAT(2 (lX/) ,30H B:XlNIl/>.RY <rNDITIOOS)
1021 ~T(30H )
1023 FORolAT(2OH 00 OF PARTICLES = ,nO)
1024 ~T(2OH RANlXM NUMBER GEN= ,no)
1025 ~T(2OH X S~T FROM GUN = ,E20.10)
1026 ~T(2OH S~T WID'IH IN Y = ,E20.10)
1027 ~T(2OH UNIFORM AIR VEL = ,E20.1O)
ccaxx:ccco::o x:cccoX'cccccccccoX'cccco::OXCO)))X'ccax'OX'CC'CCCCO:CC
C sa:::TIOO 4
11115 DIAM=DTRIB(J+1)-((J-~10)*(DTRIB(J+1)-DTRIB(J»)
D (I)=DIAM
RADIUS=DIIIM/2
S'mRT=S'mRTL*R+P'IST
S'mRTl(I)=S'mRT
C CAICUIATION CXNS'll'IN'IS
CHARiE=CCRGE* (DIAM**2)
CSQ=CHAR;E**2
PC (I) =CHAR;E
MASS= (DIAM**3) *01ASS
REYCXJN=DIAM*1.0/VISC
GRAV=O
CEFLEJ::=CHAR;E*CGUN
CFOO::E=CIlMiE/CELEJ::
CDRAG=CLDRAG*DIAM
IE6=LD06
RAD=RADIUS*IE6
NUX=RAD/3
NUY=RAD/6
SIZE=RAD/2.5
CALL CHASIZ(SIZE,SIZE)
C B:lUNIlARY CXNDITICNS FOR EACH PARTICLE
'1'=0.000
Z(l)=UP
Z (2)=XIST
Z(3)=VP
Z(4)=S'mRT
N=4
C sa::TIOO 5
IF(IFAIL.GT.O)GO IQ 99999
IF(IND.ElJ.l)GO IQ 10005
W(2,21)~999
COMM(4)=1.
INO=l
OY=(~-Z(2»*IE6+50.0
OX=(Z(4)*IE6)+CAXIS
CALL MO\I'I02 (OX ,OY)
GO IQ 10006
10005 VELX=Z(l)
VELY=Z(3)
X=Z (2)
Y=Z (4)
IF(T.GT.TEND-0.5)GO IQ 22333
IF(Y.LT.-O.OlDO)GO IQ 22333
IF(Y.GT.O.OlDO)GO IQ 22333
PRINTX=(~-X)*IE6
PRIN'!Y=Y*IE6
C S'lEPrENG'lll
IF(I.NE.EOHCEP)GO IQ 11334
Page 9
WRITE(JW,313)T,PRINT.K,~,D~GX,DRNGY,FIELDX
1 ,FIEIDY , IMAGE ,F'lDT.K,.E"IOT.{
11334 CONTINUE
IF(~.EQ.O)GO 10 11111
PRIN'lH~T (4) -<XXJT (5)
WRITE (JW, 312) T, PRINT.K,~ , VELX, VEIX ,AIRVX ,AIINY ,PRIN'lH,REY
C SEI:TIClN 6
ccccc:cccccccccr::cccccrn::a::axrCcccfXxxrcn::u:o 0 CCCCCCCCCCCCCCC
c· am:::K ON rosITION REIATIVE 10 SUBSTRATE & 0'lHER PARTICLES
11111 CONTINUE
IF(X+~IUS+RFRJNT.LT.m::JNT)GO 10 10001
IF(I.EQ.l)GO 10 10001
K=I-l
00 31 J=l,K
JJ=I-J
XJJ=Xl(JJ)
YJJ=Yl(JJ)
DTPSQ=(X-XJJ) **2+ (Y-YJJ) **2
~J=D(JJ)/2
RADSQ= (~IUS+~J) **2
IF (D'WSQ.LT.~SQ)GO 10 10222
31 CONTINUE
10001 IF(X+~IUS.GT.~)GO 10 10003
CX=(Y*IE6)~IS
CY=(~-X)*IE6+50.0
CALL LIN102 (CX ,CY)
OX=CX
OY=CY
10006 OIDX=X
OIDY=Y.
OIDT=T
OVELX=VELX
OVELY=VEIX
IFAIL=l
GO 1010000
C PARTICLE IS roJND 10 !UT 1IN)'lEER PARTICLE
C CALCUIATE IN'IERSEI:TIClN OF LINE BE'lWEEN 'I'M:) 'ffiAJEI:'IDRY POINTS
C AND CIRCLE OF ~IUS (~IUS+~J)
cm.
C IS lilT. SEARCH CARRIES CN 'IHROUGH REST OF S'mTIClNARY PARTICLES
C S&::TICN 7
JJ=CHECK+l-JK
CHXJJ=xl (JJ)
CHYJJ=yl (JJ)
CHDSQ=(X-cHXJJ) **2+ (Y-cHYJJ) **2
CHRl\D=D(JJ)/2
CHRSQ= (RADIUS~) **2
IF(CHDSQ.LT.CHRSQ)GO 'ID 10022
32 CXNrINUE
JJ=CHECK+l
GO 'ID 10002
P=GRAD*XJJ+INCEPT-YJJ
A=HGRAD**2
B=2*GRAD*P
C=P**2-RADSQ
IF (B.LT.O)GO 'ID 888
Rl=(-B-DSQRT(B**2-4*A*C»/(2*A)
GO 'ID 8888
888 Rl=(-B+DSQRT(B**2-4*A*C»/(2*A)
8888 a:JNTINUE
R2=C/ (A*Rl)
INTXl=XJJ+Rl
INTX2=XJJ+R2
IF (INTXl.GT.INTX2)GO 'ID 10010
INTX=INTXl
GO 'ID 10011
10010 INTX=INTX2
10011 INT'{=GRAD*INTX+ IOCEPT
GO 'ID 10007
C sa::TICN 8
(XXX'CO)))XX'CCCCCCCCCC(,(X'CCO:CCOJ::COX'O:'CXX'C'CX'CCXl a:x:o:xJ)))xxx))))::C
10003 JJ=O
GRAD= (Y-0rDY) / (X-0IDX)
INCEPT=Y-GRI\D*X
rn'IX=GUN'lAR-RADIUS
INT'f=GRAD*rn'IX+:m::EPT
C SEX:TICN 9
10007 LEVER=(X-rn'IX)/(X-0IDX)
Xl (I) =rn'IX
Yl(I)=INT'f
IN'lV=VELY- LEVER* (VELY-ovELY)
rn'lU=VELX-LEVER* (VELX-0VELX)
INTl'=T-LEVER* (T-OIDT)
FLIGHT(I) =INTT
C SEX:TICN 10
WRI'lE(JW,3045)
WRI'lE (JW, 3000)
WRI'lE (JW, 3006) I
WRI'lE (JW ,3007)
WRI'lE(JW,3001)T,OIDT,rnTT
WRI'lE (JW, 3002) VELX ,OVELX , IN'IU
WRI'lE(JW,3003)X,OIDX,rn'IX
WRI'lE(JW,3004)VELY,QVELY,rnTV
WRI'lE(JW,3005)Y,OrDY,INT'f
Page 12
QJ 'ID 21111
22333 INTY=999.99
JJ=O
INTX=999.999
C PRINT FINI\L PARTICLE roSITION & HIT NUMBER
21111 CONTINUE
IF(I.NE.FORCEP)GO 'ID 11335
WRI'lE (JW, 3008)
WRI'lE (JW , 3030)
11335 CONTINUE
WRI'lE(JW,307S)I,INTK,IN~,JJ,DIAM
14 CONTINUE
1000 FORMAT(///'****************************************************
1*******************##**#*************#*#****#****##****')
Page 13
3044 roRMAT(' - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -
1 ')
3031 roRMI\T (' PARTICLE 'ffiAJEC'IORY - roOCES CliI PARTICLE ID.
1 ',13)
3030 rom>.T(' TIME X <rORDINA'IE Y <rORD DRAG X DRAG Y
1 FIEID X FIEID Y IMAGE 'lOT IN'IER X 'lOT IN'IER Y')
3045 roRMAT(' TIME X <rORDINA'IE
1 Y <rOROINA'IE X VEIJ:x:I'I'l Y VEL
2CCI'I'l AIR VEL X /I.IR VEL Y S'IEP IlNi'IH REYNOIDS ID ' , I)
313 rom>.T(F8.5,F12.4,FI0.4,7E12.4)
312 roRMI\T(F12.6,2F12.4,4F12.6,E14.4,F12.4)
3071 rom>.T(//,' X <rOROINA'IE OF HIGHEST PARTICLE = ',E20.10,
1/ " RADIUS OF '!HIS PARTICLE = ' ,E20 .10 , 11)
3072 rom>.T(' Am VELX= ',E20.10)
3073 rom>.T(' Am VELY= ' ,E20.10)
3075 roRMI\T(/' PARTICLE' ,13,' IANDED , X = ',F14. 7,' , Y =
I' ,F14. 7,' HIT PARTICLE ID. ',I3,' PARTICLE OIAME'IER = ',F14. 7)
3080 rom>.T(' ORAGX =' ,E20.10)
3081 roRMI\T(' ORAGY =' ,E20.10)
3082 FORMAT(' IMAGE = ',E20.10)
3083 FORMAT(' FIEIDX = ',E20.10)
3084 rom>.T (' FIEIDY =' ,E20 .10)
3085 FORMAT(' FTOT% = ',E20.10)
3086 FORMAT(' ~ = ',E20.10,111)
3096 FORMAT (13)
99999 00 91 KK=1,4
Page 14
S'lOP
END
SUBRXJ'I'INE R:N(T,Z,F)
C SEJ:TION 11
•
~*8 X,Y,Xl(500),Yl(500),T,Z(4),F(4),VELX,VELY,CSQ
~*8 SQX,~,NEWX,GUN'lAR,S(l<X ,RCCNS ,CELEX: ,HEIGHT
~*8 SQH ,SQRRC, '!HE'D>. ,SINT ,COST ,AIRVX,AIIN'f ,UNE' ,DRAGX
~*8 DRAG'{ ,CDRAG ,IMAGE,CHAR:iE,ELEX:,CGUN ,FIEIDX ,FIEIDY
~*8 F'IO'IX,F'IO'l'l,XI,YI ,IMX,IMY ,Cn-GlN,CEFLEX:
~*8 DIFIMX ,DIFIMY ,DIFXI ,DIFYI,DTSQJ ,D'ISQI ,SQRDI
~*8 SQRDJ,OQSI,CQSJ,SINI,SINJ,ATTFX,ATTFY,REPFX,REPFY,CONST
~*8 CFORCE,PC (500) ,PAR'IFX,PAR'lFY ,w.ss,GRAV,D(500)
~*8 DIFVX,DIFVY ,VREt"REY,REY<XN
IN'lfXiliR I,!N03, II
X=Z (2)
Y=Z(4)
VELX=Z (1)
VELY=Z(3)
SQX=X**2
S\1i=Y**2
NEWX=X-GUN'Il'.R
~=NEWX**2
RCCNS=OSQRT( (~-S\1i+SCfI) **2+ (2*NEMt*Y) **2)
SQROC=DSQRT(BCCNS)
'IHE'I!'.=m'lM ( (- 2*NEWX*Y) / (~-S\1i+SQH) )
SINT=OSIN ('IHE'I!'./2)
CDST=OCQS ('IHE'I!'./2)
AIRVX=-UNF* (NEWX*CDS'!'-Y*SINT) /SQROC
AIRW=UNF* (NEWX*SINT+Y*CDST) /SQROC
DIFIJX=AIRVX-VELX
DIFVY'=AIRW-VELY
VREL=OSQRT (DIFIJX**2+OIFVY**2)
REY=REYCON*VREL
C DRAG FOR:E
DRIIGX=CDRAG* (AIRVX-VELX)
DRAGY=CDRAG* (AIRVY-VELY)
C IM!'.GE 'FORCE
ELOC=CEFLEx::/ (SQX+S\1i)
FIEWX=ELEx::*X
FIEIDY=ELEx::*Y
C SEI:TION 12
F'IO'D{=O • 000
F'IOTi=O.OOO
IF(I.EQ.1)GO 10 22222
IND3=I-1
00 21 II=1,IND3
XI=X1(II)
YI=Y1(II)
IMX=C]l.GJN-XI
IMY=YI
DIFIMX=IMX-X
DIFIMY=IMY-Y
DIFXI=XI-X
DIFYI=YI-Y
D'ISQ1=DIFIMX** 2+DIFIMY** 2
DTSQI=DIFXI**2+DIFYI**2
Page 16
SQRDI=DSQRT (DTSQI)
SQRDJ=OSQRT (DTSQJ)
<XlSI=DIFXI/SQRDI
OJSJ=DIFIMX/SQRD,J
SINI=DIFYI/SQRDI
SmJ=DIFIMY/SQRDJ
I'.'l'.lFX~SJ/D'ISOJ
I'.TlFY=SmJ/D'lSQJ
REPFX~I/DTSQI
REPFY=SINI/DTSQI
a;wS'J.'=CroR:E*PC (II)
PM'IFX= (1'.'l'.lFX-REPFX) *a:wST
PM'lFY= (ATlFY-REPFY) *a:wST
F'lO'lX=F'lO'1X+PI'.R'IFX
F'lOT'f=F'lO'l'l+PM'lFY
21 CXJNTINUE
22222 F(l)=(DRI'.GX+FIELDX+IMI'.GE+F'lO'lX)/MASS
F (2)=VELX
F(3)=(DRAGY+FIELDY-+GAAV+F'lOTi)/MASS
F(4)=VELY
RE'lURN
END
$
Figure D2(a-b). Listing of Segment from Charged Layer Program
C SEx::TION 11
F'IO'IX=O.OOO
F'ID'lY=O.OOO
WID=HEIGHT/2.000
WIDN=WID-Y
AGUN'IH=GUN'11\R-X+'!HICK
GUN'lII=GUN'11\R-'!HICK-X
GUNN=GUN'n\R-X
WIOP=WID+Y
NWIOO=-WID-Y
Tl=WIDN-H)SQRT {GUN'IH**2-tWIDN**2}
T2=NWIDN-H)SQRT{GUNN**2-tWIOP**2}
Bl=WIDN+DSQRT{GUNN**2-tWIDN**2}
B2=NWIDN+DSQRT{GUN'IH**2-tWIDP**2}
Tl=GUN'IH+DSQRT{WIDN**2-+GUN'rn**2}
T2,q)NN-H)SQRT{WIDP**2+GUNN**2}
Bl,q)NN+DSQRT {WIDN**2+GUNN** 2}
B2=GUN'IH-H)SQRT{WIDP**2-+GUN'rn**2}
Tl=WIDN+DSQRT{GUNN**2-tWIDN**2}
T2=NWIDN-H)SQRT {AGUN'IH** 2-tWIDP** 2}
Bl=WIDN-H)SQRT{AGUN'IH**2-tWIOO**2}
B2=NWIDN-H)SQRT{GUNN**2-tWIDP**2}
Tl,q)NN-H)SQRT{WIDN**2+GUNN**2}
T2=AGllN'lH+DSQRT {WIDP** 2+AGUN'IH**2}
Bl=AGUN'IH-H)SQRT {WIDN** 2+AGUN'IH** 2}
Page 2
B2~+DSQRT (WIDP**2-1QJNN**2)
F'lO'IX=REPFX+ATlFX
F'IO'IY=REPFY+A'ITFY
$
Explanation of Computer Program Variables
Page of
Definition
C Calculation variable 10
particle
particle
particles
CHXJJ X coordinate of collision particle 10
interrupts (array)
COUT Used for output information from NAG routine (array) NAG
and an image
stationary particle
distribution
stationary one
particle diameter
II Do loop constant 15
IW Used in dimensioning W 7
IWl As above 7
JJ Do loop variable 9
K Do loop variable 9
KK Do loop,variable 13
PI 11 5
calculation
R2 As above 10
x direction
SQX Square of X 15
SQY Square of Y 15
START Start position of particle in y direction 7
T Time 7
VP As UP, y direction 3
X X coordinate 7/8/15
Xl Stored final x position (array) 11
Y Y coordinate 7/8/15
Yl As Xl, y position 11
YI As XI, y position 15
....................................................................................................... ,
,
.. •
PARTICLE 1 LANDED X = 0.1999875 Y
" 0.000]]62 HIT PARTICLE NU, 0 PARTICLE DIAMETER = 0,000025
PARTICLE 3 LAt;Dt::D , X 0.1999875 Y :: 0.0004320 HIT PARTICLE NO. 0 PARTICLE DIAMETER " 0,000025
"
PARTICLE 4 LANDED X :: 0.1999875 , Y :: -0.0003642 HIT PARTICLE NO. 0 PARTICLE DIAMETER = 0.000025
PARTICLE 5 LANDED X :: 0.1999875 , Y :: -0.0005252 HIT PARTICLE NO. 0 PARTICLE DIAMETER :: 0.000025
, "R '''T'''''' "K' "\" ,.,,, "i' r. ",,, "r' "m\" " "r '., 'or '\" , \
TOT INTER Y
OO~O~
. o.
/
.140~
9999 9\ 6415 -39
0.000000 99999.6415 -39.4061 4:\99928
~ 9775E~1 ~
-0. H59E-07\ -0. 2956E-ll \ o. 3392E-08\ -0.133 7E-l
0.000000 2.236062
O.
-0.000705 0~J585E~07
-0.1 759E-17 -0.7331E-21
0.00000 99999.4623 -39.4061 -0.1159E-07 -0.2956E~11 0.~392E-08 ~0.1337E~11 0.9775E-16 -0.1759E-17 -0.7331E-21
0.000000 99999.4623 -39.4061 4.999892 0.000000 2.236058 -0.000705 0.3585E~07
0.00001 99931.3334 -39.4061 -0.1154E-07 -0.2927E-l1 0.33B9E-08 -0.1334E-l1 0.9798E~16 -0.1763E-17 -0.7347E~21
0.000014 ' 99931.3334 -39.4061 4.986258 -0.000007 2.234939 -0.000705 0.3585E-07
0.00003 99963.3899 -39.4063 -0.1149E~07 -0.2899[-11 0.3387E-09 -0.1333[-11 0.9801E-16 -0.1767E-17 -0.7371E-21
0.000027 99863.3899 -39.4063 4.972706 -0.000014 2.233623 -0.000705 0.1364E-04
0.00004 99795.6307 -39.4065 -0.1144E-07 -0.2871E-l1 0.3385E-09 -0.1331E-l1 0.9815E-16 -0.1770E-17 -0.7191E-21
0.000041 99795.6307 -39.4065 4.959236 -0.000021 2.232410 -0.000706 0.1364E-04
0.00005 99728.0548 -39.4069 -0.1139E-07 -0.2843E-l1 0.3382E-08 -0.1329E-ll 0.9828E-16 -0.1774E-17 -0.7411E-21
0;000055 99728.0548 -39.4069 4.945848 -0.000028 2.231199 -0.000706 0.1364E-04
0.00008 99582.7292 ~39.4079 -0.1128E-07 -0.2793E-l1 0.3379E-08 -0.1325E-ll 0.9957E-16 ~0.1792E-17 -0.7455E-21
0.000084 99592.7292 -39.4079 4.917210 -0.000043 2.228594 -0.000707 0.1364E-04
0.00011 99439.2425 -39.4094 -0.1117E-07 -0.2724E-11 0.3373E-08 -0.1322E-11 0.9885E-16 -0.17A9E-17 -0.7498f.-21
0.000114 994J8.2425 -39.4094 4.HRH94'i -o.on:,n~" ?,):.o", -() 00(1'(0' () ·)a,~ .. _ .. ·,
PARTICLE NO 7 0.0702027584 12.5000000000 27.8136610985 158.1201105699 25.00000000
COUT NO. 1 0.359499E-07 CIN NO. 1 0.500000EtOl CON NO. 1 0.100000[+02 COMM NO. 1 O.OOOOOO[tOO
COUT NO. 2 0.261995E-02 CIN NO. 2 O.OOOOOO[tOO CON NO. 2 0.100000[t03 COMM NO. 2 O.OOO·OOO[tOO
COUT NO. 3. O.OOOOOOE+OO CIN NO. 3 O.OOOOOO[tOO CON NO. 3 0.120000[t01 COMM NO. 3 O.OOOOOOEtOO
COUT NO. 4 0.702065[-01 ~CIN NO. 4 O.OOOOOOEtOO CON NO. 4 0.130000[+01 COHM NO. 4 O.iOOOOO[tOl
.COUT NO. 5 0.702049[-01 ~NO. 5 0.359499[-07 CON NO. S 0.140000[tOl
:COUT NO. 6 0.500000Et01 CIN-n~0.lSI188E-05
the last integration point (time)
,COUT NO. 7 0.429217EtOO CIN NO. 7 ~Q~~_E+~O~l~~~__
: COUT NO. 9 o.196000[t03 ________ - last but one integration point (COUT +-5) = stepsize)
; COUT NO. 9 0.900000EtOl____ ~
! COUT NO.1 0
O. OOOOOOEtOO __________ - - - the number of successful integration steps used for the last particle
. COUT NO.ll 0.277556E-16 ________
'COUTNO.12 0.293974E-39 the number of unsuccessful integration steps
COUT NO.13 0.1941162E-17
COUT NO.14 0.500000Et01
COUT NO.15 0.400000E+Ol
COUT NO.16 0.320000Et02
IrAIL~ O'~-~-- ________
fORTRAN STOP Failure condition
aUASIMODO jOb terminated at 29-JUN-1982 11149103.91
Accounting information.
Buffered 110 count 1 66 Peak working set s1zel 172
Direct 110 countl 145 Peak virtual sizel 286
Page faults: 1536 Mounted volumes: o
[lapsed CPU time: o 00100148.37 [lapsed timel o 00102127.09
Appendix E
. -7
For each plot (i) the tolerance bound employed was 10
•
Figur·e E2.. Particle Trajectories for Monosized Powder - Particle diame ter ~ 10l'm, Uniform Velocity = 3 m/ s,
Start Width ~ 0.00023 m
Figure E3,· Particle Tra'ectories for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = 10~m, Uniform Velocit = 7 m/s,
Start Width = 0,00014 m
•
Particle diameter = 10~m, Uniform Velocity = 10 m/s,
Figure E4. Particle Trajectories for Monosized Powder
Start Width = 0.00011 m
Figure E5.· Particle Trajectories for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = l7vm, Uniform Velocity = 1 m/s,
Start Width - 0.00058 m
Figure E6. Particle Trajectories for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter l7~m, Uniform Velocity 3 m/s,
Start Width - 0.00035 m
Figure E7. Particle Trajectories for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = l7~m, Uniform Velocity = 7 m/s,
Start Width = 0.00023 m
Figure E8. Particle Trajectories for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = l7~m, Uniform Velocity
10 m/s,
Start Width - 0.00019 m
Figure E9 •. Particle Trajectories for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = 25~m, Uniform Velocity = 1 m/s,
Start Width - 0.00068 m
Figure ElO; Particle TraOectories for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = 25v m, Uniform Velocit = 3 m/s,
Start Width - 0000046 m
Figure Ell. Particle Tra'ectories for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = 25~m, Uniform Velocit = 7 m/s,
Start Width - 0.00046 m
10 m/s,
Figur"e E12. Particle Tra"ectories for Monosized powder - Particle diameter Q 2S)Jm, Uniform Velocity
Start Width Q 0.00032 m
Figure E13.' Particle Trajectories for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = 50~m, Uniform Velocity = I m/s,
Start Width - 0.00089 m
Figure EI4:. Particle Traj ectories for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = SO\Jm, Uniform Velocity 3 m/ s,
Start Width = 0.00087 m
Figure EIS; Particle Trajectories for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = SO~m, Uniform Velocity = 7 m/s,
Start Width - 0.00110 m
Figure E16. Particle Tra·ectories for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = 50~m Uniform Velocit = 10 m/s,
Start Width = 0.00130 m
Figure E17. Trajectories of Particles for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = lO~m, Uniform Velocity = 1 m/s
3 m/s
Figure E18. Tra'ectories of Particles for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = lO~m. Uniform Velocity
Figure E19. Trajectories of Particles for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = IOpm, Uniform Velocity = 5 m/s
Figure E20. Trajectories of Particles for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter lO~m, Uniform Velocity 7 m/s
Figure E21. Trajectories of Particles for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = 10~rn. Uniform Ve10cit = 10 rn/s
•
Figure E22. Trajectories of Particles for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = l7~m, Uniform Velocity = 1 m/s
Figure E23. Trajectories of Particles for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter Q 17~m. Uniform Velocity Q 3 m/s
Figure E24. Trajectories of Particles for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = 17llm, Uniform Velocity = 5 m/s
Figure E25, Tra'ectories of Particles for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter
l7~m. Uniform Velocit 7 m/s
Figure E26. Trajectories of Particles for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = 17\lm, Uniform Velocity = 10 m/s
Figure E27. Trajectories of Particles for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = 25~m, Uniform Velocity = 1 m/s
Figure E28. Trajectories of Particles for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = 25~m, Uniform Velocity =3 mls
Figure E29. Trajectories of Particles for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = 25~m, Uniform Velocity = 5 mts
7 m/s
Figure E30. Trajectories of Particles for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = 25~m, Uniform Velocit
i
Figure E31. Trajectories of Particles for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = 25~m, Uniform Velocity = 10 m/s
Figure E32. Trajectories of Particles for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = SO~m, Uniform Velocity = 1 m/s
Figure E33. Trajectories of Particles for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = SOpm, Uniform Velocity =3 m/s
Figure E34. Trajectories of Particles for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter = 50~m! Uniform Velocity = 5 m/s
Figure E35. Trajectories of Particles for Monosized Powder - Particle diameter 50~m, Uniform Velocity = 7 m/s
Figure E36. Trajectories of Particles for Monosized Powder - Particle diame·ter = SOjJm, Uniform Velocity = 10 m/ s
Figure E37. Particle Trajectories for a Size Distributed Powder - Uniform Velocity 1 rn/s
Figure E38. Particle Trajectories for a Size Distributed Powder - Uniform Velocity = 3 m/s
Figure E39. Particle Trajectories for a Size Distributed·Powder - Uniform Velocity = 5 rn/s
Figure E40~ Particle Trajectories for a Size Distributed Powder - Uniform Velocity = 7 m/s
Figure E41. Particle Trajectories for a Size Distributed Powder - Uniform Velocity = 10 m/s
Figure E42. Trajectories of Particles Approaching a Charged Layer 50~m thick - Particle diameter = lO~m.
Uniform Velocity = 1 mls
Figure E43. Trajectories of Particles Approaching a Charged Layer lOO)lm thick - Particle diameter = IO)lm,
Uniform Velocity - I m/s
CHA GEO L
~ -7 -I -, -3 - '"' -I '"' 7 B ," , "
Figure E45. Trajectories of Particles A roaching a Char ed Layer 50~m thick - Particle diameter = lO~m.
Un1form Velocity - 5 m s
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Figure E46. Trajectories of Particles Approaching a Charged Layer lOOpm thick - Particle diameter = lOpm,
• Uniform Velocity - 5 m/s
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Figure E47.· Trajectories of Particles Approaching a Charged Layer 50~m thick - Particle diameter = 10~m.
Uniform Velocity - 10 m/s
Figure E48. Trajectories of Particles Approaching a Charged Layer lOO~m thick - Particle diameter = lO~m.
Uniform Velocity = 10 m/s
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Figure E49; TraOectories of Particles A roachin ~ 10\lm,
Uniform Velocity - 10 m s
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Figure ESO. Tra'ectories of Particles A 2SIlID,
Uniform Velocity - 1 ID S
' / / / / / / / / / / /./ / / /LLLLL1/ / / / / / / / / /.1 y ~Z''7 'c!"',?, Y,,'77/ / / / / / / / / / / /,.../ /,/ // //7 / /7 / / /, -/
"80" - ,eo -,".. ,~-,,~ -,_ -,~, -" .. -,_ -~. -_ -,... -6", -~ -''''' -~., -'" -,.. '!;U8S'f'RAT~.' ,., ,.. 6.' >e, ••, .' ....- "-,,.. ,-
Figure ESt. Trajectories of Particles Approaching a Charged Layer IOO~m thick - Particle diameter = 2S~m,
Uniform Velocity - I m/s
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Figure E52. Trajectories of Particles Approaching a Charged Layer 50~m thick - Particle diameter = 25~m.
Uniform Velocity - 5 m/s
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.// / / / / /// / / / / / / / / / /// / / / / / / // / / fI ')"/ i'/,-./ 'L'z";Y / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / L / / / / / / / / /
Figure E53. Trajectories of Particles Approaching a Charged Layer 50~m thick - Particle diameter = 25~m.
Uniform Velocity - 10 m/s
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Figure ES6" Tra"ectories of Particles = SO)JID,
Uniform Velocity = lIDs
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Figure E57". Tra' ectories Qf Particles roaching a Charged La er 250~m thick - Particle diameter = 50~m.
Uniform Velocity - I m s
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Figure E58" Tra"ectories of Particles = 50jlID,
Uniform Velocity - 5 ID S
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Figure ES90 TraOectories of Particles SO\lm,
Uniform Velocity = 5 m s
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Figure E60; Trajectories of Particles Approaching a Charged Layer 50~m thick - Particle diameter = 50~m,
Uniform Velocity = 10 m/s
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Figure E61". Trajectories of Particles Approaching a Charged Layer 100llm thick - Particle diameter 501lm.
Uniform Velocity - 10 m/s
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Figure E62. Trajectories of Particles ~Particle diameter = 50~m,
Uniform Velocity = 10 m s
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