LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION

Let f(t) be a given function which is defined for all positive values of t, we multiply f(t) by
e-st; integrate with respect to t from zero to infinity. Then, if the resulting integral exist, it is a
function of s, say F(s) : where s is a parameter which maybe real or complex.

∝
F(s) = ∫ 𝑒 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡

The function F(s) is called Laplace Transformation of the original function f(t) and will be
denoted by ꝭ(f). The symbol ꝭ which transforms f(t) to F(s) is called the Laplace Transformation
operator. Thus,

∝
F(s) = ꝭ (f) = ∫ 𝑒 𝑓(𝑡)𝑑𝑡

Some elementary functions f(t) and their Laplace Transformation:

f(t) F(s)

t
!
𝑡 n = 1. 2 3 ……

cos(at)

sin(at)

cosh(at)

sinh(at)
Properties of Laplace Transformation

1) Linearity Property.
If a and b are constants, while f1(t) and f2(t) are functions whose laplace transforms
exist; then:
ꝭ[ af1(t) + bf2(t) ] = aꝭf1(t) + bꝭf2(t) = aꝭ(f1) + bꝭ(f2)

2) First Shifting Property.

If ꝭ(f) = F(s) when s> a, then ꝭ[ eatf(t) ] = F( s - a )
That is, the substitution of ( s – a ) for s in the transform corresponds to the multiplication of
the original function by eat.

3) Second Shifting Property.

𝑓(𝑡 − 𝑎), 𝑡 >𝑎
If ꝭ[ f(t) ] = F(s) and g(t) =
0, 𝑡 <𝑎
Then, ꝭ [ g(t) ] = e-as F(s).

4) Change of Scale Property.

If ꝭ [ f(t) ] = F(s) ; then ꝭ [ f(at) ] = F( )

5) Multiplication by a Powet of t.

If ꝭ [ f(t) ] = F(s) ; then ꝭ [ tn f(t) ] = (-1)n f(s) = (-1)n fn(s)

6) Division by t.
( ) ∝
If ꝭ [ f(t) ] = F(s) ; then ꝭ [ ] = ∫ 𝐹(𝑢)𝑑𝑢 provided that
( )
lim [ exists.
INVERSE LAPLACE TRANSFORMATION

If the Laplace Transform of a function f(t) is F(s), the value of f(t) is called the Inverse
Laplace Transform of F(s) and can be written symbolically as f(t) = ꝭ-1F(s) or f(t) = ꝭ-1(F), where
ꝭ-1 is called the Inverse Laplace Transformation Operator.

STANDARD FORMS

1) ꝭ-1 [ ] = 1

2) ꝭ-1 [ ] = 𝑒

3) ꝭ-1 [ ] = ( )!
; n = 1, 2, 3………

4) ꝭ-1 [ ] = ( )!
]
( )

5) ꝭ-1 [ ] = sin 𝑎𝑡

6) ꝭ-1 [ ] = cos 𝑎𝑡

7) ꝭ-1 [ ] = sinh 𝑎𝑡

8) ꝭ-1 [ ] = cosh 𝑎𝑡

9) ꝭ-1 [ ] = 𝑒 sin 𝑏𝑡
( )

( )
10) ꝭ-1 [ ( )
] = 𝑒 cos 𝑏𝑡

11) ꝭ-1 [ ] = 𝑡 sin 𝑎𝑡

( )

12) ꝭ-1 [ ] = [ sin 𝑎𝑡 − 𝑎𝑡 cos 𝑎𝑡 ]

( )
CONTROL SYSTEM

Open-loop Control System – system in which the output quantity has no effect upon the input
quantity.

Command Reference Reference Dynamic

(Output)
(Input) Selector Unit

Closed-loop Control System – system in which the output quantity has an effect upon the input
quantity.

Reference Actuating
Input Signal

Command Reference + Forward

(Output)
(Input) Selector - Element

Feedback
Signal
Feedback
Element

System – a combination of components that act together to perform a function not possible
with any of the individual parts. It includes physical, biological, organizational and other entities
and combinations thereof which can be represented through a common mathematical
symbolism.

Command input – the motivating input signal to the system which is independent of the output
of the system and exercises complete control over the system.

Reference selector - the unit that establishes the value of the reference input. The reference
selector is calibrated in terms of the desired value of the system output.

Reference input – the reference signal produced by the reference selector. It is the actual signal
input to the control system.

Disturbance input – a signal to the system that has an unwanted effect on the system output.
Forward element – the unit that reacts to an actuating signal to produce a desired output. This
unit does the work of controlling the output and thus may be a power amplifier.

Output – the quantity that must be maintained at a prescribed value.

Feedback element – the unit that provides the means for feeding back the output quantity or a
function of the output in order to compare it with the reference input.

Actuating signal – the signal that is the difference between the reference input and the
feedback signal. It actuates the control unit in order to cause the output to have the desired
value.

Servomechanism – the term is often use to refer to a mechanical system in which the steady-
state error is zero for a constant input signal. In general, it is used to refer to any feedback
control system.

Regulator – this term is used to refer to systems in which there is a constant steady-state
output for a constant signal. The name is derived from the early speed and voltage controls,
called speed and voltage regulators.

Feedback control system – a control system that operates to achieve prescribed relationships
between selected system variables by comparing functions of these variables and using the
comparison to effect control.

Continuous control – implies that the output is continuously fed back and compared with the
reference input.

Discontinuous control – the input and output quantities are periodically sampled and
compared, thus control action is discontinuous in time.

Block Diagram – represents the flow of information and the functions performed by each
component in the system.

Free response – is the solution of the differential equation when the input u(t) is identically
zero.

Forced response – is the solution of the differential equation when all the initial conditions are
identically zero.
Total response – of a linear constant-coefficient differential equation is the sum of the free
response and the forced response.

Steady-state response – is that part of total response which does not approach zero as time
approaches infinity.

Transient response – is that part of total response which approaches zero as time approaches
infinity.

1 for t > to
Unit step function 1( t – to ) is defined by 1 ( t – to ) =
0 for t ≤ to

Unit ramp function – is the integral of a unit step function.

( ) ( ∆)
Unit impulse function ẟ(t) is defined as: ẟ(t) = lim ∆

∆𝑡 → 0
∆𝑡 > 0
where 1(t) is the unit step-function.

Unit impulse response ( system ) – is the output y(t) of the system when the input u(t) = ẟ(t)
and all initial conditions are zero.

Unit step response – is the output y(t) when the input u(t) = 1(t) and all the initial conditions
are zero.

Unit ramp response – is the output y(t) when the input u(t) = t for t > 0 , u(t) = 0 for t ≤ 0 and
all initial conditions are zero.

Transfer function ( system ) - is the Laplace transform of its impulse response.

Impulse response – is the derivative of a step response.

Continuous-time control system – contain or process only continuous-time signals and

components. It is an analog control system.

Discrete-time control system – have discrete time signals or components at one or more points
in the systems. It is a digital control system.

Sampler – is a device that converts a continuous-time signal into a discrete-time signal.

 Hold/Data hold – a device that converts the discrete-time output of a sampler into a particular
kind of continuous-time or analog signal.

Analog to digital converter – is a device that converts an analog or continuous signal into a
discrete or digital signal.

Digital to analog converter – a device that converts a discrete or digital signal into a continuous
or analog signal.

Computer-controlled system – includes a computer as the primary control element.

Transducer – a device that converts one energy form into another.

Controller – often associated with the elements of the forward path, between the actuating
signal and the control variable.

1) On-Off controller – has only two possible values at its output u1 depending on the input e
to the controller.

2) Proportional (P) controller – has an output u proportional to its input e ; u = kpe

3) Derivative (D) controller – has an output u proportional to the derivative of its input e ;
u = kD de/dt

4) Integral (I) controller – has an output u proportional to the integral of its input e;

u = KI ∫ 𝑒(𝑡)𝑑𝑡

5) PD, PI, DI, and PID controllers – are combinations of proportional, derivative and integral
controllers.

NOTE:

The INITIAL value f( 0+ ) of the function f( t ) whose laplace transform is F( s ) is:

f( 0+ ) = lim f(t) = lim sF(s) t>0

t→0 s→ ∞

The FINAL value f( ∞ ) of the function f( t ) whose laplace transform is F ( s ) is:

f( ∞ ) = lim f(t) = lim sF(s) t> 0

t→ ∞ s→0
Example 1
A) Find the initial and final value of the following functions:

1) f( t ) = sin2t
Solution:

ꝭ ( sin2t ) =

Initial value = s [ ] = = = = = 0

s → ∞

Final value = = = 0

s → 0

2) f( t ) = e-2tcosht
Solution:

ꝭ ( cosh t ) = ; ꝭ ( e-2tcosht ) = ( )
=

Initial value = s [ ] = = = = 1

s → ∞

Final value = = = 0

s → 0

3) f( t ) = t ( e3t + 2sinht )
Solution:

ꝭ ( e3t + 2sinht ) = +

d( + ) = - ( )
- ( )

therefore : ꝭ [ t ( e3t + 2sinht ) ] = ( )

+ ( )
Simplify: ( )( )
=

Initial value = s [ ] =

s → ∞ = = 0

Final value = = = 0

s → 0

4) f( t ) = 3t2e-4t
!
ꝭ ( 3t2 ) = 3 [ ] =

thus :

ꝭ ( 3t2e-4t ) = ( )
=

Initial Value :

s [ ] = =

s → ∞

= = 0

Final Value = = = 0

s → 0

Alternate Solution:

ꝭ ( 3e-4t ) = 3 [ ] =

( ) = - ( )

( )( )( )
( - ( )
) = ( )
= ( )

Therefore:

ꝭ ( 3t2e-4t ) = ( )
B) Given a step response of f ( t ) = e4t , find the impulse response and transfer
function.
Solution:
( )
Impulse response = = 4𝒆𝟒𝒕

𝟒
Transfer function = ꝭ ( 4𝑒 ) = 𝒔 𝟒

C) Given an impulse response of cos3t , find the step response and the transfer function.
Solution:
𝒔
Transfer function = ꝭ ( cos3t ) = 𝒔𝟐 𝟗

𝟏
Step response = ∫ 𝑐𝑜𝑠3𝑡𝑑𝑡 = 𝟑
sin3t + C

For example limit is ≤ t ≤ 𝜋

Thus:
𝟏
Step response = [ sin 3 ( 𝜋 ) - sin 3 ( ) ] = [0 + 1 ] = 𝟑

D) Given a transfer function of ; find the impulse and step response.

Solution:

Impulse response = ꝭ-1 ( )

= ( )
= + ( multiply by the denominator )

3s + 2 = As + 4A + Bs
Equating coefficients:
s ; 3 = A + B (1)
c ; 2 = 4A (2)

Solving simultaneously:

A = and B =
 Therefore : ꝭ-1 ( ) = ꝭ-1 ( ) + ꝭ-1 ( ( )
)

= ꝭ-1 ( ) + ꝭ-1 ( ( )
)

= + =

𝟏 𝟓𝒆 𝟒𝒕
Thus: Impulse response = 𝟐

Step response = ∫( 1 + 5𝑒 )𝑑𝑡 = [ t - 𝑒 ] + C

𝟒𝒕 𝟓𝒆 𝟒𝒕
= 𝟖
+ C

E) From the given transfer function below, find the impulse and step response.

1) G( s ) =

Solution:

G( s ) = ( )
= [ ( )
]

𝟏
Impulse response = ꝭ-1 [ ( )
] = 𝟒
[ sin2t ]

𝟏
Step response = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡𝑑𝑡 = [ - cos2t ] + C = - 𝟖 cos2t + C

2) G( s ) =

Solution:

G( s ) = = 4 [ ( )
] = 4 [ ( )
]

( ) ( )
= ( )
- ( )

( ) ( )
Impulse response = ꝭ-1 [ ( )
- ( )
]

𝟐𝒕 𝟐𝒕 𝟐𝒕
= 4𝒆 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒕 - 4𝒆 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒕 = 4𝒆 ( 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝟐𝒕 − 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝟐𝒕 )
 Step response = ∫( 4𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡 - 4𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡 ) dt

Integration by parts:

4 ∫( 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝑡 )𝑑𝑡 let u = 𝑒 dv = cos2tdt

du = -2𝑒 𝑑𝑡 v = sin2t

= 4 [ 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡 + ∫ 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡𝑑𝑡 ] = 2𝑒 sin2t + 4 ∫ 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡𝑑𝑡

Therefore:

Step response = 2𝑒 sin2t + 4 ∫ 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡𝑑𝑡 - 4 ∫ 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝑡𝑑𝑡

𝟐𝒕
= 2𝒆 sin2t + C

3) G( s ) = ( )

Solution:

G( s ) = ( )
let : u = s - 2 therefore s = u + 2

( )
= ( )
= + = + = 3 ( )
+ 6 ( )

Impulse response = ꝭ-1 [ 3 ( )

+ 3 ( )
] = 3𝑡𝑒 + 3𝑡 𝑒

= 3𝒕𝒆𝟐𝒕 ( t + 1 )

Step response = ∫( 3𝑡𝑒 + 3𝑡 𝑒 ) dt

By integration by parts : ∫ 3𝑡 𝑒 dt = 3 ∫ 𝑡 𝑒 𝑑𝑡 u = 𝑡 dv = 𝑒 𝑑𝑡

du = 2tdt v = 𝑒

3∫ 𝑡 𝑒 dt = 3[ 𝑡 𝑒 - ∫ 𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑡 ] = 𝑡 𝑒 - 3∫ 𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑡

𝟑 𝟐 𝟐𝒕
Step response = ∫( 3𝑡𝑒 ) dt + 𝑡 𝑒 - 3∫ 𝑡𝑒 𝑑𝑡 + C = 𝟐
𝒕 𝒆 + C
 4) G( s ) =

By Synthetic Division:

1 -2 1 -2 (2) s=2 ; s–2 = 0

2 0 2
----------------------------------------
1 0 1 s2 + 1 = 0

Solution:

G( s ) = = ( )( )
= +

5𝑠 − 5𝑠 = A𝑠 + A + B𝑠 - 2Bs + Cs - 2C

Equating coefficients:

s2 ; 5 = A + B (1)
s ; -5 = -2B + C (2)
c ; 0 = A - 2C (3)

Solving simultaneously ;

A = 2 B =3 C =1

ꝭ-1 [ ] = ꝭ-1 [ + ] = 2 ꝭ-1[ ] + 3 ꝭ-1[ ] + ꝭ-1[ ]

Impulse response = 2𝒆𝟐𝒕 + 3cost + sint

Step response = ∫( 2𝑒 + 3cost + sint ) dt = 𝒆𝟐𝒕 + 3sint - cost + C

 5) G( s ) =

Solution:

G( s ) = ( )
= ( )( )
= + +

4s4 + 3s3 + 34s2 + 27s + 72 = As4 + 13As2 + 36A + Bs4 + 9Bs2 + Cs3 + 9Cs + Ds4 + 4Ds2 +
Es3 + 4Es
Equating coefficients:

s4 ; 4 = A + B + D (1) s ; 27 = 9C + 4E (4)
s3 ; 3 = C + E (2) c ; 72 = 36A (5)
s2 ; 34 = 13A + 9B + 4D (3)

From equation ( 5 ) A= 2

Solving C and E simultaneously from equation ( 2 ) and ( 4 )

C = 3 E = 0

Solving B and D from equation ( 1 ) and ( 3 )

B + D = 2 and 9B + 4D = 8
B = 0 and D = 2

Therefore : = + +

Impulse response = 2ꝭ-1 ( ) + ꝭ-1( ) + 2 ꝭ-1( )

𝟑
= 2 + 𝟐
sin2t + 2 cos3t

𝟑 𝟐
Step response = ∫( 2 + sin2t + 2 cos3t ) dt = 2t - 𝟒
cos2t + 𝟑
sin3t + C
6) Find the differential equation of a system whose transfer function is given as :

G( s ) =

Solution:

( )
G(s) = = ( )

( )
= ( )

( s3 - 2s2 + s - 2 ) Y ( s ) = ( 5s2 - 5s ) U ( s )

𝒅𝟑 𝒚 𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝟐 𝒖 𝒅𝒖
- 2 𝒅𝒕𝟐 + - 2y = 5 - 5 𝒅𝒕
𝒅𝒕𝟑 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕𝟐

7) Given a differential equation of a system below, find the transfer function:

4 + 3 - 2 + y = -3 + 2 + 4u

Solution:

( 4s4 + 3s3 - 2s + 1 ) Y ( s ) = ( -3s3 + 2s2 + 4 ) U ( s )

( ) 𝟑𝒔𝟑 𝟐𝒔𝟐 𝟒
G(s) = ( )
= 𝟒𝒔𝟒 𝟑𝒔𝟑 𝟐𝐬 𝟏
 WRITING SYSTEM EQUATIONS

Electric Circuits and Components

The equation for an electric circuit obeys Kirchhoff’s Law which states:
1) The algebraic sum of the potential difference around a closed path equals zero. In traversing
any closed loop the sum of the voltage rises equals the sum of the voltage drops.
2) The algebraic sum of the currents entering or leaving a node is equal to zero. In other words,
the sum of entering currents on a junction or node equals the sum of the leaving currents on
that junction or node.

Three Basic Electrical Elements

A) RESISTOR
The voltage drop across a resistor states that it is equal to the product of the current
through the resistor and its resistance.

𝑣 = 𝑖𝑅 = I(s)R

B) INDUCTOR
The voltage drop across an inductor is equal to the product of the inductance and
the time rate of increase of current.

𝑣 = 𝐿 = LDi = LsI(s)

C) CAPACITOR
The voltage drop across a capacitor is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of the
electric charge to the value of its capacitance.

𝑣 = but 𝑖 = thus;

𝑣 = ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = (1/CD)i = (1/Cs)I(s)

The change on the capacitor plate is equal to the time integral of the current
entering the plate from the initial instant to the arbitrary time t, plus the initial value of
the charge.
 𝑳𝑪𝑫𝟐
G(D) = 𝑳𝑪𝑫𝟐 𝑹𝑪𝑫 𝟏

Therefore the differential equation of the electrical system is:

𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝟐 𝒖
LC 𝒅𝒕𝟐
+ RC + y = LC 𝒅𝒕𝟐
𝒅𝒕
Note: Correction missing D on R2L2 on the denominator of the first term.
 e) Find the transfer function of the given electrical system expressed in Laplace s. Let i(t)
be the input of the system and the current flowing through L2 be the output of the
system.
R2 R3

a b
i2 i4
i1

i(t) R1 i3 C L2

L1
I II

Solution:
Let: I(t) = U(s) and Y(s) = I4(s)
Using KCL:
At node a:
i(t) = i1 + i2
𝑈( ) = 𝐼 ( ) + 𝐼 ( ) (1)

At node b:
i2 = i3 + i4
𝐼 ( ) 𝐼 ( ) + 𝐼 ( ) (2)

Using KVL:
At Loop I:
𝑣𝑅 + 𝑣𝐿 = 𝑣𝑅 + vC

[ 𝑅 + 𝐿 𝑠 ] 𝐼 ( ) = 𝑅 𝐼 ( ) + ( )𝐼 ( ) (3)

At Loop II:
vC = 𝑣𝑅 + 𝑣𝐿 = [ 𝑅 + 𝐿 𝑠 ]𝐼 ( ) (4)
But 𝑌( ) = 𝐼 ( ) ( substitute to equation 4 )

vC = ( )𝐼 ( ) = [ 𝑅 + 𝐿 𝑠 ] 𝑌( )

thus:
𝐼 ( ) = [ 𝑅 𝐶𝑠 + 𝐿 𝐶𝑠 ] 𝑌( ) (5)

From equation 2:
𝐼 ( ) 𝐼 ( ) + 𝐼 ( )

𝐼 ( ) [ 𝑅 𝐶𝑠 + 𝐿 𝐶𝑠 ] 𝑌( ) + 𝑌( )

𝐼 ( ) [ 𝐿 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅 𝐶𝑠 + 1 ] 𝑌( ) (6)

Using equation 3 :

[ 𝑅 + 𝐿 𝑠 ] 𝐼 ( ) = 𝑅 𝐼 ( ) + ( )𝐼 ( ) (3)

[ 𝑅 + 𝐿 𝑠 ] 𝐼 ( ) = 𝑅 [ 𝐿 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅 𝐶𝑠 + 1 ] 𝑌( ) + ( ) [ 𝑅 𝐶𝑠 + 𝐿 𝐶𝑠 ] 𝑌( )

[ 𝑅 + 𝐿 𝑠 ] 𝐼 ( ) = [ 𝑅 𝐿 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅 + 𝑅 + 𝐿 𝑠 ] 𝑌( )

Therefore:
[ ] ( )
𝐼 ( ) = (7)

Now, let us use equation 1:

𝑈( ) = 𝐼 ( ) + 𝐼 ( )

[ ] ( )
𝑈( ) = + [ 𝐿 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅 𝐶𝑠 + 1 ] 𝑌( )

𝑈( ) = 𝑌( )

Therefore:

𝑳𝟏 𝒔 𝑹𝟏
G(s) = 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝒔𝟑 ( 𝑹𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝑪 𝑹𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝐂 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝟏 𝑪 ) 𝒔𝟐 ( 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑪 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝐂 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 ) 𝒔 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑
Using Mesh/Loop Method:

1) Obtain the transfer function of the given electrical system below expressed as operator
D wherein the input of the system is v(t) and the output is the voltage across L2.

R1 C

i1 i3
+ R2 R3
v(t) Ia Ib
- L1 L2
I i2 II

+ At Loop I:

v(t) = Ia ( R1 + + R2 + L1D ) - Ib ( R2 + L1D ) (1)

+ At Loop II:
Ia ( R2 + L1D ) = Ib ( R2 + L1D + R3 + L2D ) (2)

But: u(t) = v(t) and y(t) = vL2 = ( L2D ) Ib

Thus:
( )
𝐼 = (3) substitute to equation ( 2 )

( )
𝐼 ( R 2 + L 1D ) = ( ) ( R2 + L1D + R3 + L2D )

𝐼 = ( )
𝑦( ) = 𝑦( ) (4)

Substitute equation ( 4 ) and ( 3 ) in equation ( 1 )

( )
u(t) = 𝑦( ) ( R1 + + R2 + L1D ) - ( R 2 + L 1D )

u(t) = [ ( )( ) - ( ) ] 𝑦( )
For u(t) :

[ ( )

] 𝑦( )
( )

𝑢( ) = ( )
𝑦( )

Therefore:

Transfer function expressed as operator D is:

𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝑫𝟑 𝑹𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝑫𝟐
𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝑫𝟑 ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝑪 𝑹𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪 𝑹𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝑪 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝟏 𝑪 ) 𝑫𝟐 ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑪 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑪 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑪 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 ) 𝑫 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑

2) Obtain the transfer function of the electrical system below expressed in Laplace s
wherein i(t) is the input of the system and voltage across C2 be the output of the system.

R2 C1

i4 IB
I L R3
a b c
i1 + i2
R1 i(t) C2
i3 IA - IC i5

II

Solution:
Let:

U(s) = i(t) and Y(s) = vC2 = I5(s)

Thus:
𝐼 ( ) = 𝐶 𝑠 𝑌( ) (1)
Using KCL:
At node a:
𝐼 ( ) = 𝐼 ( ) + 𝐼 ( ) (2)
At node b:
𝑈( ) = 𝐼 ( ) + 𝐼 ( ) (3)
At node c:
𝐼 ( ) = 𝐼 ( ) + 𝐼 ( ) (4)

Using KVL
At Loop I:
v𝑅 = vL + v 𝑅 + v𝐶

𝑅 𝐼 ( ) = Ls 𝐼 ( ) + ( 𝑅 + )𝐼 ( ) (5)

At Loop II:
v𝑅 = v𝑅 + v𝐶 + v𝐶

𝑅 𝐼 ( ) = ( 𝑅 + )𝐼 ( ) + 𝑌( ) (6)

From equation ( 4 ):
𝐼 ( ) = 𝐼 ( ) + 𝐼 ( )

𝐶 𝑠 𝑌( ) = 𝐼 ( ) + 𝐼 ( ) ; 𝐼 ( ) = 𝐶 𝑠 𝑌( ) - 𝐼 ( ) ( substitute to equation 5 )

𝑅 ( 𝐶 𝑠 𝑌( ) - 𝐼 ( ) ) = Ls 𝐼 ( ) + ( )𝐼 ( )

Ls 𝐼 ( ) = 𝑅 ( 𝐶 𝑠 𝑌( ) - 𝐼 ( ) ) - ( )𝐼 ( )

Ls 𝐼 ( ) = 𝑅 𝐶 𝑠 𝑌( ) - 𝑅 𝐼 ( ) − ( )𝐼 ( )

( ) ( ) ( )
𝐼 ( ) = (7)

From equation 2:
𝐼 ( ) = 𝐼 ( ) + 𝐼 ( )

( ) ( ) ( )
= 𝐼 ( ) + 𝐼 ( )

Thus:
( ) ( ) ( )
𝐼 ( ) = - 𝐼 ( )
 ( ) ( ) ( )
𝐼 ( ) = (8)

From equation 6:
( ) ( ) ( )
= ( )𝐼 ( ) + 𝑌( )

( ) ( )
= 𝑌( )

𝐼 ( ) = 𝑌( ) (9)

Also;
𝐼 ( ) = 𝐶 𝑠 𝑌( ) - 𝐼 ( )

𝐼 ( ) = 𝐶 𝑠 𝑌( ) - 𝑌( )

𝐼 ( ) = 𝑌( ) ( 10 )

From equation 7:

( ) ( ) ( )
𝐼 ( ) = - (7 )

( ) ( )
𝐼 ( ) = - [ ][ ] 𝑌( )

( ) ( )
𝐼 ( ) = 𝑌( )
( )

( ) ( )
- 𝑌( )
( )

( ) ( ) ( )
𝐼 ( ) = 𝑌( )
( )

𝑈( ) = 𝐼 ( ) + 𝐼 ( )

( ) ( ) ( )
𝑈( ) = ( )
𝑌( )

+ 𝑌( )

Then continue the process…….

Using Mesh Loop Analysis:
Loop I:

𝑅 𝐼 ( ) = ( 𝑅 + + 𝑅 + Ls ) 𝐼 ( ) + Ls 𝐼 ( ) (1)

Loop II:

𝑅 𝐼 ( ) = ( 𝑅 + )𝐼 ( ) + 𝐼 ( ) (2)

Using the current source:

𝑈( ) = 𝐼 ( ) + 𝐼 ( ) (3)

But : 𝑌( ) = 𝐼 ( ) ; 𝐼 ( ) = 𝐶 𝑠 𝑌( ) (4)

From equation 2:

𝑅 𝐼 ( ) = ( 𝑅 + )𝐼 ( ) + 𝑌( )

𝑅 𝐼 ( ) = ( )𝐼 ( ) + 𝑌( )

( )𝐼 ( ) = 𝑅 𝐼 ( ) - 𝑌( )

Thus:
( ) ( )
𝐼 ( ) = ( substitute to equation 1 )

𝑅 𝐼 ( ) = ( 𝑅 + + 𝑅 + Ls ) 𝐼 ( ) + Ls 𝐼 ( )

( ( ) ( ) )
𝑅 𝐶 𝑠 𝑌( ) = ( )[ ] + Ls 𝐼 ( )

( ) ( ) ( )
𝐿𝑠 𝐼 ( ) = 𝑅 𝐶 𝑠 𝑌( ) -

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
=

So:

𝐼 ( ) = 𝑌( )

Then:

𝑈( ) = 𝐼 ( ) + 𝐼 ( )

𝑈( ) = 𝑌( ) + 𝐶 𝑠 𝑌( )

Then finally find 𝑮(𝒔)

STATE CONCEPT

State

The state of a system is a mathematical structure containing a set of n variables

X1(t), X2(t)………………Xn(t), called the state variable, such that the initial values Xi(t) of this
set and the system inputs Uj(t) are sufficient to uniquely describe the system’s future
response of t ≥ 𝑡𝑜. Generally, the initial starting time is taken to be zero.

State Vector

The set of state variables, Xi(t) represents the elements or components of the n-
dimensional state vector X(t); that is;

𝑋() 𝑋
⎡ ⎤ ⎡𝑋 ⎤
⎢ 𝑋 ( )⎥ ⎢ ⎥
X(t)
⎢𝑋 ⎥
= ⎢ ( )⎥ = ⎢𝑋 ⎥ = X
⎢
.
⎥ ⎢ . ⎥
⎢ . ⎥ ⎢ . ⎥
⎣ 𝑋 ( )⎦ ⎣𝑋 ⎦

The order of the system characteristic equation is n, and the state representation of the system
consist of n first-order differential equations. When all the inputs Uj(t) to a given system are
specified for t > to, the resulting state vector uniquely determines the system behaviour for
any t > to.

State Space

State space is defined as the n-dimensional space in which the components of the
state vector represents its coordinate axes.

State Trajectory

State trajectory is defined as the path produced in the state space by the state
vector X(t) as it changes with the passage of time. State space and state trajectory in the
two-dimensional case are referred to as phase plane and phase trajectory, respectively.

Note: The first step in applying these definitions to a physical system is the selection of
the system variables that are to represent the state of the system. The three common
representations for expressing the system state are the PHYSICAL, PHASE and
CANONICAL STATE VARIABLE.
 PHYSICAL VARIABLE METHOD

The selection of the state variables for this method is based upon the energy-storage
elements of the system. The physical variable in the energy equation for each energy-
storage element can be selected as a state variable of the system. Only independent
physical variables are chosen to be state variables. Independent State variables are
those state variables which cannot be expressed in terms of the remaining assigned
state variables. In some systems, it may be necessary to identify more state variables
than just the energy-storage variables. This is illustrated in some examples where
velocity is a state variable. When position, the integral of this state variable, is of
interest, it must also be assigned as a state variable.

TABLE OF SOME COMMON ENERGY-STORAGE ELEMENTS

Element Energy Physical Variable

Capacitor C C𝜐2 / 2 Voltage 𝜐
Inductor L L𝜄2 / 2 Current 𝜄
Mass M M𝜐2/ 2 Translational velocity 𝜐
Moment of Inertia J J𝜛2/ 2 Rotational velocity 𝜛
Spring K Kx2/ 2 Displacement x
Fluid CompressibilityV/KB VPL2/ 2KB Pressure PL
Fluid Capacitor C = 𝜌A 𝜌Ah2/ 2 Height h
Thermal Capacitor C C𝜙2/ 2 Temperature 𝜙

STATE – VARIABLE EQUATION

u1 y1
u2 y2
um ym
 The block diagram represents a system S which has m inputs, l inputs and n state variables.
The coefficients in the equations representing a linear-time-invariant system are constants. The
matrix state and output equations are then:

X(t) = Ax(t) + Bu(t)

Y(t) = CTx(t) + Du(t)

The variables x(t) u(t) and y(t) are column vector and A, B, C and D are matrices having
constant elements.

State Equation - are a set of n-first order differential equation where n is the number of
independent states.

The state equation can be represented by matrix notation.

̇ = AX + Bu
𝑿′𝒔
y = CTX + Du

HOMOGENEOUS SOLUTION ( State Transition Matrix )

The homogeneous state equation, with the input u(t) = 0, is:

X = Ax (1)

Where A is a constant nxn matrix and x is an nx1 column vector.

For the scalar first-order equation x = ax, the solution, in terms of the initial conditions at
time t = 0 , is:

X(t) = eatx(0) (2)

 For any other initial condition, at time t = to, the solution is:

x(t) = ea(t-to)x(to) (3 )

Comparing the scalar and the state equations show the solution of 1 to be analogous to the
solution given by 3, it is :

X(t) = exp( A( t – to ) ) x(to) (4)

The exponential function of a scalar which appears in 2 can be expressed as the infinite series:

( ) ( ) ( )
eat = exp(at) = 1 + + + + ……………. + + ………..
! ! ! !

The analogous exponential function of a square matrix A which appears in 4,

with to = 0, is:

( ) ( ) ( )
eAt = exp( At ) = I + + + + …………… + + ………….
! ! ! !

Thus, exp( At ) is a square matrix of the same order as A. It is more useful when the infinite
series is put in closed form. It is common to call this the State Transition Matrix ( STM ) or the
Fundamental Matrix of the system and to denote it by:

∅ (𝑡) = eAt = exp ( At )

The term State Transition Matrix ( STM ) is descriptive of the unforced or natural response
and is the expressions preferred by engineers.

y = CTX + Du
Examples:
1) Obtain the state equation of an RLC series circuit ( as shown below ) in a matrix form.
Let v(t) be the input of the electrical system and voltage across the capacitor be the
output. Also, assume that the current i(t) flowing through L be X1 and the voltage across
capacitor be X2.

R L

+ i(t)

v(t) ~~ C
-

Solution:
From the given: v(t) = u(t) , y(t) = vC , X1 = i and X2 = vC
By KVL:
v(t) = vR + vL + vC

u(t) = R𝑋 + L 𝑋̇ + X2
𝒖(𝒕) 𝑹𝑿𝟏 𝑿𝟐
𝑿𝟏̇ = (1)
𝑳

X2 = vC = ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑋 𝑑𝑡 ( derive )
𝟏
𝑿𝟐̇ = 𝑪
𝑿𝟏 (2)

y(t) = vC = 𝑿𝟐 (3)

𝑋̇ = AX + Bu

𝑹 𝟏
𝑿̇𝟏 𝑳 𝑳 𝑿𝟏 𝟏
= + 𝑳 u (t)
𝑿𝟐̇ 𝟏
𝟎 𝑿𝟐 𝟎
𝑪

y(t) = CT X + Du

𝑿𝟏
y(t) = [ 𝟎 𝟏] 𝑿𝟐
 2) Find the state variable equation in matrix form of problem number 1 if the output of the
system is the voltage across the inductor. All other given are the same.
Solution:

From the given: : v(t) = u(t) , y(t) = vL , X1 = i and X2 = vC

By KVL:
v(t) = vR + vL + vC

u(t) = R𝑋 + L 𝑋̇ + X2

𝒖(𝒕)
𝑿𝟏̇ =
𝑹𝑿𝟏 𝑿𝟐
(1)
𝑳

X2 = vC = ∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = ∫ 𝑋 𝑑𝑡 ( derive )

𝟏
𝑿𝟐̇ = 𝑿𝟏 (2)
𝑪

y(t) = vL = L 𝑿𝟏̇ = u(t) - R𝑿𝟏 - 𝑿𝟐 (3)

𝑋̇ = AX + Bu

𝑹 𝟏
𝑿̇𝟏 𝑳 𝑳 𝑿𝟏 𝟏
= + 𝑳 u (t)
𝑿𝟐̇ 𝟏
𝟎 𝑿𝟐 𝟎
𝑪

y(t) = CT + Du

𝑿𝟏
y(t) = [ −𝑹 −𝟏 ] + [ 𝟏 ] u(t)
𝑿𝟐
 3) Obtain the state equation of the given electrical system in matrix form.

Let : u(t) = v(t) ; y(t) = i2 , X1 = i1 , X2 = i2 and X3 = vC

By KCL:
i 1 = i2 + i 3
𝑋 = 𝑋 + i3 ; i3 = X1 - X2 (a)

By KVL
( loop I )
v(t) = vR1 + vL1 + vC

u(t) = R1 𝑋 + L1 𝑋̇ + 𝑋

𝒖(𝒕) 𝑹𝟏 𝑿𝟏 𝑿𝟑
𝑿𝟏̇ = 𝑳𝟏
(1)

( loop II )

vC = vL2 + vR2

𝑋 = L2 𝑋̇ + R2 𝑋

𝑹𝟐 𝑿𝟐 𝑿𝟑
𝑿𝟐̇ = 𝑳𝟐
(2)

Also:

𝑋 = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 but in equation of KCL

i3 = X1 - X2

𝑋 = ∫( 𝑋 − 𝑋 )𝑑𝑡 ( derive )
 𝟏
𝑿𝟑̇ = 𝑪
[ 𝑿𝟏 - 𝑿𝟐 ] (3)

But y = i2
y(t) = 𝑿𝟐 (4)

In matrix form:

𝑋̇ = AX + Bu
𝑹𝟏 𝟏
⎡ 𝑳𝟏 𝟎 ⎤
𝑿𝟏̇ 𝑳𝟏 𝑿𝟏 𝟏
⎢ 𝑹𝟐 𝟏 ⎥ 𝑳𝟏
𝑿𝟐̇ = ⎢ 𝟎 𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟐 ⎥
𝑿𝟐 + 𝟎 u(t)
𝑿𝟑̇ ⎢ 𝟏 ⎥ 𝑿𝟑
𝟏
𝟎 ⎦ 𝟎
⎣ 𝑪 𝑪

y( t ) = CTX + Du
𝑿𝟏
y(t) = [ 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 ] 𝑿𝟐
𝑿𝟑

4) Obtain the state equation in matrix form of the given electrical system below:
Let: i(t) be the input of the system and the current flowing through L2 be the output,
X1 be the current flowing through L1 , X2 be the voltage across C and X3 be the current
flowing through L2.
R2 R3

a b
i2 i4
i1

i(t) IA R1 IB i3 C IC L2

L1
I II
Solution:

u(t) = i(t) ; y(t) = i4 = X3 , X1 = i1 , X2 = vC and X3 = i4

By KCL:
At node a:
i(t) = i1 + i2
u(t) = X1 + i2 ; i2 = u(t) - X1 (a)

At node b:
i2 = i3 + i4
u(t) - X1 = i3 + X3 ; i3 = u(t) - X1 - X3 (b)

Using KVL:
At loop I :
vR1 + vL1 = vR2 + vC

R1X1 + L1 𝑋̇ = R2 [ u(t) - X1 ] + X2

𝑹𝟐 𝒖(𝒕) ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 ) 𝑿𝟏 𝑿𝟐
𝑿𝟏̇ = 𝑳𝟏
(1)

At loop II:
vC = vR3 + vL2

X2 = R3X3 + L2𝑋̇

𝑿𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟑
𝑿𝟑̇ = 𝑳𝟐
(2)

Also;

X2 = vC = ∫[ u(t) - X1 - X3 ] dt

𝟏
𝑿𝟐̇ = 𝑪
[ u(t) - X1 - X3 ] (3)

y(t) = X3 (4)
In matrix form:

𝑋̇ = AX + Bu

( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 ) 𝟏
⎡ 𝟎 ⎤ 𝑿 𝑹𝟐
𝑿𝟏̇ 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟏
𝟏 𝑳𝟏
⎢ 𝟏 𝟏 ⎥
𝑿𝟐̇ = ⎢ 𝑪
𝟎 𝑪 ⎥ 𝑿𝟐 + 𝟏 u(t)
𝑿𝟑̇ ⎢ 𝟏 𝑹𝟑 ⎥ 𝑿𝟑 𝑪
⎣ 𝟎 𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟐 ⎦ 𝟎

Y = CTX
𝑿𝟏
y(t) = [ 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏] 𝑿𝟐
𝑿𝟑

Alternate Solution: ( Mesh/Loop Analysis )

Loop I:

( 𝑅 + 𝐿 D + 𝑅 + ) IB = ( 𝑅 + 𝐿 D ) IA + IC

Loop II:

IB = ( 𝑅 + 𝐿 𝐷 + ) IC

From the input:

IA = i(t) = u(t)

Also:
X1 = IA - IB
IB = u(t) - X1
X 3 = i4 = IC
Thus:

( 𝑅 + 𝐿 D + 𝑅 ) ( u(t) - X1 ) + ( ) ( IB - IC ) = ( 𝑅 + 𝐿 D ) u(t)

𝑅 𝑢( ) - 𝑅 𝑋 - 𝐿 𝑋̇ - 𝑅 𝑋 + 𝑋 = 0

𝑹𝟐 𝒖(𝒕) ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 ) 𝑿𝟏 𝑿𝟐
𝑿𝟏̇ = 𝑳𝟏
(1)

IB = ( 𝑅 + 𝐿 𝐷 + ) IC

( IB - IC ) = ( 𝑅 + 𝐿 𝐷 ) X3

𝑋 = 𝑅 𝑋 + 𝐿 𝑋̇

𝑿𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟑
𝑿𝟑̇ = 𝑳𝟐
(2)

But:

𝑋 = 𝑣 = ∫( 𝐼 − 𝐼 )𝑑𝑡 ( derive )

𝟏
𝑿𝟐̇ = 𝑪
[ u(t) - X1 - 𝑿𝟑 ] (3)

Output:

𝒚(𝒕 ) = IC = 𝑿𝟑 (4)

( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 ) 𝟏
⎡ 𝟎 ⎤ 𝑿 𝑹𝟐
𝑿𝟏̇ 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟏
𝟏 𝑳𝟏
⎢ 𝟏 𝟏 ⎥
𝑿𝟐̇ = ⎢ 𝑪
𝟎 𝑪 ⎥ 𝑿𝟐 + 𝟏 u(t)
𝑿𝟑̇ ⎢ 𝟏 𝑹𝟑 ⎥ 𝑿𝟑 𝑪
⎣ 𝟎 𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟐 ⎦ 𝟎

𝑿𝟏
y(t) = [ 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏] 𝑿𝟐
𝑿𝟑
THE TRANSFER FUNCTION FROM THE STATE EQUATION

Given a transfer function G(s), we can obtain the state variable equations using the signal
flow graph model. Now, we turn to the matter of determining the transfer function G(s) of a
single-input, single-output ( SISO ) system.

From:

𝑋̇ = AX + Bu
y = CT X

where y is the single output and u is the single input. The Laplace transforms are:

sX(s) = AX(s) + BU(s)

Y(s) = CTX(s)

where B is an nx1 matrix, since u is a single input. Note that we do not include initial conditions,
since we seek the transfer function. Re-ordering we obtain:

( sI - A ) X(s) = BU(s)

since ( sI - A )-1 = Φ(s) , we have:

X(s) = Φ(s) BU(s)

Substituting X(s) into the output:

Y(s) = C Φ(s) BU(s)

𝑌(𝑠)
Therefore, the transfer function G(s) = 𝑈(𝑠)
is :

G(s) = C 𝚽(s) B where: 𝚽(s) = ( sI - A )-1

Example 1:
For an RLC series circuit below, find the transfer function from the state equation if the
input of the system be V(t) and the output is the voltage across C. Let X1 be the current that
flows on L and X2 be the voltage across C.

R C

± i(t) L
V(t)

Let :
u(t) = V(t) , y(t) = VC , X1 = i(t) and X2 = VC

Using KVL:

V(t) = VR + VL + VC

u(t) = RX1 + L𝑋1̇ + X2

𝐮(𝐭) − 𝐑𝐗 𝟏 − 𝐗𝟐
𝐗 𝟏̇ = 𝐋
(1)

Also:

1 1
X2 = VC =
𝐶
∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶
∫ 𝑋1 𝑑𝑡 ( derive )

𝑿𝟏
𝑿𝟐̇ = (2)
𝑪

For output:

y(t) = VC = X2 (3)
In matrix form:

𝑋̇ = AX + Bu

−𝑹 −𝟏
𝑿̇ 𝑿𝟏 𝟏
[ 𝟏 ] = [ 𝑳 𝑳
][ ] + [ 𝑳 ]u
𝑿𝟐̇ 𝟏
𝟎 𝑿𝟐 𝟎
𝑪

y(t) = CTx + Du

𝑿
y = [ 𝟎 𝟏 ] [ 𝑿𝟏 ]
𝟐

then:

G(s) = C Φ(s) B where: Φ(s) = ( sI - A )-1

R 1
s +
L L
( sI - A ) = [ −1 ]
s
C

𝑠𝐿 + 𝑅 −1 1 𝐿𝑠2 + 𝑅𝑠 1
| 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 | = ( )( s ) - ( )( ) = +
𝐿 𝐶 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿𝐶

𝑳𝑪𝒔𝟐 + 𝑹𝑪𝒔 + 𝟏
=
𝑳𝑪

For Minors:
−1
𝑀11 = [ 𝑠 ] 𝑀12 = [ ]
𝐶

1 𝑠𝐿 + 𝑅
𝑀21 = [ ] 𝑀22 = [ ]
𝐿 𝐿

For Adjoint :
−1
𝑠
𝐿
Adjoint of ( sI - A ) = [ 1 𝑠𝐿 + 𝑅 ]
𝐶 𝐿
Thus:
−1
𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 ( 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 )
𝑠 𝑳𝑪𝒔𝟐 + 𝑹𝑪𝒔 + 𝟏
𝐿
( sI - A )-1 = | 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 |
= [ 1 𝑠𝐿 + 𝑅 ] ÷
𝑳𝑪
𝐶 𝐿

G(s) = C Φ(s) B

−1 𝑠
𝑠 1
𝐿
𝐿
[0 1][ 1 𝑠𝐿 + 𝑅 ] [ 𝐿 ]
[ 0 1 ] [ 1 ]
1
0 𝐿𝐶
𝐶 𝐿 𝐿𝐶
G(s) = 𝐿𝐶𝑠2 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1
= 𝐿𝐶𝑠2 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1
= 𝐿𝐶𝑠2 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1
𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶

𝟏
G(s) =
𝑳𝑪𝒔𝟐 + 𝑹𝑪𝒔 + 𝟏

Example 2:

Obtain the transfer function from the state equation of the given electrical system
below. Assume that V(t) be the input of the system and the current that flows on R2 be
the output. Also let X1 be the current that flows on L1, X2 be the current that flows on L2
and X3 be the voltage across C.

Let : u(t) = V(t) ; y(t) = i2 , X1 = i1 , X 2 = i2 and X3 = vC

By KCL:
i1 = i 2 + i 3
𝑋1 = 𝑋2 + i3
i3 = X1 - X2 (a)
By KVL
( loop I )
V(t) = vR1 + vL1 + vC

u(t) = R1 𝑋1 + L1 𝑋1̇ + 𝑋3

𝒖(𝒕) − 𝑹𝟏 𝑿𝟏 − 𝑿𝟑
𝑿𝟏̇ = 𝑳𝟏
(1)

( loop II )
vC = vL2 + vR2

𝑋3 = L2 𝑋2̇ + R2 𝑋2

−𝑹𝟐 𝑿𝟐 + 𝑿𝟑
𝑿𝟐̇ = (2)
𝑳𝟐

Also:
1
𝑋3 = ∫ 𝑖3 𝑑𝑡 but in equation of KCL ; i 3 = X1 - X 2
𝐶

𝟏
𝑿𝟑̇ = [ 𝑿𝟏 - 𝑿𝟐 ] (3)
𝑪

y(t) = 𝑿𝟐 (4)

In matrix form:

𝑋̇ = AX + Bu

−𝑹𝟏 −𝟏
𝟎 𝟏
𝒙𝟏̇ 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝒙𝟏
−𝑹𝟐 𝟏 𝑳𝟏
[ 𝒙𝟐̇ ] = 𝟎 𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟐
[ 𝒙𝟐 ] + [ 𝟎 ] u(t)
𝒙𝟑̇ 𝒙𝟑
𝟏 −𝟏
𝟎 ] 𝟎
[ 𝑪 𝑪

y(t) = CTX + Du

𝒙𝟏
y(t) = [ 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 ] [ 𝒙𝟐 ]
𝒙𝟑
Find ( sI - A )-1 :

𝑅1 1
𝑠 + 0
𝐿1 𝐿1
𝑅2 −1
( sI - A ) = 0 𝑠 + 𝐿2 𝐿2
−1 1
[ 𝑠 ]
𝐶 𝐶

𝑠𝐿1 + 𝑅1 𝑠𝐿2 + 𝑅2 1 1 −1 −1
∆ ( sI – A ) = ( 𝐿1
)( )( s ) + ( 0 )( )( ) + ( )( )( 0 )
𝐿2 𝐶 𝐿1 𝐶 𝐿2

−1 𝑠𝐿2 + 𝑅2 1 1 −1 𝑠𝐿1 + 𝑅1
- [ ( )( )( ) + ( )( )( ) + ( s )( 0 )( 0 ) ]
𝐶 𝐿2 𝐿1 𝐶 𝐿2 𝐿1

𝐿1 𝐿2 𝑠3 + 𝑅2 𝐿1 𝑠2 + 𝑅1 𝐿2 𝑠2 + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑠 𝐿2 𝑠 + 𝑅2 𝐿1 𝑠 + 𝑅1
∆ ( sI – A ) = + +
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶

𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶𝑠3 + ( 𝑅2 𝐿1 𝐶 + 𝑅1 𝐿2 𝐶 ) 𝑠2 + ( 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶 + 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 )𝑠 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
= 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶

For Minors:

𝐿2 𝑠 + 𝑅2 −1
𝐿2 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝑠 + 𝑅2 1 −1 𝐿2 𝑠2 + 𝑅2 𝑠 1
|𝑀11 | = [ 1
] = ( )(s) - ( )( ) = +
𝐿2 𝐶 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝐶
𝑠
𝐶

𝐿2 𝐶 𝑠2 + 𝑅2 𝐶𝑠 + 1
=
𝐿2 𝐶

−1
0 −1 −1 1
𝐿2
|𝑀12 | = [ −1
] = (0)(s) - ( )( ) = -
𝐶 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝐶
𝑠
𝐶

𝐿2 𝑠 + 𝑅2
0 1 −1 𝐿2 𝑠 + 𝑅2 𝐿2 𝑠 + 𝑅2
𝐿2
|𝑀13 | = [ −1 1
] = (0)( ) - ( )( ) =
𝐶 𝐶 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝐶
𝐶 𝐶

Note: Other Minors are not important

For ( sI – A )-1 :

𝐿2 𝐶 𝑠2 + 𝑅2 𝐶𝑠 + 1
𝑥 𝑥
𝐿2 𝐶
1 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶𝑠3 + ( 𝑅2 𝐿1 𝐶 + 𝑅1 𝐿2 𝐶 ) 𝑠2 + ( 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶 + 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 )𝑠 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝑥 𝑥 ÷
𝐿2 𝐶 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶
𝐿2 𝑠 + 𝑅2
[ 𝐿2 𝐶
𝑥 𝑥 ]

G(s) = C Φ(s) B

𝐿2 𝐶 𝑠2 + 𝑅2 𝐶𝑠 + 1
𝑥 𝑥 𝟏
𝐿2 𝐶
1 𝑳𝟏
[ 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 ] 𝑥 𝑥 [ ]
𝐿2 𝐶 𝟎
𝐿2 𝑠 + 𝑅2
𝑥 𝑥 ] 𝟎
[ 𝐿2 𝐶
= 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶𝑠3 + ( 𝑅2 𝐿1 𝐶 + 𝑅1 𝐿2 𝐶 ) 𝑠2 + ( 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶 + 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 )𝑠 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶

𝐿2 𝐶 𝑠2 + 𝑅2 𝐶𝑠 + 1
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶
1
[ 𝟎 𝟏 𝟎 ]
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶
𝐿2 𝑠 + 𝑅2
[ 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶 ]
= 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶𝑠3 + ( 𝑅2 𝐿1 𝐶 + 𝑅1 𝐿2 𝐶 ) 𝑠2 + ( 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶 + 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 )𝑠 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶

1
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶
= 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶𝑠3 + ( 𝑅2 𝐿1 𝐶 + 𝑅1 𝐿2 𝐶 ) 𝑠2 + ( 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶 + 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 )𝑠 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶

𝟏
=
𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝒔𝟑 + ( 𝑹𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪 ) 𝒔𝟐 + ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑪 + 𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 )𝒔 + 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
Example 3:
Obtain the state equation in matrix form of the given electrical system below and then find
the transfer function from the state equation.

R2 R3

a b
i2 i4
i1

i(t) R1 i3 C L2

L1
I II

Let: i(t) be the input of the system and the current flowing through L 2 be the output,
X1 be the current flowing through L1 , X2 be the voltage across C and X3 be the current
flowing through L2.
Solution:
u(t) = i(t) ; y(t) = i4 = X3 , X 1 = i1 , X2 = vC and X3 = i4

By KCL:
At node a:
i(t) = i1 + i2
u(t) = X1 + i2
i2 = u(t) - X1 (a)

at node b:
i2 = i3 + i4
u(t) - X1 = i3 + X3 ; i3 = u(t) - X1 - X3 (b)
Using KVL:
At loop I :
vR1 + vL1 = vR2 + vC

R1X1 + L1 𝑋1̇ = R2 [ u(t) - X1 ] + X2

𝑹𝟐 𝒖(𝒕) − ( 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 ) 𝑿𝟏 + 𝑿𝟐
𝑿𝟏̇ = 𝑳𝟏
(1)

At loop II:
vC = vR3 + vL2

X2 = R3X3 + L2𝑋3̇

𝑿𝟐 − 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟑
𝑿𝟑̇ = (2)
𝑳𝟐

Also;
1
X2 = vC =
𝐶
∫[ u(t) - X1 - X3 ] dt

𝟏
𝑿𝟐̇ = [ u(t) - X1 - X3 ] (3)
𝑪

y(t) = X3 (4)
In matrix form:

− ( 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) 1
0 𝑅2
𝑋1̇ 𝐿1 𝐿1 𝑋1 𝐿1
−1 −1
[ 𝑋2̇ ] = 𝐶
0
𝐶
[ 𝑋2 ] + [ 1 ] u(t)
𝑋3̇ 1 −𝑅3 𝑋3 𝐶
[ 0 ] 0
𝐿2 𝐿2

𝑋1
y(t) = [ 0 0 1 ] [ 𝑋2 ]
𝑋3
 ( 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) −1
𝑠+ 0
𝐿1 𝐿1
1 1
( sI - A ) = 𝐶
𝑠
𝐶
−1 𝑅3
[ 0 𝑠 + ]
𝐿2 𝐿2

𝐿1 𝑠 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐿2 𝑠 + 𝑅3 −1 1 𝐿1 𝑠 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐿2 𝑠 + 𝑅3 −1 1
∆𝑠 = s ( )( ) - [ ( )( )( ) + ( )( )( ) ]
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝐶 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿1 𝐶

𝐿1 𝐿2 𝑠3 + 𝑅3 𝐿1 𝑠2 + 𝑅1 𝐿2 𝑠2 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑠 + 𝑅2 𝐿2 𝑠2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑠 𝐿1 𝑠 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 𝐿2 𝑠 + 𝑅3
∆𝑠 = + +
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶

𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶𝑠3 + 𝑅3 𝐿1 𝐶𝑠2 + 𝑅1 𝐿2 𝐶𝑠2 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅2 𝐿2 𝐶𝑠2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐶𝑠 + 𝐿1 𝑠 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝐿2 𝑠 + 𝑅3

∆𝑠 =
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶

G(s) = C ( sI - A )-1 B

For Minors:

1
𝑠 𝐿2 𝑠 + 𝑅3 −1 1 𝐿2 𝑠2 + 𝑅3 𝑠 1 𝐿2 𝐶𝑠2 + 𝑅3 𝐶𝑠 + 1
𝐶
|𝑀11 | = [−1 𝑅3 ] = s( ) - ( )( ) = + =
𝑠 + 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝐶 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝐶 𝐿2 𝐶
𝐿2 𝐿2

1 1
𝐶 𝐶 1 𝐿2 𝑠 + 𝑅3 𝐿2 𝑠 + 𝑅3
|𝑀12 | = [ 𝑅3 ] = ( )( ) - 0 =
0 𝑠 + 𝐶 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝐶
𝐿2

1
𝑠 1 −1 −1
𝐶
|𝑀13 | = [ −1] = ( )( ) - 0 =
0 𝐶 𝐿2 𝐿2 𝐶
𝐿2

( 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) −1
𝑠+ 𝐿1 𝑠 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 −1 𝐿1 𝑠 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2
𝐿1 𝐿1
|𝑀23 | = [ −1 ] = ( )( ) - 0 = −
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿1 𝐿2
0 𝐿2
Therefore :

𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 𝑅2
𝐿1
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥
[ −1 𝐿1 𝑠 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ] 1
𝑥 𝐶
𝐿2 𝐶 𝐿1 𝐿2
[ 0 ]
G(s) = [ 0 0 1 ] 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅3 𝐿1 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅1 𝐿2 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅2 𝐿2 𝐶𝑠2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐶𝑠 + 𝐿1 𝑠 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝐿2 𝑠 + 𝑅3
3 2 2
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶

𝑥
𝑥
[ −𝑅2 𝐿 𝑠 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ]
+ 1
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶
G(s) = [ 0 0 1 ] 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶𝑠3 + 𝑅3 𝐿1 𝐶𝑠2 + 𝑅1 𝐿2 𝐶𝑠2 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅2 𝐿2 𝐶𝑠2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐶𝑠 + 𝐿1 𝑠 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝐿2 𝑠 + 𝑅3
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶

𝐿1 𝑠 + 𝑅1
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶
G(s) = 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶𝑠3 + 𝑅3 𝐿1 𝐶𝑠2 + 𝑅1 𝐿2 𝐶𝑠2 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅2 𝐿2 𝐶𝑠2 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐶𝑠 + 𝐿1 𝑠 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + 𝐿2 𝑠 + 𝑅3
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶

Therefore:

𝑳𝟏 𝒔 + 𝑹𝟏
G(s) = 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝒔𝟑 + ( 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝟏 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝑪 ) 𝒔𝟐 + ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑪 + 𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 ) 𝒔 + 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑
Example 4:

Find the transfer function of the given electrical system below from the state equation.
Assume v(t) be the input of the system and the current flowing through R3 be the output of
the system. Let X1 be the current flowing on L1 , X2 be the voltage across C and X3 be the
current flowing through L2.

R3 C a R2

i2 i3
R1
L1 i1 L2
+
v(t) -
I II

Solution:
u( t ) = v( t ) y( t ) = i2 = X1 X1 = i2 X2 = vC X3 = i 3

Using KCL:

At node a:

i1 = i2 + i3
i1 = X1 + X3 (a)

Using KVL:

At Loop I:

v( t ) = vR1 + vR3 + vC + vL1

u( t ) = R1 ( X1 + X3 ) + R3 X1 + X2 + L1 𝑋1̇

𝒖(𝒕) − ( 𝑹 + 𝑹 ) 𝑿 − 𝑿 − 𝑹 𝑿
𝑿𝟏̇ = 𝟏 𝟑 𝟏 𝟐 𝟏 𝟑
( 1 )
𝑳𝟏

At Loop II:

v( t ) = vR1 + vR2 + vL2

u( t ) = R1 ( X1 + X3 ) + R2 X3 + L2 𝑋3̇

𝒖( 𝒕 ) − 𝑹𝟏 𝑿𝟏 − ( 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 ) 𝑿𝟑
𝑿𝟑̇ = 𝑳𝟐
(2)
 Also;

1 1
vC = X2 =
𝐶
∫ 𝑖2 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶
∫ 𝑋1 𝑑𝑡 ( derive )

𝟏
𝑿𝟐̇ = X1 (3)
𝑪

But:

y(t) = i2 = X1 (4)

Thus, the state equation in matrix form can be written as:

− ( 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 ) −1 − 𝑅1
1
𝑋1̇ 𝐿1 𝐿1 𝐿1 𝑋1 𝐿1
1
[ 𝑋2̇ ] = 𝐶
0 0 [ 𝑋2 ] + [ 0 ] u(t)
𝑋3 1
𝑋3̇ − 𝑅1
0
− ( 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )
𝐿2
[ 𝐿2 𝐿2 ]

𝑋1
y(t) = [ 1 0 0 ] [ 𝑋2 ]
𝑋3

𝐿1 𝑠 + ( 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 ) 1 𝑅1 𝐿1 𝑠 + ( 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 ) 1
𝐿1 𝐿1 𝐿1 𝐿1 𝐿1
−1 −1
For ( sI - A ) = 𝐶
𝑠 0 𝑠
𝐶
𝑅1 𝐿2 𝑠 + ( 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) 𝑅1
[ 0 ] 𝐿2
0
𝐿2 𝐿2

∆ ( sI – A ) :
𝐿1 𝑠 + ( 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 ) 𝐿2 𝑠 + ( 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) 𝑅 𝑅1 𝐿2 𝑠 + ( 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) 1 −1
( )(s)( ) - [ ( 𝐿1 ) ( s ) ( ) +( )( )( )]
𝐿1 𝐿2 2 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿1 𝐶

𝐿1 𝐿2 𝑠3 + 𝑅1 𝐿1 𝑠2 + 𝑅2 𝐿1 𝑠2 + 𝑅1 𝐿2 𝑠2 + 𝑅12 𝑠 + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑠 + 𝑅3 𝐿2 𝑠2 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑠 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑠 𝑅12 𝑠
-
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿1 𝐿2

𝐿2 𝑠 + ( 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 )
+
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶

Thus:
∆ ( sI – A ) :
𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝒔𝟑 + ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝟐 𝑪 ) 𝒔𝟐 + ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑪 + 𝑳𝟐 )𝒔 + 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪
Solving for Minors:

𝑠 0 𝐿2 𝑠 + ( 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) 𝐿2 𝑠2 + 𝑅1 𝑠 + 𝑅2 𝑠
|𝑀11 | = [ 0 𝐿2 𝑠 + ( 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) ] = (s)( ) - 0 =
𝐿2 𝐿2
𝐿2

1 𝑅1
𝑅1 𝑅1 𝑠
|𝑀31 | = [ 𝐿1 𝐿1 ] = 0 - (s)( ) = -
𝐿1 𝐿1
𝑠 0

Note: Other Minors are not important.

𝐿2 𝑠2 + 𝑅1 𝑠 + 𝑅2 𝑠 𝑅1 𝑠
𝑥 −
𝐿2 𝐿1
Therefore: adjoint ( sI – A ) = [ 𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 ]
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥

𝐶 [ 𝑎𝑑𝑗𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 ( 𝑠𝐼−𝐴 ) ] 𝐵 𝑎𝑑𝑗 ( 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 )

G( s ) =
∆ ( 𝑠𝐼−𝐴 )
; Φ(s) =
∆ ( 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 )

1
𝐿2 𝑠2 + 𝑅1 𝑠 + 𝑅2 𝑠 𝑅1 𝑠
𝑥 − 𝐿1
[ 1 0 0 ][ 𝐿2 𝐿1
] 0
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 1
𝑥 𝑥 𝑥 [ 𝐿2 ]
G( s ) = 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝒔𝟑 + ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝟐 𝑪 ) 𝒔𝟐 + ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑪 + 𝑳𝟐 )𝒔 + 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪

𝐿2 𝑠2 + 𝑅1 𝑠 + 𝑅2 𝑠 𝑅1 𝑠
+ 0−
[ 1 0 0 ][ 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿1 𝐿2
]
𝑥
𝑥
G( s ) = 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝒔𝟑 + ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝟐 𝑪 ) 𝒔𝟐 + ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑪 + 𝑳𝟐 )𝒔 + 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪

𝐿2 𝑠2 + 𝑅2 𝑠
[ 1 0 0 ][ 𝐿1 𝐿2
]
𝑥
𝑥
G( s ) = 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝒔𝟑 + ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝟐 𝑪 ) 𝒔𝟐 + ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑪 + 𝑳𝟐 )𝒔 + 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪

𝐿2 𝑠2 + 𝑅2 𝑠
𝐿1 𝐿2
G( s ) = 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝒔𝟑 + ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝟐 𝑪 ) 𝒔𝟐 + ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑪 + 𝑳𝟐 )𝒔 + 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐
𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪
 Therefore, the transfer function be:

𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝒔𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑪𝒔
𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝒔𝟑 + ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝟐 𝑪 ) 𝒔𝟐 + ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑪 + 𝑳𝟐 )𝒔 + 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐

Example 5:

Find the transfer function of the given electrical system below from the state equation.
Assume v(t) be the input of the system and the current flowing through R3 be the output of
the system. Let X1 be the current flowing on L , X2 be the voltage across C1 and X3 be the
voltage across C2.

R1 C1 a R3

i1 i2
L

± v(t) C2
i3 R2
I II

Solution:
u( t ) = v( t ) ; y( t ) = i2 X1 = i 3 X2 = vC1 X3 = vC2

Using KCL:
At node a:
i1 = i2 + i3
i1 = i 2 + X 1 (a)
Using KVL:
At Loop I:
v( t ) = vR1 + vC1 + VL + vR2

u( t ) = R1i1 + X2 + L 𝑋1̇ + R2 X1

u( t ) = R1 ( i2 + X1 ) + X2 + L 𝑋1̇ + R2 X1 (b)
At Loop II:
vL + vR2 = vR3 + vC2

L 𝑋1̇ + R2 X1 = R3i2 + X3 (c)

From equation c :
𝐋 𝑿𝟏̇ + 𝑹𝟐 𝑿𝟏 − 𝑿𝟑
i2 = ( substitute in equation b )
𝑹𝟑

L 𝑋1̇ + 𝑅2 𝑋1 − 𝑋3
u( t ) = R1 [ + X1 ) ] + X2 + L 𝑋1̇ + R2 X1
𝑅3

L 𝑋1̇ + 𝑅2 𝑋1 − 𝑋3 + 𝑅3 𝑋1
u( t ) = R1 [
𝑅3
] + X2 + L 𝑋1̇ + R2 X1

𝑅1 𝐿 𝑋1̇ + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑋1 − 𝑅1 𝑋3 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑋1̇ + 𝑅3 𝑋2 + 𝑅3 𝐿 𝑋1̇ + 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑋1

u( t ) =
𝑅3

R3 u( t ) = 𝑅1 𝐿 𝑋1̇ + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑋1 − 𝑅1 𝑋3 + 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝑋1̇ + 𝑅3 𝑋2 + 𝑅3 𝐿 𝑋1̇ + 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑋1

𝑹𝟑 𝒖( 𝒕 ) − ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 ) 𝑿𝟏 − 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑿𝟑
𝑿𝟏̇ = 𝑹𝟏 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑
( 1 )

Also:
1 1
X2 = vC1 =
𝐶1
∫ 𝑖1 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶1
∫( 𝑖2 + 𝑋1 )𝑑𝑡

1 L 𝑋1̇ + 𝑅2 𝑋1 − 𝑋3
X2 =
𝐶1
∫( 𝑅3
+ 𝑋1 ) 𝑑𝑡 ( derive )

𝐿 𝑋̇1 + 𝑅2 𝑋1 −̇ 𝑋3 + 𝑅3 𝑋1
𝑋2̇ =
𝑅3 𝐶1

𝑹𝟑 𝒖( 𝒕 ) − ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 ) 𝑿𝟏 − 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑿𝟑
𝐿 [ ] + 𝑅2 𝑋1 − 𝑋3 + 𝑅3 𝑋1
𝑹𝟏 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑
𝑋2̇ =
𝑅3 𝐶1

𝑹𝟑 𝑳 𝒖( 𝒕 ) − ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑳 ) 𝑿𝟏 − 𝑹𝟑 𝑳 𝑿𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑳 𝑿𝟑 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑳 𝑿𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑳 𝑿𝟏 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟏 − 𝑹𝟏 𝑳 𝑿𝟑 − 𝑹𝟑 𝑳 𝑿𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟑 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝑿𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝟐
𝟑 𝑳 𝑿𝟏 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟏
[ ]
𝑹𝟏 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑
𝑋2̇ =
𝑅3 𝐶1
 𝑹𝟑 𝑳 𝒖( 𝒕 ) − 𝑹𝟑 𝑳 𝑿𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟏 − 𝑹𝟑 𝑳 𝑿𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟑 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝑿𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐𝟑 𝑳 𝑿𝟏 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐𝟑 𝑿𝟏
𝑋2̇ = (2)
( 𝑹𝟏 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 ) ( 𝑹𝟑 𝑪𝟏 )

1 1 L 𝑋1̇ + 𝑅2 𝑋1 − 𝑋3
𝑋3 = vC2 = 𝐶2
∫ 𝑖2 𝑑𝑡 = 𝐶2
∫ 𝑅3
𝑑𝑡 ( derive )

1 L 𝑋1̇ + 𝑅2 𝑋1 − 𝑋3
𝑋3̇ = 𝐶2
[ ]
𝑅3

𝑹𝟑 𝑳 𝒖( 𝒕 ) − ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑳 ) 𝑿𝟏 − 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝑿𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑳 𝑿𝟑
+ 𝑅2 𝑋1 − 𝑋3
1 𝑹𝟏 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑
𝑋3̇ = 𝐶2
[ ]
𝑅3

𝑹𝟑 𝑳 𝒖( 𝒕 ) − ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑳 ) 𝑿𝟏 − 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝑿𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑳 𝑿𝟑 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑳𝑿𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝑿𝟏 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟏 − 𝑹𝟏 𝑳𝑿𝟑 − 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝑿𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟑

𝑋3̇ = [
𝑹𝟏 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑
𝑅3 𝐶2
]

𝑹𝟑 𝑳 𝒖( 𝒕 ) − 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝑿𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟏 − 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝑿𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟑

𝑋3̇
𝑹𝟏 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑
= [
𝑅3 𝐶2
]

𝑹𝟑 𝑳 𝒖( 𝒕 ) − 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝑿𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟏 − 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝑿𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟑
𝑋3̇ = ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 ) ( 𝑹𝟑 𝑪𝟐 )
(3)

For output :
L 𝑋1̇ + 𝑅2 𝑋1 − 𝑋3
y( t ) = i2 =
𝑅3

𝑹𝟑 𝒖( 𝒕 ) − ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 ) 𝑿𝟏 − 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑿𝟑
𝐿 [ ] + 𝑅2 𝑋1 − 𝑋3
𝑹𝟏 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑
y( t ) =
𝑅3

𝑹𝟑 𝑳 𝒖( 𝒕 ) − ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑳 ) 𝑿𝟏 − 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝑿𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑳 𝑿𝟑 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑳𝑿𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝑿𝟏 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟏 − 𝑹𝟏 𝑳𝑿𝟑 − 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝑿𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟑

𝑹𝟏 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑
y( t ) = 𝑅3

𝑹𝟑 𝑳 𝒖( 𝒕 ) − 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝑿𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟏 − 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝑿𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟑
𝑹𝟏 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑
y( t ) = 𝑅3

𝑹𝟑 𝑳 𝒖( 𝒕 ) − 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝑿𝟐 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟏 − 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝑿𝟑 − 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟑
y( t ) = ( 𝑹𝟑 ) ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑳 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 )
(4)

Note: Transfer function can’t be solve using G(s) = C𝚽(s)B since output contains an input
coefficient.
SIMULATION DIAGRAMS

A block diagram is often used to represent the dynamic equations of a system. The
simulation may show physical variables which appear in the system, or it may show variables
that are used purely for mathematical convenience. In either case, the overall response of the
system is the same.
One of the methods used to obtain a Simulation Diagram includes the following steps:
1) Starts with the differential equation.
2) On the left side of the equation, put the highest order derivative of the Dependent
variable. A first-order or higher-order derivative of the input may appear in the
equation. In this case, the highest-order derivative of the input is also placed on the left
side of the equation. All other terms are put on the right side.
3) Start the diagram by assuming that the signal, represented by the terms on the left side
of the equation, is available. Then, integrate it as many times as needed to obtain all the
lower-order derivatives. It may be necessary to add a Summer in the Simulation
Diagram to obtain the dependent variable explicitly.
4) Complete the diagram by feeding back the appropriate outputs of the integrators to a
summer to generate the original signal of Step 2. Include the input functions if it is
required.

Elements Use in Simulation Diagram

1) INTEGRATOR

ꭍ
X1 X2 = ∫ 𝑋1 𝑑𝑡

2) AMPLIFIER OR GAIN

X1 X2 = kX1
k

3) SUMMER
X1 + X4 = X1 - X2 + X3
− +

X2 X3
Example 1 :
Draw the Simulation Diagram for the RLC series circuit in which the input is the voltage
source v(t) and the output is the voltage across the capacitor.

Solution:
Apllying the Kircchhoff’s Voltage Law in the given circuit:
vR + vL + vC = v(t)
1
Ri + LDi + i = u (1)
𝐶𝐷

Step 1: when y = vC and u = v(t) are used:

1
y = vC =
𝐶
∫ 𝑖𝑑𝑡 ( derived )
1
y’ = i ; i = Cy’ and Di = Cy”
𝐶

substitute the values in equation (1), we have:

LCy” + RCy’ + y = u ; LCy” = u - RCy’ - y

Step 2 : Re- arrange terms to form :

𝑢 − 𝑅𝐶𝑦 ′ − 𝑦 1 𝑅 1
y” = = 𝑢 - 𝑦′ - 𝑦
𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝐶 𝐿 𝐿𝐶

𝑅 1
where: a = and b =
𝐿 𝐿𝐶

Step 3: The signal y” is integrated twice as shown:

y” y’ y
ꭍ ꭍ
Step 4 : The block or simulation diagram is completed as shown in order to satisfy the
equation:

+ y” y’
ꭍ ꭍ
u 1 y
=b
𝐿𝐶
− −

𝑅
𝐿
= a

1
=b
𝐿𝐶

Example 2:
Draw the simulation diagram of the given electrical circuit, let i(t) be the input and the
voltage across R3 be the output.

R1 L2
a b

i2 i4

R2
i1

i(t) L1 R3
i3 C

I II
Solution:
𝒚
u = i(t) and y = vR3 = R3i4 thus i4 =
𝑹𝟑

By KCL :
At junction a:
i(t) = i1 + i2 thus: u = i 1 + i2 (1)

At junction b:
𝑦
i2 = i3 + i4 thus : i 2 = i3 + (2)
𝑅3

By KVL:
At loop I:
vL1 = vR1 + vR2 + vC
1
L1Di1 = R1i2 + R2i3 + i3 (3)
𝐶𝐷

At loop II:
vR2 + vC = vL2 + vR3
1
R2i3 + i3 = L2Di4 + y
𝐶𝐷
1 𝑦
i3 ( R2 + ) = L2D ( ) + y
𝐶𝐷 𝑅3

1 𝑦′
i3 ( R2 + ) = L2 𝑅 + y
𝐶𝐷 3

1 𝐿2 𝑦 ′ + 𝑅3 𝑦
i3 ( R2 + ) = (4)
𝐶𝐷 𝑅3

From ( 4 ) :

𝑅2 𝐶𝐷 + 1 𝐿2 𝑦 ′ + 𝑅3 𝑦
i3 ( ) =
𝐶𝐷 𝑅3

𝐶𝐷 ( 𝐿2 𝑦 ′ + 𝑅3 𝑦 )
i3 = ( 𝑅2 𝐶𝐷 + 1 ) ( 𝑅3 )

𝑪𝑳𝟐 𝒚" + 𝑪𝑹𝟑 𝒚′

i3 = ( 𝑹𝟐 𝑪𝑫 + 𝟏 ) ( 𝑹𝟑 )
(5)
Substitute value of i3 and i4 in equation ( 2 ) :

𝑦 𝐶𝐿2 𝑦" + 𝐶𝑅3 𝑦 ′ 𝑦 𝐶𝐿2 𝑦" + 𝐶𝑅3 𝑦 ′ + 𝑦 ( 𝑅2 𝐶𝐷 + 1 )

i2 = i3 + = ( 𝑅2 𝐶𝐷 + 1 ) ( 𝑅3 )
+ = ( 𝑅2 𝐶𝐷 + 1 ) ( 𝑅3 )
𝑅3 𝑅3

𝑪𝑳𝟐 𝒚" + 𝑪𝑹𝟑 𝒚′ + 𝑪𝑹𝟐 𝒚′ + 𝒚

i2 = ( 𝑹𝟐 𝑪𝑫 + 𝟏 ) ( 𝑹𝟑 )
(6)

From equation ( 3 ) :

1
L1Di1 = R1i2 + R2i3 + i3
𝐶𝐷

𝐶𝐿2 𝑦" + 𝐶𝑅3 𝑦 ′ + 𝐶𝑅2 𝑦′ + 𝑦 𝐿2 𝑦 ′ + 𝑅3 𝑦

L1Di1 = R1 ( ( 𝑅2 𝐶𝐷 + 1 ) ( 𝑅3 )
) +
𝑅3

𝑅1 𝐶𝐿2 𝑦" + 𝑅1 𝐶𝑅3 𝑦′ + 𝐶𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑦 ′ + 𝑅1 𝑦 + ( 𝐿2 𝑦 ′ + 𝑅3 𝑦 ) ( 𝑅2 𝐶𝐷 + 1 )

L1Di1 = ( 𝑅2 𝐶𝐷 + 1 ) ( 𝑅3 )

𝑹𝟏 𝑪𝑳𝟐 𝒚" + 𝑹𝟏 𝑪𝑹𝟑 𝒚′ + 𝑪𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝒚′ + 𝑹𝟏 𝒚 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝑪𝒚" + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑪𝒚′ + 𝑳𝟐 𝒚′ + 𝑹𝟑 𝒚

i1 = (7)
( 𝑳𝟏 𝑫 )( 𝑹𝟐 𝑪𝑫 + 𝟏 ) ( 𝑹𝟑 )

Substitute ( 6 ) and ( 7 ) in equation ( 1 ):

u = i 1 + i2

𝑅1 𝐶𝐿2 𝑦" + 𝑅1 𝐶𝑅3 𝑦′ + 𝐶𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑦 ′ + 𝑅1 𝑦 + 𝑅2 𝐿2 𝐶𝑦 " + 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐶𝑦 ′ + 𝐿2 𝑦 ′ + 𝑅3 𝑦

u= +
( 𝐿1 𝐷 )( 𝑅2 𝐶𝐷 + 1 ) ( 𝑅3 )

𝐶𝐿2 𝑦" + 𝐶𝑅3 𝑦 ′ + 𝐶𝑅2 𝑦′ + 𝑦

( 𝑅2 𝐶𝐷 + 1 ) ( 𝑅3 )

For input u:

𝑅1 𝐶𝐿2 𝑦" + 𝑅1 𝐶𝑅3 𝑦 ′ + 𝐶𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑦′ + 𝑅1 𝑦 + 𝑅2 𝐿2 𝐶𝑦 " + 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐶𝑦 ′ + 𝐿2 𝑦′ + 𝑅3 𝑦 + 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶𝑦 ′′′ + 𝑅3 𝐿1 𝐶𝑦 " + 𝑅2 𝐿1 𝐶𝑦 " + 𝐿1 𝑦 ′

( 𝐿1 𝐷 )( 𝑅2 𝐶𝐷 + 1 ) ( 𝑅3 )

u ( 𝐿1 𝐷 )( 𝑅2 𝐶𝐷 + 1 ) ( 𝑅3 ) = 𝑅1 𝐶𝐿2 𝑦" + 𝑅1 𝐶𝑅3 𝑦 ′ + 𝐶𝑅1 𝑅2 𝑦 ′ + 𝑅1 𝑦 +

𝑅2 𝐿2 𝐶𝑦 " + 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐶𝑦 ′ + 𝐿2 𝑦 ′ + 𝑅3 𝑦 + 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶𝑦 ′′′ +
𝑅3 𝐿1 𝐶𝑦 " + 𝑅2 𝐿1 𝐶𝑦 " + 𝐿1 𝑦 ′
( 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐿1 𝐶 𝑢̈ + 𝑅3 𝐿1 𝑢̇ ) = 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶𝑦 ′′′ + ( 𝑅1 𝐿2 𝐶 + 𝑅2 𝐿2 𝐶 + 𝑅3 𝐿1 𝐶 + 𝑅2 𝐿1 𝐶 )𝑦 ′′
+ ( 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝐶 + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐶 + 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 ) 𝑦 ′
+ ( 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 ) 𝑦

Therefore:
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶𝑦 ′′′ - ( 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐿1 𝐶 𝑢̈ + 𝑅3 𝐿1 𝑢̇ ) = - ( 𝑅1 𝐿2 𝐶 + 𝑅2 𝐿2 𝐶 + 𝑅3 𝐿1 𝐶 + 𝑅2 𝐿1 𝐶 )𝑦 ′′
- ( 𝑅1 𝑅3 𝐶 + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐶 + 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 ) 𝑦 ′
- ( 𝑅1 + 𝑅3 ) 𝑦

𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏 𝑳𝟐 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑳𝟐 + 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝟏 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑳𝟏
𝒚′′′ - 𝒖̈ - 𝒖̇ = -( ) 𝒚′′
𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟐 𝑪 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐

𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑪 + 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑪 + 𝑳𝟏 + 𝑳𝟐 𝑹𝟏 + 𝑹𝟑
- ( ) 𝒚′ - ( )y
𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪

Simulation Diagram be:

Let :
𝑅2 𝑅3 𝑅3 𝑅1 𝐿2 + 𝑅2 𝐿2 + 𝑅3 𝐿1 + 𝑅2 𝐿1
A = B = C =
𝐿2 𝐿2 𝐶 𝐿 1 𝐿2

𝑅1 𝑅3 𝐶 + 𝑅1 𝑅2 𝐶 + 𝑅2 𝑅3 𝐶 + 𝐿1 + 𝐿2 𝑅1 + 𝑅3
D = and E =
𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐶

D
-

u” u’ + - y’’’ y’’ y’ y
ꭍ B ꭍ ꭍ ꭍ
+ -

A C
BLOCK DIAGRAM

Block Diagram – represents the flow of information and the functions performed by each
component in the system.
1) It provides a simple means by which the functional relationship of the various
components can be shown and reveals the operation of the system more readily than
observation of the physical system itself.
2) It shows clearly that apparently different physical systems can be analysed by the same
techniques.
3) It can reveal the similarity between apparently unrelated physical systems.

A further step taken to increase the information supplied by the block diagram is to label
the INPUT QUANTITY into each block and the OUTPUT QUANTITY from each block. Arrows are
used to show the direction of the flow of information. The block represents the functions or
dynamic characteristics of the component and is represented by a TRANSFER FUNCTION. The
complete block diagram shows how the functional components are connected and the
mathematical equations that determine the response of each component.
The block diagram representation of a system represents the mathematical operation
G(D)u(t) = y(t) ; that is, the transfer function times the input is equal to the output of the block.
The resulting equation is the differential equation of the system.

G(D)
u(t) y(t)

Transfer Function – if the differential equation which describes the system is known and linear,
the ratio of the output variable to the input variable, where the variables are expressed as
function of D operator. The notation G(D) is used to denote a transfer function when it is
expressed in terms of the D operator and maybe written simply as G.
( )
G(D) =
( )

STANDARD BLOCK TERMINOLOGY

A) Command ( 𝝂 ) - the input which is established by some means external to, and
independent of, the feedback control system.
B) Reference Input ( r ) - derived from the command and is the actual input to the system.
C) Controlled Variable ( c ) - the quantity that is directly measured and controlled. It is the
output of the controlled system.
D) Primary Feedback ( b ) - is a signal which is a function of the controlled variable and
which is compared with the reference input to obtain the actuating signal.
 E) Actuating Signal ( e ) - is obtain from a comparison measuring device and is the
reference input minus the primary feedback. The signal, usually at a low energy level, is
the input to the control elements that produce the manipulated variable.
F) Manipulated Variable ( m ) - that quantity obtained from the control elements which is
applied to the controlled system. The manipulated variable is generally at a higher
energy level than the actuating signal and may also be modified in form.
G) Indirectly Controlled Variable ( q ) - the output quantity and is related through the
indirectly controlled system to the controlled variable. It is outside the closed loop and
is not directly measured to control.
H) Ultimately Controlled Variable ( s ) - is a general term that refers to the indirectly
controlled variable, it refers to the controlled variable.
I) Ideal value ( i ) - the value of the ultimately controlled variable that would result from
an idealized system operating from the command as the actual system.
J) System Error ( ye ) - the ideal value minus the value of the ultimately controlled
variable.
K) Disturbance ( d ) - the unwanted signal that tends to affect the controlled variable. The
disturbance maybe introduced into the system at many places.

SYSTEM COMPONENTS

1) Reference Input Elements ( Gv ) - produce a signal r proportional to the command.

2) Control Elements ( G1 ) - produce the manipulated variable m from the actuating
signal.
3) Controlled System ( G2 ) - the device that is to be controlled. This is frequently a high-
power element. It is commonly term as Plant.
4) Feedback Element ( H ) - produce the primary feedback b from the controlled variable.
This is generally a proportionality device but also modify the characteristics of the
controlled variable.
5) Indirectly Controlled System ( Z ) - relates the indirectly controlled variable q to the
control quantity c, This component is outside the feedback loop.
6) Idealized System ( Gi ) - one whose performance is agreed upon ton define the
relationship between the ideal value and the command. This is often called the Model
or Desired System.
7) Disturbance Elements ( N ) - denotes the functional relationship between the variable
representing the disturbance and its effect on the control system.

BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA AND TRANSFER FUNCTIONS OF SYSTEMS

In general, a block diagram consists of a specific configuration of four types of elements:
blocks, summing points, take off points and arrows representing unidirectional signal flow.

Summing point Block Take off point

x + x ∓ y Block Description z z
∓
y
z
Canonical Form of a Feedback Control System

R + E C
G
∓
B

G - direct transfer function = forward transfer function

H - feedback transfer function
GH - loop transfer function = open-loop transfer function
C/R - closed-loop transfer function = control ratio
E/R - actuating signal ratio = error ratio
B/R - primary feedback ratio
In the following equations, the – sign refers to a positive feedback system and the + sign
refers to a negative feedback system.

= = =
± ± ±

The denominator of C/R determines the characteristic equation of the system, which is
usually determined from 1 ± GH = 0 or equivalently,
DGH ± NGH = 0
where DGH is the denominator of GH and NGH is the numerator of GH

BLOCK DIAGRAM TRANSFORMATION THEOREMS

1) Combining Blocks in Cascades ( Series )

P1 P2 P1P2
X Y X Y

Y = ( P1P2 ) X
2) Combining Blocks in Parallel ( Forward )/Removing a block from a Forward Path

+
P1
X ±
P1 ± P2
X Y
P2

Y = P1X ± P2X

3) Eliminating a Feedback Loop/Removing a block from a Feedback Loop

X + P1 Y
∓ X Y
P1/1 ± P P
PPPPPPP1P2

P2

Y = P1 ( X ∓ P2Y ) = P1X /1 ± P1P2

4) Moving a Summing Point Ahead of a Block

X P
+ Z X + P
Z
± ±
Y Y
1/P

Z = PX ± Y

5) Moving a Summing Point Beyond a Block

X + P Z X P + Z
± ±
Y
P
Y

Z = P( X ± Y )
 6) Moving a Take-off Point Ahead of a Block

X P Y X P Y

P
Y Y

Y = PX

7) Moving a Take-off Point Beyond a Block

X P Y X P Y

Y Y 1/P

Y = PX

UNITY FEEDBACK SYSTEM

A unity feedback system is one in which the primary feedback b is identically equal to the
controlled output c. Any feedback system with only linear time-invariant elements can be put
into the form of a unity feedback system using a transformation.

R + E C
G

∓
SUPERPOSITION OF MULTIPLE INPUTS
Sometimes it is necessary to evaluate system performance when several inputs are
simultaneously applied at different points of the system.
When multiple inputs are present in a linear system, each is treated independently of the
others. The output due to all stimuli acting together is found in the following manner. We
assume zero initial conditions, as we seek the system response only to inputs.
Steps:
1) Set all inputs except one equal to zero.
2) Transform the block diagram to canonical form using transformation.
3) Calculate the response due to the chosen input acting alone.
4) Repeat step 1 to 3 for each of the remaining inputs.
5) Algebraically, add all the responses ( outputs ) determined in step 1 to 4. This sum is the
total output of the system with all inputs acting simultaneously.

REDUCTION OF COMPLICATED BLOCK DIAGRAMS

The block diagram of a practical feedback control system is often quite complicated. It may
include several feedback or forward loops, and multiple inputs. By means of systematic block
diagram reduction, every multiple loop linear feedback system may be reduced to canonical
form. The following general steps may be used as a basic approach in the reduction of
complicated block diagrams.

1) Combine all cascades using such transformation.

2) Combine all parallel blocks using such transformation.
3) Eliminate all minor feedback loops by transformation.
4) Shift summing points to the left and take-off points to the right of the major loop.
5) Repeat step 1 to 4 until the canonical form has been achieved for a particular inputs.
6) Repeat step 1 to 5 for each input, as required.
For error ratio:

𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
Error Ratio = = =
𝟏 𝑮𝑯 𝟏 𝟐𝒔𝟐 𝟔𝒔 𝟐𝒔𝟐 𝟔𝒔 𝟏

For feedback ratio:

𝑮𝑯 𝟐𝒔𝟐 𝟔𝒔 𝟐𝒔𝟐 𝟔𝒔
Feedback Ratio = = =
𝟏 𝑮𝑯 𝟏 𝟐𝒔𝟐 𝟔𝒔 𝟐𝒔𝟐 𝟔𝒔 𝟏
Solving for GH:

( )
GH = ( )( )
( ) = ( )

Thus:
Characteristic Equation is 𝑠 − 3𝑠 − 3𝑠 + 1 = 0
Example of Multiple Inputs:

From the given block diagram below, find the following:

a) transfer function of the system due to R1.
b) error ratio due to R2.
c) feedback ratio due to R3.
d) the total output of the system and its characteristic equation.

2s -1

R2

R1 + + + + + C
1/s s-1 1/s2 2s
+ _

s+1

2/s 3s2
_

R3

To solve such system like these, we will use the method of Superposition. Since there are multiple inputs
on the system and only one output, we will consider each inputs one by one by reduction and find the
value of the output due to that input. If all inputs have been considered, we will sum up all signal
outputs.
Consider input R1:

2s - 1

+ C

R1 + 1/s s-1 1/s2 + 2s

+ _ A
s-1

s+1

2/s 3s2
B

For A : ( series )

( s–1 )( s+1 ) = s2 - 1

For B: ( series )

( ) ( 3s2 ) = 6s

For D: ( series )

( s–1 )( ) =
 E

2s - 1

+ C
𝑠 − 1
R1 + 1/s + 2s
𝑠
+ _

s2 - 1

6s

For E: ( parallel )
( )
( ) + ( 2s - 1 ) = = =

For F : ( feedback loop )

= =
( )

C
1 2𝑠 − 𝑠 + 𝑠 − 1
R1 + 2s
𝑠 + 𝑠 − 1 𝑠
+
1/2s

6s
H

For G: ( series )
( )
( )( ) ( 2s ) = ( )
For H: ( series )

( 6s ) ( ) = 3

CANONICAL FORM DUE TO R1

R1 C
2 ( 2𝑠 − 𝑠 + 𝑠 − 1 )
+ 𝑠( 𝑠 + 𝑠 − 1 )
+

a) For transfer function of the system due to R1:

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
C/R1 = G(s) = = ( )
( )

( ) 𝟒𝒔𝟑 𝟐𝒔𝟐 𝟐𝒔 𝟐
G(s) = = 𝟏𝟏𝒔𝟑 𝟕𝒔𝟐 𝟕𝒔 𝟔

Consider input R2

R2 2s - 1

s 1/s - 1
+ + C

1/s + s-1 1/s + 2

2s

+ _

s+1
B

2/s 3s2
For A: ( series )

( ) ( 2𝑠 − 1 ) =

For B: ( series )

( ) ( 3s2 ) = 6s

2𝑠 − 1
F 𝑠 − 1
E

R2 + C

+1/s 2s
2
s + 1/s s-1 +

+ _

s+1

6s

For D: ( parallel )
( ) ( )
( ) + ( ) = ( )
= ( )

For E: ( series )

( )( s - 1 ) =

For F: ( feedback loop )

= =
( )
 G

R2 + C
𝑠 − 1 2𝑠 − 𝑠 + 𝑠 − 1
s + 2s
𝑠 + 𝑠 − 1 𝑠 ( 𝑠 −1 )
+
1/2s
1/s

6s

For G : ( series )
( )
( s )( )( ( )
) ( 2s ) =

For H: ( series )

( ) ( 6s ) ( ) =

CANONICAL FORM DUE TO R2

R2 C
2 ( 2𝑠 − 𝑠 + 𝑠 − 1 )
+ +
𝑠 + 𝑠 − 1
+

3
𝑠
 Transfer function due to R2 :

( ) ( )

C/R2 = G(s) = = ( )
( )
( )

( ) 𝟒𝒔𝟒 𝟐𝒔𝟑 𝟐𝒔𝟐 𝟐𝒔

G(s) = = 𝟏𝟏𝒔𝟑 𝟕𝒔𝟐 𝟕𝒔 𝟔

b) Error ratio due to R2:

= =
2 2𝑠3 − 𝑠2 + 𝑠 − 1 3
( )
1 − ( 𝑠 )
𝑠2 + 𝑠 − 1

𝒔𝟑 𝒔𝟐 𝒔
= 𝟏𝟏𝒔𝟑 𝟕𝒔𝟐 𝟕𝒔 𝟔

Consider input R3:

2s - 1

+ C
1/s s-1 1/s+
2
2s

+ _ B D
s-1
1/2s
s+1

+
2/s 3s2
_

R3

For A: ( series )

( s - 1 )( ) =

For B: ( series )

( s - 1 ) ( s + 1 ) = s2 - 1

For D: ( series )

( 3s2 ) ( ) =
 E

2s - 1

+ C
𝑠 − 1
1/s + + 2s
𝑠
+ _

s2 - 1

+
2/s 3s/2
_

R3

For E : ( parallel )
( )
( 2s - 1 ) + ( ) = =

For F: ( feedback loop )

= =
( )

C
1 2𝑠 − 𝑠 + 𝑠 − 1 2s
𝑠 + 𝑠 − 1 𝑠 +
+

+
2/s 3s/2
_

R3
For G : ( series )
( )
( )( )( ) ( 2s ) = ( )

CANONICAL FORM DUE TO R3

R3 C
4 ( 2𝑠 − 𝑠 + 𝑠 − 1 )
_ +
𝑠 (𝑠 + 𝑠 − 1 )
+

3𝑠
2

Transfer function due to R3

( ) ( )
( ) ( )
C/-R3 = G(s) = = ( )
( )

( ) 𝟖𝒔𝟑 𝟒𝒔𝟐 𝟒𝒔 𝟒
G(s) = [ ]
= 𝟏𝟏𝒔𝟒 𝟕𝒔𝟑 𝟕𝒔𝟐 𝟔𝒔

c) feedback ratio due to R3:

4 2𝑠3 − 𝑠2 + 𝑠 − 1 3𝑠 6 2𝑠3 − 𝑠2 + 𝑠 − 1
( 2 )
𝑠2 𝑠2 + 𝑠 − 1 𝑠 𝑠2 + 𝑠 − 1
= 4 2𝑠3 − 𝑠2 + 𝑠 − 1
= 𝑠 𝑠2 + 𝑠 − 1 − 6 ( 2𝑠3 − 𝑠2 + 𝑠 − 1 )
3𝑠
1 − ( 2 )
𝑠2 𝑠2 + 𝑠 − 1 𝑠 𝑠2 + 𝑠 − 1

𝟏𝟐𝒔𝟑 − 𝟔 𝒔𝟐 + 𝟔𝒔 − 𝟔
= 𝟏𝟏𝒔𝟑 𝟕𝒔𝟐 𝟕𝒔 𝟔

d) total output of the system:

𝟒𝒔𝟑 𝟐𝒔𝟐 𝟐𝒔 𝟐 𝟒𝒔𝟒 𝟐𝒔𝟑 𝟐𝒔𝟐 𝟐𝒔 𝟖𝒔𝟑 𝟒𝒔𝟐 𝟒𝒔 𝟒

CT = 𝟏𝟏𝒔𝟑 𝟕𝒔𝟐 𝟕𝒔 𝟔
R1 + 𝟏𝟏𝒔𝟑 𝟕𝒔𝟐 𝟕𝒔 𝟔
R2 - 𝟏𝟏𝒔𝟒 𝟕𝒔𝟑 𝟕𝒔𝟐 𝟔𝒔
R3

𝒔 𝟒𝒔𝟑 𝟐𝒔𝟐 𝟐𝒔 𝟐 𝑹𝟏 𝒔 𝟒𝒔𝟒 − 𝟐𝒔𝟑 + 𝟐𝒔𝟐 − 𝟐𝒔 𝑹𝟐 𝟖𝒔𝟑 𝟒𝒔𝟐 𝟒𝒔 𝟒 𝑹𝟑

CT = 𝟏𝟏𝒔𝟒 𝟕𝒔𝟑 𝟕𝒔𝟐 𝟔𝒔

Characteristic Equation is - 11s3 + 7s2 - 7s + 6 = 0 or 11s3 - 7s2 + 7s - 6 = 0

Solution to Quiz No. 1 ( EE4A/4B NS )

I. True or False. ( 3 points each )

1) A regulator is a term used to refer to systems in which there is a constant steady-state

output for an unwanted signal. ( False )
2) A forced response is the solution of the differential equation when the input is
identically zero. ( False )
3) An actuating signal is a signal usually at a low energy level and the input to the control
elements. ( True )
4) A block diagram represents the flow of information and the functions performed by
each component in the system. ( True )
5) A forward element is the unit that reacts to an actuating signal to produce the desired
output. ( True )
6) A hold is a device that converts a continuous-time signal into a digital signal. ( False )
7) The transfer function of a system is the Laplace transform of an impulse response.
( True )
8) Reference selector is the actual signal input to the control system. ( False )
9) System error is the ideal value minus the value of the indirectly controlled variable.
( False )
10) Transient response is that part of total response which approaches zero as time
approaches infinity. ( True )

II. Find the initial and final value of the given functions.

a) f( t ) = 4𝑒 + 3 ( 10 points )

Solution:

( )
ꝭ( 4𝑒 + 3) = + = =
( ) ( )

Initial Value:

s [ ] = = = = = 7
( )
s→ ∝
Final Value:

( )
s [ ( )
] = = = = 3
s→ 0
 b) f( t ) = 𝑡 ( sin2t - 1 ) ( 15 points )

Solution:

ꝭ [ t2 ( sin2t - 1 ) ] = ??

ꝭ ( sin2t - 1 ) = -

1st derivative:

( )
- + = - +
( ) ( )

2nd derivative:

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
- = -
( ) ( )

( )
- =
( ) ( )

𝟐𝒔𝟔 𝟏𝟐𝒔𝟓 𝟐𝟒𝒔𝟒 𝟏𝟔𝒔𝟑 𝟗𝟔𝒔𝟐 𝟏𝟐𝟖

𝒔𝟑 ( 𝒔𝟔 𝟏𝟐𝒔𝟒 𝟒𝟖𝒔𝟐 𝟔𝟒 )

Initial value:

s [ ] =
( ) ( )

= = 0
s→ ∝

Final value :

= = ∝
( )
s→ 0
 III. Find the step response of a system whose impulse response is given as a

f( t ) = 𝑒 cost ( 20 points )

Solution:

SR = ∫ 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑑𝑡 ( integration by parts )

Let:
u = 𝑒 dv = costdt
du = - 2𝑒 𝑑𝑡 v = sint

∫𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 sint + 2 ∫ 𝑒 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑡 𝑑𝑡

Let: u = 𝑒 dv = sintdt
du = - 2𝑒 𝑑𝑡 v = - cost

∫𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 sint + 2 [ - 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 - 2 ∫ 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 ]

∫𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑑𝑡 + 4 ∫ 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 sint - 2 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 + C

5 ∫𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 𝑑𝑡 = 𝑒 sint - 2 𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡 + C

Therefore:

𝒆 𝟐𝒕 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝟐 𝒆 𝟐𝒕 𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕
Step response = + C
𝟓

IV. A given system has a transfer function G(s) = ; find:

a) the differential equation of the system. ( 5 points )

b) the impulse response. ( 20 points )

Solution:

𝒅𝟒 𝒚 𝒅𝟑 𝒚 𝒅𝟐 𝒚 𝒅𝒚 𝒅𝟑 𝒖 𝒅𝟐 𝒖 𝒅𝒖
a) - 5 + - 5 = 2 - + 3 + 20 u
𝒅𝒕𝟒 𝒅𝒕𝟑 𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕 𝒅𝒕𝟑 𝒅𝒕𝟐 𝒅𝒕
 b) Impulse Response :

ꝭ-1 = [ ] = ????

= = ( )(
( ) )

( )( )
= + +

2𝑠 − 𝑠 + 3𝑠 + 20 = A ( 𝑠 − 5𝑠 + 𝑠 − 5 ) + B ( 𝑠 + 𝑠 ) +
( Cs + D ) ( 𝑠 − 5𝑠 )

2s3 - s2 + 3s + 20 = As3 - 5As2 + As - 5A + Bs3 + Bs + Cs3 - 5Cs2 + Ds2 - 5Ds

Equating coefficients:
𝑠 ; 2 = A + B + C (1)
𝑠 ; -1 = -5A - 5C + D (2)
s ; 3 = A + B - 5D (3)
c ; 20 = -5A (4)
Solving simultaneously:
A = -4 B = 2 C = 4 D = -1
Therefore:

( )(
= + +
)

Impulse response = ꝭ-1 [ + + ]

= - 4 ꝭ-1 [ ] + 2 ꝭ-1 [ ] + 4 ꝭ-1 [ ] - ꝭ-1 [ ]

= - 4 ( 1 ) + 2 ( e5t ) + 4 ( cost ) - ( sint )

= 4 cost - sint + 2e5t - 4

Solution to Quiz No. 2 ( Control system ) NS

I. Obtain the transfer function of the given electrical system below expressed as operator D.
Assume that the input of the system be V(t) and the voltage across C2 be the output of the
system. ( 60 points )

R1 a R2 b L

i1 i2 i4
R3
+ R4
~
V(t) _ i3 C1 i5 C2

I II III

Solution:
Let : u(t) = v(t) and y(t) = vC2
By KCL:
At node a:
𝑖 = 𝑖 + 𝑖 (1)
At node b:
𝑖 = 𝑖 + 𝑖 (2)
By KVL:
Loop I:
𝑣( ) = 𝑣𝑅 + 𝑣𝑅 + 𝑣𝐶

𝑢( ) = 𝑅 𝑖 + 𝑖 𝑅 +

𝑢( ) = 𝑅 𝑖 + 𝑖 (3)

Loop II:
𝑣𝑅 + 𝑣𝐶 = 𝑣𝑅 + 𝑣𝑅

𝑖 = 𝑅 𝑖 + 𝑅 𝑖 (4)

Loop III:
𝑣𝑅 = vL + 𝑣𝐶

𝑅 𝑖 = 𝑖 ( LD + )
𝑅 𝑖 = 𝑖 ( ) (5)

But:

𝑦( ) = 𝑣𝐶 = 𝑖

Thus:
𝑖 = 𝐶 𝐷 𝑦( ) (6)

𝑅 𝑖 = 𝐶 𝐷( ) 𝑦( )

𝑖 = (7)

From equation (2):

𝑖 = 𝐶 𝐷𝑦( ) + 𝑦( )

𝑖 = 𝑦( ) (8)

From equation (4):

𝑖 = 𝑅 [ ] 𝑦( ) + [ 𝐿𝐶 𝐷 + 1 ] 𝑦( )

𝑖 = [ ] 𝑦( )

𝑖 = ( )
𝑦( ) (9)

From equation (1) :

𝑖 = 𝑦( ) + ( )
𝑦( )

𝑖 = ( )
𝑦( )

( ) ( ) ( )
𝑖 = ( )
𝑦( )
From equation (3):
( ) ( ) ( )
𝑢( ) = 𝑅 [ ] 𝑦( )
( )

+ ( )
[ ] 𝑦( )

Therefore:

( ) ( )
𝑢( ) =
( )

( )
+ ( )
𝑦( )

( )
Therefore; G(D) =
( )

II. Obtain the state equation of the given electrical system below in matrix form. Let V(t) be the
input of the system and the current flowing through R4 be the output of the system.
Assume X1 be the current flowing at L1 , X2 be the voltage across C and X3 be the current
flowing at L2. ( 40 points )

R2 a R3 b

i2 i3

i1 R1 R4

i4 C i5

L1 + L2

v(t) -

I II III

Solution:

Let: u(t) = v(t) , y(t) = i5 = X3 , X 1 = i2 , X2 = vC and X3 = i5

By KCL:

At node a:

𝑖 = 𝑖 + 𝑖

𝑖 = 𝑋 + 𝑖 (a)
At node b:

𝑖 = 𝑖 + 𝑖

𝑖 = 𝑖 + 𝑋 (b)

By KVL:

At Loop I:

𝑣( ) = 𝑣𝑅 + 𝑣𝑅 + 𝑣𝐿

𝑢( ) = 𝑅 𝑖 + 𝑅 𝑋 + 𝐿 𝑋̇ (c)

At Loop II:

𝑣( ) = 𝑣𝑅 + 𝑣𝑅 + 𝑣𝐶

𝑢( ) = 𝑅 𝑖 + 𝑅 𝑖 + 𝑋 (d)

At Loop III:

𝑣𝐶 = 𝑣𝑅 + 𝑣𝐿

𝑋 = 𝑅 𝑋 + 𝐿 𝑋̇

𝑿𝟐 𝑹𝟒 𝑿𝟑
𝑿𝟑̇ = 𝑳𝟐
(1)

Also;

𝑋 = vC = ∫( 𝑖 − 𝑋 )𝑑𝑡

𝑋̇ = ( 𝑖 − 𝑋 ) (e)

Equation ( c ) equals equation ( d ) :

𝑅 𝑖 + 𝑅 𝑋 + 𝐿 𝑋̇ = 𝑅 𝑖 + 𝑅 𝑖 + 𝑋

𝑅 𝑋 + 𝐿 𝑋̇ = 𝑅 𝑖 + 𝑋
̇
𝑖 = (f)

From equation ( a ):
̇
𝑖 = 𝑋 +

( ) ̇
𝑖 = (g)
Substitute value of 𝑖 and 𝑖 in equation ( d ):
( ) ̇ ̇
𝑢( ) = 𝑅 [ ] + 𝑅 [ ] + 𝑋

( ) ̇ ̇
𝑢( ) =

( ) ̇ ( ̇ )
𝑢( ) = `

𝑹𝟑 𝑼(𝒕) ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟐 𝑹̇𝟑 ) 𝑿𝟏` 𝑹𝟏 𝑿𝟐

𝑿𝟏̇ = 𝑳𝟏 ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 )
(2)

From equation ( e )

𝑋̇ = ( 𝑖 − 𝑋 )
̇
𝑋̇ = [ ] - 𝑋

𝑹𝟑 𝑼(𝒕) ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 ̇ ) 𝑿
𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟏 𝑿𝟐
𝟏`

𝑋̇
( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 )
= [ ] - 𝑋

𝑹𝟑 𝒖(𝒕) 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑿𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑿𝟐
𝑋̇ = [ ( )
] - 𝑋

𝑋̇
( )
= [ ] - 𝑋
( )

𝟏 𝒖(𝒕) 𝑹𝟏 𝑿𝟏 𝑿𝟐 ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 ) 𝑿𝟑
𝑿𝟐̇ = 𝑪
[ ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 )
] (3)

For output:

𝒚(𝒕) = 𝑿𝟑 (4)

Matrix Form:

( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟑 ) 𝑹𝟏
⎡ 𝟎 ⎤ 𝑹𝟑
𝑿𝟏̇ 𝑳𝟏 ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 ) 𝑳𝟏 ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 )
𝑿𝟏 ⎡ 𝑳𝟏 ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 ) ⎤
⎢ 𝑹𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 ⎥
𝑿𝟐̇ = ⎢ 𝑪 ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 ) 𝑪 ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 ) 𝑪 ⎥ 𝑿𝟐 + ⎢ 𝟏 ⎥u
𝑿𝟑 ⎢ 𝑪 ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 ) ⎥
𝑿𝟑̇ ⎢ 𝟏 𝑹𝟒 ⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎣ 𝟎 𝑳𝟐 𝑳𝟐 ⎦ 𝟎

𝑿𝟏
y = [ 𝟎 𝟎 𝟏 ] 𝑿𝟐
𝑿𝟑
Solution to Quiz No. 3 ( Control System )

Direction: Answer/s without valid solutions will be invalid and considered incorrect. Do not use pencils,
only permanent ink pens. Mark your final answer/s.

I. Find the transfer function of the given electrical system below from the state equation. Let
v(t) be the input of the system and the current flowing at R3 be the output of the system.
Assume X1 be the current flowing at L1, X2 be the voltage across C and X3 be the current
flowing at L2. ( 40 points )

a R2 b

i2 i3

i1 R1 R3

i4 C i5

L1 + L2

v(t) -

I II III

Solution:

Let v(t) = u(t) , y(t) = i5 = X3 , X1 = i2 X2 = vC X 3 = i5

Using KCL:

At junction a:

i1 = i2 + i3 ; i1 = X1 + i3 (a)

At junction b:

i3 = i4 + i5 ; i1 - X1 = i4 + X3 (b)

Using KVL:

At Loop I :

v(t) = vR1 + vL1

u(t) = R1i1 + L1𝑋̇ (c)

At Loop II:

v(t) = vR1 + vR2 + vC

u(t) = R1i1 + R2i3 + X2 (d)

At Loop III:

vC = vR3 + vL2

X2 = R3X3 + L2𝑋̇ (e)

𝑿𝟐 𝑹𝟑 𝑿𝟑
𝑿𝟑̇ = 𝑳𝟐
(1)

Also:

vC = X2 = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝑡 ( derive )

𝑋̇ = 𝑖 (f)

Equate equation ( c ) to equation ( d ):

R1i1 + L1𝑋̇ = R1i1 + R2i3 + X2

L1𝑋̇ = R3i3 + X2

R2i3 = L1𝑋̇ - X2 (g)

Thus:
̇
i3 = (h)

Substitute value of i3 obtained in equation ( h ) in equation ( a ):

i1 = X1 + i3
̇
i1 = X1 +

̇
i1 = (i)

Substitute value of i1 obtained in equation ( i ) in equation ( c )

u(t) = R1i1 + L1𝑋̇

̇
u(t) = R1 [ ] + L1𝑋̇

̇
u(t) = + L1𝑋̇

̇ ̇
u(t) =

R2 u(t) = R1R2 X1 - R1X2 + ( R1L1 + R2L1 ) 𝑋̇

𝑹𝟐 𝒖(𝒕) 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑿𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑿𝟐
𝑿𝟏̇ = 𝑳𝟏 ( 𝑹 𝟏 𝑹𝟐 )
(2)
Substitute value of i3 obtained in equation ( h ) in equation ( b ):

i 3 = i4 + X 3
̇
= i 4 + X3

Thus:
̇
i4 = (j)

Substitute value of i4 obtained in equation ( j ) in equation ( f ):

̇
𝑋̇ = 𝑖 = [ ]

𝑹𝟐 𝒖(𝒕) 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑿𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑿𝟐

𝑋̇
( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 )
= [ ]

𝑹𝟐 𝒖(𝒕) 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑿𝟏 𝑹𝟏 𝑿𝟐 𝑿𝟐 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑹𝟐 𝑿𝟑 ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 )

𝑋̇
( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 )
= [ ]

𝑹𝟐 𝒖(𝒕) 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑿𝟏 𝑹𝟐 𝑿𝟐 𝑹𝟐 𝑿𝟑 ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 )

𝑋̇ =
( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 )
[ ]

𝒖(𝒕) 𝑹𝟏 𝑿𝟏 𝑿𝟐 ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 ) 𝑿𝟑
𝑿𝟐̇ = 𝑪 ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 )
(3)

For output :

y(t) = X3 (4)

Thus; state equation in matrix notation will be:

⎡ 0 ⎤
𝑋̇ ( ) ( ) 𝑋 ⎡ ( ) ⎤
⎢ ⎥
𝑋̇ = ⎢ ( ) ( ) ⎥ 𝑋 + ⎢ ⎥u
𝑋 ⎢ ( ) ⎥
𝑋̇ ⎢
0
⎥
⎣ ⎦
⎣ ⎦ 0

𝑋
y(t) = [ 0 0 1 ] 𝑋
𝑋

( )
⎡ ( ) ( )
0 ⎤
⎢ ( ) ⎥
For ( 𝑠𝐼 − 𝐴 ) = ⎢ ( ) ( ) ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎣ 0 ⎦
 ( ) ( )
For ∆𝑠 = [ ( ( )
)( ( )
)( ) + 0 + 0 ]

( )
- [ 0 + ( )( )( ( )
)

+ ( )( ( )
)( ( )
) ]

[ ( ( ) ][ ( ) ][ ]
∆𝑠 = ( )
+

[ ( ) ] [ ][ ][ ]
( )
+ ( )

[ ( ) ]
∆𝑠 = ( )

( )( )
+ ( )

Numerator of ∆𝑠 :

𝑅 𝐿 𝐿 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝐿 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅 𝐿 𝐿 𝑠 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝑠

+ 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝐿 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅 𝐿 𝐿 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅 𝐿 𝐿 𝑠 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝑠

+ 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝑠 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝐶𝑠 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅

+ 𝑅 𝐿 𝑠 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝑠 + 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝑠 + 𝑅 𝐿 𝑠 + 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝐿 𝑠 + 𝑅 𝑅

Simplifying:

( 𝑅 𝐿 𝐿 𝐶 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝐿 𝐶+ 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝐿 𝐶 + 𝑅 𝐿 𝐿 𝐶 )𝑠 +( 𝑅 𝐿 𝐿 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝐶 +

𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝐶 + 𝑅 𝐿 𝐿 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝐶 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝐶 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝐶 )𝑠 + ( 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 +

𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝐶 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝐶 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝐶 + 𝑅 𝐿 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 +

𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 + 𝑅 𝐿 + 𝑅 𝐿 )𝑠 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅
Thus; Numerator of ∆𝑠 is:

𝐿 𝐿 𝐶( 𝑅 + 𝑅 + 2𝑅 𝑅 )𝑠 + ( 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝐶 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝐶 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝐶 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝐶 +

𝑅 𝐿 𝐿 + 𝑅 𝐿 𝐿 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝐶 )𝑠 + ( 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝐶 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝐶 + 𝑅 𝐿 + 𝑅 𝐿 +

𝑅 𝐿 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 𝐶 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 + 2𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 + 𝑅 𝑅 𝐿 ) 𝑠 + 𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅 +

𝑅 𝑅 + 𝑅 𝑅

Denominator of ∆𝑠 is 𝐿 𝐿 𝐶( 𝑅 + 𝑅 )

For Minors:

𝑅1 𝐶𝑠 ( 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) + 1
( 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) 𝐶 ( 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 ) 𝐶 𝑹𝟏
|𝑀 | = −1
= [( ( )
)( ) ] - 0 = 𝑳𝟐 𝑪 ( 𝑹 𝟏 𝑹 𝟐 )
0 𝐿2

( )
( ) ( )
|𝑀 | =
0

( ) ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝒔 𝑹𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝒔 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 )
= [ ( )
]( ) - 0 = 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 )

Therefore:

⎡ ( )⎤
[ ] ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝒔 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝟏 𝒔 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 )
⎢ ⎥
𝑹𝟏
⎢ ( ) ⎥
𝑳𝟐 𝑪 ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 ) 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 )
⎣ ⎦
G(s) = ∆

[ ] 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝒔 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝟏 𝒔 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 )
𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪 ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 )𝟐 𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪 ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟐 )𝟐
G(s) = ∆

( 𝑹𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝒔 𝑹𝟑 𝑳𝟏 𝒔 )
𝑳𝟏 𝑳𝟐 𝑪 ( 𝑹𝟏 𝑹𝟑 )𝟐
G(s) = ∆

Notice that the term L1L2C ( R1 + R3 )2 will be eliminated both on the denominator of the numerator
and denominator of the ∆𝑠. Therefore:

𝑹 𝟏 𝑳𝟏 𝒔 𝑹 𝟑 𝑳𝟏 𝒔
G(s) = 𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒐𝒓 𝒐𝒇 ∆𝒔
 II. Draw the simulation diagram of the given electrical circuit below. Assume i(t) be the input of
the system and voltage across C be the output of the system. ( 20 points )

R1 a L

i1 i2

+
C

i(t) - R2

I II

Solution:

Let i(t) = u and y = vC = i1 ; i1 = CDy = Cy’ (1)

By KCL:

At node a:
i(t) = i1 + i2 ; u = Cy’ + i2 (2)

By KVL:

At Loop I:

vC + vR1 = vR2 + vL

y + R1i1 = R2i2 + LDi2

y + R1 ( Cy’ ) = i2 ( R2 + LD )

𝑹𝟏 𝑪𝒚 𝒚
i2 = 𝑳𝑫 𝑹𝟐
(3)
Substitute value of i2 from equation ( 3 ) in equation ( 2 ):

u = i2 + Cy’
𝑹𝟏 𝑪𝒚 𝒚
u = 𝑳𝑫 𝑹𝟐
+ Cy’

𝑹𝟏 `𝑪 𝒚 𝒚 ( 𝑳𝑫 𝑹𝟐 ) 𝑪𝒚
u = 𝑳𝑫 + 𝑹𝟐

( LD + R2 ) u = LCy” + ( R1C + R2C ) y’ + y

LCy” - Lu’ = R2u - ( R1C + R2C ) y’ - y

Thus:
( )
y” - u’ = u - y’ - y ( differential equation )

SIMULATION DIAGRAM

1
𝐿𝐶

-
u’ u 𝑅+ + y’’ y’ y
ꭍ 𝐿𝐶
ꭍ ꭍ
+ -

1 𝑅 + 𝑅
𝐶 𝐿
 III. From the given block diagram below, find the following:
a) the total output of the system. ( 30 points )
b) the error ratio due to R2. ( 5 points )
c) the characteristic equation of the system. ( 5 points )

s + 1
R2

R1 + + + + + C
3s2 1/s s - 1 2/s
_

1 / s2

Solution:
Consider Input R1

s + 1
A

R1 + + + + C
3s2 1/s s - 1 2/s
-

1/s2
For A: ( series )
( )
( s - 1 )( ) =

s + 1

R1 + + + 2( 𝑠 − 1 ) C
3s2 1/s
_ 𝑠

1
3𝑠
1
D 𝑠

For B: ( series )

( 3s2 ) ( 1/s ) = 3s

For D : ( series )

( )( ) =

s + 1

R1 + + 2( 𝑠 − 1 ) C
3s
_ 𝑠

1
3𝑠

For E: ( feedback loop )

( )( )
= =
 F

R1 + 3𝑠 2( 𝑠 − 1 ) C

_ − 3𝑠 − 3𝑠 + 1 𝑠

1
3𝑠

For F: ( series )
( ) ( )
( )[ ] =

Canonical Form due to R1:

R1 + 6 ( 𝑠 − 1 ) C

_ − 3𝑠 − 3𝑠 + 1

1
3𝑠

For C due to R1:

( ) ( )

C = ( ) R1 = ( )
R1
( )
( )

( ) ( )
C = R1 = ( )
R1

( 𝟔𝒔𝟓 𝟔𝒔𝟒 )
C1 = ( 𝟑𝒔𝟔 𝟑𝒔𝟓 𝒔𝟒 𝟐𝒔 𝟐 )
R1
Consider Input R2

s + 1
R2

+ + + + C
3s2 1/s s - 1 2/s
_

1/3s2

+ 1/s2

For A: ( series )
( 3s2 ) ( 1/s ) = 3s
For B: ( series )

( 1/3s2 ) ( 1/s2 ) =

R2
s + 1

+ + C
3s s - 1 2/s
_

1
3𝑠
 For D: ( feedback loop )

( )( )
=

E R2

3𝑠 + C
s - 1 2/s
− 3𝑠 − 3𝑠 + 1
_

1
3𝑠

For E: ( series )
( )
( )( s - 1 )( ) = ( )

Canonical form due to R2:

R2 _ 2 C
𝑠
_

( 𝑠 − 1 )
𝑠 ( − 3𝑠 − 3𝑠 + 1 )

C = ( ) ( - R2 ) = ( )
( - R2 )
[ ]
( ) ( )

( )
C = ( - R2 )

𝟔𝒔𝟓 𝟔𝒔𝟒 𝟐𝒔𝟑

C2 = 𝟑𝒔𝟔 𝟑𝒔𝟓 𝒔𝟒 𝟐𝒔 𝟐
( - R2 )
a) total output of the system ( 30 points )

CT = C1 + C2

CT = R1 + ( - R2 )

𝟔𝒔𝟓 𝟔𝒔𝟒 𝑹𝟏 𝟔𝒔𝟓 𝟔𝒔𝟒 𝟐𝒔𝟑 𝑹𝟐

CT = 𝟑𝒔𝟔 𝟑𝒔𝟓 𝒔𝟒 𝟐𝒔 𝟐

b) Error ratio due to R2 ( 5 points )

E/-R2 = ( ) = ( )
[ ]
( ) ( )

( ) 𝟑𝒔𝟔 𝟑𝒔𝟓 𝒔𝟒
E/R2 = - = 𝟑𝒔𝟔 𝟑𝒔𝟓 𝒔𝟒 𝟐𝒔 𝟐

c) Characteristic equation of the system ( 5 points )

− 𝟑𝒔𝟔 − 𝟑𝒔𝟓 + 𝒔𝟒 + 𝟐𝒔 − 𝟐 = 𝟎