ACID RAIN

SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ECONOMICS, S.G.S.I.T.S.

SESSION 2022-23
The report contains the impact of acid rain on a climatic level as well as
industrial level

Ananya Dubey, 0801EC21100

ECE DEPARTMENT, 2ND YEAR
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Review

ACID RAIN, CAUSES, EFFECT S AND

CONTROL ST R AT EGIES
Abstract Sivakumaran Sivaramanan*
Environmental Officer, Environmental Impact Assessment unit, Environmental Management and Access division,
Acid rain is one of the major environmental
Central Environmental threats
Authority,since 19 th century. This paper reviews
Battaramulla,
Sri Lanka.
the 2012 progress report of US EPAApril.
[email protected]
(2013) and summarizes
24. 2015
the issue in various
DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.1321.4240/1
environmental aspects. Significant reduction in the SO 2, NOx emission and deposition of acid
have been occurred via the active implementation of Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR), Acid
Rain Program (ARP) and NO x budget training program (NBP). Cross state air pollution rule
and litigation (CSAPR) implemented by US EPA since 2011, reduces the cross boundary
movement of effluents between US and Canada. US national composite means of average
SO2 annual mean ambient concentration has been declined by 85% in the period between
1980 and 2012.

Keywords: Acid rain, acidification, acid deposition, effects of acid rain and acid rain control.

Introduction layer and health and environmental

The effect of acidification has been effects of particle matter are declining.
sighted all over the world such as Report further added though there is a
deleterious ecological effects such as significant reduction in the SO2, NOx
reduced reproduction of aquatic fish emission and deposition of acid have been
species, dieback and stunted growth in occurred via the active implementation of
plants, accumulation of toxic aluminum Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR), Acid
and heavy metals in soil and water Rain Program (ARP) and NOx budget
bodies, biodiversity loss including corals training program(NBP) the current
and shellfish, degrade to the manmade emission levels are not sufficient to attain
structures made up of marble and stone full recovery of acid –sensitive ecosystem.
and corrosion of metal structures. However, national composite means of
According to 2012 progress report of US average SO2 annual mean ambient
EPA (2013), The Impacts of major global concentration has been declined by 85%
environmental problems such as acid in the period between 1980 and 2012
rain, acid deposition, depletion of ozone (see Figure 1&2).
 3

Figure 1. National SO2 air quality USA (Source: US EPA, 2013).

Figure 2. Three year mean of wet sulphate deposition in USA in different periods (Source:
US EPA, 2013).

place in 1936 at Battersea plant in

London, UK, however after 1970 the
Acid rain History severity of the issue had been increased.
Increased utilization of coal fuel has
First observation of acid rain was
resulted in elevated levels of SO2
recorded in the mid-19th century in
Europe. Signs of leaf deterioration were concentrations in the atmosphere, thus,
found in forest located downwind of large after 10 years of continuous National
industrial areas. In 1872 an English Acidic Precipitation Assessment Program
scientist Robert Angus Smith introduced (NAPAP), US congress has passed acid
the term “acid rain” as he noticed that deposition act in 1980. This enlarged the
acid precipitation damages the leafs. First monitoring site network for dry
attempt to reduce the acid rain was took deposition and the effects of acid rain on
monuments, fresh water, terrestrial
 4

ecosystem and buildings. Funded studies soluble in water and form sulphuric acid.
were carried out on atmospheric process Sulphur dioxide is naturally produced by
and potential control programs. volcanic eruptions, sea spray, planktons,
According to NAPAP’s first assessment rotting vegetation and forest fires.
report in 1991 on acid rain, about 5% of Anthropogenic sources 69.4 % of Sulphur
New England’s (in USA) lakes were acidic dioxide released from industrial
and issues such as changes biochemical combustion (point sources), house hold
pattern in soil, fresh water bodies and heating of fire wood and coal (area or
damages to the manmade structures were non-point sources) and 3.7% from
observed. transportation (mobile sources). Coal
burning sources such as coal power
plants, coal powered engines in vehicles,
By 1990 US congress has passed smelting of metal ore, production of iron
amendments to the Clean Air Act. Title IV and steel, process pure metal (obtaining
of the amendment consist control pure metals of Zn, Ni & Cu) oil refinery,
measures to SO2 and NOX. This was domestic and industrial boilers, it also
implemented in 2 phases aiming to released from the manufacture of
decreases the total SO2 emission by 10 sulphuric acid during the production of
million tons. Phase 1(from 1995) limited disinfectants, bleaching agents and
the SO2 emission from 110 of the largest fumigants. NOX is naturally produced by
power plants; Phase II (since 2000) lightening, bacterial action, forest fire and
affects most of the other power plants in volcanoes, manmade emission are by
US. In the period of 2000 to 2006 SO2 automobiles (43%) and fertilizer
emission had declined by 54% (from industries, utility plants and other
211,000 tons to 96, 500 tons). Similarly, industrial combustion (32%) (‘Causes and
several programs were carried out since Effects of Acid Rain’, 2012).
1999 to reduce NOx from factories and
automobiles. By March 2005 US EPA has
issued Clean Air Interstate Rule (CAIR) Acid deposition can be classified as wet
this reduces the pollution from power deposition such as acid rain, snow, sleet
plant emission from one state to another and fog or dry deposition such as
(Adapted from US EPA, 2014). deposition as particulate matter even less
then PM 2.5. Effects of acid rain can either
chronic or episodic. Chronic acidification
is a long term effect due to years of acid
Acid rain rain, Episodic acidification is due to heavy
rain storms, it also occur in spring as
Acid rain caused by emission of SO2 and concentrated nitrate and sulphate in
NOX from various sources to the lower layer of snow pack get released
atmosphere and they dissolve in when snow get melts.
atmospheric water and produce acids in
the rain water. SO2 does not react much in
the atmospheric chemicals but it can Acid rain increases nitrate levels in soil,
travel quicker to long distances and when leading to nitrogen saturation in soils.
get contact with ozone or hydrogen Nitrate ions remove additional calcium
peroxide it produces SO3, which is highly and magnesium from soil, excess nitrogen
 5

also leads to eutrophication in water subsequently lower the frog population as

bodies. Trees starve for aluminum and well. Interconnections and
other minerals as aluminum of soil get interdependencies in the food chain affect
converted to aluminum nitrate or the ecosystem. Release of toxic heavy
sulphate when get absorbed by trees metal ions such as ions of copper,
cause harmful effects. In dry deposition cadmium, nickel, chromium, cobalt, lead
sulphate and nitrate ions fall as small and zinc in the water body reduces the
particles without dissolving in water, development and growth of the fish.
about 20-60 % of the total deposition is Acidic condition together with toxicity of
dry deposition. heavy metals reduced the growth of the
fish and increases the stress, this make
the fish less immune, thus become more
Effects on surface waters susceptible to diseases, kills the eggs and
larval stages, reduces spawning and
Acid rain releases aluminum from the soil reproductive success. Nitrogen dioxide
into lakes and streams which is toxic to deposition in water bodies is another
many aquatic organisms. According to major reason for episodic acidification,
natural surface effects of deposition about about 10- 45 % of the nitrogen dioxide
75% of the lakes and about 50% of the reaching water bodies are airborne and
streams in U.S are acidified as the pH falls they are released to atmosphere mainly
below 5. Similarly, in eastern Canada from anthropogenic sources.
about 14,000 lakes were reported as
acidic. Soft waters with low alkaline metal
ions are more susceptible to acidification.
Acidification effects shell forming
mollusks, shell fish, coral reefs, sea grass
beds and juvenile stages of aquatic
Acidification increases the release of organisms. In case of shell fish and corals
aluminum from granite rocks. Aluminum their calcareous shell or skeleton get
gives chronic stress lower bodyweight or dissolved in acidic environment. Reduced
smaller the size thus fish become pH encourages the growth of acid tolerant
inefficient in competing for food and forms such as some bacteria and
habitat. In addition, most of the eggs do protozoa. Acid rain is not the sole cause of
not hutch, some adult fish may die, and acidification, some swamps, bogs and
partially sensitive species such as snails marshes naturally have low level of pH. In
and clams cannot tolerate pH below 5.5. addition, acid water runoff from coal
However, in case some species such as mines could reach the surface waters
frog though it can tolerate lower pH but bodies e.g. fish kills in Pennsylvania, West
their prey species such as mayfly cannot Virginia and Virginia surface waters in US
and decrease in prey population and Canada (see Figure 3).
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a) b)

Figure 3. a) A signpost in Nova Scotia, Canada proclaims effects of acid rain on salmon
fishery (source: ‘Water Encyclopedia’, 2015) b) fish kill due to acidification of river (‘Juliana
Muna’, n.d.) Adapted from ‘Effects of Acid rain’ US EPA (2012).

Effects on forest
reduction of soil fertility as potassium
Acid precipitation on vegetation reduces leached out of the soil, phosphorus is also
the photosynthesis and growth also reduced this reduces the fruit production,
increase the susceptibility to draught and toxic metals such as zinc and aluminum
disease, process called ‘dieback’ it causes accumulates, aluminum toxicity retard
browning of leaf and fall off (see figure root growth and causes loss of
4), in addition, effects such as thinning of chlorophyll (Sharma and Kaur, 1994).
annual growth ring and reduction in Young seed lings are more susceptible
biomass (due to reduced growth), it also than older plants (Sthana and Asthana,
damage the fine root system, affect root 2001), Adapted from Verma et al. (2010).
mycorrhiza (due to increase in Al and Soil acidity can be overcome by addition
acidity) and decrease the lichens, of lime, whereas alkalinity of limestone
neutralizes the negative ions in acid.

a) b)

Figure 4. a) Branches of trees in Germanys Black forest showed needle lose and yellowed
boughs (branch on left) b) Affected trees in the Great Smoky Mountains (Source: Butler,
2014).
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Effects to manmade structures resistant top paint and modern buildings

Nitric acid, sulphurus and sulphuric acid are painted with acid resistant exterior
concentrated in dew or rain deposited on wall paints. Metal such as bronze and
automotive coating causes fading of the alloy structures get corrode, acid also
paint, thus the modern vehicle degrade marble (limestone) architectures
manufactures are coating with acid see figure 5.

a) b)

Figure 5. Affected a) monument -statue on left taken in 1908 and right taken in 1968; b)
affected building (Butler, 2014).

Lime stone is added to neutralize the acid

in the water body; it also facilitates the
Visibility impairment release of locked nutrients of the acidified
mud bottoms by neutralizing the ions.
Acid fog particularly particles of suphur
Essential nutrients such as phosphorus
dioxide and sulphur trioxide reduces the
and other limiting minerals get released
visibility by 50-70% in eastern U.S.A.
and thereby planktons and plant
productivity get increased. In addition it
also reduces the toxic effect of heavy
Health effects metals which are normally high in
acidified waters. Thus, bring back the
The causing agents of acid rain SO 2, SO3 aquatic life in its norm level.
and NOx may affect the health particularly Furthermore, calcium in lime supports
SO2 & SO3 effect on asthma and the mollusks population in developing
emphysema patients and increase the their calcareous exoskeleton. As calcium
incidence (Phamornsuwana, n.d.). and phosphorus are essential plant
Particulate deposition of particles less nutrients, liming enhance the primary
than PM 2.5 can even reach the blood production and subsequently the entire
stream via lungs and cause harmful community of the water system, increase
effects such as lung cancer (Particulates, in rooted plants also elevates the quality
n.d.). of breeding and nursery ground, thus
increases the chances of survival of the
juvenile forms. It was observed liming
improved the sport fishery in US.
Liming
However, liming is not recommended at
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all, particularly in portable waters, as it fuels such as coal or switching to low

increase turbidity and cloudiness of the sulphur containing coal or oil, switching
water temporarily, increases algal blooms to alternative energy sources such as
and alters the taste and mineral content using gas boilers instead of coal or oil
of the water. Liming process can either be boilers, nuclear power generation, using
protective (preventive) liming or renewable energy sources such as wind,
mitigatory liming; preventive liming is air, wave and geothermal energy. Use
applied on sensitive soft water lakes to solar batteries, fuel cells, natural gas and
increase their buffering capacity to electric motor vehicles. EPAs energy star
acidification, on the other hand mitigatory program, reduce carpool by using public
liming used to bring the acidified lakes transportation, maintain the vehicle for
and ponds back to the normal condition low NOx emission and factory boilers such
by neutralizing the acidity. Agricultural
as clean the stacks and exhaust pipes. Use
lime (CaCO3) is recommended type
energy efficient boilers and using filters
generally in use, Dolomite lime (MgCO3) is or scrubbers to catch the oxides of
impure substance, Quicklime (CaO) and sulphur and Nitrogen in industrial
Hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2) are caustic, used effluents and vehicles, defining the right
in acidified lakes in little quantities and if stack height, in 1970s average stack
applied in high amount results fish kill height was 150-300m common in
and Soda ash (Na2CO3) also usable but it smelters and thermal electric generating
is less preferred due to its high cost. In plants in Europe and North America,
addition factors such as hardness of the however later 400m super stacks are
water, existing ph, alkalinity, chemistry introduced which reduces the local
and acidity of bottom mud, temperature pollution by emitting pollutants outside
and water quality, density and type of the boundary layer (Kemp, 2004).
aquatic plants, targeted pH, type, type of
limestone (purity and particle size)
amount and flushing rate to be
Scrubbing includes use of electrostatic
considered in liming applications.
precipitators where positively charged
Treatment can be extended in several
sulphur particles are get attracted by
additional applications if required,
negatively charged plate or chemical
limestone is applied by boat or barge
means either wet scrubbing such as
(flushing lime at high pressure), by snow
injecting water or chemical solution such
mobile tractor or spreader on ice covered
as flue gas desulphurization (FGS) which
lakes (lime dissolved on surface ice and
has the SO2 removal rate between 80-95%
subsequently reaches the waters), shore
land tractor, feeder stream application or dry scrubbers such as lime injection
and by air (plane or helicopter) for huge multi stage burning (LIMB) or fluidized
area of application (Helfrich et al., 2009). bed combustion (FBC or circulation dry
scrubber) that react with sulphur in the
absence of water medium. To reduce NOx
methods such as selective catalytic
Reduce acid rain reduction process (SCR) which has the
NOx reduction rate up to 80% where
This can be done either fuel switching or
scrubbing. Fuel switching includes injection of reactive chemicals such as
limiting the use of Sulphur containing ammonia reacts with NOx and convert
into N2 and O2, changing air to fuel ratio
 9

and changing the combustion was geld in two phases, Phase I held in
temperature. In automobile NOx the period of 1995 to 2000 and phase II is
reduction, catalytic converters are used being conducted since year 2009 (see
e.g. three way catalytic converters (1. figure 6 and 7 for overall trends in SO2
conversion of NOx into N2 and O2, 2. and NOx emission respectively in New
conversion of CO into CO2 3. conversion of England). Similar program is being done
hydrocarbons into CO2 and water) in Asia, Regional Acidification
(‘Reducing Acid Rain’ US EPA, 2012). Title Information and Simulation programme,
IV of the 1990 clean air act amendments where the threat is increasing in
of the EPA’s acid rain program has set a developing countries as their energy need
cap for the volume of SO2 emitted by is now increased (Hunt, 1992 as cited in
power plants, it also take measures to Kemp, 2004). NOx Budget Trading
reduce the NOx emission. Program also program (NBP) operated from 2003 to
used continuous emission monitors 2008 this cap and trade programmes
(CEMs) which monitor the sulphur where NOx reduction is required by the
content of the fuel, amount of fuel used, industries in eastern US in the summer
and the rate of SO2 emission. season (see figure 7& 8).

Each plant was given a number of To reduce the effects of trans boundary
“allowances” based on annual emission of acid deposition US and Canada have
SO2 in the period of 1985 to 1987 signed in a bilateral air quality agreement
program also encouraged the use of in 1991 and an integrated atmospheric
renewable energy and conservation of deposition network (IADN) was
energy. Allowances are also given for established to collect and manage data on
solar, wind and geothermal plants. Title V the same. Similarly, Cross state air
acid rain permit program made the plant pollution rule and litigation (CSAPR)
or industrial owners to get legal implemented by US EPA since 2011,
permission via applying to the which reduces the emissions that cross
appropriate agency. Acid rain program state boundaries significantly.
 10

Figure 6. SO2 Emissions in the period of 1990-2011 in New England, USA. (Source :
‘Trends’, 2014)

Figure 7. NOx emission in the period of 1990-2011 in New England, USA (Source: ‘Trends’,
2014).
 11

Figure 8. Important milestones of acid rain control mission (Source US EPA, 2013).

Monitoring Acid rain

During monitoring Wet and dry Other related pollution problems

deposition collectors are used in
monitoring of the acid deposition by the Sulphur and nitrate effluents forms small
national acid deposition Program (NADP) particles PM 2.5, they can irritate eyes
see Figure 1, container on the left collects and nasal cavity, also particle matters of
rain water and the right container to PM2.5 do reach the blood and adversely
measure the dry deposition (see figure 9). affect the heart and lungs. Formation of
Though it is the traditional method, Smog due to the effluents of coal burning
nowadays sensors based on electrical affect London in 1952 (Great smog) which
resistance are used worldwide. killed about 4000 people and injured
more than 100 thousand due to its affect
to the respiratory system such as hypoxia,
pneumonia and bronchitis ‘Great smog’,
n.d.). Particles in smog affects visibility as
it scatter the light. In 2013 cities of
Beijing, Tianjin and Hebei experienced
the hazardous effects of PM2.5. Smog
affects severely in cities where coal
combustion is increasingly high. (Zhang,
2014) (See Figure 10).

Figure 9. Wet and Dry deposition

collector (Source: NADP, n.d.).
 12

Figure 10. Proportion of population expose to PM2.5 concentration of 10 µg/ m 3

(Source: Hsu et al., 2014 as cited in Zhang, 2014).

Coal plants and other fossil fuels also

emits mercury and cadmium which are a
Similarly, brown cloud of Asia affected the hazardous heavy metals can accumulate
northern Indian Ocean closed to India and in living cells and undergo bio
Pakistan in 1999, 2004 and 2007 formed magnification and affect the top level
due to particle dust form industrial, carnivores including man. In addition
transport and wood fire emission (‘Asian several hazardous compounds such as
brown cloud’, 2015) and Artic haze benzenes and formaldehyde are also
consists of reddish brown clouds which found in smoke. Large amount of
mostly consist sulphur (90%) and carbon, greenhouse gases such as NOx and CO2 are
this occurs in the arctic region due to released by industries and vehicle
limited amount of snow or rain effluents, which causes global warming
precipitation or turbulent wind flow for and climatic change.
dispersal of pollutant in the spring and
stays more than a month. Ground level
Ozone is another issue, which is a
secondary pollutant result from the Conclusion
reaction between NOx and volatile organic
Acid rain is one of the world’s major
compounds in the atmosphere. Ground
environmental problems since 19th
level Ozone reduces the function of lungs
century. Coal burning is the major cause
and inflame the lining of lung tissue, it
of SO2 production and also vehicle
also worsen the effects of Asthma,
emission and various fossil fuel based
bronchitis and emphysema. (Adapted
power generation emits NOx. Both SO2
from ‘Ground level Ozone’ US EPA, 2014)
and NOx produces suplhuric and nitric
acid respectively by reacting with
 13

atmospheric water vapour and in 1991, an integrated atmospheric

precipitate as wet deposition such as rain, deposition network (IADN) was
snow, sleet and fog and dry deposition established and in 2011cross state air
including hazardous particles of PM 2.5. pollution rule and litigation (CSAPR)
Acid rain affects forest trees causes implemented by US EPA for the same.
yellowing and leaf fall, acidified rivers and
lakes causes fish death, loss of calcareous
shell forming species (mollusks), it also
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 14

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