Types of DC Motors

• Separately Excited DC Motor

• Shunt Motor In a separately excited motor, the field and armature voltages can
be controlled independent of each other.
• Series Motor
• Cumulative Compound Motor In a shunt motor, field and armature are connected to a common
source.

In case of a series motor, field current is same as armature current,

and therefore, field flux is a function of armature current.

In a cumulatively compound motor, the magneto-motive force of

the series field is a function of armature current and is in the same
direction as mmf of the shunt field.
• The steady state equivalent circuit of armature of a dc machine is

• Resistance Ra is the resistance of the armaturecircuit.

• For separately excited and shunt motors, it is equal to the resistance of armature winding.
• For series and compound motors it is the sum of armature and field winding resistances.
• Basic equations applicable to all Types of DC Motor are
• Shunt and Separately Excited Motors
• For shunt and separately excited motors, with a constant field current, the flux can be assumed to
be constant.

• The speed-torque and torque-current characteristics of motor

• Series Motor
• In series motors, the flux is a function of armature current and Φ can be assumed to be proportional
to Ia.
• Ø =Kf Ia and substituting this valu in other equation we get

• For series motor armature circuit resistance Ra is the sum of armature and field winding
resistances.
• Series motors are suitable for applications requiring high starting torque and heavy torque
overloads.
• Since torque is proportional to the armature current squared, for the same increase in torque,
increase in motor current is less compared to that in a separately excited motor where torqueis
proportional to armature current.
• Thus, during heavy torque overloads and starting, power overload on the source andthermal
overloading of the motor are kept limited to reasonable values.
• As speed varies inversely as the square root of torque, machine runs at a large speed at lightload.
• Generally, mechanical strength of a DC Motor permit it to operate upto about twice rated speed.
• Hence, the series motor should not be used in those drives where there is a possibility of the load
torque being dropped to the extent that the speed may exceed twice rated value.

• Compound Motor
• The no load speed depends on the strength of shunt field and slope of the characteristic on
the strength of series field.
• Cumulative compound motors are used in those applications where a drooping
characteristic similar to that of a series motor is required and at the same time the no load
speed must be limited to a safe value; typical examples are lifts and winches.
• It is also used in intermittent load applications, where the load varies from almost no load
to very heavy loads.
• In these applications a fly-wheel may be mounted on the motor shaft for load
equalisation.
• Pressing machine is a typical example of this type of application.
• Universal Motor
• The universal motor can run both on dc and ac supply.
• It is essentially a dc series motor, with some differences in construction.
• Reversal of the terminal voltage reverses both the armature current and field flux.
• Consequently, torque remains in the same direction. Therefore, when fed from an ac source, the
series motor produces unidirectional torque.
• The armature, field poles and yokes are laminated to reduce eddy current losses.
• High permeability silicon steel lamination are used to reduce hysteresis loss.
• A compensating winding is used in series with the armature to reduce armatureinductance.
• The field inductance is lowered by using fewer turns and shallow pole pieces.
• Universal motors are generally used for ratings less than oe equal to 1 kW.
• No load speed is high, but generally not high enough to damage the motor.
• Many universal motors operate at speeds upto 12,000 rpm and can go upto 20,000 rpm.
• Applications: fans, electric drills, home appliances
• Permanent Magnet Motors
• In permanent magnet dc motors, field excitation is obtained by suitably mounting permanent
magnets on the stator.
• he permanent magnet motors are mainly employed in fractional horsepower range, but they are
available upto 5 kW rating.
• Use of permanent magnets for excitation eliminates field copper loss and need for field supply.
• Compared to the field wound motors, they are more efficient, reliable, sturdy and compact. The
field flux remains constant for all loads giving a more linear speed torque characteristic.
• As the flux is constant in these motors, speed cannot be controlled above base speed. Such motors
have applications in electric vehicles like mopeds, forklift trucks, wheel chairs etc.
• DC Servo Motors
• Servo motors are intended to be used in closed loop speed and positional control systems where
performance requirements are such that they cannot be achieved by a normal dc motor.
• The servo motor on the other hand is designed to achieve good dynamic performance and steady
state accuracy.
• It is designed to achieve the same performance in both directions of rotation, high torque to inertia
ratio, low friction and smooth ripple free torque.
• Their ratings can be from few watts (in instrument servos) to megha watts (steel rolling mills).
Small servo motors are usually permanent magnet type.
• Moving Coil Motors
• Some applications require acceleration much higher than what can be achieved in a conventional
dc servo motor.
• Two types of moving coil motors are shell and disc type.
• Shell Type
• In order to maximize acceleration, armature inertia must be minimized.
• In a shell type moving coil motor - the rotor consists of only armature winding. Hence it
has very low inertia. Low reluctance path for the stator field is provided by a stationary
magnetic material cylinder.
• Tiny motors (with diameters around 1 cm), known as micromotors have armature
winding consisting of simply varnished wires arranged in cylindrical form and a disc
type commutator.
• Micromotors are widely used in cameras, card readers, video systems etc.
• In bigger size motors, the armature winding is made by bonding conductors together
using
polymer resins and fiberglass to provide adequate mechanical strength.
• Disc or Pancake Type:
• Armature is made in disc or pancake form, and armature conductors resemble spokes on
a wheel.
• Armature winding is formed by stamping conductors from a sheet of copper, welding them
together and placing them on a light weight disc.
• Disc type moving coil motors are more robust and available in sized upto few kilowatts.
• Applications are machine tools, disc drives

• Torque Motors:
• DC motors designed to run for long periods in a stalled or a low speed condition are
known as torque motors.
• Applcations : Machine tools, spooling, Opening of valves, switches and clamping devices,
reel
drive.
 DC Shunt Motor Starter Design:
• Maximum current that a DC Shunt Motor Starter Design can safely carry during
starting is limited by the maximum current that can be commutated without
sparking.
• For normally designed machines, twice the rated current can be allowed to flow
and for specially designed machines it can be 3.5 times.
• At standstill, back emf is zero and the only resistance opposing flow of current is
the armature circuit resistance, which is quite small for all types of dc motors.
• If a dc motor is started with full supply voltage across its terminals, a very high
current will flow, which may damage the motor due to heavy sparking at
commutator and heating of the winding.
• Therefore, it is necessary to limit the current to a safe value during starting.
• As motor accelerates and back emf rises, one section of the resistor is cut out at a
time, either manually or automatically with the help of contactors, such that the
current is kept within specified maximum and minimum values.
 DC Motor Braking Methods

• During Electric Braking the motor works as a generator developing a negative

torque which opposes the motion.
• Three types of DC Motor Braking Methods are
• 1. Regenerative braking;
• 2. Dynamic or Rheostatic braking; and
• 3. Plugging or reverse voltage braking.
Regenerative Braking:
• In regenerative braking, generated energy is supplied to the source.
• V= E+IaRa
• E = Keωm and when E > V Ia is negative
• Field flux cannot be increased substantially beyond rated because of saturation.
• So for a source of fixed voltage of rated value regenerative braking is possible
only for speeds higher than rated and with a variable voltage source it is also
possible below rated speeds.
• In series motor as speed increases, armature current, and therefore, flux decreases.
Consequently, condition of E > V cannot be achieved. Thus regenerative braking
is not possible.
• In actual supply system when the machine regenerates its terminal voltage rises.
Consequently the regenerated power flows into the loads connected to the supply
and the source is relieved from supplying this much amount of power.
• The regenerative braking is therefore possible only when there are loads connected
to the line and they are in need of power more are equal to the regenerated power.
• When the capacity of the loads is less than the regenerated power, all the
regenerated power will not be absorbed by the loads.
• The remaining power will be supplied to capacitors (including stray capacitances)
in line and the line voltage will rise to dangerous values leading to insulation
breakdown.
• Hence, regenerative braking should only be used when there are enough loads to
absorb the regenerated power.
• Alternatively an arrangement is made to divert the excess power to a resistance
bank where it is dissipated as heat.
• Such a braking is known as Composite Braking because it is a combination of
regenerative braking and dynamic braking. When the source is a battery, the
regenerated energy can be stored in the battery.
 Dynamic Braking
• In dynamic braking, motor armature is disconnected from the source and
connected across a resistance RB. The generated energy is dissipated in RB and Ra.
• In series machine works as a self-excited generator, the field connection is
reversed so that field assists the residual magnetism.

• In dynamic braking, motor armature is disconnected from the source and

connected across a resistance RB. The generated energy is dissipated in
RB and Ra.
• The blow fig shows speed-torque curves and transition from motoring to braking.
These characteristics are obtained for V = 0.
• When fast braking is desired, RB consists of a few sections. As the speed falls,
sections are cut-out to maintain a high average torque,
• Plugging
• For plugging, the supply voltage of a separately excited motor is reversed so that it
assists the back emf in forcing armature current in reverse direction.
• A resistance RB is also connected in series with armature to limit the current.

• For plugging of a series motor armature alone is reversed. Speed Torque curves
can be calculated by replacing V by -V
• Counter Torque Braking
• Motor rotation in reverse direction arises, when a motor connected for forward
motoring, is driven by an active load in the reverse direction.
• Here again back emf and applied voltage act in the same direction. However, the
direction of torque remains positive.
 Speed Control of DC Motor Drives
• The Speed Control of DC Motor Drives can be any of the following methods.
• 1. Armature voltage control
• 2. Field flux control
• 3. Armature resistance control
• Armature voltage control
• Armature voltage control is preferred because of high efficiency, good transient
response and good speed regulation. But it can provide Speed Control of DC
Motor Drives only below base (rated) speed because the armature voltage cannot
be allowed to exceed rated value.
• Field flux control
• For speed control above base speed, field flux control is employed.
• In a normally designed motor, the maximum speed can be allowed up to
twice rated speed and in specially designed machines it can be six
times rated speed.

• Resistance
control
• The maximum torque and power limitations of dc drives operating with armature
voltage control and full field below rated speed and flux control at rated armature
voltage above rated speed.
• In armature voltage control at full field,
T ∞ Ia consequently, the maximum torque that
the machine can deliver has a constant value.
• In the field control at rated armature voltage,
Pm ∞ Ia (because E ≈ V = constant).
Therefore, maximum power developed by the
motor has a constant value.

In a separately excited motor, flux is controlled by varying voltage across field

winding and in a series motor it is controlled either by varying number of turns in
the field winding or connecting a diverter resistance across the field winding.
• In armature resistance control, speed is varied by wasting power in
external resistors that are connected in series with the armature.
• Since it is an inefficient method of Speed Control of DC Motor Drives, it
was used in intermittent load applications where the duration of low speed
operation forms only a small proportion of total running time, for example
in traction. It has, however, been replaced by armature voltage control in
all these applications.
 Ward Leonard Method of Speed Control
• Ward Leonard system consists of a separately excited generator feeding the dc
motor to be controlled. The generator is driven at a constant speed by an ac motor
connected to 50 Hz ac mains. The driving motor may be an induction or a
synchronous.
• Motor terminal voltage is controlled by adjusting the field current of the generator.
•When field winding voltage is smoothly varied
in either direction, the motor terminal voltage
and therefore, speed can be steplessly varied
from full positive to full negative.
• Ward Leonard drive is used for regenerative braking.
• It can operate in all the four quadrants of speed-torque plane.
• For regenerative braking, the output voltage of generator G is reduced below the
induced voltage of motor M by decreasing the generator field current.
• This reverses the current flowing through the armatures of machines G and M.
• Now machine M works as a generator and G as a motor.
• Mechanical energy provided to machine M, either from the kinetic energy of
rotating parts or due to an active load acting on its shaft, is converted into
electrical energy.
• Electrical energy supplied by Machine M is converted into mechanical energy by
machine G. The ac motor, which now works as a generator, converts the
mechanical energy to electrical energy and feeds it to the ac source.
• Control of generator field is obtained by rheostats when low ratings are involved.
• Power requirement of the rheostats is of the order 1 to 2% of the total input to the
motor.
• For higher power applications or for closed-loop control, the field is supplied by a
power amplifier which may consists of a controlled rectifier.
• For reversible drives, a power amplifier capable of supplying controlled field
current in either direction is required.
• It may, therefore, consists of a single-phase or three-phase dual converter, four
quadrant chopper.
• The Ward-Leonard drive is used in rolling mills, mine winders, paper mills,
elevators, machine tools etc.
• Ward-Leonard-Ilgener scheme
• When the load is heavy and intermittent, a slip-ring induction motor is employed
and a flywheel is mounted on its shaft.
• Rotor resistance control is used to restrict the motor current within permissible
limits and to give it a drooping speed-torque characteristic.
• Advantages of Ward Leonard Method of Speed Control are:
• It has inherent regenerative braking capability which allows efficient four
quadrant operation.
• It can be employed for power factor improvement by using a synchronous motor.
• Because of the inertia of rotating machines, ac supply is dynamically decoupled
from the load.
• Ward-Leonard-Ilgner driver prevents load torque fluctuations to cause source
current and voltage fluctuations.
Drawbacks of the Ward Leonard Method of Speed Control are:
• High initial cost and low efficiency because of the use of two additional machines
of same ratings as that of the main motor.
• Requires more frequent maintenance and produces more noise.
• It has large weight and size, and needs large floor area and foundation.
 Controlled Rectifier Fed DC Drives
• Controlled Rectifier Fed DC Drives are used to get variable dc voltage from an ac
source of fixed voltage.
• Controlled Rectifier Fed DC Drives are also known as Static Ward-Leonard
drives.
• Commonly used Controlled Rectifier Fed DC Drives and quadrants in which they
can operate on Va-Ia plane are given below.
• Rectifiers provide control of dc voltage in either direction and therefore, allow
motor control in quadrants I and IV. They are known as Fully Controlled
Rectifiers.

• Half Controlled Rectifiers as they allow dc voltage control only in one direction
and motor control in quadrant I only.

• For low power applications (up to around 10 kW) single-phase rectifier drives are
employed.

• For high power applications, three-phase rectifier drives are used.

• But in traction where single phase drives are employed for large power ratings.
 Single Phase Fully Controlled Rectifier Control of DC Motor

• Motor is shown by its equivalent circuit. Field supply is not shown.

When field control is required, field is fed from a controlled rectifier,
otherwise from an uncontrolled rectifier.
• The drive under consideration, can operate in discontinuous
conduction and CCM.
• In discontinuous conduction mode of Single Phase Fully Controlled Rectifier
Control of DC Motor, current starts flowing with the turn-on of thyristors T1 and
T3 at ωt = α.
• Motor gets connected to the source and its terminal voltage equals vs.
• The current, which flows against both, E and the source voltage after ωt = π, falls
to zero at β.
• Due to the absence of current T1 and T3 turn-off.
• Motor terminal voltage is now equal to its induced voltage E.
• When thyristors T2 and T4 are fired at (π + α), next cycle of the motor terminal
voltage va starts.
• Since armature current is is not perfect dc, the motor torque fluctuates. Since
torque fluctuates at a frequency of 100 Hz, motor inertia is able to filter out the
fluctuations, giving nearly a constant speed and rippleless E.
• In continuous conduction mode of Single Phase Fully
Controlled Rectifier Control of DC Motor, a positive current
flows through the motor, and T2 and T4 are in conduction just
before α.
• Application of gate pulses turns on forward biased thyristors
T1 and T3 at α.
• Conduction of T1 and T3 reverse biases T2 and T4 and turns
them off.
• A cycle of va is completed when T2 and T4 are turned-on at
(π + α) causing turn-off of T1 and T3.
• Discontinuous Conduction:
• In a Single Phase Fully Controlled Rectifier Control of DC Motor terminal voltage
va, the drive operates in two intervals.
• Duty interval (α ≤ ωt ≤ β) when motor is connected to the source and va = vs.
• Zero current interval (β ≤ ωt ≤ π + α) when ia = 0 and va = E.

• Solution of for above eqn has two components—one due to the ac source (Vm/Z)
sin (ωt – Φ), and other due to back emf ( – E/Ra).
• Each of these components has in turn a transient component.
• Let these be represented by a single exponent K1e-t/τa, then
• Constant K1 can be evaluated by applying the initial condition ia(α) =0.
• Substituting the value of K1 we get

• Since ia(β) = 0,

• β can be evaluated by iterative solution

• Armature voltage is evaluated as
• Continuous Conduction

• The drive operates in quadrants I (forward motoring) and IV (reverse regenerative

braking).

• Two quadrant operation capability of the drive can be utilized only with
overhauling loads or other active loads which can drive the motor in
reverse direction.
• In a normal two quadrant operation of a motor one needs forward
motoring (quadrant I) and forward braking (quadrant II) which cannot be
provided by the drive
Single Phase Half Controlled Rectifier Control of DC
Separately ExcitedMotor

• In discontinuous conduction mode, when T1 is fired at α, motor gets connected to

the source through T1 and D1 and va = vs.
• The armature current flows and D2 gets forward biased at π. Consequently,
armature current freewheels through the path formed by D1 and D2, and the motor
terminal voltage is zero.
• Conduction of D2 reverse biases T1 and turns it off. Armature current drops to 0 at
β and stays zero until T2 is fired at (π+ α).
• Boundary between continuous and discontinuous
conduction is reached when β = π + α
• Average output voltge or Voltage across armature is

• Continuous
Conduction

• It operates in quadrant I
only
Speed-torque curves are shown in Fig. 5.30. No load speeds are given by Eqs. (5.85)
and (5.86). Operation of drive, which operates in quadrant I only, is represented by
equivalent circuit of Fig. 5.28(b). It is useful to note why the drive should not be
operated in quadrant IV. Figure 5.31(a) shows plot of Va with α (Eq. (5.93)) for Single
Phase Half Controlled Rectifier Control for continuous conduction operation. The
output voltage cannot be reversed. When coupled to an active load, in the motor
speed can reverse, reversing E as shown in Fig. 5.31(b). As current direction does
not change, machine now works as a generator producing braking torque. Since,
rectifier voltage cannot reverse, generated energy cannot be transferred to ac source,
and therefore, it is absorbed in the armature circuit resistance. Braking so obtained is
nothing but the reverse voltage braking (plugging). Such a braking is not only
inefficient, but also causes a large current [Ia = (Va + E)/Ra] to flow through the
rectifier and motor. Since it cannot be regulated by adjustment of firing angle, it will
damage the rectifier and motor. Therefore, when load is active, care should be taken
to avoid such a operation. If such a operation cannot be avoided, fully-controlled
rectifier should be used.
 Three phase Fully Controlled Rectifier Control of DC Separately
Excited Motor
• Average voltage cross Armature
• When coupled to an active load, in the motor speed can reverse, reversing E as
shown in Fig.
• As current direction does not change, machine now works as a generator producing
braking torque.
• Since, rectifier voltage cannot reverse, generated energy cannot be transferred to ac
source, and therefore, it is absorbed in the armature circuit resistance.
• Braking is obtained but the reverse voltage braking.
• Such a braking is inefficient and also causes a large current [Ia = (Va + E)/Ra] to flow
through the rectifier and motor.
• Since it cannot be regulated by adjustment of firing angle, it will damage the
rectifier and motor.
• Therefore, when load is active, care should be taken to avoid such a operation.
• A Single Phase Half Controlled Rectifier Control is cheaper and gives higher power
factor compared to single-phase fully-controlled rectifier.
• But then it only provides control in quadrant I.
Three Phase Half Controlled Rectifier Control of DC Separately Excited Motor

• Voltage across
armature

• This drive operates only in

quadrant I.
 Multi Quadrant Operation of DC separately excited motor fed from Fully
controlled Rectifier
• Multi quadrant operation with regenerative braking is considered and current
limiter is required for limiting the current to safe value.
• 3 schemes used are :
• 1. Single phase fully controlled rectifier with a reversing switch
• 2. Dual Converter
• 3. Single phase fully controlled rectifier in the armature with field current reversal.
• The above schemes can provide 4 quadrant operations or forward motoring and
forward braking is required.
• Single phase fully controlled Rectifier with a Reversing switch
• A fully-controlled rectifier feeds the motor through a reversing switch RS which is
used to reverse the armature connection with respect to the rectifier.
• A fully-controlled rectifier is capable of providing operation in quadrants I andIV.
The reversal of the armature connection provides operation in quadrant III and II.
• The DC Motor Reversing Switch Diagram may consist of a relay-operated
contactor with two normally open and two normally closed contacts as shown in
Fig.
• With thyristor pair TF on (and pair TR off) operation is obtained in quadrants I and
IV and with pair TR on (and TF off) the operation is provided in quadrants III and
II.
• In both the configurations of RS, the switching is done at zero current in order to
avoid voltage spikes and to reduce its rating.
• The speed reversal (transfer of operation from quadrant I to III or from
quadrant III to I) is done as follows:
• The firing angle of the rectifier is set at the highest value.
• It works as an inverter and reduces armature current to zero. After the zero current
is sensed, firing pulses are stopped.
• A delay time of 2 to 10 ms is provided to make sure that the thyristors which were
conducting have all fully turned off.
• Such long delay is required in order to take care of errors in zero current sensing.
• Now the armature connection is reversed and firing pulses are released with the
firing angle set at the highest value.
• The current control adjust the firing angle continuously so as to brake the motor at
the maximum allowable current from initial speed to zero speed and then
accelerates the motor to the desired speed in the reverse direction.
• The operation at the maximum current during speed reversal ensures braking and
acceleration at the maximum motor torque ensuring fast reversal.
 Dual Converter Control of DC Separately Excited Motor
• A Dual Converter Control of DC Separately Excited Motor consists of two fully-
controlled rectifiers connected in anti-parallel across the armature.
• For power ratings up to around 10 kW, single-phase fully-controlled rectifiers can be
used. For higher ratings, three-phase fully controlled rectifiers are employed.
• Rectifier A, which provides positive motor current and voltage in eitherdirection,
allows motor control in quadrants I and IV.
• Rectifier B provides motor control in quadrants III and II, because it gives negative
motor current and voltage in either direction.
• Although, control of firing angle according to relation prevents dc circulating
current, ac current does circulate due to difference between instantaneous output
voltages of the two rectifiers.
• Inductors L1 and L2 are added to reduce ac circulating current.
• Because of the flow of ac circulating current, simultaneous control is also known
as circulating current control.
• In a three-phase dual converter, inductors are chosen to allow a circulating current
of 30% of full load current. This completely eliminates discontinuous conduction,
and therefore, gives good speed regulation in the complete range of the drive.
• The Speed reversal
• When operating in quadrant I, rectifier A will be rectifying (0 < αA < 90°) and
rectifier B will be inverting (90° < αB < 180°).
• For speed reversal αA is increased and αB is decreased to satisfy the eqn .
• The motor back emf exceeds magnitudes of VAand VB. The armature current
shifts to rectifier B and the motor operate in quadrant II.
• The current control loop adjusts the firing angle αB continuously so as to brake the
motor at the maximum allowable current from initial speed to zero speed and then
accelerates to the desired speed in the reverse direction.
• As αB is changed, αA is also changed to satisfy eqn.
• The inductances L1 and L2 increase the weight, volume, cost and reversal time.
• The circulating current increases the losses.
• Sudden drop in source voltage can cause large current to flow through the
rectifier working as inverter, blowing its thyristors.
• Non-circulating Mode of Operation
• In non-simultaneous or non-circulating current control method, one rectifier is
controlled at a time.
• Consequently, no circulating current flows and inductors L1 and L2 are not
required.
• This eliminates losses associated with circulating current and weight and volume
associated with inductors.
• But then discontinuous conduction occurs at light loads and control is rather
complex.
• The speed reversal
• When operating in quadrant I rectifier A will be supplying the motor andrectifier
B will not be operating.
• The firing angle of rectifier A is set at the highestvalue.
• The rectifier works as an inverter and forces the armature current to zero.
• After zero current is sensed, a dead time of 2 to 10 ms is provided to ensure the
turn-off of all thyristors of rectifier A.
• Now firing pulses are withdrawn from rectifier Aand transferred to rectifier B.
• The firing angle αB is set initially at the highest value.
• Now onwards the current control loop adjust the firing angle αB continuously so
as to brake the motor at the maximum allowable current from initial speed to zero
speed and then accelerates to the desired speed in the reverse direction.
• The dead time, and therefore, the reversal time can be reduced by employing
methods which can sense the current zero accurately. When this is done non-
simultaneous control provides faster response than simultaneous control. Because
of this and the advantages stated above non-simultaneous control is widely used.
• Four Quadrant Drive With Field Reversal
• Four Quadrant Drive With Field Reversal, armature is fed from a fully-controlled
rectifier and the field from a dual converter so that field current can be reversed.
• With field current in one direction, the motor operates is quadrants I and IV.
• When field current is reverted, it operates in quadrants III and II. The dual
converter operates with non-simultaneous control.
• The speed reversal is done as follows.
• The armature rectifier firing angle is set at the
• highest value to force the armature current
• to zero and then firing pulses are withdrawn.
• The firing angle of the rectifier supplying the field is now set at the highest value.
• It operates as an inverter and the field current is forced to zero. After a suitable
dead time, the second rectifier is activated at the lowest firing angle.
• When the field current has nearly settled and the motor back emf has reversed, the
firing pulses of the armature rectifier are released so as to set the firing angle at the
highest value.
• Now onwards the current control loop adjust the firing angle continuously to brake
and then accelerate the motor at a constant current to the desired speed in the
reverse direction.
• When speed control in wide range is required, field current is also controlled along
with armature control.
• The field winding needs to be fed by dual converter or fully controlled rectifiers.
 Rectifier Control of DC Series Motor
• Single-phase controlled Rectifier Control of DC Series Motor are employed in
traction.
• Since back emf decreases with armature current, discontinuous conduction occurs
only in a narrow range of operation and is neglected here.
 Following sequence of steps are used to calculate speed-
torque characteristic for a given α taking into account non-
linearly of the magnetic circuit: A value is chosen for
Ia. Corresponding value of Ka is obtained from the
magnetization characteristic of the motor. For the known
value of α, calculate Va from the rectifier ouput equations.

for a given α taking into account non-linearly of the magnetic circuit

A Value is chosen for Ia.
Corresponding value of Ka is obtained from the magnetization
characteristic of the motor.
For the known value of α, calculate Va depending on the rectifier
circuit used.
Now ωm and T are obtained
Nature of speed-torque characteristics for the drive
• Control of Fractional hp Motors
• Because of low cost single-phase half-wave controlled rectifier, employing a
single thyristor, is commonly used for the control of fractional hp universal, dc
series and permanent-magnet dc motors.
• Such drives are employed in hand tools and small domestic appliances.
 Chopper Control of Separately Excited DC Motor

At t = ton, Tr is turned-off. Motor current freewheels through diode DF and motor terminal voltage is zero
during interval ton ≤ t ≤ T. Motor operation during this interval, known as freewheeling interval, is
described by
 Regenerative Braking
• Transistor Tr is operated periodically with a period T and on-period of ton.
• When Tr is on, ia increase from ia1 to ia2.

• The mechanical energy converted into electrical by the motor, now working as a
generator, partly increases the stored magnetic energy in armature circuit
inductance and remainder is dissipated in armature resistance and transistor.
• When Tr is turned off, armature current flows through diode D and source V, and
reduces from ia2 to ia1.
• The stored electromagnetic energy and energy supplied by machine is fed to the
source.
• The interval 0 ≤ t ≤ ton is now called energy storage interval and interval ton ≤ t ≤
T the duty interval. If δ is again defined as the ratio of duty interval to period T,
then
 Chopper controlled Motoring and Regenerative Braking

• For motoring operation transistor Trl is controlled and for braking operation
transistor Tr2 is controlled.
• Shifting of control from Trl to Tr2 shifts operation from motoring to braking and
vice versa.
• In a period T,Trl is given gate drive from
0 to δT and Tr2 is given gate drive from
δT to T, where δ is the duty ratio for Trl.
• Therefore, from 0 to δT motor is connected
to source either through Trl or D2 depending
on whether the motor current ia is positive
• or negative.
• Since V > E, during this period the rate of change of current is always positive.
Similarly from δT to T, motor armature is shorted either through D1 or
Tr2 depending on whether ia is positive or negative and during this period rate of
change of current is always negative.

• Above equation suggests that motoring operation (+ve Ia) takes place when δ >
(E/V) and regenerative braking operation takes place when δ < (E/V) and
transition from motoring to braking and vice versa occurs when δ = (E/V).
 Dynamic Braking
• Dynamic braking circuit and its waveforms are shown in Fig. During the interval 0
≤ t ≤ ton, ia increases from ia1 to ia2.
• A part of generated energy is stored in inductance and rest is dissipated in Ra and
Tr. During interval ton ≤ t ≤ T, ia decreases from ia2 to ia1.
• The energies generated and stored in inductance are dissipated in braking
resistance RB, Ra and diode D.
• Transistor Tr controls the magnitude of energy dissipated in RB, and therefore,
controls its effective value.

• The effective value of braking resistor can be changed steplessly from 0 to RB as δ

is controlled from 1 to 0
 Chopper Control of Series Motor

• Motoring : Chopper Control of Series Motor and va and ia waveforms will be same
as shown in Fig which is same as for separately excited.

• However, e is not constant but varies with ia. Due to saturation of magnetic circuit,
relationship between e and ia is non-linear.
• Regenerative Braking of series motor:
• With Chopper Control of Series Motor, regenerative braking of series motor can
also be obtained.
• Power circuit of Fig. is employed. During regenerative braking, series motor
functions as a self-excited series generator.
• For self-excitation, current flowing through field winding should assist residual
magnetism. Therefore, when changing from motoring to braking connection,
while direction of armature current should reverse, field current should flow in the
same direction. This is achieved by reversing the field with respect to armature
when changing from motoring to braking operation.
 Closed Loop Speed Control of DC Motor
• The converters (rectifiers and choppers) are built using semiconductor devices,
which have very low thermal capacity.
• Consequently their transient and steady state current ratings are same.
• The dc motors can carry 2 to 3.5 times the rated current during transient operations
of short duration’s, such as starting, braking and reversing.
• Higher the current, higher is the torque and faster is the transient response.
• Therefore, when fast response during transient operations is required, motor
current is allowed to have maximum permissible value.
• The converter rating is then chosen equal to the maximum permissible value of
motor current.
• Because of large current rating, the converter cost will now be higher.
• When fast transient response is not required, the converter current rating is chosen
to be equal to the motor current rating in order to keep the converter cost low.
• Open-loop drives are provided with current limit control and in order to protect the
converter against current overloads.
• The Closed Loop Speed Control of DC Motor schemes are provided with inner
current control loop in order to limit the current within a safe limit and also to
accelerate and decelerate the drive at the maximum permissible current and torque
during transient operations.
• It should, however, be noted that deceleration at the maximum current or torque
will be possible when the converter used has the capability for braking operation
also.
• It may further be noted that controlled rectifier will be used when supply is ac and
chopper will be used when supply is dc.
• Closed Loop control for speeds below and above
rated speed
• The drive employs inner current control loop and outer speed loop.
• Such a drive will operate at a constant field current and variable armature voltage
below the base speed, and at a constant armature voltage and variable field current
above the base speed.
• Both armature and field, are therefore, fed from fully-controlled rectifiers.
• Since, the armature is fed from a fully-controlled rectifier, forward braking is not
possible; the drive will decelerate due to load torque only.
• Because of inner current control with current limiter, the acceleration will take
place at the maximum permissible current and torque.
• In semiconductor converter fed drives PI (proportional and integral) controller is
often used because it filters out noise which can otherwise become a problem. PI
controller also gives good steady-state accuracy.
• In the field control loop, the back emf E is compared with a reference voltage E*
which is chosen to be between 0.85 to 0.95 of the rated armature voltage.
• For speeds below base speed, the field controller saturates due to large value of
error ef.
• The firing angle of field rectifier αf is maintained at zero, applying rated voltageto
the field.
• This ensures rated field current for motor operation below base speed (ωmb).
• When speed reference is increased from ω*m1 to ω*m2 , due to large speed error, the
current limiter saturates and sets the current reference at the maximum permissible
value.
• The drive accelerates at the maximum available current and torque.
• When speed reaches close to ω*m2, the current limiter desaturates and the drive
settles at speed ωm2 and at the current which gives motor torque equal to the load
torque.
• If speed reference is reduced back to ω*m1, the current reference is set at zero and
the drive decelerates due to load torque.

• When ωm becomes slightly less than ω*m1 motor current flows again and finally
drive settles at speed ωm1 and current for which motor torque balances the load
torque.

• For negative speed error, I*a is set at zero because negative I*a is of no use.

• It will however change PI controller. When reference speed is increased again,

making speed error positive, the changed PI controller takes longer time to
respond, making the transience response slower.
• When close to base speed, the field controller comes out of saturation.
• Now if the reference speed is set for a speed above base speed, the current
reference is set at the maximum permissible value.
• The firing angle of the armature rectifier αa is reduced to initially increaseVa.
• The motor accelerates, E increases, ef decreases, reducing the field current.
• Thus the motor speed continues to increase and field current continues to decrease
until the motor speed becomes equal to the reference speed.
• Since, the speed error will now be small, Va will return to a value close to original
value.
• Thus, the speed control above base speed is obtained by field control with the
armature voltage maintained near the rated value.
• In the field control region (above base speed), the drive responds very slowly due
to large value of the field time constant.