LECTURE 4

(Engineering Mechanics, Strength of Materials)

1. ENGINEERING MECHANICS
1.1 Resultant of forces
Resultant – a single force, which acts on a body to produce the same effect upon a body as two or more acting
together.

Components of a force – the separate forces which can be so combined.

F x =F cosθ , F y=F sin θ

Resultant by cosine law
R= √ F 21 +F 22−2 F 1 F 2 cos ( 180−θ )
R= √ F 21 +F 22 +2 F 1 F 2 cosθ
Resultant by Pythagorean Theorem
R= √ F 21 +F 22
F2
tan θ=
F1
Resultant of three or more concurrent forces

∑ F x =F 1 cosθ1+F 2 cosθ 2+⋯

∑ F y =F1 sin θ 1+F 2 sinθ 2+⋯
R= √(∑ F x ) + (∑ F y )
2 2

tan θ=
∑ Fy
∑ Fx

1
Example No. 1
Determine the resultant of the following forces: A = 600 N at 40 deg; B = 800 N at 160 deg and C = 200 N at 300
deg.
A. 532.78 N, 55.32 deg
B. 435.94 N, 235.12 deg
C. 522.68 N, 111.57 deg
D. 627.89 N, 225.81 deg
Solution:

∑ F x =600 cos 40+800 cos160+200 cos300=−192.13 N

∑ F y =600 sin 40+800sin 160+200sin 300=486 .08 N
R= √(∑ F ) + (∑ F )
x
2
y
2

R= √(−192.13 ) + ( 486.08 ) =522.67 N

2 2

cosθ=
∑ F y =486 . 08 =−2.53
∑ F x −192. 13
θ=111.57∘
Example No. 2
A motorcycle weighing 15 kN is on a hill that makes an angle of 20 o with the horizontal. Find the components of
the motorcycle’s weight parallel and perpendicular to the road.
A. 5.1 kN and 14.1 kN
B. 5.1 kN and 13.3 kN
C. 7.1 kN and 15.3 kN
D. 9.1 kN and 17.3 kN
Solution:

F x =W sinθ=15 sin 20=5 . 1 kN

2
 F y=W cosθ=15cos20=14 .1 kN

1.2 Moment or Torque of a Force

Moment or Torque – is a measure of the tendency of a force to rotate or twist a rigid body upon which it acts
about a pivot point.
Moment of a Force=Force×Perpendicular Dis tan ce
M=F×d
1.3 Forces in Equilibrium
∑ F x =0
∑ F y =0
∑ M=0
Example No. 3
A body weighing 100 kg is hanging at the end of a rope 5 m long. What horizontal force is needed to move the
body a horizontal distance of 1 m.
A. 30.4 kg
B. 20.4 kg
C. 100 kg
D. 50.7 kg
Solution:

1
cosθ=
5
θ=78.46∘
∑ F y =0
T sin 78 . 46−100=0
T=102.1 kg
∑ F x =0
F−T cosθ=0
F=102.1cos78. 46=20.4 kg

1.4 Parabolic Cables

3
∑ M A =0
H ( d )−w ( L2 )( L4 )=0
2
wL
H=
8d
where d = cable sag
L = cable span
w = pipe weight (kg/m).

√ [ ( )]
2
L
T A= H 2 + w
2
2 4
8 d 32 d
Length of Cable=L+ −
3 L 5 L3

Example No. 4
A certain cable is suspended between two supports at the same elevation and 500 ft apart. The load is 500 lbs
per horizontal foot including the weight of the cable. The sag of the cable is 30 ft. Calculate the total length of
the cable.
A. 503.21 ft
B. 504.76 ft
C. 505.12 ft
D. 506.03 ft
Solution:

2 4
8 d 32 d
Length of cable=L+ −
3 L 5 L3

4
 2 4
8 ( 30 ) 32 ( 30 )
Length of cable=500+ −
3 (500 ) 5 ( 500 )3
Length of cable=504 .76 ft

Example No. 5
A pipe crossing a river is suspended from a steel cable stretched between two posts 100 m apart. The weight of
the pipe is 14 kg/m while the cable weighs 1 kg/m assumed to be uniformly distributed horizontally. If the
allowed sag is 2 m, determine the tension of the cable at the post.
A. 9047.28 kg
B. 9404.95 kg
C. 9545.88 kg
D. 9245.37 kg
Solution:

w=14+1=15 kg/m
2
wL2 15 ( 100 )
H= = =9375 N
8d 8 ( 2)

√ ( )
2
wL2
T A= H +
2

√ [ ]
2
( 15 )( 100 )
2
T A = ( 9375 ) + =9405 kg
2

1.5 Catenary

T A =T B=wy
H = tension at lowest point = wc
2 2 2
y =s +c
s+ y
x=c ln
c
5
 L=2 x

1.6 Friction
Friction – is the force that resists the motion of one surface relative to another with which it is in contact or a
retarding force between two objects that inhibits motion.

F=fN
F
tan θ=f =
N
where:
F = frictional force
N = normal force (reaction normal to the surface of contact)
f = coefficient of friction. It depends only on the condition of surfaces and the materials in contact.
a. Coefficient of static friction (for bodies that are not moving)
b. Coefficient of kinetic friction (for bodies that are moving)
R = total surface reaction
W = weight of the body
= frictional angle = arctan f

1.7 Rectilinear Motion

Rectilinear motion – the motion of a body in a straight line.
Uniform motion
s=vt
where:
s = displacement, m
v = displacement over time, m/s
t = time, s
Variable acceleration
ds
v=
ds=vdt or dt
dv
a=
dv=adt or dt
vdv =ads
Constant acceleration

6
 v 2−v 1
a=
t
1
s=v 1 t+ at 2
2
2 2
v 2 =v1 +2 as
where:
a = acceleration or change in velocity over time, m/s 2. (+) when accelerating. (-) when decelerating.
v = velocity, m/s
s = distance, m
t = time, s

Example No. 6
An airplane travels from points A to B with a distance of 1500 km and a wind along its flight. If it takes the
airplane 2 hours from A to B with the tailwind and 2.5 hours B to A with the headwind, what is the velocity?
A. 700 kph
B. 675 kph
C. 450 kph
D. 750 kph
Solution:

From A to B
S=( V 1 +V 2 ) t AB
S
V 1 +V 2 =
t AB
From B to A
S=( V 1−V 2 ) t BA

7
 S
V 1 −V 2=
t BA
Adding
S S
2V 1= +
t AB t BA

V 1=
(
S 1 1
+
2 t AB t BA )
V 1=
1500 1 1
+
2 2 2 .5(=675 kph )
1.7 Falling Bodies

v 2 −v 1
g=
t
1
s=v 1 t+ gt 2
2
2 2
v 2 =v1 +2 gs
where:
g = acceleration or change in velocity over time, m/s 2. (+) when going down. (-) when going up.

Example No. 7
A ball is thrown upward with an initial velocity of 20 m/s. How high does it go?
A. 10.38 m
B. 20.38 m
C. 30.38 m
D. 40.38 m
Solution:

8
 2 2
V f =V o −2gh
0=( 20 )2−2 ( 9 .81 ) h
h=20.38 m

Example No. 8
A ball is thrown upward from the edge of a cliff with an initial velocity of 7 m/s. How fast is it moving 4 sec later?
A. 42 m/s upward direction
B. 42 m/s downward direction
C. 33 m/s upward direction
D. 33 m/s downward direction
Solution:

V =V o + gt=7+ (−9. 8 ) ( 5 )=−42 m/s or 42 m/s downward

Example No. 9
A ball dropped from the top of a building and strikes the ground 5 sec later. How high is the building?
A. 122.6 m
B. 140 m
C. 135.6 m
D. 160 m
Solution:
1 1
h= gt 2 = ( 9 . 81 )( 5 )2=122 .6 m
2 2 (A)

9
1.8 Rotation or Angular Motion

Uniform motion
θ=ωt
Uniform acceleration
ω2 −ω 1
α=
t
1
θ=ω1 t+ αt 2
2
2 2
ω2 =ω 1 +2 αθ
where:
 = angular acceleration, rad/s2 or rev/s2. (+) when accelerating. (-) when decelerating.
 = angular velocity, rad/s or rev/s.
 = angular displacement, rad or rev
t = time, s

Example No. 10
A flywheel of a puncher is to be brought to a complete stop in 8 seconds from a speed of 60 rpm. Compute for
the number of turns the flywheels makes if its deceleration is uniform.
A. 1
B. 3
C. 4
D. 2
Solution:
1
2 ( 1 2)
θ= ω +ω t
1
rev .= ( n1 +n2 ) t
2
1
rev .= ( 60 rpm+0 )
2 ( )
1 min
60 sec
( 8 sec )=4 rev .
Number of turns = no. of revolutions = 4 turns

10
1.9 Projectile

Velocity
v x=v o cos θ
v y=v o sin θ
Horizontal displacement
x=( v o cos θ ) t
Vertical displacement
1
y=( v o sinθ ) t− gt 2
2
Equation of path of projectile (parabola)
2
gx
y=x tan θ−
2 v o cos2 θ
2

Range of projectile (R)

v2o sin 2θ
R=
g
2v
t= y
g
Maximum height of projectile, H
2 2
v o sin θ
H=
2g
vy
t=
g
where:
vo = initial velocity, m/s
x = horizontal distance, m
y = vertical distance, m
t = time of flight, s.

Example No. 11
A shot is fired an angle of 35 o with the horizontal and a velocity of 150 m/s. Calculate the range of the projectile
in meters.
A. 1055.25
B. 1155.25
C. 2155.25
D. 3155.25
Solution:

11
 V 2O sin 2θ ( 150 )2 sin 2 ( 35 )
R= = =2155 .25 m
g g (c)

Example No. 12
A rubber ball is thrown from a building at an angle of 60 o with the horizontal at an initial velocity of 38 m/sec.
After hitting level ground at the base of the building, it has covered a total distance of 200 m. How tall is the
building in m?
A. 183.68 m
B. 283.68 m
C. 383.68 m
D. 483.68 m
Solution:

2
gx
y=x tan θ−
2 V o cos 2 θ
2

( 9. 8 ) ( 200 )2
−h=200 tan 60−
2 ( 38 )2 cos 2 60
h=283.68 m (B)

Example No. 13
A missile is fired with a speed of 100 fps in a direction 30 degrees above the horizontal. Determine the maximum
height to which it rises?
A. 60 ft
B. 52 ft
C. 45 ft
D. 39 ft
Solution:
2 2
v 0 sin θ
H=
2g

12
 ( 100 )2 sin2 30
H= =38 . 8 ft
2 ( 32. 2 )

Example No. 14
A stone is thrown vertically upward at the rate of 20 m/s. It will return to the ground after how many seconds?
A. 3.67 sec
B. 5.02 sec
C. 4.08 sec
D. 2.04 sec
Solution:

2 v y 2 (20 )
t= = =4 . 08 sec
g 9 . 81
Example No. 15
A plane dropped a bomb at an elevation 1000 meters from the ground intended to hit a target which is 200 m
from the ground. If the plane was flying at a velocity of 300 kph, at what distance from the target must the
bomb be dropped to hit the target? Wind velocity and atmospheric pressure to be disregarded.
A. 1864.71 m
B. 2053.20 m
C. 1574.37 m
D. 1064.20 m
Solution:

x=( v 0 cos θ ) t
1
y=( v 0 sin θ ) t + gt 2
2

13
 y=1000−200=800 m
θ=0
1
800= ( 9. 81 ) t2
2
t=12.771 sec
x=( v 0 cosθ ) t

x=( 300 kph ) ( 36001 hrsec ) (12.771 sec)=1064 .25 m

x=1064 .25 m

1.10 Relation of Angular and Peripheral Motion

s=rθ
v =rω
a=rα
v2
an =
r
mv 2
F c=man =
r
aT =√ a2n +a2t
where:
s = peripheral distance, m
r = radius, m
 = angle, rad
v = peripheral velocity, m/s
 = angular velocity, rad/s
a = peripheral acceleration, m/s2
 = angular acceleration, rad/s2
an = normal acceleration, m/s2
Fc = centrifugal force, N
m = mass of body, kg
aT = total acceleration, m/s2
at = tangential acceleration, m/s2

Example No. 16
The front wheel of a bicycle has a diameter of 75 cm. Approximately how many times has the front wheel turned
if the bicycles has traveled 1.75 km?
A. 525 rev
B. 675 rev
14
 C. 743 rev
D. 925 rev
Solution:
S=rθ

1750= ( 0.275 ) θ
θ=4666 .67 rad
θ= ( 4666.67 rad ) ( 1 rev
2π rad)=742.72 rev

Example No. 17
What is the acceleration of a point on a rim of a flywheel 0.8 m in diameter turning at the rate of 1400 rad/min?
A. 214.77 m/s2
B. 217.77 m/s2
C. 220.77 m/s2
D. 227.77 m/s2
Solution:
1400
ω= rad / s
60

( ) ( 02.8 )=217 .78 m/ s

2
2 1400 2
an =ω r=
60

1.11 Force (Dynamics – Kinetics)

W
F=ma= a
g
where:
F = force, N
m = mass of the body, kg
a = acceleration of the body, m/s2

1.13 D’Alembert’s Principle (Reversed effective force)

W
a=ma
g = Reversed Effective Force(acceleration force)
Apply reverse effective force and treat as statics
∑ F x =0
∑ F y =0
∑ M=0
15
Example No. 18
A body weighing 40 lbs starts from rest and slides down a plane at an angle of 30 o with the horizontal for which
the coefficient of friction f = 0.3. How far will it move during the third second?
A. 19.63 ft
B. 19.33 ft
C. 18.33 ft
D. 19.99 ft

Solution:

W
F−μN− a=0
g
40
40 sin 30−( 0 .3 ) ( 40 cos30 )− a=0
32 .2
2
a=7.734 ft/sec
1
s=v 0 t+ at 2
2
v 0 =0
1 1
s 3 −s 2 = a (t 23 −t 22 )= (7 . 734 ) ( 3 2−3 2 )
2 2
s 3 −s 2 =19. 335 ft

Example No. 19
An elevator weighing 5000 lb attains an upward velocity of 25 fps in 5 sec with uniform acceleration. What is the
tension in the supporting cable in lbs?
A. 4776.4 lbs
B. 5776.4 lbs
C. 6776.4 lbs
D. 7776.4 lbs
Solution:

16
 V 2 −V 1 25−0
a= = =5 ft / s 2
t 5
W 5000
T =W + a=5000+ ( 5 ) =5776. 4 lbs
g 32 .2 (B)

Example No. 20
What is the minimum distance can a truck slide on a horizontal asphalt road if it is traveling at 25 m/s? The
coefficient of sliding friction between the asphalt and rubber tire is at 0.60. The weight of the truck is 8500 kg.
A. 44.9
B. 58.5
C. 53.2
D. 63.8
Solution:

∑ F x =0
μN−ma=0
∑ F y =0
W=N =mg
Then
μN μ mg
a= = =μg
m m
2
a=0.6 ( 9.81 )=5.886 m/s deceleration
2 2
2 as=v 2 −v 1

17
 0−( 25 )2
s= =53 . 09 m
2 (−5. 886 )

1.14 Work-Energy method

KE 1 +PW −NW =KE 2
where:
Wv 21
KE1 = initial kinetic energy = 2 g
PW = positive work
NW = negative work
Wv 22
KE2 = final kinetic energy = 2 g
1.15 Work, Energy and Power
Work – is done when a force acting on a body displaces it. Work is a scalar quantity. The SI unit for work is Joule.
Energy – is the capacity of a body to do work. Energy is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of energy is Joule.
Power - is the rate of doing work. Power is a scalar quantity. The SI unit of power is Watt (1 W = 1 J/s).
Force×dis tan ce
Power= =Force×velocity
time
Power output Work output
Efficiency= =
Power input Work input
1.16 Types of Energy
Kinetic Energy – is the energy possessed by a body due to its motion.
1
KE= mv 2
2 in N-m or Joule
Potential Energy – is energy possessed by a body due to its position.
PE=Wh=mgh in N-m or Joule
Where:
m = mass of the body, kg
v = velocity of the body, m/s
W = mg = weight of the body, N
h = height, m

Example No. 21
If a particle has a velocity of 10 meters per second and a kinetic energy of 1000 joules, then the mass, in
kilograms of this particle must be:
A. 100
B. 20
C. 80
D. 10
Solution:
1
KE= mv 2
2
1
1000= ( m ) (10 )2
2
m=20 kg (B)

18
1.17 Impulse and Momentum
Impulse – is equal to the product of the force acting on the body and the time for which it acts.
Im pulse=Ft
Momentum – is defined as the product of its mass and velocity. Momentum is considered to be a measure of
the quantity of motion in a body. Its SI units are kg-m/s.
Momentum=mv

Example No. 22
A golf weighs 1.6 ounce. If its velocity immediately after being driven is 225 fps, what is the impulse of the blow
in slug-feet/sec?
A. 0.855
B. 0.812
C. 0.758
D. 0.699
Solution:
Im pulse=Ft=mv
m=( 1.6 ounce ) (16 1ounces
lb
)( 32.2 lb )
1 slug
=0.003106 slug

Im pulse=Ft=( 0 .003106 )( 225 )=0 .699

1.18 Law of Conservation of Momentum

Law of conservation of momentum – the total momentum of a group of interacting bodies remains constant in
the absence of external force.

' '
m 1 v 1 + m2 v 2=m1 v 1 +m2 v 2
Types of collision:
Elastic collision – is a collision of the two bodies in which kinetic energy as well as momentum is conserved.

Inelastic collision – is a collision of two bodies in which only the momentum is conserved but not kinetic energy.

Coefficient of Restitution:
Coefficient of restitution – is the negative ratio of the relative velocity after collision.
v ' −v '
e=− 1 2
v 1 −v 2
Note: If e = 1, the collision is perfectly elastic while if e = 0, the collision is completely inelastic.

Example No. 23
A 90 ton rail car moving at 5.5 miles/hr is instantaneously coupled to a stationary 60 ton rail car. What is the
speed of the coupled cars in mi/hr?

19
A. 3.3 mi/hr
B. 4.3 mi/hr
C. 5.3 mi/hr
D. 6.3 mi/hr
Solution:

Let V = speed of coupled cars

By conservation of momentum:
' '
m1 V 1 +m 2 V 2 =m 1 V 1 +m2 V 2
' '
V 1 =V 2=V for coupled car

90 ( 5 .5 ) +60 ( 0 )=90 V +60 V

V=3.3 mi/hr (B)

Example No. 24
Two masses collide on a frictionless horizontal floor and in perfectly inelastic collision. Mass 1 is 4 times that of
mass 2. Velocity of mass 1 = 10 m/s to the right while the velocity of mass 2 = 20 m/s to the left. What is the
velocity and direction of the resulting combined mass?
A. 10 m/s to the right
B. 4 m/s to the right
C. 10 m/s to the left
D. 15 m/s to the left
Solution:

' '
m 1 v 1 + m2 v 2=m1 v 1 +m2 v 2
For inelastic collision
' '
v 1 −v 2
e=− =0
v 1 −v 2
20
 ' ' '
v =v 1=v 2
Use positive values to the right
'
m 1 v 1 + m2 v 2= ( m 1 +m 2 ) v
'
m1 v 1 + m2 v 2
v=
m1 + m2
4 m 2 (10 )+ m2 (−20 )
v'= =4 m/s ( to the right )
4 m2 + m2

1.19 Simple Pendulum

Simple pendulum – is a simple machine based on the effect of gravity. A simple pendulum is a heavy point mass,
suspended by a light inextensible string from a frictionless rigid support.

v=√2 gh
2
v
h=
2g
T =2π
where:
√ L
g

v = final velocity of the pendulum bob, m/s

h = height of the pendulum bob, m
T = time for a double swing, s
L = displacement of the pendulum bob, m

1.20 Conical Pendulum

Fc ω 2 r
tan θ= =
W g
1.21 Centrifugal Force
Centrifugal force – is an apparent outward force on a body following a circular path.
Centripetal force – is the force that holds an object in circular motion, pointed toward the center of the circle.

21
 2 2
mv Wv
F c= = =mω2 r
r gr
where:
Fc = centrifugal force, N
m = mass of the body rotating, k
v = 2rN = DN = velocity of the body rotating, m/s
= angular velocity, rev/s or rad/s

Example No. 25
A 10-lb weight, fastened to a 2-ft cord, is whirled in a vertical circle with an angular velocity of 100 rpm.
Determine the tension in the cord when the weight is at the top of the circle.
A. 69 lb
B. 58 lb
C. 48 lb
D. 77 lb
Solution:

V =2 π rN=2 π ( 2 ) ( 100
60 )
=20 . 94 ft /sec
2
WV 2 10 ( 20. 94 )
F c= = =68 . 1 lbs
gr 32 .2 ( 2 )
T +10−F c=0
T =F c−10=68 .1−10=58 .1 lbs (B)

1.22 Kinetic Energy of a Rotating Body

1 1 1
KE= mv 2 = mk 2 ω2 = Iω2
2 2 2
Torque, T =Fr=Iα

22
 where:
KE = kinetic energy of a rotating body, J
v = peripheral velocity, m/s
I = moment of inertia of the body, kg-m2
I = mk2
 = angular velocity, rev/s or rad/s
 = angular acceleration, rad/s2 or rev/s2
1.23 Simple Harmonic Motion
Simple Harmonic Motion – is the motion of an object with acceleration proportional to the displacement,
resulting in repetitive motion.

Velocity of B = ω √ R2 −r 2 m/s
2
Acceleration of B = ω r m/s2
2π
t = time of complete oscillation = ω seconds

T
= general formula for the period of motion =
2π
√ displacement
acceleration

1.24 Banking of Highway Curves

 = ideal angle of banking
Consider a car weight W that makes a horizontal turn on a curve of radius r while travelling at a certain velocity
v. The curve is banked at an angle  with the horizontal so that there is no tendency to slide up or down the
road.

2
v
tan θ=
gr
with frictional force on a banked curved.

When the car is travelling a banked curve with a velocity greater than the rated speed of the curve and is about
to skid up the plane.
23
 tan μ=f (coefficient of friction)
2
v
tan ( θ+μ )=
gr
where:
= frictional angle
 = banking angle

1.25 Unbanked Highway Curves

When the car is travelling on a horizontal, unbanked highway curve of radius r.

W =N
F f =F c
2
v
f=
gr

Example No. 26
A 3500 lbf car is towing a 500 lbf trailer. The coefficient of friction between all tires and the road is 0.80. How
fast can the car and trailer travel around an unbanked curve of radius 0.12 mile without either the car or trailer
skidding?

24
A. 87 mph
B. 26 mph
C. 72 mph
D. 55 mph
Solution:

r = 0.12 mile = 0.12 x 5280 = 633.6 ft

2
v
=f
gr
v2
=0 . 80
( 32 . 2 )( 633 . 6 )
v=127.756 ft /sec
v=( 127.756 ft /sec ) ( 5280 ft )( 1 hr )
1 mile 3600 sec

v=87.11 mph

Example No. 27
A highway curve with radius 800 ft is to be banked so that a car traveling 55 mph will not skid sideways even in
the absence of friction. At what angle should the curve be banked?
A. 0.159 deg
B. 75 deg
C. 6.41 deg
D. 14.2 deg
Solution:

25
 2
v
tan θ=
gr
v =55 mph=55 (5280
3600 )
fps=80 . 67 fps

( 80 . 67 )2
tan θ=
( 32 . 2 )( 800 )
θ=14 .18∘

Example No. 28
Determine the super elevation of the outer rail of a 5-ft wide railroad track on a 10 o curve. (A 10o curve is one
which a chord 100 ft long subtends an angle of 10 o at the center). Assume a velocity of 60 mph.
A. 1.93 ft
B. 2.25 ft
C. 5 ft
D. 6.25 ft
Solution:

sin( )
10∘ 100
2
=
2r
r=573.68 ft
2 2
V 88
tan θ= =
gr 32. 3 ( 573 .68 )
θ=22.74∘ banking angle

h
sin θ=sin22 . 74=
5
26
 h=1.93 ft (A)

2. STRENGTH OF MATERIALS
2.1 STRESS AND STRAIN
Stress – is the internal force per unit area set up at various sections of the body.
F
σ=
Stress, A
where F = Force or load acting on a body, and
A = Cross-sectional area of the body

Normal stress, σ - is the force per unit of normal area.

Shear stress, τ - is the force per unit of shear or parallel area.

Strain – is the deformation per unit length when a system of forces or loads act on a body,
δL
ε=
Strain, L or δL=εL
where δL = Change in length of the body, and
L = Original length of the body

Dilation – is the sum of the strains in the three coordinate system.

2.2 HOOKE’S LAW, MODULUS OF ELASTICITY AND MODULUS OF RIGIDITY (SHEAR MODULUS)
Hooke’s Law – is a simple mathematical statement of the relationship between the elastic stress and strain.
Stress is proportional to strain.
For normal stress:
σ
E=
Modulus of Elasticity, ε
For shear stress:
τ
G=
Modulus of rigidity, θ
Relationship of Modulus of Elasticity and Modulus of Rigidity
E
G=
2 (1+ μ )

Example No. 29
What modulus of elasticity in tension is required to obtain a unit deformation of 0.00105 m/m from a load
producing a unit tensile stress of 44,000 psi?
A. 42.300 x 106 psi
B. 41.202 x 106 psi
C. 43.101 x 106 psi
D. 41.905 x 106 psi
Solution:
stress 44 , 000
E= = =41. 9048×106 psi
strain 0 .00105

Example No. 30
A wire length 2.50 m has a percentage strain of 0.012% when loaded with tensile force. Determine the extension
of the wire.

27
 A. 0.1 mm
B. 0.3 mm
C. 0.4 mm
D. 0.2 mm
Solution:
δ 0.012 δ
ε= =
L 100 2.5
,
−4
δ=3×10 m=0.3 mm (B)

2.3 WORKING STRESS AND FACTOR OF SAFETY

WORKING STRESS – is a stress lower than the maximum or ultimate stress at which failure of the material takes
place. Also called design stress, safe or allowable stress.
FACTOR OF SAFETY – is the ratio of the maximum stress to the working stress.

Maximum stress
Factor of safety=
Working or design stress
For ductile materials e.g. mild steel,
Yield po int stress
Factor of safety=
Working or design stress
For brittle materials e.g. cast iron
Ultimate stress
Factor of safety=
Working or design stress

Notes on design stress and working stress:

Design stress is stress used in determining the size of a member (allowable or less).

Working stress is stress actually occurring under operating conditions.

2.4 TENSILE STRESS AND STRAIN

F
σt=
Tensile Stress: A
δL
εt=
Tensile Strain: L

Example No. 31

28
 A steel tie rod on bridge must be made to withstand a pull of 5000 lbs. Find the diameter of the rod assuming a
factor of safety of 5 and ultimate stress of 64,000 lb/in 2.
A. 0.75 in
B. 0.71 in
C. 0.84 in
D. 0.79 in
Solution:
σu 4 F
=
N πd 2
64 , 000 4 ( 5000 )
=
5 πd 2
d=0.7052 in (B)

Example No. 32
The diameter of a brass rod is 6 mm. What force will stretch it by 0.2% of its length. E brass = 9 x 1010 Pa.
A. 5090 N
B. 5060 N
C. 9050 N
D. 6050 N
Solution:
FL
δ=
AE
FL
0 . 002 L=
( π4 ) ( 0 . 006) (9×10 )
2 10

F=5089.4 N (A)

2.5 COMPRESSIVE STRESS AND STRAIN

F
σ c=
Compressive Stress: A
δL
ε c=
Compressive Strain: L

29
 Example No. 33
A round steel bar 12 inches long is to withstand a dead load of 40,000 lb in compression. The rod must not
shorten more than 0.004 inch and have a factor of safety of at least 10. Assume the ultimate strength of the
material to be 110,000 psi and modulus of elasticity to be, 15,500,00 psi. Determine the diameter of the rod.
A. 2.14 in
B. 4.14 in
C. 3.14 in
D. 5.14 in
Solution:
FL
δ=
AE
40 , 000 (12 )
0 . 004=
π 2
D ( 15 ,500 , 000 )
4
D=3.14 in (C)

2.6 SHEAR STRESS AND STRAIN

Shear Stress – is the stress induced when a body is subjected to two equal and opposite forces acting
tangentially across the resisting section tending the body to shear off.

Tangential force
=
Shear Stress Resisting area
F
τ=
Shear Stress, A
Shear Strain – is measured by the angular deformation accompanying the shear stress.

Example No. 34
A 6-inches diameter rivet undergoes a shear force of 1750 lbs. Find the average shear stress in the rivet.
A. 15.5 psi
B. 42.7 psi
C. 37.0 psi
D. 61.9 psi
Solution:
F
τ=
A
1750
τ= =61. 9 psi
π 2
(6)
4 (D)

Example No. 35
30
 If the ultimate strength of a steel plate is 42,000 lb/in 2, what force is necessary to punch a 0.75 in diameter hole
in a 0.625 in thick plate?
A. 63,000 lbs
B. 68,080 lbs
C. 61,850 lbs
D. 66,800 lbs
Solution:

P=σ u π dt=( 42 , 000 )( π ) ( 0 .75 )( 0 . 625 )=61 , 850 lb (C)

2.7 BEARING STRESS

Bearing Stress – is a localized compressive stress at the surface of contact between two members of a machine
part that are relatively at rest.
Application: Riveted Joints, Cotter Joints, Knuckle Joints, etc.
For Riveted Joints:
F
σ b ( or σ c ) =
Bearing Stress: d⋅t⋅n
where d = Diameter of the rivet
t = Thickness of the plate
d⋅t = Projected area of the rivet, and
n = Number of rivets per pitch length in bearing or crushing

Note:
Bearing Pressure = is the local compression which exist at the surface of contact between two members of a
machine part that are in relative motion.

31
 F
pb =
Bearing Pressure: L⋅d
where pb = Average bearing pressure
F = Radial load on the journal
L = Length of the journal in contact, and
d = Diameter of the journal

2.8 TORSIONAL STRESS AND ANGULAR OF TWIST

Torsion – is the state of a machine member subjected to the action of two equal and opposite couples acting in
parallel planes (or torque or twisting moment.

Torsional Shear Stress – is the stress set up by the torsion. It is zero at the centroidal axis and maximum at the
outer surface.
Maximum torsional shear stress:
For shaft,
τ T G⋅θ
= =
r J l
where τ = Torsional shear stress induced at the outer surface of the shaft or maximum shear stress,
r = Radius of the shaft,
T = Torque or twisting moment,
J = Second moment of area of the section about its polar axis or polar moment of inertia,
G = Modulus of rigidity for the shaft material,
l = Length of the shaft, and
θ = Angle of twist in radians on a length l .

For a solid shaft diameter

π 4
J= ×d
32
16 T
τ=
πd 3
d d
For a hollow shaft with external diameter ( o ) and internal diameter ( i ).
π d
32 [ ]
J = × ( d o ) 4 −( d i )4
and
r= o
2
16 Td o
τ=
π (d 4o −d 4i )
Or

32
 16 T di
τ= k=
πd 3o ( 1−k ) and
4
do
Torsional rigidity of the shaft = G×J
2 π⋅N⋅T
P= =T⋅ω
Power transmitted by the shaft = 60
where T = Torque transmitted, and
ω = Angular speed in rad/s.
English Units:
N⋅T
P=
63,025 , N in rpm and T in in-lb.
Example No. 36
Determine the outside diameter if a hollow shaft whose inside diameter is 1 inch if it is to replace a 1.5 inch
diameter solid shaft for power transmission. The shafts have equal torsional strengths.
A. 2.25 in
B. 1.5 in
C. 2.0 in
D. 1.75 in
Solution:
16 T 16 Td o
τ= 3 =
πd π ( d 4o −d 4i )

d 4o −di4 =d o d 3
4 3
d 4o −( 1 ) =d o ( 1 .5 )
d o =1 .588 in
Use next higher standard size of 1.75 in (D)

Example No. 37
A circular bar solid cast iron 60-in long carries a solid circular head 60-in diameter. The bar is subjected to a
torsional moment of 60,000 in-lb which is supplied at one end. It is desired to keep the torsional deflection of
the circular head below 1/32-inch when the bar is transmitting power over its entire length in order to prevent
the chattering of the piece. What would be the diameter of the bar, if the working stress is taken as 3000 psi and
the transverse modulus of elasticity is 6 million psi?
A. 4.7 inch
B. 8.8 inch
C. 6.7 inch
D. 9.5 inch
Solution:

33
Solving for diameter using shear stress formula:
16 T
τ=
πd 3
16 ( 60 , 000 )
3000=
πd 3
d=4.67 in
Solving for diameter using torsional deflection
δ=rθ
1 60
32
=
2( )
θ

θ=0.00104 rad
TL
θ=
JG
60 ,000 ( 60 )
0 . 00104=
π 4
d ( 6×106 )
32
d=8.75 in
Therefore, the safest diameter of the bar is 8.8 in.

Example No. 38
Determine the polar moment of inertia, in mm 4, of a shaft 32 mm diameter delivering 10 kw at 200 rpm.
A. 102,944
B. 124,944
C. 109,944
D. 194,944
Solution:
4
πd 4 π ( 32 )
J= = =102 , 943 .7 mm4
32 32 (A)

Example No. 39
Find the torsional stress in MPa in a 40 mm diameter shaft that transmits 20.53 kW at 600 rpm.
34
 A. 26 MPa
B. 46 MPa
C. 36 MPa
D. 56 MPa
Solution:
P=2 πTN

20 ,530=2 πT (600
60 )
T=326.75 N −m
16 T 16 ( 326 .75 )
τ= = =26 , 001 ,548 Pa=26 MPa
πd 3 π ( 0 . 040 )3

2.9 Shaft in series and parallel

Composite shaft – composed of two shaft of different diameters connected together to form one shaft.

Shaft in series – where the driving torque is applied at one end and the resisting torque at the other end.

Shaft in parallel – where the driving torque is applied at the junction of the two shafts and the resisting torques
at the other ends of the shafts.

Shaft in series:
T⋅l1 T⋅l 2
θ1 +θ 2= +
Total angle of twist = G1 J 1 G2 J 2

For shafts of the same materials,

G1=G 2=G
Shaft in parallel:
θ1 =θ2
T⋅l 1 T⋅l2 T1 l G J
= = 2 × 1× 1
G1 J 1 G2 J 2 or T 2 l 1 G2 J 2

For shaft of the same materials

G1=G2=G
T 1 l2 J1
= ×
T 2 l 1 J2

2.10 BENDING STRESS OR FLEXURAL STRESS

35
M σ E
= =
I y R
where M = bending moment acting at the given section.
σ = bending stress.
I = moment of inertia of the cross-section about the neutral axis.
E = Young’s modulus of the material of the beam, and
R = radius of curvature of the beam.
Bending stress:
Mc M
σ= =
I Z
where Z=I /c is known as section modulus .

Example No. 40
A horizontal beam 16 ft long is subjected to a load of 500 lb located to its center. The dimension of the beam is 2
x 4 inches respectively and its unit weight is 100 lb/ft. Find its flexural stress.
A. 11,696.34 psi
B. 10,233.2 psi
C. 15,677.2 psi
D. 15,388.1 psi
Solution:

100 ( 16 )+500
R1 =R2 = =1050 lb
2

36
 Shear and moment diagram
1
M= ( 800 ) ( 8 ) + ( 250 ) ( 8 )=5200 ft−lb=62, 400 in−lb
2
Mc h 4
sf = c= = =2 in
I 2 2
,
3
bh3 2 ( 4 )
I= = =10 . 67 in4
12 12
( 62 , 400 ) ( 2 )
sf = =11, 696 . 34 lb/in 2
10 . 67 (A)

2.11 THERMAL STRESSES AND THERMAL EXPANSION/CONTRACTION

Thermal stress – is induced in the body if the body is prevented to expand or contract freely with the rise or fall
of the temperature.
Thermal Expansion/Contraction
ΔL=αLΔt
Thermal Strain
ΔL
ε th = =αΔt
L
Thermal Stress
σ th =ε th⋅E=αEΔt
where L = Original length of the body.
Δt = Rise or fall of temperature.
α = Coefficient of thermal expansion.

Example No. 41
Compute the induced/compressive stress, in kPa, of a steel solid shafting of 50 mm diameter and 800 mm in
length that is subjected to an increase of temperature by 80 deg C.
A. 196,530 kPa
B. 181,445 kPa
C. 162,256 kPa
D. 112,187 kPa
Solution:
σ =αEΔt
,
α=6.6×10−6 /F for steel
6
E=30×10 psi for steel

Δt= ( 80 C ) ( 95 CF )=144 F
σ =( 6 .6×10−6 )( 30×106 ) (144 )=28 ,512 psi

σ=28,512 psi
101.325 kPa
14.7 psi ( )
=196,529 kPa
(A)

37
 Example No. 42
A steel train rails is 400 meters long, in March it is at -30 C and 40 C in July. What is the change in length in mm?
K of steel = 11.7 x 10-6 m/m-C.
A. 421 mm
B. 303 mm
C. 328 mm
D. 503 mm
Solution:
δ=αLΔt δ=( 11 .7×10−6 ) ( 400 ) [ ( 40 ) −(−30 ) ]
,
δ=0 .3276 mm=327 .6 mm (C)

2.12 LINEAR AND LATERAL STRAIN

Linear strain – is a strain in the direct stress own direction.
Lateral strain – is a strain at the right angle of the direct stress direction.

2.13 POISSON’S RATIO

Lateral strain
μ=
Linear strain
Values of Poisson’s ratio range between 0.25 to 0.35 for most materials.

2.14 IMPACT STRESS

Impact stress - is the stress produced in the member due to the falling load.

38
 Energy gained by the system = Potential energy lost by weight
1
×P×δL=W ( h+δL )
2
Then

σi=
W
A ( √
1+ 1+
2 hAE
Wl )
For sudden load:
h=0
2W
σi=
A

Example No. 43
A body weighting 1000 lbs falls 6 inches and strikes a 2000 lbs (per inch) spring. What is the deformation of the
spring?
A. 3 inches
B. 100 mm
C. 6 inches
D. 2 inches
Solution:
1
W ( h+δ )= kδ 2
2
1
1000 ( 6+δ )= ( 2000 ) δ 2
2
( δ−3 ) ( δ+2 )=0
δ=3 in (A)

2.15 STIFFNESS
Stiffness – is the amount of force required to cause a unit of deformation and is often referred to as a spring
constant.

2.16 TOTAL STRAIN ENERGY

39
 Total Strain Energy – is the energy stored in a loaded member is equal to the work required to deform the
member.
2
1 F L
U= Fδ=
2 2 AE
2.17 COMBINED STRESSES
T = T +M
EQUIVALENT TORQUE = e √ 2 2

1
M e= ( M +√ T 2+ M 2)
EQUIVALENT MOMENT = 2
Combined axial and bending stress
F Mc
σ= ±
A I
Maximum Shear induced by combined axial or bending and shear stresses
1 2
τ max = √σ + 4 τ2
2 t
Maximum Normal Stress induced by combined axial or bending and shear stresses
1 1
σ max = σ t + √ σ 2t + 4 τ 2
2 2

2.18 THEORIES OF FAILURE UNDER STATIC LOAD

Maximum principal (or normal) stress theory (also known as Rankine’s theory).
According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the maximum principal or
normal stress in a bi-axial stress system reaches the limiting strength of the material in a simple tension test.
1 1
σ max =σ t 1 = σ t + √ σ 2t + 4 τ 2
2 2
σy
σ max =
N , for ductile materials
σu
σ max =
N , for brittle materials
where,
σ y = Yield stress.
σ u = Ultimate stress.
N = Factor of safety.
Maximum shear stress theory (also known as Guest’s or Tresca’s theory).
According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the maximum shear stress in
a bi-axial stress system reaches a value equal to the shear stress at yield point in a simple tension test
1 2
τ max =
2
√ σt + 4 τ2
τy
τ max =
N
where,
τ max = Maximum shear stress in a bi-axial stress system,
τ y = Shear stress at yield point.
N = Factor of safety.
σy
τ max =
2×N
Or
40
Maximum principal (or normal) strain theory (also known as Saint Venant theory).
According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the maximum principal (or
normal) strain in a bi-axial stress system reaches the limiting value of strain (i.e. strain at yield point) as
determined from a simple tensile test.
σy
σ t 1 −μσ t 2 =
N
1 1 2
σ t 1= σ t + √ σ t + 4 τ 2
2 2
1 1
σ t 2 = σ t − √ σ 2t + 4 τ 2
2 2
Maximum strain energy theory (also known as Haigh’s theory).
According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the strain energy per unit
volume in a bi-axial stress system reaches the limiting strain energy (i.e. strain energy at the yield point ) per unit
volume as determined from simple tension test.

( )
2
2 2 σy
(σ t 1) +( σ t 2 ) −2 μ×σ t 1 ×σ t 2=
N
Maximum distortion energy theory (also known as Hencky and Von Mises theory).
According to this theory, the failure or yielding occurs at a point in a member when the distortion strain energy
(also called shear strain energy) per unit volume in a bi-axial stress system reaches the limiting distortion energy
(i.e. distortion energy at yield point) per unit volume as determined from a simple tension test.

( )
2
σ
2
(σ t 1) +( σ t 2 )
2
−σ t 1 ×σ t 2 = yt
N
Note:
The maximum distortion energy is the difference between the total strain energy and the strain energy due to
uniform stress.

Example No. 44
A 5.1 cm diameter solid steel shaft has a maximum bending moment of 677.9 N-m and an applied torque of 339
N-m. What is the equivalent bending stress in MPa?
A. 35.14
B. 55.13
C. 45.45
D. 65.48
Solution:
1
M e= ( M +√ T 2+ M 2)
2
1
M e= ( 677 . 9+ √ 3392 +677 .9 2 ) =717 .918 N −m
2
32 M e 32 (717 ,919 N −mm )
σ= 3
= 3
πd π ( 51 mm )
σ=55.127 MPa (B)

Example No. 45
The maximum shear stress induced on a 1.5 in diameter solid shaft loaded with a torque of 8,000 in-lb and a
bending moment of 12,000 in-lb is:

41
 A. 21,763 psi
B. 62,237 psi
C. 27,220 psi
D. 14,422 psi
Solution:
T e=√ T 2 +M 2
T e=√ 80002 +12000 2=14 , 422. 2 in−lb
16 T e 16 ( 14 , 422 . 2 )
τ= = =21 , 763 psi
πd 3 π ( 1. 5 )
3
(A)

2.19 VARIABLE STRESSES

Soderberg’s Criterion
1 σ m Kf σ v
= +
N σ y σe
Goodman’s Criterion (ductile)
1 σ m Kf σ v
= +
N σu σe
Where:
N = factor of safety
y = yield strength
u = ultimate strength
e = endurance strength
m = mean stress
v = variable stress

σ max +σ min
σm=
2
σ max −σ min
σ v=
2

Example No. 46
The shaft whose torque varies from 2000 to 6000 in-lbs has 1 ½ inches in diameter and 60,000 psi yield strength.
Compute for the shaft mean average stress.
A. 6036 psi
B. 6810 psi
C. 5162 psi
D. 5550 psi
Solution:
16 T max 16 ( 6000 )
τ max = = =9054 psi
πd 3 π ( 1. 5 )
3

16 T min 16 ( 2000 )
τ min= = =3018 psi
πd3 π ( 1 .5 )
3

τ +τ 9054+3018
τ m = max min = =6036 psi
2 2 (A)

42
3. MOMENTS AND DEFLECTIONS IN BEAMS

43
44
45
4. PROPERTIES OF SECTIONS

- End -

46