 Name of the Subject : Geographical Information

System
 Abbreviation of the Subject : GIS
 Subject Code : IT4085
 Schemes :

Teaching Examination
Lectures : 4Hrs/week CT1 : 15 Marks

CT2 : 15 Marks

Teachers Assessment : 10 Marks

End Semester Exam : 60 Marks

Credits : 04
Geographical Information System
 Geographical :
 Origin
 belonging to or characteristic of a particular region
Geographical Information System
 Information :
 knowledge obtained from investigation, study, or
instruction
Geographical Information System
 System :
 A group of things or parts that work together and a
particular way of doing something
A Gentle Introduction of
GIS
The Nature of GIS
 A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer
system for capturing, storing, checking, and displaying
data related to positions on Earth’s surface.
 GIS can show many different kinds of data on one
map, such as streets, buildings. This enables people to
more easily see, analyze, and understand patterns and
relationships.
The Nature of GIS
 By relating seemingly unrelated data, GIS can help
individuals and organizations better understand
spatial patterns and relationships
 GIS can use any information that includes location.
The location can be expressed in many different ways,
such as latitude and longitude, address, or ZIP code.
The Nature of GIS
 Many different types of information can be compared
and contrasted using GIS. The system can
include data about people, landscape, factories, farms,
and schools, roads, and electric power lines
The Real World Representation
 Map Objects :
 Point
 Line
 Area

Other Vector Geometry (Network,

Surface)
 Grid (Raster/Image)
The Real World Representation
The Real World Representation
 Point :
 An object that is occurs in one physical location in space
 Defined by single pair of co-ordinate values
The Real World Representation

POINT
The Real World Representation
Line :
 An object which spans between two
or more points
 Defined by sequence of co-ordinate
pairs defining each point through
which line is drawn
The Real World Representation
 Line :
The Real World Representation
 Area :
 Area or Polygon
 An object which has area
 Defined by sequence of coordinate pairs with the first
point and last point joined to make the complete
enclosure
The Real World Representation

Area
The Real World Representation
Other Vector Geometry
A. Network :
 A feature defined by series of line
segments connected to form a
continuous branching system of links
 Network enables the calculation of
optimal routes through road network
The Real World Representation
Other Vector Geometry
 Surface :
 A feature which requires 3 dimensions to
define it.
 It requires co-ordinate pairs with the Z-
axis value.
 The Z-value may represent height,
population density, rainfall etc
The Real World Representation
Grid :
Raster data like:
 Aerial Photography
 Satellite Images

 Scanned images / Maps

The Real World Representation
 Depending on the scale and purpose of the map
intended area is shown
Geographical Information and
Spatial Data Type
Spatial Data :
 Spatial data, also known as geospatial
data, is a term used to describe any
data related to or containing
information about a specific
location on the Earth's surface.
Spatial Data Types
 Attributes / Fields
 Descriptive information that is known
 Eg :
 Text
 Numbers

 Pictures

River : Name, Length, Chemical Quality, Biological

Quality
Road : Name, Length, Speed Limit
o
GEOGRAPHIC PHENOMENA
 GEOGRAPHIC PHENOMENA
 A GIS operates under the assumption that
the spatial phenomena involved occur in a
two- or three-dimensional Euclidean space

 Euclidean space can be informally defined

as a model of space in which locations are
represented by coordinates—(x, y) in 2D
and (x, y, z) in 3D space—and distance and
direction can defined with geometric
formulas
 GEOGRAPHIC PHENOMENA
 A geographic phenomena is something of
interest that :
 Can be named or described (eg. Name of
the buiding)
 can be geo-referenced (eg. Latlang (42.73,
-73.68))
 Can be assigned a time interval at which it
is is/was present (eg. Built in - 1986)
 TYPES OF GEOGRAPHIC
PHENOMENA
2 types :
Fields
Objects
 FIELD
 A (geographic) field is a geographic
phenomenon for which, every point in
the study area, a value can be
determined (eg. Temperature, pressure,
elevation etc.)
 OBJECT
 Geographic object populate the study area
and are usually well distinguishable,
discrete, bounded entities
 The space between them is potentially
empty. (For eg. – Buildings, Rivers )
 FIELD
 An Elevation is the example of field.
 We can measure the height everywhere
 FIELD
 There are 2 types of geographic field :
 Continuous Field
 Discrete Field
 CONTINUOUS FIELD
 In continuous field, the underlying
function is assumed to be continuous.
 Continuity means that, all changes in
field values are gradual. (For eg.
Elevation)
 We can measure the change. (For eg. We
can measure the gradient of slope of the
elevation)
CONTINUOUS FIELD
 DISCRETE FIELD
 Discrete Fields cut up the study space
in Sub parts with clear boundary parts,
with all locations in one part having
the same field value. (Eg. – Land use
types, Soil types, crop types, natural
vegetation types)
DISCRETE FIELD
 OBJECTS
 Objects are discrete and bounded
entities.
 The space between the objects is
“Empty” or “Undetermined”
OBJECTS
OBJECTS
BOUNDARIES
CRISP BOUNDARIES
FUZZY BOUNDARIES
SUMMARY OF GEOGRAPHIC
PHENOMENA
COMPUTER REPRESENTATION OF
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
TESSELLATION
REGULAR TESSELLATIONS
REGULAR TESSELLATIONS
REGULAR TESSELLATIONS
REGULAR TESSELLATIONS
REGULAR TESSELLATIONS
REGULAR TESSELLATIONS
REGULAR TESSELLATIONS
REGULAR TESSELLATIONS
IRREGULAR TESSELLATIONS
IRREGULAR TESSELLATIONS
IRREGULAR TESSELLATIONS
Temporal Dimension
Temporal Dimension
Temporal Dimension : Time
Dimensions
Temporal Dimension : Time Order
Temporal Dimension: Measures of
Time
Temporal Dimension: Time
Reference
 UNIT - 2

Data management
and processing
systems
HARDWARE AND SOFTWARE
TRENDS
 A. HARDWARE TRENDS
 1. Fast Geo-processing
 Computing power is often measured in MIP
 Arithmetic calculations can require execution of as
little as two and as many as 100 instructions
 Arithmetic on real numbers is better measured in
MFLOPS ("megaflops") or millions of floating point
(i.E. Decimal) operations per second
 Current personal computers and workstations used
for GIS range from 1 to 5 MIPS
 Within the next five years, 20 to 30 MIPS workstations
are likely at roughly similar prices
 Within the next five years, 20 to 30 MIPS workstations
are likely at roughly similar prices
 A. HARDWARE TRENDS

 Need of Fast Geo-processing

 Larger data sets, higher levels of spatial
resolution
 More complex models
 More complex analysis for decision-
making
 Better methods of display and
visualization
 A. HARDWARE TRENDS

2. Parallel Processing
 Trend toward different computer
architectures
 Away from single processors operating on
data in sequence
 Parallel processors can perform tasks on
several different processors
simultaneously within the same computer
 A. HARDWARE TRENDS
 Need of Parallel Processing:
 Analysis which require repeating the same
steps everywhere on the map
 Easier to see applications for raster data than
for vector since each pixel is independent
 Finding route for a vehicle across a rugged
terrain
 Image processing applications such as image
classification, visualization, scene generation
 A. HARDWARE TRENDS
 3. Memory:
 Trend is toward lower costs for
ever larger computer memories:
 Cost of storing large GIS datasets will
come down
 More data can be placed "on-line" for
faster access
 A. HARDWARE TRENDS
 Need of memory:
 Very high density of data
 A. HARDWARE TRENDS
 4. Workstations
 "Dumb" terminals connected to a central
processor are gradually being eliminated
in favor of desk top computers
 Especially popular are "workstations",
which have excellent graphic performance
and sophisticated user interfaces
 Workstations are generally more powerful
 Workstations have more powerful
graphics capabilities
 A. HARDWARE TRENDS
 5. Networks
 The multiuser host, is giving way to
multiuser network architectures
 The network integrates compute servers,
file servers, workstations and shared
peripherals
 Any user can access data, peripherals
across the network
 The network will likely be linked to other
networks through "gateways"
 A. HARDWARE TRENDS
 6. Hardware for specialized processing
functions
 Compute servers, file servers, sort servers
and search servers are now being
developed for networks
 These are specialized computers attached
to networks for specific functions
 Map overlay using hardware intersecting
tools will be developed in the future,
perhaps other GIS functions as well
 A. HARDWARE TRENDS
 7. Peripheral Devices
 Excellent raster devices are now available
(e.G., Electrostatic and laser
printer/plotters) for graphic/cartographic
output
 Costs of these systems are directly related
to the size of the product
 A. HARDWARE TRENDS
 A data entry device is needed which will
allow correction of data as they are acquired
 Will probably have a large flat display,
multiple graphic memory planes, and
interactive data capture capabilities
 The workstation should be able to "check-
out" and "check-in" work areas (e.G.
Mapsheets) from the larger database
maintained by a server on the network
 A. HARDWARE TRENDS
 An "electronic sandbox" will be useful for
interactive, gis-based analysis/modeling and
land use planning
 The design of this workstation will require
some very creative thinking
 A. HARDWARE TRENDS
 Workstations specialized for particular uses
(e.G., Land planning, water resources, forestry)
are likely to be developed as the number of
users increases in such specialized fields
 Analyzing data on the globe (e.G. Oceans,
atmosphere) will require a specialized
workstation which can display data on the
globe's curved surface
 E.G. The globe could be "browsed" using a
track-ball to rotate the image
 A. HARDWARE TRENDS
 GIS becomes a standard decision support
technology, entire conference rooms will be
devoted to its use containing specialized GIS
workstations, large GIS display devices, and
GIS planning/conference tables
 A. SOFTWARE TRENDS
 1. Database Management System:
 While present dbms's are effective for
managing tabular data, they are not
effective for the "long transactions"
required when cartographically referenced
and topologically related data are altered
 Transactions on geographical data could
be confined to a single specialized
workstation
 A. SOFTWARE TRENDS
 2. Relational DBMS’s :
 Trend toward using relational dbmss
(often with SQL style user interfaces),
because of their "open architecture“
 It is becoming easier to exchange one
DBMS for another within a GIS
 A. SOFTWARE TRENDS
 3. DBMS Vs. Forth Generation Languages
 The DBMS approach often involves highly
structured application programming,
often at the expense of ad hoc query
capabilities
 User must learn complex rules of syntax
 May be a valid approach for static databases
which are only used for simple, repetitive
queries
 A. SOFTWARE TRENDS
 Need :
 The trend in giss is toward the use of
fourth generation languages (4gls) which
provide commands, tools, procedures, and
report writers to permit easy ad hoc
querying of a database
 These provide intelligent interfaces close to
natural language
 Use of 4GL may detract from the giss ability to
perform complex analysis
 A. SOFTWARE TRENDS
 GIS System Integration:
 The marketplace increasingly demands
compatibility between diverse hardware and GIS
software
 At the same time, GIS software needs to interface to
an increasing diversity of DBMSs, because different
applications often require different DBMSs
 In many applications, records are already stored in
a DBMS
 When the GIS capability is added to allow
geographical access to these records, it must
interface with the existing DBMS
 A. SOFTWARE TRENDS
Display Products
Map output will continue to be
judged against hand- made
products
Gather, compile, model and
structure 3D data
 A. SOFTWARE TRENDS
 Interfaces to other Technologies:
 Interfaces between GIS, CADD, remote
sensing, image processing, architectural
graphics, and other technologies are
going to be increasingly easy to create
 The differing data types produced by
these technologies will be more
frequently combined in shared databases
 A. SOFTWARE TRENDS
 User Interfaces :
 More sophisticated, flexible and well
managed graphic user interfaces
 STAGES OF SPATIAL DATA
HANDLING
 1 Primary 2 GIS
Real World
Data Database
3
Uncertainty 5 4 4 GIS
Results Software
Results
6
• 7 8 Real World
Products Users
 STAGES OF SPATIAL DATA
HANDLING
 1. Measurement & Sampling
 2. Data Entry
 3. Data Retrieval
 4. Data Analysis
 5. Uncertainty Analysis
 6. Data Output
 7. Decision Making
 8. Action
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
 Geographical Data are a special case:
records correspond with places, not
people or accounts
 Columns represent the attributes of
places
 A GIS database or DBMS includes data
about the spatial locations and shapes of
geographic features recorded as points,
lines, areas, pixels, grid cells as well as
their attributes.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
 Management of GIS data consist of storing a
variety of data categorized under two types,
entity (Spatial data) and attribute (Aspatial)
data in a way that gives to retrieve or display
any combination of these data after
manipulation.
 GIS database comprises spatial or entity or
graphical database, nonspatial or attribute
database and a linkage mechanism for
their topology to show the relationship
between the spatial data attribute data for
further analysis
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
 EXAMPLE :
 Entity type is the point
 Spatial data are longitude and latitude
 Attribute data is the monument
 Nonspatial (attribute) data can be stored in
any conventional data bases, whereas spatial
data , which is the dominant data in GIS,
should have the data base which is capable
for handling spatial data.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
 In GIS data management field, two types of
distinct data are important, one is logical data
and another is physical data.
 The functions of GIS should be able to perform
include :
 Data input
 Data storage
 Management
 Transformation analysis
 Output.
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
 GIS data file management:
 Database structure, composed of combination
of various file structures and other graphic
structures, allow complex method of
managing data and analyzing multiple
thematic layers to be used for a particular GIS
 It requires the computer using a
representational file structure, to be able to
store, locate, retrieve, and cross-reference
records
DATABASE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
 Data types supported by GIS (ArcGIS)Database:
 OBJECTID
 SHORT INTEGER
 LONG INTEGER
 FLOAT
 DOUBLE
 TEXT
 DATE
 GEOMETRY
 RASTER
 GIS AND SPATIAL DATABASE
 What are spatial databases in GIS?

 Spatial databases provide a strong

foundation for accessing, storing, and
managing spatial data
 A spatial database includes location
 It records data with geographic coordinates
 GIS AND SPATIAL DATABASE
 What is an attribute table in GIS?
 By default, spatial vector features are
always associated with non-spatial
attribute tables
 Spatial features store where objects are
located on a map.
 Non-spatial attribute tables
explain what the objects on the map
represent
 Attribute tables are similar to spreadsheets
 GIS AND SPATIAL DATABASE

 GIS AND SPATIAL DATABASE
 FIELDS have different types such as text
(strings), integers (whole numbers), and
dates (YYYY/MM/DD)
 Field names are the title of the column
names
 A field name should be descriptive of the
information that you enter in the column
 For example, the average population may
have a field name of AVG_POP.
 GIS AND SPATIAL DATABASE
 ROWS in an attribute table represents a
spatial feature in the data set or an
associated record of that data set.
 Rows in an attribute can have relationships
with spatial features. There are three types
of relationships:
 One-to-one relationship
 One-to-many relationship
 Many-to-many relationship
 UNIT - III
SPATIAL
REFERENCING
AND
POSITIONING
 SPATIAL REFERENCING
A spatial reference describes where
features are located in the world
Most spatial references will be
either geographic (using a
geographic coordinate system) or
projected (using a projected
coordinate system)
A GEOGRAPHIC COORDINATE
SYSTEM
A geographic coordinate system
uses a three-dimensional
ellipsoidal model of the earth's
surface to define locations using
degrees of latitude and longitude
A Projected Coordinate System
 A projected coordinate system uses
information from a geographic
coordinate system and translates it to a
flat surface
 Each projection will preserve certain
aspects of the data (area, direction,
shape, or distance)
 A projected coordinate system usually
defines locations using x- and y-
coordinates in feet or meters.
 SPATIAL REFERENCING
Each spatial reference includes a
spatial reference identifier (SRID)
Ways of Spatial Referencing are :
World Geodetic System 1984
Web Mercator
WORLD GEODETIC SYSTEM 1984

Also known as WGS 84

WGS 84 is the geographic
coordinate system used by the
Global Positioning System
(GPS), which makes it one of
the most commonly used spatial
references
 WEB MERCATOR
Web Mercator is the standard
projected coordinate system used
in web mapping, in part because it
displays direction accurately,
making it useful for navigation
 SPATIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM
 Spatial reference systems (SRS) consist of
components that describe a series of
geographic parameters, such as the orientation,
latitude, longitude, and elevation in reference
to geographic objects, which define coordinate
systems and spatial properties on a map.
 REFERENCE SURFACES FOR
MAPPING
The surface of the earth is not
uniform.
The oceans can be treated as
reasonably uniform, but the surface
or topography of the land masses
exhibits large vertical variations
between mountains and valleys.
 REFERENCE SURFACES FOR
MAPPING
 These variations make it impossible to
approximate the shape of the Earth with
any reasonably simple mathematical
model.
 Consequently, two main reference
surfaces have been established to
approximate the shape of the Earth. One
reference surface is called the Geoid, the
other reference surface is the ellipsoid.
 REFERENCE SURFACES FOR
MAPPING
 The underlying assumption of spatial
reference systems is that the Earth is a geoid
 Since it would be difficult to precisely
calculate the Earth as a geoid, we use the
next best shape, an ellipsoid (or a flattened
sphere; also known as a spheroid)
 A spatial reference point or anchor point is
selected on the ellipsoid for a frame of
reference. We call this point a geodetic
datum
REFERENCE SURFACES FOR
MAPPING
 SPATIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM
 The point of origin on a map is an easy
way to visualize geodetic datum (Point
P).
 It indicates the center and orientation
of the ellipsoid.
 It includes a description of the position
and orientation of the ellipsoid.
 SPATIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM
 It is made up of an equatorial radius
(semi-major axis) and a polar radius
(semi-minor axis) (the dotted lines
running from N to the equator on
image above).
 SPATIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM
 These lines are then calculated,
producing a flattening measurement
that measures the compression relative
to the equatorial axis, providing the
shape of the ellipsoid.
 The datum also has a prime meridian
that is set to zero longitude (the solid
line running from N to the equator).
 SPATIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM
This is usually set to the Greenwich
prime meridian; however, it might
differ if using an older, or localized
datum for a particular area or
region.
 SPATIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM
 Now that we have a datum, we can use a
geographical coordinate reference system to
provide longitude and latitude coordinates
on the ellipsoid.
 It's important to note that longitude and
latitude coordinates depend on the datum
used, but their values are not unique to any
particular datum.
 SPATIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM
 It is important to note that if you do
not know the datum being used, your
coordinate system could be off by 1
meter to several hundred meters.
 Therefore, the consequences of not
knowing the datum could pose
significant problems.
 SPATIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM
 The last component of the SRS is a
projection.
 Projection refers to taking the Earth as
a 3D ellipsoid and squashing it onto a
2D flat surface. There are many types of
projections but they all fall on a
Cartesian coordinate system and
depend on the geographic coordinate
reference system used.
 SPATIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM
 Choosing which projection to use
depends on several factors such as
measurement, shape, direction, and
range, and each has its tradeoffs.
 The most common type of projections
are conic, cylindrical, and planar.
A SPATIAL REFERENCE SYSTEM
 A spatial reference system (SRS) is made
up of a an ellipsoid, geodetic datum, and a
geographic coordinate reference system
with an associated projection.
 Often, when working with SRSs you will
find that they are referred to by a number
following the acronym EPSG. These are
predefined SRSs with unique IDs, which
are recognized and used throughout the
GIS industry.
 EPSG
When working with databases or
GIS libraries, you will see the
number 4326 referred to a lot. It's
full name, EPSG 4326, is a unique
SRS identification number
developed by the European
Petroleum Survey Group or EPSG
 EPSG
Identification numbers like 4326
refer to a standardized collection of
SRSs and coordinate
transformations
These numbers have been archived
and can be viewed in the Geodetic
Parameter Registry
 EPSG
What makes EPSG 4326/WGS 84
well-known is that it is used by the
US Department of Defense, NATO,
and Global Positioning Systems
(GPS)
SATELLITE BASED POSITIONING
 On the basis of satellite signals, the receiver
can define its position anywhere in the
world with an accuracy of a few metres in
less than a minute
 Using assistance systems, the position can
be pinpointed with an accuracy of a few
centimetres.
 Satellite positioning is currently referred to
as the Global Navigation Satellite System
(GNSS).
SATELLITE BASED POSITIONING
 Examples:
 US-based GPS
 Russian GLONASS
 European Galileo
 Chinese BeiDou
SATELLITE BASED POSITIONING
 Application Fields:
 Surveying
 Military operations
 Engineering
 Vehicle tracking
 Flight navigation
 Car navigation
 Ship navigation
 Agriculture
 Mapping
SEGMENTS OF A SATELLITE-BASED
POSITIONING SYSTEM
 Three Segments:
 Space segment
 Control segment
 User segment
SPACE SEGMENT
 SPACE SEGMENT
 The satellites that orbit the Earth, and
the radio signals that they emit
 The space segment of GPS consists of
24 satellites on 6 orbits (approx. 22,000
km from the centre of the Earth)
 Each satellite carries a clock.
 SPACE SEGMENT

Each satellite completes 2

orbits/day.
24 hour complete GPS coverage
anywhere on the Earth.
Accuracy: 21 meters 95% of time
 CONTROL SEGMENT
The ground stations that monitor
and maintain the space segment
components
CONTROL SEGMENT
 USER SEGMENT
The users with their hardware and
software to conduct positioning
USER SEGMENT
 USER SEGMENT
 Receivers and their users:
 (Military) Navigation in 3D-aircrafts,
 Ships
 Ground vehicles and
 Hand-carried instruments
 Precise positioning - Surveying
SELECTION OF A GPS RECEIVER
 Application (boating, flying, driving,
mapping, surveying)
 Accuracy requirements
 Power consumption requirements
 Operational environment
 Signal processing requirements
 Cost
 Data exchange standards
SPACE SEGMENT OF GLONASS
SYSTEM
 SPACE SEGMENT OF GLONASS
SYSTEM
 Russian system
 Globalnaya Navigatsionnaya Spunikova
Sistema – GLONASS
 24 satellites (21 operational and 3
spare)
 Three orbital planes at 65º inclination
 SPACE SEGMENT OF GLONASS
SYSTEM
 Two codes as GPS, but all satellites
broadcast identical codes but using
slightly different carrier frequencies for
each satellite
 The positioning principal is the same
as GPS
 Accuracy: 20 m horizontal and ~30 m
vertical
SPACE SEGMENT OF GALILEO
SYSTEM
 SPACE SEGMENT OF GALILEO
SYSTEM
 First satellite launched in 2006, planned
operation started in 2008
 Designed for civil purposes
 30 satellites
 3 orbits (23,222 km high)
 Network of ground stations, 2 control
centres in Europe
 Accuracy of single receiver: around 1 m
PRINCIPLE OF POSITIONING
PRINCIPLE OF POSITIONING
 ERROR SOURCES IN ABSOLUTE
POSITIONING
Satellite clock and orbit errors
Ionospheric and tropospheric
delays
Receiver’s environment (multi-
path)
Satellite constellation
 IONOSPHERIC AND
TROPOSPHERIC DELAYS
 DATA ENTRY
PREPARATION:
SPATIAL DATA
INPUT
 SPATIAL DATA INPUT
 Spatial data can be obtained from
various sources
 It can be collected from scratch, using
direct spatial acquisition techniques or
indirectly by making use of existing
spatial data collected by others
 Direct Spatial Data Capture
 Indirect Spatial Data Capture
DIRECT SPATIAL DATA CAPTURE
Primary geographic data capture
Captured directly from
environment
Main concern is to know its
properties, parameters of any
geographic process
INDIRECT SPATIAL DATA CAPTURE
Secondary geographic data
capture
Derived from existing paper
maps through scanning or
digitization
Processed data purchased from
agencies
INDIRECT SPATIAL DATA CAPTURE
Digitizing
Scanning
Vectorization
DIGITIZING
 DIGITIZING
 Digitizing in GIS is the process of
converting geographic data either from
a hardcopy or a scanned image into
vector data by tracing the features
 During the digitizing process, features
from the traced map or image are
captured as coordinates in either point,
line, or polygon
SCANNING
 SCANNING
 Scanning converts paper maps into digital
format by capturing features as individual
cells, or pixels, producing an automated
image
 Maps are generally considered the backbone
of any GIS activity
 But many a time paper maps are not easily
available in a form that can be readily used
by the computers.
 SCANNING
 Most of the paper maps had been
prepared on the basis of old
conventional surveys
 New maps can be produced using
improved technologies but this
requires time as it increases the volume
of work
 Thus, we have to resort to the available
maps.
 SCANNING
These paper maps have to be first
converted into a digital format
usable by the computer
The technology used for this kind
of conversions is known as
scanning
 RASTERIZATION
 Convert Vector to Raster
 Vectorization and digitizing convert every
pile of paper, documents and maps into a
well-structured and classified geographic
information system (GIS) and its
databases.
 Selecting a Digitizing Technique Complex
images are better manually digitize and
simple images are better automatically
digitize
 RASTERIZATION
Choice depends on
 Quality
Complexity
Contents of the Input
Document
DATA QUALITY
 DATA QUALITY
 Not all geospatial data are created equally.
 Data quality refers to the ability of a given
dataset to satisfy the objective for which it
was created
 With the voluminous amounts of geospatial
data being created and served to the
cartographic community, care must be taken
by individual geographic information
system (GIS) users to ensure that the data
employed for their project is suitable for the
task at hand
 DATA QUALITY
Two primary attributes
characterize data quality
Accuracy
Precision
 DATA QUALITY
 Accuracy
 Accuracy describes how close a measurement is
to its actual value and is often expressed as a
probability
 For Eg : 80 percent of all points are within +/− 5
meters of their true locations
 Accuracy is the closeness of results of
observations to the true values or values
accepted as being true
 The difference between observed and true (or
accepted as being true) values indicates the
accuracy of the observations
 DATA QUALITY
Precision
Precision refers to the variance of
a value when repeated
measurements are taken
 DATA QUALITY
 Issues related to Data Quality
 Positional
 Temporal
 Attribute
 Lineage
 Completeness
 Logical consistency
 POSITIONAL ACCURACY
 Positional accuracy is the expected
deviance in the geographic location of
an object from its true ground position
 There are two components to
positional accuracy. These are
 Relative accuracy
 Absolute accuracy.
 POSITIONAL ACCURACY
 Absolute accuracy:
 Absolute accuracy concerns the
accuracy of data elements with respect
to a coordinate scheme, e.g. UTM
(Universal Transverse Mercator)
 POSITIONAL ACCURACY
Relative accuracy:
Relative accuracy concerns
the positioning of map
features relative to actual
position
 TEMPORAL ACCURACY
Temporal accuracy addresses the
age or timeliness of a dataset.
No dataset is ever completely
current
In the time it takes to create the
dataset, it has already become
outdated
 TEMPORAL ACCURACY
Regardless, there are several dates
to be aware of while using a dataset
These dates should be found within
the metadata
The publication date will tell you
when the dataset was created
and/or released
 TEMPORAL ACCURACY
 The field date relates the date and time
the data was collected
 If the dataset contains any future
prediction, there should also be a
forecast period and/or date
 To address temporal accuracy, many
datasets undergo a regular data update
regimen
 TEMPORAL ACCURACY
 For example, the California
Department of Fish and Game updates
its sensitive species databases on a near
monthly basis as new findings are
continually being made
 It is important to ensure that, as an
end-user, you are constantly using the
most up-to-date data for your GIS
application.
 ATTRIBUTE ACCURACY
 Attribute accuracy is equally as
important as positional accuracy
 It also reflects estimates of the truth
 Interpreting and depicting boundaries
and characteristics for forest stands or
soil polygons can be exceedingly
difficult and subjective.
 LINEAGE
 A record of the data sources and of the
operations which created the database
 how was it digitized
 from what documents?
 for legal reasons the source of survey
data is important
 e.g. instruments, benchmarks used,
name of surveyor, date
 DATA COMPLETENESS
 Comprehensive inclusion of all features
within the GIS database is required to
ensure accurate mapping results.
 Simply put, all the data must be
present for a dataset to be accurate
 incomplete data will inevitably lead to
incomplete or insufficient analysis.
 For Eg:
 DATA COMPLETENESS
 Are all of the counties in the state
represented?
 Are all of the stream segments included
in the river network?
 Is every convenience store listed in the
database?
 Are only certain types of convenience
stores listed within the database?
 LOGICAL CONSISTENCY
 Logical consistency requires that the
data are topologically correct.
 For example, does a stream segment of
a line shapefile fall within the
floodplain of the corresponding
polygon shapefile?
 Do roadways connect at nodes?
 Do all the connections and flows point
in the correct direction in a network?
 LOGICAL CONSISTENCY
For ex. the user was recently using a
smartphone application to navigate
a busy city roadway and was twice
told to turn the wrong direction
down one-way streets. So beware,
errors in logical consistency may
lead to traffic violations!
DATA PREPARATION
 DATA PREPARATION
 Preparing data for a digital geologic
mapping project generally involves
three steps
 Preparing digital base map data
(i.e. downloadable or previously
stored thematic, topographic, or
remotely sensed data, or data that
you digitize, scan and geo- reference)
 DATA PREPARATION
 Creating a database and/or individual
files to store data that will be gathered
in the field (e.g. the locations and
descriptive attributes of rock units,
rock unit contacts, and measured
attitudes);
 Creating a map that is ready for editing
in the field.
 POINT DATA
TRANSFORMATION
 INTERPOLATION
 Interpolation predicts values for
cells in a raster from a limited
number of sample data points
It can be used to predict unknown
values for any geographic point
data, such as elevation, rainfall,
chemical concentrations, noise
 INTERPOLATION: IDW
 The IDW (Inverse Distance Weighted)
tool uses a method of interpolation
that estimates cell values by averaging
the values of sample data points in the
neighborhood of each processing cell
 The closer a point is to the center of the
cell being estimated, the more
influence, or weight, it has in the
averaging process.
 INTERPOLATION:KRIGING
 Kriging is an advanced geostatistical
procedure that generates an estimated
surface from a scattered set of points with z-
values
 More so than other interpolation methods, a
thorough investigation of the spatial
behavior of the phenomenon represented by
the z-values should be done before you
select the best estimation method for
generating the output surface
 INTERPOLATION:NATURAL
NEIGHBOUR
 Natural Neighbour interpolation finds
the closest subset of input samples to a
query point and applies weights to
them based on proportionate areas to
interpolate a value
 It is also known as Sibson or "area-
stealing" interpolation.
 INTERPOLATION:TREND
SURFACE FITTING
 Trend is a global polynomial
interpolation that fits a smooth surface
defined by a mathematical function (a
polynomial) to the input sample
points.
 The trend surface changes gradually
and captures coarse-scale patterns in
the data.
 36