Chapter 3

Modelling the Power System

To study the stability and to observe how the power system behaves, during normal
and abnormal conditions, availability of a simulation model of the considering Power
System is very important. To ascertain that the simulation model’s performance is
identical or approximately equal to the corresponding real time power system’s
behavior, it has been decided to consider the power system of Sri Lanka of which
required data could be collected from the Ceylon Electricity Board (CEB) on request.
Therefore a simulation model of the Power System of Sri Lanka (Transmission
network—132 and 220 kV) was designed using the software PSCAD/EMTDC.
PSCAD is a power-system simulator for the design and verification of power
quality studies, power electronic design, distributed generation, and transmission
planning. It was developed by the Manitoba HVDC Research Center and has been
in use since 1975. PSCAD is a graphical front end to EMTDC for creating models
and analyzing results. In PSCAD, one combines blocks to form a power network.
These blocks are actually FORTRAN code, which call for an EMTDC code library
to combine them into executable files. Running these files runs the simulations, and
the results can be picked up by PSCAD on the run [36–39].
PSCAD is suitable for modelling the power system of Sri Lanka for several
reasons. PSCAD has fully developed models of various devices used in the PS of
Sri Lanka.
• The library includes models of synchronous machines, turbines, governors,
transformers, relays, breakers, cables, and transmission lines. Saturation, mag-
netizing, and leakage inductances can be disabled or enabled in the rotating
machine models. PSCAD also offers tools to simulate various faults on the
power system. By providing actual parameters/data where necessary, it is pos-
sible to develop models of different power system components.
• The systems of the PSCAD library may consist of electrical and control-type
components, which may be interconnected to allow for an all-inclusive simu-
lation study. The control systems modeling function section of the PSCAD
library provides a complete set of basic linear and nonlinear control

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2018 31

T. Bambaravanage et al., Modeling, Simulation, and Control of a Medium-Scale
Power System, Power Systems, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-10-4910-1_3
32 3 Modelling the Power System

components. These components can be combined into larger, more elaborate

systems. Outputs from control components can be used to control voltage and
current sources, switching signals etc. Control components can also be used for
signal analysis, and outputs may be directed to online plots or meters.
• Multiple modules can be built inside a single project, and each module can
contain other modules. This provides a hierarchical modeling capability.
• PSCAD has complete models of most of the devices used in the ‘simulation
model of the PS of Sri Lanka’. Graphing, plotting, and exporting results are easy.
Therefore, PSCAD is suitable for this simulation study.

3.1 Power System Components

For large-scale and complex systems, the mathematical description is nonlinear and
high dimensional, consisting of a large number of nonlinear equations. Therefore
the analysis and computation of such a system should be started from simple local
devices and be completed finally for the complex overall system. Therefore, in
modeling of large-scale and complex power systems, these systems are first
decomposed into independent basic components, such as:
• Synchronous Generators
• Transformers
• Transmission lines
• Under-ground cables
• Governor
• Turbines etc.
Since these components are already modeled as blocks in PSCAD, it is possible
to configure them referring to actual/real time parameters of the power system.
Further in configuring these mathematical models corresponding to different
components, a sound knowledge of their performance and their effects on the power
system must be thoroughly studied. These Models of those components are
building-bricks to construct the mathematical model of the whole power systems.
Even though the size and structural components of a power system vary from one to
another, they all have the same basic characteristics.

3.2 Configuring Power System Components/Mathematical

Modeling

For the study of some specific problems, model parameters could be time-variable
and variables may not be continuous. To meet the requirement of different com-
puting accuracy, different models could be used. A mathematical model for
3.2 Configuring Power System Components/Mathematical Modeling 33

qualitative analysis could be simpler than that for quantitative analysis. Since
computing accuracy and speed are always two conflicting factors, it is very
important to consider whether a very high accuracy is required with the results,
when a power system model is established [40].
There are two major issues in mathematical modelling [40]. This can be brief
according to the Fig. 3.1.
As demonstrated in Fig. 3.1, Issues of mathematical modelling of a power
system/power system components can be identified as:
• To describe a subject under investigation mathematically in the form of
equations
– Analytical method
to derive those mathematical descriptions by using special knowledge and
theory about the subject
– Experimental method
To identify those mathematical descriptions by carrying out experiments or
using data obtained from its operation—the method of system identification
in control theory
• To obtain parameters of the mathematical description of the subject:
– Based on design parameters (theoretical derivation)

Issues of
Mathema cal
Modelling

To describe a subject To obtain parameters

under inves ga on of the mathema cal
mathema cally in the descrip on of the
form of equa ons subject:

Analy cal method: theoritacal parameter es ma on:

Experimental
driva on:
To derive those method: For complex
mathema cal For certain components or
To iden fy them
descrip ons by using components, systems, usually there
by carrying out
special knowledge & model parameters is certain difference
experiments or
theory about the can be derived between the actual
using data
subject from design parameters and design
obtained from its
parameters parameters.
opera on

Fig. 3.1 Issues of mathematical modelling of a power system/power system components

34 3 Modelling the Power System

For simple components, model parameters can be derived from design

parameters according to certain physical (e.g. mechanical or electrical)
principles; e.g. transmission line modeling
– Based on Parameter estimation
For complex components or systems, usually there is certain difference
between the actual parameters and design parameters; e.g. generator mod-
elling (these generator parameters can be affected by variations of the power
system operating conditions, saturation and a series of complex conversion
processes among mechanical, electrical, magnetic and thermal energy). This
is known as ‘parameter estimation’ which is one of the methods in system
identification.

3.2.1 Transmission Lines

Transmission lines are the main corridor of power transmission in a power system.
The ‘Generation and Transmission network’ as in 2011 in the power system of Sri
Lanka [19] has been referred, Appendix-D.
Conductor Types Available in the Power System
It has been identified that different types of conductors are utilized in transmission
of power [19]. All are 3-phase circuits. Some of them are single circuits while the
others are double circuits. Table 3.1 gives a detailed list of conductors used in the
transmission network and their corresponding per unit values of +ve sequence
resistance, +ve sequence reactance and +ve sequence susceptance. These values
were calculated based on the existing transmission line data given in [41].
Sample Calculation
Calculation of a p.u. value corresponding to a 220 kV transmission line:
Calculation of Zbase corresponding to 220 kV transmission line:
2
Vbase
Zbase ¼
MVAbase

where,

MVAbase ¼ 100 and Vbase ¼ 220 kV

2202
Zbase ¼ ¼ 484 X
100
Resistance resistance of the circuit
in p:u: ¼ X
circuit Zbase
3.2 Configuring Power System Components/Mathematical Modeling 35

Table 3.1 Conductor types used in the transmission network of Sri Lanka
Conductor Voltage +ve sequence +ve sequence +ve sequence
capacity resistance pu/m reactance pu/m susceptance pu/m
(kV) (X) (X) (X)
lynx 132 1.016  10−6 2.353  10−6 4.867  10−7
Oriole 132 1.0962  10−6 2.5022  10−6 4.8398  10−7
Zebra 132 4.332  10−7 2.202  10−6 5.193  10−7
Goat 132 5.739  10−7 2.2383  10−6 5.1244  10−7
Tiger 132 1.4176  10−6 2.4047  10−6 4.7477  10−7
2  Zebra 132 2.1667  10−7 1.7259  10−6 6.524  10−7
2  Goat 132 2.864  10−7 1.7389  10−6 6.5256  10−7
Zebra 220 1.5597  10−7 8.5371  10−7 1.3353  10−6
2  Zebra 220 7.8  10−8 6.2133  10−7 1.8124  10−6
2  Goat 220 1.0312  10−7 6.276  10−7 1.7937  10−7

The transmission line from Randenigala to Rantembe has been taken as a sample
for model calculations [19].

Type of circuit Single circuit

Names of transmission lines Rand-Rant
Steady state frequency 50.0 Hz
Length of transmission line 3.1 km
Number of conductors (per circuit) 3 nos.
Conductor type 2  Zebra
Voltage capacity 220 kV

Referring to the data given in [41], +ve sequence resistance (R), reactance
(X) and suceptance (Y) values of transmission lines were calculated. Table 3.2
gives the corresponding data used for the transmission line ‘Rand-Rant’ parameter
calculation.
Calculation of +ve sequence resistance, +ve sequence reactance and +ve
sequence susceptance:

0:00024
þ ve sequence resistance ¼ pu/m ffi 7:8  108 pu/m
3:1  103

Table 3.2 RXY values as given in [41], for the transmission line ‘Rand-Rant’
Conductor Voltage Resistance Reactance Susceptance
capacity (R)/circuit in p.u. (X)/circuit in p.u. (Y)/circuit in p.u.
(kV) (X) (X) (X)
2  Zebra 220 0.00024 0.00196 0.00605
36 3 Modelling the Power System

0:00196
þ ve sequence reactance ¼ pu/km ffi 6:2133  107 pu/m
3:1  103
0:00605
þ ve sequence susceptance ¼ pu/km ffi 1:8124  106 pu/m
3:1  103

Values Used with PSCAD Window

In configuring the transmission lines, the Bergeron model was used since,
• It is useful for studies to get the correct steady state impedance/admittance of the
transmission line at a specified frequency, and it is not used in analysis of
transient studies or harmonic behavior.
• It is a very simple and constant frequency model based on travelling waves [37].
Figure 3.2 shows the PSCAD windows where the corresponding transmission
line parameters were entered in configuring the transmission line—‘Rand-Rant’.
Figure 3.3 demonstrates as it appears in the above transmission line has been
simulated in the Sri Lanka power system simulation model.
Figure 3.3 is a small part of the large transmission network of the power system
of Sri Lanka that was extracted from the simulation model done. It shows how the
bus-bars of power stations randenigala and Rantembe are linked through the
transmission line ‘Rand-Rant.’

3.2.2 Under-Ground Cables

In certain places of the power system, it has been identified the power transmission
is done through underground cables. These cables are with different current
capacities [42, 43]. In configuring these under-ground cables in the PSCAD soft-
ware, factors such as
• their construction criteria
• insulation materials used
• how they are laid down etc. are considered.

Cable Types Available in the Power System

With reference to [19], the types of cables used for power transmission in the power
system of Sri Lanka are:
• XLPE 150
• Cu 500
• 1000 XLPE
• 800 XLPE
• Cu 350
3.2 Configuring Power System Components/Mathematical Modeling 37

Fig. 3.2 PSCAD windows

corresponding to transmission
line from Randenigala to
Rantembe named as
‘Rand-Rant’ with it’s a line
model general data;
b Bergeron model options;
c manual entry of Y, Z

Unlike over-head transmission conductors, the under-ground cables are com-

prised with several layers of insulation and protective materials. With reference to
[42], XLPE cable components are demonstrated in Fig. 3.4.
It has been assumed that the conducting materials in all cables are copper.
Details of the cable physical parameters, resistivity of metals used and permittivity
of insulating materials used are presented in Tables 3.3, 3.4, and 3.5 respectively
[42, 43].
The voltage of a cable circuit is designed in accordance with the following
principles: Eg: U0/U (Um): 130/225 (245)
where,
U0 = 130 kV, phase to ground voltage
38 3 Modelling the Power System

Rand-Rant
transmission
line

Fig. 3.3 A part of the power system comprising the ‘Rand-Rant’ transmission line that links
Randenigala and Rantembe power-stations

U = 225 kV, rated phase to phase voltage

Um = 245 kV, highest permissible voltage of the grid

Values Used with PSCAD Window

Figure 3.5 is a part of the transmission network of the simulation model of the
power system of Sri Lanka. The cable that links Colombo Fort substation (Sub-F)
and the Kelanitissa power station bus-bars are shown in it. Even though the Fig. 3.4
demonstrates several layers of insulations and screen/sheath in addition to the
conductor, for this simulation model it has been assumed that,
• Each cable is comprised of conductor, insulator-1, insulator-2 and sheath only.
• All three cables are placed horizontally on the same level of the ground
• Span between two cables (center to center) = 2  cable diameter [42].
• Each cable carries a current of single phase (for three phases, 3 nos. separate
cables have been used)
Accordingly, how such a cable (Keltissa-Col_F) has been configured in PSCD is
demonstrated in Fig. 3.6.
Cable configuration window, Line model general data and Bergeron Model
Options corresponding to ‘Keltissa-Col_F’ are demonstrated in Fig. 3.6a, b and c
respectively. Figure 3.7 shows how the above 132 kV under-ground cable have
been laid down in earth.
3.2 Configuring Power System Components/Mathematical Modeling 39

Stranded
conductor
SC conductor
screen

Insula on
SC insula on
screen

Expanding tape,
Cu wire screen

Expanding tape,
Pb sheath PE jacket

Fig. 3.4 Different layers of insulation and protective materials of an underground cable [42].
Where, SC—semiconductor, Cu—copper, Pb—lead, PE—poly ethylene

Table 3.3 Physical parameter data used for configuring the cables in the simulation model
Name of the cable 1000 800 R-Cu 400 R-Cu 500 400
R-Cu 130/225 130/225 R-Cu R-Cu
130/225 (245) kV (245) kV 76/132 76/132
(245) kV (145) kV (145) kV
Conductor diameter (mm) 38.2 34.7 23.3 26.7 23.2
Thickness of insulation (mm) 14.8 14.8 21.6 16.2 17.1
Al screen: out-side diameter of 85 82 85 77 75
cable (mm)
Cu wire/Al sheath: out-side 88 84 87 79 77
diameter of cable (mm)

Table 3.4 Resistivity of Material Resistivity at 20 °C (mX)

metals used in the cables
Aluminum (Al) 2.803  10−8
Copper (Cu) 1.724  10−8
Lead (Pb) 21.4  10−8
40 3 Modelling the Power System

Table 3.5 Permittivity of Material Permittivity at 50 Hz

insulation materials used in
the cables XLPE 2.35
Impregnated paper (high density) 3.8
Impregnated paper (low density) 3.3

Fig. 3.5 The cable that links

Colombo Fort substation and
Kelanitissa power station
bus-bars, which appears in the
transmission network of the
simulation model of the
power system of Sri Lanka

The resistivity of soil varies widely at different locations as the type of soil
changes. At some locations, the soil can be very nonhomogeneous with multilayer
soil structure, not far away from the earth surface. Often, there are several layers of
3.2 Configuring Power System Components/Mathematical Modeling 41

Fig. 3.6 PSCAD windows

corresponding to power
transmission cable from
Kelanitissa to Colombo Fort
substation named as
‘Keltissa-Col_F’ with it’s
a cable configuration
window; b line model general
data; c Bergeron model
options

soil made up of loam, sand, clay, gravel, and rocks. The layers may be roughly
horizontal to the surface or inclined at an angle to the surface. The resistivity also
fluctuates seasonally due to changes in rainfall and temperature. The impact of
temperature is only important near and below freezing point [44]. Hence it has been
taken the (average) ground resistivity as 100 Xm at a depth of 1.3 m from ground
level, for the entire simulation.
Since there are several such cables cater for power transmission in the power
system net-work, corresponding data which was used for cable configuration is
available in Table 3.6.
42 3 Modelling the Power System

Fig. 3.7 132 kV under-ground cable lay-out corresponding to ‘Keltissa-Col_F’

Table 3.6 Data used for configuring under-ground/submarine cables

Name of the Depth of Span Conductor Thickness Thickness of Thickness
cable the cable between diameter of sheath (m) of
from two (m) insulator-1 insulator-2
ground cables (XLPE) (m)
level (m) (m) (m)
XLPE 150 1.3 0.174 0.0233 0.0216 9.25  10−3 1  10−3
Cu 350 1.3 0.154 0.0232 0.0171 8.8  10−3 1  10−3
Cu 500 1.3 0.158 0.0267 0.0162 8.825  10−3 1  10−3
XLPE 800 1.3 0.168 0.0347 0.0148 8.85  10−3 1  10−3
XLPE 1000 1.3 0.176 0.0382 0.0148 10−3 1  10−3

3.2.3 Transformers

Transformers are the devices that permit high voltage transmission and this dras-
tically reduces losses. At corresponding grid substations, transmission voltage/s is
step down to a distribution voltage level. Power transportation is accomplished
through distribution systems. This includes small networks of radial or ring-main
configuration and voltages are stepped down to end-user levels once again through
transformers [14].
Transformer Types Available in the Power System
In this simulation generator transformers and transformers at grid sub-stations
which step down 220–132 kV were considered. The generator transformers are
with different capacities. The primary voltage is the voltage at which the electricity
is generated. Some of the grid sub-stations are comprised with auto transformers
that step down the voltage to 132 and 33 kV simultaneously. Since the intension of
3.2 Configuring Power System Components/Mathematical Modeling 43

the simulation is to model the transmission network, the 33 kV, which is at primary
distribution level, was not considered.
Sample Calculation
The calculations were carried out referring to [45], pp. 36–37. Typical per-unit
(pu) values of transformers are given in Tables 3.7 and 3.8. For the transformer
capacity ranges given in Table 3.7, the leakage reactance (pu) on primary and
secondary windings can be considered as equal for design purposes. In the same
way, the copper loss on each side has been considered as equal.
Example:
Sample calculation of generator transformer parameters of Kotmale power sta-
tion (less than 100 MVA):
Transformer rating = 90 MVA
Primary winding—star
Secondary winding—delta
Primary voltage—13.8 kV
Secondary voltage—220 kV


þ 0:03
þ ve sequence leakage reactance of primary; x1 ¼  90 þ 0:03
100
¼ 0:057 pu


13:8 2
þ ve sequence leakage reactance of secondary referring to primary; x01 ¼  0:057 pu
220
¼ 0:00393  0:057 pu
¼ 0:0002 pu

) þ ve sequence leakage reactance ¼ 0:057 þ 0:0002 pu

= 0:057 pu

Table 3.7 Typical per-unit Circuit element Typical per-unit values

values of transformers [45]
3–250 kVA 1–100 MVA
R1 or R2 0.009–0.005 0.005–0.002
Xf1 or Xf2 0.008–0.025 0.03–0.06
Xm 20–30 50–200
Rm 20–50 100–500
I0 0.05–0.03 0.02–0.005
44 3 Modelling the Power System

Table 3.8 Per-unit values of transformer parameters [45]

Sn kVA 1 10 100 1000 400,000
Enp V 2400 2400 12470 69,000 13,800
Ens V 46 347 00 6900 424,000
Inp A 0.417 4.17 8.02 14.5 29,000
Ins A 2.17 28.8 17 145 943
Znp X 5760 576 1555 4761 0.4761
Zns X 211.6 12.0 3.60 47.61 449.4
R1(pu) – 0.0101 0.0090 0.0075 0.0057 0.00071
R2(pu) – 0.0090 0.0079 0.007 0.0053 0.00079
Xf1(pu) – 0.0056 0.0075 0.0251 0.0317 0.0588
Xf2(pu) – 0.0055 0.0075 0.0250 0.0315 0.06601
Xm(pu) – 34.7 50.3 96.5 106 966
Rm(pu) – 69.4 88.5 141.5 90.7 66
I0(pu) – 0.032 0.023 0.013 0.015 0.0018


0:003
Copper loss resistance of primary, r1 ¼  90 þ 0:005
100
¼ 0:0027 pu

2
13:8
Copper loss resistance of secondary referring to primary; r10 ¼  0:0027 pu
220
¼ 0:00393  0:0027 pu
¼ 0:000010 pu

) total copper loss resistance; ¼ 0:0027 þ 0:00001 pu

¼ 0:00271 pu

Air core reactance; ¼ 2  ð þve sequence reactanceÞ

¼ 2  0:057 pu
¼ 0:114 pu

The data given in Table 3.8 corresponds to transformer ratings from 1 kVA to
400 MVA. So calculation of transformer parameters whose ratings are above 100
MVA was carried out based on the data of the Table 3.8.
Sample calculation of parameters, of a transformer that has a rating above 100
MVA:
This is located at Biyagama-grid substation.
Transformer rating = 250 MVA
Transformer type—auto-transformer
3.2 Configuring Power System Components/Mathematical Modeling 45

Primary winding—star
Secondary winding—delta
Primary voltage—220 kV
Secondary voltage—132 kV


þ 0:0588  0:0317
þve sequence leakage reactance of primary; x1 ¼  250 þ 0:0317
400
¼ 0:04864 pu

2
220
þve sequence leakage reactance of secondary referring to primary; x02 ¼  0:04864 pu
132
¼ 0:1351 pu

) equivalent þ ve sequence leakage reactance; xeq ¼ x1 þ x02 pu

¼ 0:0486 þ 0:1351 pu
¼ 0:18375 pu


0:0007  0:0057
Copper loss resistance of primary; r1 ¼  250 þ 0:0057
400
¼ 0:00258 pu

2
220
Copper loss resistance of secondary referring to primary; r20 ¼ 0:00258 pu
132
¼ 0:00717 pu

) total copper loss resistance; ¼ r1 þ r20 pu

¼ 0:00258 þ 0:00717 pu
¼ 0:00975 pu

Air core reactance; ¼ 2  ð þ ve sequence reactanceÞ

¼ 2  0:057 pu
¼ 0:114 pu

Values Used with PSCAD Window

There are three transformers each with a capacity of 90 MVA, installed in the
Kotmale power station. Figure 3.8 shows them as they appear in the PSCAD
simulation.
PSCAD windows corresponding to a transformer configuration and saturation
for the generator transformers at Kotmale power plant are shown in Fig. 3.9a, b.
46 3 Modelling the Power System

Generator
transformers

Fig. 3.8 Generator transformers located at the Kotmale power station, as they appear in the
PSCAD simulation model

Fig. 3.9 PSCAD generator transformer windows of a configuration; b saturation; corresponding

to the Kotmale power station
3.2 Configuring Power System Components/Mathematical Modeling 47

3.2.4 Generators

An electric generator is a device designed to take advantage of electromagnetic

induction in order to convert movement into electricity. It is designed to obtain an
induced current in a conductor (or set of conductors) as a result of mechanical
movement, which is utilized to continually change a magnetic field near the con-
ductor. The generator thus achieves a conversion of one physical form of energy
into another—energy of motion into electrical energy—mediated by the magnetic
field that exerts forces on the electric charges [46].
With reference to [6], synchronous generators can be roughly classified as shown
in Fig. 3.10.
Further, a generating unit can be demonstrated as shown in the Fig. 3.11.
– Electricity is produced by a synchronous generator driven by a prime mover,
usually a turbine or a diesel engine. The turbine is equipped with a turbine
governor to control either the speed or the output power according to a preset
power–frequency characteristic.
– Through a transmission network, the generated power is transmitted over to
load-centres after stepping up the generated voltage (by a generator
transformer).
– The DC excitation (or field) current, required to produce the magnetic field
inside the generator, is provided by the exciter. The excitation current, and
consequently the generator’s terminal-voltage, is controlled by an automatic
voltage regulator (AVR).
In modelling a real time generator, it is very important to have a clear idea about
how the energy in mechanical form is converted to electrical form, in order to

Synchronous
Generators

High-speed generators Low-speed generators

(Turbo generators) Driven by water turbines

Can have large diameters and
Driven by steam or gas turbines shorter axial lengths
Have rela vely low diameters & Can be mounted either as
large axial lengths to reduce horizontally or ver cally
centrifugal forces
Have a large number of
Mounted horizontally electrical poles
Typically have 2 or 4 electrical Operate at typically 500 rpm &
poles below
Would be driven at 3000 or
1500 rpm typically for a 50 Hz

Fig. 3.10 Classification of synchronous generators referring to their speeds

48 3 Modelling the Power System

Step-up
transformer

unit auxiliary
transformer services

Energy/ working
fluid input Circuit-breaker
(op onal)
Pref

V
valves

Governor P Gen. Output power

parameter measurement I
f
ω

Generator terminals

Turbine Synchronous
Sha
Generator

field current, If
Automa c
Exciter voltage
Exhaust/ working fluid
output contol
Vref

Fig. 3.11 Configuration of a generating unit [6]

maintain some specific frequency, while the electricity in demand varies. This
would be very helpful in configuring the machine so that it behaves like a specific
real-time generator. With reference to [11] and [13], basic generator model was
developed.
Defining electrical-mechanical system terms:
x rotational speed (rad/s)
a rotational acceleration
d phase angle of a rotating machine
Tnet net acceleration torque in a machine
Tmech mechanical torque exerted on the machine by the turbine
Telec electrical torque exerted on the machine by the generator
Pnet net accelerating power
Pmec mechanical power input
Pelec electrical power output
3.2 Configuring Power System Components/Mathematical Modeling 49

I moment of inertia for the machine

M angular momentum of the machine

• All these quantities (except phase angle) will be in per unit on the machine base,
or in the case of x, on the standard system frequency base.
• It is considered deviations of quantities about the steady state values.
• All steady-state or nominal values may be denoted with a sub-script ‘0’ (e.g.,
x0 ; Tnet0 ).
• All deviations from nominal may be denoted by a ‘D’ (e.g., Dx; DTnet ).

Ia ¼ Tnet
M ¼ xI ð3:1Þ
Pnet ¼ xTnet ¼ xðIaÞ ¼ Ma

Consider a rotating machine with a steady speed of x0 and phase angle d0 . Due
to various electrical or mechanical disturbances, the machine will be subjected to
differences in mechanical and electrical torque, causing it to accelerate or
decelerate.
Consider a deviation of speed Dx and a deviation in phase angle Dd, from
nominal.

Deviation from nominal speed,

d
Dx ¼ at ¼ ðDdÞ
dt
ð3:2Þ
d d2
) Tnet ¼ Ia ¼ I ðDxÞ ¼ 2 ðDdÞ
dt dt

With reference to Appendix-C the relationship between net acceleration power

and the electrical and mechanical power is:
50 3 Modelling the Power System

Pnet ¼ Pmech  Pelec

This can be written as a sum of the steady-state value and the deviation term,

Pnet ¼ Pnet0  DPnet

where

Pnet0 ¼ Pmech0  Pelec0

DPnet ¼ DPmech  DPelec

Then,

Pnet ¼ ðPmech0  Pelec0 Þ þ ðDPmech  DPelec Þ ð3:3Þ

Similarly for torques,

Tnet ¼ ðTmech0  Telec0 Þ þ ðDTmech  DTelec Þ ð3:4Þ

Since Eq. (3.1) ),

Pnet ¼ xTnet

Pnet ¼ Pnet0 þ DPnet ¼ ðx0 þ DxÞðTnet0 þ DTnet Þ

From Eqs. (3.3) and (3.4)

ðPmech0  Pelec0 Þ þ ðDPmech  DPelec Þ ¼ ðx0 þ DxÞ½ðTmech0  Telec0 Þ þ ðDTmech  DTelec Þ

Assume that the steady-state quantities can be factored out since

Pmech0 ¼ Pelec0

and

Tmech0 ¼ Telec0

and further assume that the second-order terms involving products of Dx with
DTmech and DTelec can be neglected. Then,

ðDPmech  DPelec Þ ¼ x0 ðDTmech  DTelec Þ ð3:5Þ

As shown in Eq. (3.2), the net torque is related to the speed change as follows:
3.2 Configuring Power System Components/Mathematical Modeling 51

d
ðTmech0  Telec0 Þ þ ðDTmech  DTelec Þ ¼ I ðDxÞ ð3:6Þ
dt

Then, since Tmech0 = Telec0, by combining Eqs. (3.5) and (3.6),

d
ðDPmech  DPelec Þ ¼ x0 I ðDxÞ
dt
d
¼M ðDxÞ
dt


d
LðDPmech  DPelec Þ ¼ L M ðDxÞ
dt

∴ In Laplace transform operator notation,

DPmech  DPelec ¼ MsðDxÞ

This relationship between mechanical and electrical power and speed change can
be given in a block-diagram as shown in Fig. 3.12.
The loads on a power system consist of a variety of electrical devices such as,
• purely resistive
• motor loads with variable power–frequency characteristics
Since motor loads are a dominant part of the electrical load, the effect of the
change in load due to the change in frequency can be given by:

DPLðfreqÞ
DPLðfreqÞ ¼ DDx or D ¼
Dx

∴ The net change in Pelec in Fig. 3.12, (explains in Eq. (3.6)) is:

DPelec ¼ DP þ DDx
|{z}L |ffl{zffl}
Nonfreqencysensitive load change Freqencysensitive load change

+ Δω
ΔPmech
_

ΔPelec

Fig. 3.12 Relationship between mechanical and electrical power and speed change
52 3 Modelling the Power System

+ Δω
ΔPmech
_
_

ΔPL
+ Δω
ΔPmech
_

ΔPL

Fig. 3.13 Block diagrams demonstrating the effect of change in frequency sensitive and
non-frequency sensitive load

Fig. 3.14 A generator unit at Kotmale power station with its hydro turbine, governor and exciter
3.2 Configuring Power System Components/Mathematical Modeling 53

Fig. 3.15 Values used with PSCAD window corresponding to Kotmale generator; a synchronous
machine configuration; b interface to machine controllers; c variable initialization data; d basic
data; e initial conditions; f initial conditions if starting as a machine; g output variable names and
h power output of the simulated generator ‘Kotmale-3’
54 3 Modelling the Power System

Fig. 3.15 (continued)

3.2 Configuring Power System Components/Mathematical Modeling 55

Table 3.9 Inertia constants of different types of generators

Generator type Range of inertia constant (s)
Hydraulic unit (water wheel generator) 2–4
Thermal unit:
• Condensing (1800 rpm) 9–6
• Condensing (3000 rpm) 7–4
• Non-condensing (3000 rpm) 4–3

This describes the block-diagram shown in the Fig. 3.13.

Generator Types Used in Modeling the Power System
In this power system simulation model, basically two types of generators were used.
They are:
• Hydro-generators
• Steam-turbine generators
All the thermal power generators which were committed at the instant of the
corresponding load-flow simulation were represented with steam turbine generators.
Simplified Schematic Diagram and Corresponding Control System
With reference to the PSCAD simulation model, the Fig. 3.14 shows a
hydro-generator unit located at Kotmale power station, (Kotmale3) with its corre-
sponding governor, turbine and exciter units.
Values Used with PSCAD Window
Figure 3.15 with (a) Synchronous machine configuration, (b) Interface to machine
controllers, (c) Variable initialization data, (d) Basic data, (e) Initial conditions,
(f) Initial conditions if starting as a machine, (g) Output variable names and
(h) power output of the simulated generator ‘Kotmale-3’ show the configuration
windows and graph of power generated, corresponding to Kotmale hydro-generator.
Sample Calculation
Sample calculation of parameters, of the generator Kotmale3:

Rated (active) power = 67 MW

Rated (reactive) power = 78.8 MVA
Rated output voltage = 13.8 kV

13:8
Rated RMS line to neutral voltage ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 7:967 kV
3

78:8  106
Rated RMS line current ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ 3:297 kA
3  13:8  103
56 3 Modelling the Power System

Table 3.10 Inertia constants Station/generator Inertia constant (H s)

of generators obtained from
the CEB Barge 1.62
KCCPgas 8
KCCPsteam 4
Sapugaskanda-1 3.2
Sapugaskanda-2 3.2
Sapugaskanda-3 3.2
Kerawalapitiya-1 –
Kerawalapitiya-2 –
Kerawalapitiya-3 –
KHD (Asia power)-1 0.997
KHD (Asia power)-2 0.997
Puttalam Coal –
Upper Kotmale –
Heledanavi-1 1.3
Heledanavi-2 1.3
Kotmale-3 3.02
Polpitiya-1 2.84
Polpitiya-2 2.84
Canyon-1 3.8
Canyon-2 3.8
Kukule-1 3
Kukule-2 3
New Laxapana-1 3.3
New Laxapana-2 3.3
Victoria-1 3.45
Victoria-2 3.45
Victoria-3 3.45
Ukuwela 2.72
Randenigala 3.65
Wimalasurendra 3.2
Laxapana-1 3.17
Laxapana-2 2.45
Samanalawewa-1 3.4
Samanalawewa-2 3.4
Bowatenna 4
Rantembe-1 2.62
Embilipitiya 1.1
3.2 Configuring Power System Components/Mathematical Modeling 57

Table 3.11 Inertia constants used for the units considered in the simulation
Station/generator Unit capacity Generator type Inertia constant
(MW) (H s)
Barge 60 Thermal (diesel) 3.14
KCCPgas 161 Thermal (gas) 3.79
KCCPsteam 81 Thermal (steam) 3.14
Sapugaskanda-1 9 MW  4 Thermal (diesel: coherent—4 2.53
units.)
Sapugaskanda-2 9 MW  4 Thermal (diesel: coherent—4 2.53
units.)
Sapugaskanda-3 18 MW  4 Thermal (diesel: coherent—4 2.65
units.)
Kerawalapitiya-1 100 MW Thermal (gas) 3.62
Kerawalapitiya-2 100 MW Thermal (gas) 3.62
Kerawalapitiya-3 100 MW Thermal (gas) 3.62
KHD (Asia 6.375 MW  4 Thermal (diesel: coherent—4 2.51
power)-1 units.)
KHD (Asia 6.375 MW  4 Thermal (diesel: coherent—4 2.51
power)-2 units.)
Puttalam Coal 300 MW Thermal (steam) 4
Upper kotmale 75 MW Hydro 3.47
Heledanavi-1 17 MW  3 Thermal (diesel: coherent—3 2.63
units.)
Heledanavi-2 17 MW  3 Thermal (diesel: coherent—3 2.63
units.)
Kotmale-3 67 MW Hydro 3.2
Polpitiya-1 37.5 MW Hydro 2.84
Polpitiya-2 37.5 MW Hydro 2.84
Canyon-1 30 MW Hydro 3.8
Canyon-2 30 MW Hydro 3.8
Kukule-1 35 MW Hydro 3.0
Kukule-2 35 MW Hydro 3.0
New Laxapana-1 50 MW Hydro 3.3
New Laxapana-2 50 MW Hydro 3.3
Victoria-1 70 MW Hydro 3.45
Victoria-2 70 MW Hydro 3.45
Victoria-3 70 MW Hydro 3.45
Ukuwela 20 MW Hydro 2.72
Randenigala 61 MW Hydro 3.65
Wimalasurendra 25 MW Hydro 3.2
Laxapana-1 8.33 MW Hydro (coherent—3 units.) 3.17
Laxapana-2 12.5 MW Hydro (coherent—2 units.) 2.45
Samanalawewa-1 60 MW Hydro 3.4
(continued)
58 3 Modelling the Power System

Table 3.11 (continued)

Station/generator Unit capacity Generator type Inertia constant
(MW) (H s)
Samanalawewa-2 60 MW Hydro 3.4
Bowatenna 40 MW Hydro 3.0
Rantembe-1 25 MW Hydro 2.62
Embilipitiya 100 MW Thermal (diesel) 3.62

excita on current is
supplied by DC generator
Rota ng
excita on current is
supplied by AC generator
Exciter with rec fier

Sta c Use of sta c thyristor

systems

Fig. 3.16 Basic types of exciters

load
compensa on

Ig Vg
limiters
VC
SYNCHRONOUS
GENERATOR

transformer
transducer
transducer

NETWORK
Step-up

Vref ΔV EXCITER
comparator amplifiers

feedback
f
ω
P
PSS

Fig. 3.17 Block diagram of the excitation and AVR system. PSS, power system stabilizer, [6]

Base angular frequency ¼ 2pf ¼ 2  p  50 rad/s ¼ 314:16 rad/s

Finding inertia constant:

With reference to [11], the inertia constants H of synchronous generators (hydro
generator and steam turbine generator) can be briefed as shown in Table 3.9. Based
3.2 Configuring Power System Components/Mathematical Modeling 59

on these data as well as the data obtained from the CEB (shown in Table 3.10), the
inertia constants used for the simulation were calculated.
Where range is given, the 1st figure applies to the smaller MVA.


3:17  3:45
Inertia constant ðcalculated) of Kotmale3 generator ¼  ðP  8:3Þ þ 3:17
8:3  71


3:17  3:45
¼  ð67  8:3Þ þ 3:17
8:3  71
¼ 3:432 s

But the experimental value ¼ 3:432 s

Hence, the average ¼ ð3:432 þ 3:02Þ=2

¼ 6:45=2 s
 3:2 s

The inertia constants used for the corresponding units that were committed at the
instant of the load-flow concerned are given in Table 3.11. Even though it has been
assumed that all thermal power generators in the power system are steam-turbine
power plants, in calculating inertia constants corresponding to gas-turbine/diesel
power plants, they were calculated considering them as non-condensing turbine
generators with inertias in the range of 4–3 s. Because of the doubts with the
accuracy of experimental values obtained, in certain cases approximated values
were used.

3.2.5 Exciters

The generator excitation system consists of an exciter and an AVR and is necessary
to supply the generator with DC field current as shown in Fig. 3.16. The AVR
regulates the generator terminal voltage by controlling the amount of current

Synchronous
Slip Rings Generator

AVR
Main
Auxiliary
Exciter
Exciter

Fig. 3.18 Cascaded DC generators. AVR, automatic voltage regulator [6]

60 3 Modelling the Power System

Fig. 3.19 Exciter model

‘AC1A’ which was used for
the simulation

supplied to the generator field winding by the exciter. Generally the exciters can be
classified as shown in Fig. 3.16.
Figure 3.17 demonstrates how the AVR subsystem operates [6]. The generator
terminal voltage, Vg is measured and compensated for the load current Ig and
compared with the desired reference voltage to get the voltage error DV. This error
is the amplified and used to alter the exciter output, and consequently the generator
field current, so that the voltage error is eliminated. This represents a closed loop

VUEL
VS
VAMAX VRMAX
+
VC _ HV HV VR VE EFD
Σ Gate Gate +
X
_ _
+ VF VEX
VRMIN
VREF VAMIN f(IN)

SE[VE] IN
VOEL
VX
+ +
KE

VFE +

+ IFD
KD

Fig. 3.20 IEEE Alternator Supplied Rectifier Excitation System #1 (AC1A) as in PSCAD.
Where, Vc—output of terminal voltage and load compensation elements (pu); VREF—voltage
regulator reference (determined to satisfy initial conditions) (pu); VS—combined power system
stabilizer and possibly discontinuous control output after any limits or switching, as assumed with
terminal voltage and reference signals (pu); VP—excitation system stabilizer output [pu]; VAMAX,
VAMIN—maximum and minimum regulator output limits [pu]; VR—voltage regulator output (pu);
VFE—signal proportional to exciter field current; TE—exciter time constant, integration rate
associated with exciter control (s); VE—exciter voltage back of commutating reactance (pu); KE—
exciter constant related to self-excited field (pu); KD—demagnetizing factor, a function value at
the corresponding exciter voltage, VE, back of commutation reactance (pu); KF—excitation
control system stabilizer gain [pu]; VX—signal proportional to exciter saturation (pu); SE [VE]—
exciter saturation function value at the corresponding exciter voltage, VE, back of commutation
reactance (pu); KC—rectifier loading factor proportional to commutation reactance (pu); IFD—
synchronous machine field current (pu); IN—normalized exciter load current (pu); FEX—rectifier
loading factor, a function of IN (pu); EFD—exciter output voltage (pu)
3.2 Configuring Power System Components/Mathematical Modeling 61

control system. The regulation process is stabilized using a negative feedback loop
taken directly from either the amplifier or the exciter.
Exciter Types Used in Modeling the Power System
DC generators usually have relatively low power ratings; they are cascaded to
obtain the necessary output as shown in Fig. 3.18.
Because of commutation problems with DC generators, this type of exciter
cannot be used for large generators which require large excitation currents (usually
power rating of the exciter is in the range 0.2–0.8% of the generator’s megawatt
rating) [6]. Hence, in this power system simulation, for all generators, exciter model
AC1A (Figs. 3.14 and 3.19), which is an ac-exciter was used.
Simplified Schematic Diagram and Corresponding Control System
Figure 3.19 shows the exciter model ‘AC1A’ which was used for the simulation.
The control system of the ‘IEEE Alternator Supplied Rectifier Excitation System #1
(AC1A)’ as given in PSCAD is shown in Fig. 3.20. Further, with reference to [6],
this can be considered as ‘the excitation system with AC alternator and the
uncontrolled rectifier’ given in Fig. 3.21. Referring to Chap. 11 of [6], the corre-
sponding values for the parameters of the AC exciter were decided. There it has
been justifies that the same DC-exciter parameters could be used for the above
AC-exciter system. Therefore the corresponding parameter values were decided
accordingly.
The excitation system is stabilized by the feedback loop with transfer function,

KF s
KG ðsÞ ¼
ð1 þ TF sÞ

max
0
min

+ − −
ΔV
+ Σ Σ π
+ Σ
K(s)

− −
− KE
KG(s)
+
Σ SE
+
+
KD

Regulator Alternator Rec fier

ac on ac on ac on

Fig. 3.21 The excitation system with AC alternator and the uncontrolled rectifier [6]
62 3 Modelling the Power System

Fig. 3.22 Values used with PSCAD windows in configuring Ac1A exciters; a configuration,
b hydro-gen.’s forward path parameters, c hydro-gen.’s exciter parameters, d steam turbine gen.’s
forward path parameters, e steam turbine gen.’s exciter parameters

Alternatively the excitation system could be stabilized by supplying this block

directly from the output of the voltage regulator or from the excitation voltage Ef.
In the Fig. 3.21, the feedback stabilization is done by an additional block with
the transfer function K(s) in the forward path preceding the regulator block. Both
3.2 Configuring Power System Components/Mathematical Modeling 63

Fig. 3.22 (continued)

KG(s) and K(s) depend on the specific excitation system and can be implemented by
either analogue or digital techniques. K(s) can be given as the transfer function,

ð 1 þ TC s Þ
K ðsÞ ¼
ð 1 þ TB s Þ

This can be simplified by neglecting TC and TB variables and thereby K(s) = 1.

With reference to [6] page 465, A (separately excited) DC exciter usually
operates so that the parameter KE = 0.8–0.95. This can be approximated to KE = 1.
The time constant, TE < 1 s,
∴ TE  0.5 s. Typical values for time constant TA = 0.05–0.2 s and gain KA =
20–400. The high regulator gain is necessary to ensure small voltage regulation of
the order of 0.5%. Although this high gain ensures low steady-state error, when
coupled with the length of the time constants the transient performance of the
exciter is unsatisfactory. To achieve an acceptable transient performance the system
must be stabilized in some way that reduces the transient (high-frequency) gain.
This is achieved by a feedback stabilization signal represented by the first-order
differentiating element with gain KF and time constant TF. Typical values of the
parameters in this element are TF = 0.35–1 s and KF = 0.01–0.1.
Sample Calculation
Referring to Sect. 3.2.6.2—Simplified schematic diagram and corresponding con-
trol system, Ac1A forward path parameters and exciter parameters were set. As
given in Fig. 3.22, most of the parameters in control systems of ‘hydro-power
64 3 Modelling the Power System

generator exciter’ and ‘steam turbine generator exciter’ are common to both, but
few are different from each other.
Values Used with PSCAD Window
Figures a, b, c, d and e of Fig. 3.22 corresponds to Configuration and respective
Ac1A Forward Path Parameters and Exciter Parameters of Hydro-power generator
exciter and Steam turbine generator exciter.

3.2.6 Turbines

In a power system, synchronous generators are usually driven by steam turbines or

gas turbines or hydro-turbines. There are two types of prime movers used for
large-scale power generation. They are hydraulic (hydro) turbines, and steam tur-
bines. The hydraulic turbine converts hydraulic energy into rotating kinetic energy
of the prime mover, the steam turbine converts steam thermal energy into rotating
kinetic energy of the prime mover; which is then converted into electric power by
the generator [6, 40].
Turbine Types Used in Modeling the Power System
As stated in previous chapters all thermal power plants in the power system were
assumed as steam turbine power plants. Therefore,
• steam turbine and
• hydro turbine
are the two types of turbines considered in this power system modelling.
Steam Turbines
In coal-burn or oil-burn power plants, the energy contained in the fuel is used to
produce high-pressure, high-temperature steam in the boiler. The energy in the
steam is then converted to mechanical energy in axial flow steam turbines. Each
turbine consists of a number of stationary and rotating blades concentrated into
groups/stages. Typically a complete steam turbine can be divided into three or more
stages, with each turbine stage being connected in tandem on a common shaft.
Dividing the turbine into stages in this way allows the steam to be reheated between
stages to increase its enthalpy and consequently increase the overall efficiency of
the steam cycle. Modern coal-fired steam turbines have thermal efficiency reaching
45% [6, 11]. Steam turbines can be classified according to the number of re-heat
units it has.
• Non-reheat systems
• Single reheat systems
• Double reheat systems
3.2 Configuring Power System Components/Mathematical Modeling 65

Reheater (TRH)

RSV
Boiler
MSV
Crossover (TCO)
IV

GV

LP turbine
(TCH)

ω Sha
Governor
Reference, ω0
HP turbine IP turbine Steam out to
condenser

Fig. 3.23 Configuration of a tandem compound single-reheat steam turbine, [6]

Simplified Schematic Diagram and Corresponding Control System of Steam

Turbine
A steam turbine configuration with a single tandem reheat arrangement is shown in
Fig. 3.23. Generally a turbine has three stages in three sections,
• High pressure (HP)
• Intermediate pressure (IP)
• Low pressure (LP)
Steam from the boiler enters the steam chest and flows through the main
emergency stop valve (MSV) and governor control valve (GV) to the HP turbine. In
this HP turbine the steam is partially expanded (i.e. pressure is slightly reduced).
Then it is directed back to the boiler to be reheated in the heat-exchanger to increase
its enthalpy. The steam then flows through the reheat emergency stop valve
(RSV) and the intercept control valve (IV) to the IP turbine where it is again
expanded and made to do work. This IV is in use only for rapid control of turbine
mechanical power during an over-speed,
• Ahead of the re-heater
• Controls steam flow to IP and LP sections.
On leaving the IP stage the steam flows through the crossover piping for final
expansion in the LP turbine. Finally the steam flows to the condenser to complete
66 3 Modelling the Power System

the cycle. Typically the individual turbine stages contribute to the total turbine
torque in the ratio 30% (HP) : 40% (IP) : 30% (LP).
The steam flow in the turbine is controlled by the governing system (GOV).
When the generator is synchronized the emergency stop valves are kept fully open
and the turbine speed and power regulated by controlling the position of the GV and
the IV. The speed signal to the governor is provided by the speed measuring device
(SD). The main amplifier of the governing system and the valve mover is an oil
servomotor controlled by the pilot valve. When the generator is synchronized the
emergency stop valves are only used to stop the generator under emergency con-
ditions, although they are often used to control the initial start-up of the turbine [6,
11].
Due to a change in GV opening, steam flow to the turbines changes. This
involves some time constant, TCH (∴charging time of steam chest and inlet piping to
the HP section). TCH = 0.2–0.3 s. Steam flow in IP and LP sections can be changed
only with the buildup of pressure in the reheat volume. TRH = 5–10 s. The steam
flow from IP to LP through cross-over involves a time constant, TCO. TCO ⋍ 0.5 s.
Figure 3.24 shows a block diagram representation of a control system of a steam
turbine as per [11]. This model accounts for the effects of inlet steam chest,
re-heater, and the nonlinear characteristics of the control and intercept valves. The
re-heater representation differs from the representation of steam chest and LP inlet
crossover piping. This is to allow computation of re-heater pressure to account for
the effects of intercept valve actuation. ‘Base power equal to the maximum turbine
power at rated main steam pressure with the control valves fully open’ can be
considered as a convenient per unit system. In this system, CV position is 1.0 pu
when fully open. Then,

FHP þ FIP þ FLP ¼ 1:0 pu

Figure 3.24 shows a single reheat tandem-compound steam turbine model with
its (a) turbine configuration and (b) block diagram representation [11].
Comparing the control systems given in PSCAD (Fig. 3.25) and [11] (Fig. 3.26)
for a steam turbine, the corresponding time constants and gains were identified. The
typical values given in [11] were used in configuring the steam turbine in the power
system simulation model (Table 3.14).
It has been assumed that no cross over piping is available for the turbine system.
Hence there is no TCO. ∴ TCO1 = TCO2 = 0.0 s. A set of typical values as given in
[11] are appeared in Table 3.12. Their ranges of existence were discussed in detail
in this chapter previously.
Referring to the typical values given in [11] and Table 3.12, values for the
parameters in the control system of ‘Generic turbine Model including intercept
valve effect as given in PSCAD’ were decided. Corresponding values are appeared
in Table 3.13. The same turbine model configuration was used for all thermal
power plants in the PSCAD simulation model (of the power system of Sri Lanka)
(Table 3.14).
3.2 Configuring Power System Components/Mathematical Modeling 67

Reheater
(a)
Crossover
From boiler

CV
IV

Steam
chest

LP turbine
HP turbine IP turbine
To
condenser

(b) Main steam FHP

pressure PT
IP
Inlet
steam Reheater flow
Valve
posi on Control _ + Tm Tmc
valve π Σ π FLP Σ
+ +
+
HP Crossover
RH
flow
Flow area pressure
FIP

Intercept
Valve valve Flow area
posi on

Fig. 3.24 Control system of a single reheat tandem compound steam turbine as per [11]; a turbine
configuration; b block diagram representation. Where, TCH = time constant of main inlet volumes
and steam chest; TRH = time constant of re-heater; TCO = time constant of crossover piping and LP
inlet volumes; Tm = total turbine torque in per unit of maximum turbine power; Tmc = total turbine
mechanical torque in per unit of common MVA base; PMAX = maximum turbine power in MW;
FHP, FIP, FLP = fraction of total turbine power generated by HP, IP, LP sections, respectively;
MVAbase = common MVA base

Values Used with PSCAD Window

Figures a, b, c, d and e of Fig. 3.27 corresponds to actual parameter values used in
‘Generic Turbine Model including Intercept Valve effect (TUR2)’ Configuration,
Hp Turbine: Contributions, Lp Turbine: Contributions, Time Constants and
Intercept Valve.
This Steam_Tur_2 models an IEEE type thermal turbine and Fig. 3.28 shows
that thermal (steam) turbine model—Generic turbine model including intercept
valve effect (TUR2), which was used for the simulation.
Hydro Turbines
For hydro power plants the hydro turbine model ‘Non-elastic water column without
surge tank (TUR1)’ was used. Figure 3.29 shows the above model as it appears in
the PSCAD simulation model.
68 3 Modelling the Power System

PMECHHP
+ ++ ++

K1 K3 K5 K7

_
++ + x
Cv

PT
K2 Iv K4 K6 K8

+ + +
+ + + PMECHLP

Fig. 3.25 Generic turbine model including intercept valve effect as given in PSCAD. Where, Cv
= Control valve flow area (p.u.), Iv = Intercept valve flow area (p.u.), K = K fraction (p.u.), T4 =
Steam chest time constant (s), T5 = Reheater time constant (s), T6 = Reheater/ cross-over time
constant (s), T7 = Cross-over time constant (s), PMECHHP = HP turbine power output (p.u.),
PMECHLP = LP turbine power output (p.u.)

+ + + + Tm1
Σ Σ Σ Σ
+ + + +
K1 K2 K4 K6 K8
Main steam
pressure PT

_ _
Control π + π + Σ π
Σ
valve

Intercept Intercept
valve valve

K3 K5 K7 K9

+ + + + + + Tm1
Σ Σ Σ

Since one reheater is assumed

this part can be neglected.

Fig. 3.26 Generic model for steam turbines [11]

The corresponding block diagram of the control system of the ‘Non-elastic water
column without surge tank (TUR1)’ is appeared in Fig. 3.30.
Values Used with PSCAD Window
In Fig. 3.31 the parameter values with PSCAD configuration is given.
3.2 Configuring Power System Components/Mathematical Modeling 69

Table 3.12 Typical values in Fig. 3.26 corresponding to Fig. 3.25

Gain, K or Time-constant, T in Fig. 3.26 Corresponding values in Fig. 3.25
T1 TCH
T2 neglected
T3 TRH
T4 TCO1 (− neglected)
T5 TCO2 (− neglected)
K1 ¼FHP
K2 ¼0
K3 ¼0
K4 ¼0
K5 FIP
K6 FLP1
K7 ¼0
K8 ¼0
K9 FLP2

Table 3.13 Comparison of Kundur’s PSCAD

time constants and gains in
Fig. 3.24 (as per [3]- T1 T4 = TCH
Kundur’s) and Fig. 3.25 T3 T5 = TRH
(PSCAD) T4 T6 = TCO1
T5 T7 = TCO2
K1 K1 = FHP
K4 K3
K5 K4 = FIP
K6 K5 = FLP1
K7 K6
K8 K7
K9 K8 = FLP2

Table 3.14 Values used for PSCAD Values as per the Fig. 3.27
the parameters in the control
system of ‘Generic turbine T4 TCH = 0.3 s
Model including intercept T5 TRH = 5.0 s
valve effect as given in T6 TCO1 = 0.0 s
PSCAD’ T7 TCO2 = 0.0 s
K1 FHP = 0.297
K2 ¼0.001
K3 ¼0.001
K4 FIP = 0.697
K5 FLP1 = 0.001
K6 ¼0.001
K7 ¼0.001
K8 FLP2 = 0
70 3 Modelling the Power System

Fig. 3.27 Values used with PSCAD windows in configuring Steam_Tur_2 (Generic turbine
model including intercept valve effect); a configuration, b Hp turbine: contributions, c Lp turbine:
contributions, d time constants, e intercept valve

Fig. 3.28 ‘Steam_Tur_2’

Generic turbine model
including intercept valve
effect (TUR2) used for the
power system simulation
3.2 Configuring Power System Components/Mathematical Modeling 71

Fig. 3.29 Hydro turbine

model used in power system
simulation—‘Non-elastic
water column without surge
tank (TUR1)’

3.2.7 Governors

Each turbine is equipped with a governing system (Fig. 3.11) to provide a mech-
anism by which the turbine can be started, run up to the operating speed and operate
on load with the required power output [6, 40].
Governor Types Used in Modeling the Power System
For the steam turbines and hydro turbines in the simulation,
• steam governors and
• hydro governors
were used respectively. GOV2: Mechanical-Hydraulic Controls (GE) and GOV3:
Electro-Hydraulic Controls (GE) were used in simulating steam turbine governors.
For the control of hydro turbines, governor models, GOV1: Mechanical-Hydraulic
Controls and GOV3: Enhanced Controls for Load Rejection Studies were used.
Table 3.15 gives the Governor control systems of the PSCAD simulation with
corresponding turbines.

Δω

D x

_ _
÷ x _ +_ x At +
Gate (G) q/G Head + Pmech
h1
(h)
Flow
(q) qNL
h0
fp

Fig. 3.30 Block diagram of control system of ‘Non-elastic water column without surge tank’,
TUR1, PSCAD simulation model
72 3 Modelling the Power System

Fig. 3.31 Values used with PSCAD windows in configuring Hydro_Tur_1 (Non-elastic water
column without surge tank (TUR1)); a configuration, b rated conditions, c initial conditions,
d Tur: Non_Elastic Water Column and No Surge Tank

Simplified Schematic Diagram and Corresponding Control System

The Thermal (steam) governor used mostly is the Steam_Gov_2 (GOV2) but only
for modelling Sapugaskanda-PP the Steam_Gov_3 (GOV3) was used. Hydro
Governor-2 and 3 as appeared in PSCAD are shown in Fig. 3.32a, b respectively.
The block diagrams of the control systems of thermal governor ‘Steam_Gov_2
(Mechanical-hydraulic controls (GOV2))’ and ‘Steam_Gov_3 (Electro-hydraulic
controls (GOV3))’ are appeared in Figs. 3.33 and 3.35 respectively.
As per [11], the block diagram of ‘Mechanical-hydraulic controls governing
system’ is appeared in Fig. 3.32. By comparing the block diagrams in Figs. 3.33
and 3.34, typical values for corresponding parameters of PSCAD control system
were decided. These values are appeared in Table 3.16.
3.2 Configuring Power System Components/Mathematical Modeling 73

Table 3.15 Governor Models of PSCAD used in controlling steam and hydro turbines of the
simulation of the Power system of Sri Lanka
Thermal (steam) Governors Hydro Governors
Barge GOV2 Upper Kotmale GOV1a
KHD-1 GOV2 Kotmale-1 GOV3
KHD-2 GOV2 Kotmale-2 GOV3
Keravalapitiya-1 GOV2 Kotmale-3 GOV3
Keravalapitiya-2 GOV2 Kukule-1 GOV3
Keravalapitiya-3 GOV2 Kukule-2 GOV3
Kelanitissa-1 (CombinedCyclePP) GOV2 Samanalawewa-1 GOV3
Kelanitissa-2 (CombinedCyclePP) GOV2 Samanalawewa-2 GOV3
Sapugaskanda-1 GOV3b Canyon-1 GOV3
Sapugaskanda-2 GOV3b Canyon-2 GOV3
Sapugaskanda-3 GOV3b New Laxapana-1 GOV3
Coal Power Plant GOV2 New Laxapana-2 GOV3
Heladanavi-1 GOV2 Laxapana-1 GOV3
Heladanavi-2 GOV2 Laxapana-2 GOV3
Embilipitiya GOV2 Polpitiya-1 GOV3
Polpitiya-2 GOV3
Victoria-1 GOV3
Victoria-2 GOV3
Victoria-3 GOV3
Wimalasurendra GOV3
Randenigala GOV3
Ukuwela GOV3
Bowatenna GOV3
Rantembe GOV3
a
When run the simulation load flow was stopped with ‘Upper Kotmale PP with GOV3.’ This could
be eliminated by using GOV1
b
% over shoot of power (of SapugaskandaPP) during starting of the generator (during the transient
period) could be minimized with GOV3 than with GOV2

Fig. 3.32 Governor models

used in PSCAD;
a Steam_Gov_2 (GOV2)
b Steam_Gov_3 (GOV3)

As per [11], the block diagram of ‘Electro-hydraulic controls governing system’

is appeared in Fig. 3.36. By comparing the block diagrams in Figs. 3.35 and 3.36,
typical values for corresponding parameters of PSCAD control system were deci-
ded. These values are appeared in Table 3.17
74 3 Modelling the Power System

Δω

Posi on
Rate Limits
Limits
+ __ +
_ s1 s1
+
_
Control valve Cv
Ini al value 0
K 2 2.5

0 0.15 ++ ++ 1.0
Posi on
Rate
-1.02 Limits
Limits
0.9 +_ PT LVG _
Ini al pressure + _ Iv
regulator 0
-1.65
I-R

Fig. 3.33 Block diagram of control system of Steam_Gov_2 (Mechanical-hydraulic controls),

PSCAD simulation model. Where, Cv—Control valve floor area (p.u.); Iv—Intercept valve floor
area (p.u.); R—Permanent Droop (p.u.); TSJ—IV servo time constant (s); TSM—Gate servo time
constant (s); TSR—Speed relay lag time constant (s)

CV servomotor
Δω
Rate Posi on
Limits Limits
KG Speed relay
LC1 1.0 Cv
L.R. + _ _ ṡ1 s1 _ Flow area
+ +
0
LC2
2 2.5
IV servomotor
Rate Posi on
0.15 ++ ++ 1.0 Limits Limits
-1.02 LC1 1.0
Flow
LVG _ area
+
0
-1.65 L C2 Iv

Fig. 3.34 Block diagram of ‘Mechanical-hydraulic controls governing system’ as per [11]

The hydro turbine governor used mostly is the Hydro_Gov_3 (GOV3) but only
for modelling Upper-Kotmale-PP the Hydro_Gov_1 (GOV1) was used. Hydro
Governor-1 and 3 as appeared in PSCAD are shown in Fig. 3.37a, b respectively.
The block diagrams of the control systems of hydro governor ‘Hydro_Gov_1
(Mechanical-hydraulic controls (GOV1))’ and ‘Hydro_Gov_3 (Enhanced controls
for load rejection studies (GOV3))’ are appeared in Figs. 3.38 and 3.40
respectively.
3.2 Configuring Power System Components/Mathematical Modeling 75

Table 3.16 Typical values for the parameters in Mechanical-Hydraulic Controls (GE) (GOV2)
model in PSCAD
Parameter as per [11] Corresponding parameter in PSCAD Typical value
KG 1/R 20
TSR TSR (Speed Relay time constant) 0.1 s
TSM TSM (CV servo-motor time constant) 0.2 s
TSI TSJ (IV servo-motor time constant) 0.2 s
LC1 P_up 0.2 pu/s
LC2 P_down −0.5 pu/s
LI1 I_up 0.2 pu/s
LI2 I_down −0.5 pu/s

Fast Close
Δω (Ac vated by PLU
or Iv Trigger)

Posi on
Rate Limits
Limits
Control valve + _ +
_
Ini al value
_ 0
Cv
0
K 2.5

0
Posi on
Rate
Limits
Limits
0.9 +_ PT _
1.0 ++ + _
Ini al pressure Iv
regulator 0
I-R
Fast Close
(Ac vated by PLU
or Iv Trigger)

Fig. 3.35 Block diagram of control system of governor Electro-Hydraulic Controls (GOV3), as
per PSCAD simulation model. Where, Cv—Control valve floor area (p.u.); Iv—Intercept Valve
Flow Area (p.u.); R—Permanent Droop (p.u.); TSJ—IV Servo Time Constant (p.u.); TSM—Gate
servo time constant [p.u.]; PT—Steam pressure (constant)

As per [11], the block diagram of ‘Electro-hydraulic controls governing system’

is appeared in Fig. 3.39. By comparing the block diagrams in Figs. 3.38 and 3.39,
typical values for corresponding parameters of PSCAD control system were deci-
ded. These values are appeared in Table 3.18 (Fig. 3.40).
76 3 Modelling the Power System

Fast close
ac vated by PLU
Δω
Rate Posi on
KG Load limiter Limits Limits
LL LC1 1.0 Cv Flow
_ area
L.R. + _ +
Σ
_ + Σ
0
0 LC2
2.5

LI1 1.0
Flow
+ _ area
1.0
+ Σ + Σ Σ
+
0
LI2 Iv

Fast close ac vated by

PLU or IV trigger

Fig. 3.36 Block diagram of ‘Electro-hydraulic controls governing system’ as per [11]

Table 3.17 Typical values for the parameters in Electro-Hydraulic Controls (GE) (GOV2) model
of a steam turbine in PSCAD
Parameter as per [11] Corresponding parameter in PSCAD Typical value
KG 1/R 20
TSM TSM (CV servo-motor time constant) 0.1 s
TSI TSJ (IV servo-motor time constant) 0.1 s
LC1 P_up 0.1 pu/s
LC2 P_down −0.2 pu/s
LI1 I_up 0.1 pu/s
LI2 I_down −0.2 pu/s

Fig. 3.37 Governor models

used in PSCAD;
a Hydro_Gov_1 (GOV1)
b Hydro_Gov_3 (GOV3)
3.2 Configuring Power System Components/Mathematical Modeling 77

Speed Maximum
Pilot valve Limit Gate
Servomotor OPEN Opening ≤ 1
LC1 LC1 Gate
Time Constant
ωref – Servomotor
Speed reference + + + Z - Gate posi on
Σ Σ Σ Q
_ _ _
LC2 LC2
ω -speed Speed Minimum
Limit Gate
CLOSE Opening = 1

RP
Permanent Droop
Compensa on

+
Σ Rt
_
Transient Droop
Compensa on

Fig. 3.38 Block diagram of the control system of hydro governor ‘Hydro_Gov_1
(Mechanical-hydraulic controls (GOV1) as per PSCAD simulation model). Where, Q—servo
Gain (p.u.); Rp—Permanent Droop (p.u.); Rt—Temporary Droop (p.u.); Tg—Main Servo time
constant (s); Tp—Pilot valve and servo motor time constant (s); Tr—Reset or Dashpot time
constant (s)

Max. Gate
Dead Pilot valve and Rmax close posi on ≤ 1 Gate
band Servomotor Servomotor
+ +
Speed reference Σ Σ Ks
_ _
Rmax close Min. Gate
ω - speed posi on = 0

+
Σ RP
+ Permanent Droop

Transient Droop

Fig. 3.39 Block diagram of governing system for hydraulic turbine as per [3]

With reference to [11], the block diagram shown in Fig. 3.39 and sample data in
Table 3.19 provide values to configure the governor model ‘Hydro_Gov_3
(Enhanced controls for load rejection studies (GOV3))’ of PSCAD.
78 3 Modelling the Power System

Values Used with PSCAD Window

Figure 3.41 shows the parameter values for thermal (steam) turbine governor types
used in the simulation of power system of Sri Lanka: Steam_Governor_2 and
Steam_Governor_3 with a. PSCAD configuration for Steam _Gov_2, b. PSCAD
configuration for Steam _Gov_3, c. parameters of Gov2: Mechanical-Hydraulic
(GE) Governor: section 1, d. parameters of Gov2: Mechanical-Hydraulic
(GE) Governor: section 2, e. parameters of Gov3: Electro-Hydraulic
(GE) Governor: section 1 and f. parameters of Gov3: Electro-Hydraulic
(GE) Governor: section 2.
Figure 3.42 shows the parameter values for hydro turbine governor types used in
the simulation of the power system of Sri Lanka: Hydro_Governor_1 and
Hydro_Governor_3 with a. PSCAD configuration for Hydro_Gov_1, b. PSCAD
configuration for Hydro_Gov_3, c. parameters common to both types, d. Gov_1
Mechanical-hydraulic governor parameters, e. Gov_3 Enhanced Governor param-
eters are given.

3.3 Control System of the Overall Power System

The control system of the overall power system is comprised with three modules.
They are:

• LS Logic1 • Senses the frequency and voltage of the system (Biyagama

Grid-substation)
• Filters the frequency and voltage with ‘Low pass, Chebyshev, Order 3’
filter and ‘Low pass, Butterworth, Order 2’ filters respectively
• These values are used to implement the under frequency Load Shedding
scheme (without going for islanding operation)
• U_Frequency • Senses the frequency and voltage of the system (Biyagama
Grid-substation)
• Filters the voltage and frequency with ‘Low pass, Chebyshev, Order 3’
filters
• These values are used to implement the tripping action of generators
during low frequencies (f < 47 Hz)
• Add_Ld • To see the system response (frequency and voltage) after a sudden load
addition in the power system (here it was performed at Biyagama grid
sub-station)

3.3.1 LS Logic1 Control System Module

Two types of filters were used in measuring ‘system frequency’ and ‘system
voltage.’ For the measurement of the system frequency, Low pass, Chebyshev,
3.3 Control System of the Overall Power System 79

Table 3.18 Typical values for the parameters in Mechanical-Hydraulic Controls (GE) (GOV1)
model of a hydro turbine in PSCAD
Parameter as per [11] Corresponding parameter in PSCAD Typical value
TP TP 0.05 s
KS Q 5.0
TG Tg 0.2 s
RP RP 0.04
RT Rt 0.4
TR TR 5.0 s
Max. gate position Gmax 1
Min. gate position Gmin 0
Rmax open MXGTOR 0.16 pu/s
Rmax close MXGTCR 0.16 pu/s

Jet Deflector
MXJDOR
Deflector
+ Posi on
Σ
_
MXJDCR

+
0.01 Σ
+
GOVERNOR
ω - speed Gate Servo
MXGTOR or
GMAX ≤ 1 MXBTOR
_
+ +
ωref - Σ Σ
_ _ Gate
Speed Opening
reference MXGTOR or
GMIN= 0 MXBTOR

+ +
GOVERNOR Σ
RP + RVLMAX
Permanent Droop
Compensa on
Relief
Valve
Relief Opening
Valve (0)

Fig. 3.40 Hydro_Gov_3 (Enhanced controls for load rejection studies (GOV3) of PSCAD).
Where, GMAX—Maximum Gate Position (p.u.); Gmin—Minimum Gate Position (p.u.); MXBGCR
—Maximum Gate Buffer Closing Rate (p.u./s); MXBGOR—Maximum Gate Buffer Opening Rate
(p.u./s); MXGTCR—Maximum Gate Closing Rate (p.u./s); MXGTOR—Maximum Gate Opening
Rate (p.u./s); MXJDCR—Maximum Jet Deflector Closing Rate (p.u./s); MXJDOR—Maximum
Jet Deflector Opening Rate (p.u./s); RVLMAX—Maximum Relief Valve Position (p.u.);
RVLCVR—Relief Valve Closing Rate (p.u./s); Rp—Permanent Droop (p.u.); Rt—Temporary
Droop (p.u.); Tg—Main Servo Time Constant (s); Tp—Pilot valve and servo motor time constant
(s); TR—Reset or Dashpot Time Constant (s)
80 3 Modelling the Power System

Table 3.19 Values used to configure the governor model ‘Hydro_Gov_3 (enhanced controls for
load rejection studies (GOV3))’
Parameter as per [11] Corresponding parameter in PSCAD Typical value
TP TP 0.05 s
KS Q 5.0
TG Tg 0.2 s
RP RP 0.04
RT Rt 0.4
TR TR 5.0 s
Max. gate position Gmax 1
Min. gate position Gmin 0
Rmax open MXGTOR 0.16 pu/s
Rmax close MXGTCR 0.16 pu/s
MXBGOR
MXBGCR
MXJDOR
MXJDCR

order-3 filter was employed and for the measurement of the system voltage, Low
pass, Butterworth, order-2 was employed.
Even though the Chebyshev has a ripple in its pass-band, it optimizes the roll-off
time [47]. The main intention of the design is to suggest an under frequency load
shedding scheme for the power system of Sri Lanka. So it is necessary to filter-out
the required low frequencies to get the actual power system frequencies during
normal and abnormal situations. The order of the Chebyshev filter was decided
experimentally. It is required to maintain the system frequency at 50 Hz under
steady state condition. Selection of the type of filters was done experimentally.
Table 3.20 shows the ‘Maximum overshoot during start of source’ and ‘Steady
state frequency’ obtained with different Chebyshev filters.
Referring to the results obtained in Table 3.20, the Chebyshev filter with ‘Order
= 3, Base frequency = 3 Hz, Ripple = 0.05 dB, Maximum overshoot during start of
source =55.01 Hz, Steady state frequency = 50 Hz’ was decided to use in detection
of frequency, in modeling the control system of the power system. Figure 3.43
shows the PSCAD windows corresponding to the Chebyshev filter configuration.
Since the Butterworth filter optimizes the flatness of the passband [47], a ‘Low
pass, Order 2, Butterworth filter with base frequency 0.5 Hz’ was used to filter-out
the voltage signal for measuring purposes. Figure 3.44 shows the PSCAD windows
for Butterworth filter configuration.
Figure 3.45 shows the Chebyshev and Butterworth filters used in measurement
of System frequency and System voltage respectively, in the control system of the
simulation model.
In-order to get the rate of change of frequency, it is possible to use the model
‘derivative with a time constant’ in PSCAD which is shown in Fig. 3.46. As per the
PSCAD help itself says [37], ‘This block is fraught with danger because of its
3.3 Control System of the Overall Power System 81

Fig. 3.41 Steam_Governor_2 and Steam_Governor_3 with a PSCAD configuration for Steam
_Gov_2, b PSCAD configuration for Steam _Gov_3, c parameters of Gov2: Mechanical-Hydraulic
(GE) Governor: section 1, d parameters of Gov2: Mechanical-Hydraulic (GE) Governor:
section 2, e parameters of Gov3: Electro-Hydraulic (GE) Governor: section 1, f parameters of
Gov3: Electro-Hydraulic (GE) Governor: section 2
82 3 Modelling the Power System

Fig. 3.41 (continued)

tendency to amplify noise. To minimize noise interference, particularly when the

derivative time constant is large and the calculation step is small, it may be nec-
essary to add a noise filter.’ Further, the model time interval Dt can’t be varied
considering the situation to which we apply. This considers the value of the ‘so-
lution time step’ which is the time step taken in PSCAD runtime to work out the
whole simulation [30]. For the simulation of the power system of Sri Lanka, this
‘solution time step’ has been taken as 100 µs.
There for to find the rate of change of frequency (df/dt), the model shown in
Fig. 3.47 has been used. It clearly demonstrates the output function given in
Fig. 3.46b, [48]. In this model,

Table 3.20 Maximum overshoot during start of source and steady state frequency obtained with
different Chebyshev filter settings
Details of the Chebyshev filter used
Order 2 3 3 3 4
Base frequency (Hz) 3 3 3 3 3
Ripple (dB) 0.05 0.05 0.1 0.03 0.05
Maximum overshoot during start of 52.66 55.01 55.08 54.92 56.56
source (Hz)
Steady state frequency (Hz) 49.75 50 50.01 50.00  f 49.76
50.015
3.3 Control System of the Overall Power System 83

Fig. 3.42 Parameter values for hydro turbine governor types used in the simulation model a
PSCAD configuration for Hydro_Gov_1, b PSCAD configuration for Hydro_Gov_3, c parameters
common to both types, d Gov_1 Mechanical-hydraulic governor parameters, e Gov_3 Enhanced
Governor parameters

Delay time, T ¼0.01 s

Number of samples in delay T ¼1
Time step of derivative, Dt ¼0.01 s
84 3 Modelling the Power System

Fig. 3.43 PSCAD windows corresponding to the Chebyshev filter configuration a PSCAD
configuration of Low pass, Order 3, Chebyshev filter, b Chebyshev filter’s base frequency has
been set to 3 Hz, c its ripple has been set to 0.05 dB

Fig. 3.44 PSCAD windows with a Butterworth filter configuration, b base frequency set to
0.5 Hz

With the available power generation, the power system can withstand a sudden
generation deficit of 20 MW. At that instant the rate of change of frequency is ⋍
−0.03 Hz/s. The relay settings for load shedding should be done only if the output
signal y(t) < −0.03 Hz/s. A delay time that corresponds to relay operating time,
circuit breaker operating time and an intentionally set delay time, should also be
3.3 Control System of the Overall Power System 85

Fig. 3.45 The Chebyshev and Butterworth filters used in measurement of system frequency and
system voltage respectively, in the control system of the simulation model

(a) (b)
x(t) y(t)

Fig. 3.46 Derivative function in PSCAD; a block diagram of the DERIV function, b the output as
a function of the input

Fig. 3.47 PSCAD model y(t)

x(t)
used to calculate the df/dt of
the power system
Δt

x(t -Δt )

considered in sending a signal for the relay to operate. The PSCAD model ‘sample
and hold’ is used to send the correct signal to the relay to get operated. This
corresponds to different stages of the load shedding scheme. Figure 3.48 shows the
control circuit of this operation.
Figure 3.49 demonstrates how the system responds to a sudden generation
deficit of 23.18 MW (by tripping generator Wimalasurendra). The steady state
frequency and voltage it achieves are 49.5 Hz and 211.81 kV respectively. With
this disturbance it achieves a frequency degradation rate of −0.038 Hz/s. Victoria2
86 3 Modelling the Power System

Fig. 3.48 The control circuit which senses the system frequency and to operate circuit breakers

which has been set as the isochronous governor reaches to its maximum output with
this situation.

3.3.2 U_Frequency Control System Module

The same frequency measuring control techniques have been employed as dis-
cussed in Sect. 3.3.1. The purpose of the control system module is to trip off the
thermal generators at 47 Hz after sensing the system frequency. Since the operation
of thermal power plants are entirely not good for its performance and their oper-
ation, this action is taken place.

3.3.3 Add_Ld Control System Module

This control system module is to see the power system behavior during a sudden
load addition (e.g. 5.75% of the total demand). The control logic has been done
using sequencer components as shown in Fig. 3.50.
3.4 Verifying the Simulation Model Performance 87

Fig. 3.49 System responses to a sudden generation deficit of 23.18 MW (by tripping generator
Wimalasurendra); a Steady state frequency achieved = 49.5 Hz; b Steady state voltage achieved =
211.81 kV; c generation output of Victoria2 which has been set as the generator with isochronous
governor; d rate of change of frequency in response to the disturbance—the minimum rate
achieved = −0.038 Hz/s

3.4 Verifying the Simulation Model Performance

3.4.1 Steady State Operation

As reported in previous sections of this chapter, the power system simulation model
was designed with PSCAD/EMTDC software. So it is very important to see its
performance during normal and abnormal conditions of the power system. The load
flow on the 13th March, 2013 during daytime peak demand has been simulated in
the simulation model. It is very important to see how well it performs compared to
the actual power system components in operation at the same instant.
88 3 Modelling the Power System

(c)

Victoria2 has been considered as the isochronous governor

(d)

Fig. 3.49 (continued)

Corresponding actual generator outputs and simulation model’s generator outputs

of the load flow on the 13th March, 2013 during day time peak demand are
tabulated in Table 3.21.
The voltage, frequency and some of the generator outputs are shown in the
Fig. 3.51 under steady state operation. The program was run for 100 s. the lines of
the power generation outputs corresponds to Coal power land (248.8 MW),
Kerawlapitiya1 (82.25 MW), Kerawalapitiya3 (78.43 MW), Victoria1 and 3
(38.55 MW), Victoria2 (55.67 MW), Puttalam1 (47.58 MW), NewLaxapana1
(19.47 MW) and NewLaxapna2 (19.6 MW).
3.4 Verifying the Simulation Model Performance 89

Fig. 3.50 A sudden load addition at the required instant, which was implemented using sequencer
element; a series of sequencer elements used for the operation, b a resistive load was connected to
the system through the breaker ‘BrkAdLd’

Table 3.21 Actual generator outputs and simulation model’s generator outputs corresponding to
the load flow on the 13th March, 2013 during day time peak demand
Generators committed Actual generator outputs Simulation model’s generator
to the system outputs
Active Reactive power Active Reactive power
power (MVAR) power (MVAR)
(MW) (MW)
Barge 60.5 35 59.7 27.62
KCCPgas 99 77 89.35 58.97
KCCPsteam 54 29.5 49.74 28.71
Sapugaskanda-1 25.5 8 17.69 16.45
Sapugaskanda-2 18 8 17.69 16.79
Sapugaskanda-3 12.5 12 35.37 29.68
Kerawalapitiya-1 90 50 82.23 10.68
Kerawalapitiya-2 90 50 82.43 43.54
Kerawalapitiya-3 90 50 78.41 31.93
KHD (Asia power)-1 17.5 2 16.95 26.12
KHD (Asia power)-2 17.5 2 16.95 26.12
Puttalam Coal 247 110.8 248.7 64.99
Upper kotmale 60 19.6 69.16 50.71
Heledanavi-1 40.15 5.9 47.58 3.4
Heledanavi-2 40.15 5.9 47.58 3.4
Kotmale-3 67 45 69.71 63.1
Polpitiya-1 32.3 17 28.03 21.89
Polpitiya-2 32 17 27.76 21.91
Canyon-1 0
Canyon-2 0
(continued)
90 3 Modelling the Power System

Table 3.21 (continued)

Generators committed Actual generator outputs Simulation model’s generator
to the system outputs
Active Reactive power Active Reactive power
power (MVAR) power (MVAR)
(MW) (MW)
Kukule-1 26 8.61 28.16 23.55
Kukule-2 26 8.61 28.16 23.55
New Laxapana-1 18.34 −0.421 19.6 16.86
New Laxapana-2 30 −0.278 19.6 16.86
Victoria-1 35 25.67 38.51 43.14
Victoria-2 50 26.65 56.22 41.27
Victoria-3 35 25.67 38.5 43.14
Ukuwela 20 10 20.71 12.44
Randenigala 48 20 44.49 32.64
Wimalasurendra 25 0 23.48 10.64
Laxapana-1 28.5 −3 24.92 15.39
Laxapana-2 22.5 −2 15.63 16.65
Samanalawewa-1 40 0.17 37.43 9
Samanalawewa-2 40 0.17 37.43 9
Bowatenna 11 9.23 8.78 5.36
Rantembe-1 15 1.74 24.1 14.6
Embilipitiya 44.3 30 38.48 24.38
Total 1607.4 705.52 1589.23 904.48

3.4.2 Generator Tripping/Sudden Generation Deficit

Situation

It is necessary to see whether the simulation model responds to some emergency

situation same as the power system faces that. If the actual results are very much
closer to the simulation model’s results, then it can be suggested that the model
developed could be used to see the power system behavior under different sce-
narios. Norochcholai Coal Power plant tripping, which occurred at a time closer to
the considered system loading (day peak time on 13th May, 2013) that lead for a
total black out was simulated and observed the system performance.
3.4 Verifying the Simulation Model Performance 91

(a)

(b)

(c)

Pu alamCoal

Pu alam1 Victoria2
Kerawalapi ya3 Kerawalapi ya1 Victoria1 & 3
NewLaxapana1 & 2

Fig. 3.51 Power system performance during steady state; a power system frequency, b power
system (transmission) voltage, c some of the generator power outputs
 92
Table 3.22 Removed generator outputs and loads from the PSCAD simulation model designed
Generators removed Power delivered at the instant of the Loads removed Power drawn at the instant of the
removal from the system removal from the system
Victoria 1 37.35 MW 34.37 MVA Biyagama 70 MW 30 MVA
Victoria 2 54.71 MW 32.64 MVA Kotugoda 71.2 MW 25.4 MVA
Kerawalapitiya1 80.35 MW 2.6 MVA Pannala 33.8 MW 21.8 MVA
KHD 1 16.66 MW 12.49 MVA Aniyakanda 30 MW 18 MVA
KHD 2 16.66 MW 12.49 MVA
TOTAL 205.73 MW 94.59 MVA 205 MW 95.2 MVA

3 Modelling the Power System

3.4 Verifying the Simulation Model Performance 93

(a) LS_Logic1 : Graphs

SysFreq
52.0

51.0

50.0
y

49.0

48.0

47.0
0 50 100 150 200 250

Load _Shed : Graphs

(b) SysVolt
230

220

210
y

200

190

180
0 100 200

Synchronous Machine Power : Graphs

(c) 400
Pkera3 Pkera1 Pputtacoal Pvict1 Pvict2 Pvict3 Pputta1 Pnlux1 Pnlaxa2

350

300

250
y (MW)

200

150

100

50

0 100 200

Fig. 3.52 After removal of some selected generator sets and loads (given in Table 3.22) from the
simulated load flow, a system frequency; b system voltage; c power outputs of some generators
94 3 Modelling the Power System

(a) LS_Logic1 : Graphs

SysFreq
51.00

50.50

50.00

49.50
y

49.00

48.50

48.00
47.87 Hz
47.50
205.0 210.0 215.0 220.0 225.0 230.0

(b) 50

49.5

49

48.5

48

47.5
47.967 Hz
47
-4
-3.5
-3
-2.5
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.4
0.9
1.4
1.9
2.4
2.9
3.4
3.9
4.4
4.9
5.4
5.9
6.4
6.9
7.4
7.9
8.4
8.9

Fig. 3.53 Frequency profiles during a tripping of coal power plant; a with the simulation model
(with some load and generation removal), b using actual system frequency variation data

The received data corresponds to an actual power system performance where the
coal plant tripping occurs at a load flow of 1434 MW. Even though the coal power
plant generates 300 MW, for its auxiliary services it consumes 25 MW. Therefore
the balance 275 MW would be consumed by the system. This amounts 19.18% of
the total demand. The already simulated model has a demand of 1637 MW.
Therefor it has a difference of 203 MW (⋍12.4% demand reduction) from the
already modeled simulation program. If we try to simulate the same phenomena
(i.e. coal power plant tripping) with this model the results we receive may be very
much different to actual values. Therefor a simulation model with a load flow which
has a demand of approximately 1437 MW is considered to compare the actual and
simulation model results. To get the 1437 MW load flow, several power plants
and loads were removed from the original simulation. The removed generators and
3.4 Verifying the Simulation Model Performance 95

loads with their capacities are given in Table 3.22. Further, the coal power plant
generates 250 MW with this load flow. It amounts 17.4% from the total demand.
With the above amendment, frequency, voltage and other selected generator
outputs are shown in Fig. 3.52, under steady state condition.
Figure 3.53a shows the frequency profile when implement the load flow on 13th
March, 2013 during peak load demand, with the amendments given in Table 3.22,
while (b) shows the actual frequency profile during the generator tripping causing a
generation deficit of 275 MW for the system. According to this comparison the
simulation model reaches a minimum frequency of 47.87 Hz (a) where the actual
system reaches a minimum frequency of 47.967 Hz (b).
So with the results shown in Fig. 3.53, it can be considered that the simulation
model can give results much closer to the actual power system performances.