02A Lesson Proper for Week 16

4.1 IMAGE FORMATION BY LENSES

Converging or Convex Lens

The word lens derives from the Latin word for a lentil bean, the shape of which is similar to the
convex lens in the figure below. The convex lens shown has been shaped so that all light rays that enter it
parallel to its axis cross one another at a single point on the opposite side of the lens. The axis is defined
to be a line normal to the lens at its center, as shown in the image below. Such lens is called
a converging or convex lens for the converging effect it has on light rays.

The figure above shows the rays of light entering a converging lens parallel to its axis converge at this
focal point F. (Ray 2 lies on the axis of the lens.) The distance from the center of the lens to the focal point
is the lens focal length f. An expanded view of the path taken by ray 1 shows the perpendiculars and the
angles of incidence and refraction at both surfaces.

An expanded view of the path of one ray through the lens is shown to illustrate how the ray changes

direction both as it enters and as it leaves the lens. Since the index of refraction of the lens is greater than
that of air, the ray moves toward the perpendicular as it enters and away from the perpendicular as it
leaves. (This is in accordance with the law of refraction.) Due to the lens's shape, light is thus bent toward
the axis at both surfaces. The point at which the rays cross is defined to be the focal point F of the lens.
The distance from the center of the lens to its focal point is defined to be the focal length f of the lens.

The greater effect a lens has on light rays, the more powerful it is said to be. For example, a powerful
converging lens will focus parallel light rays closer to itself and will have a smaller focal length than a
weak lens. The light will also focus into a smaller and more intense spot for a more powerful lens.
The power P of a lens is defined to be the inverse of its local length. In equation form, this is

Diverging or Concave Lens

The image below shows a concave lens and the effect it has on rays of light that enter it parallel to its axis
(the path taken by ray 2 in the figure is the axis of the lens). The concave lens is a diverging lens because
it causes the light rays to bend away or diverge from its axis. In this case, the lens has been shaped so
that all light rays entering it parallel to its axis appear to originate from the same point, F, defined to be the
focal point of a diverging lens. The distance from the center of the lens to the focal point is again called
the focal length f of the lens.

The figure bellow shows rays of light entering a diverging lens parallel to the axis are diverged, and all
appear to originate at its focal point F. The dashed lines are not rays-they indicate the directions from
which the rays appear to come. The focal length f of a diverging lens is negative. An expanded view of the
path taken by ray 1 shows the perpendiculars and the angles of incidence and refraction at both surfaces.

Note that the focal length and power of a diverging lens are defined to be negative. For example, if the
distance to F in the figure above is 5.00 cm, then the focal length is f = -5.00 cm and the power of the lens
is P= -20D. An expanded view of the path of one ray through the lens is shown in the figure to illustrate
how the shape of the lens, together with the law of refraction, causes the ray to follow its particular path
and be diverged.

Ray Tracing and Thin Lenses

Ray tracing is the technique of determining or following the paths that light rays take. For rays passing
through matter, the law of refraction is used to trace the paths. There is a set of simple rules for tracing
rays through thin lenses. A thin lens is defined to be one whose thickness allows rays to refract, as
illustrated in the following figure, but does not allow properties such as dispersion and aberrations.

The figure above shows thin lenses having the same focal length on either side, (a) Parallel light rays
entering a converging lens from the right cross at its focal point on the left. (b) Parallel light rays entering a
diverging lens from the right seem to come from the focal point on the right.

An ideal thin lens has two refracting surfaces, but the lens is thin enough to assume that light rays bend
only once. A thin symmetrical lens has two focal points, one on either side and both at the same distance
from the lens. Another important characteristic of a thin lens is that light rays through its center are
deflected by a negligible amount, as seen below.
Rules for Ray Tracing (Lenses)

Using paper, pencil and a straight edge, ray tracing can accurately describe the operation of a lens. The
rules for raytracing for thin lenses are based on the illustrations already discussed:

1. A ray entering a converging lens parallel to its axis passes through the focal point F of the lens on
the other side.
2. A ray entering a diverging lens parallel to its axis seems to come from the focal point F.
3. A ray passing through the center of either a converging or a diverging lens does not change
direction.
4. A ray entering a converging lens through its focal point exits parallel to its axis.
5. A ray that enters a diverging lens by heading toward the focal point on the opposite side exits
parallel to the axis.

Image Formation by Thin Lenses

Consider an object some distance away from a converging lens, as shown in the following figure. To find
the location and size of the image formed, we trace the paths of selected light rays originating from one
point on the object, in this case the top of the person's head. The three rays cross at the same point on
the other side of the lens. The image of the top of the person's head is located at this point. All rays that
come from the same point on the top of the person's head are refracted in such a way as to cross at the
point shown. Rays from another point on the object, such as her belt buckle, will also cross at another
common point, forming a complete image as shown in the figure. Although three rays are traced, only two
are necessary to locate the image. It is best to trace rays for which there are simple ray tracing rules.

Ray tracing is used to locate the image formed by lens. Rays originating from the same point on the object
are traced-the three chosen rays each follow one of the rules for ray tracing, so that their paths are easy
to determine. The image is located at the point where the rays cross. In this case, a real image-one that
can be projected on a screen- is formed.
4.2 IMAGE FORMATION BY MIRRORS

Flat Mirrors

The figure below helps illustrate how a flat mirror forms an image. Two rays are shown emerging from the
same point, striking the mirror, and being reflected into the observer's eye. The ways can diverge slightly,
and both still get into the eye. If the rays are extrapolated backward, they seem to originate from a
common point behind the mirror, locating the image. The paths of the reflected rays into the eye are the
same as if they had come directly from that point behind the mirror.

Using the law of reflection—the angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence-we can see that the
image and object are of the same distance from the mirror. This is a virtual image since it cannot be
projected-the rays only appear to originate from a common point behind the mirror Obviously, if you walk
behind the mirror, you cannot see the image since the rays do not go there. But in front of the mirror, the
rays behave exactly as if they had come from behind the mirror, so that is where the image is situated.

Concave and Spherical Mirrors

Rays of light that strike the surface follow the law of reflection. For a mirror that is large compared with its
radius of curvature, we see that the reflected rays do not cross at the same point and the mirror does not
have a well-defined focal point. If the mirror had the shape of a parabola, the rays would all cross at a
single point, and the mirror would have a well-defined focal point. But parabolic mirrors are much more
expensive to make than spherical mirrors. The solution is to use a mirror that is small compared with its
radius of curvature. To a very good approximation, this mirror has a well-defined focal point at F that is the
focal distance f from the center of the mirror. The focal length f of a concave mirror is positive since it is a
converging mirror.
The figure above shows (a) Parallel rays reflected from a large spherical mirror do not all cross at a
common point. (b) If a spherical mirror is small compared with its radius of curvature, parallel rays are
focused

to a common point. The distance of the focal point from the center of the mirror is its focal length f. Since
this mirror is converging, it has a positive focal length.

Just as for lenses, the shorter the focal length, the more powerful the mirror; thus, P = 1/f for a mirror, too.
A more strongly curved mirror has a shorter focal length and a greater power. Using the law of reflection
and some simple trigonometry, it can be shown that the focal length is half the radius of curvature
or f=R/2 where R is the radius of curvature of a spherical mirror. The smaller the radius of curvature, the
smaller the focal length and, thus, the more powerful the mirror is.

Convex Mirror

The convex mirror shown below also has a focal point. Parallel rays of light reflected from the mirror seem
to originate from the point F at the focal distance f behind the mirror. The focal length and power of a
convex mirror are negative since it is a diverging mirror.

The figure above shows parallel rays of light reflected from a convex spherical mirror which are smaller in
size compared with its radius of curvature seem to originate from a well-defined focal point at the focal
distance f behind the mirror. Convex mirror diverges light rays and thus have a negative focal length.